Encyclopaedia Britannica [17, 14 ed.]

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Initials of Contributors
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PAU
PEA
PEE
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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

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Z, Palaeobotany (in part). Vice-Chancellor of the University, 1924-6. ALFRED DUNHILL. }Pipe Smoking. Chairman and Founder of Alfred Dunhill, Ltd. Author of the Pepe Book. A. DE BOUARD, D-Ès-L. Professor at the Ecole Nationale des Chartes. Former Member of the Ecole Française , de Rome. Honorary Recorder at the Archives Nationales. Author of Manuel de }Palaeography (zn part). Palésgraphie Latine et Française (in collaboration with Maurice Prou); Manuel de diplomatique française et pontificale.

ADL

_A.D.M.

A. D. Im{s, M.A., D.Sc.

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology, University of Allahabad.

Phylloxera.

A. D. Mitcuett, D.Sc., F.I.C. Assistant Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society. Assistant Examiner in }Phosphorus. Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry.

A. E. Bo.

ARTHUR Epwin Boycott, D.M., LL.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Graham Professor of Pathology, University of London. Director of the Pathological -Pathology. Department, University College Hospital, London.

A. E. D.

A. E. Dunstan, D.Sc., F.LC., F.C.S Chief Chemist of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.

Paraffin; Vice-President, Institution of Paraffin, Chemistry of;

Petroleum Technologists and Late Member of Council of the Chemical Society.

Paraffin Oil.

;

;

A.E. W.

ARTHUR E. WEILS.

A. G. P.

ARTHUR GEORGE PERKIN, D.Sc., F.LC., F.R.S.E., F.R.S.

A. H.S.

REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY Sayce, D.Lirt., LL.D., D.D.

A. H. W.

Captain A. H. WALKER, R.N.

A. J. H.

Atrrep J. Hrexins, F.S.

Pianoforte (in part);

A. J. L.

ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.

Hgara.

À. L. K.

A. L. KROEBER, Pu.D. | Pima: Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Author of Zunt Plain 5Indians Kin and Clan; Anthropology; etc. s

A. Lu.

ACHILLE LUCHAIRE.

A. M.

Physical Resources (in pari}

Professor of Metallurgy, Harvard University.

Emeritus Professor formerly of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing and Dean, 1922-4, of Persian Berries the Faculty of Technology, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, : 1925. Joint-Author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters. Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University, 1891- Persepolis (in part) 1919. Author of The Hittites; Early History of the Hebrews; Egyptian and Babylonian P i Religion; The Archaeology of Cuneiform Inscriptions; etc.

?Paravane, The.

Director of Torpedoes and Mining, Admiralty, 1926-9.

Late of Messrs. Broadwood and Sons. Author of Musical Instruments, Historic, Pitch, Musical (tn part). Rare and Unique; History of the Pianoforte and Its Precursors.

Late Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

a

Late Professor of Mediaeval History at the Sorbonne and Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. See the biographical article: LUCHAIRE, ACHILLE. ALLEN Mawer, M.A.

Provost, University College, London; formerly Baines Professor of English Language at the University of Liverpool. Director of Survey of English Place Names. Author

+}Papacy (in part). Place-Names,

of The Chief Elements in English Place Names; etc.

A. M. A.

A. M. Arnett, A.M., Px.D.

A. Mac.

ALEXANDER Macatister, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.S.A., F.R.S.

Professor of History, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, North Carolina.

i >Pierce, Franklin.

Palmistry;

Formerly Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St. Phrenolo J (in part) By (im part). John’s College. Author of Textbook of Human Anatomy; etc.

V1 A. Not.

INITIALS AND

NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS

ARTHUR Notman, S.B., M.E. Consulting Engineer. Lecturer on Mining Methods and Economics at Columbia University, Feb.-June, 1928. Chairman, New York Section, American Institute of Physical Resources (in pari). Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Author of numerous articles on the economics of the copper industry in Engineering and Mining Journal, etc.

A. P.-S.

A. P. W.

A. Parxer-SmitH, M.E., LL.B. Counsel in Patent and Trade Mark Cases, New York.

Member of the Bar of the }Patents (iw part).

Supreme Court of the United States. COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C. Late the Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. British Military Attaché on the Caucasus Front, 1916-7. General Staff Officer and Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20.

Palestine, Operations in.

A. S. H.

Artuor S. Hunt, M.A., D.Lirt., F.B.A.

A. SI.

ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.

A. S. P.-P.

ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PaTTISsoN, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.A. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh, 1891-1919. |Philosophy and Philosophical

Professor of Papyrology in the University of Oxford and Fellow of Queen’s College. Editor of The Oxyrhynchus Papyri; etc. Author of The London Waiter-Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance, and Legislatvon; etc.

Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911-3; Edinburgh, 1921-3. of Man's Place in Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; ete.

}Plague (in part).

Author

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARNOLD T. Writson, K.C.IL.E., C.S.I., C.M.G., D.S.O.

Indian Army (retired). Late, Indian Political Department. Acting Civil Commissioner and Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, 1918-20. Author of The Persian Gulf.

A. Wa.

+}Papyrology.

ARTHUR WAUGH.

Chairman and Managing Director of Chapman and Hall, Ltd. For over twenty years one of the principal critics on The Daily Telegraph. Author of Alfred, Lord

Studies.

Persia (in part)

;

Pater, Walter Horatio; Patmore, Coventry Kersey

Tennyson; Robert Browning (in the Westminster Biographies); Reticence in Literature; Tradttion and Change; etc.

A. W. La.

A. W. LAWRENCE.

A. W. Ma.

ALEXANDER W. Marr, Litt.D.

Formerly Craven Fellow in the University of Oxford. Author of Later Greek Sculpture and Its Influence on West and East; Later Greek Sculpture; etc.

sity, 1919-23. pendiċes; etc.

A. Wo.

ees

Late Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University. Lecturer, Aberdeen University, 1898-9; Edinburgh University, 1899-1903. Classical Examiner to London UniverAuthor of Callimachus; Hesiod: Introduction,

Fellow of University College, London.

Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of Logic. Editor of the Philosophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

A. n Tormi ormerly

D.Sc., ER Emeritus

rE

Professor o

ysics,

ü

University

Ga

College,

Dighton.

ac

pPersia (in part). y Petronius.

Translation and Ap-

of Logic Logic and and Scientific Scientific Method Method in in the London. S Sometime Aerofessor of the U University of f London.

Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

i

a

University of

ace

Par

London.

: pay,

:

.

(npan LY

the

: O;

fe

Editor of Preston’s Theory of Light. Co-author of Foster and Porter’s Elementary Physical Units (in part). Treatise on Eleciricsity and Magnetism; etc. B.D. H. Watters, M.Sc., A.R.P.S., A.INsT.P. Joint Author of Physics in Medical Radiology. Science Editor of British Journal of -Photégraphy (én part).

Actinotherapy. B. D. SAKLATWALLA, B.Sc. Vice-President, Vanadium

Corporation of America.

Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain, 1908.

B. F.C. A.

B. H. L. H.

B. J. H.

Carnegie Research Scholar, }PhysicalResources (in part)

i P.;

B. F. C. Atxıxson, Pu.D.

Under Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. Pelasgians. CAPTAIN B. H. LIibDELL HART, F.R.Hisrt.S. Military Historian and Critic. Military Correspondent to the Daily Telegraph, ; London. Editor of the Military and Military History section, 14th Edition, En- Pershing, John Joseph. cyclopædia Britannica. 4 BuRTON JESSE HENpRIcK, M.A. Associate Editor of The World’s Work. Formerly Staff Writer on AdcClure’s Magazine. Author with Admiral William Sowden Sims of The Victory at Sea (Pulitzer Prize, Page, Walter Hines. 1920); Life and Letiers of Walter Hines Page (Pulitzer Prize, 1922); etc.

B. P.

SIR BERNARD PARES, K.B.E. Professor of Russian

Language,

Literature and History,

University

of London.

Director of the School of Slavonic Studies (King’s College); one of the Editors of the

Slavonic Review. Attached to the Russian Army, 1914-7 and to H.M. Embassy Panslavism. in Petrograd, 1917. Author of Day by Day with the Russian Army; A History of Russia; etc.

B. Sm.

BERNARD SmiTH, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.

B. T. P. B.

B. T. P. BARKER, M.A., Hon. F.R.HS.

—— l a

Late Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Harkness Scholar (Geology), Cambridge University and University Extension Lecturer. Author of Physical Permian. Geography for Schools. — Professor of Agricultural Biology at Bristol University. Director of the Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station, Somersetshire, England.

Perry.

Vey

INITIALS B. W. H.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

BERNARD WILLIAM HENDERSON, M.A., D.Lırr. oe o i oo Boor Oxford. ney Examiner in Ancient History at London, Cambridge an ord Universities. Foreign Office (Historical Section), 1919. Member of Oxfordshire Education Committee. Author of Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire; Five Roman Emperors; The Great War between Athens and Sparta; etc.

C.A. F. R. D. CAROLINE A. F. Rays Davips, D.Litt., M.A.

ecturer in Pali and and B Buddhism, School of Oriental Lect in Pali i i i Studies, London. the Pali Text Society. Author of Buddhist Psychology; etc.

C. A. M.

vii

i President of

‘ Peloponnesian War, The

Pal Language and : ‘

Literature (in part).

CARLILE AYLMER Macartney. Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, 1921-6. Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of Nations Union,

1926.

»pPetchenegs.

Author of The Social Revolution in Austria; Survey of Inter-

national Affairs for 1925, part II, (in part).

C. Bi.

Rev. CHARLES Bicc, M.A., D.D. Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford, 1901-8. The Christian Platonists of Alexandria; etc,

se

C. Br.

peste ees,

Author of Neoplatonism;

Editor of St. Augustine’s Confessions.

>Philo (in part).

M.A., L-#s-L (Paris).

fember of Legion of Honour. D-és-Lett.(Hon.Causa), Lille University. Late Divisional Inspector to the London County Council. Editor of the Education Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

C. Ca.

CLARENCE Cannon, A.M., LL.B.

C. D. E.

C. D. Errrs, Pu,D.

C. E. K. M.

CHARLES EDWARD KENNETH Mees, D.Sc.

: : : Paris University.

:

Member of Congress, Missouri, 1923-31.

Author of A Synopsis of the Procedure of pParliamentary Law.

the House; Procedure in the House of Representatives; etc.

T:

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Cambridge.

Lecturer in Physics in the University of pPhotoelectricity.

Director of the Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, New York. Author of Photography of Coloured Objects; An Atlas of Absorption Spectra; The Fundamentals of Photography; etc.

C. E.T.

Crem EDGAR TILLEY, B.Sc., PH.D., F.G.S. ecturer in

\paite ;

Petrology, University of Cambridge. e

+

CiypDE Furst, M.A., Pa.B., Lirr.D.

C. G. W.

Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association of America. CARTER G. Woopson, A.M., P.D.

Carnegie Foundation

Plagioclase.

e

C. Fu.

Secretary,

. Photography (in part).

9

Pensions: The United States for the Advancement

of Teaching,

and of the

(in pari);

Philanthropy (in part).

Editor of Journal of Negro History. President of the Associated Publishers, Inc., Peo eee Author of The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861; The Negro in Our (7 CORALEastory.

C. H. H.

CARLTON HounTtTLEY Haves, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Historical Association.

C. H. He.

CHARLES Hotmes HErty,

JR., M.S., Sc.D.

C. H. LaW.

Experiment Station, United States Bureau of Mines. CHARLES H. LAW arr, Pu.M., D.Sc.

C. J. C.

C. Joun Coromesos, LL.D.

C. J. Sh.

;

:

|Physical Resources (in part). } ;

Dean, Philadelphia College of Pharmaçy and Science, Philadelphia, Of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law.

c. J. J. F.

Member of the American | Paschal I.

Pharmacy (in part).

Author of A Treatise on the Law of Prize;

Peace.

The Channel Tunnel and International Law; Territorial Waters; etc. CHARLES J. J. Fox, PH.D., D.Sc., F.I.C. | Of the firm of Messrs. Cross and Bevan, Consulting and Analytical Chemists, |Paper Manufacture; London. Formerly Principal Institute of Science, Bombay.

and Professor

of Physical Chemistry

in the Royal JPaper Materials.

REV. CHARLES JOHN SHEBBEARE, M.A. Rector of Stanhope, Co. Durham. Chaplain to H.M, the King. Member of the Archbishop's Doctrinal Commission. Select Preacher in the University of Oxford,

f

,

pPantheism (żin part).

IQI 79i Cambridge, 1926. Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion in the University of Oxford, 1924-7. Author of Religion in an Age of Doubt.

C. L. P.

C. L. FERGUSON. Assistant Clerk, House of Commons, C. L. PATTON.

C. M.

C. M. Austin, LL.B.

C. L. F.

A.

President of the Knickerbocker Whist Club, New York. American Whist League.

: arliamentary Procedure, lp | Formerly President of the

CHARLES MATTHEWES Bruce, M.A.

C. Mi,

Cart THEODOR Mrrest, D.TH. Formerly Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg.

C. M. L.

Crar_es Mostyn Lrovp, M.A.

;

i

Commander of the United States Navy, Washington,

C. M. B.

+Pinocle.

lpilotage Laws (in part). are

Assistant Accountant General, Admiralty.

Navy, Army and

Air Force.

Author of Pius IX. (in part). Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII.; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; etc. Barrister-at-Law.

Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Science and

Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London, Editor of The New Statesman,

Assistant

Pauper.

INITIALS

e446

vill C. Pf.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-Ès-L.

C. S. Pa.

Rr. Hon. CHARLES Stuart Parker, LL.D., D.C.L. Author of Life of Sir Robert Peel; etc. CHARLES THEODORE HacsBerc Wricat, LL.D. . Librarian and Secretary of the London Library Mrs. C. S. PEEt, O.B.E.

ĉ. T.H. W. D. C. Pe.

D. F. T.

CONTRIBUTORS

OF

NAMES

AND

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Etudes sur le règne de Robert le Pieux.

Pipa Author of \

Peel, Sir Robert. i +4 IPeriodical.

and oa Goo Pears eee oe of aoe a pee Ministry of Women's ervice, Director of o., Ltd., 1903-6. Beeton irector of of The Daily Food, 1917-8. President, British Housewives Association. Editor My Own Cookery Mail Cookery Book. Author of Social and Domestic Life of a Century; Book; etc.

Pastry, Home Made.

a

e a Ma T : : : itorial Adviser for Music, University. usic in Edinburgh Professor o eid oe on Musical Analysts, ae i4th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of Essays leriuigi Ca. of many comprising the Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations and analyses other classical works. Davip HANNAY. }Pepys Samuel {zn part). History of the Royal

DONATI e

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.

Author of Short

Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar.

D. Ker,

.

M.A., D.Sc.

University Lecturer in Parasitology, Cambridge;

Fellow of Magdalene College.

}Parasitology :

D. MILRANY.

the World War and Assistant European Editor of Economic and Social History of Endowment for special correspondent for South-Eastern Europe for the Carnegie International Peace.

Peasant Movement.

Doris Mary STENTON, B.A.

ry and Editor for the Pipe Rolls Lecturer in History in the University of Reading. Hon. Secreta j Rolls; The Reign of Anise shire Lincoln Earliest Pipe Rolls Society. Author of The Henry II.; etc.

D. M. S. W.

D. R.-M. E. C. E. E. C. Q.

ee

DAD

Eo

RaT TADO

eer

u

|

niversity College, London. Comparative Anatomy, Professorof Zoology and odrell connected subjects and ology Palaeont te Vertebra on papers Author of many etc. Proceedings of the Zoological Society; J ournal of Anatomy;

en

°

Davip RANDALL-MacIver, M.A., D.Sc., F.S.A. vania. Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsyl

Formerly Worcester}Picenes al Rhodesia; etc. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Mediaev EDWIN CLARENCE Ecker, B.S., C.E. Geological }Physical Resources (in part) Engineer and Geologist. Formerly of the United States ou

urvey. Epmunp Crosspy Quiecin, M.A. and Monro Lecturer in |Patrick, St. (in part). Formerly Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern Languages

E. C. S.

Celtic, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. EDMUND CLIFTON STONER, PH.D.

Ed. M..

Ee

Reader in Physics at the University of Leeds. Structure.

Mever, D.LITT. |

:

be

eas

l

Author of Magnetism and Atomic

’

rofessor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin.

Pacorus; Parthia; Author of Geschichte des

Alterthums; etc. E. E. K.

E. E. KELLETT.

E. E. L.

E. E. Lone, C.B.E.

E. Gr.

Ernest ARTHUR GARDNER, Litt.D.., T.C.D.

Permeameter.

Author of Suggestions, Literary Essays; The Appreciation of Literature. as Officer-in-Charge, Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Foreign Office, Correspondent Eastern Section, News Department, 1918-21. The Times (London) Telegraph; The Rangoon in Northern India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily

Pérdz; Persia (in part); Persis: Ph

bazus:

a dna Phraates; Phraortes. j

i

Paston Letters (in pari).

Palembang.

Times; etc.

E. Her. E. Hu.

E. im T.

E. J.T.

ty College, London. Hon. Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and Universi ViceLondon. Formerly Yates Professor of Archaeology, University College, of Greece. Chancellor, University of London, 1924-6. Author of The Art

ERNST HERZFELD. Professor of Oriental Archaeology in the University of Berlin. EDMUND HUSSERL. Professor of Philosophy, University of Freiberg.

° Parthenon (in part).

Persepolis (in part). Phenomenology.

} Srp EVERARD Im THURN, K.C.M.G., K.B.E., C.B. pPacific Islands (in part). (retired). 1904—10 Pacific, Western the of ioner Commiss High and Governor of Fiji etc. Gutana; of Inaians Author of Among the er Epwarp J. Tuomas, Px.D. (im part). i Pahlav History. and Legend as Buddha of Life The H ymns. Author of Translator of Vedic

E. K.

Ernst KtHnet, Px.D.

E. L.

P. R. Ersa Lewxowrrsca, Pu.D., B.Sc.Hons., A.R.C.S.

E. L. K.

Mayor Epwarp L. KELLY. Head of Department of Tactics, United States Military Academy.

,

ae

Pesin ae Painting and Author of Miniaturmaleret im I slan; Keeper of Islamic Art in the Berlin Museum. aus dzy ptischen Gräbern. grapay. Stoffe nst; Kleinku che Maurische Kunst; Islamis

Palm Oil (in part).

}Physical Culture.

INITIALS COLONEL EDWARD

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

MANDELL HOUSE.

Representative of the United States at the making of the Armistice, Versailles, 1918.

E. M. Ho.

E. M. R. E. M. T,

E. N.da C.A.

E. N. H. E. R.

Co-author of The Pliocene Floras of the Duich-Prussian Border.

}Palaeobotany (tn part).

Mrs. E. M. Rep, B.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S.

.

Sir Epwarp MaunnbE TxHompson, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Litr.D., F.B.A.

Director and Principal Librarian of the British Museum, 1888-1909. Joint-editor of |Papyrus; Publications of the Palaeographical Society. Author of An Introduction to Greek and {Parchment. Latin Palaeography; Shakespeare's Handwriting. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure Perpetual Motion (ix pari); of the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Editor of the Physics section, 14th [Bas Articles on. Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. E. NEWTON HARVEY. Professor of Physiology, Princeton University. jPhosphoreacence.

pu

o ne ee ek ember, Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. Secretary of War in Cabinet of President McKinley, 1899-1904. Secretary of State in Cabinet of President Roosevelt, 1908-9. United States Senator for New York, 1909-15. Awarded Nobel Peace Prize, 1912. at King’s College, London.

F. Boo.

F. D.

Poe a ae ternational Justice.

Perdiccas: Philip V

Author of Later Greek Religion; etc.

pv.

M.A.

.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, North Wales.

.

| Philadelp hia.

EMIL SCHURER, D.PH. ' Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the Universities of Giessen, Kiel >Philo (in part). and Gottingen. Author of Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi. E. V. KNOX. ! Humorist in Verse and Prose. On the Staff of Punch. Author of Parodies Regained. Parody. ESTHER W. BATES. ; }Pageant (n pari). Professor ot Dramatic Art, University of Boston, Mass.

ERNEST Witt1am MacBRIDE, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science, London. Formerly Strathcona Professor of Zoology at McGill University, Montreal. Author of A Text Book o Zoology; Introduction to the Study of Heredity; etc.

E. W.T.

.

i AEAACOP IGS.

EDWARD ROBERTSON,

E. W. MacB.

part).

Emeritus Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London.

E. Ro.

E. W. Bs.

Paris, Conference of (in

Ph

EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, O.B.E., M.A., Hon.D.Lirt., Hon.LL.D. Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford. Lecturer on Hellenistic Historv and Literature

E. V. K.

}

Joint-editor with Charles C. Seymour, of What Really Happened at Paris. EDWARD MORELL HOLMES.

E. R. B.

E. Sc.

1X

} Phoronis.

EDWIN WARD TILLoTson, JR., B.A., Pg.D.

À

Assistant Director, Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh. Past-President, American Ceramic Society. FRANKLIN BOOTH. Illustrator, Painter. Sir FRANK Watson Dyson, K.B.E. Astronomer Royal of England. See the biographical article: Dyson, Sır Frang

i

Physical Resources (in part).

Pen Drawing. Parallax.

WATSON.

F, E. Mattuews, Pu.D., F.I.C.

Former Professor of Chemistry at_the Royal India Engineering College, Coopers Hill. Consultant to Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, Research Chemists, Hatton Garden, London. l F. F. HensHaw, B.Sc. ; Senior Engineer, Federal Power Commission. Author of numerous papers of the United States Geological Survey on water supply.

Palladium.

` : pPhysical Resources (in part).

F. F. Rupert, A.M., Pa.D.

F. G. P.

FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

lphysical Resources (in part).

Of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh.

Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of Great

Pancreas; Pharynx.

Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’s Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. G. UnpERHayY, M.A. Of the Inner Temple. Editor of the Official Reports of Patent Design and Trade Mark Cases. Editor of Keely on Trade Marks.

F. ea

oon

me fee

rofessor o ysics, St. London). Vice-President,

Sears

PEEN

T

U

,

Bartholomew’s Hospita edical College (University o Physical Society of London. Member, Grand Council,

British Empire Cancer Campaign.

F. H. S.

F. H. Szares, B.S.

Assistant Director of Mount Wilson Observatory of Carnegie Institution, Washington.

F. J. Me.

: Patents (im part).

i TE icine. Physics in Medicine

\Photogrant, Celestial (in part)

Author of Practical Astronomy for Engineers; etc.

F. J. MELVILLE.

i

,

s

President of the Junior Philatelic Society and writer on stamp collecting for The pPhilately.

Daily Telegraph, London.

F. J. Mo.

;

i

F. F.R.

F. J. Mortimer, F.R.P.S.

;

Editor of The Amateur Photographer and Photography.

Convention of the United Kingdom, 1913-4.

President of the Photographic

:

Hon. Secretary of the London Salon Photographic Art.

of Photography. Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society, and Surf Photography; Photography of the Sea, etc,

Publications: Marine

INITIALS

x

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

F. L. ExcreEDOW, M.A.

F. L. E. F. LI. G. F. M.S.

}

;

On the Staff of the Plant Breeding Institute, Cambridge, England. Plant Breeding. Pharaoh } F.B.A. F.S.A., Pu.D., F. LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., ° Professor of and Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. i i : F. M. STENTON. Professor of History, University of Reading. Editor of the History (wetiaeva) Palestine(in oe ersia (77 part).

section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

F. P. Do.

F. P. Dorizzr. Director of George Rowney and Co., Ltd., and Works Manager of Malderf Pencil

F. Sk,

F. Skevincton, M.B.E.

, -Pencil.

Works, London.

Pa

F. W. Mo.

S

Civil Service,

Municipal, etc.

Principal of His Majesty’s Treasury.

FREDERICK WALKER Mort, K.B.E., M.D., B.S., LL.D., F.R.S. Late Consulting Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London, Pathologist to London County Asylums, and Lecturer on Morbid Psychology, Birmingham University. Author of War Neuroses and Shell Shock; etc.

Paralysis.

F. W. Pa.

Froyp W. Parsons, E.M.

}

F. Wt. G. A. C.

Francis Watt, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law’s Lumber Room. REV. GEORGE ALBERT Cooke, D.D.

oye Fis Paterson, Wiliam (in part). }

G. Bu.

Professor of Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford. GERALD BURRARD, D.S.O., F.R.G.S

Editorial Director, Robbins Publishing Company, New York.

Physical Resources (in part).

Regius Professor of Hebrew, Oxford, and Canon of Christ Church. Formerly Oriel

Atom per

oenicia.

Major Royal Artillery (retired). Gun Expert to The Field since 1919. Author of N os}Pig Sticking, on Sporting Rifles; Big Game Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet; etc.

GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D.

Late Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh Uni-

.

.

}Perpetual Motion (in part).

versity.

tgi

M.A.

G. C. R.

Guy Cotwin Rosson,

G. C. W.

; GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Litt.D., F.R.S.L. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Minsatures; Life of Richard | Pinwell, George John (in

Periwinkle.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum. Cosway, R.A.; George J. Pinwell; George Engleheart; etc. Editor of Bryan's Dictionary

of Painters and Engravers.

w

Rev. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.Hist.S., F.R.G.S.

G. E.

part).

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Sometime Foreign Member, Netherlands Association of Literature and Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society.

Pensionary

:

GEORGE EASTMAN.

G. Ea.

Chairman of the Board, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N. Y. Invented the -Photography (in pari)

kodak and developed roll films system of photography.

G.E. I

G. E. IjJams. Assistant Director of Veterans’ Bureau, Washington.

G. El.

(ROBERT) GEOFFREY ELLIS.

G. G. A.

G. H.

B.

G. H. W. G. L. E. G. McL. Wo.

nee The United States (in part).

Formerly Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-Editor of English Reports. of Peerage Law and History. io = eo j ee ae i cee

Author

-Peerage.

me

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Formerly Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Sea, Land and Air

: . Palestine (in part).

Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day. Editor of The Study of War. |Benteca (in part); Rrv. GEorcE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D. Rector of Sutton, Beds. Davidson Professor of Old Testament Studies in the Uni- Pentecost; versity of London. Pharisees. GEORGE H. WARBURTON. Editor of the Sixth Edition of Ozls, Fats and Waxes, by E. Lewkowitsch and Chief Palm Oil (in part). Chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories. ~ Mıss G. L. Erres, D.Sc. } : Lecturer in Geology, Newnham College, Cambridge. Palaeozoic Era. GEORGE McLane Woon. Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington. Secretary, Chesapeake and |Panama (in part) ; Potomac Telephone Company. Author of Texts for U.S. Geological Survey and press | Paraguay (in part) notices.

G. M. L.

G. M. McB. G. Mn.

G. W. Go.

|Persia (in part).

G. M. Legs, M.C., D.F.C., Px.D., F.G.S. G. M. McBrips, B.A., P#.D. University of California at Los Angeles, California. Communitnes of Highland Bolivia. GEORGE MoRGaN, A.M., LL.D.

Author of Agrarian Inison|Paraguay (in part).

:

:

Raon Sea’ Pinladelphia Record, Author of ‘A Complete History of Philadelphia,}Philadelphia.

GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS, LL.D., D.S.M. Formerly Instructor in Civil and Military Engineering, United States Military Acad- \panama Canal (in part). emy. Chief Engineer, Panama Canal, 1907-14. Zone, 1914-6. State Engineer, New Jersey, 1917.

Civil Governor,

Panama

Canal

INILIALS AND NAMES G. W. Ki. G. W. R. H. A. A.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

GEORGE WASHINGTON KircHwey, LL.D.

Head of the Department of Criminology, New Vork School of Social Work Major GEORGE WILLIAM REpwavy. Author of The War of Secession, 1861 =2; Fredericksburg: A Study in War.

H. B. We.

States Department of Agriculture, Woh H. B. Wests, B.A.

H. Bi.

Henri Brpov.

ti

}Petersburg Campaign. ;

Associate Curator of Paintings, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Neon

the Staff of Le Journal des Débats (Paris).

a

|Personality.

oe F.LC., F.L.S. rofessor o armaceutics in University of Lond Society of Great Britain. Joint Editor of The Pee

i

A

Huon Hate Lercu Bettot, M.A., D.C..

=

Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International, H S Í Law Association, and Grotius Society. Fo ' poporary 2ecretary International s

H. Iprrs Bett, D.Lirt.

H. Jn.

Henry Jackson, Litt.D., LL.D., O.M., F.B.A.

Secretary, Egypt Exploration Society.

H. Kr. H. L. He. H. L. Sh.

ee Author of Texts to Illustrate the History of Greek ;

a

pay (eines of Elea.

HARALD KREUTZBERG, German Ballet Dancer. Harriet L. HENNESSY, L.R.C.S.I.. L.R.C.P.I., M.D.

H. L. Santz, PH.D., D.Sc. President,StatUniversity of Arizona, ? Tucson, ı Arizona. Arizona. is“sod :a :S a d Auth uthor H.

E Boca

rotessor in

University.

E

.

(in part).

|Palaeography (in part).

Late Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambrid

of numerous

(7

aes:

‘

Y, Breaches of the Laws of i Author of Commerce in War; Permanent Court of International uie” Committee,

H. I. B.

armacy

Pacific Blockade

ary rmerly Acting Professor of Ca rstitutioial

University of London and Seo

a pe Henri,

lparliament (in part).

Reader in Philosophy, King's College, University of London.

ri

;

\Painting (in part).

Chevalier of the Legion PO

H. G.G.

Law,

tae

i

H. D. O.

H. H. L. B.

3.

}Photoperiodism (in part).

Bureau of Plant Industry United

Hucx CuisHorm, M.A. Editor of the 11th and 12th Editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica Hirpa D. QOAKELEY, M.A. `

H. C.

Penology.

H. A. ALLARD, B.S.

Senior Physiologist, Tobacco and P|

xi

|Pantomime.

|Plague (im part). Co-author ; | Co-author of of Vegetation of thel

.

:

t).

scientific articles on plant physiology and JPhysical Resources (iu part)

ages

/igronomy

Wepartment, New York State

°

;

Colles:

Joint Author of The Nature and Pa

eee r RECAEN

š

fTOTEEN R OROUTERE (PERN:

H. P. Hotris, B.A., F.R.A.S. Assistant in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1881-1920, Editor of The Obseratry | Photoge aphy, Celestial (in Magazine, 1893-1912. Fi). LIEUTENANT-COLONEL THE Hon. HERBERT R. ATKINSON, Instructor at theSchock: ArtilleryA Cee A the Small Armia

: j g Formerly Experimental Officer oe} Pott (în part).

H. S. P. H. To.

I. A. R. I. G.

Miss H. S. PEARSON.

5

ee ENRY

Assistant, Department of Zoology, University College, London , TONKS.

tPecora.

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of London since 1917.

tPastel (in part). Palma, Jacopo; Paolo Veronese;

IRMA A.: RICHTER. ;

Artist and Writer.

Picasso, Pablo; Pisano, Vittore.

Srr Israet Gorrancz, Litt.D., F.B.A. Fellow and Secretary of the Briti Literature in the University of a

ae a ee

Sir ISRAEL.

:

ee

Pearl, The. 8

I. K.

INGALLS KIMBALL.

I. P. D.

IGNAZ PHILIPP DENGEL.

J. A. J.

Institute of History in Rone James A. JonnstTONE, D.Sc.

Co-director of Group Annuities, Metropolitan Life Insurance C ompany, New York. Professor of Modern History

in the Universi

:

;

niversity of Innsbruck. Director of the Austrian

Pensions: The United States (in part). :

pPapacy (in pari).

, T of Li Professor of Oceanography, University ity of Liverpool, Author of Conditions of Life at Plankton. Sea; British Fisheries; etc.

J. A. Mo.

James A. More. | eee Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, University of Edinburgh. iPig (in pari).

J. A. R.

James ALEXANDER ROBERTSON, Pu.B., L.H.D. Professor of American History, John B. Stetson University, Dela d Fla. M . ] wanaging |Philippine Islands. ta. nd, nee Revi Editor, Hispanic-American History P ewew. Co-editor of Blair and Robertson's | story The Philippine Islands.

J. A. Ry.

J.A. S.

JOEN EE

ssistant

EA M.D, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.M. Physician to

Guy’s Hospital.

Consulti

pital, and Blackheath and Civica Cate

ed cia

PON nS Wel Ord BGS

JOEN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. ; ; Italy: Studi of Renaissance inAppt Author SYMONDS, Ree tes of the Greek Poets; etc. See the biographical JOHN article:

be, vee

enai eee

é Petrarch (in part).

en

Xi J. A. Th.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

SIR JOHN ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A., LL.D.

Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Gifford Lecturer, St. Andrews, 1915. Terry Lecturer, Yale University, 1924. Author of The | Parasitism; Study of Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Herelity; Darwinism and Human Life; { Parthenogenesis. What Is Man?; Concerning Evoluiton. Joint-Author (with Professor Patrick Geddes) of Evolution; Sex; Biology.

J. Bar.

JosrePH Barcrort, C.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.

J. B. Bi.

JosEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP.

N

Fellow and Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge. Professor of Physiology, Cambridge |Physiology; University. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution, 1923-6. Author of >Pigments of the Skin and The Respiratory Function of the Blood and many other works. Editor of the Physiology | Hair. section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

J.B. M.

Late Secretary to the Panama Canal Commission. Issues of a New Epoch; The Panama Gateway. JAMES BOLIVAR MANSON.

Author of Our Political Drama;Panama Canal (in part).

Director, National Gallery, Millbank (Tate Gallery).

in the Tate Gallery; etc.

Author of Rembrandt; Hours

+Painting (in part).

Translated Cézanne, by T. Klingsor.

Jontus Davip Epwarps, B.S. Assistant Director of Research, Aluminum Company of America.

Author of Alu-

}Physical Resources (iz part).

minum Bronze Powder and Aluminum Paint.

J. D. J.

J. DUDLEY JOHNSTON. Honorary Curator of Prints, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain.-Photography (in part).

J. D. M. S.

J. D. Man SMITE, BS; Pu.D., AIC

President, Royal Photographic Society, 1923. ormerly

Research

Assistant to the

;

TA

Professor o

i emistry,

= University of

Birming-

«as

J. E. Sa.

ham. Late Assistant Examiner in Chemistry, University of London. Author of Periodic Law, The. Chemistry and Atomic Structure; etc. JouN Epwiw Sanpys, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D., F.B.A. Late Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Author of History of Classica!| Pausanias (in part). Scholarship; etc.

J. F.

Jonn FISKE.

J. F. C. F.

American Historical and Philosophical Writer. Sometime History Tutor at Harvard . University. Author of The American Revolution; etc. See the biographical st pm, Francis FISKE, JOHN. COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O. : Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff er ae Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of Pharsalus Pattl of Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Training. Sree) ees

J. F.-K.

James FirzMavricE-Ketry, Litt.D., F.R.Hist-.S.

J. Fo.

Hon. Sır Joann WiLra{ Fortescue, K.C.V.0., Hon.LL.D., Lirr.D. Librarian at Windsor Castle, 1905-26. Author of Wellington; History of the r71Peninsular War.

J. F. P.

:

Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.

Lancers; History of the British Army, 1899-1920; etc. Josera FRANK Payne, M.D., F.R.C.P Late Harveian Librarian, RoyalCollege of Physicians.

Palacio Valdés, Armando; Pereda, José Maria de; Picaresque Novel, The (in part).

Author of Lectures on Angio-Plague (in part).

Saxon Medicine; etc.

J. F. Th.

JOHN FarrFIELD THomepson, B.S., PH.D.

J. Ga.

Joun Garstanc, M.A., D.Sc., B.Lirt., F.S.A.

J. G. Be.

J. Goutp Brarn, M.Sc., A.I.C.

J.G.G.

Manager, Operating Department, The International Nickel Company. ohn Rankin Professor of Archaeology, University of Liverpool. Director, British peo of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 1919-26. Director, Department of Antiquities, Government of Palestine, 1920-6.

Building Trade. E ;

JEAN GABRIEL GOULINAT.

Chevalier de la Légion d’ Honneur, Societaire et Membre due Comité du Salon de la Pee

sth Nationale des Beaux Arts, Author of La Technique des Peintres. J. G. MırcuELL, Pu.D., B.Sc.

Josers H. BONNEVILLE, A.M.

J. H. Mo.

J. H. Morean, K.C.

J. H. Ry.

James H. Ryan, 8.T.D., TH.D.

Soe

m

reservation of (în pari).

Assistant, Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England.

iPerylene. SaS

Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance. Author of Elements of Business Finance.

>Panic (in part).

,

i

Professor of Constitutional Law, University of London. Reader in Constitutional | Parliament (in part); Law to the Inns of Court. Brigadier-General, late Deputy Adjutant-General. Editor {Petition of Right (in part). of the Law section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

;

Rector, Catholic University of America, Washington. Author of An Introduction to p>Parochial Schools. Philosophy; etc. Josers Jacoss, Lirt.D. Formerly Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New Passover (in part) York, and President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; etc.

J. Jn.

: . Palestine (in part). Paint; Painter-Work in the

Chemist, Messrs. Walter Carson & Sons, Battersea, London.

J. G. M. J. E. B.

J. Ja.

|Physical Resources (in part).

J. Jacxson, M.A., D.Sc.

Chief Assistant, Greenwich Royal Observatory.

Author of Jews

}Planetarium.

i

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

X11

J. Ki.

JoszepH KITCHEN, F.S.S.

J. Lec.

JOEN LECKIE.

Pencil Drawi

J. L. My.

Joun Linton Myres, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.B.A. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Librarian of New College,

-Paphos.

J. L. W. J. M.-B. J. M. Hi. J. M. La.

}Physical Resources (in part).

London Manager of the Union Corporation, Limited.

Head of Sales Promotion Bureau, Joseph Dixon Crucible Company, Jersey City.

Oxford.

SoC

as

General Secretary to the British Association.

Jessi L. Weston, Lrrt.D.

iPerceval.

Author of Arthurian Romances.

J. MacMittan-Brown, M.A., Hon.LL.D. Chancellor of the University of New Zealand.

Emeritus Professor, Canterbury Col-

-Pacific Ocean Questions.

lege, Christchurch, New Zealand. James M. Hitt, B.S.

:

‘

}

Physical Resources (in port). Po (in part);

Consulting Geologist. Formerly of the United States Bureau of Mines. J. M. Lanois, A.B., LL.B., S.J.D.

Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School. Author of The Business of the Supreme

Petition of Right (in part)

Court of the United States.

J. M. M.

JoHN Matcotm MitcHetz, O.B.E., M.C., M.A., F.S.A.

J. Mn.

Joun Macrrerson, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.S. i Formerly Inspector-General of Hospitals, Bengal. Author of The Baths and Wells of pParanoia.

J. Mof.

James Morratt, M.A., D.D.

Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Vice-President, Library Association. Assistant Editor for Classics and Ancient History, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of the Public Library System of Great Britain and Ireland. Joint Editor, Grote’s History of Greece.

7 Persia (in part).

Europe; etc.

:

deere

of

of the Gospels; New Translation of the New Testament; Everyman's Life | Philippians, Epistle to the.

Jesus; etc.

J. Ms.

Rt. Rev. Monsicnor J. Moyes, D.D.

J. P.-B.

James GrorGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.

J. P. E.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN.

J. P. Ma.

J. P. MAXFIELD. Formerly of the Victor Talking Machine Company, New York. J. P. Postcats, M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A.

J. P. P.

‘

Washburn Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York, Pastoral Epistles, The; since 1927. Formerly Professor of Church History, U.F. College, Glasgow. Author }Philemon, Epistle to;

Late Canon of Westminster Cathedral. Prelate to H.H. Pope Benedict XV.

,

Editor of The Dublin Review and Domestic

pPius XI. (in part). ws

}Pawnbroking.

Consulting Editor, formerly Editor of The Guardian, London.

Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Cours élémentaire d'histoire du droit français.

Membre de l'Institut.

Author of

Parlement.

?Phonograph.

Late Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Late Editor of the Classical Quarterly. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus

Phaedrus (im part).

Poetarum Latinorum; etc.

J. R. D. J. Rei.

J. R. Mr.

J. Ros.

J. R. Dorem, M.Sc., A.I.C., F.C.S.

Pearl, Cultivated (in part).

Research Chemist. eaae ee J. REIGHARD, PH.B. Formerly Director of the Biological Survey of the Great Lakes for the United States Pisciculture (in part). Fish Commission. Author of numerous scientific papers on the habits and evolution ~ of fishes.

Joun R. Mouter, A.M., D.Sc.

Chief, United States Bureau of Animal Industry. Author of Pathology and Therapeutics of Diseases of Domestic Animals.

Jurus ROSENWALD. Chairman of the Board, Sears, Roebuck and Company, Chicago.

Trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation, the Art Institute of Chicago, the University of Chicago, Hull House; etc.

J.R. R.

J.R.T.

J. R. Th.

J

Physical Resources (in part). Hs

Philanthropy. —

5

OHN ROBERTSON RIDDELL.

Principal of the London School of Printing and Kindred Trades. Training of the Printer; etc.

ving;

Author of re photoBagar

?

JosePH Rosson TANNER, Litt.D.

Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Lecturer in History at St. John’s College, 1883-1921. Author of Pepys’s Naval Minutes; Private Correspondence of Samuel

Pepys, Samuel (in part).

Pepys, 1679-1703; etc.

Ames RICHARD THURSFIELD,

J

M.A.

Formerly Dean, Fellow, Lecturer and Tutor of Jesus College, Oxford. Peel; etc.

J.S. C.

. S. Correy, B.S.A. J Department of Husbandry, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

J. S. F.

Srr

J. V. B.

James VeRNOoN Bartret, M.A., D.D. Professor Emeritus of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

Author ofPanell Charles Stewart part).

Joun Sutra Frert, K.B-E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology. Da Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University.

Apostolic Age.

|

Author of The

T lPig (in part). Peridotite; :

e Pearlstone; Pitchs ns

-Paul.

š

;

(in

Xiv

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

J. W. Hu,

JOSEPH WELLINGTON HunkxIn, O.B.E., M.C., B.D. Archdeacon of Coventry. Late Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Palestine (in part). Cambridge. Chaplain to the King, 1926.

J. Wn.

J. W. T. W

Joun Watton, M.A. } . Lecturer on Botany, University of Manchester. Palaeobotany (in part). J. W. T. WALSE. ai Assistant, Electricity Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,{Photometry (an part). iddlesex.

K. S.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

L. C. M.

Str Leo Cutozza Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; etc.

Pear! (in part);

Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. | peninsula and Oriental Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the St Navivati

Tonnage Priority Committee,

1917-8.

Editor of the Economics,

Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

L. D.

Engineering and

of Archaeology at Rome.

See the biographical article: DucHESNE, L. M. QO.

Lrserty Hype Bartey, LL.D., Lirt.D. Director and Dean of College of Agriculture, Cornell University, 1903-13. Ed. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture.

L. J. S.

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S.

L. M. F.

LEONARD M. FANNING.

L. O. H. L. Ra.

L. S. Ro.

Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, London. Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar.

L. V.

Navigaion

P

. i apacy (in part).

>Palm (in part).

Formerly| Parisite

Petroleum;

Director of Publicity, American Petroleum Institute, New York. Physical Resources (in part). LELAND OSSIAN Howarp, Pu.D., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Principal Entomologist, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Peach Tree Borer. Agriculture since 1878. Author of Mosquitoes, How They Lives The Insect Baok; ete. Lewis Rapcrirrre, A.B., M.S. }Ph ical R gst

Deputy Commissioner, United States Bureau of Fisheries. Leo S, Rower, Pu.D., LL.D.

ysical

Director-General, Pan-American Union, Washington. Author of Report of the United States Commission to Revise the Laws of Porto Rico; etc.

L. St.

cam

Company.

Lours Marre OLIVIER DUCHESNE, D-Ès-L. French Scholar and Ecclesiastic. Late Professor at the Catholic Institute in Paris, Lecturer at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and Director of the French School

L. H. Ba.

:

| Pianoforte (im part).

Resources (i part).

‘Pan-American Union.

olitical geet Secretary mae

to World Wor Staff-Captain, Pal Palestine M Militar $ ; Z ionist E Executive. Staff-C Administration and subsequently on Political Staff, E.E.F., in Jerusalem, and at Palestine (an part). G.H.Q., Cairo, r918~20. Joint-Editor of Awakening Palestine.

MTG talian lion’VieVice-Consul Consul in in NewNew OrlOrleans,

6; 1906;

Philadelph Philadelphia,

1907;

Acting-C Acting-Consul

at

l»-

.

Boston, 1907-10, On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Author of (+15 (% part).

Italian Life in Town and Country; The Awakening of Italy; Fascism; etc, L. v. P.

LUDVIG VON PASTOR. ` Late Professor of History in the University of Innsbruck and Director of the Austrian Institute of Historical Studies in Rome.

M. C.

Max Cary, D.Litt.

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London. Secretary of the Classical Association, 1911-4. Marcus Dons. Scottish Divine and Biblical Scholar. Late Principal of New College, Edinburgh. Editor of Lange’s Life of Christ and Author of The Epistle to the Seven Churches; etc, Miss M. E. J. CHANDLER. _ Late Yarrow Fellow of Girton College, Cambridge. Co-author (with E. M, Reid) of Catalogue of the Cainozoic Plants, Vol. I. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.

pPapacy (in part).

Pericles; P cos hrygia. pPelagius (in part). >Palaeobotany (i part).

Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Arts Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British }Pastel (in part). Exhibition, London. Author of History of “ Punch”; British Portrait Paintings to the Opening of the roth Century; etc.

M. M. Bh.

Sir MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE.

M. N.T.

Marcus Nrepusr Top, M.A. Reader in Greek Epigraphy, University of Oxford. Joint-Author of Catalogue of the >Pausanias.

M. Po.

(CÉSAR) MARCEL POËTE.

Formerly Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. Bethnal Green, North-East, 1906. Author of History of the Constitution of the East India Company.

i

s

189 =}? atel, Framjee Nasarwanjee (in pari).

Sparia Museum.

*

Director of the Institute of History, Geography and Civics, Paris. Director of Studies, History of Paris, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Author of L’Enfance de Parts; etc.

M. Sa.

MOND EE Executive

Vice-President, The Church Pension Fund, New York. American Member,

International Congress of Actuaries.

M. S. L. M. T. Bi.

M. S. LOMBARDINI. Secretary, Pirelli, Ltd., London, MiLLiceENt Tonn Bincuam, M.A., P.D. Member,

Sociedad Geográfica de Lima.

Author of Peru, Land of Contrasts; etc.

Paris (i i aris (im part).

Poe The United States (in part) oe }Pirelli and Go: l Peru *

INITIALS N ceria E. Csi

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

XV

3

tatistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. Member of the Council . of the Royal Statistical Society. Joint-Author of Clare’s A. B. C. of the Foreign f Pegging the Exchange. Exchanges.

NıcmoLas G. GEDYE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.I.C.E. Consulting

mission.

Civil Engineer.

Formerly

Chief Engineer, Tyne

Served B.E.F. Lt.-Colonel (late R.E.).

Improvement

Com-

Acting Director, Civil Engineer-

in-Chief’s Department, Admiralty. Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport.

Harbour

-Pier (in part).

and

NoEL TANCRED WHITEHEAD, M.B., B.S. Major, R.A.M.C. Late Government Bacteriologist, Wellcome Tropical Research

pParatyphoid Fever.

Laboratory, Khartum.

OTTO JESPERSEN, PH.D., Lrirr.D., LL.D., F.B.A.

Professor of English in the University of Copenhagen, 1893-1925. Member of Academies of Copenhagen, Oslo, Lund, Helsingfors, Ghent, and Prague. Author of Growth and Structure of the English Language; A Modern English Grammar ; Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin; The Philosophy of Grammar; etc.

O.J.L.

Philology.

Sır Orrver Loper, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

Principal of the University of Birmingham, 1900-19. Professor of Physics, University College, Liverpool, 1881-1900. President of the Physical Society of London, 18991900. President of the British Association, 1913-4. Albert Medallist of the Royal Society of Arts for pioneer work in wireless telegraphy, 1919.

Physics.

Author of Ether and

O. Wh.

Reality; Evolution and Creation; Energy. CAPTAIN OWEN WHEELER, F.R.P.S. Author of A Primer of Photography; Modern Telephotography; Colour Photography; pPhotography (in part).

P. A.T.

P. A. TIELE. Formerly Librarian, Utrecht University.

Amateur Cinematography.

Author of Biographical and Historical

Plantin, Christophe.

Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators; etc.

P. B.

PIERRE BERNUS. Foreign Editor of the Journal des Débais.

P. E. B.

Genève. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Parure E. BROWNING, A.B., Po.D.

P. Go.

Pure Gosse, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

P. Gr.

PHILIP GRAVES.

Aoi arer

Paris Correspondent of Le Journal de Painlevé, Paul.

Professor of Chemistry at Yale University.

; Author of Introduction to the Physical Resources (in part).

Elements.

Assistant Superintendent, The Radium Institute, London.

}

Author of Notes on the Pirates and Piracy (in part).

Natural History of the Aconcagua Valleys; The Pirates’ Who's Who; My Pirate Library.

P.

G mS e

Assistant Foreign Editor of The Times, London. Fellow and Dean of Jesus College, Cambridge.

PAut JAMOT.

P. Ma.

PAUL MARTIN.

P. M.S.

Palestine (tn part).

Peter, St.; yaa

REv. P. GARDNER-SMITH, B.D.

P. Ja.

;

š

Author of The Land of Three Fatths.

‘

.

| peter ? Sewad Brie ief .

$

`

[Painting (in pari).

Conservateur-Adjoint au Musée du Louvre, Paris.

i

.

}

Director of Chemin de fer Métropolitain de Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. BRIGADIER-GENERAL SIR Percy Syges, K.C.I.E., C.B., C.M.G. Consul-General for Khurasan, 1905-13.

;

as

des

Paris Metropolitan. ERO `

Consul-General, Chinese Turkistan, 1915. |Persia (in part);

G.O.C., Southern Persia, 1916-8. Author of History of Persia with Ella Sykes; | Persia, Campaigns in. Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia; Ten Thousand Miles in Persia; etc.

ae

me,

eget

;

o.

P. V.

PASQUALE VILLARI.

P. Z. C.~

eae | MAJOR-GENERAL Sık Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I, K.C.LE., F.R.G.S. Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, |Persia (în part);

Italian Historian and Statesman.

Author of 7 primi due secoli della storia di Firenza;

Saggi Critici; Scrittii Varii; etc. See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. 1920-3. Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914. Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904.

R. A. S. M.

Consul and | Persian Gulf.

ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., Lirt.D., LL.D., F.S.A. Professor of Celtic Archaeology, University College, Dublin.

for the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1900-9 and 1923-4.

Director of Excavations

President of the Royal

Irish Academy. President of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, Author of A Century of Excavation in Palestine; etc.

R. B. McK.

RONALD BRUNLEES McKerrow, Litt.D.

R. C. A.

R. C. ARCHIBALD, M.A., Pu.D., LL.D.

R. C. J.

Sir RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE Jess, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

R. D. H.

Odyssey; etc. See the biographical article: JeBB, Sik RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. R. Dawson Hatt.

R. E. B.

pPisa (in part).

1925-8.

,

Professor of Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, R. I. Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Author of Benjamin Pesrce. Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905. Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; Homer, an Introduction ta the Iliad and

Engineering Editor, Coal Age, New York. , RICHARD EVELYN BYRD. Naval Officer and Aviator. Commander, Aviation Unit of Macmillan Polar Expedi-

Made Flight over North Pole, 1926.

,

tParnassus Plays.

Trinity College, Cambridge.

tion, 1925.

i

Palestine (in part).

Made Trans-Atlantic Flight with

from New York to France, 1927. three Caoa i Expedition, 1928-

In command of South Polar = ’

i

oo.

rPeirce, Benjamin. Pindar (in pari).

}Physical Resources (in part). .

Peary, Robert Edwin.

XVI R. E. Si.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

ROBERT E. SIMON. President of United Parents’ Associations of Greater New York Schools.

Chairman Parental Education.

of Committee on Teachers’ Salaries, New York.

RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. Librarian and Author. Late Superintendent of the; Reading Room, British Museum, Panizzi, ! i ; t); Sir Anthony (in London, and Keeper of the Printed Books. Co-editor with Edmund Gosse of English pori. ; Literature. Author of A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology; Emerson; Milton; Essays |Feacock, Thomas Love (in

in Librarianship and Bibliophily; etc.

part).

ROBERT HERON RASTALL, Sc.D., F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M.

University Lecturer in Economic Geology and Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918. Attached to War Office, 1915-9. Author of The Geology of the Meitalliferous Deposits. Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

R. I. P.

REGINALD INNES Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.8., F.R.A.L, F.R.S.

R. K. D.

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. Late Keeper of Oriental of

Printed Books and MSS.

of Chinese, King’s College, London.

at the British Museum,

Author of The Language and

and

dats

Sir Harry Smith.

China; etc.

R. L. T.

RALPH LILLEY TURNER, M.C., M.A.

R. N.B.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN.

R. P.

ReNE PouPARDIN, D-Ès-L.

Professor of Sanskrit in the University of London. Sometime Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Author of Gujarati Phonology; The Postiton of Romani in Indo-Aryan; Editor of A Dictionary of the Nepalis Language with Etymological Notes.

| Pali Language and Literature (in part).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1796; etc.

R. R. P.

Pedipalpi; Pentastomida.

Natural History Editor of The Field (London), and Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British Museum since 1923.

r

R. R.

s -Pegmatite.

Secretary

`

of the Ecole Nationale des Chartes.

théque Nationale, Paris.

Honorary

á

Librarian of the Biblio-

Panin, Nikita Ivanovich; Peter I.; Peter III.; Petofi, Alexander (i part); Piper, Carl. i the Bold (i ‘)DIR

ın par );

Philip the Good (in part).

Srr RicHARD STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., F.G.S.

Past President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Hon. Member, Surveyors’ Institute. H.M. Chief Inspector of Mines, 1908-20. Author of The British Coal Industry. |

Rave R. Pratt, A.B. Head of Department

of Hispanic

American

Research,

American

Geographical

Peat.

-Patagonia.

Society of New York.

R. S. M.

R. S. MorrELL, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C.

R. Sto.

Sır RonarLDp Storrs, C.M.G., C.B.E.

R T.L.

ROBERT THOMSON LEIPER.

R. Wa.

ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

Research Chemist at Messrs. Mander Bros. Ltd., Wolverhampton. of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Paints, Chemistry of (in

Formerly Falow } parj.

,

Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Cyprus, since 1926. Civil Governor of Jerusalem and Judaea, 1920-6. Formerly Military Governor of Jerusalem.

Professor of Helminthology, University of London.

|

pPalestine (in part).

or

Director of the Division of -Parasitic Diseases.

Medical Zoology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

R. W. P.

e

,

Sa

Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; Indian Agriculture; The Agriculture and Pig (in pari). Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape Colony; etc. RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE. Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The | Peterloo; Bolshevik Theory; Revolution from 1789-1906; The Butlders’ History; ed. Pervigilcum { Place, Francis. Venerts.

R. W. S.-W.

R.Z.

RosBeRT Witir4M SEtTON-Wartson, Litt.D.

Masaryk Professor of Central European History, University of London. Founder and Joint-Editor of The New Europe, 1916-20. Joint-Editor of The Slavonic Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; The New Slovakia; etc.

RAPHAEL Zon, M.S., F.E.

Professor of Forestry, University of Minnesota.

Author of Forest Resources of the

Peter I. ?

Physical Resources (in part).

World.

S. A. C.

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, Litt.D. University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic. Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration

Fund.

Co-editor of the Cambridge Ancient History.

Palestine (in part);

Author of Religion of Ancient | Philistines.

S. A. H.

Palestine. S. A. HURREN. nee

S. B. McC.

SAMUEL Brack McCormick,

S. d'A.

SILVIO D'AMICO. Pirandello, Luigi. Italian Author and Journalist. Dramatic Critic of the Idea Nazionale, Rome. } S. E. SHEPPARD. Photochemistry. Assistant Director of Research, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York.

S. E. S.

me

: : Pia forte Manutactive: (în part), of Pianoforte Construction at Northern Polytechnicé Insti._ |Pianoforte a

M.A., D.D., LL.D.

Chancellor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

i ; Pittsburgh.

NAMES

AND

INITIALS S. G. B.-B.

Rev. S. GRAHAM BRADE-BirKs, D.Sc., F.Z.S.

S. H. M.

SYDNEY HERBERT ME tong, M.A., D.Sc.

S. K. L.

5S. K. Loturop, A.B., Px.D.

Xv

OF CONTRIBUTORS ?Pauropoda.

Lecturer in Zoology and Geology, South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford. Examiner in Philosophy, Universities of St. ; s Andrews, 1899-1902; London, 1902-6; Edinburgh, 1907-10; in Psychology, Edin- Pelagius (in part). burgh, 1913-6. Lecturer in the University of Manchester, 1911-21. Author of The New Tesiament and Modern Life; The Apocrypha, Iis Story and Message; etc. Anthropologist, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York. Author of Tulum, an Archaeological Study of Eastern Yucatan; Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua; Pottery Types and Their Sequence in El Salvador.

S. R.

SripNEy H. Ray, M.A., F.R.ANTHROP.S.

,

T. A.

Tuomas Asupy, D.Litr., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.LB.A.

}Papuan Languages.

Lecturer in Polynesian, Melanesian, Micronesian and Papuan Languages, Cambridge Formerly Director of the British School at Rome.

Author of Turner’s

Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Architecture.

Pipil.

et

Visions of

antelleria ;

Revised and

Pavia (in part);

completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late J. B. | Perugia;

Plattner), Author of numerous archaeological articles.

Pisa (in part).

T. B.

Sır Tuomas Barciray,

T. E.G.

THEODOR E. GREGORY, D.Sc. Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of Banking in the University of London.

T. F. H.

Tarsor F. Hawtin, B.A., B.ARCH.

T.G. B.

THOMAS GREGOR Bropre, M.D., F.R.S. , ; Pae Professor of Physiology at St. Thomas’ Hospital Medical School, University of Phagocytosis. ondọn.

Th. N.

THEODOR NÖLDEKE, Pu.D.

LL.B.,

P.D.

i

Vice-President, International Law Association.

T.T. R.

Panel; Calligraphy (in part).

Author of A History of Greek Mathematics.

.

,

T. SmTg, M.A.

Principal Assistant, Physics Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Periscope. Middlesex. THOMAS THORNTON READ, E.M., Pa.D. Z ; Professor of Mining, Columbia University. Editor of Mining and Metallurgy; for- Physical Resources (in part). merly Associate Editor of Mining and Sctentific Press.

THomAs WOODHOUSE.

T. W. R. D.

T. W. Rays Davips, LL.D., PH.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Comparative Religion, University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London and President)

U. P. H.

Utyssres PreNTIsSs HEDRICK, M.S., D.Sc.

iPile.

Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.

of the Pali Text Society.

Author of Buddhism, Its History and Literature; etc.

Director, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York.

of Manual of American Grape Growing; Systematic Pomology; etc.

V. C. C.-B.

V. C. CLINTON-BADDFLEY.

V. F.M.

V. F. MiInorsky.

j i Pali Language and Literature (im part).

bess (in part); >

Author

Pear (in part)

.

}Pitt, William.

Editorial Staff, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Persian

Ii

of Persian Philology, Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales Vivantes, pt ersan iterature. Bee aris. . i VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, Sc.D., F.R.S. Professor of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College of Science and Palm (in part); Technology, Britannica.

W. A.G.

(in part);

a

German Semitic Scholar. Professor of Oriental Languages at Strasbourg, 1872-1906 '[P ersepolis (in part). Author of Geschichte des Korans. See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR Sır Tuomas LITTLE HEATA, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Sc.D., F.R.S. ; ; Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, 1907-13. Hon. Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- Pappus of Alexandria.

T. W.

V. H. B.

£).

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chair- P erpendicular Period; man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York. Author of Persian Art Painting and

bridge.

T. Sm.

(i

}Pani in part). c (in part)

The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

T. L. H.

de

|Pacific Blockade (én part)

London.

Editor of the Botany section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia | Pea.

Wirum A. GANOE, A.M. Major, United States Army.

Executive, Historical Section, American War College, |Palo Alto.

Washington. Author of The English of Military Communications; the United States Army.

W. A. P.

W. Axison Puriiies, M.A.

W. A. Po.

WILLIAM A. PCOUCHER, Pu.C.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. bridge Modern History; etc. England.

The History of

aris, Treaties of. YP Contributor to the Cam-

i

g Chemist in Perfumery, Cosmetics, and Industrial Problems, Mitcham,

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B.

W. B. Sm

W. B. Suitu, A.M., Pu.D. Emeritus Professor, Tulane University. Philosophy, University of Missouri.

W. Da.

W. Darton.

P

erfumes.

eat Jose Antonio; Palma, Ricardo; Pedro I.

Editor of South Americans of To-day. Formerly Professor of Mathematics

Author of Bridge Abridged, er Practical Bridge.

and

Parabola; Paraboloid.

}Piquet. i

INITIALS

XVii

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

W. D. M.

Wititram Ditter Matturew, A.M., PH.D., F.R.S. Pelaeotherium: ara Professor of Palaeontology, Director, Museum of Palaeontology, University of Cali- Ph ace

W. E. Cx.

WARREN E. Cox.

W. E. W.

Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. W. E. Wornum, A.R.C.S., B.Sc., A.I.C. Technical and Research Chemist, Mander Bros., Ltd., Wolverhampton.

W. Ga.

W. GARSTANG,

fornia, Berkeley, Calif. Author of various scientific treatises on fossil vertebrates.

enacoaus. ;

M.A., D.Sc.

a.

Professor of Zoology, University of Leeds.

W. H. Da.

.

}Periods of Art (în part). Paints, Chemistry of (in part).

:

|Pisciculture (in part).

WitrraAm HARBUTT DAWSON. Writer on German social, economic and municipal questions. Author of The German

pPan-Germanism.

Empire, 1867-1914; Evolution of Modern Germany; A History of Germany; etc.

Rt. REV. WALTER Howarp FRERE.

Bishop of Truro. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Southwark, Author of The Martan Reaction; Sursum Corda; etc.

W.

O

ET

1895-1909.

-Plainsong.

é

rofessor of Biology, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. In administrative charge, one Biological Laboratory, The Carnegie Institution of Washington, Tortugas, orida.

. Photography (in part).

W. H. La.

W. H. Lawrence, B.S.

W. Ho.

W. J.T. H.

WILLIAM Hopson, A.B., LL.B. Executive Director, Welfare Council of New York City. W. J. T. HALLIWELL.

W. K.G.

i

W. K. L.C.

WitrtramM Kemp LOwTHER Crarxe, D.D.

W. L. W. W.M.

Rev. W. L. Warote, M.A., D.D. Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester Uni- >Paradise. versity. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester. ee fe rae fie e ie en

W.M. H.G.

W. M. H. Greaves, M.A., F.R.S.

Formerly Professor of Architectural Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-Perspective. nology. Author of Principles of Architectural Perspective.

Pensions: The United States (in part). , i

Principal Pilotage Clerk, Trinity House, London. lPilotage Laws (in part). a oi oe A.M., ase a urator of the Departments of Comparative Anatomy and Ichthyology, American . Museum of Natural History. Professor of Vertebrate Palaeontology, Columbia Uni- Perissodactyla. versity. Author of The Orders of Mammals; etc.

Editorial Secretary of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. St. Basil the Great; etc.

Zi

Author of rPhilip, the Evangelist.

Hon.LL.D. in the National University of Greece. Hon Student of the British Archaeological School of Athens. Correspondent of the Morning Post (London) in Pangalos, Theodore. Athens and Rome. Author of The Latins in the Levant; Greece; etc.

|Photometry (in pari).

Chief Assistant, Royal Observatory, Greenwich.

W. M. My.

W. M. Myers, M.S. Of the United States Gypsum Company, New York.

Formerly Mineral Technologist,

United States Bureau of Mines, Non-Metallic Mineral Station, New Jersey.

W. M.R.

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. English Author and Critic. One of the Founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and Editor of The Germ. Author of Lives of Famous Poets; etc.

W. R. EF. W. R. Ho.

W. S. L.-B.

Physical Resources (în part).

}Perino del Vaga.

WALLACE R. FARRINGTON, B.S.

:

;

.

‘

Governor of Hawaii, 1921-9. Author of Review of the Revolt of 1895. |Pan-Pacific Union, The. Wiiiiam Ricuarp Hopexrnson, Pu.D., F.R.S.E. Fea Professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy, Artillery College, Woolwich, until 1918. }Picric Acid. Part Author of Valentine-Hodgkinson’s Practical Chemistry; etc. WATTE De TA PUS PERET, wo, IE r ord E ember of the

Cancer

Committee,

Ministry of

Health.

Formerly

Professor of

Ex-

.

perimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. ;Peticardium, Diseases of the. Editor of the Medicine section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

W. Tho.

WALLACE THOMPSON, B.Sc., Litt.D. | Panama (in pari); Editor-in-Chief of Ingenterta Internacional (New York). Fellow of the Royal Geo- >Panama (Capital);

W.W. A.

W. W. ATTERBURY.

W. W.G.

W. W. GARNER, A.B., Pu.D.

graphical Society. Author of The People of Mexico; Trading with Mexico; etc.

eee

President, Pennsylvania Railroad Company.

Principal Physiologist in Charge Tobacco and Plant Nutrition, Bureau of Plant

Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.

W.W. W.

Pan-American Conferences.

W. W. WATTS. Formerly Keeper of the Department of Metalwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Member of the Royal Archaeological Institute and of the Central Committee for the Care of Churches;

etc. Author of Old English Silver; Catalogue of Chalices and Pastoral Staves in the Victoria and Albert Museum, i Initial used for anonymous contributors.

Railroad

Company.

Photoperiodism (in part). ~

Pewter 7

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 17 P TO PLANTING OF TREES This letter throughout its known history

has represented the unvoiced labial stop. It corresponds to Semitic “] (pe), Greek F,r, A (pi). The rounded form occurs in the early Greek inscriptions from the island of Thera. In the Italic alphabets the form varied strangely. The Chalcidic Greek had merely f and [1, Etruscan had " and P. The Latin alphabet

Cronje off at Paardeberg. An attempt was made on February 18 to rush his laager by a concentric attack from west, south and NAME OF FORM PHOENICIAN

Nae DATE

FORM OF LETTER

7

shows two forms J” and P, one clearly taken from the Greek and the other probably from the Etruscan. The Umbrian alphabet had 4, a form resembling the ancient Semitic.

Faliscan had the

| “S|

rounded form 7, f. Oscan lengthened the second small vertical stroke and developed the form M. The minuscule letter resembles the majuscule, the chief differ-

ence being that the loop is brought down to the level of the line of writing and the vertical stroke extended below the line. Thus a cursive form of the 6th century was T the uncial form was P, the Carolingian Pp. In modern hand-writing and printing the

vertical stroke is extended upwards again, the loop remaining small and on a level with the line, Ð. In English and other modern languages the letter is used in

combination with # in words of Greek origin to denote the unvoiced bilabial spirant, expressed in other words by the letter f, eg., philosophy, phonetics, graphic. (B. F. C. A.)

PAARDEBERG, a ford on the Modder River, in the Orange Free State, 23 miles S.W. of Kimberley, was the scene of the surrender of Cronje’s force to the British under Lord Roberts on

Feb. 28, 1900. After the relief of Kimberley by French’s cavalry, Cronje’s command, which had been covering the siege, retreated

from its position at Magersfontein towards Bloemfontein.

The

main body of the British infantry was despatched in direct pursuit, and French’s cavalry, despite the exhaustion of their horses, moved south-east from Kimberley and successfully headed

UMBRIAN CLASSICAL LATIN AND ONWARDS

THE DEVELOPMENT THE PRESENT DAY

OF THE LETTER ‘‘P'? FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TQ

east; hurriedly organized and insufficiently co-ordinated, it resolved itself into a succession of partial efforts which broke down

PAARL—PACHOMIUS

2

bef ore the Boer fire, while an opportune raid by General Christian De Wet was a contributory cause of their failure. Cronje’s fate was not averted but only postponed. Attempts to effect his relief by renewed attacks on the investing lines from without failed to break the ring which encircled him; after ten days’ investment and bombardment, he surrendered on Feb. 28 with 4,000 men. (See also SOUTH AFRICAN WAR.)

PACHECO,

FRANCISCO

(1564-1654), Spanish painter

and art historian, was born at Sanlúcar de Barrameda, where he was baptized on Nov. 3, 1564. He went early to Seville, where he lived with his cousin, F. Pacheco, a canon whose house was a meeting place of the learned and artistic world of the town. Pacheco studied art under Luis Fernandez. It is not known whether he went abroad, but he greatly admired Italian art and PAARL, a town 36 m. by rail E.N.E. of Cape Town, situated formed a collection of Italian Renaissance drawings. Later he about 400 ft. above sea level on the banks of the Berg river, along opened an academy which was largely attended. Of his pupils the which it straggles for about 7 miles. To the west of the town are most distinguished were Alf. Cano and Velazquez, who became the Paarl mts. ; to the east is the Drakenstein range. In and around his son-in-law. His early work is hard and cut out; after a visit the town are gardens, orange groves and vineyards. It is a busy in 1611 to Madrid and Toledo, where he met Greco, he became agricultural and industrial centre. Fruit and tobacco cultivation interested in the problem of chiaroscuro. Specimens of his work is increasing. Wine, brandy, wagons and harness are made. There are to be seen at Seville in the gallery, the university and the are several high schools, a training college and an industrial insti- cathedral. The church of St. Sebastian at Alcala de Guadaira, tute. In 1921 the population consisted of 6,395 “coloured” persons, near Seville, contains one of his most important works. He 213 natives, 30 Asiatics, and 5,760 Europeans. By 1926 the latter was a successful portraitist and is said to have executed 150 portraits. Pacheco visited Madrid again in 1623 in the company of had increased to 6,678. Paarl was founded in 1687. PABJANICE, a town of Poland, in the province of Lodz, Velazquez and stayed there for two years. In his later life he 30 m. N.W. of the town of Piotrkow, and 10 m. $.8.W. from Lodz devoted himself to writing. His treatise on the art of painting

railway station. Pop. (1921) 29,700. It lies amidst extensive (Arte de la pintura, 1640) is of considerable value for the study forests round the head-waters of the Nér, which were the hunting- of Spanish art. PACHER, MICHAEL (f. 1465-1498), German painter and grounds of the Polish kings. It has woollen, cloth and paper mills, wood carver. His chief work was the great altarpiece in the parish and manufactures agricultural implements. PABNA or Pusna, a town and district of British India, in church of St. Wolfgang, in Upper Austria, commissioned by the the Rajshabi division of Bengal. The town is situated on the abbot Benedict Eggh of Mondsee and executed between 1478-81. river Ichhamati. Pop. (1921), 19,343. The district of Pabna has It is one of the greatest monuments of the late German Gothic g an area of 1,678 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 1,389,494. It is bordered period. The centrepiece is an elaborate wood carving representin along its entire east face by the main stream of the Brahmaputra or Jamuna, and along its south-west face by the Ganges or Padma. Apart from the two great bordering rivers, it is intersected by countless water-channels, so that during the rainy season every

village is accessible by boat and many by boat only. Almost the whole area is one green rice-field, the uniform level being broken only by clumps of bamboos and fruit-trees, which conceal the village sites. The Chalan Bil on the west is a marshy area once extending over 400 sq.m. It has been largely filled up by silt deposited by the rivers. The two staple crops are rice and jute.

Christ and Mary with St. Wolfgang and St. Benedict. The wings, two on each side, are painted with scenes from the life of Christ and of St. Wolfgang. While the carving is of the late Gothic style prevalent in Germany at the time, the paintings are influenced by the Italian Renaissance, which penetrated into the Tirol from Verona. The figures are plastic, the composition clear and monumental. Other works by the master are: The altarpiece (wood carving) in the church of Gries, near Bozen (1471); the high altar for the church of St. Francis, in Salzburg, begun in 1484 and left uncompleted; and the altarpiece of the cathedral at Brixen, representing the fathers of the Church, panels of which are in the Munich and Augsburg galleries.

PACA, a large, heavily-built, short-tailed rodent recognized by its spotted fur. This rodent (Agouti paca), together with one See O. Doering, Michael Pacher (Miinchen, 1913). or two other tropical American species, represents a genus akin _), pianist, was PACHMANN, VLADIMIR DE (1848to the agoutis and included in the family Dasyproctidae. Pacas father was his where Russia, Odessa, at 1848, 27, July on born may be distinguished by their heavier and more compact build, the longitudinal rows of light spots on the fur, the five-toed hind- a professor at the university. His first musical instruction was on feet, and the peculiar structure of the skull. Their habits are the violin at the age of six and it was not till he was ten that he similar to those of agoutis. In Brazil the flesh is eaten. Males began the serious study of the piano, under Dachs, at Vienna. He differ from females in the rough outer surface of their cheek- made his first appearance in Russia in 1869, but afterwards withbones. The paca-rana (Dinomys branicki), from the highlands of drew from the platform and continued his studies for a number Peru, differs by its well-developed tail and the arrangement of the of years; then, reappearing, he obtained at once universal recognition as one of the most remarkable executants of the day. As an spots. (See RODENTIA.) PACATUS DREPANIUS, LATINUS (or Latintvs), interpreter of Chopin in particular he has always excelled, while one of the Latin panegyrists, flourished at the end of the 4th cen- his amusing platform mannerisms and eccentricities, taking the tury A.D. He probably came from Aginnum (Agen), in the south shape of audible comments on the music, comic gestures, and so of France. He was the contemporary and intimate friend of Auso- on have added to his popularity. PACHOMIUS, ST. (292-346), Egyptian monk, the founder nius, who describes him as the greatest Latin poet after Virgil. In A.D. 390 he was proconsul of Africa. He is the author of an of Christian cenobitical life, was born, probably in 292, at Esna extant speech (ed. E. Bährens in Panegyrici latini, 1874, No. in Upper Egypt, of heathen parents. He served as a conscript in one of Constantine’s campaigns, and on his return became a 12) delivered in 389 in honour of Theodosius I. PACCHIA, GIROLAMO DEL (1477-after 1535), Sienese Christian (314); he at once went to live an eremitical life near painter, son of a Croatian cannon-founder, was born in Siena. Dendera by the Nile, putting himself under the guidance of an In early life he visited Florence and Rome, returning to Siena aged hermit. After three or four years he was called (by an in 1508. His fine altarpiece in the church of S. Christoforo reveals angel, says the legend), to establish a monastery of cenobites, or the influence of Raphael and Fra Bartolommeo. He was, how- monks living in common. (See Monasticism, § 4.) Pachomius ever, an eclectic, and came more and more under the influence of spent his life in organizing and directing the great order he had Sodoma. In company with that master and with Beccafumi, he created, which at his death included nine monasteries with some worked at the frescoes in the oratory of S. Bernardino. Other three thousand monks and a nunnery. The order was called works are in the Oratory of S. Caterina in Fontebranda, in the Tabennesiot, from Tabennisi, near Dendera, the site of the first Siena gallery, and in the National Gallery, London. Having monastery. Athanasius was his firm friend and visited his monjoined the notorious company of the Bardotti, he is supposed to astery c. 330 and later. The date of his death was probably in have fled upon the suppression of that turbulent club in 1535, and 346. The best modern work on Pachomius is by P. Ladeuze, Le Cénonothing further is known of him.

PACHUCA—PACIFIC, COMMAND OF THE bitisme pakhomien (1898). There have been differences of opinion in regard to the dates; those given above are Ladeuze’s, now commonly accepted. The priority of the Greek Life of Pachomius over the

3

action.” Modern fighting ships have a narrow radius of action, dimensioned by their relatively meagre fuel capacity. In time Coptic may be said to be established; the historical character and of war individual cruisers may roam the sea for weeks, even for value of this life are now fully recognized. A good analysis of all the months, at a stretch, replenishing their bunkers as opportunity literature is supplied in Herzog’s Realencyklopadie (ed. 3). See also offers. This, however, is not possible for an organised fleet, atW. E. Crum, Theological Texts from Coptic papyri (1913). tended by the smaller craft which are essential as watch-dogs to PACHUCA, a city of Mexico and capital of the State of the heavy ships. From experience gained in the World War it is Hidalgo, 55 m. direct and 68 m. by rail north-north-east of the city estimated that a battle-fleet with its proper complement of ancilof Mexico. Pop. (1921) 40,802. Pachuca’s railway connections in- lary units can remain at sea under war conditions not longer than clude the Mexican, the Hidalgo and the Mexican Oriental. The four days. To be within reach of attack the objective must not town stands in a valley of an inland range of the Sierra Madre be farther away than two days’ travel at ordinary speed. To all Oriental, at an elevation over 8,000 ft. above the sea, and in the intents, a battle-fleet within the war zone is restricted to a cruise midst of several very rich mineral districts—Atatonilco el Chico, of 96 hours. l Capula, Potosi, Real del Monte, Santa Rosa and Tepenené. It is These essential facts demonstrate the intimate relation between said that some of these silver mines were known to the Indians strategy and geography. In the vast expanse of the Pacific ocean, before the discovery of America. It was here that Bartolomé de every problem of naval strategy involves the question of base Medina discovered the “patio” process of reducing silver ores facilities, and the broad consideration to be faced is that in conwith quicksilver in 1557, and his old hacienda de beneficio is still sequence of recent international negotiations, the number of poto be seen. Pachuca was founded in 1534, some time after the tential naval bases in the Pacific has been substantially increased, mines were discovered. The city has some fine modern edifices, with the result that squadrons, if not whole fleets, may henceforth among which are the palace of justice, a scientific and literary in- be able to operate in waters which formerly lay beyond their stitute (now a university), a school of mines and metallurgy, reach. It is true that a great many of these islands are mere founded in 1877, a meteorological observatory and a public library. atolls, affording little or no shelter for large vessels, and lacking Mining is the chief occupation. Electric power is derived from even the most rudimentary naval resources. An important part the Regla Falls, in the vicinity. The city’s industrial establish- was played in the South Atlantic operations of the British fleet ments include smelting works and a large number of reduction during the World War by the remote coaling base at Abrolhos works, including some of the most important metallurgical works Rocks, off the Brazil coast. in the republic. Hence, the direct bearing of the Treaty of Versailles on the PACHYDERMATA, a term often applied to thick-skinned naval problems of the Pacific. Under that treaty, the former animals, such as the rhinoceros, elephant and hippopotamus. The German islands north of the Equator passed into the custody of animals included by it have no close affinities. Japan, while those south of the Equator were transferred to the PACIFIC, COMMAND OF THE. The development of British empire. As an element in naval strategy, these islands the strategic situation in the Pacific ocean, as it now exists, may possess an immense potential importance. Since 1919 Japan has be said to have begun in 1894 when a victorious Japan eliminated exercised mandatory powers over several island groups situated the Chinese navy as a serious factor in the balance of sea-power. far out in the Pacific. Strategically, her most important acquisiThree European sovereignties then proceeded to establish bases in tions are the Peleliu islands (500 m. east of the Philippines); the the Far East, Russia at Port Arthur, Germany at Tsingtao, the Carolines; the Marianas islands, excepting Guam, which is Amerinaval fortress of Kiaochow on Shantung, and Great Britain at can territory; and the Marshall group, these latter being some Weihaiwei. During this period, the most serious rivalry lay be- 1,700 m. to the southwest of Hawaii. Light naval vessels, airtween Russia and Japan, each intent upon the control of Korea, craft and submarines, judiciously distributed among the islands and in 1904~05 the issue was resolved by a war in which Japan named, would represent a serious menace to a hostile force adeliminated the Russian navy in the Far East as completely as the vancing towards Japan from the east. It is thus essential to note that under the mandate of the League Chinese navy had been eliminated ten years before. Japan was left in undisputed mastery of Asiatic waters from Kamchatka in of Nations, the use of these islands for warlike purposes and their fortification are forbidden. Of equal significance have been the the north to the Philippine archipelago in the south. In 1902 Great Britain concluded an alliance with Japan and so results of the Washington Conference (¢.v.). The covenants safeguarded her interests in the Far East. The British force on there arrived at in 1922 not only reduced the battle-fleets of the the China station was reduced, therefore, to a mere cruiser squad- leading naval Powers according to a definite schedule, but they ron. While Germany continued to fortify Tsingtao as a refuge deal also with naval bases and have in some degree nullified the for her small Asiatic fleet, it was clear that her forces, whether effect of the territorial changes in the Pacific for which the Veron land or sea, did not materially affect Japan’s supremacy in sailles Treaty was responsible. Under the Washington Treaty armaments. At Manila in the Philippines the United States kept the British empire, the United States and Japan agreed to maina few secondary ships of war, but took no steps to develop the tain the status guo as to fortifications and naval bases in a series naval resources of this fine harbour. Guam, an American island of highly important strategic positions in the Pacific. The United of the Marianas group, lying 1,500 m. to the east of the Philip- States, for example, is pledged not to improve in any way the pines, ranked only as a fuel station, though its position invested shore defences or naval works in the Philippines, Guam or the Aleutian islands; Japan accepts the like obligation in regard to it with unique strategic value. This situation continued, substantially unchanged, from the the Bonin islands, Formosa and other insular possessions; while year 1905 when the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed between the British empire is debarred from adding to the naval resources Russia and Japan, and the outbreak of the World War in ror4. of Hongkong. The Hawaiian islands are also exempted, though they are more The Far Eastern seas, which had long been the arena of conflicting claims to supremacy, had now passed definitely and, as it than 2,000 m. from the American mainland. Their position makes seemed, permanently, under the control of a single Power. Sub- them invaluable as the pivoting centre of a fleet charged with sequent events have tended to consolidate the strategic predomi- the task of defending not only the western seaboard of the United nance of the Japanese empire. The conquest of Tsingtao early in States but the outlying territories of Alaska and Samoa. the World War eliminated the only German stronghold in the The zone of agreement demarcated at the Washington ConferPacific. Domestic convulsions in Russia, by apparently reducing ence begins east of the meridian of r10° E. long. Singapore lies the naval forces of that State to impotence, have rendered still just outside this limit and is thus not subject to the pledges more remote the prospect of Vladivostok again becoming the against fortification. First utilised as a naval harbour in 1882, headquarters of a formidable fleet. Singapore has been for many years the southern base of the In order to understand the new position, it is necessary to British China Squadron. Over the development of Singapore as appreciate what the naval strategist means by “radius of fleet the naval base of a battle-fleet, there has been serious controversy

4.

PACIFIC

BLOCKADE—PACIFIC

in Great Britain, successive Governments, Conservative and Labour, taking different views. The new dockyard was begun in 1924-25, and was advocated on grounds mainly, if not entirely, defensive. The contention is that Singapore is regarded by Australia and New Zealand as the United States regards Hawaii. A naval station at Singapore would be an indirect but none the less effectual deterrent to plans, if they should ever be considered, ior the invasion of Australia or New Zealand. The susceptibilities of these Dominions have been aroused somewhat by the nonrenewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Since the Washington Conference, competition in battleships has been abated. But additional attention has been directed to cruisers, of which Japan has constructed a powerful contingent. The range of action of cruisers has become a factor on which experts lay great emphasis. By Great Britain, with her numerous coaling stations and her interest in confined waters like the Mediterranean, small cruisers are held to be most useful, But the

ISLANDS

[GEOLOGY

Declaration of Paris, 1856. Moreover, the French Government could only interfere with neutral vessels violating the blockade if there was a state of war. If a state of war existed, Britain as

a neutral was bound to close her coaling stations to belligerents.

The British Government held that in the circumstances France was waging war and not entitled to combine the rights of peace and warfare for her own benefit. Since then pacific blockades have only been exercised by the great Powers as a joint measure in their common interest, which has also been that of peace; and in this respect the term is taking a new significance in accordance

with the ordinary sense of the word “pacific.” The penalty for breach of pacific blockade by neutrals is detention or sequestration. In no event may ships be confiscated. By the Hague Convention (II. 1907) respecting the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts, the contracting powers agree “not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one United States, surveying an ocean like the Pacific, which extends country by the government of another country as being due to from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and has a breadth as its nationals,” unless “the debtor state refuses or neglects to great as 10,000 M., and covers nearly one-half of the surface of reply to an offer of arbitration, or after accepting the offer prethe earth, is anxious for cruisers of the largest size; that is vents any compromis from being agreed on, or after the arbitrato,o0e tons. The Panama canal has enabled the United States to tion fails to submit to the award” (Art. 1). Though this does operate her fleet in two oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific, and not affect pacific blockades in principle, it supersedes them in it is to the Pacific ocean in particular that she has devoted her practice by a new procedure for some of the cases in which they naval developments. The fleets of the United States and Japan in have hitherto been employed. (T. B.; H. H. L. B.) the Pacific have become, therefore, the major determinants of PACIFIC HIGHWAY, an American highway running along the strategic situation. But, in the main, these imposing forces the western border of the United States from Vancouver, Canada, are dependent on shore communications, which shores are separ- to the Mexican boundary line south of San Diego, Calif., about ated by thousands of miles. Even Hawaii and Singapore are 1,675 m. long. It is paved or hard the entire distance. The sea outside of a fighting radius that would include Japan. No single or mountains are within view of the highway from end to end. Power or group of Powers, therefore, has achieved an absolute It passes Mt. Rainier, Crater lake and the Mt, Lassen volcano. control of this vast area of sea. Up to the present, the Latin PACIFIC ISLANDS (OCEANIA). The Pacific islands, American Republics, bordering on the Pacific, for instance Chile also sometimes spoken of collectively as Oceania or even Oceanica, and Peru, have not organized naval forces that seriously affect may from a geographical point of view, be described as including the situation. (See StncAPoRE; WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, etc.) all the almost innumerable “oceanic” islands, as distinguished BrarrocraPHy.—World Peace Foundation, “Japan, America and the Great War,” in A League of Nations, vol. i. No. 8 (1918); and from the “coastal” archipelagoes adjoining the shores which “China, the United States and the War. Chino-Japanese Negotiations, more or less surround the Pacific Ocean, z.e., those which obviously 1915-18. Shantung and Its States,” vol. ii., special number (19179); pertain physically to the coasts of Australia with its Territory of G. H. Scholefield, The Pacific Past and Future (1919); A. Bullard, A. B. Cl’s of Disarmament and Pacific Problems (1921); H. C.

Papua, and those of New Zealand, and the shores of America on

Miller, The Isthmian Highway

treat them as divisible, in accordance with the native races found

Bywater, Sea-Power in the Pacific (1921); N. Golovin, Problems of the east and again on the west of this great ocean. No entirely satisfactary classification of these islands seems to the Pacific in the Twentieth Century (translated 1922) ; A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1920-23, pp. 418-09 (19285); H. G. have been suggested. The one most commonly put forward is to

PACIFIC

BLOCKADE,

(1929).

a method of coercion short of in occupation at the time when Europeans first entered this area,

_war exercised by a great Power for the purpose of bringing pressure to bear on a weaker state. That it is an act of violence, and therefore in the nature of war, is undeniable. In this respect it is an act of war, and may be so regarded by a power strong enough to resist. On the other hand, the object and justification of a pacific blockade being to avoid war with the state against which the operation is carried on, rights of war cannot consistently be exercised against ships belonging to other states than those con-

into the three areas of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia; Polynesia (Gr. wots, many, and vijcos, island) being the eastern part of the area embracing Hawaii, the Ellice, Phoenix, Union, Manihiki and Marquesas groups, the Cook, Society, Tubuai and Tuamotu groups and many other lesser islands; Melanesia (Gr. péħas, black, and vĵoos, island), being the area in the western and south-central area embracing in some interpretations New Guinea and the Louisiade islands and, in addition, the Selomon, cerned. And yet if neutrals were not to be affected by it, the Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, New Caledonia and the Loyalty coercive effect of such a blockade might be completely lost. Re- islands, the Fijian islands, and the intervening groups: Micronesia cent practice has been to limit interference to the extent barely (Gr. puxpds, small, and vijcos, island), the third and smallest of necessary to carry out the purpose of the blockading powers. the divisions lying north and somewhat east of Melanesia, and The earliest recorded instance of pacific blockade is the Anglo- embracing the Marianas, Palau (Pelew), Caroline, Marshall and Swedish blockade of Norwegian ports in 1814. This was succeed- Gilbert islands. ed by the intervention of France, England and Russia in Turkish The Structural Arcs and Geology.—Several great zones of affairs In 1827, and, in 1837, by Great Britain against New deep water may be traced in the Pacific Ocean. The first is east of Granada. the Ryukyu islands and the Philippines, and beyond it far out to The Declaration of Paris, 1856 (g¢.v.), however, required that sea rise the island chains which stretch in scattered order from “blockades in order to be binding must be effective; that is to say, south-east Hondo, Japan, to the Ogasawara Jima (formerly somemaintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the times called Bonin islands) between lat. 28° and 26° 30’ N., the coast of the enemy.” Volcano islands (lat. 25°~24° N.), the Mananas, Yap and the The blockade which first gave rise to serious theoretical dis- Palau (Pelew) islands. cussion on the subject was that instituted by France in 1884 in Islands of the Asiatic Continental Edge -—The Ogasawara Jima Chinese waters. On Oct. 20, 1884, Admiral Courbet declared a include nummulitic limestone with ancient igneous rock and there blockade of all the ports and roadsteads between certain specified are also newer (horizontal) limestones abutting against the above. points of the island of Formosa. The British Government pro- The Volcano islands are said to continue the line of Fujiyama. tested that Admiral Courbet had not enough ships to render the In the southern Marianas terraces of coral formation rise to the blockade effective, and that it was therefore a violation of the summits, but in the north the coral is restricted to the bases. Yap

GEOLOGY]

PACIFIC

is formed of basic volcanic material. The Palau islands have a volcanic foundation on which rests a fossiliferous limestone that is more or less crystalline. Malakal in this archipelago reaches a: height of over 1,600 feet and syenitic pebbles occur even on this high ground. The island chains above discussed have been thought by Suess to mark the limit of the continental mass of Asia, in which case they may be said to mark the edge of the easternmost of a series of steps, the edges of which may be indicated by the Ryukyu, Corea and the Khingan Mts. Beyond the Ogasawara Jima-Palau zone to the east is one of the world’s chief lines of sea-deeps, 4,000 fathoms being much exceeded over long distances. Western Pacific Arcs. Introductory.—From the south-east of the Marianas another zone of deep water extends north-eastwards to the west-north-west end of the Hawaiian chain, beyond which again is another great deep. From the east-south-east end of the Hawaiian chain another zone of deeps extends south-south-westwards to the vicinity of East Cape, New Zealand with a southeastward extension east of Chatham island (qg.v.). The expanse of ocean extending south-westwards between the two deep zones, Marianas-Hawaii and New Zealand-Hawaii, is marked by islands set in arcs. These arcs are rather a series of overlapping subparallel lines than strictly continuous curves. Arcs of the western Pacific farther and farther away from Australia show less and less traces of continental land, and mountain folding and volcanic lines, usually with atolls, are all that remain. The western Pacific arcs have been thought to be in relation with those of both New Guinea and New Zealand. Western Pacific Arcs. I. New Guinea, New Caledonia.—This arc may be traced through the Louisiade islands, a prolongation of south-east New Guinea, New Caledonia, with the Loyalty islands near by, and Norfolk island, perhaps to north-west New Zealand. New Caledonia has a band of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks running almost the whole length of the island from north-west to south-east, while what are probably Eocene beds fringe the southwest coast. Much of the old rock is slate or schist with serpentine, granitic and basic volcanic intrusions. The slates are interbedded with limestones containing fossil brachiopods, referred to the Trias. There are evidences of submergence and a widelagoon barrier reef. There is a general geological resemblance between New Caledonia and New Zealand. The main mineral veins are of nickel (garnierite) in the eastern peridotite dikes. The Eocene rocks disappear in places beneath the older ones, thus demonstrating overfolding, the direction of which may have been south-westwards. There is thus no doubt.that here is a remnant of a folded mountain chain. Some of the fossils found in New Caledonia are northern forms. Western Pacific Arcs. II. New Britain Archipelago. New Hebrides~-This is traceable especially through New Ireland, the Solomons and Santa Cruz to the New Hebrides. New Ireland possesses porphyries, diorite, some dark calcareous rock and some grey rather crystalline limestone reaching nearly 2,500 feet above the sea. The south of New Ireland is volcanic but, to the north, sedimentary rocks rest on an ancient mass which is scarped towards the south-west and probably represents the most easterly of the New Guinea folds. The other islands of the New Britain group, as well as the Admiralty islands, are volcanic, with recent coral. The features of New Ireland, including the grey limestone, are continued along the chain to the New Hebrides, and the limestone, containing Rhynchonella sp., is thought to be Mesozoic. Several active volcanoes occur at what appear to be breaks in the chain which may be considered a fragment of a cordillera. Former statements as to ancient rocks in the New Hebrides have not been confirmed. Western Pacific Arcs. III. Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, Fiji—The general direction of the chain from the Marshall islands to Fiji north-north-west to south-south-east and the relation of the Fijis to the others may not be simple because of the interference of the Samoan line discussed below. The Fiji islands are mainly volcanic including many tuffs interstratifed with tertiary limestone and resting on limestone older but still tertiary. In the south of Viti Levu is a high granitic plateau which is said to be a horst. Vanua Levu has hot springs. Fiji yields malachite, antimony,

ISLANDS

5

graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron sand. W. M. Davis has made a special study of the coral reefs of Fiji and thinks that they are formed by the method inferred by Darwin. He also notes that on the south-west side of Viti Levu and on the south side of Vanua Levu there are raised reefs and fringing reefs but no barrier reefs off shore; while on the north and northwest sides of the island there are off-shore barrier reefs but no raised reefs. The Ellice, Gilbert and Marshall islands north of Fiji are volcanic with coral atolls. The politically-famous Nauru island (Pleasant island) lies south-west of the Marshall group. The Carolines, west of the Marshalls, include several small chains not quite parallel to the main direction of the whole arc; it has been surmised that they are built upon a deeply foundered fold system.

Western Pacific Arcs. IV. New Zealand, Tonga.—The Ruahine chain of New Zealand is a scheme of fold mountains with a palaeozoic axis parallel to the east coast of North island, New Zealand. To the west of it lies a volcanic zone including the peaks of Ruapehu and Tongariro, Lake Taupo, Rotorua, and the bay of Plenty with the volcano of White island. The line is continued north along the Kermadec to the Tonga islands. The western side of the Tonga chain is highly volcanic; Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai appear to be fragments of a single crater, and Toqua Kao, Late, Metis, Amargua and Falcon islands are also purely volcanic; the rock is basic. Tonumeia and the Nomuka group (Mango, Nomuka-iki, etc.) have coral limestone over submarine volcanic deposits of tuffs, penetrated by basic volcanic dikes. The Vavau group, Tongatabu and Hapai do not show a volcanic substratum. Metis and Falcon islands are usually submerged. Samoa, Tokelau Is., Phoenix Is—The fourth arc just discussed is bounded by a long sea-deep which however has its continuity broken just where certain Polynesian island-chains cut it north of the Tonga islands. The chief of these is the Samoan group but the Tokelau (Union) islands and apparently the Phoenix islands may be mentioned here. The Samoan chain shows vulcanicity, oldest in the east where the craters have disappeared, less old in the centre where they form peaks, and obviously very recent in the west. The Eastern Polynesian Chains, orientated west-north-west to east-south-east have as a foundation a plateau submerged beneath 700—800 fathoms of water, on the east side of the zone of great depths. The island-chains diminish and disappear south-eastwards and here the ocean becomes 2,000 fathoms deep and more. The Austral and Cook islands are the most south-westerly chain. The

Society islands (Tahiti) form thè middle one and include some atolls but are mainly a basic volcanic group. Tahiti, itself ringed by strong cliffs with much evidence of submergence, has a discontinuous barrier reef off-shore. Here the submergence is older than in the Marquesas and the embayed valleys are filled with alluvium. Though all volcanic activity has now ceased, remains of plants and animals now living in the islands are found be-

neath some of the lava flows, so vulcanicity is recent. The northeasterly chain is that of the Tuamotu or Low Archipelago, in which Makatea (Metis) reaches a height of some 230 feet. Most of the islands are atolls which Agassiz thought were built on denuded summits of Tertiary limestone, cut at about sea-level. The Manahiki islands farther north-west may be related to the Tuamotu. The Marquesas and Isolated Groups-——Beyond the Tuamotu group to the north-east lie the Marquesas showing basic volcanic material deeply dissected and recently so altered by submergence that only fragments of coral are found in the bay-head beaches. The New Zealand-Hawaii zone of great depths is cut between the Equator and lat. 10° N. by the low atolls of Christmas, Fanning, Samarang, Palmyra and Barber islands arranged more or less north-west to south-east. East of the eastern Polynesian chains lie Easter island and Sala-y-Gomez island south of the Tropic of Capricorn, and the Galapagos islands on the Equator. All are volcanic in origin and may possibly be compared rather

with the oceanic islands of the Atlantic than with the island chains of the rest of the Pacific. . The Hawaiian chain is treated separately. (See Hawam.}

6

PACIFIC General Physical Geography.—Volcanic islands, commonly

called high islands, are widely distributed throughout the area of Oceania except in the extreme eastern parts, where “low islands,” coralline atolls, are much more, indeed extraordinarily frequent. The high islands of the Marquesas and the Society (Tahitian) groups are types of extinct volcanic islands. In the long chain of the Solomon islands, in the New Hebrides, in the Tongan group there are still active volcanoes and Hawaii contains the celebrated active crater of Kilauea. In many other places at which only tradition tells of eruption it would hardly be safe to assume that activity might not again burst out. Submarine vents sometimes break out; the most remarkable instance of this is that of the so-called Falcon island (lat. 20° 109’ S., long. 175° 25’ W.), in the Tongan group. In the Pacific Islands Pilot, vol. ii., it is recorded that this was first seen as a breaking reef, from H.M.S. “Falcon,” in 1865; from the position of this reef smoke was seen to issue, by H.M.S. “Sappho,” in 1877; in October 1885 the reef was reported to have taken on the form of an island; four years later this island was actually surveyed by H.M.S. “Egeria,” and found to be 14 miles long north and south, one mile wide, wedgeshaped, the highest part, 153 feet above sea-level, being at the south end. It was formed of loose volcanic ashes and cinders, which material was constantly slipping down, as the action of the sea undermined the coast. By 1885 two-thirds of the island had disappeared; and by April 1894 nothing was to be seen where Falcon island had been but a low streak of black rock, invisible at night. But in December of the same year renewed “volcanic action had formed a new crater, with the result that the island was then fifty feet high, three miles long and one and a half miles broad, the surface being still quite hot. In 1895 the island had again disappeared, its place occupied by a shoal about a hundred yards in extent breaking heavily. In April 1900, the shoal which had been the island was showing about nine feet above water at its northern end.” In 1905, as the present writer can testify, the shoal was barely more than a waste, and in 1913 it was officially reported as “non est.” In 1926 or 1927 the island, or rather the shoal again appeared, but is said to have disappeared again. Coral Formations-—Coral reefs, like volcanoes, are dealt with under special articles, but here it must be noted that coral, in one or other of its several forms, is present, not everywhere but more abundantly than in any other ocean, in the Pacific island-

area, more especially in the eastern portion of that area. The main type-forms in which it appears are as follows: atolls, i.e., rings of coral surrounding a central lagoon; barrier reefs, i.e., such as front a coast-line or encircle an island or group of islands, leaving a more or less deep channel between it and the shore; and fringing-reefs, t.e., such as are extensions of the shore, generally for a short but sometimes for a more considerable distance, dnd not separated from the shore by any deep water channel. ` As to the atolls it must be added that often one or more, or even. many, of the highest parts of these may be more or less raised higher than the general sea-level of the ring, so that .from a distance these higher- parts, especially after vegetation has been attracted to. them, may appear:from a little distance as distinct islands, and in many cases have been so reported and named. In other cases, again, what must originally have been atolls have been raised, sometimes more than once, and have thus be-

come what have been called elevated coral islands; a good

example of this is the island of Maré, of the Loyalty group, where there is evidence of three such elevations, so that three former reefs appear as distinct low cliffs, separated from the sea by low and level coast~-tracts. Flora.—In any general consideration of the flora of the islands it is necessary to distinguish between the rich vegetation of the fertile volcanic islands and the scanty vegetation of the low coral islands, especially of the atolls often only here and there raised «lightly above sea-level. Of the plants not purposely brought in by human agency most must have been introduced by the wind or by ocean currents or by migratory birds, from one or other ef the shores surrounding the ocean. The large but buoyant fruits of the coco-nut palm and of the “screw pine” (Pandanus), oceanborne, found foothold on the coral rock barely raised over sea-

ISLANDS

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

level, and became the predominant vegetation of the low lands; doubtless the fact that both were found to offer an important food supply for vegetarian natives led to their being extensively planted by human beings in rather more inland parts, and even, as in some of the New Hebrides, far up on the hillsides. On the other hand, the wind-borne spores of mosses and ferns, the winged seeds of many shrubs and trees, and the bird-carried, comparatively large fruits of many other plants found favourable homes in the higher volcanic islands, especially on the most westward slopes, with the result that in time many slopes have acquired typical intertropical rain forests. It need hardly be said that there is no hard and fast line between the coastal and the mountain vegetation of the high islands which are more or less fringed by level coastal tracts; an instructive study of the merging of coastal and mountain vegetation is found in Lilian Gibbs’ “Montane Flora of Fiji” (Linn. Soc. Journ. Botany, xxxix., 1909). Marvellously beautiful as this original vegetation of the islands is, it must not be overlooked that the profusion of fruits, flowers and beautiful leaves now to be seen in the inhabited parts of the islands has not been brought about by natural means. The natives in their early migrations certainly carried with them not only food and other plants useful to them but also plants valued by them for ornament; that is to say they grew them round their houses and used the flowers and leaves—especially such as are scented— lavishly in dressing themselves for their ceremonies. Still more have Europeans since their arrival in the islands been responsible for the introduction of non-native plants, both useful and ornamental; a good illustration of this is to be found in the late J. H. Maidon’s paper on the “Flora of Norfolk Island” (Proc. Linn.

Soc. of New South Wales, Vol. xxviii., pp. 692-785 [1903]), in which is shown the extent to which the abundant natural vegetation of that island, as seen by Captain Cook, the earliest European visitor, and by other early visitors, has been almost smothered by the useful and ornamental plants introduced during the first half of the last century from Australia. Fauna.—The indigenous land fauna is exceedingly poor in mammals, which are mainly represented by rats and bats. The pigs, so much treasured by the natives of the Solomon and New Hebrides islands, were supposed to have been introduced by Captain Cook, but it now seems more probable that they are descended from a Papuan form brought by the Melanesians in their southward migration into the Pacific. Cattle and horses when first introduced—certainly by the early navigators—seemed not to thrive under domestic conditions; but when, as has happened in some of the larger and more mountainous islands, they ran wild, they increased rapidly; and more recently, when suitable fodder plants were introduced for their benefit, they have thriven greatly even in a domestic state. Birds are much more numerous than mammals, among the most important kinds being pigeons and doves, especially the fruiteating pigeons, responsible as these doubtless have been for the distribution of the fruits from which many of the island plants have originated. Birds of specialized form occur in several of the island groups; Megapodes in the Solomon islands, the New Hebrides, Samoa and Tonga, as also in the Carolines and the Marianas. The remarkable Didunculus occurs in Samoa, and after the introduction of cats and rats, which preyed upon it, was compelled to change its habits from living on the ground to living in trees. Insect life has been said to be fairly abundant but unequally distributed throughout the islands; as a matter of fact, except in the Solomon and Hawaiian islands, and more recently in the Fijian group, where the subject has been more particularly studied, little more than a general knowledge of the insect fauna is available. The marine fauna of the area is much richer than that of the land. Fish are very abundant, especially in the lagoons of atolls, and form an important article of food for the natives, who are generally expert fishermen. The gorgeous colour of many of the species of fish is noticeable, as also the fact that the flesh of certain species of fish is poisonous at certain seasons of the

year, but not at other times. Turtles are also abundant.

Among

ASIATIC EDGE]

PACIFIC

marine mammals the dugong occurs in the northern parts of the area; and whales traverse the waters of the area at certain seasons of the year. In considering the marine fauna the remarkable palolo or balolo should be mentioned. This annelid propagates its kind by rising to the surface of the sea and dividing itself; but this happens only in certain places, chiefly in the Fijian and Samoan groups, and on just two days in each year, the dates of which can be accurately predicted. As both the annelid and the fish which gather to prey on it are appreciated by the natives as a specially delicate article of food, the occasions of the appearance of the balolo are regarded as very important festivals. For an account of the inhabitants and their social life see articles on POLYNESIA, MELANESIA and MICRONESIA, as well as the separate articles on a few larger island groups, e.g., FIJI.

The subsequent sections of this article deal with the island groups in greater detail and in the order in which they have been already mentioned. ISLANDS OF THE ASIATIC CONTINENTAL EDGE The Ogasawara Jima (Bonin islands) are the subject of a special article. The Marianas (Mariannes or Ladrones) are situated in about 12° to 21° N. and 145° E. and, with the exception of the island of Guam (the largest of the group) belonging to U.S.A. and the subject of a separate article, are administered under mandate by Japan. They fall into two groups—a northern of ten mainly volcanic islands, of which only four (Agrigan, Anatahan, Alamagan and Pagan) are inhabited, and a southern of five mainly coralline limestone islands (Rota, Guam, Aguijan, Tinian and Saypan), all inhabited save Aguijan. The total area (excluding Guam) is about 245 sq.m.; the Japanese population 1,493 and the natives,

mostly descendants of the Tagal immigrants from the Philippines number 3,398. They were discovered by Magellan in 1521 and his crew called them Jslas de los Ladrones (Islands of the Thieves). They received the name Las Marianas in 1668 in honour of Maria Anna of Austria, widow of Philip IV. of Spain. They were sold by Spain to Germany in 1899 and after the war of 1914-18 passed under Japanese mandate. In the northern volcanic group an extreme elevation of about 2,700 ft. is reached and there are craters showing signs of activity. The southern islands are of slight elevation. The climate is damp and the heat not as intense as in the Philippines. Variations of temperature are not great. All the islands except Farallon de

Medinilla and Uraccas or Maug (in the northern group) are more or less densely wooded and the vegetation is tropical and luxuriant, much resembling that of the Carolines and also of the Philippines, whence many species of plants have been introduced. On most of the islands there is a plentiful supply of water. The fauna likewise, is similar to that of the Carolines and certain species are indigenous to both regions. Swine and oxen run wild. The former were known to the early inhabitants while the latter, with most other domestic animals, were introduced by the Spaniards. Coco-nuts and areca palms, yams, sweet potatoes, manioc, coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton, tobacco and mother-of-pearl are the chief products, and copra is the principal export. The Island of Yap Clat. 9-35° N., long. 138-15° E.) (pop., 8,439) is an important cable station and the subject of a special article.

The Palau (Pelew) islands are a group of twenty-six islands lying between 2° 35’ and 9° N. and 130° 4’ and 134° 4o’ E. under Japanese mandate. The largest islands are Babeltop (Babelthuap,

Baobeltaob, etc.), Uruktapi (Urukthopel), Korror, Angaur, Peleliu and Eilmalk (Irakong). The total area is 175 sq.m. and the population is 6,36r (5,754 natives). The islands lie within a coral barrier reef, and in the south the islands are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rock. They are well wooded and the climate is sub-tropical and the water-supply good. A few rats and

bats represent the indigenous mammals; birds are numerous and the sea is rich in fish and molluscs. The islands were sighted in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos who named them the Arrecifos.

The origin of the name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by Germany from Spain in 1899 and administered from

ISLANDS

7

Yap. After the World War they passed under Japanese mandate. Further reference is made to Yap and the Palau islands in connection with the Caroline islands below.

THE WESTERN PACIFIC ARCS First Arc.—The first arc comprises the Louisiade islands, New Caledonia, the Loyalty islands and Norfolk island. The Louisiade Group form a chain extending south-eastward from the easternmost promontory of New Guinea (g.v.) and are included in the Australian territory of Papua (British New Guinea). The islands number over 80 and are interspersed with reefs. They are rich in tropical forest products and gold is obtained on the chief island Tagula or South-east island (area 380 sq.m.) and on Misima or St. Aignan. The natives are Papuans. The islands were probably observed by Torres in 1606 but were named by de Bougainville in 1768 after Louis XV. New Caledonia, a dependency of France, is situated between 20° 1’ and 22° 26’S., and 164° and 167° 40’ E. Area 6,296 sq.m.; for the islands in the immediate vicinity add 73 sq.m.; while for the dependent islands such as the Loyalty islands, etc., add a further 917 sq.m. Pop. (1926) 51,368, of whom 26,915 were Melanesians and Polynesians, 3,610 introduced labourers from Java and Annam and 2,310 convicts. The total white population, was 17,015. The centres of population are Nouméa, pop. (1925) 27,o16, the capital; Bourail, La Foa, Moindu, St. Louis and St. Vincent. New Caledonia is about 220 miles long with an average breadth of 25-30 m., and lies north-west and south-east. An almost unbroken barrier reef skirts the west shore at about 5 m. distance, enclosing a navigable schannel; on the east, which is more abrupt and precipitous, it is much interrupted. To the north the reefs continue, marking the former extension of the land, for about 160 m., ending with the Huon isles. The Isle of Pines, area 58 sq.m., pop. about 600, so called from its araucarias (its native name is Kunie), geologically a continuation of New Caledonia, lies 30 m. from its south-east extremity. It formerly abounded in sandalwood, and consists of a central plateau surrounded by a belt of cultivation. At the two extremities of New Caledonia, parallel longitudinal ranges of mountains enclose valleys; for the rest the island consists essentially of confused masses and ranges of mountains, rising to an extreme elevation of 5,387 ft., the plains being chiefly the deltas of rivers. The landscape is rich and beautiful, varied with grand rock scenery, the coast-line being broken by numerous small bays, into which flow streams rarely navigable even for short distances, but often skilfully used by the natives for irrigation; and sometimes flowing in subterranean channels. The large rivers in the wet season form impassable morasses, especially in the south-east, where the mountains rise In isolated masses from the plains. The climate of New Caledonia is cooler and healthier than that of the New Hebrides; and its flora and fauna differs considerably, especially, as regards the flora, on the western side, where there is a marked intrusion of Australasian types as against the Polynesian types on the eastern side. The fauna is less different—though there is one very remarkable bird, occurring nowhere else, the wingless Kagu (Rhinochetus jubatus); deer, though undoubtedly an introduced species, are very abundant. But perhaps the most remarkable natural feature of the island is the abundance and variety of its minerals; cobalt, nickel (without arsenic) iron and manganese abound, and many others, including gold, are known to exist in varying quantities. The natives are Melanesians but of mixed blood, including some Polynesian elements. The island was discovered by Capt. Cook in 1774. He touched

at the haven of Balade (the original name of the island) as did d’Entrecasteaux in 1793. The natives were later exploited by traders in sandalwood. French missionaries arrived in 1843. After an incident with the natives in 1851 the island was annexed by France in 1853 although there were further difficulties with a

British counter-claim. Nouméa was founded in 1854 when it was called Port de France. In 1860 New Caledonia became a colony distinct from the French possessions in the Pacific at large, and

3

PACIFIC

in 1864 the first penal settlement was made on Nou island, off Nouméa. New Caledonia is administered for the French Republic by a governor assisted by a privy council consisting of the heads of military, judicial and other services and of two notables of the colony appointed by the President of the Republic. There are also a general secretary and 5 administrators in charge of the arrondissements. There is also an elective general council. The capital Nouméa has a municipality and the other centres are administered by municipal commissions. There are public and private elementary schools. In 1925 there were 55 public and private primary schools and 74 native schools. The College La Perouse at Nouméa gives some technical instruction In its general curriculum. There are extensive pasture and

cultivated lands with some 500 sq.m. of forest. There is a native

reserve, ruled in the main by native custom. Coffee, cotton, manioc, copra, maize, tobacco and bananas are among the agricultural products. Cattle and sheep are also important. There are blast furnaces for nickel smelting. A hydro-electric factory was set up in 1926. In 1925 20,715 tons of chrome; 4,400 tons of nickel and 10,000 tons of phosphates were exported. Coffee, cotton, copra and guano are also among the exports. Wine, coal, flour and rice are imported. A narrow gauge railway connects Nouméa to Paita and it is proposed to extend the line to Bourail. There are internal telegraph and telephone communications. The roads are on the whole poor. New Caledonia has the central government for the Isle of Pines, the Wallis Archipelago, the Loyalty islands, the Huon islands and Futuna and Alofu. The Loyalty group, a chain of small islands parallel to it, and at a distance of between 50 and roo miles from the north-east coast of New Caledonia, is composed of three larger islands, Maré, Lifu (Lifou) and Uvéa, and of some islets and rocks, are coral islands of comparatively recent elevation, and nowhere rise more than 250 ft. above sea-level. Maré, the south-east island of the group, has a flat and barren top, between 200 and 300 ft. above the sea, with occasional slopes and terraces, indicative of several successive elevations; but there is an abundant growth of coco-nut palm on the sea-coast. Lifu, the central and largest island of the group (area 650 miles), its greatest length about 33 miles and greatest width about 28 miles, appears from the sea as a succession of plains, Uvéa, the north-westernmost of the three principal Loyalty islands, is a typical coral-atoll carrying on its rim many closely-connected islets and, on its eastern face, carrying the much larger island to which the name Uvéa (or Halgam) island properly

ISLANDS

[WESTERN

ARCS

remained under the authority of New South Wales till 1914, since when the administration has been in the hands of the Commonwealth Government. The imports (mostly from Australia) were valued (1924-25) at £17,190 and the exports at £3,960. The Second Arc.—The second western Pacific arc comprises the New Britain Archipelago, the Solomon islands, Santa Cruz and the New Hebrides. The New Britain Archipelago between about 145°—156° E., and the Equator and 8° S., is used here to include both New Ireland and the Admiralty islands which are in line with the Solomon islands and also New Britain which loops between New Ireland and New Guinea. The area of New Britain is 9,500 sq.m.; native population within explored areas (1925) 81,200. New Ireland has an area 3,000 sq.m.; native population (1925) including adjacent islands 38,800. The Admiralty islands have an area of 600 sq.m. All the islands are under Australian mandate. New Britain is crescent shaped and about 300 m. long with a mean breadth of 50 miles. The island is mountainous with several active volcanoes. The highest known peak is the Father (7,500 ft.)—an active vol-

cano. New Ireland lies to the north and is also mountainous. It is separated from New Britain by St. George’s channel. There are no active volcanoes. The islands have rich tropical vegetation, and New Britain is well watered by streams. The climate is tropical, considerably tempered by oceanic influences. The islands are not thoroughly explored yet and their coastlines were but imperfectly known until the middle of the 18th century. Jacob Lemaire and William C. Schouten sighted New Ireland in 1616, but it was long thought to be a part of the adjacent islands. In 1884. a German Protectorate was declared over the islands and they were known with many other islets as the Bismarck Archipelago. At the end of the World War they passed from Germany to be held by Australia under a mandate of the League of Nations. The chief town of New Britain and the seat of government is Rabaul; pop. (non-native) 1,350. It is also an anchorage for ships. The old capital was Kokopo, pop. (non-native) 3609. Simpson Harbour in Blanche Bay is important. The chief town

and seat of local administration in New Ireland is Kavieng (nonnatives 356). It is in the extreme north-west of the island, on the north coast of the Nusa harbour. The only other town is Namatanai (non-natives 148). Missionary societies are at work throughout the region. New Britain is not much developed save in the Gazelle peninsula in the north. There are four plantations on the north coast and six on the south coast. There are a number of plantations in New Ireland around the coast near Kavieng. The chief industry of belongs. The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians, The group was the group is coco-nut growing. discovered at. the beginning of the roth century. Christianity was The Solomon islands are chiefly elongated islands stretching introduced into Maré by native teachers from Rarotonga and north-west to south-east, they include Buka (300 sq.m.), BougainSamoa. From 1864 the French have considered the island a ville (3,900 sq.m.), Choiseul (2,260 sq.m.), Malayta (2,400 sq.m.) dependency of New Caledonia. Coco-nuts are cultivated, while and San Christoval, with New Georgia and Guadalcanar (2,500 copra and rubber are exported. sq.m.) as a subordinate line south-west of Isobel. The total land Norfolk tsland lies about 800 m. east of the nearest point of area is estimated at 17,900 sq.m., while the total population is in New South Wales, in 29° S., 167° 56’ E. Pop, (1925) 747. It excess of 250,000 (1925), of which some 600 are Europeans. stands on a submarine table-land extending about 18 m. to the Bougainville (1925) had 46,600 native population and Buka north and 25 m. to the south and has itself an area of about 13 (1925) 7,600 native population. There are very numerous outlysq.m. ing small groups. Ongtong Java (native name Leneneuwa) which The islets of Nepean and Philip lie near it. Its high cliff-bound has also heen called ‘Lord Howe islands,’ is a coral atoll (meascoast is difficult of access. With a general elevation of 400 ft. uring about 35 miles by 18) which carries a number of low sandy above the sea the island rises in the north-west to 1,050 ft. in the islets; it lies considerably northward of the main group, to which double summit of Mount Pitt. The soil, of decomposed basalt, it can hardly be said to belong geographically. is wonderfully fertile. Oranges, lemons, grapes, passion fruit, figs, The islands of the main chains are well watered though the pineapples, guavas and other fruits grow abundantly; while streams seem to be small; and the coasts afford some good harpotatoes, onions, maize and arrowroot can be cultivated. The Nor- bours. All the large and some of the smaller islands appear to be folk island pine (Araucaria excelsa) is a magnificent tree. The composed of ancient volcanic rock, with an incrustation of coral flora is most closely associated with that of New Zealand, and the limestone showing here and there along the coast. The mountains avifauna indicates the same connection rather than one with generally fall steeply to the sea, and there is little level land. Deep Australia. The climate is subtropical, the thermometer rarely valleys separate the gently rounded ridges of forest-clad mounsinking below 65°. The island was discovered in 1774 by Capt. tains, lofty spurs descend from the interior, and, running down Cook, and from 1788 to 1813 and again from 1825 to 1855 was to the sea, terminate in bold rocky headlands, 800 to 1,000 feet in used as a penal settlement in connection with that at New South height. The small rocky island of Florida, midway between Wales. In 1856 the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty Guadalcanar and Malayta, is remarkable as being bi-sected by a were transferred to Norfolk island from Pitcairn, The settlement narrow but navigable channel; it is also remarkable as having mych

WESTERN

ARCS]

PACIFIC

undulating grass-land interspersed with clumps of trees, between which patches of cultivation give evidence of the richness of the soil. The whole chain of the Solomon islands appears to be rising steadily. Some of the smaller islands are of recent calcareous formation. Barrier and fringing reefs, as well as atolls, occur in the group, but the channels between the islands are dangerous

ISLANDS

9

west from which the main islands are Tanna, Eromanga, Efaté (known also as Vaté, Faté, and Sandwich island), the Shepherd Islands and Api or Epi. At this point the arms of the Y divide,

the western formed by the large islands of Malekula (or Mallicolo) and Espiritu Santo (abbreviated to Santo; native name Marina), the eastern formed by Ambrym, Arag and Maiwo (Au-

rora), with Aoba (Opa, or Leper island) between the two arms. The climate is damp and debilitating, and the rainfall is unus- Espiritu Santo, the largest island, has an area of 875 sq.m.; at ually heavy. Fever and ague are prevalent on the uncleared parts its north-east side is the great bay of St. Philip and St. James— of the coast; but the highlands, where most exposed to the south- locally called “Big Bay”—first seen by the Portuguese Quiros, in east trade winds are healthier. The dry season, with north-west 1606, when he thought he had found the shore of a great winds, lasts from December to May. Mangrove swamps are southern continent, which he named Australia del Espiritu Santo. Efaté, situated almost at the dividing point of the two arms of common on the coasts; but of recent years large tracts of these lands have been cleared, by Europeans, for coco-nut cultivation. the Y, is one of the most important of the New Hebrides, having The Solomon islanders are of Melanesian (Papuan) stock, two excellent harbours, Vila and Havannah, within the first named though in different parts of the group they vary considerably in of which is the seat of the Anglo-French administration. Britain their physical characteristics. The history of the Solomon islands is represented by a high commissioner who delegates his power is treated in a separate article. The administration is based on to a resident commissioner. On the island of Mallicolo (Malethe former division of the islands between Germany and Great kula) is Port Sandwich, the chief port of the New Hebrides after ila. Britain (convention of 1899). The boundary ran through BouWith their rugged outline and rich vegetation, the New Hebrides gainville Strait. Since the World War the ex-German territory is administered by mandate under Australia. The British section is islands as seen from the sea are very beautiful. Excepting the administered by a resident commissioner, whose headquarters small Torres group, which are low-lying and perched on reefs, but are at Tulagi, a small island off the south-west of Florida. A without lagoons, all the islands are of volcanic, not coral formanominated advisory council assists in the government. The chief tion, the larger ones lying on both sides of the line of volcanic medium of exchange is Commonwealth bank notes. The various activity. The coasts are almost free from reefs and the shores rise missions have charge of education. Coco-nuts, rubber, bananas, abruptly from deep waters. Old coral is sometimes found elepine-apples and sweet potatoes are grown. Copra, trochus shell, vated to a considerable height. The islands are formed chiefly of ivory nuts and timber are exported mainly from the British basalt and recently erupted material; earthquakes and submarine Solomons. The value of the imports of the British Solomons eruption are not infrequent; and several of the islands have very 1925-26 was £266,943 and exports £418,818. Kieta on the east active craters. All have considerable elevations, one of the loftiest coast of Bougainville and Carola Hafen on the west side of Buka being the isolated cone of Lopevi, near the junction of the are important harbours. The plantations on these islands are, arms of the Y; its height is 4,714 ft.; in Espiritu Santo a height of 6,169 feet has been recorded. The volcanic soil is very rich. however, new. The Sania Cruz Islands-——In the British Protectorate of the Numerous clear streams water the islands, but some debouch upon South Solomons, are a scattered group of small volcanic islands, flat ground towards the sea, and then form unhealthy marshes. irregularly disposed from north-west to south-east, between 8° Copper, Iron and nickel are the most important minerals known 31’ and 11° 4o’ S. and 168° E. to the south-east of San Cristoval, in the group; and sulphur is of some commercial importance. The climate is generally hot and damp, especially during the but separated by a deep channel from that island. The following islands are included in the group; the Duff and Matenna or months from November to April. The natural vegetation is espeSwallow islands, Analogo, Tinakula or Volcano island and others: cially luxuriant and interesting. The coco-nut palm, elsewhere from these a single chain curves south-east and then east con- confined to the parts little above the sea-level, has here spread sisting of Nitendi or Santa Cruz, the largest island, Tupua or up on to the hill-sides. The sandalwood tree occurs; and it is Edgecombe, Vanicoro (the scene of the wreck of La Perouse’s noteworthy that when the sandalwood traders had exhausted the ships), Tucopia, Anuda (or Cherry) island, and Fataka (area 380 supply of their commodity in the Fijian islands (1804-1816), it was chiefly to the southern New Hebridean islands that this sq.m.; estimated population 5,000). In Vanicoro there are volcanic mountains up to 3,030 ft. in trade was diverted. The indigenous fauna is even less abundant height, and Tinakula is a still active volcano of 2,200 ft. Nitendi than in the Solomon islands; as has been said, it is possible, even is of less elevation (1,215 ft. at the highest). Coral reefs are not probable, that the pigs so treasured by the natives had spread extensive, except around Vanicoro. The islands are densely into the New Hebrides from Papua before the first coming of wooded, the flora and fauna being akin to those of the Solomon Europeans, but otherwise the only mammals are bats and rats. islands. The climate is hot and moist, and storms are frequent. European pigs and horned cattle have, however, run wild in cerThe natives are of Melanesian (Papuan) stock, with an admixture tain parts. Birds, insects, and fish are abundant. The natives are of other blood, but the Duif group, Tucopia and Anuda, are in- Melanesians of mixed blood, though in places a few Polynesians habited by pure Polynesians, The islands were discovered by have succeeded in establishing themselves. The history of the New Hebrides is treated in a separate artiAlvaro Mendana in 1595, and in 1767 Philip Carteret visited them and called them the Queen Charlotte islands—their alternative cle. There are numerous missions at work among the natives. name, A British protectorate was declared over them in 1898. Presbyterian and Catholic missions have native schools. There chiefly from the strong currents which set through them.

There is some trade in copra.

The New Hebrides, with which may be classed the Banks and Torres islands, continue the chain south-eastward from the Santa Cruz, from which they are separated by a comparatively shallow channel, consist of about 40 mountainous islands besides numerous islets and rocks (see Map, Plate 176). Estimated area 5,700

sq.m. with a native population of about 60,000. The islands are under the joint administration of English and French officials.

White population (1925) British 232, French 650. Irregularly disposed at the northern end are the lesser islands composing the Banks group—Gaua, Vanua Lava, Mota, Valua, etc., and the Torres islands. South from these, the main islands are arranged somewhat in the form of the letter Y, the foot of which is at Aneiteum, the south-easternmost Hebridean island, north-

are in addition one French government school and two Catholic mission schools for the white population. Large areas of the land have been cleared and well cultivated—chiefly by French and British; and there is a considerable export of copra, coffee, maize, cocoa, cotton and bananas, and even of European vegetables and fruits. Imports include provisions and foodstuffs, clothing, furniture and metal work. There is a small saw-mill on Efaté. The imports for 1925 were, British, 6,107,509 francs; French, 15,896,723 francs; and the total exports amounted to 31,115,143 francs, of which three-quarters was French. The trade is mostly with Australia, New Caledonia and France. So far as concerns the movement of peoples in this region the continuation of the line from north-west to south-east repre-

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sented by the Solomon and the New Hebridean islands, along which the Melanesians doubtless passed down into the Pacific is to be found in the Fijian group where the Melanesians confronted the Polynesians of the Tongan (Friendly) islands. It has been found advisable, however, in this article, to treat the island chains in the order of their supposed structural relations. The Third Arc.—The third western Pacific arc comprises the Caroline islands, the Marshall islands, the Gilbert islands with

Nauru and Ocean islands, the Ellice islands, Rotumah and the Fijian archipelago. The Caroline islands are a widely scattered archipelago under Japanese mandate, included in Micronesia, and lying between 5° and ro° N. and 135° and 165° E. Geographically they fall into a series of sub-parallel lines while administratively the islands are divided into two groups—the Eastern Carolines, with Truk and Ponape as centres, and the Western Carolines, together with the Palau (Pelew) islands and Yap island which belong to the continental border (v.sup.). The total land area is about 380 sq.m. and of this 307 sq.m. is covered by the four main islands, Ponape, Kusaie, Truk (or Hogolu), and Yap. The total population of the Carolines is estimated at 36,000. Truk has 598 Japanese, 5 foreigners, and 14,788 natives; Ponape, 425 Japanese, 6 foreigners and 6,638 natives; Palau (Pelew), 592 Japanese, 15 foreigners, 5,754 natives; Yap, 97 Japanese, 4 foreigners, 8,338 natives. The islands were made known to Europeans by the Portuguese Diego da Rocha in 1527 and were called by him the Sequeira islands. In 1686 Admiral Francesco Lazeano renamed them the Carolines in honour of Charles II. of Spain. Spain definitely claimed the group in 1875 but this was contested by Germany. After arbitration the islands passed to Spain with free trading rights for Germany. In 1899 Germany finally bought the islands from Spain and held them until after the World War when they passed under Japanese mandate. The main islands are of considerable elevation. The highest point of Ponape reaching some 3,000 ft. The remaining islands

of the group are generally low coral islets. The climate is equable and moist, but the islands are subject to severe storms. The vegetation is tropical and luxuriant, much resembling that of the neigh-

bouring island groups particularly the Marianas.

The fauna is

likewise similar to that of the Marianas group. The natives are careful agriculturists and clever navigators. Copra is the chief export.

The Marshall group consists of a number of atolls ranged in two almost parallel lines which run from north-west to southeast between 4° and 15° N. and 161° and 174° E. The northeast line, with fifteen islands, is called Radak, and the other, numbering eighteen, Ralik. The islands are under Japanese mandate. Area (estimated) 160 sq.m. with a population of 198 Japanese, 13 foreigners and 9,589 natives. The most populous island is Majeru. The islands were probably visited by de Saavedra in 1529, Capt. Wallis touched the group in 1767, and in 1788 Captains Marshall and Gilbert explored it. They were annexed by Germany in 1885—1886 and passed under Japanese mandate after the World War. The atolls rise but little above high water mark. The highest elevation occurs on the island of Likiep but is only 33 feet. The lagoon is scarcely more than 150 feet deep and is accessible through numerous breaks in the reef. The reef scarcely exceeds 600 ft. in width. The surface of the atolls is covered with sand except in a few places where by admixture of decayed vegetation it has been turned into soil. The climate is moist and hot, the mean temperature being 80-5°. Easterly winds prevail throughout the year. There is little change of seasons the highest temperature being in January and the lowest in July. Vegetation, on the whole, 1s very poor. There are many coco-nut palms, breadfruit trees (Artocarpus incisa), various kinds of bananas, yams and taro, and pandanus, of which the natives eat the seeds. From the bark of another plant they manufacture mats. There are few animals. Cattle do not thrive and even poultry are scarce. Pigs, cats, dogs and rats have been imported. There are a few pigeons and aquatic birds, butterflies and beetles. Crustacea and fish abound on the reefs. The chief island and administrative centre is Jaluit. Protestant

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(American) and Roman Catholic missions maintain coloured teachers on many of the islands. The chief products for export are copra, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, sharks’ fins and trepang. The plantations of coco-palm amount to 1,275 hectares. The Gilbert islands, or as these are sometimes called, the Kingsmill islands, a chain of coral atolls, carrying some 16 small and

low islands, begin slightly north of the Equator and onlyalittle west of the 180 meridian line. Area 166 sqm. Pop. (1926) 23,250 of which 264 were Europeans (1921). The soil, mostly of coral sand, seems originally to have produced little other vegetation than coconut palms, “screw-pines” (Pandanus), and perhaps a few bread-fruit trees; but, by digging pits to catch the rain water, a giant form of tannia has been introduced by the natives. These few plants—together with the very rich produce of the sea—must have sufficed to support a very dense population of Polynesians. The islands were discovered by John Byron in 1765, Capts. Gilbert and Marshall visited them in 1788. The dense native population of these islands led to the introduction of many of their number to Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but the ex-

periment was unsatisfactory.

The islands were claimed as Pros

tectorates by Britain in 1892 and annexed as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony in 1915. British and American missions are at work. Some 200 m. west of the Gilbert islands and a little south of the Equator, are the two remarkable islands of Ocean island (native name Banaba), six miles in circumference (pop. [1926] 2,062 [126 European, 471 Chinese besides Pacific islanders]); and Nauru (Pleasant island), area 5,936 acres (pop. [1926] 2,217 [117 Europeans and 822 Chinese besides Pacific islanders]), both notable for their rich phosphate deposits. Unlike the Gilbert islands proper, these islands have been elevated, probably by volcanic action, much above sea-level—the highest part in each being about 260 feet. Even this elevation has allowed a rather more varied natural vegetation than in the Gilbert islands; the natural conditions have however been much altered. The phosphate deposits were discovered in 1900, and were developed by the Pacific Phosphate Co., until 1919 when the interests of the company were bought by the British, Australian and

New Zealand governments.

Ocean Island was annexed by Britain in rgoz and is the headquarters of the Gilbert and Ellice islands Colony. Nauru was annexed by Germany in 1888, but passed by mandate of the League of Nations to Britain after the World War. Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand agreed (1919) that Australia should appoint the first administrator for a term of five years. There is compulsory education for Europeans and natives to the age of 16, after that age technical training is given. Ocean island and Nauru have important wireless stations. The Ellice (Lagoon) islands, area 14 sq.m. Pop. (1925) 3,530, like the Gilbert islands, all coral atolls, nowhere raised more than a few feet above the sea-level, and where so raised densely clad with coco-nut palms, comprise a large number of low coralline islets clustered on some nine atolls, spread over a distance of about 400 m. in the direction from north-west to south-east. The chief groups, all yielding coco-nuts, pandanus-fruit and taro, are Funafuti (Ellice island), Mukulailai, Murakita, Nukufetau, and Nanomana. Like the Gilbert islanders, the natives are Polynesians exhibiting traces of Samoan origin. Nearly all the natives are nominally Christians. These islands together with the Gilbert islands were proclaimed Protectorates in 1892 and annexed within the Gilbert and Ellice islands Colony in 1915. This Colony is administered by the high commissioner through a resident commissioner whose headquarters are at Ocean island. Rotuma, area, 14 sq.m. and population about 2,200, the principal of a cluster of small islands lying some 220 m. north-northwest of the northernmost Fijian reef, is of volcanic formation, though activity has so long been extinct as not to be recorded even in tradition; there is much coral-growth about the main island—as indeed about the adjacent islands. The island was discovered by Capt. Edwards of the “Pandora” in 1791. The island is high and rugged, clothed on the higher parts with luxuriant | vegetation and on the coast with many coco-nut palms. There are

WESTERN ARCS]

PACIFIC

no visible streams, though the rainfall is considerable: the water

apparently sinks through the loose soil and boulders which cover the whole island, and runs underground to the sea. The natives differ in language and in many other aspects from the Fijians. Always a vigorous and enterprising people, with a special reputation for peacefulness and hospitality to the occasional visitors who reached their shores, they have, since being taken at their own request under British protection (1881), become perhaps one of the most satisfactorily civilized peoples of their kind. The natives are mostly either Wesleyans or Roman Catholics. A European commissioner resides, who, together with the native chiefs and two native magistrates, forms a regulation board which draws up the local laws subject to the approval of the legislative council of Fiji. The chief product is copra. The Fijian Archipelago (see Map, Plate 51) in many respects the most important in the Pacific, lies east-north-east and at a distance of about 730 miles from New Caledonia, between 15° and 20° S., and on and about the meridian of 180°. It consists of about 250 islands, of which some 80 are inhabited, with a total

land area of about 7,050 sq.m. (thus roughly equalling that of Wales). The islands are ranged more or less in the form of a horse-shoe, open to the south, and more or less enclosing the Koro Sea. The largest island is Viti Levu, which with the long and narrow island of Kandavu, forms the western leg of the horseshoe; it is 95 m. in length (east to west) and 67 in extreme breadth, with an area of 4,053 sq.m. Forty miles north-east, at the central point of the horse-shoe, lies Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2,130 sq.m. Close off the south-east extremity of Vanua Levu is Taveuni, 26 m. in length by Io in breadth; and from the eastern side of Taveuni a chain of comparatively small islands, known as the Lau or Eastern Group, runs down nearly to 20° S., thus forming the eastern leg of the horseshoe. Three other islands, all within the Koro Sea, must be men-

tioned: Ovalau, Koro and Ngau (Gau). The Fijian islands are mostly extinct volcanic elevations (some up to about 4,000 ft.) which with very few exceptions are surrounded by fringing reefs; but, especially on the eastern side of the group, there are many coral atolls with or without openings into central lagoons. The surface of the high islands is very rugged, the vegetation is . luxuriant, and the general appearance’ very beautiful. There is not much level country, except for certain rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu), especially near the mouths of the riversaand these larger islands have a considerable extent of dry and open undulating country on their lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very large in proportion to the size of the islands, affording a water way to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, their fertility is thus increased, though at a heavy cost to the cultivator. The Rewa river, debouching through a wide delta at the south-east of Viti Levu, is navigable for small vessels for 40 m.; also in this island there are the Navua and: Singatoka rivers (flowing south), and the Nandi (west), and the Ba (north-west). The chief stream of Vanua Levu is the Dreketi, flowing west, breaking through the mountains in a fine valley; for this island practically consists of one long range, whereas in Viti Levu the main valleys and separating ranges radiate for the most part from a common centte. Viti Levu is the most important island not only from its size, but from its fertility, variety of surface, and population, which is over one-third of that of the whole group. At Suva, the capital of the Colony of Fiji, there is a very good harbour. Vanua Levu is less fertile; it has good anchorages along its entire southern coast. Of the other high islands, Taveuni, remarkable for a lake

(presumably a crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central ridge, is fertile, but exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas the welltimbered island of Kandavu has an excellent one, Ngaloa, on its southern side. On the island of Ovalau, an island which contains in a small area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys between commanding hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. The chief islands scattered about the western side of the Koro Sea (Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya), are all productive, elevated

ISLANDS

II

and picturesque, and afford good anchorage. The islands of the chain limiting the Koro Sea on the east are smaller and more numerous. At the north of the chain are the Exploring isles, a somewhat scattered group surrounded by a barrier reef, 77 m. in circuit; on the western side of which is Vanua Mbalavu (14 m. long and from $ to 24 m. broad) with several peaks, the highest of which rises to 930 ft.; it is a centre of native trade. Farther south in the chain, and somewhat to the east, is Mango (3 m. in diameter, and almost surrounded by a reef half a mile broad), remarkable for a subterranean outlet of the waters from the fertile valley in its midst. Farther south again is Lakemba, a rounded, volcanic island, from 4 to 54 m. in diameter, its highest point rising to 720 ft., and surrounded by a fringe of coral extending from 2 to ro cables from the shore. It also is an important centre of native trade. Farther south is a welter of small volcanic coral-reef surrounded islands, ending at Vatoa (lat. 19° 40/ S., long. 175° 13’ W.), the only Fijian island visited by Capt. Cook—and by him named Turtle island. The Fiji islands lie beyond the limits of the perpetual southeast trade wind, while not within the range of the north-west monsoons. From April to November the winds are steady between south-east and east-north-east, and the climate is cool and dry, after which the weather becomes uncertain and the winds often northerly, this being the wet, warm season. From November to March heavy gales are frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur between these months—though, curiously enough, very rarely in February. The rainfall is much greater on the windward, than on the lee sides of the islands (about 110 in. in Suva); the mean temperature is much the same, viz., about 80° F.; in the hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50°. The climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervating to the Europeans, but not unhealthy. Malaria is hardly known; but severe epidemics of dengue fever and of influenza sometimes occur. Dysentery, which is common, and the most serious disease in these islands, is said to have been unknown before the incoming of Europeans. The flora is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan character—thick jungle with great trees swathed with creepers and epiphytes, but, especially on the western side, there is some intermixture of Australian and New Zealand types. On the lee side of the larger islands, however, the tree growth is often replaced by grassy

plains, suitable for grazing, with trees (chiefly Pandanus)

few

and scattered in more open parts but more thickly clustered in the stream gullies. On the coastlands of the larger high island the coco-nut palm is ubiquitous in the drier parts, but is replaced in the damper parts by the mangrove. Many of these mangrove swamps have, however, been laboriously reclaimed, and now carry flourishing crops of sugar cane. At an elevation of about 2,000 it. the vegetation changes to a more montane type, and at still higher elevation takes on the appearance of inter-tropical rain forest in the more densely tree-covered areas, while the drier and more open mountain-slopes are clothed in a dense growth of tall reeds.

Many of the indigenous trees are of value, e.g., the vesi (Afzelia bijuga) and the ndilo (Calophyllum Inophyllum) for their timber, the last named also for the oil obtained from its seeds which is much used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheuma-

tism; the dakua (Dammara Vitiensis), a pine-tree allied to the New

Zealand Kauri, provides

a valuable resin resembling the

Kaurigum. The yasi or sandalwood (Santalu, yasi, Seemann) formerly abundant on the north-west side of Vanua Levu was all but exterminated as a consequence of the too-busy trade carried on in this very valuable commodity between 1804 and 1816; in recent years this tree has been strictly protected by law, but though discovered in other parts of the Fiji neither in these nor in the original locality has it since again become abundant. It was mainly this mad rush for sandalwood which led to the earliest settlement of white men in the Fiji islands. The fauna is very little different from that of the other com-

parable south sea islands. Indigenous mammals except bats, and possibly rats, though even these are probably no longer represented by an indigenous species, are non-existent; birds, especially pigeons, doves and parrots, are, or were, fairly numerous; fish of many kinds are plentiful, and, together with vegetables, form the

I2

PACIFIC

chief food of the natives; insects are not conspicuously abundant. It has already been told that the remarkable phenomenon of the

ISLANDS

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ARCS

irregularly scattered links of a broken chain, the main axis of which extends for some 175 m. This chain is divisible into three periodical rise of the annelid known as balolo is mainly observable main groups, the Vavau islands the northernmost, the Haapai in Fiji. islands, and the Tongatabu group—with which may be included The natives are undoubtedly of Melanesian stock, but more Eua—the southernmost. The total area of the group is about 385 specialized than the other folk of the same original stock who sq.m. Pop. (1921) 23,759 Tongans, 370 Pacific islanders, 571 entered the Pacific by way of the Solomon islands and the New Europeans and 235 half-castes. Hebrides; moreover there has been—though probably only in It was the island of Tongatabu, discovered by Tasman in 1643 comparatively recent times—some intermixture of Polynesians and by him named Amsterdam island, which at the beginning of from the Tonga or Friendly islands, especially in the Eastern or the roth century became the starting-off point from which the Lau group, and to a less extent in certain districts of both Viti sandalwood traders reached the then still hardly known Fijian Levu and Vanua Levu. The sea channel, some 200 miles wide, islands, a fact to which it is due that the name Tonga (the first which separates the Fijian from the Tongan group served as a syllables of Tongatabu) has passed into use for the whole archibarrier between Melanesia and Polynesia where the two most pelago—for which the natives themselves seem to have had no one nearly approached each other. The population in 1921 was 157,266, name. (For history of Tonga, see separate article.) estimate (1926) 171,644, and the indigenous people (see MELAEven the main islands of the groups, Tongatabu and Vavau, are NESIA) now form slightly more than half the total, the principal small, the former measuring about 25 m. by 10 and nowhere rising other element being Indian coolies. Among the immigrant ele- to a height of more than 60 ft., and Vavau measuring some 9 m. ments, who are largely labourers, it is natural that there should be in length and 64 in breadth. Vavau, however, has cliffs rising to an excess of men, but this excess occurs also among the native 6oo ft. on its northern sides. folk; it is held by many students that such an excess in an indigeCoral, present throughout the group, is more especially so in nous people is usually a sign of the decline of the race concerned. some of the smaller islands of the chain, e.g., in the Haapai group; The transition from traditional to Europeanized life is a most com- but even here volcanic formation is still very evident, and in some plex one involving myriad crises of adjustment, many unforeseen cases still active; Tofua, rising to 2,846 ft., Late, 1,800 ft., and and almost unforeseeable, and there is besides a heavy toll to be Kao, 3,020 ft. are still active cones. paid by way of deaths from infectious diseases which may not do Most of the Tonga islands, however, are level, averaging 4o ft. great harm in Europe but mow down peoples which have not high and rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally steep. The suracquired immunity. It is said that the intermingling of indigenous face is covered with a rich mould unusual in coral islands, mixed and Indian elements is slight. towards the sea with sand, and having a substratum of red or blue For an account of the history of Fiji see separate article. clay. The soil is thus very productive, although water is scarce The archipelago is governed under the secretary of State for and bad. Barrier reefs are rare; fringing reefs are numerous, the British colonies by a governor who is helped by an executive except on the east side, which is nearly free, and there are many of six members. There is also a legislative council of twelve nomi- small isolated reefs and volcanic banks among the islands. If the nated members (including one Indian), seven members elected by reefs impede navigation, they form some good harbours; the persons of European descent, and two nominated Fijians. There best of these harbours is that of Vavau, the only defect of which are seventeen provinces under native chiefs advised in some cases is that the entrance is somewhat narrow and tortuous. Fairly good by European commissioners. The Wesleyan Methodist Church harbourage is also to be found off the north of Tongatabu. claims a very large number of members among the native populaThe climate is dry and cool compared with that of Samoa and tion but there are some Roman Catholics. The Indian element is Fiji. There are frequent alterations of temperature, which averMohammedan or Hindu. There are numerous mission schools and ages 75° to 77°, though considerably higher in the wet season. government schools. The chief activity is agricultural and the Cool south-east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, crops grown for export are chiefly copra, sugar and bananas but from April to December. During the rest of the year the winds rice, maize, rubber, tobacco, beans, etc., are also grown, and shells are from north-west and north, with occasional hurricanes. The are an object of export trade. There are several sugar mills, copra- average rainfall for the year is aboyt 80 inches. The vegetation dying establishments and sawmills. Fiji imports manufactured is somewhat similar to that of Fiji, but less luxuriant; it was the goods, flour, fuel, manures, timber and some of the meat it needs absence in the Tonga islands of timber trees large enough for the though cattle are kept in fair numbers. necessary boat-building that led to expeditions by the Polynesian Maritime communications are naturally of special importance Tongan folk to the distant and almost unknown islands where in an archipelago but there is a small gauge railway, 120 m. long, dwelt the fierce Melanesians of “Viti.” Ferns, mosses, orchids, from Tavua to Singatoka and motor roads and bridle paths are in aroids and other plants of moist tropical forests are naturally, also use. There is telegraphic and telephonic communication and now much less abundant in the Tongan than in the Fijian islands. As a also stations for wireless telegraphy. Cables go to Canada, Aus- consequence of these conditions, the landscape in the Tongan tralia and New Zealand, and steamship communications are islands is less beautiful than that'seen either in the Fijian group chiefly with Vancouver, Sydney and Auckland. The 1925 trade to the west or in the Samoan group in the east. figures were imports, £1,271,135, exports, £2,156,257. The tonnage The only indigenous land mammals are a small rat and a large entered and cleared in 1924 was 799,214, a very large proportion fruit-eating bat, which last named occurs in extraordinary numbeing British. Money weights and measures are all as in the bers. Birds of prey are very few, but other genera of avifauna are United Kingdom. fairly numerous. There are snakes and a few lizards but no frogs The Fourth Arc.—The fourth western Pacific arc comprises or toads. The marine fauna is, as usual in the islands, much more abundantly represented. the Kermadec islands and the Tonga group. The Kermadec islands lie about 30° S., and 178° W., and about Northward and eastward from Vavau are the two very isolated 600 m. north-north-east of New Zealand. The total area is about volcanic islands of Niuatombutombu (or Keppel island) and 15 sq.m. The largest island of the group is Raoul or Sunday island, Tafahi (or Boscawen island) which, politically at least, are reck20 m. in circumference and 1,600 ft. high and thickly wooded. oned as part of the Friendly group. Both, despite their inaccessiMacaulay island is 3 m. in circuit. The flora and fauna are related bility, are inhabited by natives and now by a few Europeans, and to those of New Zealand. The islands were named from D’En- from both trade is done in copra derived from the very numerous trecasteaux’s Captain, Huon Kermadec, in 1791. They were an- coco-nut palms. nexed by New Zealand in 1887, and are now uninhabited. The islands became a British protectorate under native rule in The Tongan Archipelago, or as Captain Cook named them “the 1900, and in 1905 the financial administration came under British Friendly islands,” consists of at least 100 islands and islets, be- control. The native sovereign is assisted by a legislative assembly tween parallels 15° and 234° S., and meridian 173° and 177° W. which meets annually. It has 21 members, seven nobles, seven These islands, lying south-east from the Fijian group, resemble representatives of the people (elected) and the seven minis-

VARIOUS GROUPS] ters of the Crown.

PACIFIC The elections are held every three years. The

capital of the group is Nukualofa. The natives are Christians and

the Wesleyan Free Church of Tonga, the Free Church, and the Roman Catholics claim the majority of the inhabitants. The natives have free education and medical attendance. There were 105 public primary schools in 1924. There is also a Tonga College

(16x students in 1924). Copra is the chief export (13,758 tons in 1925). Imports in-

clude flour, timber, sugar, meats, drapery, hardware, foods, etc., while a certain amount of live-stock figures among the exports. Most of the trade is with Britain, Australia, America and New Zealand. There is a wireless station at Nukualofa and a substation at Vavau.

THE ISLAND GROUPS CUTTING THE HAWAII-NEW ZEALAND DEEP These islands fall intọ four groups, the Samoan archipelago, the Wallis archipelago and the Tokelau and Phoenix groups, The Samoan Archipelago, an insular series of much importance,

is a chain of many island-groups, the five principal of which, are from west to east, Savaii (area 660 sq.m.); Upolu (area about 575 sq.m.), under New Zealand mandate; and Tutuila (40.2 sq.m.) Manua and Rose I. the property of the United States of America, all lying between lats. 13° 30’-14° 35’ S. and longs. 168° oo’ and 173° W. Pop. New Zealand mandated Samoa (1925) 36,308 natives, 2,498 European and half-castes, Chinese 888, others 535. Total 40,229. American Samoa total area 60 sq.m. Pop. (1926) 8,763. All the main islands except Rose island, which is a coral atoll carrying two islets (uninhabited), are high volcanic islands surrounded by many coral reefs. Volcanic activity though generally quiescent is still liable to outbursts, as for

instance in Savaii in 1905 when the lava flowing from a cone in the centre of the island devastated much of the previously fertile soil.

The group is well-watered and the igneous soil generally very fertile, with the result that the vegetation is luxuriant, and the scenery in the valleys running down from the mountains to the sea is very beautiful. There are fairly good reef-protected harbours at Saluafata and

at Apia (both on the N. at Apia, in the hurricane tidal-wave destroyed most lying within the harbour.

side of Upolu Island), though it was season of March 1880, that a famous of the shipping which happened to be But the one really good harbour in the

group is that at Pango Pango, on the south side of Tutuila— which island, with all others to the east of it, is United States owned. Climate, Flora and Fauna—The climate, though moist and sometimes oppressively hot, is pleasant on the whole. The fine season lasts from April to September, the wet from October ta March. The temperature is equable—at Apia the mean annual temperature is 78° F, the warmest month being December (80°) and the coldest July (75°—76°). The prevalent winds are southeast trades, but west winds supervene from January to March. The Samoan forests are remarkable for the size and variety of their trees—hardwood trees, useful for boat-building, being especially characteristic of Savaii. The luxuriance and beauty of ferns, creepers and epiphytes is very notable. Of the very limited land fauna of Samoa, consisting mainly of a rat, a few snakes, and a few birds, the most interesting member of which is a ground pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris), which

forms a link between the extinct Dodo and the extant African Treroninae. The marine fauna is as abundant and varied as elsewhere in the tropical South Seas. The Samoans are Polynesians of the purest breed; they indeed dispute with the Hawaiians a claim to be the original Polynesian stock.

The history of Samoa is dealt with in a separate article.

ISLANDS

13

In Western Samoa there is a legislative council of not less than six official members. Unofficial members must not exceed in number the official members. Three unofficial members are elected members, The administrator is entitled to preside over every meeting of the council. There is a native council which advises the administrator in native affairs. There are four Government schools and also schools conducted by various missions. There are over 11,000 scholars. The inhabitants of the islands profess Christianity (Protestants, Catholics and Mormons). Coco-nut, cacao and bananas are the principal products and copra is the chief article of export. The cultivation of cotton and rubbertapping has been recommenced (1918-28). In 1925-26 the revenue was £150,038, and the expenditure £145,688. The revenue is augmented by an annual subsidy from New Zealand.

There are high-power wireless stations at Apia (belonging to New Zealand) and on the island of Tutuila (belonging to U.S.A.). The Wallis Archipelago (Uvea or Uea) is a group situated about 13° §. 176° W. with a land area of 40 sq.m. pop. about 4,500 belonging to France. The principal islands are Uvea, of volcanic formation and surrounded with coral, and Nukuatea. The inhabitants are Polynesians. The islands were discovered by Samuel Wallis in 1767 and came under French missionary influence in 1837 and were subsequently annexed coming under New Caledonia for administrative purposes in 1888. There is a French resident. The trade of the islands is mainly with Samoa, whence cottons and iron goods are imported, and to which copra and roots are exported. The Horne islands (Futuna and Alofi), south of the Wallis group with about 1,500 inhabitants were discovered by J. Lemaire and W. C. Schouten in 1616 and placed under the French protectorate in 1888. They are administered from New Caledonia.

The Tokelau (Union Group), east from the southernmost of the Ellice group,-and about 350 m, north-east of Samoa, consists of three atolls, Atafu, Nukunau, and Fakaafo, each of which carries many islets. Little but copra is produced from these. The area of the group is 7 sq.m, and population (1921) 989. The natives are all Christians and akin in type to the Samoans. These islands were formerly administered as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Is. Colony but were transferred (1926) to the jurisdiction of New Zealand, and are administered by the administrator of Western Samoa. The Phoenix islands are a group between 2° 30’ and 4° 30’ S, and 171° and 174° 30° W. They comprise eight small coral islands. Total area of the group 16 sqm. Pop. 59. With the exception of Sydney and Hull islands they have little vegetation. A considerable amount of guano has been obtained from these islets, but this has now been exhausted. The islands were annexed by Great Britain in 1889-18092. THE EASTERN POLYNESIAN CHAINS The first chain. The first eastern Polynesian chain may be taken

to include the island of Niue (Savage I.) the Cook (Hervey) Is. and Austral (Tubuai) Is. Niue (Savage island) 40 m. in circumference; pop. (1926) 3,795, eastward from the Friendly group, and nearer to that than

to any of the other groups, is a dependency of New Zealand since 1900, The whole island (in 19° 10’ S., 169° 47 W.) is an old coral reef upheaved 200 ft., honey-combed with caves and seamed with fissures, through which the abundant rainfall drains into caverns having communication with the sea. The natives (all Christians) are of mixed Polynesian and Melanesian race, are certainly less cultured than the Tongans or the Samoans, are industrious and friendly, and certainly do not seem to deserve to be regarded as especially “savage.” Niue is administered under the Cook islands and there is a New Zealand resident commissioner stationed on the island. A little copra and fungus is exported. The Cook (or Hervey) islands lie between 155° and 160° E. and about 20° S. The group comprises partly volcanic, partly coralline islands the most important of which is Rarotonga, 20 m.

The ex-German Territory of Western Samoa is now (1929) administered by New Zealand under a mandate of the League of Nations, while Eastern Samoa (Tutuila, Manua, etc.) is in the possession of the United States, Administration etc. in this terri- in circumference (pop. [1926] 3,906). This island has several cones 300 to 4oo ft. high above which towers the Rarotonga voltory is discussed elsewhere.

14

PACIFIC ISLANDS

cano (2,920 ft.). The land is fertile and well watered. The other Important islands are Mangaia (Mangia) (pop. [1926] 1,249) and Aitutaki, 21 m. in circumference (pop. [1926] 1,431). These islands have luxuriant coco-nut palm groves. The island of Atiu has 933 inhabitants, Mitiero 238, and Mauki (Parry Island) 511. The total land area is about 111 sq.m. The climate is tempered by oceanic influences, but the reefs make the islands difficult of access. The natives are Polynesians possessing legends of their emigration from Samoa. The group was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777. Missionary work has been in progress since 1823, the population being almost entirely Protestant. Since 1890 laws for the islands have been drawn up by a general legislature and administered by an executive council of which Arikis, or native chiefs, are members. At Rarotonga there is a New Zealand resident commissioner who has a veto over all laws. In 1915 New Zealand included a minister of the Cook islands, charged with their administration as a member of its own executive council. The new act provided also for the constitution of island councils, courts of justice, and the establishment of public schools. The chief products of the Cook islands are bananas, oranges, tomatoes, coco-nuts, copra, shells and hats. A wireless station is established at Rarotonga, with other stations at Atiu, Niue, Aitutaki, and Mangaia. The Tubuai or Austral is., belonging to France are situated between 21° 49’ and 27° 4r’ S., and 144° 27 and 154° 51° W. The total land area is about 110 sq.m. and about 2,955 inhabitants. They are a scattered group of five principal islands surrounded by fringing coral-reefs, the islet-bearing coral atoll known as Hull or Maria island, and, of more importance, four islands forming a curved broken chain from N.W. to $.E., namely Rimitara, Rurutu, Tubai (area 40 sq.m.), Vavitao, and, at a distance of 380 m. from Tubuai, Rapa or Oparo islands. Tubuai, Vavitao, and Rapa are volcanic and reach considerable elevations (2,077 ft. in Rapa). ‘The islands are well watered and fertile. The natives are Polynesians and were once much more numerous than they now are. Captain Cook visited Rurutu in 1769 and Tubuai in 1777. Rapa was discovered by Vancouver in 1791 and Vavitao at different times. The French protection and subsequent annexation was carried out spasmodically between the middle of the roth century and 1889. The islands are politically dependent on Tahiti. The second chain includes the Society islands. The Society archipelago, now commonly called Tahiti, is another group of high volcanic islands—with a few coral atolls—lying between 16° and 18° S., 148° and 155° W. with a total area of 657 sq.m. belonging to France. The “Society islands” is a double group, separated by a clear channel of 60 m. in breadth; the north-west or Leeward group including the islands of Huaheine, Raiatea and others, and the south-east or Windward group containing the famous island of Tahiti (600 sq.m.). Pop. (1924) 7,145—on which is Papeete (pop. [1924] 4,601, of whom 2,126 are French) the capital of the French possessions in those parts—and a few small islands. The island of Moorea (50 sq.m.), pop. (1924) 1,927, is important.

The island of Tahiti itself, in shape not unlike the figure 8, has a length of 33 m., a coast-line of 120 m., and an area of 402 sq.m. It is divided into two portions by a short isthmus (Taravo) about a mile in width, and nowhere more than so ft. above sealevel. The southern, the peninsula of Taiarapu, or Tahiti-iti

(Little Tahiti), measures 1x m. in length by 6 m. in breadth, while the northern, the circular main island of Porionuu, or Tahiti-uni (Great Tahiti), has a length of 22 m. and a breadth of 20. The whole island is mountainous. A little to the northwest of Great Tahiti the double peak of Orohena rises to 7,321 ft. and the neighbouring Aorai is but little lower. Little Tahiti has no such elevation, but its tower-like peaks are very striking. The flat lands of the Tahitian coast, several miles wide—with its chain of villages, its fertile gardens, and its belt of palms, here and there intersected by streams from the mountains form a striking foreground to the grand mountain ranges. A good road now runs round the island, leading to Point Venus, the site in 1769 of Capt. Cook’s observation of the transit of Venus.

[EASTERN

POLYNESIA

Climate.—The seasons are not well defined. Damp is excessive, and the heat generally great, but the climate, on the whole, is not unhealthy. The indigenous mammalian fauna is as scanty as in the other South Sea islands; of domestic animals, pigs of a small breed which died out on the introduction of stronger European strains —and, though this is more doubtful, dogs are said to have been plentiful when Capt. Wallis, as he supposed, “discovered” the island in 1767. Land birds are few in number and species as compared with those of the western Pacific islands. The lagoons swarm with fish of many species. Insects are poor in species though some of them are indigenous. Crustaceans and molluscs, on the other hand, are well represented; worms, echinoderms, and corals comparatively poorly. The most interesting feature of Tahitian conchology is the number of peculiar species of the genus Partula, almost every valley having a distinct form. The Tahitian flora though luxuriant and beautiful is not very rich, especially in the smaller plants which form the undergrowth in similar islands. Especially remarkable are many indigenous species of banana, one form of which (peculiar in that its fruitbunches are not pendent but grow upright) is abundant in the mountains, and formerly much used by the natives as food. Part of the archipelago was discovered by Pedro F. Quiros in 1607. In 1767 Wallis named it King George’s island. In 1768 de Bougainville visited Tahiti, claumed it as French, and named it La Nouvelle Cythére. In 1769 Cook named the Leeward group the Society islands in honour of the Royal Society, at whose instigation his expedition had been sent. Tahiti and the adjacent islands he called Georgian, but the first name was subsequently adopted for the whole group. In 1903 it was decided that separate islands or groups should no longer be regarded as distinct establishments, but that all should be united into one colony. Thus the Society islands are joined for administrative purposes with the other French possessions in the eastern Pacific, the whole being administered by a governor with an administrative council consisting of certain officials, the maire of Papeete and the presidents of the chambers of commerce and agriculture. At Papeete there are a higher primary school, and a normal school and there were (1925) 63 primary schools. The chief industries on Tahiti are the preparation of copra, sugar and rum. Imports (1925) 43,966,400 francs, exports 50,550,511 francs. The imports include wheat, and metalwork, and the exports copra, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, coco-nuts and particularly phosphates (81,062 tons in 1925). The third eastern Polynesian chain may be taken to include the Manihiki islands, the Tuamotu or Low Archipelago and Pitcairn island. The Manihiki Archipelago is situated between 4° and 11° and t50° and 162° W. Manihiki (Humphrey island) itself an islet with a land area of about two square miles, pop. (1926) 416, encircling a lagoon of about 6 miles in diameter. Its shallow soil, nowhere raised much above sea-level, supports many tall coco-

nut palms which serve to make the islet visible from a distance generally of about 12 m. The native population feed chiefly on coco-nuts and fish, and now have little for export except copra— though formerly pearl-shell, now practically exhausted, was

dredged from the lagoon. Almost directly east from Manihiki is a group of low coral islands of which the Caroline atoll, carrying many islets on a rim of coral surrounding a lagoon (some 74 by 14 miles) is a type; the other members of the group being Vostock and Flint islands. The natives of the group are Polynesians and nominally Christian. The islands were mostly discovered in the 19th century and were annexed by Great Britain mainly in 1888-1889.

They

are now administered by New Zealand. The Tuamotu (Paumotu) or Low Archipelago, the northern extremity of which ıs situated between the Society and the Marquesas islands, consists of a great number of low coral islands, or rather atolls, of very similar character and appearance, trending in irregular lines from north-west to south-east, the major axis of the group extending over 1,300 miles. The total land area of the group is only 330 sq.m. Pop. (1924) 3,715. The largest

OUTLYING GROUPS]

PACIFIC

atoll, Rahiroa or Rangiroa, with a lagoon 45 m. long by 15 wide, carries 20 islets on its narrow rim; Fakarava, the next in size,

ISLANDS

I5

in the comparative rarity of coral fringes to their coasts. Total area 480 sq.m. Pop. (1924) 2,300. The north-western group has

seven islands, the four largest being Ua Pou or Adam island, Ua Huka or Washington, Nukuhiva (70 m. in circumference, and the most important of the whole archipelago) and Eiao. The south-eastern group consists of the islands of Fatu Hiva or Magdalena, Motane or San Pedro, Tahuata or Santa Christina, and Hiva Oa or Dominica, the last with a coast-line of more than 60 m. Along the centre of each of the main islands is a ridge of mountains, rising to between 3,000 and 4,000 ft., from which rugged spurs forming deep valleys stretch toward the sea. There are no active volcanoes. Vegetation is luxuriant in the valleys, which are well watered by streams. The flora is abundant, many of the species identical with those of the Society islands, but more indigenous land mammalian fauna is remarkably poor. Land birds are very little—except in size; with two exceptions, Tikei and Ma- of comparatively few species. On the other hand, marine forms katea, all are low coral atolls with but little natural vegetation of animal life are as abundant as around other sub-tropical Polyexcept coco-nut palms and, occasionally a scanty undergrowth, nesian groups. The climate is hot and damp but not unhealthy; chiefly screw-pines (Pandanus). The climate is healthy—with a the temperature during the six months’ rainy season, which begins lower mean temperature than Tahiti. The easterly trade wind pre- at the end of November, varies between 84° and 91°, and during vails. Rain and fogs occur even during the dry season. The stormy the rest of the year between 77° and 86°. It is tempered by modseason lasts from November to March, when devastating hurri- erate easterly trade winds, and in the larger islands by the alternacanes are not uncommon, and a south-west swell renders the wes- tion of land and sea breezes. The natives, purely Polynesians, are terly shores dangerous. Animal life is scarce, a few rats are the reputed to be physically the finest of the South Sea islanders, and only mammals; land birds are chiefly parakeets, thrushes and at the incoming of Europeans were numerous, warlike and active, doves; insects are few. But marine life abounds in the lagoons and but have since very greatly diminished in number and energy. The islands were discovered in 1595 by Mendana who only the surrounding seas; pearls and pearl-shell, abundant in many of the lagoons, provide the natives with their chief object of in- knew the south-eastern group. The remaining islands were disdustry and trade. The natives are not numerous but are a fine covered from time to time subsequently. In 1842, after French Roman Catholic missionaries had prepared the way, the islands strong race of Polynesians. The first discovery of part of the archipelago was made by were annexed by France. The islands were almost abandoned Pedro Fernandez Quiros in 1606. Many navigators subsequently between 1860-1870. They are now administered together with the discovered or re-discovered various parts of the group. The best other French possessions in the Eastern Pacific from Tahiti. The harbour is Fakarava, the seat also of the French resident. An- natives have outwardly adopted Christianity. Large numbers of other harbour is Mangareva. The group passed under the protec- swine and fowls are reared. The Line islands (or America islands) north of the Equator, tion of France in 1844, and was annexed in 1881 forming part of the dependency of Tahiti, and now administered jointly with other sometimes called Palmyra, Washington and Fanning, and Christmas islands, are low atolls which would hardly be distinguishable French possessions in the Eastern Pacific. Pitcairn island (lat. 25° 4’ S., and long. 130° rọ W.) is from a distance but for their tall coco-nut palms. Palmyra (14 about 100 m. south from the nearest of the Tuamotu group, sq.m.), uninhabited but occasionally visited for the gathering of differs from most of the islands in this region in that it is with- the coco-nut crop, the smallest, is remarkable in that it has three out coral reefs but rises abruptly with steep and rugged basal- distinct lagoons. Washington (34 by 14 miles), pop. 60, and Fantic cliffs. The highest point of the island is 2,000 ft., and its ning (94 by 4 miles), pop. (1926) 447, are of much greater imarea is 2 sq.m. Pop. (1914) 140. The soil in the islands is vol- portance, both having for many years been more or less successcanic and fertile; but owing to the felling of the natural timber fully cultivated by Europeans employing labour imported from the the liability to drought increases, as there are no streams. The Gilbert islands. Fanning, since 1902, has been a Pacific Cable climate is variable and rainy. It was discovered, uninhabited, by Board station, with a large staff of employees. Christmas island Carteret in 1767. Pitcairn was the name of the midshipman who (40 m. long, with an average width of 35 m.), pop. (1922) Eurofirst observed it. The present population are the descendants of peans 4, Tahitians 28, the largest atoll in the Pacific, has been the the mutineers of the “Bounty” who occupied the island, which scene of several attempts at coco-nut cultivation. It was discovthey found uninhabited in 1790, bringing with them from Tahiti ered by Captain Cook in 1777 and annexed by Britain in 1888 and six Polynesian men and twelve women; but it must be recorded included in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony in rọrọ. It was that the finding by these new-comers of stone implements, rock- leased to the Central Coco-nut Plantations Ltd., for 87 years in carvings, and other traces of humanity makes it certain that there 1914. South of the Equator the northernmost of the Line islands had been previous inhabitants, or at least visitors, at some former is Jarvis island (area 14 sq.m., pop. 30), a small treeless and almost grassless islet, which has obviously been elevated some 10 or time. In religion the islanders are “Seventh Day Adventists.” The 12 ft. above sea-level; it has, or had, considerable deposits of island is a British colony and is administered by a council of guano. South-east from Jarvis island, a chain of more or less simiseven members with a president (also chief magistrate), and a lar islets, the principal of which are Malden (35 sq.m.), Starbuck vice president (also Government secretary), subject to the con- (1 sq.m.), extends—but at considerable distances from each other trol of the high commissioner for the Western Pacific since Caroline, Vostok and Flint atolls. All these islands belong to 1898. The island grows coffee, and has poultry and goats. The Britain, Fanning, Washington and Christmas islands being a part products include beans, sugar-cane, yams, taro, melons, sweet of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Adjacent to Pitcairn potatoes, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, arrowroot and other island there are small uninhabited islands, namely Oeno and Ducie atolls, and Henderson, or Elizabeth island, which last named is fruits and vegetables. remarkable as being an eighty feet high flat-topped island which THE OUTLYING GROUPS appears to have been raised by some subterranean convulsion. Within this section fall the Marquesas islands, Palmyra, WashThe Hawaiian group (Sandwich islands) are treated in a separate ington, Fanning and Christmas islands, the Hawaii islands, Easter article. The remaining outlying Pacific islands, e.g., Easter island, Sala-y-Gomez, etc. island, Sala-y-Gomez and the Galapagos islands are also treated The Marquesas Archipelago, east from Caroline atoll, consists elsewhere. BreriocrarHy.—J. D. Hooker, A Lecture on Insular Flora (1868); of two somewhat distinct groups of high volcanic islands, peculiar

carries 15 islets, and its oblong lagoon affords the best anchorage

in the group. Hao (Harpe or Bow) atoll, 30 m. long with a width varying from 5 to 9 m., has some fifty islets around its lagoon —which is dangerously studded with coral heads. Anaa, or ‘Chain island” as Capt. Cook named it, 19 m. long with an average width of 6 miles, is remarkable in that it has, or recently had, a continuous growth of coco-nut palms along its entire rim, whereas when Capt. Cook visited it in 1769 the line of palms was so interrupted as to seem to grow from a number of regularly placed distinct islets—hence the name “Chain island”—this effect doubtless being due to the breaking of the line of trees by the great winds occasional in these parts. The almost innumerable Tuamotu islands differ in character

16

PACIFICO— PACIFIC OCEAN

C. E. Meinicke, Dże Inseln des Stillen Ozeans (Leipzig, 1875) ; E. Drake del Castillo, Remarques sur la flore de la Polynésie (1890); H. B. Guppy, Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific, 1896-1899 (1903

Formosa; the Philippine group, Palawan and Borneo. Amongst the islands of Malay archipelago are a number of enclosed areas seq.) also “Solomon Islands” (1887); Sir J. Banks, Journal during —the Sulu, Celebes, Java, Banda and Arafura seas. The question as to where within the Malay archipelago the Cook’s First Voyage, edited by Sir J. D. Hooker (1896); W. T. Brigham, An Index to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean (Honolulu, limit between the Indian and Pacific oceans is to be drawn, is 1900); R. L. Stevenson, In the South Seas (London, 1900); From as difficult to answer as the question of the natural boundary Saranac to the Marquesas and Beyond (Letters by Mrs. Stevenson) between Further India and Australia. Wallace placed the latter (1903) ; J.D. Rogers, Australasia, vol, vi. of The Historical Geography of the British Colonies, edited by Sir C. P. Lucas (1907); R. H. in the Macassar strait, so that Borneo would belong to the Indian Compton, New Caledonia and the Isle of Pines (Geogr. Journ. 1917) ; province, and Celebes to the Australian. So far as we know to-day F. Lenwood, Pastels from the Pacific (1917); Ed. Suess, La Face de we must argue, from oceanographic considerations, e.g., the conla Terre (Das Autlitz der Erde) Tomes II. and III. (1918); Report figuration of the sea floor, the properties of the water, etc., that of the Inter-State Commission on British and Australian Trade in the Pactfic (1918); G. H. Scholefield, The Pacific, its Past and Future the deep basins of the Sulu sea, Celebes sea, Flores sea, Savu (1919); W. M. Davis, The Islands and Coral Reefs of Fiji (Geogr. sea and Banda sea, belong to the Pacific, while the shallow Java Journ. 1920); H. Courtet, Nos Etablissements en Océanie (1920); sea and the South China sea are part of the Indian ocean. A. Bullard, The A.B.C’s of Disarmament and the Pacific Problems The Pacifc was first scientifically explored by the great Eng(1920) ; F. Coffee, Foriy Years on the Pacific (1920) ; G. Regelsperger, lish Deep-Sea Expedition of H.M.S. “Challenger” (1872-76) L’Océanie frangaise (1922); W. H.R. Rivers, Essays on the Depopulaand then by the German expedition of S.M.S. “Gazelle” (1874-76), tion of Melanesia (1922); G. M. Crivelli and P. Lorwet, L’Australie et le Pactfique (1923); Sir C. Markham, The Voyage of P. F. de by the two United States ships “Tuscarora” (1874-76, 1878-79) Quiros, 1595-1606, vols. i, and ii, (1924) ; Sir E. Im Thurn and L. C, and “Albatross” (1888, 1890-92, 1899-1900, 1904-05), by the Wharton, The Journal of Wm. Lockerby, Sandalwood

Trader in the

Fijian Islands, r808—1809 (1925); R. W. Williamson, The Social and Political Systems of Central Polynesia (1926); A. J. A. Douglas and

P. H. Johnson, The South Seas of Today (1926); C. B. Humphreys, The Southern New Hebrides (1926); S. Roberts, Population Problems of Pacific (1927); W. M. Davis, The Coral Reef Problem, Special

Publication, No, 9 (Amer. Geog. Socy., 1928); Handbook of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, (Sydney, 1911); Stewart’s Handbook of the Pacific Islands (Sydney and London, 1922); Jubilee Handbook of Fijt (1874-1924); Fiji Government Handbook (Suva, 1924); Journal of the Polynesian Society (quarterly). Foreign Office Reports on the trade of Tonga, the Solomon Islands and the New

Hebrides.

PACIFICO, DON or DAVID

(E. ™ T.; X.)

PACIFICO

(1784-1854).

A Portuguese Jew born a British subject in Gibraltar who brought an action against the Hellenic Government claiming £26,000 compensation for his house in Athens burnt down in 1847 in an anti-Semitic riot. Pacifico finally received compensation.

PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest division of the hydrosphere,

lying between Asia and Australia and North and South America. It is nearly landlocked to the north, communicating with the Arctic ocean only by Bering strait, which is 65 km. wide and of small depth. The southern boundary was sometimes regarded as the parallel of 664° S., but this limit is artificial, and it is now considered that the Pacific extends to the borders of the Antarctic continent, exactly as the Atlantic and Indian oceans do. As east and west boundaries in the higher southern latitudes one may take the meridians passing through South cape in Tasmania and Cape Horn. The north to south distance from Bering strait to Antarctica, near Cape Adare, is 15,500 km. or 8,350 nautical miles, and the Pacific attains its greatest breadth between Panama and Mindanao (Philippine Isl.), when it measures 17,200 km. or 9,300 nautical miles. The distance between Yokohama (Japan) and San Francisco is about half as great again as that from New York to Southampton; similarly the distance between Sydney and Cape Horn is greater than that from Buenos Aires to Cape Town by fully a half. The coasts of the Pacific are of varied contour. The American coasts are for the most part mountainous and unbroken, the chief indentation being the Gulf of California; but the general type is departed from in the

extreme north and south, the southern coast of South America consisting of bays and fjords with scattered islands, while the coast of Alaska is similarly broken in the south and becomes low and swampy towards the north. The coast of Australia is high and unbroken; there are no inlets of considerable size, although the small openings include some of the finest harbours in the world, as Moreton bay and Port Jackson. The Asiatic coasts are for the most part low and irregular and a number of seas are more or less completely enclosed and cut off from communication with the open ocean. Bering sea is bounded by the Alaskan peninsula and the chain of the Aleutian islands; the Sea of

Okhotsk is enclosed by the peninsula of Kamchatka and the Kurile islands; the Sea of Japan is shut off by Sakhalin island, the Japanese islands and the peninsula of Korea; the Yellow sea is an opening between the coast of China and Korea; the China sea lies between the Asiatic continent and the island of

Russian warship “Vitiaz” (1887), by S.M.S. “Planet” (1906-14) and others. For many important soundings in the south-west Pacific we are indebted to H.M.S. “Penguin” and many British cable ships; in high southern latitudes the “Discovery” (1901-04) carried out many observations. Lately many oceanographical enterprises have been prosecuted by the Japanese navy, as well as from the U.S. oceanographical station at San Diego (California). Extent.—-The area and volume of the Pacific ocean and its seas, with the mean depths calculated therefrom, are given in the article Ocean. The Pacific ocean has double the area of the Atlantic—the next largest division of the hydrosphere—and has more than double its volume of water. Its area is as much as the area of Africa, greater than the whole land surface of the globe, Antarctica included. The total land area draining to the Pacific is estimated by Murray at 19,400,000 sq.km., or little more than one-fourth of the area draining to the Atlantic. The American rivers draining to the Pacific, except the Yukon, Columbia and Colorado, are unimportant. The chief Asiatic rivers are the Amur, the Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang, none of which enters the open Pacific directly. Hence the proportion of purely oceanic area to the total area is greater in the Pacific than in the Atlantic.

Relief of Bed.—The bed of the Pacific is not naturally divided into physical regions, but for descriptive purposes the parts of the area lying east and west of 150° W. are conveniently dealt with separately. The eastern region is characterized by great uniformity of depth; the 4,000 metres line keeps close to the American coast except off the Isthmus of Panama, whence an ill-defined ridge of less than 4,000 metres runs, including the Galapagos islands, south-westwards, and again off the coast of South America in about 40° S., where a similar bank runs west and unites with the former. The bank then continues south to the Antarctic ocean, in about rr0o° W. Practically the whole of the north-east Pacific is therefore more than 4,000 metres deep, and the south-east has two roughly triangular spaces, including the greater part of the area, with depths of more than 4,000 metres. Notwithstanding this great average depth, the ‘“‘deeps” or “trenches,” deeper than 5,000 metres, which are so characteristic of the western Pacific, are small in number and extent in the eastern half along the west coasts of North and South America. Four small deeps are recognized along a line close to the coast of South America, and parallel to it, in the depression enclosed by the two banks mentioned; ż2.e., along the coast of Chile and Peru between 35° and 10° S. The first deep (5,667 metres) lies with its centre off Valparaiso; the second and deepest (7,635 metres) has its centre off Taltal, and is called the Atacama trench; the third (6,867 metres) lies in the angle of the coast between Iquique and Mollendo; the fourth (5,868 metres) in front of

Callao. All four deeps have their greatest depth between roo and 400 km. from the coast. The largest gulf on the north-west coast, off Puget sound and British Columbia, even at a great distance from land, reaches only the relatively small depth of less than 3,000 metres. East of

150° W. the Pacific has few islands; the oceanic islands are

PACIFIC OCEAN volcanic, and coral formations are, of course, scanty. The most important group is the Galapagos islands. On the other hand in the western Pacific we have numberless great and small islands

and island groups. They are sometimes set out in regular chains, at other times spread out irregularly over great areas. To the first type, in the north, belong the Aleutians, the Kuriles, the

Japanese islands, the Riu-Kiu islands, the Philippines, and parallel to them the Pelew islands, the Yap group, the Bonin and Marianne group; in the Southern Hemisphere, the Solomon islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and New Zealand. New Zealand morphologically is related northward to the Kermadec and Tonga islands, and southward through the Auckland islands to Macquarie island (550° S.). On the outside of nearly all these island chains are observed very deep, and sometimes fairly wide, trenches, in which depths of over 8,000, even over 10,000 metres, have been registered. This is the most important characteristic of the configuration of the Pacific floor; no other ocean has anything like it. The greatest deeps are the Aleutian trench (7,382 metres), the Kurile-Japanese trench (8,514 metres), the Philippine trench, eastward of north Mindanao in Jat. 9° 42’ N. and long. 126° 51’ E., only 75 km. from the coast where in 1927 the German cruiser “Emden” measured the greatest of all sea depths, viz., 10,800 metres. In the same latitudes three other trenches are known, east of the Palau islands, east of Yap and south-east of Guam and the Marianne islands, where the United

17

of the whole. Over a large part of the central Pacific, far removed from any possible land influences or deposits of ooze, the red clay region is characterized by the occurrence of manganese, which gives the clay a chocolate colour, and manganese nodules are found in vast numbers, along with sharks’ teeth and the earbones and other bones of whales. Radiolarian ooze is found in the central Pacific in a region between r5° N. to ro° S. and 140° E. to 150° W., occurring in seven distinct localities and covering an area of about 3,000,000 sq.km.; further, a wider

strip of radiolarian ooze was discovered by the “Challenger” and the “Albatross,” between

7° and 12° N. lat., stretching from

140° W. long. to the neighbourhood of the west coast of Central

America, bringing the total area of the radiolarian ooze in the Pacific to about 10,000,000 sq. kilometres. Between these two areas, almost on the Equator, a strip of globigerina ooze was found corresponding to the zone of globigerina in the equatorial region of the Atlantic. Globigerina ooze covers considerable areas in the intermediate depths of the west and south Pacific—west of New Zealand, and along the parallel of 40° S., between 80°-98° W. and 150°~118° W.—but this deposit is not known in the

north-eastern part of the basin. The total area covered by it is estimated at 30,000,000 sq.km.—about two-thirds of that in the Atlantic. Pteropod ooze occurs only in the neighbourhood of Fiji and other islands of the western Pacific, passing up into fine coral sands and mud. Diatom ooze has been found in a broad band

States telegraph ship “Nero” found a depth of 9,685 metres. between 57° and 67° S. lat., and thus in the Antarctic part of In the Southern Hemisphere between New Guinea and the the Pacific, corresponding with its occurrence in the same latiSolomon islands is the Bougainville trench (9,140 metres). The tudes in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. New Caledonian trench has a depth of 7,570 metres. Finally, Meteorology.—Partly on account of its great extent, and H.M.S. “Penguin” explored the Kermadec-Tonga trench which partly because there is no wide opening to the Arctic regions, lies outside; z.¢., eastward of these groups between 36° S. and the normal wind circulation is on the whole less modified in the 16° S. and includes depths attaining 9,412 metres. The area of north Pacific than in the Atlantic, except in the west, where the these long, deep regions is always small; these deeps lie parallel south-west monsoon of southern Asia controls the prevailing to the coasts of the present continents or to the coasts of earlier winds, its influence extending eastwards to 145° E., near the continents. In earlier geological epochs, for example, a continent Ladrones, and southwards to the Equator. In the south Pacific, may have extended eastward from New Guinea to the Tonga during the winter months of the Northern Hemisphere, the northislands and New Zealand, and perhaps north to the Mariannes. west monsoon of Australia affects a belt running east of New It is certain that in these trenches, which lie in front of the fold Guinea to the Solomon islands. In the east the north-east trademountains of eastern Asia, is to be sought a centre of great tec- belt extends between 5° and 25° N., the south-east trade crosses tonic disturbances; just as the west coast of South America is the Equator, and its mean southern limit is 25° S. The tradeafflicted by terrible earthquakes, whose epicentre lies in the winds are generally weaker and less persistent in the Pacific than trenches off Chile and Peru. The immense stretches of the west in the Atlantic, and the intervening belt of equatorial calms is Pacific contain, besides these regular island groups and deeps, broader. Except in the east of the Pacific, the south-east trade many irregularly strewn islands; e.g., the Hawaii islands, the is only fully developed during the southern winter; at other seaCarolines, the Gilbert islands, the Samoa archipelago, the Tau- sons the regular trade-belt is cut across from north-west to motu archipelago, etc. Most have volcanic cores; in low lati- south-east by a band 20°—30° wide, in which the trades alternate tudes these islands are surrounded with coral reefs, or it may with winds from north-east and north, and with calms, the calms be that the reefs alone appear as atolls. In the great areas be- prevailing chiefly at the boundary of the monsoon region (5° N.tween these groups the sea floor sinks to depths exceeding 4,000 I5° 5., 160°-185° E.). This area, in which the south-east trade metres, sometimes even exceeding 6,000 metres. Thus the Pacific is interrupted, includes the Fiji, Navigator and Society groups, has an average depth of 4,028 metres; this average is greater and the Paumotus. In the Marquesas group the trade-wind is than in any other ocean, the figure for the Atlantic being 3,332 fairly constant. metres. The following table showing the area of the floor at The great, warming and abundant rainfall of the island regions various depths for the Pacific is the work of Kossinna (1921) :— of the western south Pacific, and the low temperature of the surface water in the east, cause a displacement of the southern tropical maximum of pressure to the east; hence we have a Metres permanent “south Pacific anti-cyclone” close to the coast of Sq. kilometres a South America. The characteristic feature of the south-western o- 200. 10,207,600 Pacific is therefore the relatively low pressure and the existence 200-1,000 . 5,627,100 1,000~2,000 . of a true monsoon region in the middle of the trade-wind belt. 7,018,400 2,000-3,000 . 3,000-4,000 . 4,000-5,000 . 5,000-6,000 . 6,000-7,000 . 7;000-8,000 .

8,000-9,000 . 9,000-+ ,

9,384,000

33,248,100

63,074,200

* 47,727,700

NO H

302,000 II4,200

Q

2,957,800

Ox GOUN DER HE on a AANA DVÓ N N

17,900

179,679,000 Deposits.—The deeper parts of the bed of the Pacific are Total.

covered by deposits of red clay (see Ocean), which occupies an

area estimated at no less than 105,672,000 sq.km., or three-fifths

It is to be noted that the climate of the islands of the Pacific becomes more and more healthy the farther they are from the monsoon region. The island regions of the Pacific are everywhere characterized by uniform high air-temperatures; the mean annual range varies from 1° to g° F, and the diurnal range from 9° to 16°. In the monsoon region relative humidity is high, viz., 80 to 90%. The rainfall is abundant; in the western island groups there is no well-marked rainy season, but over the whole region the greater part of the rainfall takes place during the southern summer, even as far north as Hawaii. The whole north Pacific from the tropic to the Bering sea has on its Asiatic side a monsoonal reversal of its prevailing winds,

18

PACIFIC OCEAN

winter and summer. In winter exceedingly dry and cold north- the Atlantic north-east trades, it is over 36%o or 37%0. The westerly winds, dependent on an air pressure maximum over reason for this is not yet known with certainty; probably evaporaSiberia and an air pressure minimum near the Aleutians, blow tion is less than in the Pacific because of the smaller velocity of over the whole area; in summer, with low pressure over the the wind, and the rainfall is greater than in the Atlantic. The Asiatic continent, warm and rainy south and south-easterly winds geographical disposition of the varying salt content is essentially (in connection with the south-west monsoon of the China sea) the same in the Pacific as in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In prevail over the whole area of the Yellow sea, Japan sea, Okhotsk each hemisphere, in the region of the north-east and south-east sea and Bering sea. On the American side of the Pacific this trade-winds, appears a broad zone with relatively the highest complete change of wind direction is absent, and throughout the salt content. In northern latitudes its centre lies in the middle year moist, warm winds from the ocean; 7.e., south-westerlies, of the ocean; in southern latitudes it is in the eastern or South prevail from Sitka to Vancouver, except for irregular changes in American half. Between these, mostly from 5°~10° N. lat., is a consequence of the passing of atmospheric depressions. These small strip of water poor in salt, stretching from the Philippines circumstances explain the great differences shown in the following to the coast of Central America; here the salt content amounts table between the average air temperatures on the Australo- to less than 34%. in the west, less than 33% in the east, where, in the Gulf of Panama, 31%o or even 30%o have been Asiatic side of the Pacific and on the American :— observed. North and south also from the two first-named tropical Air Temperature (° F) and Rainfall (mm.) in the Pacific maxima the salt content diminishes, particularly in the north Pacific. In the ocean off the Japanese islands, in spite of a warm Place current resembling the Gulf Stream, the salt content is only 34-5%0 OF 34%o, almost 2%o less than in the Atlantic. The Ajan, Sea of Okhotsk and Bering seas, which perhaps can be compared with Okhotsk 35°4| 55°O| 14°4 Baffin bay and the Norway sea, have 32-31%o, a salt content Sitka, U.S.A. 44°I | 54°9 | 36°7 | 42°5 | 22°4 | 2,070 2—3%o less than the Atlantic regions named. The distribution of saltness in the depths of the Pacific ocean Yokohama, Japan . . is not yet sufficiently known, but it seems to correspond in the 63°3 | 78z | 52-3 | 57°7 | 38-2 | 1,476 San Francisco main with that ascertained for the Atlantic (¢.v.). U.S.A. . : 54°r | 58:6 | 56-2) 552 | 0-8} 594 Circulation.—The surface currents of the Pacific have not Sydney, Austrabeen studied in the same detail as those of the Atlantic, and 58°5 | 54°5 | 66°4 | 62°8 | 19° | 1,265 lia. oo... their seasonal variations are little known except in the monsoon Valparaiso, regions. Speaking generally, however, it may be said that they Chile . . 55°6 | 52°5 | 590 | 57°7 |106| 355 are for the most part under the direct control of the prevailing Temperature.—The distribution of temperature in the waters winds. The North Equatorial current is due to the action of the of the Pacific ocean has been fully investigated, so far as is pos- north-east trades. It splits into two parts east of the Philippines, sible with the existing observations, by G. Schott. At the surface one division flowing northwards as the Kuro Siwo or Black Stream, an extensive area of maximum temperature (over 82° F) occurs the analogue of the Gulf Stream, to feed a drift circulation which over 10° on each side of the Equator to the west of the ocean. follows the winds of the north Pacific, and finally forms the CaliOn the eastern side temperature falls to 72° F on the Equator fornian current flowing south-eastwards along the American and is slightly higher to north and south. In the north Pacific, coast. Part of this rejoins the North Equatorial current, and beyond lat. 40°, the surface is generally warmer on the east than part probably forms the variable Mexican current, which follows on the west, but this condition is, on the whole, reversed in cor- the coasts of Mexico and California close to the land. The responding southern latitudes. In the intermediate levels, down Equatorial Counter-current flowing eastwards is largely assisted to depths not exceeding 1,000 metres, a remarkable distribution during the latter half of the year by the south-west monsoon, appears. A narrow strip of cold water runs between the Equator and from July to October the south-west winds prevailing east and 10° N., widest to the east and narrowing westward, and of 150° E. further strengthen the current, but later in the year separates two areas of maximum which have their greatest in- the easterly winds weaken or even destroy it. Between the Kuro tensity in the western part of the ocean and have their central Siwo and the Asiatic coast; że., east of the Kuriles and Kamportions in higher latitudes as depth increases, apparently tend- chatka, a band of cold water with a slight movement to the southing constantly to a position in about latitude 20° to 30° N. and S. ward, known as the Oya Siwo, forms an analogue of the “cold A comparison of this distribution with that of atmospheric pressure wall” of the Atlantic. In the Japan sea, too, on the Siberian coast, is of great interest. High temperature in the depth may be taken as well as in the Yellow sea on the Chinese coast, there flows to mean descending water, just as high atmospheric pressure southward, during the greater part of the year, cold water poor means descending air; low temperature in the depth may be taken in salt. This current is easily recognized from its green colour in to mean ascending water, as low pressure means ascending air, the Straits of Formosa as far as Hong Kong. In the Southern and hence it would seem that the slow vertical movement of water Hemisphere the South Equatorial current is produced by the in the Pacific reproduces to some extent the phenomena of the south-east trades, and is much more vigorous than its northern “doldrums” and “horse latitudes.” The isothermal lines, in fact, counterpart. On reaching theewestern Pacific, part of this cursuggest that in the vast area of the Pacific something correspond- rent passes southwards, east of New Zealand, and again east of ing to a “planetary circulation” is established. In the greater Australia, as the east Australian current parts northwards to depths of more than 2,000 metres, temperature is extraordinarily join the Equatorial Counter-current. In the higher latitudes of uniform, 80% of the existing observations falling within the the south Pacific the surface movement forms part of the west limits of 34-8 and 35-5. In the enclosed seas of the western wind-drift of the Roaring Forties. Pacific, temperature usually falls till a depth corresponding to The cold water of this stream, with contributions from the that of the summit of the barriers which isolate them from the depths, on the coasts of Chile and, Peru, gives rise to the scantiopen ocean is reached, and below that point temperature is uni- ness of the rain in this region as far northward as Callao and form to the bottom. In the Sulu sea, for example, a temperature Payta, an effect analogous to that of the Benguela current along of so-4° F is reached at 700 metres, and this remains constant the coast of South-west Africa. Sometimes it appears that this to the bottom in 4,660 metres. Peruvian current in the northern part is hemmed in by the warmer Salinity.—The surface waters of the whole Pacific have less water of the “El nifio” current, which spreads southward from salt than those in the corresponding regions of the Atlantic. For the coast of Colombia and Ecuador. This has disastrous conexample, the salt content west of San Francisco is 33-2%o, but sequences for the animal world: the guano-birds and the fish die. west of Lisbon over 36%; in the north-east trade region of the It also has fatal effects on the coast regions, for the rain assoPacific it measures only about 35%o, whereas, in the region of ciated with the warm current entails great economic injury on

PACIFIC

OCEAN

this erstwhile desert-like region. Such a catastrophe occurred last in Peru between January and March 1925. See Reports of expeditions of the U.S.S. “Albatross” and “Thetis” (1888-92) ; A. Agassiz, Expedition to the Tropical Pacific (1899—1900, 1904—05); H.M.S. “Challenger” (1873—76); “Egeria” (1888-89 and 1899); “Elisabeth” (1877); “Gazelle” (1875-76); “Planet” (1906) ; “Penguin” (1891-1903); “Tuscarora” (1873~74); “Vettor Pisani” (1884) ; “Vitiaz” (1887-88) ; also observations of surveying and cable

ships, and special papers in the Annalen der Hydrographie; for distribution of temperature and for currents see H. Thorade, p. 17 (1909); G. Schott, p. 2 (1910); B. Schulz, p. 177 (xorz); F. Zorck, p. 166 (1928); for salinity see G. Schott, p. 148 (1928) and in the Archiv der Seewarte (G. Schott, 1891; C. Puls, 1895).

PACIFIC

OCEAN

QUESTIONS.

The huge expanse of

the Pacific, covering half the globe, has obstructed human migration and intercourse till recent times. There was only one way of reaching America from Asia, and that was over Behring’s Straits, a shallow connection between the Arctic and the Pacific, 36 m. broad. It was doubtless across this gap that the New

World was peopled. The Kuro Siwo or tropical current which runs north along the East Coast of Japan and when it reaches its northern limit bends south-east along the American Coast may have carried craft on to a shore far from home, and thus Japanese or Chinese junks may have been borne on to the islands on the north-west coast of America or even on to the continent itself. There is a zone of westerly winds that might assist seacraft from

QUESTIONS

IQ

pursuit of gold drew crowds to California and Australia; but not in earnest till railways across North America commenced to direct the trail of the immigrants to the western lands and the cheapness and capacity of steamer traffic peopled the east of Australia and New Zealand and drew to it Oriental traders and labourers. Not till near the end of the roth century did the white man realise the great part the Pacific was to play in the history of mankind. China and Japan.—The Suez canal came earlier; but that would have been cut had there been no great ocean beyond Asia; its aim was to bring Oriental possessions nearer to their managers and the Oriental market nearer to the manufacturing nations of Europe. The greatest of all Oriental markets, China, was the last to come within the range of Western commerce, though the Arabs had been trading with Canton for many centuries. Like all lands enriched by the overflow of rivers, northern and eastern China were early populated and were organised first socially and then politically soon after the old stone age gave way to the neolithic. But the spill of peoples from the steppes of central Asia continued

to be recurrent. The northern plains and plateaux of China were ever overcrowded, and drought or flood from “China’s sorrow,” the Hwang Ho, followed by famine, caused the people to overflow southwards into a zone that was warmer and seldom or never troubled with droughts. Thus this rich section of the earth came to hold one-fourth of the human race, so wedded to the soil and to the graves of their ancestry that it became the most stable of peoples, ready for the strong and vigorous ruler to civilise and unify; and when civil war ceased it had long periods of peace that made it easy for so prolific a race to fill its borders to overflowing, ripe for the discipline of famine and plague. Further north the closer proximity of the Japanese islands to the continental coast stimulated migration throughout at least the neolithic and bronze ages. It was doubtless the central Asiatic push that drove the Mongoloids over the straits of Tsushima in the bronze age. But they found the archipelago already filled with a vigorous Caucasoid people whom they called the “hairy Ainw” because of their having much face-hair. Though aided and led by a seafaring people who. came overseas from the south, it took them till the 12th century to drive the aborigines north of Tokio. That another race different from all three had found its way into the archipelago is evident in the tall people over the mountains of the central island. The East and West developed their civilisations in isolation from each other. Japan closed its doors against alien civilisations and foreign commerce just when with its maritime bent it might have gone freely all over the great ocean and planted its colonies in Indonesia, Australia and New Zealand and on the western shores of America without any hindrance. At its awakening in the latter part of the roth century and its welcome to Occidental trade and culture the Occident had placed its mark upon these lands and begun to pour in its immigrants. Now that the East is eager to find issues for the overflow of its prolific population, the white man has fenced in by head tax and prohibitions these open lands to the west and south against the Oriental who has to find the main arena for his immigration on the continent of Asia. The islands of the ocean where it is not merely welcomed but sought after affords but little scope for a country like China which, according to a recent rough Shanghai estimate, added nearly 50,000,000 to its population between 1923 and 1926, in spite of civil war, and like Japan which added 700,000 to its 65,000,000 in 1927, in spite of its decreasing birth-rate and increasing death-

Asia to America, but the equatorial zone of calms and variable winds makes migration or even drift across the broadest part of the ocean improbable. The southern zone of westerlies, commonly called “the roaring forties” lying between 40 and 60 degrees south is the only one that could give easy passage from west to east such as a migration or trade route demands; but the landless character of the Pacific there makes it improbable, especially as an unmaritime people occupied Australia, and New Zealand was uninhabited till the daring sailors of Polynesia reached it. After that time Maori canoes seem to have come as far east as the South American coast as evidenced by the likeness of the Araucanian stone axe to the Polynesian, and especially the identity of the name for it in both regions (toki), the identity of a polished war-club with cutting edges and wristcord found early last century in a grave in Ecuador with the Maori mere, the use of the earth-oven and of an intoxicating drink made by chewing the root of a plant in ancient Chile, and especially the identity of the Araucanian name of this last (cawau) with that of the similarly brewed Polynesian drink (kawa). Problem of Polynesia.—By far the most difficult of Pacific questions is that of the peopling of the far-spread groups of the centre and east of the Ocean. The voyagers of the 18th century observed the identity of the people who occupied the widelydivided islands of this vast region in customs, language and physique, and called them the Polynesians, or people of the many islands. And when they went away west through Melanesia, Papuasia and Indonesia and found that most of the languages they encountered had a proportion of their vocabulary manifestly related to, if not identical with, Polynesian words, and the numerals the same all through, they assumed that the language was one and the same, and called it Malayo-Polynesian. The further conclusion that it indicated the same race was too manifestly in conflict with the pronounced racial differences to be long held. That there is a negroid element in the physique of many Polyhesians is undenied, but how it came into the Pacific is one of its difficult questions; for the universal custom in Polynesia of massaging the nose of the baby as soon as it is born, into the rate. flat, negroid form, is meant to add to the beauty of the face, and |, Industrialization of the East.—Manchuria is, now that it that idea of beauty could not have arisen if there was an ab- has a network of railways, giving issue to the overflow of China; original negroid race in the islands, which the newcomers sub- nearly a million trooped into it in 1927, chiefly from northern dued. The ethnologist must rely on other features of the physique; China which was harassed with civil war and famine and especially and there are plenty to distinguish this people from those to the from Shantung. Japan, after the defeat of Russia, thought it had west of them. secured an arena for its overflow in taking over the Southern The Age of Steam.—It was the age of steam that brought the Manchurian railway, but failed to turn the current of emigration Pacific ocean into world history and made Pacific questions thither; in 1909, for example, 600,000 Japanese entered, but by urgent. The era that was to bring the two great cultured racial the end of the year, 575,000 had gone back to their own land. sections of mankind into closer contact and to make the great But Manchuria is essential to the life of Japan as a producer of ocean fulfill its destiny as the arena of history began when the its food, of raw material for its manufactures and of profit from

20

PACIFIC OCEAN

QUESTIONS

10,000 or even 100,000 years to reach its dénouement, so contrasted are the peoples and cultures, so broad the sea that divides them, so slow the processes that have to depend only on commercial intercourse. The most hopeful omen is the rapidity with which Japan has absorbed Occidental culture and yet come out of the process strong in her personality and national character. It was her national environment that made this abnormal rapidity sure without a devastating revolution. An island or extensive archipelago lying not far off a populous continent in the temperate zone, the zone of enterprise and initiative, and across the latitudes so as to secure a constant flow of variations for selection to work on, once it attains a unity, is bound to make swift and easy progress and to a play a dominant part in the ocean around it, if not in the world as a whole. Japan is the counterpart in the Pacific of Britain in the Atlantic. There are two other insular unities in the ocean that have a similar environment, New Zealand in the south and Vancouver in the north; whether they will have a large part to play is an interesting question; one is too far from its still sparsely populated island-continent and the other too much in the shadow of Canada to enter soon into the dominance that its ancient civilization is the question of Pacific questions, when is the natural heritage of such an environment; but both will we consider the mass and fecundity of its population and thè po- have that combination of a sailor-breed and a mountain-breed tentialities of its resources. As yet its republican form of Govern- which makes a people bold in enterprise and passionately dement has proved itself a failure. How long it will take to make voted to freedom; they will be the maritime shields of their it a reality instead of a pretence depends upon the answer to a neighbours. The very isolation of New Zealand will make her variety of questions; chief of which is this: Can a nation so huge capable of controlling her own destiny and transmitting pure and unorganized overcome the handicap of its script as Japan her Anglo-Saxon culture and tradition, whilst her proximity to A the islands of the South Seas will make her dominant in their has done and make education universal and compulsory? development and prosperity. How Australia is to fill her empty 10,000 the reduced Chinese scholar, James Yen, of Pekin, has ideographs essential for education to 1,000, and, within a year spaces and preserve her white tradition so far from Europe and or two, has had a million of his countrymen taught them so near to the East is one of the most clamant Pacific questions her through volunteer teachers. Japan has raised the standard of and next to it stands in importance how she is to develop and Columbia British for As areas. desert, not if droughty, vast doubling the of spite in 50% least at population her of living republic of its numbers during the last half-century; this she has done Canada, as a whole they lie in the shadow of the great by her vigorous industrialization; but she is the most organizable and for generations will be more or less dependent on her for of Oriental nations, because of her insular character, the absence capital and development. It is significant that three of the most developable countries of disturbing racial differences, and the atmosphere of social priabut on the ocean are English-speaking, and that the peoples the that abolished revolution the when left was that discipline descent have been amongst the most enterprising Anglo-Saxon of all of most vileges of her highly-educated aristocracy; but by sea; because she set herself at once to the task of establishing in pushing their way both by Jand and sea but especially and colonization in pioneers of successful most the been have they a system of universal education. Russia.—One of the most interesting of Pacific questions is commerce. It looks as if English were ultimately to be the Pacific ocean; and a sign of this is how far Bolshevik Russia will succeed in the Orient. In China dominant language in the favourite medium of communication the is pidgin-English that its propaganda is probably doomed to failure because of the dialects besides being the favourite different of Chinese between heir fallen has it if but peasant-proprietorship; almost universal linguistic intermediary in the islands of the ocean even when owned to bound to the Oriental ambitions of Tsarist Russia, there is that speak another European language. be a triangular conflict in Manchuria; it cannot abandon the and managed by peoples of the isolated Easter island though shorter route to the Pacific by the Chinese Eastern railway through The Polynesian dialect and Chilean officials has ten north Manchuria. Japan cannot abandon its claims on Man- moulded by French missionaries in it than French and embedded words English more times manufor material raw and food its of source churia as the best element in the trade Oriental large the And combined. Spanish factures and its best market; nor can China cease to proclaim make pidgin-English their means Seas South the of labour and it that now own her Wall Great the outside province great this of intercourse. The only language besides English that seems to is filling up with Chinese. The Future—Advance towards the conciliation between East have much chance of spreading in the ocean is the Japanese; for it belongs to a people that is naturally seafaring, commercial and West will not be possible till this is settled. And the mutual influence of their culture and civilization will be of little avail un- and colonizing. It is not easy to answer what type of political system is likely less there is peace and mutual respect between them. Occidentals to spread in the Pacific ocean and to dominate in the far future cease and superiority must give up their arrogant assumption of thinking of Oriental social customs and religious attitudes as the world unity that is the desire and may be the goal of mankind. Two that abut on the ocean and share largely in its traffic prefutilities to be thrust aside for what they introduce, whilst Orientals must learn to recognize what the “foreign devils” have sent each a type that has a strong chance of survival because they done for theit commerce and the development of their countries. are capable of sheltering and unifying varied kinds of commuThe Pacific ocean is the arena in which must be worked out the nities; and both belong to the English-speaking peoples. One is ptoblems of the unification of mankind; for here have been the United States; it is a federal system that permits of the freest brought face to face the racial types that have shown the greatest intercourse between its separate states whilst giving each its own legislative individuality; for it has lowered all tariff barriers. ° capacity for advance in civilization. The other is the British commonwealth of nations which spreadnaas slower grown has hybridization human of process The tions have become stable and will grow slower still as national ing round the world keeps its units in vital intercourse by proconsciousness becomes more definite in its aims. And in the tected maritime traffic and by periodical conferences that decide Pacific ocean, the new stage set for the next drama of human how they can assist and guard one another’s freedom and interevolution, the action may drag through acts that each may take ests. An amalgamation of these two types may produce the

its railways; little wonder that Japan is ever expanding the railway system and making the future of this great market secure. For the island nation is rapidly industrializing itself as the only solution of its problem of over-population. Whether this is to be the solution of China’s still more clamant problem after Manchuria and Mongolia and eastern Siberia have received their full complement of farmers and coolies is a Pacific question that will have to be answered before the end of this century. The process has already begun in the cities on the deltas of the rivers; the labour is cheap enough and, in its own way, virile enough; but “its financial success depends on the honesty and thoroughness of the business methods; and hitherto few or no Chinese companies have paid dividend and the railways managed by the Chinese are failures. This is due to the eleventh commandment of “squeeze,” a tradition born of the payment of Government officials by what they could extract from the tax-payers. It is still a question whether Oriental mass-production managed by Orientals can attain the standard and honesty of the former individual craftsmanship; and on that depends the stability of the markets the products may find. Whether China can follow the lead of Japan and westernize

PACK—PADANG final type that will fit a unified human race. It will allow of the greatest liberty of development to each of the national units whilst watching over their freedom of commercial and migrative intercourse. It may take tens, perhaps hundreds, of thousands of years to evolve; but the first arena for its evolution

will probably be the Pacific ocean.

21I

deposed Hyrcanus, and made his nephew Antigonus king. Meanwhile Labienus occupied Cilicia and the southern parts of Asia Minor down to the Carian coast (Dio Cass. xlviii. 26; Strabo xiv. 660). But in 39 P. Ventidius Bassus, the general of Mark Antony, drove him back into Cilicia, where he was killed, defeated the

Parthians in Syria (Dio Cass. xlviii. 39 sqq.) and at last beat

Pacorus at Gindarus (in northern Syria), on the goth of June, 38, the anniversary of the battle of Carrhae. Pacorus himself was slain in the battle, which effectually stopped the Parthian conThe Mystery of Easter Island (1919) ; K. Satomi, Japanese Civilisation (1923) ; J. Macmillan-Brown, The Riddle of the Pacific (1924), Peo- quests west of the Euphrates. ples and Problems of the Pacific (1927); J. W. Gregory, The Menace 2. Pacorus, Parthian king, only mentioned by Dio Cass. lxviii. of Colour (1925); Human Migration and the Future (1928); J. I7; Arrian, ap. Suid., s.v. &vnrth, according to whom he sold the Imbelloni, La Esfinge Indiana (1926) ; S. H. Roberts, Population Probkingdom of Osroëne to Abgar VII.; and Ammianus Marcellinus lems of the Pacific (1927); P. T. Etherton, China, the Facts (1927);

BrsLiocraPHy.—H. H. Bancroft, The New Pacific (1913) ; J. Matsumura, Contributions to the Ethnography of Micronesia (1918); G.

H. Scholefield, Tke Pacific, its Past and Present (1919) ; S. Routledge,

M. H. Sanger, Proceedings of the World Population Conference (1927); A. Karlgren, Bolshevist Russia (1927); R. Fiilop-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism (1927); A. Siegfried, America Comes of

Age (1927); P. King, Weighed in China’s Balance (1928).

(J. M.-B.)

PACK, OTTO VON

(c. 1480-1537), German conspirator.

In 1528 he revealed to Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the details of a scheme agreed upon in Breslau by the archduke Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., and other influential princes, to conquer Hungary for Ferdinand and then to attack the reformers in Germany. Pack was sent to Hungary to concert joint measures with John Zapolya; but John, elector of Saxony, advised that the associates of Ferdinand should be asked to explain their conduct, and Pack’s revelations were discovered to be false, the copy of the treaty which he had shown to Philip proving to be a forgery. Pack was seized in the Netherlands at the request of Duke George. Examined under torture he admitted the forgery, and was executed on Feb. 8, 1537. It is uncertain whether Philip was deceived by Pack, or was his assistant in concocting the scheme.

xxiii. 6. 23, who mentions that he enlarged Ctesiphon and built its walls. But from his numerous dated coins we learn that he was on the throne, with interruptions, from a.p. 78-95. He always calls himself Arsaces Pacorus. This mention of his proper name, together with the royal name Arsaces, shows that his kingdom was disputed by rivals. Two of them we know from coins—Vologaeses II., who appears from 77—79 and again from r111-146, and Artabanus III. in 80 and 81. Pacorus may have died about 105; he was succeeded by his brother Osroes. (Ep. M.)

PACUVIUS,

MARCUS

(ce. 220~130 B.c.), Roman

tragic

poet, was the nephew and pupil of Ennius, by whom Roman tragedy was first raised to a position of influence and dignity. Like Ennius he probably belonged to an Oscan stock, and was born at Brundusium, which had become a Roman colony in 244. Hence he never attained to idiomatic purity of style. Pacuvius

obtained distinction also as a painter; and the elder Pliny (Wat. Hist, xxxv. 19) mentions a work of his in the temple of Hercules in the Forum boarium. We know of 12 plays on Greek subjects, mostly connected with the Trojan cycle, and one praetexta, the See W. Schomburgk, Die Packschen Händel (Leipzig, 1882); H. Paulus, written to commemorate the victory of Pydna in 168. He Schwarz, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Händel (Leipzig, 1881); St. Ehses, Geschichte der Packschen Händel (Frei- continued to write tragedies till the age of 80, when he exhibited burg, 1881) and Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und Otto von Pack a play in the same year as Accius, who was then 30 years of age. (Freiburg, 1886). He retired to Tarentum for the last years of his life, and a story PACKER, ASA (1805-1879), American capitalist, was born is told by Gellius (xiii. 2) which is probably fictitious, of his in Mystic, Connecticut, on Dec. 29, 1805. He worked as a being visited there by Accius on his way to Asia, who read his carpenter in New York city for a time and then built canal-boats Atreus to him. The story is designed to illustrate the traditionary and locks for the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company, probably criticism (Horace, Epp. II. i. 54) of the two poets, the elder the first through shippers to New York. Between 1852 and 1855 noted for elegance, the younger for vigour. Cicero, who frequently a railway line was built for the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company, quotes from Pacuvius with admiration, appears (De optimo genere largely by Packer’s personal credit, from Mauch Chunk to Easton. oratorum, i.) to rank him first among the Roman tragic poets. The fragments of Pacuvius quoted by Cicero in illustration or He built the extension of the line into the Susquehanna valley and thence to connect with the Erie railway. In 1841 and 1842 he enforcement of bis own ethical teaching appeal, by the fortitude, was a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives; in dignity, and magnanimity of the sentiment expressed in them, to 1843-1848 was county judge of Carbon county; in 1853-1857 was what was noblest in the Roman temperament, while revealing a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives. a humanity of sentiment that was more unusual. Among the In 1865 he gave money and land in South Bethlehem, Pennsyl- passages quoted from Pacuvius are several which indicate a taste vania, for a technical school; Packer Hall, of Lehigh University both for physical and ethical speculation, and others which expose was completed in 1869; he erected a memorial library building in the pretensions of religious imposture, tendencies common to the 1877; and the university, by his will, received nearly one third of tragic poets of the period. These poets also contributed to the development of the language into an organ peculiarly suited to his estate. He died in Philadelphia on May 17, 1879. oratory. But the new creative effort in language was accompanied PACKING HOUSE: see Azsattorr and SLAUGHTER HOUSE. PACORUS, a Parthian name, borne by two Parthian princes. by considerable crudeness of execution, and the novel word-forr. Pacorus, son of Orodes I., was, after the battle of Carrhae, mations and varieties of inflexion introduced by Pacuvius exsent by his father into Syria at the head of an army in 52 B.C. posed him to the ridicule of the satirist Lucilius. But, notwithThe prince was still very young, and the real leader was Osaces. standing the attempt to introduce an alien element into the Roman He was defeated and killed by C. Cassius, and soon after Pacorus language, which proved incompatible with its natural genius, and was recalled by his father, because one of the satraps had rebelled his own failure to attain the idiomatic purity of Naevius, Plautus and proclaimed him king (Dio Cass. xl. 28 sqg.; Justin xlii. 4; or Terence, the fragments of his dramas are sufficient to prove cf. Cicero, ad Fam. xv. 1; ad Att. vi. 1. 14). Father and son were the service which he rendered to the formation of the literary reconciled, but the war against the Romans was always deferred. language of Rome as well as to the culture of his contemporaries. Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Fragmenta scaenicae romanorum poesis In the autumn of 45 Pacorus and the Arabic chieftain Alchau- (1897), vol. i.; see also his Römische Tragödie (1875); L. Miiller, donius came to the help of Q. Caecilius Bassus, who had rebelled De Pacuvii fabulis (1889); W. S. Teuffel, Caecilius Statius, Pacuvius, against Caesar in Syria; but Pacorus soon returned, as ħis troops oe Afranius (1858); and Mommsen, History of Rome, bk. iv. sora were unable to operate in the winter (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 9. 3; Dio

Cass. xlvii. 27). At last in 40 B.c. the Roman fugitive Titus

PADANG, the chief port on the west coast of Sumatra and

Labienus induced Orodes to send a great army under the com- capital of the residency of the west coast of Sumatra, Dutch mand of Pacorus against the Roman provinces. Pacorus con- East Indies, population 41,238 (2,548 Europeans and Eurasians). quered the whole of Syria and Phoenicia with the exception of Padang, which is 572 miles from Batavia, has prospered exceedTyre, and invaded Palestine, where he plundered Jerusalem, ingly since the opening-up of the Padang highlands with their

22

PADANG

HIGHLANDS—PADEREWSKI

great mineral wealth, tourist traffic, and the general extension of cultivation in Sumatra West Coast residency, aided by the construction of a railway along the coast to Sungei Limau and inland to Fort de Kock and Pajo Kumbu, and, branching off from Padang Panjang, to Sawah Lunto, and the harbour facilities of Emma Harbour. The town, which is the seat of the resident, and the headquarters of the railway, with offices, workshops, etc., and is overlooked by the Apenberg or Ape mountain, right on the coast, is beautifully laid out, with fine, well-kept roads and houses surrounded by large gardens. Many of the native houses are built on piles, and have thatched roofs, and, despite its modern buildings, Padang still possesses a rustic charm, and it has a cooler climate than most coastal towns so near the equator. The port, which is approached from the sea through a multitude of tiny evergreen islets, lies a short distance south-east of the town, on the north-west side of Koéninginne bay (Queen’s bay), and from it are exported copra, coffee, quinine, mace, damar, hides, rattans, and coal from the great Ombilin coal-fields which, in 1925, produced 543,745 tons. Emma Harbour, constructed between 1880-1890, has two breakwaters, one goo metres long, projecting at right angles to the coast; the other, 260 metres, running parallel with the coast across a coral bank: these give a harbour surface of one square kilometre. There are four wharves, with a total length of 433 metres, for general cargo, also

see of London by Edward VI. In the 18th century the rural scenery attracted artists, and even in the middle of the roth the open country was reached within the confines of the present

borough, which now contains no traces of antiquity. Bayswater is said to take its name from Baynard, a Norman, who after the Conquest held land here and had a castle by the Thames not far above the Tower. Many springs flowed forth here; the stream called Westbourne was near at hand, and water was formerly supplied hence to London. The parliamentary borough of Paddington has two divisions, each returning one member.

PADDLEFISH,

the common name in North America for

the spoonbill sturgeon (Polyodon spathula) of the Mississippi basin, which reaches a length of six feet and a weight of 150 lb. with a dark green smooth skin and long, bony, spoon-shaped snout. It is edible; the roe is made into caviar. (See FISH; STURGEON.)

PADDLE-WHEEL: see SHIPBUILDING. PADDY-BIRD, the name given in India to Ardeola grayi,

a small heron which feeds in the fields of paddy, or rice. The paddy-bird has a pied plumage of drab and white. The name “paddy-bird” is used by whalers to denote the sheathbill (q.v.). PADERBORN, a town and episcopal see in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 63 m. N.E. from Dortmund on the railway to Berlin via Altenbeken. Pop. (1925) 33,205, of whom about 80% are Roman Catholics. Paderborn owes its early development to Charlemagne, who held a diet here in 777 and wharves. dynamite a special coal wharf, and salt, petroleum and a few years later. The city about The coal wharf has a shute with a capacity of 300 tons per hour, made it the seat of a bishop walls. It joined the Hanseatic with surrounded was 1000 year the confloating a and hour, per tons 120 two electric conveyers of of a free Imperial town, privileges the of many obtained beLeague, tion veyer. Emma Harbour affords very frequent communica independence of the bishop. The its assert to endeavoured and ports, Malayan British and Java and Coast West tween Sumatra doctrines, but the older faith was and it is a port of call for steamers from Europe, Australia, China, citizens accepted the reformed of Paderborn formed part of the India and Japan. Imports in 1926 were 22,563,046, and exports restored in 1604. The bishopric became a prince of the embishop its and Mainz, of archdiocese settleDutch oldest the of one is 27,289,775 gulders, Padang in 1803 and was given to secularized was It rroo. about pire ments in Sumatra. As early as 1606 an official of the Vereenigde of nearly 1,000 sq.m. and a area an had bishopric The Prussia. , Company) India East Dutch (United e Oost Indische Compagni 100,000. A new bishopric of Paderborn, with was sent from Batavia with orders to appoint residents on the population of about authority only, was established in 1821. ecclesiastical Padang and there, factories found to and Sumatra of coast west The town derives its name from the springs of the Pader, a seems to have been one of the earliest of these, for in 1664 it affluent of the Lippe, which rise in the town under the cathesmall was styled the capital of Sumatra’s West Coast, and three years the number of nearly 200, and with such force as to drive to dral the on erected were warehouses some and later a small fort mills within a few yards of their source. A large part of several small his and banks of the Padang river, to support the resident has been rebuilt since a great fire of 1875. It postown the in British the by d demolishe was fortress The tenure. their in staff founded in 1614, but this was closed in 1819. university, a sessed visit, a paid was Padang when 1793, and was found still in ruins the town include glass, soap, tobacco, boots, of manufactures The later in the same year, by the French buccaneer Lemesme, in his organs and beer; and there is a trade in grain and cattle. and Padang 1795 November In Bordeaux.” vessel “La Ville de ), Polish pianist, PADEREWSKI, IGNAZ JAN (1860the west coast of Sumatra were captured by a British force, and and statesman, was born at'Kurylówka, Podolia, a composer Padang, at maintained was Bencoolen, from reinforced a garrison, province of (then) Russian Poland. He studied music at Warsaw, the town and the district remaining under British control until Berlin and at Vienna, where he was a pupil of Leschetizky (g.v.). May, 1819. He made his first public appearance in Vienna in 1887, in Paris mountainthe to given name the PADANG HIGHLANDS, in 1889, and in London in 1890. His brilliant playing created a Sumatra, of , ous hinterland of the Sumatra West Coast residency which went to extravagant lengths; and his triumphs were furore s salubriou a and scenery nt magnifice ng ‘possessi and which, in America in 1891. He was a great virtuoso player, and repeated resorts pleasure and climate, has become one of the chief health such commanded popular applause, but he was much more of the Dutch East Indies. It can be reached either from the port as than that; he brought to bear on the music he played a highly of Belawan on the east coast of Sumatra, or from Padang on the and original mind. The Paderewski renderings often trained country the west coast, since an excellent motor road runs across countered tradition but they were the fruit of profound and heart the s penetrate which Padang to Medan and Belawan from serious study. In 1899 he married Baroness de Rosen, and after of the Padang highlands. Fort de Kock, 2,700 ft., the mountain 1900 he appeared but little in public until 1920-23 when he gave capital, and the seat of an Assistant Resident, has a population recitals in England and in America as well as on the Continent. exploring for centre ideal an is and s), European of 12,624 (510 Paderewski’s first considerable work was the opera Manru, the district. From here can be reached easily, by road, the Kloof played at Dresden (May 29, 1901), and in 1902 at New York. Beand Kamar of caves the Puar, Sungei of falls the Harau, of works composed for his own instrument, including Baso, Sungei Jarni, and its pond with holy fishes, and Puntjak side numerous a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra in A minor (op. 17), he Bukit and Padang Galanggang. (in B minor), which was played with success symphony a wrote of borough n metropolita rn north-weste PADDINGTON, a at Boston, Mass., and in London in 1909. , London, England, bounded E. by Hampstead and Marylebone Paderewski’s unprecedented success as a pianist all over the exand Kensington, by W. and r, Westminste of city the S. by his own country, and to the tending N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. world never caused him to forget inspiring message: (1931) 144,950. The north-east is the residential quarter. It Poles in America he delivered the following has always been Poland independent and strong a of vision “The Padof name The railway. G.W. contains the terminus of the the great aim still is realisation Its existence. my of lodestar the dington finds no place in Domesday—it may have been inthe victory of of anniversary sooth the on rgzo, In life.” my of the to belonged land the d Tyburn—an of cluded in the manor early date. It was granted to the Griinwald over the Teutonic knights, he presented a memorial,

abbey of Westminster at an

23

PADIHAM—PADUA which was unveiled at Cracow. When the World War broke out in 1914, he dedicated himself heart and soul to his country’s service. He was président d’hon-

and sought to establish a national Government in the name of the imbecile Joanna. Tordesillas was recaptured by the nobles, and Padilla took Torrelobaton and other towns, but his army was

neur of a non-party group of Poles who met at Vevey in the autumn of 1914 to organise a “General Committee of Assistance

completely routed at Villalar (April 23, 1521), Padilla being made prisoner and executed on the following day. His wife, Maria Pacheco de Padilla, defended Toledo against the royal troops for six months afterwards, but ultimately had to flee to Portugal.

for the victims

of the War

in Poland.”

The

Committee

was

definitely founded in Jan. 1915 under the presidency of Sienkiewicz. Paderewski established branches in Paris and London; he then went to the United States, where he remained nearly four years, giving numerous concerts and championing the cause of Poland. He collected enormous sums, and created a powerful

pro-Polish movement in the United States.

The value of his

propagandist work was realised when, on Jan. 22, 1917, President Wilson alluded to a “united, independent and autonomous Poland.” By November 1916 every Polish organisation in the U.S.A. was represented in the Polish National Department of Chicago, except the small Socialist group. Up to 1918 Paderewski guided the political and military destinies of 4,000,000 Poles in the United States. Foreseeing in Feb. 1917 that the U.S.A. would soon enter the War, Paderewski induced the Polish National Alliance to found a preparatory school for Polish officers at Cambridge Springs. After the decree which authorised a Polish army to be raised in France Paderewski obtained on Nov. 1917 from Newton Baker, permission to recruit volunteers. He secured from the Canadian Govt. a vast military camp, Niagara on the Lake, where more than 22,000 Polish volunteers were trained by Canadian officers. In Aug. 1917 the Polish National Guard Committee, founded at Lausanne, chose him as its representative at Washington. After the victory of the Allies, Paderewski visited London and afterwards proceeded to Poland by sea in the company of a British Mission under Colonel Wade, disembarking at Danzig on Dec. 24, 1918. On reaching Warsaw he declared himself independent of all political parties; and after difficult negotiations,

See Sandoval, Historia de Carlos V. (Pamplona, 1681); E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V. (1902); A. Rodriguez Villa, Juana la Loca (Madrid, 1892); Pero Mejia, Comunidades de Castilla (Bib. de Autores Esp., xxi.) .

PADISHAH,

the Turkish form of the Persian padshah, a

title—equivalent to “lord king’—-of the reigning sovereign. In Europe it was applied to the sultan of Turkey. The Persian padshah is from pati, lord, master, and shah, king.

PADSTOW,

a seaport and market town in the St. Austell

parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the S.R. Pop. of urban district (193r) 1,929. Padstow (known as Aldestowe in 1273, Patrikstowe in 1326, Patrestowe in 1346) and St. Ives are the only two tolerably safe harbours on the north coast of Cornwall. To this circumstance they both owed their selection for early settlement and the Padstow region (especially Harlyn Bay) is full of prehistoric associations. St. Petrock, called the patron saint of Cornwall, is said to have landed here and also to have died here in the 6th century. Padstow is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey. It was included in the bishop of Exeter’s manor of Pawton, annexed to the see of Crediton. Until the Danes plundered Padstow (981), it is said to have possessed a monastery, which thereupon was transferred to Bodmin. Two manors of Padstow are mentioned later—the prior of Bodmin’s manor, including the rectory, and a manor which passed from the Bonvilles to the Greys, marquesses of Dorset; both were eventually acquired by the family of Prideaux. Padstow appears during which an attempt was made on his life, he succeeded on to have been a port of considerable repute in the rth century. Jan. 17, I919 in forming a coalition ministry, of which he became In 1580 Norden describes it as an incorporation and market prime minister as well as minister of foreign affairs. He obtained town. Carew in 1602 states that it had lately purchased a corfor Poland official recognition by the various Powers, and thus poration and derived great profit from its trade with Ireland. No regularised her international position. He suppressed the various traces of a charter have been found. A prescriptive market is military groups which hindered national unity, and at the first held on Saturdays; two fairs of like nature have disappeared. meeting of the Diet demanded and obtained the formation of a It lies near the north coast, on the west shore, and 2 m. from national army. He went to Paris on April 6, rgr9 as Poland’s the mouth of the estuary of the river Camel. The church of St. first delegate to the Peace Conference. On two different occasions, Petrock, with a massive roodstone in the churchyard, is mainly the Diet renewed its vote of confidence in him and expressed the Perpendicular, with an Early English tower. Within are an ancient gratitude of his country. But as it was impossible for him to font, a canopied piscina and a timber roof over the nave and make a national union a reality, and, above all, to conclude peace aisles. The church of St. Enodock, erected in the 15th century with the Soviet government, in view of the violent opposition of amid dunes bordering the east shore of the estuary, in place of the military party, he resigned office (Nov. 27, 1919). He con- a more ancient oratory, was long buried beneath drifts of sand, tinued however to defend Poland’s interests at the Conference of and from a little distance only the sptre can be seen. A Norman Ambassadors and the League of Nations. In July 1920 he pro- font remains from the older foundation. A monastery formerly tested against Czechoslovak action in regard to Teschen. standing on the high ground west of Padstow was founded by He abandoned his political career in Feb. 1921, and retired to his St. Petrock in the 6th and razed by the Danes in the roth cenCalifornian estate, returning afterwards to resume his musical tury. Pentine Point shelters Padstow bay on the north-east, career. but the approach to the estuary is dangerous during northSee Robert Lansing, Tke Big Four and Others of the Peace Confer- westerly gales. Padstow is a harbour of refuge, although the ence (1921) ; Eugene S. Bagger, Eminent Europeans (1922) ; Frank W. river channel is narrow and much silted. Dredging is carried on, Davis, Time Exposures (1926). and the sand, which is rich in carbonate of lime, is used as manure. PADIHAM, urban district, Clitheroe parliamentary division, The Padstow Harbour association (1829) is devoted to the rescue Lancashire, England, 3 m. W. of Burnley by L.M.S. railway. of ships in distress, making no claims for salvage beyond the Pop. (1931) 11,632. It stands on the river Calder. Its industries sums necessary for its maintenance. Padstow has fisheries and comprise cotton mills, quarries and coal mines. The church of shipyards and some agricultural trade. It imports coal, iron and St. Leonard (15th cent.) was rebuilt in the Perpendicular style timber for slates and kaolin. PADUA, a city of northern Italy (Lat. Patavium [q.v.]; (1866-8). In 1251 Padiham was the manor of Edmund de Lacy.

PADILLA, JUAN LOPEZ DE, insurrectionary leader in Ital. Padova), on the river Bacchiglione, 25 m. W. of Venice and

the “guerra de las comunidades,” in which the commons of Castile made a futile stand against the arbitrary policy of Charles V. and his Flemish ministers, eldest son of the Comendador of Castile, he was born in Toledo towards the close of the r5th century. After the cities, by their deputies assembled at Avila, had vainly demanded the king’s return, due regard for the rights of the cortes, and economical administration, to be entrusted to the Spaniards, they resolved to resort to force, and the “holy junta” was formed, with Padilla at its head. They captured Tordesillas,

18 m. S.E. of Vicenza.

Pop.

(1921)

88,443

(town),

r12,021

(commune). The city is picturesque, with arcaded streets, and many bridges crossing the various branches of the Bacchiglione, which once surrounded the ancient walls. The Palazzo della Ragione (1218-9) has a great hall on the upper floor; its length

is 2674 ft., its breadth 89 ft., and its height 78 are covered with symbolical paintings in fresco, Giotto; the building stands upon arches, and the is surrounded by an open loggia. In 1306 Fra

ft.; the walls originally by upper storey Giovanni, an

24

PADUCAH—PAELIGNI

Augustinian friar, covered the whole with one roof curved like the hull of a ship; originally there were three roofs, spanning the three chambers into which the hall was at first divided; the internal partition walls remained till the fire of 1420, when the

the Ohio river at the mouth of the Tennessee; a port of entry and the county seat of McCracken county. It is on Federal highways 45, 60 and 68, and is served by the Burlington Route, the Gulf, Mobile and Northern, the Illinois Central, the Nashville, ChatVenetian architects who undertook the restoration removed them. tanooga and St. Louis and the Paducah and Illinois railways, and In the Piazza dei Signori, now called Unita d’Italia, is the beauti- tiver steamers. Pop. 24,735 in 1920 (23% negroes); 233,541 in ful loggia called the Gran Guardia (1493-1526) and close by is 1930 by Federal census. It is one of the principal dark-tobacco the Palazzo del Capitanio, the residence of the Venetian governors, markets in the country, and ships also large quantities of corn, with its great door, the work of Falconetto of Verona, 1532. pork, fruits, vegetables, iron ore, lumber and cross-ties. It has The most famous of the Paduan churches is the basilica dedi- railroad repair shops and various other manufacturing industries, cated to Saint Anthony, commonly called Il Santo; the bones of with an output in 1927 valued at $13,932,189. Paducah was settled the saint rest in a chapel richly ornamented with carved marbles, in 1821, laid out in 1827 by Gen. William Clark, incorporated as the work of various artists, among them of Sansovino and Fal- a town in 1830, and chartered as a city in 1856. It was named conetto; the basilica was begun after his death in 1231 and com- after an Indian chief. On Sept. 5, 1861, the city was occupied by pleted in the following century; it is covered by seven cupolas. Gen. Grant. It was raided on March 25, 1864, by Gen. Nathan In the piazza in front of the church is Donatello’s magnificent B. Forrest, but he was unable to take the fortifications.

equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni, the Venetian general (d. 1443). The Eremitani is an Augustinian church of the 13th century, containing the tombs of Jacopo (1350) and Ubertino (1345) da Carrara, lords of Padua, and the chapel of SS. James

and Christopher, with Mantegna’s frescoes.

Close by the Ere-

mitani is the small church of the Annunziata, known as the Madonna dell’ Arena; the interior is entirely covered with paintings by Giotto. Padua has long been famous for its university, founded in 1222. Among the professors and alumni were Bembo, Sperone Speroni, Veselius, Acquapendente, Galileo, Pomponazzi, Pole, Scaliger, Tasso and Sobieski. In 1925-6 it had 2,439 students.

The presence of the university attracted many distinguished artists, as Giotto, Lippo Lippi and Donatello; and for native art there was the school of Squarcione (1394-1474), whence issued the great Mantegna (1431-1506). There is an important picture gallery. The botanical garden (1545) is the oldest in Europe. Corn and saw mills, distilleries, chemical factories, breweries, candle-works, ink-works, foundries, agricultural machine and automobile works flourish. At the Diet of Aix-la-Chapelle (828) the duchy and march of Friuli, in which Padua lay, was divided into four counties, one of which took its title from that city. At the beginning of the 11th century the citizens established a constitution, composed of a general council or legislative assembly and a credenza or executive; and during the next century they were engaged in wars with Venice and Vicenza for the right of water-way on the Bacchiglione and the Brenta—-so that, on the one hand, the city grew in power and self-reliance, while, on the other, the great families

of Camposampiero, D'Este and Da Romano began to emerge and to divide the Paduan district between them. The citizens, in order tq protect their liberties, were obliged to elect a podesta, and their choice fell first on ope of the D'Este family (c. 1175); but in 1237 Frederick II. established his vicar Ezzelino da Romano in Padua and the neighbouring cities. When Ezzelino met his death, in 1256, Padua enjoyed a brief period of rest and prosperity: the university flourished; the basilica of the saint was begun; the Paduans became masters of

Vicenza. But this advance brought them into dangerous proximity to Can Grande della Scala, lord of Verona, to whom they had to yield in 1311. As a reward for freeing the city from the Scalas, Jacopo da Carrara was elected lord of Padua in 1318. From that date till 1405, with the exception of two years (1388

1390) when Gian Galeazzo Visconti held the town, nine members of the Carrara family succeeded one another as lords of the city. Padua passed under Venetian rule in 1405, and so remained, with a brief interval during the wars of the League of Cambray, till the fall of the republic in 1797. The city was governed by two Venetian nobles, a podesta for civil and a captain for military affairs; each of these was elected for sixteen months. Under these governors the great and small councils continued to discharge

municipal business and to administer the Paduan statutes of 1276 and 1362. For history after 1797 see. VENICE. See G. Verci, Storia della Marca Trevigiana (Venice, 1786) ; Abate G. Gennari, Annali di Padova (Padua); G. Cittadella, Storia della

dominazione carrarese (Padua, 1843}; B. Gonzati, La Basilica di Sant’ Antonio di Padova (Padua, r853).

PADUCAH, a city of south-western Kentucky, U.S.A., on

PAEAN

(Gr. Ilacdy, epic Maar),

in Homer (Z. v. 40r,

899), the physician of the gods. It is not known whether he was originally a separate deity or merely an aspect of Apollo. Homer leaves the question unanswered; Hesiod (cf. schol. Hom. Od. iv. 432) definitely separates the two, and in later poetry Paean is invoked independently as a health god. It is equally difficult to discover the relation between Paean or Paeon in the sense of “healer” and paean in the sense of song. Farnell refers to the ancient association between the healing craft and the singing of spells, and says that it is impossible to decide which is the original sense. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods, Dionysus, Helios, Asclepius. It was the custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march

and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won; this is already found in Homer, Iliad, xxii., 391. Paeans were sung at the festivals of Apollo (especially the Hyacinthia), at banquets, and later even at public funerals. Later, especially in Hellenistic times (first by the Samians to Lysander) they are addressed to more or less deified men. The word “paean” is now used of any song of joy or triumph. See L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1896) ; A. Fairbanks, “A, Study of the Greek Paean,” No. xii. of Cornell Studies in Classical Philology (New York, 1900) ; BAccHYLipES and PINDAR.

PAEDOGENESIS, the term used in biology to denote the phenomenon of sexual maturity in a technically immature organism (larva). It occurs in the Ctenophora (g.v.) Diptera (g.v.)

and other groups. (See METAMORPHOSIS.) PAELIGNI, a people of ancient Italy, first mentioned as a member of a confederacy which included the Marsi, Marrucini, and Vestini (qq.v.), with which the Romans came into conflict in the second Samnite War, 325 B.C. (Liv. vii. 29). On the submission of the Samnites (q.v.) they all came into alliance with Rome in 305-02 B.c, (Liv. ix. 45, x. 3, and Diod. xx. tor). Each of them was an independent unit. Thus the Vestini issued coins in the 3rd century; each of them appears in the list of the allies in the Social War (Appian, B.C., i. 39). The mountain fortress of Corfinium was chosen as the rebel capital. It was renamed Vitellio, the Oscan form of Italia, a name which appears, written in Oscan alphabet, on the coins struck there in go B.c. The inscriptions show that the dialect spoken by these tribes was substantially the same from the northern boundary of the Frentani to some place in the upper Aternus valley not far from Amiternum (mod. Aquila). This dialect closely resembled the Oscan of Lucania and Samnium, though presenting some peculiarities of its own, which warrant, perhaps, the use of the name North Oscan. The clearest of these is the use of postpositions, as in Vestine Poimunie-n, “in templo Pomonali”; pritrom-e, i.e., in proximum, “on to what lies before you.” Others are the sibilation of consonantal z and the assimilation of -di- to some sound like that of English 7 (denoted by® in the local variety of Latin alphabet), as in widadu, “viamdo,” 7.¢., “ad-viam”; Musesa=Lat. Mussedia; and the loss of d (in pronunciation) in the ablative, as in aetatu firata fertlid (i.e., aetate fertili finita), where the contrast of the last with the other two forms shows that the -d was ân archaism still occasionally used in writing.

PAEONIA—PAESTUM The name Paeligna may belong to the NO-class of Ethnica

(see SABINI), but the difference that it has no vowel before

the suffix suggests that it may rather be parallel with the suffix of Lat. privignus. If it has any connection with Lat. peelex,

“concubine,” it is conceivable that it meant “‘half-breeds,” and

was coined in contempt by the conquering Sabines, who turned the żouta Marouce into the community of the Marrucini (q.v.). For the history of the Paeligni after 90 B.c. see the references given in C. J. L., ix. 290 and 296. None of the Latin inscriptions of the district need be older than Sulla, but some of them both in language and script show the style of his period (e.g., 3087, 3137); and, on the other hand, as several of the native inscriptions, which are all in the Latin alphabet, show the normal letters of the Ciceronian period, there is little doubt that the Paelignian dialect lasted down to the middle of the rst century B.c. Paelignian and this group of inscriptions generally form a most important link in the chain of the Italic dialects, as without them the transition from Oscan to Umbrian would be completely lost. The unique collection of inscriptions and antiquities of Pentima and the museum at Sulmona were both created by the late Professor Antonio de Nino, who rescued every Paelignian monument that we possess. For further details and the text of the inscriptions, the placenames, etc., see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 235 et seq., and the earlier authorities there cited.

PAEONIA,

the land of the Paeonians, the boundaries of

which, like the early history of its inhabitants, are very obscure. The Paeonians are regarded as descendants of the Phrygians of Asia Minor. According to the national legend they were colonists

from Troy, and Homer (Jitad, ii. 848) speaks of Paeonians from the Axius fighting on the side of their Trojan kinsmen.

Before

the reign of Darius Hystaspes, they had made their way as far east as Perinthus. When Xerxes crossed Chalcidicé on his way to Therma (Thessalonica) he is said to have marched “through Paeonian territory.” They occupied the entire valley of the Axius as far inland as Stobi, and the valleys to the east of it as far as the Strymon. In consequence of the growth of Macedonian power their territory was considerably diminished, and in historical times was limited to the north of Macedonia from Illyria to the Strymon. The Paeonians included several independent tribes, later united under a single king. They adopted the cult of Dionysus, known amongst them as Dyalus or Dryalus, and Herodotus (iv. 33) mentions that the Thracian and Paeonian women offered sacrifice to Queen Artemis (probably Bendis). They worshipped the sun in the form of a small round disc fixed on the top of a pole. They drank barley beer and various decoctions made from plants and herbs. The country was rich in gold and a bituminous kind of wood. The women were famous for their industry. Herodotus (v. 12) tells the story that Darius, having seen at Sardis a beautiful Paeonian woman carrying a pitcher on her head, leading a horse to drink, and spinning flax, all at the same time, enquired who she was. Having been informed that she was a Paeonian, he sent instructions to Megabyzus, commander in Thrace, to deport two tribes of the nation without delay to Asia. At the time of the Persian invasion the Paeonians on the lower Strymon had lost, while those in the north maintained their independence. They frequently made inroads into Macedonian territory until they were finally subdued by Philip, who permitted them to retain their government by kings. The daughter of Audoleon, one of these kings, was the wife of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Alexander the Great wished to bestow the hand of his sister Cynane upon Langarus who had shown himself loyal to Philip. In 280 the Gallic invaders under Brennus ravaged the land of the Paeonians. After the Roman conquest, Paeonia east and west of the Axius formed the second and third districts respectively of Macedonia. Under Diocletian Paeonia and Pelagonia formed a province called Macedonia secunda or salutaris, belonging to the prefecture of Ilyricum.

25

he executed one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, is doubtful. But we possess an important work of Paeonius in the Victory found in the German excavations at Olympia, and probably set up in memory of the battle of Sphacteria, 424 B.c. It bears the inscription “Dedicated to Olympian Zeus by the Messenians and Naupactians as a tithe of the spoil of their enemies. Paeonius of Mende made the statue, and was a successful competitor in the construction of the gable-figures for the temple.” The last phrase may be responsible by a confusion for the attribution to him of the pediment. See E. A. Gardner, Handbook

of Greek Sculpture

(1915).

PAEONY, or Peony, a genus of plants remarkable for their large and gorgeous flowers; it belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. There are two distinct sets, one the strong-growing herbaceous kind, with fleshy roots and annual stems, derived mainly from Paeonia albiflora and P. officinalis; the other called the tree paeony, stif-growing plants with half-woody permanent stems, which have sprung from the Chinese P. Moutan. The herbaceous paeonies usually grow from 2 to 3 ft. in height, and have large much-divided leaves, and ample flowers of varied and attractive colours, and of a globular form in the double varieties which are those most prized in gardens. They usually blossom in May and June, and as ornaments for large beds in pleasure grounds, and for the front parts of shrubberies, few flowers equal them in gorgeous effect. A good moist loamy soil suits them best, and a moderate supply of manure is beneficial. The garden varieties of modern times are very beautiful, the flowers being in many instances delicately tinted with more than one colour, such as buff with bronzy centre, carmine with yellowish centre, rose with orange centre, white tinted with rose, etc. The moutans or tree paeonies are remarkable for their subshrubby habit, forming vigorous plants sometimes attaining a height of 6 to 8 ft., and producing in May magnificent flowers which vary in colour from white to lilac, purple magenta, violet and rose. These are produced on the young shoots, which naturally bud forth early in the spring, and are in consequence liable in bleak localities, unless protected, to be cut off by spring frosts. They require to be thoroughly ripened in summer, and therefore a hot season and a dryish situation are desirable for their wellbeing; and they require perfect rest during winter. They are increased by grafting in late summer or autumn on the roots of the herbaceous paeonies. There are hundreds of names given to the colour variations of both the herbaceous and tree paeonies. In North America the genus is represented by a single species, the western paeony (P. Brownii), which grows on brushy slopes in the foothills and on mountains up to about 5,500 ft. altitude from southern California ta Washington and eastward to Utah. It is a fleshy perennial, 8 in. to 15 in. high, with pale, smooth, ternately divided leaves, mostly clustered at the base of the stem. The brownish-red flowers, about 13 in. broad, are composed of 5 or 6 thick, leathery, flattish petals, which are but slightly longer than the roundish, concave sepals.

PAER,

FERDINANDO

(1771-13839),

Italian composer,

was born at Parma on June 1, 1771. His first opera, La Locanda de’ vagebondt, was published when he was only 16; and others rapidly followed. In 1797 he went to Vienna, where his wife, the singer Riccardi, had obtained an engagement at the opera; and here he produced another series of operas, including his La Camilla ossia il Sotteraneo (1799) and his Achille (1801). In 1803 he was appointed composer to the court theatre at Dresden. At Dresden he produced J] Sargino (1803) and Leonora (1804), based on the same story as Beethoven’s Fidelio. In 1807 Napoleon saw him in Dresden, and took him with him to Warsaw and Paris at a salary of 28,000 francs. In 1812 he succeeded Spontini as conductor of the Italian opera in Paris, but in 1823 he retired in favour of Rossini. He died May 3, 1839. Paér wrote 43 operas.

PAESTUM, an ancient Greek city in Lucania (Gr. Hoce-

dwvia; mod. Pesto), near the sea, with a See W. Tomaschek, “Die alten Thraker,” in Sitzungsberichte der k. of Salerno, 5 m. S. of the river Silarus Akad. der Wissenschaften, xxviii. (Vienna, 1893). (See Macrponta.) ezenian and Achaean colonists from PAEONIUS, of Mende in Thrace, a Greek sculptor of the 600 B.C. for it was flourishing about 540 latter part of the sth century. The statement of Pausanias that ing city of Velia was founded. For many

railway station 24 m. S.E. (Salso), founded by TroSybaris, probably about B.C., when the neighbouryears the city maintained

PAEZ—PAGANINI

26

its independence against the Lucanians but at last fell into their hands; and in 273 B.C. it came under Roman rule, the name being changed to Paestum. It successfully resisted the attacks of Hannibal. Under Augustus and Tiberius, the neighbourhood was healthy, highly cultivated, and celebrated for its flowers; the “twice blooming roses of Paestum” are mentioned by several Latin poets. Its present deserted and malarious state is due to

a fellow missionary were sent to Abyssinia to act as spiritual directors ‘to the Portuguese residents. On his way he fell into the hands of pirates at Dhofar and was sent to Sanaa, capital of the Yemen, where he was detained for seven years by the pasha as a slave. Having been redeemed by his order in 1596, he spent some years in mission work on the west coast of India. In 1603 he again set out for Abyssinia, and landed at the port of Massawa. the silting up of the mouth of the Silarus. In 871 Paestum was He was summoned to court, succeeded in vanquishing the native sacked and partly destroyed by Saracen invaders; in the x1th priests and in converting Za-Denghel, the negus, who wrote to the century it was further dismantled by Robert Guiscard, and in pope and the king of Spain for more missionaries, an act which led to war with the Abyssinian priests and cost him his life (Oct. the 16th was finally deserted. The ruins are among the most interesting and imposing of the 1604). Paez died of fever in 1622. In addition to the translation of the Catechism, Paez is supposed Hellenic world. The earliest temple is the so-called Basilica. Terra cottas of the first quarter of the 6th cent. B.c. have been found, to be the author of a treatise De Abyssinorum erroribus and a history of Ethiopia, ed. C. Beccari in Rerum aethiopicarum scriptores and also a fragment of a dedication to Poseidon, so that his name occidentales inediti a saeculo XVI. ad XIX. (1905). should be applied to this, and not to the great hexastyle temple. See A. de Backer, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus (ed. C. It is of unique plan, with nine columns in the front and eight- Sommervogel) vi. (1895); W. D. Cooley in Bulletin de la société de een at the sides, 4# ft. in diameter. A line of columns runs géographie (1872), 6th series, vol. ii, down the centre of the cella. The columns and the architraves PAGAN, a town and former capital, in Myingyan district, upon them are well preserved, but there is nothing above the Burma, 92 m. S.W. of Mandalay. It was founded by King frieze existing, and the cella wall has entirely disappeared. Next in Pyinbya in 847, and remained the capital until the extinction of point of date comes the so-called temple of Ceres, a hexastyle the dynasty in 1298. Pagan itself is now a mere village, but peripteros (after 540 B.c.). The columns are all standing, and the hundreds of pagodas in various stages of decay meet the eye in west and part of the east pediment are still iz situ. In front stood every direction. A number of them were built by King Anawrahta, who overcame the Peguan king, Manuha of Thaton. It was a sacrificial altar as long as the temple itself. The temple hitherto attributed to Neptune, was built about Anawra-hta who introduced the Buddhist religion in Upper 420 B.C. It is a hexastyle peripteros with fourteen columns on each Burma, and who carried off nearly the whole Thaton population side, and is remarkably well-preserved, both pediments and the to build the pagodas at Pagan like those of Thaton. epistyle at the sides being still 7 stu. The cella, the outer walls of PAGAN, a heathen, one who worships a false god or false which have to a great extent disappeared, has two internal rows gods, or one who belongs to a race or nation which practises idolof seven columns 4% ft. in diameter, upon which rests a simple atrous rites and professes polytheism. In the early Christian epistyle, supporting a row of smaller columns, so that the interior Church paganus was applied to those who refused to believe in the one true God. It thus, of course, excluded Jews. In the of the cella was in two storeys. The Temple of Peace (2nd cent. B.c.) was excavated in 1830, middle ages, at the time of the crusades and later, “pagan” and but is now covered up. Traces of a Roman theatre and other “paynim” (O.Fr. paenime, Late Lat. paganismus, heathenism or buildings, as well as of the main street (cardo) have also been heathen lands) were particularly applied to Mohammedans, and found. The circuit of the town walls, well built of squared blocks sometimes to Jews. It was in the rural districts that the old of travertine, and 16 ft. thick, of the Greek period, is almost faiths lingered, and thus it is assumed that the Latin paganus entire; they are about 3 m. in circumference, enclosing a roughly (villager) arose after the establishment of Christianity, but Terrectangular area. There were four gates, that on the east with a tullian (c. 202, De Corona Militis, xi.), has a sentence suggesting single arched opening being well-preserved. Outside the north gate that the “soldiers of Christ” dubbed the non-Christians pagant, is a street of tombs (the contents are in the Naples aos referring to the raw, half-armed rustics. T. A. See also Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,

PAEZ, JOSE ANTONIO

(1790-1873), Venezuelan soldier

and politician, was born in Aricagua near New Barcelona, on June 13, 1790, of Indian parents. After an adventuresome youth, in 1810 he joined the revolutionary movement against Spain, as leader of a band of mounted plainsmen. In numerous encounters with the Spaniards in the province of Apure (1816), in the defeat of Ortiz (1818), and in the victories of Carabobo (1821) and Puerto Cabello (1822), he showed himself an able leader, and was chiefly responsible for bringing Venezuela within Bolivar’s republic of Great Colombia. In 1829 he headed the revolt in Venezuela against Bolivar, and was first president of the new republic, 1831-35. During his successor’s term he crushed several rebellions, served as president, 1839-43, and was dictator in 1846. Heading a rebellion soon afterwards, he was defeated, imprisoned and exiled (1850), but after a short stay in Europe, returned in 1858 to head another revolutionary Government. In 1861 he was

1896), ch. xxi. note ad fin.

PAGANINI, NICOLO (1784-1840), Italian virtuoso on the violin, was born at Genoa on Feb. 18, 1784. His father Antonio, a clever amateur, who was in the shipping business, taught him the violin at a very early age, and he had further lessons from the maestro di cappella of the cathedral of San Lorenzo. He first appeared in public at Genoa in 1793, with triumphant success. He studied strenuously, practising single passages for ten hours at a

time, and publishing compositions so difficult that he alone could play them. His first professional tour, through the cities of Lombardy, was made with his father in 1797. For some years he led a chequered career, and to pay his gambling debts had to pawn even his violin. A French merchant named Livron helped him out of his difficulties, however, and gave him a fine instrument, a Joseph Guarnerius, thenceforward his most treasured possession. Between 1801 and 1804 he lived in retirement, in Tuscany, with sent as ambassador to the United States, but was soon recalled a noble lady who was in love with him. In 1805 he started on a to fill his third term as dictator-president. Unable to control the tour through Europe, astonishing the world with his matchless situation, he resigned peaceably in 1863, and retired first to Bue- performances, and especially with his unprecedented playing on nos Aires (1866) and then to the United States (1871), where he the fourth string alone. In Venice, in 1815, after having been died in New York on May 7, 1873. While in New York, in taken up by the Princess of Lucca and Piombo, Napoleon’s sister, 1867-69, he published an Autobiografia. who made him her musical director, he began a liaison with AnBIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. Paez, Public Life of J. A. Pdez (1861); G. tonia Bianchi, a dancer, which lasted till 1828; and by her he had Blanco, Apoteosis del general Pdez (Paris, 1889) ; Michelena, Resumen a son Achillino, born in 1826. Meanwhile the world rang with his de la vida militar y politica del ciudadano esclarecido, general José fame. In 1827 the pope honoured him with the Order of the Golden Antonio Pdez (Caracas, 1890). (W. B. P. Spur; and, in the following year, he extended his travels to GerPAEZ, PEDRO (1564-1622), Jesuit missionary to Abys- many, beginning with Vienna, where he created a profound sensinia, born at Olmedo in Old Castile in 1564, entered the Society sation. He first appeared in Paris in 1831; and on June 3 in that of Jesus, and was sent to Goa in 1588. Within a year he and | year he played in London at the King’s Theatre. In 1832 he

PAGE returned to Italy, and bought a villa near Parma. In 1833 he spent

the winter in Paris, and in 1834 Berlioz composed for him his symphony, Harold en Italze. In 1838 he suffered serious losses in Paris through the failure of the “Casino Paganini,” a gamblinghouse which was refused a licence. The disasters of this year increased his malady—laryngeal phthisis—and he died at Nice on May 17, 1840. His will left a fortune of £80,000 to his son Achil-

lino; and he bequeathed his Guarnerius to the municipality of Genoa, who preserve it as one of their dearest possessions. There are numerous lives of Paganini; see the article and bibliography in Grove’s Dictionary of Music also Fétis, N. Paganini (1851; Eng. trans..1876); Prod’homme and Paganini (1907), in the series Musiciens célèbres; Lillian Day, Paganini of Genoa (19209).

PAGE,

THOMAS

NELSON

(1853-1922),

American

author, was born at Oakland Plantation, Hanover county, Va., April 23, 1853, the great-grandson of Thomas Nelson (1738-89) and of John Page (1744-1808), both governors of Virginia, the former being a signer of the Declaration of Independence. After a course at Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) when Robert E. Lee was its president, he taught a year and in 1874 graduated in law at the University of Virginia. He practised, chiefly in Richmond, until 1893, when he removed to Washington, D.C., and devoted himself to writing and lecturing. For his start in literature he was indebted to the dialect verse of Irwin Russell, contributing a poem of this sort to Scribner’s Monthly (later the Century Magazine) in April, 1877, and publishing with A. C. Gordon a volume of such pieces entitled Befo’ de War (1888). His first reputation was achieved, however, by “Marse Chan,” which appeared in the Century Magazine. This and several other stories of the same type, some of them written for his first wife, Anne Bruce, were collected in what is probably Page’s most characteristic book, In Ole Virginia (1887). Page, fortunate in having spent his formative years amid the glamorous life of the old régime and the tumults of the Civil War, is one of the writers who have done most to build up the romantic legends of the southern plantation. He is at his best when through negro characters and dialect he describes the life of the Virginia gentry. From 1913 to 1918 Page was ambassador to Italy. He died at Oakland, Va., on Nov. 1, 1922. Page wrote several children’s books, the best of which, Two Litile

Confederates (1888), has some autobiographic elements. His chief books of fiction are Elsket and Other Stories (1891) ; Pastime Stories (1894); The Old Gentleman of the Black Stock (1897); Red Rock (1898), a novel of the Reconstruction period; Bred in the Bone (1904) ; Under the Crust (1907) ; and John Marvel, Assistant (1909). His other writings are thoughtful and sincere. The principal ones are The Old South (1892), The Negro; The Southerners Problem (1904), The Old Dominion: Her Making and Her Manners (1908), Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier (1911), and Italy and the World War (1920). The Plantation edition of his Novels, Stories, Sketches, and Poems (x2 vols.) appeared in 1906. See Thomas Nelson Page, a Memoir of a Virginia Gentleman (1923) by his brother, Rosewell Page; ““Thomas Nelson Page” in Virginian Portraits by Armistead C. Gordon (Staunton, Va., 1924); and the commemorative tribute to Page prepared for the American Academy of Arts and Letters by Robert Underwood Johnson (1925).

PAGE, WALTER

HINES

(1855-1918), American writer

and diplomatist, was born at Cary (N.C.), Aug. 15, 1855. His father, Allison Francis Page, was of English descent; his mother, Catherine Frances Raboteau, of Scottish and French Huguenot. At 16, in Jan. 1872, after a preparatory course at the Bingham

military school at Mebane (N.C.), and a year at Trinity college, at Durham (N.C.), Page entered Randolph-Macon college at Ashland (Va.). The greatest and most lasting influence in his life at this time was Thomas Randolph Price. Prof. Price had two enthusiasms—English and Greek literature. He became deeply attached to Page, both as a boy and as a student, and obtained

his appointment as one of the first 20 fellows of the new Johns Hopkins university at Baltimore. There under America’s greatest classical scholar, Basil L. Gildersleeve, Page acquired a knowledge of antiquity and a feeling for Greek literature which influenced all his subsequent habits of thought as well as his own literary style. Page’s health, always frail, caused him to leave Johns Hopkins without a degree. A winter (1878-79) spent in teaching English at the high school at Louisville convinced him that he

27

wanted an active life among men, and in 1880 he became editor of the St. Joseph Gazette. The Missouri town did not hold his interest long. He left in the summer of 1881 to make a tour of the southern states, writing a series of brilliant articles that were simultaneously printed in several leading American newspapers. The next two years Page spent as literary editor of the New York World, but in 1883 he resigned and returned to Raleigh (N.C.). For two years he edited the State Chronicle, a weekly newspaper, as distinguished for the vivacity of its editorial style as for the unconventionality of its opinions. Page ridiculed the tendency to regard a Confederate war record as almost the exclusive qualification for public office; he advocated primary education for both the white and the black, the development of scientific agriculture, the building of modern highways, and the creation of local industries. All these changes North Carolina has since introduced; the youthful Page, however, was ahead of his time, and after two rather tempestuous years, in which he found himself denounced as a “Southern Yankee,” he had to confess failure, dispose of his paper and resume his life in New York. His Literary Career.—Page’s opportunity came in 1887, when he joined the staff of the Forum. In four years he transformed a bankrupt property into a profitable one and made it an influential organ of public discussion. He resigned his editorship in 1895 and entered the Boston publishing house of Houghton, Miffin & Co. For two years he was literary adviser and associate editor of the Atlantic Monthly, and in 1898 became editor-in-chief. In 1899 he joined Frank N. Doubleday in establishing the publishing house of Doubleday, Page & Co. and founding the World’s Work magazine, on which he served as editor from 1900 to 1913. Both in his writing and in his lectures, he continued to advocate his favourite causes. Of these the leading one was popular education, especially in the backward South. As a member, first of the Southern Education Board and afterwards of the General Education Board, he aided in distributing the Rockefeller millions for this purpose. By initiating the movement for the eradication of the hookworm, he started the work that has since taken shape in the International Health Board. He served on President Roosevelt’s Country Life Commission, and was a leader in introducing Dr. Seaman A. Knapp’s demonstration work in agricultural areas. All these years he closely followed political affairs, and in r91z he was one of the first to proclaim the presidential qualifications of Woodrow Wilson. One of Wilson’s first acts, after his inauguration, was to appoint Page ambassador to Great Britain. Ambassador in London.—For his five years in London Page’s life had been a preparation. His passion for democracy, his belief that British institutions and literature formed the most solid basis of civilization, his long advocacy of British-American cooperation as the most satisfactory method of solving world problems—all were put to the severest test in the arduous years of his ambassadorship. He had established familiar and congenial relations with the British public and British officialdom when the World War began. Up to that, time Page had also worked in complete harmony with President Wilson. It was owing mainly to Page’s prompting that President Wilson persuaded Congress to repeal the discriminating Panama tolls. In the war Page, unlike Wilson at first, saw above all an attempt of Germany to grasp the hegemony of Europe and to substitute the Prussian conception of autocracy for the democratic ideal which he regarded as the true path of human progress. It was mainly this difference that caused the historic divergence between Page and Wilson. To the outside world Page maintained an attitude of strict neutrality; in his private communications to the President, however, he made no secret of his complete sympathy with the cause of the Allies and his general disagreement with the policy of the Administration. When the “Lusitania” was sunk, Page in his letters and cablegrams to Wilson strongly advocated an American declaration of war against Germany. He insisted then, as he did afterwards, that American intervention at that time would have brought the war to an early end with an Allied triumph. Page’s great moment came on April 2, 1917, when President Wilson asked Congress to declare the existence of a

28

PAGE—PAGEANT

state of war with Germany, and used arguments that Page had been forcing on his attention for two and a half years. Page had never been in robust health; and the anxieties and labours of a terrible period gradually exhausted him. He had meditated resignation many times, and consented to remain only at the earnest request of President Wilson. In Aug. 1918, however, he became so ill that the President acquiesced in his retirement. In early October he sailed on the “Olympic” and reached New York so weak that it was necessary to carry him from the ship. His one wish was to return to “‘the sand hills” of his early home in North Carolina. There he died on Dec. 21, 1918.

The singing should be done by citizens, though band or orchestra may be imported. The latter, for outdoor acoustics, should be sizable. The former needs the addition of stringed instruments for softer effects. All possible effects of light, colour, movement and sound should be synchronized and used to their utmost. A liberal time for writing and planning, an abundance of group rehearsals and three complete rehearsals should make an artistic and successful pageant. THE PAGEANT IN ENGLAND

The zoth century has seen in England what may in some re-

spects be looked on as a revival but in general as a new departure in the shape of semi-dramatic spectacles illustrative of the history of a town or locality; to such spectacles the name of “Pageant” has been appropriately given. Coventry in its procession in commemoration of Lady Godiva’s traditional exploit, has since 1678 illustrated an incident in the history of the town. A pageant consists of a series of scenes, representing historical events directly under the name of “Nicholas Worth” The Southerner, a semi-auto- connected with the town or locality in which the pageant takes biographical novel interpreting his ideas on the South. Page’s literary place. These are accompanied by appropriate dialogue, speeches, fame will rest on his letters. (B. J. H.) songs, etc., and with music and dances. The effect is naturally PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885), American artist, was born much heightened by the place of the performance, more parat Albany (N.Y.), on Jan. 3, 1811. He studied for the ministry ticularly if this is the actual site of some of the scenes depicted, at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1828-30, and in later life as at the Winchester pageant (1908) where the background was became a Swedenborgian. He received his training in art from formed by the ruins of Wolvesey castle. The Sherborne pageant S. F. B. Morse and in the schools of the National Academy of De- of 1905 was the first of the series of pageants. In 1907 and 1908 sign, and in 1836 became a National Academician. From 1849 to they became very numerous; of these the principal may be men1860 he lived in Rome, where he painted portraits of his friends tioned, those at Oxford, Bury St. Edmunds in 1907; at WinRobert and Elizabeth Browning. He died at Tottenville, Staten chester, Chelsea, Dover and Pevensey in 1908; and that of the English Church at Fulham palace r909. Island (N.Y.), on Oct. 1, 1885. The artistic success of a pageant depends on the beauty or PAGE, a term used of a boy or young male person in various capacities, positions or offices. The etymology is doubtful. (See historic interest of its site, the skilful choice of episodes and dramatic incidents, the grouping and massing of colour, and the KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY and VALET.) PAGEANT, a show or spectacle. In the mediaeval drama the appropriateness of the dialogue, speeches and incidental music. word was used in the sense of a scene, a division or part of a It is here that the skill and talent of the writer, designer or play. Thus we read of Queen Margaret in 1457 that at Coventry director of the pageant find scope. The name of Louis N. Parker she saw “alle the pagentes pleyde save domesday which myght (b. 1852), the author of the Sherborne pageant, the earliest and not be pleyde for lak of day,” and in the accounts of the Smiths’ one of the most successful, must always be associated with the (X.) gild at Coventry for 1450, five pence is paid “‘to bring the pagent movement, of which he was the originator. BrsriocrapHy.—M. L. Spencer, Corpus Christi Pageants in England: into gosford-stret.”’ A clear idea of what these stages were like of Medieval Cycle Plays (New York, 1911); C. M. Spender, when the mystery plays became processional (processus) that is, ATheStudy Educational Aspects of Pageants and Pageantry (in Journal of were acted on separate platforms moving along a street is seen Education, London, Feb. rorr). in Archdeacon Roger’s contemporary account of the Chester plays THE PAGEANT IN AMERICA about the end of the 16th century. “The mane of these playes History.—Pageantry in America began in 1905 with Percy weare, every company had his pagiant, or parte which pageants weare a high scafolde with 2 rowmes, a higher and a lower, upon MacKaye’s pageant in honour of Augustus Saint-Gaudens, at 4 wheeles” T..Sharp, Dissertation on the Pageants or Mysteries Cornish, New Hampshire. Within three years the Educational pageant at the Boston Normal school, the Philadelphia pageant in at Coventry, 1825, which contains most of the early references. Production.—Pageant production as differentiated from play honour of the 250th anniversary of the founding of the city, and production offers the problem of outdoor distances, sunlight and the superb Quebec pageant followed. shadow on colour, and the timing and marshalling of large numFive well-known and typical pageants may be mentioned. The bers of people. Such problems should be given usually into the Hudson-Fulton celebration in New York was a processional hands of an experienced director. Often, however, they are turned pageant of vast dimensions. For imaginative quality Percy Macover to a committee of capable townsfolk. Kaye’s “Caliban,” produced in New York, and later in Boston, to The site should preferably be a natural amphitheatre, bordering honour the Shakespeare tercentenary, should be cited (though if possible, on a lake or river. The ground should be gone over the author wishes this example of his work to be termed a for its acoustics, a forest background being an asset. Other con- “community masque”) and for even greater poetic beauty the siderations are accessibility by train, tram and motor, room for same writer’s St. Louis masque. This last preluded the hisparking space, a relative area of open space for stage and audi- torical scenes of the St. Louis pageant, written by Thomas Wood ence, practical entrances and exits, beauty of landscape, and Stevens. room behind the outdoor stage for dressing tents and gathering “The Pilgrim Spirit” written and produced at Plymouth, Mass., places for players. An ideal site has the sun in back of the by George Pierce Baker for the Pilgrim tercentenary, was marked audience and a prevailing wind to blow from players to spectators, by historic accuracy and fine dramatic quality. The Yale pageant, thus carrying words toward the hearers. written by a large group of Yale graduates, has naturally a Administrative details are usually in the hands of a group of diversity of treatment in its various episodes, but also poetic representative citizens. The actual labour, making of costumes prologues of high order. The Lexington pageant, by Sidney and properties, gathering of antiques, is all done by the towns- Howard, is distinguished by its somewhat expressionistic ending, folk. An even distribution of work and a competent executive which endeavours to state the significance of democracy. are necessary. Often a historic pageant is accompanied by a loan Forms.—Pageantry has taken two forms. One is the strictly exhibition of old costumes, relics, historic furniture, books, maps, historic as given in the frontier States. These productions deal household possessions and everything pertaining to the past and with pioneering, Indian fights, the gold rush, the cattle industry present of the community. and agricultural developments. The other is the processional

BIBLIOGRAPEHY.—The chief authority on Page’s career is B. J. Hendrick, The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page (2 vol., 1922; 3rd vol., 1925). The intimate papers of Colonel House (2 vol., 1926) and The Training of an American: The Earlier Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 1855-1913 (1928) ; Viscount Grey, of Fallodon, Twenty-Five Years (2 vol., 1925) are also valuable. The Rebuilding of Old Commonwealths (1902) gives in eloquent language Page’s aspirations for the revitalization of the southern states. A Publisher’s Confession (1905) gives his creed for his trade. In 1909 Page also published

PAGET—PAHARI type, usually a flower festival. The more famous of these are given annually in California and Oregon. Throughout the Southern States, also, are flower and fruit festivals and the justly celebrated Mardi Gras celebration in New Orleans. The States along the Atlantic seaboard, especially as one moves northward to Pennsylvania, New York and the New England group, use the historical type freely. Religious pageantry has kept step with civic. The three salient examples are “The Pageant of Darkness and Light,” by John Oxenham; ““The Wayfarer,” by J. E. Crowther, and “Faith of Our Fathers,” by Anita Ferris.

LANGUAGE

29

restored to the king’s favour in 1553, and was one of the twentysix peers who signed Edward’s settlement of the crown on Lady Jane Grey in June. He made his peace with Queen Mary, who reinstated him as a knight of the Garter and in the privy council in 1553, and appointed him lord privy seal in 1556. On the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 Paget retired from public life, and died on June 9. 1563.

PAGODA, a term loosely used for any eastern temple; but

more commonly restricted to the pyramidal, conical or turretshaped buildings of India, Java and the Malay peninsula, which are more accurately known as stupas, and reserved in China and BrsLtiocRaPHY.—F. W. Fairholt, Catalogue of a Collection of Works Japan for square, polygonal or circular towers of many storeys. on Pageaniry (1869); M. L. Spencer, Corpus Christi Pageants in The word was first used in the 16th century by the Portuguese in England: A Study of Mediaeval Cycle Plays (1911) ; F. H. Hayward, India, and is a corruption of a native word, either Pers. but. Kadah, A New Book of Celebrations (1927). (E. W. Bs.) a house for an idol, or Sansk. bkagavat, divine. Chinese and PAGET, SIR JAMES, Bart. (1814-1899), British surgeon, Japanese pagodas usually possess a projecting roof at each floor was born at Yarmouth on Jan. 11, 1814, the son of a brewer and level and each storey is sometimes slightly smaller than the one shipowner. His brother, Sir George, became regius professor of below, so that the outline appears to taper. physic at Cambridge and also had a distinguished medical career. Pagoda, or pagod, is also the name given to a gold coin current After attending school at Yarmouth, James was apprenticed to in southern India; Plumeria acutifolia, a tree indigenous to India a general practitioner until 1834 when he entered St. Bartholoand bearing yellow and white flowers, is known as the pagoda tree. mew’s Hospital, London. It was during his first winter session that PAGSANJAN, a municipality (with administration centre he detected Trichina spiralis, a minute parasite infecting the human muscles. R. Owen (g.v.), who gave these parasites their and 13 barrios or districts) in the eastern part of the province of scientific name, is usually credited with the discovery, but he La Laguna, Luzon, Philippine islands, at the junction of the merely confirmed what Paget had detected. From May 1836, Pagsanjan and Botocan rivers and quite near the Laguna de Bay. Paget experienced a period of severe poverty, being too poor to Pop. (1918) 7,538. Here is located the Pagsanjan cataract or secure a house-surgeoncy or even a dressership. However, in Botocan falls, some 200 ft. high—one of the largest waterfalls 1841 he was made surgeon to the Finsbury Dispensary, and in 1843 in the Philippines. The district produces coco-nuts and Pagsanjan lecturer on general anatomy and physiology at St. Bartholomew’s. in an important market place. In 1918, it had 33 manufacturing Four years later, he was appointed assistant surgeon, and also establishments with output valued at 444,000 pesos, and 76 houseArris and Gale professor at the College of Surgeons. The lectures hold industry establishments with output valued at 35,000 pesos. given under this professorship were published in 1853 as Lec- The language spoken is Tagalog.

PAHARI LANGUAGE (properly Pahari, the language tures on Surgical Pathology. By 1851 when he was elected F.R.S. Paget had become known as a great physiologist and pathologist. of the mountains), a general name applied to the Indo-Aryan His lectures on physiology were a turning point in the fortunes of languages or dialects spoken in the lower ranges of the Himalayas St. Bartholomew’s school. In pathology, he was Hunter’s real from Nepal in the east, to Chamba of the Punjab in the west. successor, and together with his friend, Virchow (g.v.), may truly These forms of speech fall into three groups—an eastern, consisting of the various dialects of Khas-kura, the language of Nepal; be called the founder of the modern science. In 1851 Paget began practice near Cavendish square, London. a central, spoken in the north of the United Provinces, in Seven years later he was appointed surgeon extraordinary to Kumaon and Garhwal; and a western, spoken in the country Queen Victoria, and in 1863 surgeon in ordinary to the prince of round Simla and in Chamba. In Nepal, Khas-kura is the lanWales. He specialized on the pathology of tumours and dis- guage only of the Aryan population, the mother tongue of most eases of the bones and joints, and was the first to urge enucleation of the inhabitants being some form or other of Tibeto-Burof the tumour, instead of amputation, in diseases of myeloid man speech. Khas-kura is mainly differentiated from Central Pasarcoma. He gave original accounts of eczema of the nipple, hari through its being affected by Tibeto-Burman idioms. Central mammary cancer, and osteitis deformans. In 1871 he resigned and Western Pahari have not been brought into close association his surgeoncy to the hospital and received a baronetcy. In 1875 with Tibeto-Burmans; their language is therefore purely Aryan. Khas-kura, as its speakers themselves call it, passes under he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 1877 Hunterian orator and in 1881 president of the International Medical various names. The English term Népali or Naipali (z.e., the lanCongress, and in 1883 became vice-chancellor of the University guage of Nepal) is a misnomer, for it is not the principal form of speech used in that country, viz., the Tibeto-Burman Néwari. of London. He died in London on Dec. 30, 1899. See Selected Essays and Addresses by Sir James Paget, ed. by his Khas-kura is also called Gorkhali, or the language of the Gurkson, S. Paget (London, 1902), who has also written Memoirs and has, and Pahari or Parbatiya, the language of the mountains. Letters of Sir James Paget (3rd ed. London, 1903). Central Pahari includes two dialects:—Garhwali, spoken mainly in Garhwal and the country round the hill station of PAGET, VIOLET: see Lez, VERNON. PAGET OF BEAUDESERT, WILLIAM PAGET, rst Mussoorie, and Kumauni, spoken in Kumaun, including the counBaron (1506-1563), English statesman, was born in London in try round the hill station of Naini Tal. Western Pahari includes a great number of dialects. In the 1506, and was educated at St. Paul’s School, at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and at the university of Paris. He was employed by Henry Simla Hill States alone no less than twenty-two, of which the most VIII. in several important diplomatic missions; in 1532 he was important are Sirmaurl and Keonthali (the dialect of Simla itappointed clerk of the privy council. He became secretary to self}, were recorded. To these may be added Jaunsari, spoken in Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539, and in 1543 he was sworn of the the Jaunsar tract of Dehra Dun; Chambiali and Churahi, of the privy council and appointed secretary of state. Paget supported state of Chamba; Mandeali of the state of Mandi; Gadi of Somerset during the minority of Edward VI. In 1547 he was made Chamba and Kangra; Kuluhi of Kulu, and others, But the Aryan language of the whole Pahari area is now a comptroller of the king’s household, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and a knight of the Garter; and in 1549 he was made form of Rajasthani, exhibiting at the same time traces of the old Baron Paget de Beaudesert. About the same time he obtained Khaga language which it superseded, and also in Nepal of the grants of lands, including Cannock Chase and Burton Abbey in Tibeto-Burman forms of speech by which it is surrounded. Khas-kura shows most traces of Tibeto-Burman influence. The Staffordshire, and the residence of the bishops of Exeter in London. He also obtained Beaudesert in Staffordshire. Paget shared gender of nouns is purely sexual, and, although there is an oblique Somerset’s disgrace, being committed to the Tower in 1551 and case derived from Rajasthani, it is so often confounded with the degraded from the Order of the Garter in 1552. He was, however,’ nominative, that in the singular number either can be employed

30

PAHLAVI

for the other. Both these are due to Tibeto-Burman influence, but the non-Aryan idiom is most prominent in the use of the verb. There is an indefinite tense referring to present, past or future time according to the context, formed by suffixing the verb substantive to the root of the main verb, exactly as in some of the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages. In Eastern and Central Pahari the verb substantive is formed from the root ach, as in both Rajasthani and Kashmiri. In Rajasthani its present tense, being derived from the Sanskrit present rcchami, I go, does not change for gender. But in Pahari and Kashmiri it is a participial tense and does change according to the gender of the subject. Here we have a relic of the old Khasa language, which seems to have been related to Kashmiri. Other relics of KhaSa are the tendency to shorten long vowels, the practice of epenthesis, or the modification of a vowel by the one which follows in the next syllable, and the frequent occurrence of disaspiration. (See InpoARYAN LANGUAGES.) BIBLioGRAPHY.—S. H. Kellog’s Hindi Grammar (znd ed., London, 1893) includes both Eastern and Central Pahari in its survey. For Khas see also A. Turnbull, Nepali i.e. Gorkhali or Parbate Grammar (Darjeeling, 1904) and G. A. Grierson, “A Specimen of the Khas or Naipali Language,” in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenléndischen Gesellschaft (1907), Ixi. 689 seg. There is no authority dealing with Western Pahari as a whole. A. H. Diack’s work, The Kulu Dialect of Hindi (Lahore, 1896), may be consulted for Kuluhi. See also T. Grahame Bailey’s Languages of the Northern Himalayas (Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1908). Vol. ix. pt. iv., of the Linguistic Survey of India contains full particulars of all the Pahari dialects in great detail.

PAHLAVI

(formerly Enzeli), the principal port of Persia

Sassanian period. The great peculiarity of the language is that though it is Iranian, it is full of Semitic (Aramaic) words. Not only Aramaic nouns and verbs, but numerals, particles and pronouns are used side by side with Persian words. It was once thought to be a mixed language, which like English had largely adopted a foreign vocabulary, but it is now recognized that the Aramaic words are ideograms, and that the corresponding Persian word was always used in reading. Owing to the defective alphabet the words are often ambiguous, and some of them cannot be recognized as Semitic, but we can always tell the Persian word intended. This view, the development of which began with Westergaard (Zendavesta, p. 20, note), is in full accordance with the true and ancient tradition. Thus Ibn Mokaffat, who translated many Pahlavi books into Arabic, tells us that the Persians had about 1,000 words which they wrote otherwise than they were pronounced in Persian. For bread he says they wrote LHMA, Że., the Aramaic lahmd, but they pronounced adn, which is the common Persian word for bread. Similarly spsra, the Aramaic besrd, flesh, was pronounced as the Persian géshi. We still possess a glossary which actually gives the Pahlavi writing with its Persian pronunciation. This glossary, which besides Aramaic words contains also a variety of Persian words disguised in antique forms, or by errors due to the contracted style of writing, exists in various shapes, all of which, in spite of their corruptions, go back to the work which the statement of Tbn Mokaffa* had in view. Thus the Persians did the same thing, as when in English we write £ (libra) and pronounce “pound” or write & or & (et) and pronounce “and.” No system was followed in the choice of Semitic forms. Sometimes a noun was written in its status absolutus, sometimes the emphatic @ was added, and this was sometimes written as x, sometimes as ^m. One verb was written in the perfect, another in the imperfect. Even various dialects were laid under contribution. The Semitic signs by which Persian synonyms were distinguished are sometimes quite arbitrary. Thus in Persian khwésh and khwat both mean “self”; the former is written Nrshu (nafsha or nafsheh), the latter BNFshH with the preposition bé prefixed. Personal pronouns are expressed in the dative (i.e., with prepositional / prefixed), thus

on the Caspian Sea, 14 m. N. of Resht, in 37° 29’ N., and 49° 28’ E. It has a mixed population of about 20,000, including many Armenians, Turkmans and Caucasians. The port lies in the channel between two sandpits forming the entrance from the Caspian Sea to a great murdab or lagoon (20 m. by 7 m.). The entrance, about 800 yd. wide, is protected by two breakwaters soo yd. long. The harbour is entered by vessels up to 15 ft. draught except in bad weather. On both sides of the channel are wharves, piers, tanks for oil steamers and storehouses. There is a weekly passenger steamer service for Baku (20 hours), besides other irregular services. LK (lakh) for tu, “thou,” LNH (land) for amd, “we.” The tonnage of the trade of Pahlavi was 133,585 in 1925-26, Great difficulties arise from the ambiguous nature of the or almost twice-as much as all the other Caspian ports put to- cursive characters. Modern mss., following Arabic models, introgether, carried by 319 steam vessels, of which 305 were Russian. duce diacritical points from time to time, and often incorrectly. The value of the total trade in the same year was 188,223,000 But a much more important help is found in the so-called Pazand krans (£ St.=45 krans), of which 68,283,000 krans were exports, or transcription of Pahlavi texts, in which the Semitic words are the chief items being rice (21,499,000 krans), hides and skins replaced by Persian as they are to be read, and which are written (12,310,000 krans), raisins (11,678,000 krans), raw cotton (8,649,- in the quite clear Avesta character. Pazand mss. present dialectical ooo krans), fresh and dried fruit, gums, textiles and raw silk. variations according to the taste or intelligence of authors and Pahlavi is the principal centre of the rice trade of Gilan. The copyists, and all have many false readings. For us, however, they port is connected with Tehran (247 m.) via Resht and Kazvin by are of the greatest use. To get a conception of Pahlavi one a road suitable for heavy motor traffic. In 1926 the Junkers cannot do better than read the Minoi-Khiradh in the Pahlavi with Company was granted a concession for the transport by air of constant reference to the Pazand. The Book of the Mainyo-imails, passengers and merchandise between Pahlavi and Tehran, Khard in the Original Pahlavi,.ed. by Fr. Ch. Andreas (Kiel, connecting with Europe via Baku. During the World War Pahlavi, 1882); idem, The Pdzand and Sanskrit Texts, by E. W. West then known as Enzeli, was held by the Russians. (See Resut.) (Stuttgart and London, 1871). Critical labour is still required PAHLAVI or PEHLEVI, the name given by the followers to give an approximate reproduction of the author’s own pronunciof Zoroaster to the character im which are written the ancient ation of what he wrote. translations of their sacred books and some other works which The coins of the later Sassanid kings, of the princes of Tabarthey preserve. (See Persia: Language.) The name, which means istan, and of some governors in the earlier Arab period, exhibit Parthian, can be traced back for many centuries; the poet Firdausi an alphabet very similar to Pahlavi mss. On the older coins (roth century) repeatedly speaks of Pahlavi books as the sources the several letters are more clearly distinguished, and in good of his narratives and tells us that in the time of the first Khos- specimens of well-struck coins of the oldest Sassanians almost rau (Chosroes I., aD. 531-579) the Pahlavi character alone every letter can be recognized with certainty. The same holds was used in Persia. The learned Ibn Mokaffa‘ (8th century) calls good for the inscriptions on gems and other small monuments Pahlavi one of the languages of Persia, and seems to imply that of the early Sassanian period; but the clearest of all are the it was an official language. The passage, in which useful facts rock inscriptions of the Sassanians in the 3rd and 4th centuries, are mixed up with strange notions, is given abridged in Fihrist, though in the 4th century a tendency to cursive forms begins p. 14, more fully by Yakut, iii. 925, but most fully and accurately to appear. Only r and v are always quite alike. In details there in the Mafatih al-‘oliim (ed. Vloten, 116). The term is now applied are many differences between the Pahlavi of inscriptions and the to Middle Persian (from the 3rd to the 7th century a.p.), whether books. Persian endings added to words written in Semitic form written in the older characters of the inscriptions, which begin are much less common in the former, so that the person and with the Arsacid (Parthian) kings, or the cursive writing of the number of a verb are often not to be made out. There are also

PAIGNTON—PAIN orthographic variations; e.g., long @ in Persian forms is always expressed in book-Pahlavi, but not always in inscriptions. The unfamiliar contents of some of these inscriptions, their limited number, their bad preservation and the imperfect way in which some of the most important of them have been published leave many things still obscure in these monuments of Persian kings; but they have done much to clear up both great and small points in the history of Pahlavi. It was De Sacy who began the decipherment of the inscriptions. Some of the oldest Sassanian inscriptions are accompanied by a text known as Chaldae-Pahlavi, and belonging to the same system of writing, but with many variations in detail, and an

alphabet which, though derived from the same source with the

other Pahlavi alphabets (the old Aramaic), has quite different forms. It was soon replaced entirely by Sassanian Pahlavi. The name Pahlavi suggests that the system of writing was developed in Parthian times, when the great nobles, the Pahlavans, ruled and Media was their main seat, “the Pahlav country.” Other linguistic, graphical and historical indications point the same way; but it is still far from clear how the system was developed. We know, indeed, that even under the Achaemenids, Aramaic writing and speech were employed far beyond the Aramaic lands, even in official documents and on coins. The Iranians had no convenient character, and might borrow the Aramaic letters as naturally as they subsequently borrowed those of the Arabs. But this does not explain the strange practice of writing Semitic words in place of so many Persian words which were to be read as Persian. It cannot be the invention of an individual, for in that case the system would have been more consistently worked out, and the appearance of two or more kinds of Pahlavi side by side at the beginning of the Sassanian period would be inexplicable.

The Pahlavi literature embraces the translations of the holy books of the Zoroastrians, dating probably from the 6th century, and certain other religious books, especially the Mindi-Khiradh and the Bundahish. The Bundahish dates from the Arab period. Zoroastrian priests continued to write the old language as a dead tongue and to use the old character long after the victory of a new empire, a new religion, a new form of the language (New Persian) and a new character. There was once a not quite inconsiderable profane literature, of which a good deal is preserved in Arabic or New Persian versions or reproductions, particularly in historical books about the time before Islam. Very little profane literature still exists in Pahlavi. See E. W. West, “Pahlavi Literature,” in Geiger and Kuhn’s Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (1896), vol. ii.; “The Extent, Language and Age of Pahlavi Literature,” in Sttzungsber. der k. b. Akad. der wiss., Phil. u. hist. Klasse, pp. 399-443 (Munich, 1888), and his Pahlavi Texts in Sacred Books of the East (1880—97). The fullest ' grammar is Mittelpersisch by C. Salemann in vol. i. of the Grundriss. Of glossaries, that of West (Bombay and London, 1874) is to be recommended; the large Pahlavi, Gujarati, and English lexicon of Jamaspji Dastur Minocherji (Bombay and London, 1874-82) is very full, but must be used with much caution. (Ta. N.;"3 E. J. T.)

PAIGNTON, a seaside resort of Devonshire, England, on Tor bay, 22 m. S.W. of Torquay, on the S.W. railway. Pop. of urban district (1931) 18,405. The church of St. John is mainly Perpendicular, but has a late Norman doorway, and contains a carved and painted pulpit, and in the Kirkham chapel a stone

screen. Among other buildings and institutions is a novitiate of Marist Fathers. Little remains of an old palace of the bishops of Exeter apart from the 14th century Bible Tower. Its last tenant was Bishop Miles Coverdale, who in 1535 published the first English translation of the whole Bible. The town has a fine expanse of sand and good bathing facilities.

PAIN,

BARRY

ERIC

ODELL

(1865-1928),

English

humorous writer, was educated at Sedbergh and at Corpus Christi, Cambridge, where he was a prominent contributor to The Granta. James Payn inserted his story, “The Hundred Gates,” in the Cornhill Magazine in 1889, and he became a contributor to Punch and the Speaker, and other papers. Discerning critics had already seen the authentic touch of comedy in his earlier work when Pain suddenly achieved fame with Eliza (1900). In Eliza’s fussy, pompous husband he had found the matter for more than local

31

comedy. Eliza had sequels, carrying on the tale of the family, and other excellent studies of London life followed, and some ghoststories. Pain possessed a rare gift of parody, and found subjects for his skits in many best sellers. One of the first of his essays in this kind was Another Englishwoman’s Love Letters, and one of the last Madge Askinforit. He died at Watford on May 4, 1928.

PAIN, SIGNIFICANCE

OF. In health we are conscious

of few bodily sensations other than a sense of well-being, of physical and mental comfort and accord with our surroundings, with the addition, at certain times, of such pleasant attributes as a glowing skin or a ready appetite. The normal interruptions to this state of physiological balance are the transitory discomforts

of a too-insistent hunger or a full bowel or bladder, or due to fatigue and such external agencies as heat and cold. We are made aware of ill-health either by an indefinable malaise or by more localized and disagreeable sensations; of such are nausea, itching, dizziness and shortness of breath, each of which proclaims a derangement of function in certain organs or tissues. The purpose of these symptoms is regarded as protective, just as a flow of tears or a winking eye-lid in response to a speck of dust in the eye is protective. The pain which accompanies and would, indeed, seem to induce the weeping and spasmodic movements of the lid is, in the conscious state, an accompaniment of the protective reflex. Biological Purpose.—Of all the sensory phenomena of disease pain in one form or another is the most frequent and frequently the most urgent. It differs in kind from the types of discomfort already cited and is due to distinct causes, but the difference between many other discomforts and pain is merely a matter of degree. Thus the ache of a muscle employed in some unwonted effort is probably due to the same factors as those which induce an agonising cramp; it only differs from cramp subjectively in being much more bearable. In both states the muscle-fibres are much tautened, more than is usual at rest or

after mild activity; but in cramp the tautening increases until painful spasm occurs. Similarly the physiological discomfort of hunger, which depends upon an exaggerated tonic and contractile activity of the muscular coat of the stomach, is only a little removed from the hunger-pain accompanying duodenal ulcer, in which tonic and contractile activity are reflexly exaggerated in moments of approaching emptiness by impulses originating in the nerves exposed by the ulcer. The biological purpose of pain, wherever it occurs, and even although this purpose may sometimes seem difficult of acceptance, is undoubtedly protective. When the hand is pricked by the hidden pin it is spontaneously withdrawn to prevent a deeper injury. We are careful not to bite upon the sensitive tooth. The pain of a broken limb or of an inflamed joint compels disuse and an attitude of rest most favourable to healing. The pain of pleurisy compels restricted and shallow breathing to lessen the friction of the delicate lining membranes of the lung and chestwall which have been invaded by infective agents and roughened by inflammation. The pain of angina pectoris compels instant and complete physical immobility to give the heart the best possible chance of rest and recovery in a moment of circulatory stress dangerous alike to itself and life. Thus, patently in some instances, obscurely in others, pain serves to inhibit actions which would otherwise add further injury to tissues already damaged by disease. The victim of tooth-ache or some more serious agony can scarcely be expected to appreciate the methods of nature or to accept suffering as beneficial; religious devotees of varying cults may persist in claiming pain as a punishment or an expiation for sin; but the medical sciences continue to accumulate evidence which establishes pain and the other symptoms of disease as the necessary sensory element of mechanisms physiologically valuable because they prepare the way for nature’s healing endeavour by the process of rest. Physiological Interpretation.—The foregoing statement seeks to explain the biological significance of pain, but it is necessary also to consider the physiological significance of special pains and of pains felt in various organs and tissues of the body. From an appreciation of the physiological significance of pain is derived information of the greatest value in medical diagnosis

32

PAINE

and treatment. In the skin special nerve-endings, with appropriate paths in the spinal cord have been demonstrated whose service is to transmit painful sensations, which are referred to and appreciated in consciousness at the site of the actual injury. The skin is also endowed with nerve-fibres for touch, heat and cold, If we except the delicate mucous-membranes of the bodily orifices with their special sensibilities, it is doubtful whether any other tissues possess such specialized powers of appreciation and discrimination. Indeed it is clear that they have small need of them. It is not for instance a function of muscles to appreciate touch, heat or cold, and they are never required to do so; it has also been shown in the living human being that the hollow internal organs such as the intestines, are not sensitive to inappropriate stimuli and that they can be cut, pricked or burned in the conscious subject without any sensation being registered. But tissues other than the skin have their appropriate functions and must, for their own welfare, be appreciative of excessive or inadequate activity or stimulation. Thus the muscles must be able to gauge the strength of opposing forces and must have a limit to the strength with which they can contract and to the number of times they can contract within a certain period. Extreme stretching or extreme contraction of a muscle, as in cramp, causes pain. The pain in hollow muscular organs, like the stomach, the bowel, the bladder, the bile-ducts and the arteries, also depends upon excessive tonic or contractile action. Thus when a gallstone is impacted in the bile duct—a very narrow tube—a great increase in tension in the wall of the duct necessarily follows and severe pain results until the stone is passed or relief brought by other means. The mucous membrane (or inner coat) and the serous (or outer) coat of all the hollow organs is, as has been indicated, insensitive to the ordinary stimuli which the skin appreciates, but a bubble of wind and still more some pathological stricture by evoking muscular contraction and increased tension of the muscle-fibres in an attempt to dislodge the bubble or to overcome the obstruction, may cause pain which is referred to the deep situation of the part affected. Solid organs like the brain and liver are apparently insensitive to ordinary stimuli painful in the case of the skin. A bullet, a blade or a needle may traverse them and no hurt be felt in their substance. The delicate covering membranes of these organs, however, are responsive to inflammation or stretching, and still more to a combination of these, giving the intense headache of meningitis and the pain and tenderness of an engorged or inflamed liver. The lung is not sensitive but its delicate pleural investment certainly is, as sufferers from a pleurisy know only too well. Arteries are sensitive but—as with other hollow organs—stretching or spasm are the effective causes of pain. Bone is not sensitive but its transparent covering, the periosteum, is certainly so, especially when its tension is increased by the swelling attendant upon bruising or inflammation. Direct stimulation of a sensory nerve causes pain and other unpleasant sensations along the course of the nerve. The rolled or injured ulnar nerve (or ‘funny bone”) experiences pain at the point of stimulation and simultaneously an electric twitch of pain radiates down the inner side of the arm to the little fmger. In sciatica, an inflammatory nerve-pain, the unpleasant sensations are often felt throughout the course of the nerve to its ultimate distribution. In all these types of pain the sensation is located in consciousness at the part affected, but there are other types of pain which are spoken of as “referred” or “sympathetic.” These depend upon the fact that the nerve-supplies to certain deep-seated structures or organs and certain superficial structures have a common origin. In some cases of tooth-ache pain is experienced in the ear or some area of the scalp which may even become tender to touch as though the skin were inflamed, and yet it shows no signs of local disease. This pain and hypersensitiveness is explained by the circumstance that the nerves to the diseased tooth and the sympathetically affected skin have a common receiving station in the ganglion of the fifth or trigeminal nerve. In angina pectoris the pain is often referred down the left arm, because the same segment of the spinal cord supplies both this region and the heart with its immediate arterial offshoots. In gall-bladder in-

flammation the pain is often referred to the shoulder-blade, in inflammation of the diaphragm to the shoulder itself, by reason of a similar sharing of segmental nerve-supplies. The tenderness which may develop in these surface areas of sympathetic pain may be of very great value to the physician in his decisions as to the nature and localization of deeply-seated and invisible inflammations. The stimuli in the deep-seated structures potent for the production of referred or sympathetic pain and hypersensitiveness are either some violent mechanical insult as in the

case of an impacted gall-stone or kidney-stone, or some more sustained irritation such as is caused by active inflammation in the wall of the organ. Numerous observations may be made by the physician with regard to a particular pain and each of these may have a special value in helping him to draw conclusions as to its seat of origin, its nature and its ultimate causes. Thus he can elicit information in regard to:—(1z) Its character (whether gnawing, aching or

burning); (2) its severity (whether easily borne or agonising); (3) its exact situation; (4) its localization or extent of diffusion; (5) its paths of sympathetic propagation or reference; (6) its duration; (7) its frequency; (8) the special times at which it is liable to occur; and, finally, (9) and (10) its aggravating and relieving factors. From such an inquiry he is able to endow pain with a diagnostic significance which, in the civilised community, by providing indications for its medical or surgical relief, further serves to enhance its natural value as a protective agent.

See also SKIN, SENSORY FUNCTIONS OF THE. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—]John Hilton, Rest and Pain (5th edn., London, 1920); Sir James Mackenzie, Symptoms and their Interpretation

(4th edn., London, 1920); J. A. Ryle, “The Clinical Study of Pain” (Brit. Med. Journ. 1928, i, 537). (J. A. Ry.)

PAINE, ROBERT

TREAT

(1731-1814), American poli-

tician, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Boston, Mass., on March 11, 1731. He graduated at Harvard in 1749, and was admitted to the bar in 1759. In 1768 he was a delegate to the provincial convention which was called to meet in Boston, and conducted the prosecution of Captain Thomas Preston and his men for their share in the famous “Boston Massacre” of March 5, 1770. He served in the Massachusetts general court (1773-74), in the provincial congress (1774-75), and in the Continental Congress (1774-78), and was speaker of the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1777, a member of the executive council in 1779, a member of the committee which drafted the Constitution of 1780, attorney-general of the State from 1777 to 1790, and a judge of the state supreme court from 1790 to 1804. He died in Boston on May 11, 1814. See John Sanderson, Biography of the Signers of The Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia, 1823), vol. ii.

PAINE, THOMAS

(1737-1809), English author, was born

at Thetford, Norfolk, the son of a Quaker staymaker. After several years at sea and after trying various occupations on land, Paine took up his father’s trade in London, where he supplemented his meagre grammar school education by attending science lectures. He was given in 1762 an appointment in the excise, was discharged for neglect of duty in 1765, but, on offering explanations and apologies, was restored, taking an appointment in 1768 at Lewes. His married life was unhappy, his finances became embarrassed and in 1774 he left Lewes, losing his post, leaving his goods to his creditors, and separating from his wife. Encouraged by Benjamin Franklin, he sailed to America, where he arrived in Nov. 1774, and was set to edit the Pennsylvania Magazine. On Jan. 10, 1776, he published Common Sense, a remarkable and powerful republican pamphlet which had an immediate success. Written in simple, convincing language, it was read everywhere, and the open movement to independence dates from, its publication. Washington said that it “worked a powerful change in the minds of many men.” When war was declared, and fortune at

first went against the colonists, Paine, who was then serving with General Greene as series of influential words, “These are battle-cry. Paine’s

volunteer aide-de-camp, wrote the first of a tracts called The Crisis, of which the opening the times that try men’s souls,’ became a services were recognized by an appointment

PAINESVILLE—PAINT to be secretary of the commission sent by Congress to treat with the Indians, and a few months later to be secretary of the Congressional committee of foreign affairs. In 1779, however, he indiscreetly published information gained from his official position, and was compelled to resign. He was afterwards clerk of the Pennsylvania legislature, and accompanied John Laurens during his mission to France. His services were eventually recognized by the State of New York by a grant of an estate at New Rochelle. From Congress he received considerable gifts of money. In 1787 he sailed for Europe with the model of an iron bridge he had designed, but his chief object was to repeat his American success. His first efforts, in the Prospects on the Rubicon (1787), were directed against Pitt’s war policy. When Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France appeared, in 1790, Paine at once wrote his answer, The Rights of Man. The first part appeared on March 13, 1791, and had an enormous circulation before the Government took alarm and endeavoured to suppress it. Pitt “used to say,” according to Lady Hester Stanhope, “that Tom Paine was quite in the right, but then he would add, ‘What am I to dor As things are, if I were to encourage Tom Paine’s opinions we should have a bloody revolution.’” Paine was indicted for treason in May 1792, but before the trial came off he was elected

by the department of Calais to the French Convention. William Blake, the poet, hustled him prudently out of England, and he

took his seat in the French convention. Paine, who understood neither the French language nor the dreadful difficulties of the revolution, rapidly made himself unpopular with the Jacobins. He incurred the suspicion of Robespierre, was thrown into prison, and escaped the guillotine by an accident. Before his arrest he had completed the first part of the Age of Reason, the publication of which made an instant change in his position on both sides of the Atlantic, the indignation in the United States being as strong as In England. The Age of Reason was written from the point of view of a Quaker who did not believe in revealed religion, but who held that “all religions are in their nature mild and benign” when not associated with political systems, Mixed with the un-

ceremonious ridicule of what he considered superstition are many passages of earnest and even lofty eloquence in favour of a pure morality founded on natural religion. The work in short—a second part, written during his ten months’ imprisonment, was published after his release—represents the deism of the 18th century in the hands of a rough, ready, passionate controversialist. At the downfall of Robespierre Paine was restored to his seat in the convention, and served until it adjourned in Oct. 179s, his last speech being an effort to save universal suffrage. In 1796 he published a long letter to Washington, attacking his military reputation and his presidential policy with a bitterness due to his belief that Washington and the Americans had deserted him when in danger of death in France. In 1802 Paine sailed for America, but found his popularity extinguished. He died in New York on June 8, 1809, and his body was in 1819 removed to

England by William Cobbett.

See the biography by Moncure D. Conway (1892); Gamaliel Bradford, Damaged Souls (Boston, 1923); David S. Muzzey, “Thomas

Paine and American Independence,” Amer. Review, vol. iv., pp. 278— 288 (Bloomington, Ill, 1926); Don C. Seitz, “Thomas Paine, Bridge Builder,” Va. Quart. Rev., vol. ii., pp. 571-584 (Charlottesville, Va., 1927); and Mary Agnes Best, Thomas Paine, Prophet and Martyr of Democracy (1927).

PAINESVILLE, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., the county seat of

Lake county; on the Grand river and Federal highway 20, 3 m. S. of Lake Erie and 30 m. N.E. of Cleveland. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the New York Central and the Nickel Plate railways. Pop. (1920) 7,272; in 1930, 10,944. It is the seat of Lake Erie college for women, founded as Willoughby seminary in 1847. The city has large nurseries and a variety of manufacturing industries. It operates under a commission-manager form of government. Painesville was founded in 1800-02 by

settlers from Connecticut and New York, and was named after General Edward Paine of Connecticut, a Revolutionary officer. It

was incorporated as a village in 1832 and became acity in 1902.

PAINLEVE,

PAUL

(1863-

born in Paris on Dec. 5, 1863.

_), French politician, was

He was educated at the Ecole

33

Normale Supérieure and became a doctor in mathematical science, soon showing himself to be a mathematician of the first rank. He became a professor at the Sorbonne, and was elected a member of the French Académie des Sciences. From. the time of the Dreyfus case his interest in politics increased; in 1906 he was elected deputy for Paris as an independent socialist and took a special interest in all questions relating to the army, navy and air force. It was not, however, until the World War that Painlevé occupied a political position of any great importance. In Briand’s cabinet, formed on Oct. 20, 1915, Painlevé became minister of public instruction and of inventions; but finding himself in disagreement with Briand in regard to the conduct of the war, he ceased to be a member of the Briand Government when the latter was reconstructed on Dec. 12, r916. In March 1917 Ribot became premier and gave the portfolio of minister of war to Painlevé, who proceeded to appoint General Pétain in place of General Nivelle as commander-in-chief of the French Army. On the resignation of Ribot, Painlevé himself formed a cabinet on Sept. 12, 1917. He would have included the

socialists in his government, but owing to their exaggerated demands he was unable to come to an agreement with them.

In

addition to being premier, Painlevé continued to be minister of war. On Oct. 19, in consequence of a vote of the Chamber, he felt that his majority was insufficient, and therefore resigned; but he at once reconstituted his cabinet, replacing Ribot by Barthou at the ministry for foreign affairs. A few days later, after the Italian disaster at Caporetto, he went to Rapallo at the same time as Lloyd George to meet the Italian premier, Orlando. These discussions resulted in the creation of the Supreme Allied Council at Versailles, General Foch being chosen by Painlevé as the chief representative of France. On Nov. 13, the Chamber having refused to postpone questions regarding “defeatism,” Painlevé resigned and was succeeded by Clemenceau. After some years of restricted political activity, Painlevé with Herriot helped to form the cartel des gauches, which obtained a majority in the general elections of May x11, 1924. The two heads of this group, Herriot and Painlevé, became prenier and president of the chamber respectively. The radicals now organised a kind of ministerial strike, with the result that Millerand was forced to resign the presidency of the Republic. The attempt to replace him by Painlevé failed, and Doumergue was elected president. In April 1925 Herriot was forced to resign after a defeat in the senate on financial questions and Painlevé succeeded him as premier, taking over the portfolio of war as well. Caillaux became minister of finance, a position of special importance at that time of financial crisis. In June Painlevé went by air to Morocco, where owing to the offensive of Abdel-Krim a difficult situation had arisen; later he sent out Marshal Pétain to organise resistance and direct a counter-offensive. In July he found it was impossible to remain in power without the support of a section of the opposition, for the socialists refused to accept the fiscal policy of Caillaux. In October, therefore, with a view to gaining the support of the extreme left, Painlevé himself took over the ministry of finance from Caillaux. But on Nov. 21 he found himself with a minority in the chamber owing to his financial proposals. He was succeeded as premier by Briand; and, both in that government and in the one formed by Briand in March 1926, Painlevé continued to

hold the portfolio of War. He was also minister for war in the two successive cabinets formed by Poincaré at the end of July 1926 and in November 1928. Painlevé was made a member of the academies of science of France, Bologna, Stockholm and Upsala as well as of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei in Rome. Among his various works on mathematics may be mentioned: Leçons sur le frottement (1895); and Leçons sur la théorie analytique des équations différentielles

(1897).

PAINT.

£

(P. B.)

A paint may be defined as a liquid, containing in sus-

pension a solid coloured material known as the pigment, which is applied to surfaces both for decorative and protective purposes.

A paint consists of a mixture of (i) a solid pigment (or a mixture of pigments) and (ii) a liquid medium (known as “the

PAINT

34

vehicle”). The vehicle is usually composed of linseed oil (or other

drying oil), a drier, and turpentine or other volatile thinner. The linseed oil is added to furnish a binder for the pigments, the drier to accelerate the rate of drying, and the turpentine to give the paint the proper flowing consistency, and to promote ease of application. When a paint is applied the turpentine, being volatile, rapidly evaporates from the painted surface, leaving behind the pigment and oil mixture as a wet coating; this mixture gradually dries into an elastic solid skin owing to the oil absorbing oxygen from the air. The solidified oil acts as a binder for the pigments and holds them in their place; a tough paint film is thus formed which adheres firmly to the surface, and serves both to protect and decorate.

A good quality of paint should be easily applied, cover well, and be opaque, or as it is generally described, possess good “body” or hiding power. The body and covering power of a paint is dependent on the amount and nature of the pigments it contains in suspension; and, as a rule, the finer the state of subdivision of the particles of the pigment the greater the body and covering power. The durability of a paint is mainly dependent on the nature of the oil medium component, and only pure drying oils should be used in their preparation. It is sometimes stated that the oil is the life of the paint. If this were true, oil alone should be more durable than paint, which is far from being the case, since, in fact, oil films do not wear as well as paint films because the addition of pigments to the oil films tends to reinforce them and to make them dry off harder and become more impervious to air and moisture. Ordinary paints should dry with a glossy surface, but they can be made to dry with a flat finish by decreasing the oil content and increasing the proportion of turpentine or other volatile

Yellow Pigments:—Chrome yellow, zinc chrome, French ochre, cadmium yellow raw sienna, orange chrome. Blue Pigments :—Ultramarine blue, Prussian blue, Chinese blue,

cobalt blue, Brunswick blue, Antwerp blue. Green Pigments:—Brunswick green, chromium oxide green, emerald green, verdigris. Red Pigments:—Red lead, orange lead, Persian red, vermilion, Venetian red, Turkey red. Brown Pigments :—Vandyke brown, sepia, umber, burnt sienna.

Black Pigments:—Vegetable black, carbon black, ivory black, graphite. Lake Pigments:—Signal red, royal red, carmine lake, crimson lake, mahogany lake, violet lake. For a fuller description of pigments see Paints, CHEMISTRY OF. Media or Vehicles.—The liquid portions of paints which act as binders for pigments. The vehicle of ordinary ready-mixed oil paint consists of raw linseed oil—or a mixture of raw and boiled linseed oil—with a small proportion of turpentine, which is added to make the paint more fluid and to promote ease of working. As turpentine is rather expensive, turpentine substitutes, made from a petroleum distillate (white spirit), are often used as a thinning agent. A small proportion of liquid driers (terebine) is usually incorporated in the medium: these driers are solutions of salts of lead, manganese and

cobalt, and increase the rate of drying of the oil by what is known as “catalytic” action. The medium used in the preparation of varnish paints, which dry with a high gloss surface, consists of either an elastic copal varnish or a wood oil varnish. (See VARNISH.) Artists’ oil paints are usually made in the form of a stiff paste and sold in tubes; the vehicle consists of either poppy seed oil or sun-bleached linseed oil, which is used in order to rétain the purity thinner. wearing and of colour of the pigment. A less satisfactory medium is “megilp” e protectiv its The durability of a paint as regards over composed of linseed oil and mastic varnish. The vehicles for properties can only be determined by practical exposure tests oil), water-colour paints are chiefly solutions in water of gum(stand artists’ oil linseed ted heat-trea of a series of years. Additions isinglass and size. Distemper and water paints are y albumen, arabic, durabilit and blown linseed oil to paint mediums increase their glue or casein vehicles. The medium of the emulsified them with to made impart and extent, le remarkab a to s and wearing propertie or enamels consists of a solution of nitropaints cellulose also is modern result same highly elastic and waterproof properties. The amylacetate or other suitable mixed solvents. acetone, in varcopal cellulose elastic from made medium paint a using by obtained Manufacture of Paint.—The process of manufacturing oil nishes, or Chinese wood oil (Tung oil) varnish. varconsists in mixing the dry fine pigment with sufficient rosin paint On the other hand, the use of mineral oils, rosin oils, to convert it into the form of a stiff paste. This stiff rapid medium the cause will mediums, varnish rosin nishes or other soft transferred to a roller mill, or other grinding machine, then is paste paints the in deterioration of paint films on exposure, resulting and finally conveyed to special paint mixing maground, . finely exposure months’ few a only after off chipping and cracking is thinned to the right consistency. it where vary chines, paints of s propertie osive The protective and anti-corr Usually a small proportion of paste driers, or liquid driers is greatly according to their composition. For example paints constage, to accelerate the drying of the paint. taining mixtures of white lead and zinc oxide pigments are ex- added at this variety of paint products are manufactured for immense an outAs for ory satisfact tremely durable and are therefore the most it would be impossible to give more than a brief uses, industrial corrosion from ironwork protect to desired is it where side use; description of the most important varieties in common use. paints containing red lead or graphite are the most efficient. Ready-mixed Paint.—The most common and generally used Paints on exposure over a period of years may chalk (powder is ordinary ready-mixed oil paint. This paint consists of pigmay paint paint original the of colour the off; shell off), crack, blister or ground and mixed in a vehicle consisting of a mixture of ments durable also change or even completely disappear. A high-class boiled linseed oil, with a small proportion of turpentine. and raw years, five or four over well wear should use outdoor paint for only are today used in the preparation of most of pigments Pure Paints degree. moderate a retain its colour, and chalk only to a proportion of some inert pigment or extender but paints, then these which blister or crack are unsatisfactory inasmuch as it is to cheapen the cost of the paint. These paints added sometimes is adhering badly and loose the all y completel necessary to remove a large variety of colours. The most comin manufactured are paint before any repainting can be done. are white lead and zinc white paints. paints white used monly mediums the then described, first are pigments article In this exceptional opacity or obscuring possesses paint lead and White paints, into converted are or vehicles by which these pigments power, and has a peculiarly smooth working property which causes lastly the paints themselves. It is considered to be more Pigments.—These are finely divided insoluble coloured pow- it to flow out evenly under the brush. bases, and is therefore other from made paints than durable prepared or ders obtained from naturally occurring earth colours, painting. The chief disadvantage external for suitable especially of re manufactu the In processes. ring manufactu by chemical are poisonous and great care must paint, it is essential that the colours or pigments used should be in of white lead paints is that they cleanliness after their use. They the form of a fine dry powder; this result is achieved by subject- be taken to ensure absolute should not be used for any internal painting work such as the ing them before use to a grinding and sieving process. of of walls, fixtures, furniture, etc. For the provisions of the re painting manufactu The pigments which are commonly used in the (British) Lead Paint Act, 1926, see PAINTER WORK. paints are as follow:— Another disadvantage of white lead paints is that they darken White Pigments :—White lead, zinc oxide, titanium white, antiwith age, and become discoloured when exposed to the fumes of mony oxide, lithopone, basic sulphate of lead., to a greater or less extent in Inert Pigments or Extenders:—Barytes, blanc-fixe, gypsum sulphuretted hydrogen which exists For this reason paints made towns. large all of atmosphere the silica. white (whiting), China: clay,

(terra alba), asbestine, Paris

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(1, 2, 4, 6, 7) ANDERSON,

(3)

ITALIAN H

ALsNARI,

AND

“Death of St. Francis” by Giotto di Bondone

(5)

COLLECTION

FRENCH (1266-1337).

ARCHIVES

(c. 1308-68).

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PHOTOGRAPHIQUES

PAINTINGS Fresco in

the Bardi Chapel, church of Santa Croce, Florence “Annunciation with S.S. Ansano and Judith,” triptych by Simone Martini (ç. 1283-1344) and Lippo Memmi (fl. 1317—47). In the Uffizi Gallery, Florence Detail of “The Triumph of Death,” a fresco attributed to Andrea Orcagna On the wall of the Campo Santo, Pisa

“Deposition from the Cross” by Rogier Van der Weyden Flemish. In the Escorial, Madrid

a

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rue

(c. 1400-64),

OF THE

EARLY

RENAISSANCE

5. ‘Pieta’” by an unknown artist of the Avignon School, southern 15th century. Now in the Louvre 6. “Adam

and

Eve

driven

out of Paradise”

(1401-28), Florentine School. the Carmine, Florence 7. “The Annunciation”

by Tomaso

Guidi

France, Masaccio

In the Brancacci Chapel, church of

by Fra Angelico

(Giovanni

da Fiesole)

1455). Fresco on the wall of a dormitory cell in the Museum erly the monastery) of San Marco, Florence

(1387-— (form-

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PAINT-BRUSH—-PAINTER-WORK on a white lead base cannot be used on gas-holders or in the neighbourhood of a gas-works, as they would rapidly turn quite black. On account of the many disadvantages of white lead paints a

large demand has arisen in recent years for “leadless” or nonpoisonous white paints. The chief pigment used in the manufac-

ture of non-poisonous white paints is zinc oxide (zine white). Zinc oxide, besides being non-poisonous,-is a purer white colour than white lead, and hence lends itself admirably for all interior paint-work. It is not so opaque, z.e,, it does not obscure or hide so well, as white lead, but is superior in covering or spreading power. Other pigments used in the manufacture of nonpoisonous white paints are, lithopone, titanium white and white oxide of antimony. Titanium white was only introduced as a paint pigment during the second decade of this century, but is rapidly coming into favour on account of its remarkable permanency and

35

count of their comparative cheapness and excellent anticorrosive properties. They are composed of an asphalt or bitumen base dissolved in coal tar or naphtha solvent. They are usually black, but other colours can he obtained, which are made by the addition of strong staining pigments to the base, Anti-fouling Paints.—These paints are used on ships’ bottoms in order to prevent the growth ef barnacles and weeds. They are as a general rule quick-drying iron oxide paints, to which a proportion of poisonous material, such as white arsenic, copper suboxide, mercury oxide, etc., has been added. In contact

with sea water, these poisonous materials gradually dissolve and

thus prevent any deposit or growth forming on the ship’s bottom, Coach-builders’ Paint.—These varieties of paints are made specially for coach-builders use. They consist of pure pigments, extremely finely ground, in a special quick-drying varnish medium stability under all atmospheric conditions, and also because of its known as goldsize. They are supplied in paste form, and require high obliterating power or opacity which is far greater than that to be mixed with turpentine to prepare them for use. They are of white lead. A white paint made with a mixture of zinc oxide also made ground in turpentine, and in this form require to be and titanium white pigment as the base, and a vehicle consisting thinned with goldsize, flatting varnish or other varnish medium. of heat-treated linseed oil or wood oil (tungoil) varnish, gives an Metallic Paint.—Metallic paints, such as aluminium, copper excellent durable paint suitable for exterior use. bronze and gold paints are prepared by mixing the finely powdered This paint has excellent covering and obscuring properties, metals, or their alloys, with suitable varnish media. The metals wears well over a long period of years, and—unlike white lead— must be in an exceedingly fine state of sub-division, and are manwill nat discolour or turn black even on exposure to sulphuretted ufactured from the metal leaf by special processes involving the hydrogen, acid fumes or other noxious gases, The large variety use of intricate grinding machinery. The media used may be either of light shades or tints In common use, are obtained by the thin copal varnishes or celluloid varnishes. addition of a small proportion of various coloured pigments to These paints are heat-resisting, and hence are largely used on white paint; thus for example white paint and vegetable black hot-water pipes, radiators, etc. They dry with a pleasing metallic give greys from the lightest to the darkest hue, depending on the sheen. proportion of white and black used. Buff is obtained by tinting Fireproof Paint.—These paints are made for use on wood. white paint with yellow ochre, cream colour results from adding a work, composition boards and other inflammable material. They touch of chrome yellow to white and so on. are usually ordinary oil paints containing a proportion of fine asThe amount of oil required to convert a pigment into paint bestos, borax, sodium tungstate and other fire-retarding materials. Cellulose Paint.—The modern cellulose paints or lacquers form varies with the specific gravity of the pigment; a heavy pigment such as white lead (sp.gr. 6-75) will require considerably consist ef a pure pigment, or mixture of pure pigments, ground

Jess oil than a bulky pigment, such as zinc oxide (sp.gr. 5-47) or vegetable black (sp.gr. 1-72). The ready-mixed paints so largely

in a medium made by dissolving nitro-cellulose in suitable solv-

sold in small packages (1, 2 and 7-Ib. tins) for amateur use are, as a general rule, of very poor quality on account of the large

They dry very quickly with a beautiful soft lustre, which is hard, tough and very durable, They are not affected by steam, moisture, petrol or extremes of heat or cold; and may be used on all woodwork, new or old, furniture, motor-cars, floors, walls and metal work. Their popularity is due to their quick-drying properties, which enable work to be finished very much more expeditiously than by the older methods of oil painting. They are highly inflammable. See also DistEMPER; Luminous PAINT,

amount of inert pigment which they contain; for this reason they are often deficient as regards body and covering power. Enamel ot Varnish Paint.—These types of paints dry with a brilliant glossy surface, They are made by grinding the selected pigment, or mixture of pigments, in a varnish medium, and their nature and properties depend on the type of varnish used. A quick-drying variety is made by using a cheap rosin varnish as the vehicle, it dries with a high gloss surface in about 2-4 hours, but, owing to the brittle and non-durable nature of the varnish used it

is only suitable for interior use. High-class durable enamels, suitable for both inside and outside use, are made by using mixtures of heat-treated linseed oil (stand oil) and elastic copal varnishes as the vehicle. They are slow-drying, taking from 12-18 hours, and are very tough under the severest climatic conditions.

Flat Paint.—This type of paint is really a flat-drying enamel. Jt is made in much the same way as the high class glossy enamels,

ents.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-M. Toch, The Chemisiry & Technology af Mixed Paints (1907), specially useful for its account of American methods of production; Henry A. Gardner, Paint Technology and Tests; S. Cushmann and H. A. Gardner, Corrosion and Preservation of Iron and. Steel. J. G. Bearn, The Chemistry of Paints, Pigments Varnishes (1925) contains a full bibliography. (J. G. BE,)

PAINT-BRUSH, the name given to plants of the genus Castilleja, of the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae), parasitic on

the roots of other plants. There are about so species, natives

chiefly of the New World, but with representatives in Asia. They except that it contains less varnish and more turpentine than are most numerous in the Rocky mountain region and on the ordinary enamel. Some varieties contain a proportion of wax Pacific coast. They are annual, biennial or perennial herhs, usually dissolved in the varnish so as to give a more perfect mat or flat t to 3 ft. high, with alternate, often deeply cleft or parted leaves, finish. Owing to their pleasing decorative effect they are used for and showy red, yellow or white flowers, borne in dense terminal clusters (spikes), the conspicuous leafy bracts of which are often interior decorations, but are not suitable for outside use. Anti-cortosion Paints.—These paints are largely used for highly coloured. PAINTER-WORK IN THE BUILDING TRADE. In protecting iron and steel structures from rusting, The best antirust paint is undoubtedly red lead paint; which is made by mix- painter-work the most important fact to remember is that the ing red lead with raw linseed oil. As red lead in linseed oil rap- cost of applying paint is from four to five times the cost of the idly sets into a hard mass if kept for any length of time it is paint itself, and therefore to use materials of poor quality, be-~ necessary to mix it just before use. A non-setting red lead has cause of their relative cheapness, is false economy. The use of been introduced which obviates this defect and will keep, when paint for decorative purposes is ordinarily secondary in importance to its function as a protector of surfaces from decay. The mixed in linseed oil, in a liquid condition for any length of time. Graphite paints, red oxide paints and paints made from basic paint used must be selected carefully according to the purpose for sulphate of lead are also largely used for the preservation of which it is to be employed. For outside use it is essential that the ironwork. Bituminous paints are also extensively used for paint- paint chosen should resist atmospheric weathering; in paints used ing ironwork, such as gas-holders, bridges, docks, etc,, on aç- for indoor work great durability becomes less important than a

PAINTING

36

a detailed description is be thoroughly cleaned from scale and rust before painting by the use of hammers, scrapers and wire brushes, and all grease carefully washed off with benzine. Three coats of paint should then be applied. The priming coat should be red lead paint and the subsequent coats may be either white lead, basic sulphate of lead, or red oxide paints. Spraying or Dipping.—The method of applying paints by the have they and recommended be to not is painting interior for use or spray process is now largely used industrially, as it dipping made paints been largely superseded by leadless or non-poisonous more expeditiously than on a zinc or titanium base. The British Lead Paint (Protection enables painting work to be finished much process the paint is spray the In process. brush ordinary the for by regulations following the makes 1926, against Poisoning) Act, a spray-pistol; the through pressure under it forcing by applied in or in preventing danger from lead paint to persons employed dipping process consists in immersing the objects in the paint, connection with the painting of buildings :— use in these procI. Lead paint shall not be stored, or transported, otherwise than and subsequently hanging them up to dry. For esses it is necessary that the paint should be of a thin consistency. in receptacles legibly marked as containing lead paint.

pleasing finish.

In the article Part

given of the composition of the paints in common use, and of the work for which they are most suited. Until recently, the paints in most common use were based on white lead, and such paints are still very largely used. They cover well and are easy to work. Owing, however, to the danger of lead poisoning (see PaInt), their

2. Lead paint shall not be applied in the form of spray in the interior painting of buildings. 3. No painted surface (containing lead) shall be rubbed down, or scraped by a dry process. 4. Every person employed in or in connection with the painting of buildings and liable to come into contact with lead paint shall carefully clean and wash his hands before each meal-time before leaving work. g, Every person employed in or in connection with the painting of buildings and liable to come in contact with lead paint shall present himself at the appointed time for medical examination.

The tools and appliances of the painter are mixing pots, paint kettles, strainers, palette knife, scraping knife, hacking, stopping and chisel knives, sponge and pumice for washing and rubbing down, blow-lamp for burning off, and a large variety of brushes. It is absolutely essential for good work to use brushes of a good quality. Brushes must be well cleaned after use, though for keeping overnight it is generally sufficient to wrap them in several thicknesses of paper. Some painters keep their brushes soft overnight by putting them in water. If, however, the brush is

Painting on Cement and Plaster Work.—Paint should not be applied on new cement or plaster surfaces as they contain free alkali which is destructive to paint. The best treatment is either to leave the work unpainted for about 12 months, when most of the free alkali will have disappeared, or to apply a coat of distemper. If it is essential that the work be painted immediately, then the free alkali may be neutralized by washing thoroughly with a solution of 3 to 4 Ib. of zinc sulphate in one gallon of water. Painting on New Galvanized Iron.—Paint will not adhere to new galvanized iron, because it has no grip on the smooth greasy metallic surface. To overcome this difficulty new galvanized surfaces should be treated with a solution containing 4 oz. of copper acetate, or copper chloride in one gallon of water. Paint Troubles.—Slow-drying. This may be due to several causes. (x). The use of insufficient driers. The quantity of driers required to make a paint dry in a reasonable time depends upon its composition, and also on the weather conditions when the paint is applied. Dark coloured paints, such as black paints and purple oxide paints, require considerably more driers than white lead paints, also more driers are necessary when painting in the winter than in the summer months. Painting work should never be done during damp, cold, foggy weather, as otherwise the paint may take several days to dry.

not to be used for some time it should be well washed in turpentine and hung up to dry. Re-painting Old Woodwork.—One of the most important considerations in painting is the proper preparation of the surface to be painted. If this is in good condition it will be sufficient to scrub down with soap and water and afterwards rinse with clean (2). Faulty preparation of the work. Paints will not dry on water and wipe dry. If the work has become rough it will often be necessary to use pumice stone to facilitate cleaning. The greasy or dirty surfaces, hence it is absolutely essential to take pumice should be cut or rubbed to a flat surface and vigorously care that all the work has been thoroughly washed down and applied with plenty of clean water. It is essential that the work cleaned before paint is applied. (3). The use of adulterated oils. Paints made with adulterated should be quite dry before any paint is applied. If the old paint is cracked or in such a condition as to be ready to break loose as soon as a new coat is applied over it, it must be removed before re-painting. The best method of removing old paint is by burning it off with special painter’s blow-lamps; the heat causes the film to soften and it can then be scraped off. Paint may also be removed by strong caustic soda preparations but these are a frequent source of trouble if the soda is not properly removed before new paint is applied. Thorough washing is necessary either with water alone, or preferably with water to which a small quantity of vinegar has been added. Paint removers are now marketed made from mixtures of volatile solvents. They are very inflammable. Painting New Woodwork.—New woodwork requires to be knotted, stopped, primed, and in addition painted with two coats of undercoating and one coat of finishing oil paint. If paint were applied over the bare knots of new wood it would be destroyed, or at least discoloured, by the exudation of resin from the knots. This is prevented by coating the knots with knotting varnish, made by dissolving shellac in methylated spirits. The purpose of the priming coat is to fill the pores of the wood and to furnish a foundation. The priming coat is a thin paint made by substituting turpentine for part of the oil in ordinary paint, and dries with a flat hard surface. After the priming coat is thoroughly dry, all nail holes and cracks in the wood should be stopped with white lead putty; and when hard, sandpapered to give a smooth even surface. Two coats of undercoating paint are then applied to give a solid foundation for the final finishing coat. . Painting on Iron.—All structural iron and steel work must

oils such as mineral oils, paraffin oils and resin oils, will not dry off hard, but always remain soft and “tacky.” Blistering. The cause of paint blistering is often due to painting on damp work or timber which has not been properly seasoned. Blisters may also be caused by the use of too much oil in paint exposed to heat, or the application of one coat upon another before the latter is properly dry. Cracking is caused by the use of too much oil in the undercoats and too little in the top coats. It may also be due to the paint containing insufficient oil, or a resin varnish. Loss of Gloss. If a paint is applied on a porous surface, or one that has not been properly primed, it will dry with a poor gloss owing to the paint “sinking in.” Paint when applied in damp or wet weather often loses its gloss and dries with a dull finish, owing to the action of the moisture on the paint film during the process of drying. See W. J. Pearce, Painting and Decorating (1927).

(J. G. Be.)

PAINTING, in art, the action of laying colour on a surface,

or the representation of objects by this means. It is with painting in the latter sense, considered as one of the fine arts, that this article deals: the articles PAINT and PAINTER-WORK IN THE BUILDING Trape should be consulted for the former. It is probable that the origin of painting is not later than that of the other plastic arts, for it is as ancient as sculpture and, within the somewhat narrow limits that confined it, early reached an astonishing perfection. The story of its beginnings will be found in the articles ARCHAEOLOGY and AEGEAN CrviLizaTIon (with which should be read the sections Aris and Fresco-painting of the

article CRETE); sections of the articles Greek, Roman and By-

PAINTING

BY COURTESY OF (1) THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM (9) COLLECTION ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES

OF

ART,

NEW

YORK,

PAINTINGS

(2) THE

OF

NATIONAL

THE

GALLERY,

15TH

1. “Portrait of an Old Man” by Hans Memlinc (1430-94), Flemish. In the Metropolitan Museum, New York. 2. “Portrait of Jean Arnolfini and his Wife? by Jan van Eyck (1390-1441), Dutch. In the National Gallery, London. 3. “Portrait of the Artist’? by Albrecht Durer (1471-1528), German. In the Prado, Madrid. 4. ‘‘The Birth of Venus’’ by Sandro Filipepi Botticelli (1444—1510), Italian. In the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. 5. “Christina of Denmark—~Duchess of Milan’? by Hans Holbein (1497—1543),

PLATE III

LONDON,

AND

(3)

16TH

THE

PRADO,

MADRID;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(4,

8)

ANDERSON,

(7)

ALINARI,

CENTURIES

German. In the National Gallery, London. 6. “Madonna of the Rocks” by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian. In the National Gallery, London. 7. “Madonna del Granduca” by Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, 1483-—1520), Italian. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 8. Detail of the fresco “The School of Athens” by Raphael. In the Vatican, Rome. 9. “Mona Lisa” by Leonardo

da Vinci

(1452-1519),

In the Louvre, Paris

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GATHERERS,”

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RENOIR

Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) as a boy painted porcelain at Limoges, thus gaining a feeling for clear colour and a mastery of fine brush work. Going to Paris, he joined Monet and Sisley and in time became a leader of the Impressionists, painting portraits, landscapes and scenes from French life

PAINTING

OI

reflection which he brought to all his undertakings. The primitive | same reasons. The material with which music and painting work and savage he boasted of being gained the upper hand in the end is infinitely more supple, more vague, and also more vast. Under and Gauguin settled in Tahiti where, after years of rage and the influence of the Christian faith at first, then of the modern disillusionment, he died miserably. But it was not only idyllic spirit, they have grown and expanded with influence coming savagery that he went so far to find, but also order. Introduced from all parts of the compass. It is now a question of suggestion by Pissarro to Impressionist vision and technique, he might have rather than of expression. It would seem that the field of sugremained faithful to this teaching but for the meeting at Pont- gestion opens itself without limits or hindrance to painting as to Aven, in 1886, with Emile Bernard, then only 18, who had already music, and at the stage of evolution where we now are, painting invented what he called Syntheticism or Cloisonnisme, a method has become music, and music painting. (P. Ja.) BrsriocraPHy —Dictionaries: E. Bénézit, Dictionnaire critique et founded upon the simplification of design and colour in which flat tints with shaded contours are used in imitation of enamels documentaire des peintres, sculpteurs, dessinateurs et graveurs de tous les temps et de tous les pays (1911-23) ; Bryan’s dictionary of painters or stained glass work. Thus Gauguin, like Seurat, but with widely and engravers (1903-04) ; J. D. Champlin, of painters and different methods, reacts against the inorganic. His inherited paintings (1886—87); Thieme und Becker, Cyclopedia Allgemeines Lexikon der taste for the exotic and primitive gave him the elements of a Bildenkünstler (1907—1928 not yet complete). General History: André decorative style. Even in the works composed during his Tahiti Michel, Histoire de PArt depuis les premiers temps chrétiens jusawà

period the colour scale which he uses for synthetic effects is nos jours (1926); Richard Muther, History of Painting traceable more or less directly to that handed down by Pissarro as an instrument of analysis. But, in proportion to the development of his singular personality he withdrew farther and farther from Impressionism, whilst, underneath the brown skin of the South Sea “Vahines,” the relationship of his Maori dream with the imaginary world of the Greco-Latin Puvis shines through. From Gauguin more than from Cézanne sprang the movement called at its beginning “Symbolism” and composed of young

painters associated in close friendship—a decorator with virginal imagination, Maurice Denis, and the charming “intimistes,”’ Bonnard Vuillard, and Roussel, finding there a milieu favourable to new and unusual ideas. Henri Matisse, while not belonging to this group, appears to have received some useful inspiration from Gauguin. The influence of Puvis was at least as apparent as that of Gauguin in the early efforts of Maurice Denis, and Degas, with the sometimes strident, sometimes subdued harmonies of his pastels, and his original type of composition is largely responsible for the personal experiments of Vuillard and Bonnard. In Gauguin’s generation two men represent another form of reaction against Impressionism: Eugène Carrière (1848—1906) tries to give sentimental order the first place and Albert Besnard (1849), brilliant colourist, uses a somewhat impressionistic palette, but he only wishes to display the unrestrained elegance and fantasy which were in him. As for Vincent Van Gogh (1853-90) and Henri de ToulouseLautrec (1864~1901) it is quite apparent how much they owe to Impressionism. It is only necessary to study their palettes and their methods of painting in order to convince oneself of this: in the case of the one the colour is heavily applied, in that of the other it is as light as pastel—but here and there are stripes and tone-hatching. It is elsewhere however that the dazzling and irreducible originality of the “grand” style draughtsman and biting ironist whom we know as Lautrec resides, or that of Van Gogh the peerless colourist, ingenuous creator of powerful pictorial hallucinations. At the close of this summary review of a turbulent epoch, it seems to us that in spite of the theorists the chief interest of the history of Painting in the second half of the roth century is centred in individuals not in Schools. Has there ever been, can there ever be in our time real “Schools”? No, notin the old sense, when the traditions of this noble profession were handed down and perpetuated from master to pupils, for these days will never return. Nothing good, nothing durable will be done except by individuals. And, these so far as their personality is concerned, have not been the losers, for that personality is brought out more sharply than ever before and often has with it something of the abrupt and stern.

We might say that the individual has as his mission the reinvention of Art and the duty of creating a new formula of all the parts, new in sentiment, new in technique. In so far as he does this, he represents the head of a School; but itis a School which lives only through him—and dies with him. Thus we see how painting has been transformed in the course of the centuries, since the time when it was scarcely a thing apart from sculpture and architecture. Governed by fundamental laws, Sculpture has scarcely changed; neither has architecture for the

(1907); Joseph Pyoan, History of Art (1928); Elie Faure, History of Art (1921); John Van Dyke, History of Painting (1922); Prehistoric painting; Les peintures rupestres de Coqul. L’abri du Cap Blanc (Anthropologie) ; Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de VArt dans l'antiquité (1882—1914) ; Girard, Histoire de la peinture antique: Greek painting; Furtwaengler und Reichold, Griechische Vasenmalerei (1900—04) ; Pottier, Les vases antiques du Louvre (1922) ; Early Christian art:— Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1895—1900) ; Mehl, Manuel Cart byzantin (1926); Hourticq, La peinture des origines aw XVIe siècle (1908); L. Dimier et L. Reau, Histoire de la peinture française (1925); M. Dieulafoy, History of Art in Spain and Portugal (1903) ; S. Isham, History of American Painting (1905); T. H. Shepherd,

History of the British School of Painting (1891); E. Frovaert, La Peinture en Belgique (1908-12) ; C. Heidrich, Die altdeutsche Malerei (1909) ; A. Venturi, Storia dell’ Arte Italiana (1902-04) ; Von Marle, Development of the Italian schools of painting (1923); Hautecoeur, Rome et la Renaissance del’ Antiquité (1912) ; F. Benoit, L’ Ari francais sous la Revolution et TEmpire (1897); L. Gillet, La peinture, XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (1913); H. Fouillon, La peinture de XIX siècle a nos jours; B. Berenson, Tiukan Puers of ihe renaissance (1930). Biographies—Muntz, Leonardo da Vinci (1899), Raphael (1900); Venturi, Raffaello Hourticq, La jeunesse de Titiem (1919); Fiocco, Veronese (1928) ;Bercken and Mayer, Tintoretto (1923); Weal and Brockwell, The Van Eycks and their art (1912); Colomier, Diirer (1927); Glaser, Hans Holbein der Aeltere (1908); Davies, Hans Holbein the Younger (1903); Correa, El Greco (1908): Stevenson, Velazquez (1899); Beruete, Goya (1928); E. Michel Rubens (1900); Rooes, Van Dyck (1902); E. Michel, Rembrandt (1893); Pilon, Watteau (1912) ; Greuze (1912) ; A. Michel, Boucher (1908) ; Nolhac, Fragonard (1918); Armstrong, Reynolds (1901); Gower, Gainsborough (1900) ; Langridge, William Blake (1905); Moreau-Nelaton,

Corot (1924), Millet (1921) ; Daubigny (1925).

X

MODERN PAINTING The first twenty-five years of the zoth century have been marked by an extraordinary ebullition in art. Formerly, art movements, even in France, progressed in a more or less leisurely way, reaching a logical conclusion. They attained their zenith and declined as their interest waned, as stimulus was lost and the principles they practised degenerated into mere formulae. This was followed by a reaction and a new movement came into being. The classicism of David and his disciples was succeeded by the romanticism of Delacroix, Géricault, Delaroche, etc., and in Jandscape by the Barbizon School (g.v.) of plein air with Corot, Rousseau, Daubigny, etc. At the same time the Realist movement with Courbet at its head, was developing. With Courbet were Daumier and Millet; or the latter may be said to have belonged to both groups, as it was not always possible to separate completely one from the other. The school of Corot developed, under the impulse of certain discoveries made by Chevreuil concerning the simultaneous contrast of colours, into the Impressionist movement (see IMPRESSIONISM) with Monet, Manet, Pissarro, Sisley and others as the chief exponents. ‘This movement had a very far-reaching influence on modern art, as it introduced a fundamental change in colour perception, in the treatment of light and atmosphere, and changed the point of view of painters in regard to art and nature. At the beginning of the 2oth century, the direct influence of Impressionism as a creative force of a marked character was on the decline. Its true influence had been absorbed and was no longer a separate activity. In the hands of painters like Maufra, Moret

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62 and Loiseau

it had degenerated

into a formula,

not without | quez and El Greco may be the chei or oniy survivors ot the Spanish art of the 16th and 17th centuries, but there were hosts of other painters and no doubt movements, ebullitions, -isms. The essential art is what is finally and permanently distilled. So it is, too, with modern art. That which seems so important to the inventors of and participators in, new movements may be been a highly personal method which ended with Seurat, who was forgotten possibly as quickly as the movements have arisen. (See its greatest and most perfect exponent. As practised by Paul Post-IMPRESSIONISM.) Fauvism.—The first definite revolt against Impressionism was Signac it degenerated into a formal and almost mechanical use of a fantastic and unrealistic nature and far removed from its original made in 1906 when a number of artists, who were tired of the prepurpose which was the realisation of the exact truth of natural vailing influence, revolted against discipline of any sort. They conditions at a given moment. were called, once again in derision, Les Fauves. There was no There were other painters who practised pointillism more or special technique which distinguished the movement. They reless incidentally, such as Maximillian Luce, Theo van Rysselbergh volted from what they considered the limitations of Neo-Impresand even Camille Pissarro employed it, with beautiful effect on a sionism. The movement was merely a restatement of the universal few canvases. demand for ‘‘Free Speech.” The leaders of the movement were Although Ernest Laurent, La Sidaner and Henri Martin adopted Matisse, Braque, Van Dongen, Vlaminck, Dufy and Friesz. They a variation of the method for pictorial purposes, theirs was not a reacted not merely against Impressionism but against academic true pointillism and the end was no longer inevitably related to the and all other rules of art. means. Instead of the conception of art as nature seen through a temInfluence of Cézanne.—The true development of Impression- perament, they wished to substitute a temperament which no ism was quietly proceeding in another direction through the work longer served nature. It was a revolt against naturalism in art, of Paul Cézanne, who had been a pupil of Camille Pissarro, from which they regarded as no better than an inventory of natural whom he had learnt the principles of Impressionism in their effects. They pretended to choose from Delacroix’s dictionnaire strictest form. Cézanne died in 1906 but he, even more than any de la nature only what would help them to the production of other painter, has influenced the art of the present day; not only works of constructive art which would add to the conquests of the in his own country but throughout Europe and America. Old Masters, aesthetic revelations unknown to those Masters. In their enthusiasm they studied the works of the Greeks and Cézanne gradually discovered what was the inherent weakness of Impressionist art; its lack of solidity and, frequently, of de- the Egyptians, of the Byzantine period and even negro art. The sign. His determination to give to art—meaning—‘Impressionist passion of modern collectors for negro art dates from that period. art as he felt it”—“The solidity and enduring quality of ancient Good and bad resulted, for art, being an expression of the artist’s art” —“Of the art of the museums” has been often quoted. His personal impression of nature, may or may not be fed bya variety principles have been usually misunderstood and misapplied. The of things. And the attempts to feel things with the emotions of a path that angels fear to tread has been trampled by the feet of past age are inevitably still-born. Naturalism.—Concurrently and opposed, though possibly unmost of the younger artists of the day. Cézanne approached his solidarity by way of the most subtle consciously, to Fauvism, there developed the school of Naturalism. and refined colour analysis and he produced pictures of land- One branch, merely sensual and concerned entirely with material scapes and figures, interiors and portraits, of a rare beauty in things, was described by Adolphe Basler as the “School of the which the perception of colour is almost incredibly sensitive and Greasy Dishcloth.” The painters were more or less academic. All profound. His imitators have produced ugly pictures, coarsely of them had studied to some extent at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. treated, in which the colour approximates, as nearly as possible, Such artists as Bouche, Gromaire, Conrad Kickert, Gritchenko, to that of mud. They have, on occasion made a method of his etc., were members. One group, known as “L’Ecole du Pré-Saintmannerisms—as has happened so often before in every branch of Gervais” was led by Loutreuil, who died quite young in 1925, after art. If Cézanne used a blue outline to correct or recover his a miserable existence. His companions were the painters Billette, drawing then the canvases of his imitators were covered with blue Chotin, Caillard, etc. In dismal and dirty tones they expressed the misery of life. outlines. Cubism.—The most important movement, and one which had The twentieth century opened, then, with the waning influence of Impressionism and the growing influence of Cézanne, the child considerable vogue for a time, was one which, strictly speaking, of Impressionism, who had but recently, and late in his life, had little to do with art. Its conception was either intellectual or pseudo-scientific. It supported the portentous name of Cubism received recognition.

charm, but no longer life-giving or inspiring. Neo-Impressionism had proved itself in the hands of Georges Seurat, a sensitive and even flexible medium for the expression of minute truth of atmospheric and light effects not only in landscape but even in groups of figures on a large scale. It appears to have

with which it was endowed, it is believed, by Matisse If it was conceived as a jeu d'esprit, its inventors had hard work to live up Development in France—Modern art in all countries is to its cubic reputation, for it was taken quite seriously by certain essentially French. All the movements, great or small, have origi- dealers of the Rue de la Boëtie and by certain collectors who nated in France. France is like a great central fire sending sparks believe what dealers tell them. Seldom has a joke reacted more all over the world which fall on a variety of fuel and burn with painfully on its perpetrators. It was supposed to be an attempt varying force and character. It is therefore but logical to con- to reduce nature to its geometric elements. What became of art sider France—the home of strange-isms—before other countries. as a means of expression or how the personalities of the practiThe demand for something new on the part of young artists tioners survived these geometric dreams is not clear is natural and inevitable. The old is no longer stimulating or Picasso himself, who is credited with being its inventor, told the exciting. But the new has no intrinsic value as such. No work of writer that it was a sort of “impressionism of form.” He showed art has survived merely or mainly because it was new in its time. him, on one occasion, several paintings which were incompreNovelty has a value, a different value—it may lead to some- hensible until Picasso arrived at one which he seemed to recognise thing that is fundamentally and universally important. Usually as a view from the artist’s window in Montmartre. However, the it does not. But at least it keeps art alive and excites interest, writer was mistaken. It was a symphony in form derived from which is not bad for art. But posterity, or should it be eternity, different objects on various pages of an illustrated catalogue of demands something more. furniture! The first twenty-eight years of the twentieth century have been One of the claims made for Cubism was that it made no attempt remarkable for the number of new movements that have arisen. to imitate or organise nature—in this it was quite successful— Some have sunk and left no traces, others have modified or another was that it produced works which were complete and changed the direction of art to some extent. But it must be re- beautiful in themSelves just as a diamond is intrinsically beautiful membered that art—the essential art—goes on inevitably. Velaz- and needs no setting or other aid to reveal its quality. The beauty POST-IMPRESSIONISM

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63

Intimistes.—The Intimistes formed a small group but hardly a movement. They chose simpler subjects of ordinary life and It was an attempt at “objective” art with an ignorance of the painted them, as it were, for their own sake. They included Charles contradiction in terms which such a thing involves. Art being an Cottet, painter of the life of Breton fisher folk; J. E. Blanche, expression of the artist’s personal feelings about, or his reaction an intimate portrait and genre painter; Le Sidaner, painter of to, nature, the use of the term “objective” art ismerely an expres- scenes of village and town life, mostly under artificial light, Prinet, sion of ignorance. who painted incidents of home life, and also René Ménard, Ernest The chief members of the conspiracy were, besides Picasso, Laurent and others. Orphists.—Orphism, or abstract painting, in which the Georges Braque, Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, Juan Gris, Ferpainters sought to paint without subject, expired for lack of nand Léger. They made their début about rozo. The principles of the movement were, amusingly enough, sup- interest. Purists.—Purism derived from Cubism or was, perhaps, a proposed to derive from the paintings of Cézanne. That painter had died in 1906, so that his child, born four years later, was too test against the later abuse of it. The leaders were Ozenfant and Jeannert; they were followed by Peri, Servranck and Bauerposthumous for its parentage to be entirely above suspicion. The only artist who has emerged from Cubism and actually meister. Their principles were the purification of the plastic derived something from it, is Georges Braque. One does not, of language and the selection of forms and colours for the creation of course, count Picasso, to whom Cubism were merely one of many a key-board of expression, which should be necessary and suffiincidents. Braque, definitely influenced by Cubism, has evolved cient, combining economy with intensity. They sought to deteran art of design, which is derived from nature, although it takes mine the ideas and sentiments naturally associated with forms and liberties with its subject, and is harmonious and complete in it- colours. They produced arabesques which expressed, in simple self. Some years later there was an aftermath in which the man- terms, the natural forms of objects without denaturalising them. nerisms of Cubism were imitated without any reference to their In this respect, Purism departed from Cubism which held itsupposed utility. So there appeared on the market, angular, dis- self free to distort or to discard nature if and when it suited its torted, outlined paintings by such men as Marcoussis, La Fres- purpose to do so. Purism created an object within a picture, naye, Herbin, Picabia and Filla. while Cubism created a, picture which was a complete object in Futurism.—In 1911, the art world, scarcely recovered from itself. It sought to make a distinction between painting that the birth of Cubism, was compelled to submit to the onslaught of pleases and painting that moves and certainly the paintings proa new movement, originating this time from Italy. It was known duced in its name, lack any kind of charm. The lyricism which may be produced by an association of mere as Futurism, chiefly because the impressions of the immediate past were involved in its productions. Its conception was mainly | shapes, with limited attraction of colour, such as the “purists” due to the exuberance of the hysterical poet F. T. Marinetti, who produced is inevitably limited in its appeal. The attempt to find a had issued his first manifesto at Turin in 1910. He organised close analogy in expression between painting and music, is really an exhibition in 1911 of a group which consisted of Umberto Boc- an unnecessary confusion. In Purism the colours were rigorously cioni, Carlo Carra, Giacomo Balla, Luigi Russolo and Gino Sev- designed—a certain form of red, for example, was held to corerini It was, according to its creator, a species of plastic dy- respond exactly in its use with the Ja in the diapason in music. Certain colours were considered to be exciting and dynamic— namics, but it was nothing more than instinct become selfsuch as the pure colours of the spectrum; others were constructive conscious. It reviled and repudiated old and petrified art. “The simultaneousness of states of the soul at a given moment and human (natural earth colours, for example), etc. But a pic(that is, the moment of producing a picture) is the basis and end ture composed of colours having their special properties was ineffective unless the spectator was already enlightened as to their of our art.” In painting, for example, a person on a balcony, the Futurist purposes. It became a mere code which was meaningless except, painted not only the scene actually before him, but the feelings perhaps, to those who possessed the key. Dadaism.—In time of such artistic unrest, one movement engendered in him by the happenings in the street and also the emotions left in his mind by the happenings of the night before. followed another, without producing any enduring satisfaction. Obviously such an art, founded on confusion, had in itself the Dadaism was born in 1920. A certain Spanish painter Joan Miro, who later became the head of the Surrealist school, was the ingerms of the ridiculous. It had a brief and karten career, its entrance ventor of this diversion. It was a noisy and amusing demonstraalmost synchronising with its exit. Although its origin was really tion which had a momentary success owing to the fact that it was Italian (it had something full-blooded and lacking in reason, for- well organised and extensively advertised. It produced a lively eign to the French nature) it made its début on the Parisian stage revue “391” and a ballet by Picabia, called “Relache,”’ which was before coming to London, where it made a bright and brief ap- produced by Rolf de Maré and danced by Jean Borlin. It had no pearance at the Sackville Gallery and where an entertaining dinner definite technique and no principles and left nothing but the memory of a few charming and spirited compositions. With Miro was given to Signor Marinetti. Symbolists, Synthesists and Eclecticists.—After Futurism and Picabia were associated Marcel Duchamp, Jean Crotti and a group of artists of already proved ability were associated in a Ribemont-Dessaignes. Surrealists——The next movement, if it may be dignified by movement which has been called Symbolism, Synthesism and Eclecticism. Their aim was to fuse naturalism with the idealistic such a name, originated among certain writers, who had been tradition of the museum, that is, to serve up realism in a classical affected by the picturesque confusion of the Dadaists. They inform; to see contemporary life through the eyes of the past. It dulged in all sorts of romantic and ridiculous extravagance. They involved discipline and imitation and was, in effect, realism lim- called themselves the Surrealists. They were a product of the time ited by pastiche. The idea attracted many artists, some of whom of unrest following the World War and it had been predicted that. have developed some definitely personal style from it, such as the movement would come to an end with the settlement of affairs. Gauguin and André Derain. Other artists of renown who fol- They were reinforced by a section of painters who were influenced lowed the movement were Maurice Denis, Emil Besnard, Odilon by the romantic movement, having its origin in Germany, known Redon, K. X. Roussel, Felix Valloton. Many younger artists were as Expressionism. Technically they imitated Braque, Picabia and attracted and, naturally, individual preferences among the classi- Picasso, although they were opposed to Cubism and attempted to cal painters were followed. Favory followed Rubens, Alix and substitute for its objective conception one which was entirely Georg were inspired by Daumier; Friesz was haunted by his subjective. In their productions, technique counted for very little. The remembrance of Poussin and Delacroix. Modigliani, a charming artist who died young, painted figures Surrealist doctrine, derived from Freudism, believed in the exin strange and frequently distorted poses. Dufy, Dufrenoy, Fre- pression of thought without the control of reason and sought to of the object is said to exist in the eye of the beholder and some

eyes are peculiar!

laut, etc., had their preferences.

paint dreams and states of mind by any means whatsoever.

Its

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followers sought to suggest the mystery of the subconsciousness by translating ordinary objects into strange, horrible or sentimental forms. A number of painters, Pierre Roy, Viollier, Masson, Malkine, etc., of varied abilities, combined under the leadership of Joan Miro, who declared Je veux assassiner la peinture, an elegant ambition which he may or may not have achieved, and at one time Giorgio de Chirico, a painter of rather more ability, came under

various influences going back to Courbet and not without some

trace of futurism. André Beaudin (1895~ ) is a decorative painter who might be described as a symbolist, who seems to derive

from Odilon Redon and the Chinese, but who is still seeking a completely

free

(1898-

)isan interesting artist who owes much to Vuillard and

means

of

expression.

Jean-Francis-Laglenne

something to Braque and Matisse; Auguste Mambour

their influence.

“Popular” Painters.—A symptom of the times—of the rise of democracy—was the interest shown in the work of certain untrained painters of humble rank, who were engaged in other occupations. These painters were not associated and cannot be said to have formed a movement, yet they have had considerable influence particularly on some of the younger painters in England, who have deliberately cultivated a school of self-conscious

naivété. This outbreak of painting among the called in France Part populaire has been for art study and by the exploitation of It has developed during the last twenty

haps naturally, been evident since the World War. R. T. Boss. hard (b. 1889), a painter of nudes, is an eclectic combining

lower classes, which was fostered by the facilities such painters by dealers. years following the suc-

Liège in 1896-

(born at

) whose nudes have weight and volume and

sometimes an aggressive solidity, represents a classical strain developed through Cubism. Menkés expresses a kind of mysticism

modified by Cubism.

In the work of Roland Oudot (born about

1898) one sees the ideas of Renoir inoculated with the modem ideas of volume and, in his figure paintings, a remote echo of Le Nain. Térechkovitch, born at Moscow in 1902, an imitator of Van Gogh; Pascin, born in Bulgaria in 1885, of Spanish and Italian parents; Suzanne Roger (born about 1899); Soutine, with a fondness for subjects of the kitchen and the butcher’s shop; Halicka,

(1894-

), whose work shows conflicting aims; Moise Kisling

(1891— ) influenced chiefly by Picasso and Modigliani, are cess of the douanier Rousseau, whose canvases were the remark- the most promising of the younger artists. So rapidly have events moved that the painters of yesterday, able and unaffected expressions of a childlike vision. Following Rousseau, who was the first and most important of the “popular” who were regarded as innovators, have become old-fashioned painters, came André Bauchant, a farmer in Touraine, whose to-day. Dunoyer de Segonzac is now sober and solid if a little dismal. work with all its naivété is curiously reminiscent of the museums. His subjects are drawn from history and not from the daily life of André Derain, influenced by the Cubists, is found to be somewhat his environment. He held his first exhibition in r921 and was Spanish in the sobriety of his still-life paintings and somewhat elected a member of the Salon d’Automne—an instance of the classical in his solid stylistic landscapes with their limited range of colours. Marquet, another stylist, founded on Matisse, is noted new liberal-mindedness of such institutions. The early work of Utrillo—landscapes in the Parisian suburbs— for the economy of his means and his restraint; Dufresne is a ropainted with a direct and untutored naturalness might come manticist and an interesting painter who has gathered much from under this category. Utrillo was the son of Suzanne Valadon, who many sources. Raoul Dufy is a pattern maker, with a calligraphic had been an acrobat and had posed for Puvis de Chavannes and style, and a frank imitator of Matisse. Vlaminck’s work, often Renoir before taking up painting herself. Her own work was violent and crude in his landscapes, has developed something of the “popular” in feeling, although there is some trace of sophistication qualities associated with pavement artists. Van Dongen disguises in it, due to the fact that she had seen so many paintings and the mediocrity of his mind under a certain flamboyant extravagance. All these artists are now well-known and accepted, and it known so many artists. Other painters of Vart populaire are Bombois, a navvy, who has become extremely difficult to be revolutionary. Although it is natural that strange movements by their novelty only recently felt the desire to paint. Like all primitive painters he excels in painting lights and reflections. His work has a certain and violence should attract most attention, the current of art purity of style that is certainly innate. Emile Boyer is a seller of moves on inevitably and certain painters of established reputations fried potatoes. Unlike most “popular” painters, he dislikes anec- have pursued their paths unperturbed though, perhaps, not endotal subjects. Le Gay, the agent and Emile Gody, the chimney tirely uninfluenced, by the ebullitions of the more youthful sweeper, are other painters of the same class. Their work has a elements. Such painters as Bonnard and Vuillard, derived originally from sincerity, a directness and freshness of vision and often a power of invention which gives it a value sometimes greater than that of Degas and the Impressionists, produce works of an intimate the followers of the pretentious movements which. have been beauty. Aman Jean, the gentle sentimentalist, with his refined and delicate colour; Lucien Simon, with his appreciation of native described. Current Painting and Painters.—As might be expected in character and a fluent and vivid style, are still painting. Prinet, a the turmoil following all the movements which have agitated Degas without poetry, Milcendeau, Desvalliéres, with his confused French art in the 2oth century, the work of the younger artists symbolism; Pierre Laurens; Odilon, with his exquisite flower is confused and uncertain. Their aims are varied. There is no pieces and mystical paintings; Maurice Denis, the symbolist; K. X. school or movement. Cubism, which perhaps had in it some Roussel, with his charming lyrical spirit; Lebasque, the warm germs capable of development, is too recent either to be considered colourist of the South; Charles Guérin, Jean Puy and Flandrain are the best of what may be called the older school of painters. judiciously or to give birth to a genuine reaction. Matisse, who started as a realist of a more or less academic The sane belief that each artist should seek the means of his own personal expression, contains within it an element of doubt— kind and has developed a simple crystalline form of expression a fear that something is being missed. The tendency is towards with the strictest economy of means, has shared with Cézanne the forming groups or movements which actually more often than honour of having the most vital influence on the younger school. not act as a deterrent to free expression, committing the painter MODERN DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND to certain doctrines and methods which do not truly represent In English art, although it was influenced by France and, later, his personality. It is a period of transition. The lessons of the discoveries, reit- by the general state of affairs, the agitation was less extreme. erations, follies and suggestions of the immediate past are in Compared with the placidity of the roth century, when the Preprocess of being digested or repudiated. The main force inspiring Raphaelite movement seemed a desperate revolution, the time the young is still Cézanne, but he has yet to be really under- would have appeared full of turmoil. The Royal Academy pursued stood, the majority of the younger painters still being in the stage its dull path without excitement and without change. The brilliant if superficial cleverness of J. S. Sargent had a certain inof imitation or misinterpretation. So we have a number of young painters, of varying degrees fluence but not a salutary one. The New English Art Club, and ability, groping for expression. Perhaps the note which is founded by W. J. Laidlay in 1886, offered an opposition to the common to all their work is a certain Romanticism which has, per- Academy and provided a place of exhibition and a point of con-

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604A

centration for the more independent and younger painters. The main influence, at the time, was that of French Impressionism although it was neither strong nor extensive in England.

exhibition, the increase of small art galleries, the support given te young and often quite untrained painters. It is often a case of

Some years later, about 1910, a number of painters combined to form a centre and meeting place for painters of a mere modern

some extent before he could hope to exhibit. Now it is a question of competition to secure something new and naive that can be exploited before it is proved to be utterly worthless. But there is no one employed who is capable of deciding who Is worthy of help and the young student is taken from the cradle and “helped” by the Contemporary Art Society, by funds and by well-meaning, but quite ignorant, collectors. And the young student, before he has mastered the rudiments of his art, before he has had any experience, before he has had time even to digest the elementary principles which his master has tried to implant in him, is taken up, fed on the fruits of success and poisoned by his own chokedup artistic “lazy colon.” A virtue is actually made by a certain small number of artistic “snobs” of collecting the works of the so-called “naive” school—a contradiction in terms; a confirmation in folly. Post-Impressionism, one of the vaguest terms ever used in the strange jargon of art critics, covered a multitude of incompetence. It operated mainly in one direction and that, strangely enough, Was supposed to receive its impetus from Cézanne. Cézanne was an exquisite colourist; the quality which his so-called followers neither perceived nor felt, was colour. Cubism influenced two painters worth mentioning: Wyndham Lewis and W. Roberts. The former, with his brilliant cleverness, exploited a bastard version of Cubism until it ceased to amuse him; the latter developed a system of angular construction which, though nothing to do with Cubism in essence, was amusing for a time. That sort of thing meant a small gain and a real loss—a gain of pattern and, perhaps, of strength; a loss of mystery, poetry and truth. The philanthropic impulse towards young artists, characteristic of the age, is very dangerous. It seems that a young painter receives a reward without having earned it and without having proved his worthiness for it. It stultifies development. It has been fostered by the most prominent art masters of the period through a spirit of philanthropy and the desire to make use of what funds are available.

tendency, and their friends.

They held weekly exhibitions at a

studio at 19 Fitzroy St., London, The chief promoters were Walter Sickert and Spencer Gore.

Lucien Pissarro joined them later and

Augustus John was a member at one time. Other members included Gilman, Ginner, Manson, Bayes, Drummond. The influence of the group, although not immediately apparent, led to other things. Lucien Pissarro brought from France a new influence, that of French Impressionism, which, previously, had had little effect on English art. Walter Sickert, now known as Richard Walter Sickert, one of the most genuine and most personal of modern artists, had practised a form of Impressionism (not strictly based on colour values) which was nearly akin to that of Degas and related to that of his artistic French cousins Bonnard and Vuillard, who, however, were looser, both in perception and handling, and more inclined towards a lyrical expression of colour. And P. Wilson Steer, one of the leading artists of the New English School had exploited French Impressionism in the 1890’s to abandon it, soon after, for the native English form which derives from Constable and Turner, The fine exhibition of the French Impressionists held at the Grafton Galleries in 1905, which contained splendid examples of all the masters of the school and included pictures such as “La Loge” by Renoir, Manet’s “Eva Gonzales,” “Wandering Musicians,” etc., Degas’ “Carriage at the Races,” which have since become world-famous, attracted attention but had little influence. In 1911, the members of the Fitzroy Street Group, desiring to obtain wider publicity for their work, formed the Camden Town Group, with Spencer Gore as president. The desire to enlarge the

group, in order to include other and more modern phases of art, led to the formation, in 1913, of the London Group and its first exhibition at the Goupil Gallery in 1914. The Group has now considerably increased in size and influence and includes in its membership the more prominent of the “advanced painters.” A remarkable exhibition, which had an immediate and definite influence on the younger English painters, was the PostImpressionist Exhibition held at the Grafton Galleries from November 1910 to January 1911. Many artists, who have since been recognized as masters, were introduced to the majority of English painters for the first time. Cézanne, Gauguin, Picasso, Van Gogh, Matisse were remarkably well represented and Manet, more familiar, was seen in many phases of his development. His pictures included the famous “Bar aux Folies Bergères,” now in Mr. Courtauld’s private collection. The influence of the exhibition was seen mainly through Roger Fry and the small group who followed and supported him: Duncan Grant, Vanessa Bell, Keith Baynes, Clive Bell (writer), etc. The effect was a little too immediate to be entirely logical or convincing. The painters began to talk of their “reactions.” They became self-conscious about the matter. That which should have worked sub-consciously was dragged into the full consciousness of reason and the “reaction” was sometimes, in consequence, of doubtful genuineness and led to the suspicion that it was made to suit the school, so remarkable was the resemblance, at least at first, between the works of the different artists. Solidity was aimed at, rhythm was cultivated and, curiously enough, only so-called ugly things provided “reactions” on the group. Colour as an essential means of expression disappeared. The work developed, the artists gradually becoming more individual. They were later combined, with the addition of F. J.

Porter, Bernard Adeney, etc., forming the London Artists’ Association, This was a scheme by which certain collectors guaranteed ae artists a certain income based upon the sales, _ Too Much Encouragement for Young is notable for certain things whose effect on lematical. There is a remarkable increase

probability of their Artists.—The time art, per sé, is probin the facilities for

fools rushing in. In former times a painter had to be qualified to

Mutal Painting.—Another modern development, and one worthy of encouragement, is the increasing demand for mural decoration. In 1912, a movement, fostered by Charles Aitken, director of the National Gallery, Millbank, resulted in an exhibition of designs for mural decoration; many of them sent in for competition. A certain number of mural paintings had been executed before this exhibition; notably those in the Chelsea Town Hall under the direction of J. S. Sargent and Charles Sims; and others of a more modern tendency by Duncan Grant, Etchells and A. Rutherston working under Roger Fry at the Borough Polytechnic. The exhibition bore little immediate fruit, but in 1928 and previous years there have been many instances of artists, particularly young artists, being employed for the mural decoration of buildings. The chief of these were the decorations in the Refreshment Room at the Tate Gallery by Rex Whistler; the Refreshment Room at Morley College by Royal College of Art Students under Prof. W. Rothenstein; the Peel Institute by Prof. Tonks’s students; lunettes for the L.C.C. Hall by the pupils of Walter Bayes, etc. Schools.—In regard to the teaching of art, the Royal Academy’s methods have from time to time been the subject of much adverse criticism, principally on account of the “academic” outlook of

its art standards. Despite its remarkable effort in electing Augustus John and Richard Walter Sickert to its ranks, it has not changed its methods or its qualities; for two swallows could not make an artistic renaissance in Burlington House. The best schools were the Slade, the Royal College of Art and the Westminster School of Art. At the former, Professor Henry Tonks succeeded Professor Fred Brown. The tradition of teaching the students at this school to draw like old masters was uniformly carried on. The teaching of Professor W. Rothenstein at the Royal College has been most fruitful, while at the Westmin-

ster Sickert carried on a tradition which was essentially artistic,

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practise it. teaching a student to find his inspiration in real life and giving him and few—the chief of whom is Lyonel Feininger—still was as short-lived in Germany as in a flexible means of expressing his perception. Sickert was succeeded The influence of Futurism by Walter Bayes, a sound constructor of pictures, in whose teach- France and England. Expressionism survived but in modified forms; it took on an ing scientific means predominated over emotional perception. academic complexion with Weisgerber of Munich; a semi-cubist a of 1926, in opening, the was importance An event of artistic manner, with Franz Marc, also of Munich; Renoir’s and Matisse’s wing for Modern Foreign Art at the Tate Gallery. Current Painting.—lIn London, as in Paris, the younger influence was noticeable on August Macke of Dusseldorf. All three painters were victims of the war. painters are undecided. The two main influences are Matisse and The most active of the later followers of Expressionism were the douanier Rousseau. The latter is the more popular as being Kandinsky, a Russian naturalised in Germany, who practised a posthumous great a had and easier. After all, he was untrained, success. The former influence is fatal. The victims of it en- kind of abstract painting, consisting of lines and patches of beautiful colour, Paul Klee, Heindrich Nauen and Campendonck. deavour to imitate the end without having known even the beAfter the war an attempt was made to introduce a new moveginning. Two young painters, Ben and Winifred Nicholson, atment, “Neue Sachlichkeit,” corresponding with the French “SurW. R. C. painter, one Only influences. both combine to tempted réalism,” which marked a return to naturalistic forms, not in an Nevinson, attempted to imitate the Italian Futurists, after their impressionistic but in a naive-realistic manner. The movement exhibition in rọr2. He had a brief success and became a realist, received some impulse from the work of the douanier Henri Continental Central the after less or of uncertain quality, more pattern. Two other painters who have had success in the dawn of Rousseau. This new realism attracted some gifted painters and is still in force to-day. Its chief representative is Otto Dix. the Post-Impressionist movement were John and Paul Nash— within artist an particularly the latter. Although he is sometimes MODERN PAINTING IN U.S.A. a strictly limited range, he is more often an illustration of the North America.—The art of North America has submitted limitations of this method—which is its tendency to substitute in turn to many influences. At first, in the 18th and early roth ingenuity for art. As is the case in Paris and elsewhere, the main stream of art centuries, the influence came from England and some of the leadflows on almost undisturbed by the agitations which make copy ing painters, such as West, Copley, Gilbert Stuart, actually took for journalists and so agitate the desires of the collector. The up residence in England and played prominent parts in the art few undoubted and accepted artists of the time pursue their own there. Others, like Matthew Pratt, Trumbull, Vanderlyn, remained line of development. Richard Walter Sickert, Lucien Pissarro, P. in the U.S. and practised sound tradition with success. As the younger painters migrated to Europe for the purposes Wilson Steer, Ambrose McEvoy and Augustus John are names on which the historian can rest with some degree of certainty. Al- of study, the centre of influence was shifted; at first, in the 1850’s, such painters as Eastthough the French influence has been a predominating factor in to Diisseldorf, Munich and Antwerp, where The last named worked. Duveneck Chase, Dielman, Johnson, man its at is art modern English art, it has been proved that English had a school in Munich, with J. W. Alexander, Vinton, De Camp, best when it is purely English. etc., as his pupils. The influence of the French Barbizon School MODERN PAINTING IN GERMANY then began to be felt in the work of W. M. Hunt, George Innes The Germans are an intellectual, philosophical and musical and La Farge. This was succeeded by the potent influence of people. But their artists (painters and sculptors) have been few. French Impressionism which has had beneficial effect on the work Curiously enough, they have always taken an interest in French of Alex. Harrison, Benson, Alder Weir and particularly Childe art and long before French Impressionism had dawned on Eng- Hassam. The establishment of the Society of American Artists in 1877 land, the German collectors had been acquiring masterpieces of that school of painting. They have had two good first rate with La Farge as President did much to organize and strengthen painters: Adolf Menzel and Max Liebermann. But they have American Art. This brief review of roth century art in the U.S. shows that always been extremely active in following French development and artists have always received educational stimulus from own. American their of movements originate to have attempted same is true to-day, but the influence is now derived was The painting Europe. In 1900 the predominating influence on German the newly founded “Berliner Sezession.” It was organized by almost exclusively from Paris. In spite of the claim of many Max Liebermann and Paul Cassirer, the prominent art dealer. American writers, there is no art that can be acclaimed as art is The main interests of their exhibitions from 1900 to 1908 were definitely and peculiarly American, The American stock in to susceptible particularly is it and academic and Renoir fundamentally Degas, Monet, Manet, of paintings provided by the German European influence. the Liebermann. Their influence caused the formation of Three or four names are especially prominent in American art, Impressionists under Louis Corinth and Max Slevogt. in arose they, strictly speaking, belong to the late roth century both but there Paris in Coincidentally with the developments practitioner, 1908 a movement which sought to abolish Impressionism, both in theory and in practice. North America’s greatest by Courbet. mainly influenced was (1836-1910) Homer Oscar Winslow were movement new the of leaders The French and German. Whistler, Kokoschka of Vienna and Max Pechstein of Berlin. They were He was a strong realist. Certain distinguished artists, stimulated, if not directly influenced, by the paintings of Van Sargent, Abbey, Mary Cassatt, although American in origin, have himself Gogh, Gauguin and Matisse. Another influence came from Russia been claimed by other schools. The first was a law unto Japan from such painters as Javlensky, who became known in Berlin and might have been claimed, with equal justification, by power, nth the to raised Duran Carolus was Sargent Paris. or at the time. Expressionism.—The movement was called “Expressionism” Abbey was academic and Mary Cassatt, a delightful artist, beSchool. in contradiction to “Impressionism.” The Expressionists, then longed to and was the product of the French Impressionist is that day present the of art American on influence main The exaggerated an in and unaware of Cubism, painted in crude colours manner. They united with an association known as “Brücke” of the so-called followers of Cézanne. That is, on the younger (Bridge): Otto Heckel, Eugen Kirchner, Schmidt-Rottluff, Otto painters, like Samuel Halpert. There is in America, as in all Miiller and Emil Nolde. Various sub-groups were formed; one of other countries, a strong and steady current of art which is not them called “Sturm” (Tempest), under the leadership of the definitely influenced by modern events, but which is really the writer Herwarth Walden, pushed matters to such extremes that main stream into which modern tributaries flow, changing its character almost imperceptibly. W. M. Chase (1849-1916), 2 the movement became grotesque. About 1910, Picasso and the Cubists made their appearance in sort of Sargent without Sargent’s peculiar snap, but with a cet Germany. A new Sezession was formed in the Rhineland, known tain added reticence, and J. W. Alexander (1856-1915), a charmas “Sonderbund” (Special League). They exhibited Picasso and ingly decorative portrait painter, are in no sense innovators but beother Cubist painters. But Cubism had little success in Germany long unobtrusively to the main stream. There are many other art-

PAINTING ists who have attained varying degrees of fame without definitely

influencing present-day art. Frank Duveneck (1848-1919), who studied in Munich, is known as a follower of Whistler.

J. R. de

with a religious tendency; G. de Forest Brush (185s—

_—+), the

Camp (1858-1923), who followed after; A. H. Thayer (18491921), Whose influence was German cum Italian 17th century

portrait painter with an interest in Indian subjects; Kenyon Cox

(1856-1919), a decorative painter not uninfluenced by J. F. Millet:

Howard Pyle (1853-1911), a strong illustrator, all belong to the

1gth century so far as their art is concerned. Other names, which are more or less well-known, are Gari Melchers (1860~ ), who was nursed in Germany and Holland; Cecilia Beaux (1863_—S=d)d;, whose portraits are popular; C. D. Gibson (1867) who began and ended as an illustrator; Albert Sterner (1871—1918),

a charming illustrator; J. F. Folinsbee (1892— ), a good painter of running water in the manner of Thaulow. Among the younger painters one finds the essential American academicism, superficially influenced by the doctrine of so-called Post-Impressionism and, one may note that American writers appear to attach a special meaning to that vague term. George B. Luks (1867) is a painter with a solemn air. Although he was educated at Pennsylvania Academy, and in Paris, Düsseldorf and London, he now professes to scorn all academic training. It is claimed that he paints “in the way Whitman wrote.” E. L. Blumenschein (1874— ) seeks to emulate Gauguin; A. B. Davies

(1862) practises a sort of academic and somewhat remote imitation of Puvis de Chavannes; G. W. Bellows (1882-1925) is strongly realistic; the work of Rockwell Kent (1882— ) is reminiscent of Cameron, with an added crudity which passes as strength, Samuel Halpert, a follower of Cézanne and Derain, is one of the most promising of the younger school. According to at least one American writer, there is a school of “Virile Impressionism,” but its tenets or its peculiarities are not apparent. This writer says that “Matisse is moved by a spirit fundamentally different from that which animates Davies, Arthur, Jerome and Eddy.” Kroll, one of the leading members of the school, is a striking example of the prevailing idea of Impressionism. There are many facilities in America for the popularisation of art. The art galleries are well built and admirably organised. The art schools are perhaps the most up-to-date in the world. Art and artists have every opportunity. PROGRESS IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Belgium.—Belgium, being a near neighbour of France, has naturally been susceptible to the influence of the various movements in Paris. There was the definite influence of Impressionism on such painters as Emile Claus, A. J. Heymans and, to some extent, James Ensor, but, as in France, there was the inevitable reaction against such influence. This was expressed at first in the work of a certain group of painters who, before the war, concentrated and worked at Loethem St. Martin, a village in the Valley of the Lys, in the district of Ghent. They gathered round the sculptor George Miune, whose home was in the neighbourhood. The chief members of the group were Valerins de Medelsar, Gustave Van de Woestyne, Constant Permeke, Albert Servaes, Gustave de Smet, Fritz Van der Berghe and Albert Saverys. This group was influenced by the German Expressionism. The influence of Cézanne, Gauguin and Van Gogh was especially strong, particularly in Brussels and its neighbourhood. Rik

Wouters, a prominent follower of Cézanne, has become an artist of a very personal quality. He, with Auguste Oleffe, exercised considerable influence on the Brussels school, which, after Expressionism, sought a more synthetic art. The chief painters of the Brussels group are Phil Cocks, W. Paerels, A. Dekat, C. Dehoy, R. Parent, J. Brusselmans and J. Albert. E. Laermans, a Brussels painter, is the leader of the Synthetic School. Several artists of distinction can be said to belong to no definite school. Opromes and Daeye, at Antwerp; Millaert at Ostend, Tylgat at Brussels. Among the painters who may be described as traditional or academic, may be mentioned Delaunois of Louvain, L. Frédéric of Brussels, Rossenfosse of Liége, Franz

Heus of Antwerp and Jacob Smits of Moll.

64.C

Holland.—The Dutch genius is very far remote from that of France. In the whole history of the art of the Netherlands there is no strong evidence of direct French influence. The Dutch character leans towards a sort of intimate realism and even in their grandest and most inspiring moments their artists have never forsaken that essential character. The Maris family had a certain following but theirs was a triumph of individuality and personal feeling rather than the exploitation of new ideas or the submission of extraneous forces. The subjects made popular by Jacob and Willem Maris were national and homely in character. Among the modern painters, the most prominent are Jan Tcorop, a gifted painter; Moninckendam, an artist whose admiration for Rembrandt is reflected in all his work, even in his still-life subjects which represent a great part of his work. Lizzy Ansingh, a gifted painter with a rather unusual phantasy, is influenced by the Russian Ballet if by anything. A group, which practised an abstract form of painting, suggestive of stained glass windows composed exclusively of geometric shapes, included Van Doesburg, P. Mondrian, Van der Leck, Vilmos Huszar and Van Tongerloo. Scandinavia.—Among the northern nations, the influence of Munich has been stronger than that of Paris. Both in Norway and Sweden the prevailing character is that of a vigorous and personal realism. In painting, Sweden has probably been more active than Norway, although the latter country has had some notable painters who have not risen, however, above a certain respectable level. Edvard Munch is probably the greatest of their painters. He has been influenced by both Matisse and Marquet, particularly the former. Dagfin Werenskiold, a painter of character, whose “Peasant Family” was shown in London at the Norwegian Exhibition in 1928, would appear to be influenced by Van Gogh, although his strong and personal work is the result of a direct and uncompromising perception. The landscapes of Harold Sohlberg and Henrik Sorensen are notable; those of the former being lyrical and reflective, while the latter’s show a rugged sincerity. Per Krogh, who is considered to be one of the most modern in technique, displays a certain vulgarity which is certainly more German than French. He executed decorative panels for the Grand Hotel Restaurant in Oslo. It was in the early ’eighties that Swedish artists became really active. They had then become acquainted with the work of the French Impressionists and had learnt something of the value of the new vision and a closer and more direct approach to nature. The results were seen at the “Opponents” Exhibition in Stockholm in 1885. The exhibition was greeted with the derision accorded to all new movements, but many of the exhibitors united to form the “Konstnarsforbundet” in 1886, which marked the definite foundation of the modern Swedish School. The prevailing influence of Dusseldorf had been succeeded by that of Munich and finally by that of France, but the new artists determined to throw off all foreign influence, which was a healthy if an impossible attitude. One of the leaders of the new movement was Ernst Josephson (1851-1906). He was supported by the more widely known painter, Anders Zorn (1860-1920), whose brilliant gifts of execution almost rivalled those of J. S. Sargent. Zorn, however, was a superficial observer who sacrificed everything, both in painting and etching, to brilliant personal technique. His influence, like that of all painters whose work is merely the exercise of personal cleverness, was not a salutary one nor capable of development. His immediate followers were Larsson (1853-1919) and Liljefons. Carl Hill (1849-1911) was the chief of those influenced by Impressionism.

August Hagborg (1852-1921) and Hugo Salmson (1843-1894) were prominent members of the “Opponents” group; like Per Ekstrém (1844), they lived and worked in France. George Pauli

(1855) practised fresco painting, using that medium

for the

decoration of the staircase in the Gothenburg Museum. He was affected by most of the modern French movements and finally

adopted a cubist manner. Hanna Pauli (1846), figure and portrait painter; Acke (1859), marine and genre painter; Oscar Björck (1860— ); Richard Berg (1858) are other well-known names in Swedish art. K. Nordström (1855), &

64D

PAINTING

prominent leader of the “Konstnarsforbundet,” Wilhelmson (1866)

a device which he used before the Futurists employed it. His

and Hesselborn played a part in the movement which led to the earlier work, in a broad academic manner, is fine in character and drawing. Gaetano Previati (1852-1920) was superficially information of the national school of painting. fluenced by Segantini, but lacks the subtle colour analysis of that The movements known as Expressionism (from Germany) and Cubism (from France) had a certain number of followers in master; the same influence is perceptible in the work of Mario Sweden, of which the more prominent were Isaac Griinewald Puccini (1869-1920) ; Eugenio Prati (1842-1907), who is thought (1889), Gösta Sandels (1887-1919), Leander Engström (1886). highly of, was influenced in his later work by Monticelli; and Finland.—The chief influence in Finland came from Sweden, Emilio Gola (1852-1923) was a sort of Sorolla (the Spanish of which country Finland formed a part until its conquest by painter), with a warm academic quality and some reference to much reRussia in 1808. The influence was general and not confined to art. Monticelli. Arthur Rietti combined the quality, very The people are distinguished by a natural love of colour which moved, of Menzel and Degas. The Venetians, Frederico Zandowas expressed in their richly coloured rugs and the naive paint- meneghi (1841-1917), akin to Besnard plus a certain austerity, and ings which covered the walls of country churches. But there was Guglielmo Ciardi (1843-1917) showed an admiration for the early Corot, while Pietro Fragiacomo (1856-1922) painted night little serious art previous to the roth century. There were no art patrons and few facilities for the study of painting. The modern school, such as it is, dates from the foundation of the Finnish Art Union, which provided funds to establish

a school of art. Jt is not advanced in character but resembles the more academic side of Swedish art. The chief painters are B. Lindholm (1841-1914), A. Edelfelt (1854—1905), V. Westerholm (1860-1919), who was trained at Diisseldorf and afterwards followed the French “plein air” school, Héléne Schjerfbeck (1862), M. Enckell (1870-1925), Hugo Sunberg (1873-1917), a strange

effects on the Lagoons with a rare subtlety. Angelo Morbelli (1853-1919) practised a kind of up-to-date decorative symbolism. Other notable painters were Bartolommeo

Bezzi (1851-1923), Cesare Tallone (1853-1919), Mario de Maria (1852~1924), Michele Cammargno (1835-1920), Antonio Leto (1844-1913) and E. Delbono (1844-1915). Czechoslovakia.—About 1900 there was an outcry on the part of certain of the Czech artists against the “free tendencies” of

French art, which were considered to be a menace to the national productions, such as they were. But French art prevailed and in 1902 a pavilion was built for an exhibition of Rodin’s work. This Russia.—Russian art, in spite of the impact of modern move- was followed by an exhibition of paintings by Manet, Degas, ments, has maintained its national characteristic quality, a sort of Renoir, Sisley, Carrière, etc., and in 1908 at Prague, of Daumier, Pissarro, Monrisot, Bonnard, Vuillard and of Cézanne, Gauguin direct, almost primitive, realism. More or less superficially it has been affected by contact with and Van Gogh. The influence, therefore, was mainly French, but Paris for most of the Russian artists have found their way there. early in the century some of the younger painters discarded But the process of modernisation which has been felt, in varying Impressionism in favour of Cézannism. They formed a small degrees, in all countries, has been less drastic, has operated in a society of “Eight,” which led to a quarrel with the Mánes Society and a subsequent reunion. This society was named after Joseph less imitative way in Russia. Many Russian artists have been attracted by the theatre and Manes (1848-1891), who had substituted the direct study of the ballet: in the designing of costumes and in décor they have nature for the idealism of Cornelius and Overbeck. Antonin Slavitek became known as the Master of Czech īmbeen peculiarly successful. Among the artists who have given the best of their attention to this branch of art, Leon Bakst (died in pressionism; with him were A. Hudiéek, Oldfich, Blazitek, Otokar 1924), Alexandre Benois, Ivan Bilibine, Mstislav and Rostislav, Nejedly and Průcha. Jan Preisler was one of the founders of the Mánes Society and Dobuzinski, Golovine and Koustodiev are the most notable. In yet is (which Svabinsky was an active member. Karel Myslbek was inMax | fantastic the to tendency spite of an intermittent rooted to earth), such as one sees in the paintings of Chagall, the fluenced by the Spanish painter Zuloaga. F. Simon, Spillar, Boetmajority of the painters are realists. Certain artists have a reli- | linger were all definitely French in feeling. Nechleba, Obrovsky, gious preoccupation, such as Stelletzki. The chief realists are Mayer were notable names; Emile Filla led the younger painters Gregor Chiltian, whose work is almost photographic in its direct- towards Cubism and Expressionism. Switzerland.—Swiss painting has not been prominent in any ness, Boris Grigorieff, Jacovlev, Nathalie Gontcharova (Spanish subjects), Gritchenko, Schoukhaeff, Zenaide Serebriakova, Polu- | review of art, either for its quality or its quantity; nor has it been ever very distinctive in its blended qualities of Munich and nin, Nadia Benois. the by Italian; but there has been a certain improvement in affected little North Italy.—The southern countries were but modern activities of Paris. In Italy, the almost isolated outbreak modern art, particularly in sculpture. The painter Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918) was the most of Futurism, under the poet F. T. Marinetti, was speedily transferred to the more fruitful soil of Paris and appears to have had notable national figure. His work in landscape, figure, portrait little influence in the country of its origin. The standard of ‘and genre has had remarkable virility and some originality. modern Italian art is not a very high one, but there is a good Others, E. Morgenthaler, R. H. Pellegrini, A. Blanchet (influenced ‘by Gauguin and Derain), C. Amiet (Impressionistic influence), average of production, mostly academic in character. century roth may be mentioned. the of part latter the of The main, characteristic Spain.—Spain remains conservative and very little influenced was a sort of picturesque Courbet-ism with an occasional flavour | ef Fantin-Latour and even of Proud’hon. Monticelli was also a by the art of its neighbour. potent influence. This was succeeded by the influence, particularly | Zuloaga, a daringly direct observer, is well-known through exin the northern districts, of the fine painter Segantini, who died hibitions in Paris and his paintings in the Luxembourg; Sorolla in 1899. In the work of certain painters, Luigi Galli, for example, is a virile painter of contemporary life, who might be compared the influence of the Old Masters, particularly Michelangelo, is | with Sargent; Zubiaurre combines a primitive instinct with the directness of Zuloaga; Solomayer, the realist, has adopted a style strongly felt. perthe somewhat reminiscent of Lucien Simon. painters On the work of very many of the portrait Buenos Aires.—Buenos Aires has become a centre of remarknicious influence of Carolus-Duran has left its mark. A description of modern Italian art consists, almost inevitably, i able artistic activity; the annual Salons there reveal the existence of a list of names, as there appear tọ be no definitely marked of a large number of painters of a high level of artistic ability. Brsriocrapuy.—C. H. Caffin, History of Americam Painting (1907); schools of painting or movements. Futuriste, Sackville gallery Cat. (1912); Antonio Mancini (born in Rome 4852}, the portrait and figure | F. Marinetti, Manifest? A. J. Eddy, Cubist and Post Impressionism (1914); T. Klingsor, L'Art painter, is strongly individualistic, not to say vulgar, in his Français depuis Vingt Ans, La Peinture (1921); C. Laurin, etc. methods. In his later work, in which the paint is extraordinarily Scandinavian Art (1922) ; A. Matejcek and Zdenck Wirth, Modern and thick in parts, he has used various means to produce an effect, Contemp. Czech Art (1924); N. Mactavish, Fine Arts in Canada even employing pieces of glass, bits of tin, buttons, paper, etc.— (1926); J.J. Tikkanen, Modern Art in Finland (Helsingfors, 1926);

personality, somewhat. akin to William Blake, and Marcus Collin (1882) of Swedish origin, who follows Expressionism.

PAINTINGS,

RESTORATION

M. Raynal, Anthologie de la Peinture en France de 1906 à ros Jours

(1927); E. Rilla Jackson, American Art (N.Y., 1928); E. Somare, Storia det Pittori Italiani dell’ ottocento (2 vols., Milan, 1928) ; Catalogue Ancien et Modern, Palais des Beaux Arts de Bruxelles, Exposition

d'Art Russe and Exposition d’Art Suisse (1928) ; Ozenfant et Jeannert, La Peinture Moderne. See also Les Peintres Français Nouveaux

(Monographs), “La Nouvelle Française.” Modern painting:

Elie Faure, Modern

(J. B. M.)

Art (1924); F. J. Mather,

Modern Painting (1927); Meir-Graefe, Modern Art (1908); W. Wright, Modern Painting (1926); Charles Marriott, Modern Movements in Painting (1920); Gustave Coquiot, Cubistes, Futuristes, Passéistes (1914); R. H. Wilenski, Modern Movement in Art (1927);

AND

PRESERVATION

OF

64.E

In addition to these two principal elements there are two other factors which appear to be of a secondary character, but which are nevertheless of great importance. The supporting structure is almost always covered with a layer of fish-glue on which is applied some isolating substance such as plaster, carbonate of lime or white lead. Modern painters, it is true, sometimes paint their pictures directly on the canvas, or on a wood panel; but in the

course of centuries it has always been found better and more convenient to cover the supporting structure with some isolating substance before beginning to paint. This substance is an element A. J. Eddy, Cubists and Post-Impressionism (1914); Carl Einstein, of such importance from the point of view of the restorer that it must be considered separately. Die Kunst des 20 Jahrhunderts (1926) ; André Breton, Le Surréalisme et la peinture (1928); Théodore Duret, Les peintres impressionistes Finally, the fourth element which constitutes the picture is the (1906) ; Meyer-Graefe, Der moderne impressionismus (1903) ; Maurice final varnish, which is in some cases replaced by a thin coating of Raynal, Modern French Painting (1928). Biographies; Charles encaustic. Morisse, Gauguin (1919) ; Elie Faure, Derain (1923) ; T. Duret, Manet It will be seen from the above what the vulnerable points of a and the French Impressionists (1910); C. Mauclair, Puvis de Chapicture are. At the same time it will be shown that it is rare for vannes (1928); Gustave Kahn, Fantin-Latour (1926); J. Gasquet, Cézanne (1920); G. Jeffroy, Claude Monet (1923) ; M. Raynal, one element only to be affected; when one of the elements which Picasso (1922); Broque (1921); L. Cousturier, Seurant (1921); Paul constitute the picture is injured, the effects generally make themSignac, Jongkind (1927). selves felt on the remaining elements. Damp and heat are the chief natural destructive agents. In PAINTINGS, RESTORATION AND PRESERVATION OF. It would, be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to addition there is the possibility of splitting in the case of a wood determine at what date the restoration of painting was first under- panel, and tearing in the case of canvas, owing to violent treatment. Injuries to the supporting structure may be repaired by cradling taken. Ancient restoration does not reveal any technical processes of in the case of paintings on wood panels, by re-lining in the case of much interest; no real progress was made in the art of picture pictures painted on canvas, and by transference in the case of restoring until the roth century. It is true that such men as Le either kind of picture. The same processes can be applied to picPrimatice, J. B. van Loo and even Chardin, were sometimes tures painted on paper. Pictures are also occasionally painted on entrusted with restorations; but it was the exception for them to slate, copper or other metals; in such cases there is very little undertake such work. As a general rule the touching up of dam- possibility of repairing any damage to the supporting structure, aged pictures was, and unfortunately only too often still is, since the coating of paint which constitutes the picture can only entrusted to inferior artists who regard the restoration of paint- be refixed from the front. Cradling.—When a picture painted on a wood panel splits ings as an unimportant work. The result of this has been that during past centuries, no tra- owing to rough treatment or changes of temperature, it becomes dition has grown up, and in consequence of the low esteem in necessary to join up the pieces which have become separated and which that branch of art has been held, no outstanding personality to restore an absolutely flat surface to the panel. In order to do has devoted his authority and skill to putting an end to this this, the pieces are fitted together carefully and are laid, with the regrettable state of affairs. It must be added that at those periods painted side downward, on a sheet of marble or glass. ‘They are when the art of painting stood high in popular favour, the most then subjected to heavy but gradskilful forgers have been found among the restorers of pictures. ual pressure so that the straightSuch men often had considerable skill in their own way, even Yl mu UM I | ening out of the wood may not though they were without real talent; and a study of the history SSS || be too sudden. If the panel is of painting frequently shows that unscrupulous restorers have a thick one, it is better to shave made use of their knowledge in order to make alterations or addiit away so that it may be tions to pictures for purposes which certainly had nothing to do straightened more easily without with art. there being a danger of its splitWe may leave on one side the undesirable activities of bad workting again. It is also a good thing men, and turn to the development of the art of restoring pictures to make the surface of the rewhich has now been brought about by experts. verse of the picture perfectly flat Elements of Pictures.—The restoration of pastels and drawso that the cradling may be carings would need for its adequate description an essay to itself. In ried out more satisfactorily. If FIG. 1.—CRADLING engravings the paper ds of the greatest importance. Stains on the the panel is very badly damaged paper will disappear on the sheet being dipped in a series of baths, it may be backed with another; the actual cradling is then carried the composition of which varies according to the practitioner. One out on the second panel. Cradling consists in gluing a series of of the most efficacious methods is:—(1) Dip engraving in a solu- small pieces of wood at small and regular intervals over the whole tion of permanganate (75,5) for several minutes. (2) Wash in surface of the reverse of the picture. The wood selected must clear water. (3) Add to the permanganate solution hyposulphite obviously be perfectly dry; and in order to prevent any fresh of soda (~i9,). Leave-the picture in this solution for ten minutes damage due to changes of temperature, care is taken not to glue and add ten drops of hydrochloric acid. (4) When the paper has the pieces of wood to one another at the points of intersection. become white, wash it in water for half an hour and dry the whole Re-lining.—The tearing of the canvas of a picture by a fall or between sheets of blotting paper. some other accident always impresses the general public as a The diseases from which paintings may suffer are of various particularly serious disaster. The injury may in fact be serious if kinds. Their treatment may not be so urgent as that of human the vital parts of the picture are affected, but it may be comparaailments, but it is just as difficult and delicate in its own way. tively slight if only the less important parts are damaged If the It necessarily varies with the different schools, pictures and artists, canvas on which the injured picture is painted is in good condisince the problem of restoration is closely bound up with the whole tion, the process of re-lining is applied; in other words, the damtechnique of the picture to be restored. aged fabric is reinforced by the process described on next page. A picture, no matter at what date it may have been painted, The painted side of the damaged canvas is first covered with a consists from the material point of view of two elements: (1) sheet of paper for protection, and the reverse side is then the supporting structure, which may be wood, canvas, paper, card- carefully cleaned and covered with two coats of fish-glue. It board, a wall, etc.; (2) the paint which is superimposed on the is then covered with gauze applied by means of a special supporting structure, and which constitutes the picture itself. kind of glue made of a mixture of rye flour and wheat flour,

64.F

PAINTINGS,

RESTORATION

fish glue and a little Venetian turpentine or molasses. The new canvas, which must be of pure linen and carefully sponged, is then stretched on a temporary frame larger than the picture to be re-lined. These preparations having been completed, the new canvas and the reverse of the old canvas are glued together by means of the special glue described above; when the two canvases are placed one against the other; any inequalities in the thickness of the glue are pressed out with a spatula. The re-lined canvas is then S ESSN SSS ironed several times; this is of great importance in order to make the junction between the two canvases complete. When the junc- 2 SSS SOS S STELLA EELLD LLL LSLA LLULLA LELLLEELLEILOLS tion is effected and the glue has completely dried, the protective covering of paper is removed from the picture and the re-lined canvas is stretched on its permanent stretcher. Any gaps in the painting made by the tear are FIG. 2.—RELINING AND TRANSFER-

AND

PRESERVATION

OF

possible means is generally to plane it away. When the reverse of the picture has been laid bare in this way, it only remains to re-line it. This can be done by several methods, more or less simple or complicated as preferred by the operator. Some cover the reverse of the painting with a coating of white lead in order to strengthen it, and interpose layers of tarlatan between this and the new canvas; others glue the new canvas as directly as possible to the painting by means of caséine. Here again it must be remembered that the process involves a number of detailed operations which it is not necessary to mention here, and that the utmost care and great skill are required. Difficult as the operation is, it may unhesitatingly be recommended in preference to re-lining. However skilfully re-lining may be carried out, it necessarily involves fixing closely together two tissues of different composition and age, which are not equally sensitive to changes of temperature. It follows that after a certain lapse of time the two canvases undergo dissimilar changes and become loosened; the edges of the old tear in the picture cease to adhere to the new canvas, because the place of the tear is a weak point since at that point there is only one thickness of canvas; it thus forms a sort of hinge which comes into play whenever the canvas is expanded or contracted by heat or damp. filled in with a mastic made of carbonate of lime, fish glue and a little Lyons glue. It need hardly After a certain time the mastic which has been used to fill the be said that this is only an outline of the process of re-lining, and gap made by the tear is bound to scale off because it is inelastic. similarly, only an outline of the process of transference will be the foundation of the restoration is thus destroyed. The imporgiven; it will be readily understood that these operations require tance of this danger has no doubt been exaggerated in the above the most detailed attention, and that proper time for drying must account in order to make clear the possible defects of re-lining. be allowed between the different stages. No such danger however exists if the process of transference is It has not been thought necessary to deal with the summary, applied, since there is only a single tissue to be affected by variabut only too common, method of repair which consists in gluing tions of temperature; in addition, the volume of the mastic used a patch at the back of a tear in the canvas. Only the very smallest to fill the gap is negligible, since its thickness is only that of the tears can properly be mended by means of patches. If the patch is layer of paint and not that of the canvas. of any size it gives the original canvas insufficient support, and The public is still very much impressed by the difficulty of the after a certain time the surface of the picture will be spoilt by process of transference, and since the operation is a long one and undulations. Re-lining is the least that is necessary if the two cannot be carried out except by a really expert worker, picture edges of a tear are to be absolutely prevented from showing. restorers often hesitate to undertake it. Thanks to transference, If re-lining is not done properly, the remedy is worse than the we still have masterpieces like Raphael’s “La Petite Sainte disease. Supposing one canvas were simply to be glued hastily on Famille” and ‘Saint George.” They were treated by Picault in to the other, there would soon be a number of air-bubbles between 1751 and this is probably the date of the invention of the process. the two, while in other places there would be spots where the glue De-varnishing.—It is logical to deal first with the varnish, was too thick, and these would ferment and cause mildew. In since the restorer has to deal with it before actually restoring the addition, the edges of the tear would gradually detach themselves painting, and because, owing to the action of various factors, it is from the new canvas and would rise up. Hundreds of celebrated rare for a picture to retain the original quality of its varnish. pictures have been re-lined, Velazquez’s “Venus” (National Gal- There are cases in which the original varnish can and should be lery), Rembrandt’s “La Religieuse” and so on. preserved; but as a general rule, if the restoration which a picture Transference.—It is frequently necessary to repair wood requires is at all extensive, it is necessary first to remove the panels which have become worm-eaten or are not strong enough varnish. Of all the problems which arise in connection with picto support the weight of a heavy painting, or sometimes have ture restoring, that of de-varnishing is by far the most important. rotted owing to damp. Again, it may happen that the isolating Defective re-lining can be remedied, and repainting which has preparation covering the panel or canvas, which was mentioned been badly done by an ignorant operator can be removed without as one of the elements constituting the picture, does not adhere damage to the original picture, but bad de-varnishing may do properly to the supporting structure, or does not adhere to the irreparable harm. actual painting, so that it scales off or forms blisters. In such Varnish is made of resin dissolved in oil, essence of turpentine, cases as these, re-lining is clearly useless; it becomes necessary to or alcohol—to mention only the most usual solvents. Just as the save the painting itself. The operation which aims at preserving fusing of siliceous sand, itself an opaque substance, produces a nothing but the coating of paint which forms the actual picture is transparent substance, glass, so the solution of resin produces a that known as transference. The painting is removed from the transparent substance, varnish. The principal use of varnish is damaged panel or canvas and transferred to a new supporting that it preserves the intensity of colour cf pigments. In addition. structure which is in good condition. The children’s game known however, even the extremely thin layer of varnish which is all that as “transfers” will give some idea of the process of transference. should be applied to a picture has an extraordinary isolating effect. In order to prevent any portion of the original painting from Varnish protects a painting from emanations of all kinds which falling or being displaced, two thicknesses of tarlatan and two of might destroy the brilliance of its colouring as well as from the paper are first lightly glued to the painted side of the picture. dust which progressively accumulates on it owing to the dampThe painting itself being thus protected, the picture is turned over, ness of the air. and the process of removing the supporting structure is begun. If There are some old pictures which have never been varnished; the support in question is a canvas, it can as a general rule be in such cases it is an exceedingly difficult matter to remove the removed fairly easily either by damping it, or by subjecting it impurities adhering to the painting itself; the painting is also to heat so as to dissolve the original glue between the canvas and injured by the fact that its different colours have been differently the isolating coating on which the actual painting was done. If affected by chemical action. For example, it has occurred that in there is no glue it is more difficult to detach the canvas, and it has a picture representing the setting sun, what was originally the to be gradually scraped away until the isolating coat is reached. brightest part of the sky has been transformed into a dark patch This is the case where the support is a wooden panel; the only because it contained vermilion, a colour containing sulphide of

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mercury, which is particularly liable to deteriorate. This would not have occurred to nearly the same extent if the painting had

been varnished. The influences which damage paint also damage varnish, but the varnish can be removed, and the painting itself is then found intact, without injury to the specially vulnerable colours.

Varnishes are of course not all of equally good quality, and they may become darkened to a serious extent. This is generally due to the excessive use of varnish often made by collectors or dealers who want to give an appearance of increased freshness to the pictures in their possession.

Even the best varnish, however,

does not retain its specific qualities if it is applied at more than a certain thickness; it darkens and becomes opaque. It may happen that a picture requires revarnishing. Before this is done, however, an attempt should always be made to regenerate

the old varnish. If the old varnish has ceased to be transparent, it is possible to re-dissolve the molecules of resin which cover the painting by means of alcohol vapour. This is an ingenious method by means of which it is possible to restore the varnish to its original condition, which it will retain for a considerable number of years, without loading the painting with a fresh coat of varnish.

Thus was Rembrandt’s “Ronde de Nuit” restored in 1889 (fig. 3). In order to regenerate old varnish, the picture must first be wiped, and then washed by means of wads of cotton dipped in water without soap. This removes the dust which has been more or less fixed on the picture by the moisture in the air. A receptacle (1) the exact size of the picture and 15-20 centimetres deep is then prepared; a wooden box will serve. The bottom of the receptacle is covered FIG. 3 with a layer of down thoroughly soaked in

go% spirit. (2) The picture is laid on the box with the painted side downwards, 7.e., facing the down soaked in spirit. The time required for the regeneration of the varnish varies in the case of different pictures from 15 minutes to several hours; in some cases the desired effect is not produced at all. If a picture has been damaged and needs to be restored, or if the colours are altered by too many coats of varnish, it needs devarnishing. One is often painfully impressed by seeing famous masterpieces in the various museums of Europe the colours of which are completely distorted by the darkening of the varnish; and a general de-varnishing of thousands of pictures might be undertaken with advantage. In theory it would be better to see great pictures as the artist painted them rather than as they appear under the influence of old varnish. Unfortunately, however, it must be admitted that the work cannot be carried out because there are not enough expert workers available. It is therefore better to exercise great caution, and not to be in too great a hurry to restore fine pictures, but to wait for the day, which must soon come, when a sound tradition has been created. It is only fair however to recognize the good work which has been done in the past by intuitive artists who have tried processes which, if they had been developed, might have hastened that day. But the experiments which were tried were isolated, and no tradition was created. Thus only too many restorers have, with a desire to avoid trouble, tried to de-varnish pictures simply with a mixture of essence of turpentine and alcohol. This method is easy and rapid and unfortunately it sometimes gives excellent results. We say “unfortunately” because the fact that the method is sometimes successful leads to its being applied in all cases, and this is to be regretted because the method sometimes causes damage which cannot be foreseen. Some pictures which are painted strongly, in light tones and without scumbling will stand the process perfectly well; in others the surface is at once spoilt, and in addition, alcohol is dangerous for dark and transparent tones and for all scumbling. What is needed for de-varnishing is not a rapid solvent, but something which will soften the varnish gradually. It is necessary to keep the operation well under control the whole time, and not

AND

PRESERVATION

OF

64.G

or a Debucourt, are extremely difficult to de-varnish properly. Excellent and sure results can however be obtained if we have patience to attack the varnish not all at once (as is done by alcohol, alkali, soap containing potash, or acetic acid applied without precaution) but gradually. This makes it possible to modify the process in the middle of the operation when one coating of varnish has been removed, and we arrive at another coating which may be of an entirely different composition. For it may be taken almost as an axiom that all pictures have been varnished more than once. Many people advocate the rubbing off of varnish. It is true that certain varnishes can be rubbed off by the fingers, and that this method can be used for de-varnishing small pictures painted on a smooth surface; but it is defective and irregular, if not impossible, if there is much impasto. On the other hand, oil of aspic, copaiba balsam, cedar oil, sulphuric ether and xylol may be used successfully either separately or in combination; they have the advantage of allowing a trained expert to recognize the nature of the varnish which he has to remove and to choose the most appropriate formula for his work. If judiciously used alkali, acetone and acetic acid which have been mentioned as dangerous may be of great value. It must be emphasized, however, that de-varnishing ought to be perfectly successful and perfectly safe. Different methods should be used according to the nature of the picture and the varnish with which it is covered, for in this work each case should be considered individually. If there is nothing wrong with the picture except that the varnish is too dark it is sufficient to revarnish it lightly after the old varnish has been removed. It is, however, better to wait before doing this for a sunny day so as to be sure that no moisture is retained between the paint and the varnish. Restoration.—It is now necessary to consider the case of pictures which have to be restored after the old varnish has been removed. It very rarely happens that an old picture has not suffered from scratching, if from nothing worse. The preceding paragraphs have dealt with re-backing and transference; these processes presuppose some injury to the painting itself which has to be repaired. It would take too long to distinguish between all the various kinds of damage which may necessitate the restoration of a picture, that is to say the reconstitution of the painting itself. For the sake of clearness they may be divided into two categories: (1) absence of paint, which may be due to a hole, a tear, or to scaling off; (2) wearing of paint, which may be due to changes occurring in the paint itself; e.g., when a red or brown ground works through scumbling which has been applied over it too lightly, or to friction by foreign bodies, or, what is unfortunately the most frequent cause, to previous cleaning operations which have worn away lightly painted details or damaged fragile colours, such as scumbling on the one hand and all dark tones on the other. Retouching.—In addition to the above two kinds of injury, there is another factor of great importance—that of old retouchings. By “re-touchings” we understand restorations which go beyond the area of the injury which they were intended to repair.

When

this has been

done, the work

of restoration

is

rendered doubly difficult, because if the work is to be properly done it is first of all necessary to remove all the additions which have been made to the original painting. A trained eye can generally detect re-touchings at once, and can guess whether they have gone beyond the actual area of-the accident. Ultra-violet rays and X-rays are of great service in this connection. Under the action of ultra-violet rays, colours, at any rate if not covered with varnish, are transformed in accordance with their chemical composition, and it may happen (though it is not safe to generalise) that “values,” or colours which closely resemble one another by natural light, are completely differentiated by ultra-violet rays. If the paint used for re-touching is

not of the same chemical composition as that of the original picture, it will at once appear under ultra-violet rays as a patch if it is to be safe. A Van Goyen, painted in transparent browns of a different colour. applied directly on wood, a Reynolds, the colour of which is X-rays perform a similar service for a different reason. It is sometimes applied simply by scumbling on a ground of grisaille, well known that the greater the atomic weight of a body, the

to use a method which gets out of hand. The work must be slow

64H

PAINTINGS,

RESTORATION

more difficult it is for X-rays to pass through it. (See X-Ray.) Consequently a re-touched area, which represents a greater body of material on one part of a picture, is shown up by the fluorescent screen. Here again it is unsafe to generalize, for certain colours,

such as browns, emerald green and madder, are of such low atomic weight that they are scarcely shown by X-rays. On the other hand, X-rays reveal the exact limits of an injury. When we see that a painting has been retouched, or even, as sometimes happens, completely painted over, we may hope that the real extent of the injury is not so great as the re-touching would lead us to suppose. By the use of X-rays it is generally possible to dis-

AND

PRESERVATION

OF

colours were still subject to modification, but they changed more rapidly, and it was easier to foresee the future effect of restoration. Most restorers still use this process. Although the varnish complicates the work, the colours remain easy to handle, and it must be admitted that restorations executed in this way may last for a long time, particularly if the ground is carefully prepared

and the final coat very light. The object in view is not, however, to carry out restorations which will have to be done over again, even at a comparatively

distant date. After a number of experiments with water-colours,

gouache colours, etc., it was decided to try restoring pictures with cover the exact area of the mastic underneath the retouching, as brilliant tempera colours, z.¢., colours ground with yolk of egg. the atomic weight of the mastic is sure to be different from that It is true that this process renders the task of the restorer inof the wood or canvas on which the picture is painted. comparably more difficult. Tempera colours dry very rapidly; When a picture restorer wishes to remedy a loss of paint due long practise is necessary to make them produce the fluid effect to a hole, a tear, or scaling off, he should confine himself to of certain old paintings. Moreover, the colour becomes much reconstituting that part of the picture from which the paint is higher in tone after a few hours, and the extent of the change absent and has had to be replaced by mastic. We do not consider varies enormously according to the mixture used. It is thus that he is morally entitled to go one-tenth of a millimetre beyond necessary to foresee what the colour will be after it has changed the area of the mastic. in order to bring it into accord with the fixed colour of the If the paint is rubbed or worn away, a much higher technique original work. It will readily be understood that much experience is needed for its restoration, for it is a temptation to employ the is needed in order to obtain satisfactory results with tempera easiest method, which would be to repaint it. On the other hand colours. On the other hand, the change which takes place in taste, power of selection, respect for the artist whose work is tempera colours after a few hours is complete in a few days. being restored, and a thorough comprehension of his art are In other words, the transformation which takes many years for needed to restore scumbling which one is certain has been worn oil paints is accomplished in a week. Moreover, tempera painting away. In any case, no attempt should be made to repair the takes varnish just as well as oil painting, It was stated at the beginning of the present article that what effects of wear unless they really interfere with the unity of the the art of picture restoration has lacked throughout the centuries painting, There was actually a time when great picture galleries re- is a sound tradition. Really encouraging results have been varnished all their paintings whenever an important personage was achieved, but it must be clearly understood that restoration is a to make them an official visit. Similar errors have been com- vocation rather than a trade. In order to practise it, it is first mitted in the actual restoration of pictures; there is absolutely necessary to be a real painter, and in the second place to make reliable documentary evidence to show that in some of Rubens’ a constant study of the practical methods which the old masters pictures the red draperies have been entirely repainted, and that used to achieve their artistic aims. However much their works when there was an injury to an arm or a leg, the whole of the are searched, the number of discoveries which have been made arm or leg was repainted. This was what happened also to remains limited. At any rate a study of this kind will show that Raphael’s ‘St. George” mentioned above. One of the legs had the one supreme quality which a restorer should possess, if he is ) been entirely repainted and these useless retouchings had to be to try his hand on great works of art, is the gift of respect. (J. G. G. removed. Many similar restorations may still be seen at the Restoration and Preseryation: L. B. Guyton de Morveaux and present time. There is another reason which explains why ancient retouchings, even if conscientiously carried out, are so conspicuous others, Rapport sur la restauration du tableau de Raphael connu sous le nom de la Vierge de Foligno (1802) ; Horsin-Déon, De la conservaat the present day; this is that they were done with oil paints. tion et de la restauration des tableaux (1851); U. Forni, Manuàle del This brings us to important aspects of the technique of retouch- pittore restauratore (Florence, 1866); O. E. Ris-Paquot, Guide pratique du restaurateur amateur de tableaux (1890); C. Dalbon, ing in the strict sense of the term. It would at first sight appear normal to retouch oil paintings Traité technique et raisonné de la restauration des tableaux (1898);

with paints prepared in the same way. It must not however be forgotten that all paints are subject to more or less rapid modification under the influence of time. In the case of tempera, fresco and gouache painting, the transformation is almost instantaneous, while oil painting does not complete its development until months and sometimes many years after it was executed. When that stage is reached, if the painting as a whole is in a good state of preservation, the colour harmony may be con-. siderably different from the colouring of the painting when fresh. Retouchings executed with oil paints, even very skilfully, on an old picture the colours of which have been modified by time, may be perfect when it is done, but will only remain so for a few days or at the most for a few months; after that the new colour, which at first exactly matched the old, will in its turn be modified and will inevitably show. A clever restorer will of course take pains to prepare a very light ground with unmixed colours and will cover this with a very light film of colour in order to arrive at the tone finally required, and in this way will do all that is possible to prevent the paint from changing a great deal. In spite of everything, however, the results thus obtained will only be satisfactory for a certain time, and attempts have therefore been made to mix oil paints with all sorts of other ingredients in

order to retard the action of time on them. The next experiment was to grind colours with turpentine and without oil, and in order to give them consistency, to paint with varnish with a resin and turpentine basis. This represented real progress. The

G. Meusnier, De entretien et de la restauration des tableaux (1909); A, Jehn, Chromatisme revivifié: Transparence obtenue tout en conservant les anciens vernis et les patines (1911).

DETECTION OF FRAUD The existence of countless fraudulent paintings is generally acknowledged. Apart from the more obvious cases which have reached law courts and publication, there are numerous references In the note-books of artists to the making of copies which, although legitimate in their original purpose, have become fraudulent in the hands of opportunists. In a similar way the work of pupils, supervised or corrected by a master, and put out originally as shop work, has been made in later times to pass for the work of the master. One therefore must distinguish between the several types of forgery. The work deliberately manufactured at first hand in imitation of older work constitutes an important first class—sometimes most difficult to detect. Next to this are the groups dealing with the transformation of something already existent into something else, such as the refinishing of a crude school piece in the master’s manner, or the remounting of fragments of an old picture to serve as the skeleton of a finished work, or even the mounting of an overpainted chromolithograph on a decayed piece of wood or canvas to imitate the appearance of an old picture. Perhaps there should be a separate classification for some kind of repair work on damaged pictures; in this group the forgery consists in falsifying what remains of the original. But

in all kinds, the forgery may be considered as a substitution

PAINTS whether of colour, or brushwork, of subject, or of spirit and con-

ception, with or without the intention to deceive. In order to guard against this imposition the expert must be able to recognize

the clues which point to its existence. The material differences between the true and the false suggest

chemical and physical analysis; the spiritual differences suggest

psychological and historical analysis. In effect the expert makes

use of any means that suggest themselves to him. Chemical tests

may determine the composition of colours, of which the date of discovery is known.

(See PAINT, CHEMISTRY.)

The presence of

Prussian blue, for example, in a painting supposedly of the sth

or even the 17th century is absolute evidence of forgery or repainting. The needle test, mainly of anecdotal value, shows whether or not the oil in an oil painting has hardened; if the paint cracks

when the needle is inserted, the oil has solidified; if the needle’s hole is round and unbroken at the edges, the oil medium is probably less than 30 years old, according to some, or less than so

years old, according to others. A strong magnifying glass or lowpowered microscope may determine whether apparent cracks are natural or have been drawn in with a sharp point, Polarized light has been suggested as a means for seeing beneath the dirty varnish, glaze and repaints in certain types of painting. By far the most common method, however, if it is properly a method, for determining forgery is by means of the emotional sensitiveness which develops from long familiarity with works of art. Critics, necessarily in sympathy with their subject, mark slight deviations in spirit, form and style which indicate the presence of something alien—a forgery or imitation of a known model. Detection of such deviations presupposes, of course, a complete knowledge of the art imitated and a range of information wide enough to

65

differ from the cracks which have developed with the slow drying and long condensation of the materials. If the forger has utilized an old picture as the basis for a new one, the X-ray easily reveals the hidden part. Repair work that borders on the fraudulent is consistently visible in the X-ray test, since no amount of skill on the restorer’s part can blend fresh paint and old paint so accurately that they match in density, thickness and style. Finally the X-ray aids a just choice between two pictures that are alike in pigment, aesthetic effect and age. By revealing which picture contains changes in design or corrections characteristic of an artist creating a picture, and which does not, it betrays the mere imitator. With the X-ray’s help the critic may explore the process and even the progress in the making of a forgery. In this way the expert keeps one jump ahead of the forger, who is ever forced to new efforts as the scientific aids in the detection of false painting are developed. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among popular books on this subject are: P. Eudel, Trucs et Truqueurs; R. Nobili, The Gentle Art of Faking; E, Bayard, L'Art de Reconnaitre les Frauds. (A. Bu.)

PAINTS, CHEMISTRY

OF.

The character and value of

paints may be considered in relation to their use, either for artistic and decorative purposes, or as preservative coatings. In the former case, for a given medium, the choice of pigment rests primarily upon the colour effects desired; in the latter case the medium plays a more important part, whilst the choice of pigment depends on its chemical and physical properties and on a consider-

ation of cost. Through scientific progress an almost unlimited variety of colours is now available. The opacity or transparency of a pigment in a medium is determined by the amount of refraction and reflection which light undergoes in a paint film. This depends upon the difference between the refractive indices (to air) of the pigment and the medium respectively, the pigment approaching transparency as such difference diminishes. As the refractive index of oil is higher than that of water, the opacity of a pigment will be greater in the latter vehicle than in the former. In the case of oil colours the refractive index of oil increases as the drying proceeds, and thus produces a lowering of tone owing to the increased transparency of the pigment; in water colours the refractive index of pigment to water being less than that of pigment to air causes an increase in opacity of the colour on drying. Opacity is generally intensified

develop what are at first merely suspicions into proofs, demonstrated by whatever historical and inferential facts can be found to support the primary emotional one. The critic’s hypothesis ordinarily is derived from emotional experience, and the proof from technical data. Recently the X-ray has been added to the expert’s equipment. And it has become exceptionally useful, when useful at all. It combines in one test opportunities to study the physical consistency of a picture and the psychology of the artist. It reveals the variations in density and thickness of the material forming the work of art, thus recording the touches of pigment which differ from one another in kind as well as in handling; it also may show the by increased fineness of the pigmentary particles. Reduction in strokes of underpainting or preparatory workmanship not visible the particle size may also modify the colour of a pigment as is on the surface. Consequently the X-ray film records an inside shown in the manufacture of lead chromes and antimony sulview and adds to the technical data at the critic’s command. phides. For this reason colours such as vermilion are materially _The efficacy of the X-ray depends on two conditions. First, the altered during the process of grinding in oil, unless special care pigments in use to-day lack generally the density of the pigments is exercised in the operation. Pigments ground in ojl exhibit a

In use prior to about 1800, a date that seems to mark the beginning

of extensive research in the chemistry of colours. This means that a forgery in chemically compounded materials differs in density and thus differs in appearance on the X-ray film from a picture painted in mineral and earth colours that have been coarsely ground by hand. Secondly, the degree of skill and sensitiveness of an artist is usually manifested in his brushwork or habits of

applying pigment. And this means that a modern forger, even if

he uses dense colours ground ever so skilfully in imitation of an old method,

nevertheless

leaves traces

of his personality

and

peculiarities as an artist in his brushwork. Unfortunately the X-ray itself has not been perfected to the point where the critic can wholly control it; the rays, for instance, have their effects in straight lines and must penetrate all of an object in order to be recorded on a sensitized film. For the purpose of art criticism it would be valuable to direct the rays through

only one layer of material, that is, to obtain an X-ray of pigment

only, without having to penetrate a ground of gesso or lead paint, as well as a panel or canvas, sometimes coated on the reverse with more material, all of which confuses the appearance of the artist’s

workmanship, This limitation, however, does not affect the X-ray’s

great variation in behaviour. This is manifest in the amount of oil required to grind them into a paste (known as their “‘oil absorption”), and in their influence on the drying of the oil and on the

subsequent character of the paint film, rendering it soft and pli-

able or hard and brittle. Differences in oi] absorption are well

illustrated in the cases of vegetable black and white lead, the

former requiring about twelve times as much oil as the latter. Pigments classified according to their colouring principles fall into two main groups; (x) mineral or inorganic colours, and (2) colours produced from the natural or synthetic dyes (g.v.). As

the manufacture

of mineral and inorganic colours is directly

associated with their chemical constitution, which varies over a wide range, their preparation cannot be generalized. Broadly a division might be made between those pigments, e.g., the chromes,

made by the “wet process” and involving the precipitation of the colour from solution, and those pigments, e.g., the cobalt colours, where the desired result is obtained in a furnace at a high temperature. Some colours, such as lithopone, require treatment by both

processes. By whatever method the colour is obtained, adequate washing is essential. This is usually carried out in the “striking”

or precipitating vats by decantation, the process being repeated value under better conditions. Given a picture forged in modern until the wash water is free from salts. The washed colour is material, regardless of style or craft, the X-ray shows the lack of pumped through a filter press tc remove excess of water and dried density of the paints and the incompleteness or shallow nature of in a drying-room at a low temperature or in a vacuum stove. the cracks which, when hammered or scratched on the surface, The manufacture of organic colours is equally complex and

66

PAINTS

diverse. The term Icke is applied to all pigments prepared by the precipitation of dyestuffs upon a “base” or “carrier.” This base, which contributes largely to the physical properties of the lake and is selected according to particular requirements, either adsorbs the dye, enters into direct chemical combination with it or forms the substratum on which the dye is fixed by a precipitant. The choice of dye is naturally governed by the demands of the lake user; such considerations as price, permanency and insolubility in the medium may serve as determining factors. As bases, are used the hydrate and certain salts of alumina (for

transparent lakes), barium sulphate, china clay, zinc oxide, lead sulphate, red lead, litharge, green earth and others. Besides entering into chemical relationship with the dyestuff, these bases may further serve as extenders (or diluents) or combine both properties. Extenders are employed in both classes of pigments and cannot be considered only as adulterants; thus, when used for producing paler shades, for increasing opacity and obscuring power (“body”) of colours, or for modifying the properties of a

War, and has since found extended use in the manufacture of paint and linoleum. It is non-poisonous and is less prone to

discoloration than white lead. Among the white pigments are also found most of the bases

used in colour-making as extenders and adulterants: Barytes (Barium Sulphate), which occurs naturally as “Heavy Spar” and is

produced artificially as “Blanc Fixe” (Permanent White); Hy-

drate of Alumina (White Lake); Whiting (Calcium Carbonate); Terra Alba (Calcium Sulphate); China Clay; and others. Yellow Pigments.—Lead Chromes form by far the most important class of yellow pigments. These cover a variety of bright shades of yellow ranging from a pale primrose (in which the chrome is intimately admixed with lead sulphate or arises direct as a precipitation of a lead sulpho-chromate) to a deep orange-red. The orange and deeper shades owe their colour more properly to the formation of basic lead chromates; the physical state of the pigment, however, plays an important part and is

largely dependent upon the condition under which the chrome is pigment to suit a particular need, they serve a special purpose. made. The lighter varieties of lemon (neutral) lead chromates, White Pigments.—White lead, of which Flake White and Chrome Yellows, are produced at a low temperature, by using Kremnitz White are varieties, approximates in composition to very dilute solutions or otherwise controlling the process so that the basic lead carbonate 2PbCO3-Pb(OH):2, and possesses greater the precipitate is maintained in a very fine state; such chromes covering power than most white pigments. Used as an oil colour, possess good covering power, a property diminishing as the shade its films are prone to yellowing in the dark; this discoloration, deepens, owing to the consequent increase in the specific gravity which is attributed to the basic character of the pigment and is of the colour. The raw materials employed in the manufacture less marked with the normal carbonate, disappears on re-exposure are lead nitrate or acetate and the precipitant is the dichromate to sunlight. Though readily blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, of sodium or potassium; for the deeper shades, basic salts of lead it has great atmospheric durability and is unaffected by light and are used, or the chrome receives subsequent treatment with sulphur dioxide. Its resistance to sulphides is greatly influenced caustic alkali. Zinc Yellow (Zinc Chromate) is inferior to Chrome Yellow in by the presence of lead acetate as impurity; pure white lead in oil is stated to be compatible with ultramarine, cadmium yellow body and covering power but is not blackened by sulphuretted and vermilion without discoloration. On account of its poisonous hydrogen. It is used mainly as an oil and water colour in the pronature many attempts have been made to replace it, but always duction of lime yellows, and in the manufacture of the nonwith a sacrifice of covering power or durability when used for poisonous Zinc Greens by admixture with Chinese Blue. Cadexternal painting. Of the more notable substitutes, the following mium Yellow (Cadmium Sulphide) possesses excellent covering may be mentioned:—Mulhaus White (lead sulphate); Freeman’s power and is largely used as an oil and water colour. The shades non-poisonous White Lead, a mixture of lead sulphate, zinc of pure cadmium sulphides depend essentially upon the method oxide, magnesium carbonate and barium sulphate; and Sublimed of preparation and vary from bright lemon yellow to orange. In White Lead, a basic lead sulphate containing zinc oxide. Lead the manufacture of cheaper varieties of the paler shades, the sulphate being deficient in body is used mainly in admixture with cadmium sulphide is often admixed with cadmium carbonate, giving a product of good body but prone to fade in moist air. A other pigments, e.g., lead chromes, to produce paler shades. Zinc White (Chinese White, Zinc Oxide) was first proposed as cheap pigment fast to light is obtained by the simultaneous prea white-lead substitute by Courtois of Dijon in 1780 and became cipitation of cadmium and zinc sulphides, providing no carbonate generally adopted as an artistic and industrial colour in 1840. It is present. Compounds of cadmium sulphide with cadmium is a brilliant white possessing considerable covering power though selenide in varying proportions form a further series of colours lacking in opacity, is non-poisonous, and is unaffected by light or covering a range from orange to maroon-crimson according to sulphuretted hydrogen. As a water colour it is incompatible with their composition; such pigments are largely applied in the ceramost pigments, this being more marked when gum arabic is used mic industries owing to their heat-resisting properties. A new as a medium. In oil the paint dries slowly to a hard film having series of compounds have been recently introduced in which cada tendency to scale; it is extensively used in white enamels. As mium sulphide (with or without selenide) is precipitated together an artists’ colour it is sometimes preferred to white lead, but with barium sulphate to form Cadmium Lithopones (cf. Lithoowing to its higher oil absorption it is more readily lowered in pone, above), which on account of their comparatively low cost tone by the physical changes in the oil. Lithopone is a white pig- lend themselves to more extended industrial applications. Cadment obtained by precipitation of zinc sulphide and barium sul- mium yellows form a stable series of bright greens with Ultraphate simultaneously in approximately molecular proportions and marine. Aureoline (Cobalt Yellow), possesses only moderate subsequent calcination. The properties of Lithopone depend stability to light, but is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen and largely on its purity and method of manufacture; thus in particu- is used mainly as an artists’ oil and water colour and for the prolar may be mentioned its tendency to darken in sunlight. This duction of pure blue shades in glass and porcelain painting. It is discoloration ts reversible and the white colour is restored in the transparent in oil and turns brown in excess of this medium. To the yellow pigments belong also the Ochres, King’s Yellow, dark. Owing to its non-poisonous nature, stability to sulphuretted hydrogen and atmospheric influences, and its good covering power, Orpiment and Naples Yellow. it is used in considerable quantities as a water, size and oil colour; Red Pigments.—Red Oxides of Iron, by far the most imporin textile printing; in the manufacture of linoleum and in many tant series of this group, vary in colour from a deep bluish-red other industries. Titanium White (Titanox, Titanium Oxide) is to a pale red-brown according to their purity and the percentage a white pigment of exceptional body and covering power, far of ferric oxide, Fe,O3, which they contain. Ferric oxide occurs exceeding that of white lead or zinc oxide, in admixture with which naturally in numerous varieties of the red iron ore, haematite, in latter pigment it is often employed. Owing to its chemical inert- red ochre, red bole or raddle, in crude red iron-stone and micaceous ness, it is unaffected by atmospheric influences and is non-poison- iron. The conversion of these ferruginous minerals into pigments is ous. As a paint its films do not crack or peel but show a strong relatively simple and consists generally in grinding and levigating tendency to “chalk,” a defect arising from the gradual destruction the material to remove impurities and to attain the required of the film in moist air. Antimony White (Timanox, Antimony degree of fineness; in many cases the shade of the product needs Oxide} was introduced as a white-lead substitute during the World to be modified by calcination whereby any ferric hydroxide is

PAINTS changed into the red ferric oxide with consequent reddening of tone (cf. OcHRES). Large quantities of iron compounds, by-prod-

67

manence. In oil these greens dry well and are darker and more glossy than in water. Being composite in their nature, they are ucts of industry, are now economically worked up for the produc- more prone to colour changes, becoming yellower or bluer accordtion of artificial iron oxides of great purity, their shade depending ing to the condition of exposure. Brunswick Greens prepared by on their method of treatment and the temperature at which they grinding together the required proportions of Chinese Blue and are “burnt” or heated. Iron oxides are marketed under various Chrome Yellow show a tendency to “float,” z.e., the blue rises to designations according to colour and purity, such as English Red, the surface of the paint; this is largely obviated by the wet Indian Red, Persian Red, Turkey Red, Caput Mortuum, Col- process of manufacture, the two colours being mixed in the cothar, Rouge, Venetian Red and many others. In certain cases, striking or precipitating vat, washed and dried. Chrome Greens e.g., Madder Indian Reds and Tuscan Reds, the oxides are bright- are extensively used as oil colours; as size colours for paper; in ened by the addition of a permanent red lake; such toning is printing inks; in textile printing; and in the manufacture of linreadily detected by chemical means. When of high ferric oxide oleum. Zinc Greens are similar to the Brunswick Greens being content, they possess considerable covering power and opacity a mixture of Zinc Chrome and Chinese Blue. Though more and are highly resistant to atmospheric influences; they are used permanent than Chrome Greens, they lack the body and covering extensively as oil colours, as a pigment in rust preventive coat- power of the latter and on account of their higher price are not ings, in calico printing, for colouring porcelain and glass and in extensively employed. They are used as an artists’ colour, for many other industries. tinting enamels and in oil paints and printing inks. Blue Pigments.—Prussian Blues are complex alkali ferric Red Lead is a lead tetroxide represented by the formula Pb30u, produced by heating litharge (PbO) in air at about 480° C. The ferrocyanides containing potassium, ammonium, or sodium commercial varieties usually contain from 6 to 12% of free according to preparation. The most valued blues are “potash” litharge. It is a bright scarlet-red pigment possessing good cover- blues prepared from potassium ferrocyanide and ferrous suling power, opacity and permanence, and on account of its anti- phate, with subsequent oxidation. According to the method of corrosive property is extensively employed as a priming coat for oxidation, a number of Prussian blues are obtainable, varying in iron and steel structures. It exerts a strong drying action on chemical composition and physical properties. These blues are linseed oil and its hard-setting properties render it valuable in of low opacity, but possess considerable covering power and are this medium in making cements, lutes and packing for steam reasonably permanent, though readily destroyed by alkali. joints. It is used as an oil colour, as a base for organic lakes, for Prussian Blue is a dark reddish-blue with a red undertone. By manufacturing lead and optical glass, enamels, in other industries. special treatment, blues are produced possessing a high bronzeTo the red pigments also belong Vermilion, Carmine, Cadmium lustre, known as Bronze Blues, which are much valued in printScarlet (cf. Cadmium Yellow), Antimony Vermilion, antimony ing. Chinese Blue, the basis of Chrome Greens, is a paler blue trisulphide, Chrome Red and a large number of organic lake than Prussian Blue and is characterized by a violet shade with a pigments. greenish undertone. Still lighter blues are the Milori and Steel Green Pigments.—Two main classes of green pigments are in Blues. Celestial Blue is a paler blue containing barium sulphate. Antwerp Blue is a Prussian Blue formed upon an alumina base. use: the “elementary” and the “composite.” (a) Elementary Greens.——Chrome Oxide Green, chromium Prussian blues are soluble in oxalic acid; by treatment with this sesquioxide, CrsOz, is produced by the reduction of potassium acid and subsequent salting out, Soluble Prussian Blues are obdichromate at a high temperature, by calcination of ammonium tained. Other soluble blues are made by precipitating ferric dichromate or chromic chloride, and similar processes. It is one chloride in excess of potassium ferrocyanide or by precipitating of the most permanent pigments known, and is unaffected by heat, ferrous sulphate with potassium ferricyanide (Turnbull’s Blue). light, acids, alkali, chlorine and other reagents. It is used as a These blues are extensively used as oil and water colours and in water, lime and oil colour; in printing inks, in which it possesses spirit and oil varnishes, in printing inks, for staining paper, in non-actinic properties; as a mordant in calico printing and dyeing; textile printing and dyeing, and for toning blacks. Cobalt Blues aS an abrasive for polishing steel and precious metals; and in are among the most permanent colours known, and exist in two many other industries. Guignet’s Green (Viridian) is a hydrated forms: (1) Smalts, potassium cobaltous silicates of varying comchromium sesquioxide produced by heating potassium dichromate position, King’s Blue being richest in cobalt and Azure Blue in the presence of boric acid or other flocculating agent. It is a darkest in colour; and (2) Cobalt Blue or Cobalt Ultramarine, pigment of great permanence, possessing similar properties to cobaltous aluminate of variable composition ranging from a chrome oxide green, from which it may be distinguished by its greenish-blue, which may contain combined zinc, to Thenard’s solubility in boiling hydrochloric acid. Its covering power and Blue of reddish tone, prepared from alumina and cobalt phosStrength are only moderately good; it is used for chrome oxide phate. Coerulean Blue is a cobaltous stannate containing maggreen and also admixed with chrome yellow as a pale green for nesium. Somewhat restricted through high cost, they are used landscape painting. Cobalt Greens are not true chemical com- as artists’ oil and water colours, in oil paints and enamels, for pounds but solid solutions of zinc and cobaltous oxides obtained printing inks and in the ceramic industries. by calcination in a manner similar to the cobalt blues. They Other blues in extensive use are the Ultramarines and a numpossess great permanence and are unaffected by heat, light, sul- ber of Organic Lakes. The copper blues: Egyptian Blue, Bremen phuretted hydrogen, etc., are non-poisonous and are used as Blue, Mineral Blue, etc., are practically obsolete. artists’ oil and water colours. Green Earth is a natural alkaliBlack Pigments.—Carbon Blacks form the main source of aluminium—magnesium—ferrous silicate of variable composition. black pigments and have as their colouring principle amorphous It is an inert and permanent pigment deficient in colour and is carbon; these blacks vary in colour and strength according to used as an artists’ oil and water colour, in fresco painting, and as a their origin. Vegetable Blacks are nearly pure carbon, obtained substratum for organic lakes, basic dyes, fixed by its silicic acid from the incomplete combustion of mineral oils, and are of a content, being in some cases rendered fast to light. deep black shade giving a bluish-black tint on reduction. Lamp To the elementary greens belong Green Ultramarine and the Blacks are brownish blacks of rather less intensity, being poorer copper greens: Verdigris; Schweinfurt Green and Scheele’s Green, in carbon, often giving as much as 25% of ash on ignition. Carcopper arsenites; and Malachite Green, a native copper carbonate, bon Blacks, obtained chiefly from America by burning the which are no longer used, being poisonous. natural gases, are very deep black in colour, denser and more (b) Composite Greens.—Chrome or Brunswick Greens, by granular than Vegetable Blacks, and are extensively used in the far the most important class of greens in general use, are an paint and printing-ink industries. Ivory Blacks were originally Intimate mixture of Chrome Yellow and Chinese Blue. They produced by charring ivory cuttings in closed vessels; these have possess great brilliancy, good covering power, and cover a wide been largely superseded by the Bone Blacks, which are bluishrange of greens according to the relative proportions of their black in colour and are considerably denser and weaker than constituents, which determine their chemical stability and per- Carbon Blacks, containing only about 10% of carbon admixed

638

PAISIELLO—PAKHOI

Scottish royal family of Stuart, and dedicated to the Virgin, St. James, St. Milburga of Much Wenlock in Shropshire (whence came the first monks) and St. Mirinus (St. Mirren), the patronsaint of Paisley, who is supposed to have been a contemporary of St. Columba. The monastery became an abbey in 1219, was destroyed by the English under Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1307, and rebuilt in the latter half of the 14th century, the Stuart kings endowing it lavishly. In 1553 Lord Claud Hamilton, then a boy of ten, was made abbot, and the abbacy and monastery were erected into a temporal lordship in his favour in 1587. The abbey lands, after passing from his son the earl of Abercorn to the earl of Angus and then to Lord Dundonald, were purchased in 1764 by the 8th earl of Abercorn, who let the ground BrBsLiocRaPHY.—J. C. Smith, The Manufacture of Paint (3rd ed., for building purposes. The abbey church originally consisted of

with calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Vine Blacks are prepared by carbonizing vine twigs and other non-resinous woods; they are beautiful bluish blacks with great depth of tone and are largely used in printing inks and are much valued as an artists’ colour. Mineral Black is a dry grey shale containing about 30% of carbonaceous and 70% silicious matter. It is also prepared from waste coal dust and is largely used in cheap black paints, often tinted with Vegetable or Carbon Black. Graphite is another variety of carbon of absolute permanence, used as a pigment for special purposes, e.g., in anti-rust paints and in the manufacture of “lead” pencils. Black Oxide of Iron is a triferric tetroxide, Fe;0., which occurs in nature as the mineral magnetite. It is used as an oil and size colour and in the ceramic industry. 1924); N. Heaton, Outline of Paint Technology (1928); A. P. Laurie, The Painter's Methods and Materials (1926). (R.S. M.; W. E.W.)

PAISIELLO (or PAESIELLO), GIOVANNI (17411816), Italian composer, was born at Taranto on May 9, 1741. He studied under Durante at Naples, and his first compositions were produced at the conservatorio there, where he was an assistant master. At Naples, too, he produced a series of successful operas, and some church music. In 1776 Paisiello was invited by Catherine II. to St. Petersburg, where he remained for eight years, producing his masterpiece, J} Barbiere di Siviglia. Paisiello left Russia in 1784, and, after producing J] Re Teodoro

at Vienna, entered the service of Ferdinand IV. at Naples, where he composed many of his best operas, including Nina and La Molinara. He was invited to Paris (1802) by Napoleon, but the Parisians received his Proserpine so coldly that he requested, and with some difficulty obtained, permission to return to Italy. He died at Naples on June 5, 1816. Besides his operas Paisiello composed eight masses, fifty-one instrumental compositions and many detached pieces.

a nave, choir without aisles, and transepts. The nave and tower have been restored, and careful work has been done on the choir. The nave is used as the parish church. Robert III. was interred before the high altar of the choir in 1406. Over his grave a monument to the memory of the Royal House of Stuart was placed here by Queen Victoria (1888). In the south transept is St. Mirren’s chapel (founded in 1499), with the tombs of abbot John Hamilton and of the children of the rst lord Paisley, and the recumbent effigy of Marjory, daughter of Robert Bruce, who married Walter, the Steward, and was killed while hunting at Knock Hill between Renfrew and Paisley (1316). About 3 m. S. of Paisley are the braes of Gleniffer, and 24 m. S.E. stand the ruins of Crookston castle, which is at least as old as the rath century. The Romans settled in Paisley in A.D. 84, and built a fort called Vanduara to the west of the White Cart.

PAITA, a port of northern Peru, in the department of Piura. Population (estimate 1920) 5,000. Paita has one of the best natural harbours on the coast, and is the port of the departmental See F. Schizze, Vita di Paisiello (Milan, 1833); A. della Corte, capital, Piura, with which it is connected by rail (58 m.). The Settecento italiano (Turin, 1922); H. Short, Paistellos Buffokunst town, built on a sandy hillside, is desolate in appearance. There und ihre Beziehungen zu Mozart (1919). are a few modern necessities such as electric lights, telephones, PAISLEY, burgh of barony and parish of Renfrewshire, telegraph, hospital and schools and water supply from the Chira Scotland, on the White Cart, 3 m. from its junction with the River. Though free from yellow fever, sanitary conditions in Clyde, 7 m. W. by S. of Glasgow by the L.M.S. railway. It is Paita have continued to be so bad that much of the town is now connected with Glasgow, Renfrew and elsewhere by tramways. (1928) being rebuilt, water and sewer systems repaired, and the Pop. (1931) 86,441. In 1791 the river, which bisects the town, and port permanently improved. The principal buildings include Cusis crossed by several bridges, was made navigable for vessels of 50 toms House, Post, Telegraph and Cable Offices, a cotton-seed oil tons. Later it was further deepened, and is now navigable for mill and a few branch export and import houses which control vessels drawing 15 feet. The old town contains most of the prin- trade. Cotton constitutes # of total exports, other items including cipal warehouses and mills; the new town, begun towards the end cattle, kid-skins, tobacco and Panama hats. (See Prura.) Paita of the r8th century, occupies much of the ground that once formed was a prosperous port in colonial times. the domains of the abbey. To the munificence of its citizens the PAIUTE. This tribal designation is applied to two distinct town owes many of its finest public buildings, among them the divisions of Shoshonean Indians in the Great Basin, western town hall, the free library and museum, the observatory, the John Neilson Endowed Institute, and the fine Thomas Coats memorial church. Of parks and open spaces there are Brodie Park; Fountain Gardens; St. James Park, with a racecourse; Dunn Square and the old quarry grounds converted and adorned; and Moss Plantation. The burgh returns one member to Parliament and is governed by a council. In the abbey precincts are statues to the

poet Robert Tannahill (1774~1810) and Alexander Wilson (1766— 1813), the American ornithologist, both of whom were born in Paisley. John Wilson (“Christopher North”) was born here. The village originally grew up around the abbey of Paisley, and the town Paisley has been an important manufacturing centre since the beginning of the 18th century, but the earlier linen, lawn and silk-gauze industries have become extinct, and the famous Paisley shawls (imitation cashmere), are little woven. The manufacture of linen thread gave way in 1812 to that of cotton thread, and Paisley is now one of the chief world centres of thread manufacture. The large mills of J. and P. Coats and Clark and company employ many hands. Other industries include bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, weaving, engineering, tanning, iron and brass founding, timber yards, and the making of starch, cornflour, soap, machinery and chemicals, besides some shipbuilding. The abbey was founded in 1163 as a Cluniac monastery by Walter Fitzalan, first high steward of Scotland, the ancestor of the

United States.

The true or Southern Paiute are close relatives

of the Ute and inhabit south-western Utah, north-western Arizona and southern Nevada. They are virtually indistinguishable from the Chemehuevi of south-eastern California. The northern Paiute or Paviotso are separated from the southern by the Shoshone, inhabit north-western Nevada and south-eastern Oregon and are close relatives of the Mono of California and Bannock of Idaho. Their mode of life is an adaptation of a non-agricultural population of meagre culture to an arid environment.

PAJOU,

AUGUSTIN

(1730-1809), French sculptor, was

born in Paris on Sept. 19, 1730. At eighteen he won the Prix de Rome; at thirty he exhibited his Pluton tenant Cerbére enchdiné

(now in the Louvre). His portrait busts of Buffon and of Madame Du Barry (1773), and his statuette of Bossuet (all in the Louvre), are amongst his best works. When B. Poyet constructed the Fontaine des Innocents from the earlier edifice of P. Lescot (see Govyon) Pajou provided a number of new figures for the work. Mention should also be made of his bust of Carlino Bertinazzi (1763) at the Comédie Francaise, and the monument of Marie Lesczinska, queen of Poland. Augustin Pajou died in Paris on May 8, 1809.

PAKHOI, a treaty port in the province of Kwangtung, South China (21° 29’ N. and 109° 7’ E.), situated on a small peninsula at the head of the Gulf of Tongking. The harbour is easily

PAKINGTON—PALACKY accessible from the open sea, but has only one tide in 24 hours. The port was opened to foreign trade by the Chefoo Convention

69

Yaw valley there is a peculiar race called Taungthas, who claim to be quite distinct from both Burmese and Chins.

in 1877 and in the succeeding period a considerable traffic to and

The headquarters town, Pakokku, stands on the right bank of

from Yunnan, Kweichow and Kwangsi converged on Pakhoi, and was carried by coolies and transport animals across the moun-

the Irrawaddy, and has grown into importance since the British occupation, The population in 192 was 19,507. It is the emporium of the trade of the Chindwin and Yaw river valleys.

tains which separate the port from the Si-kiang valley in the interior. Thus it developed as a “side-door” through which trafic could pass free from the trade exactions imposed along the Red River and Si-kiang routes into Yunnan. In 1889, however, Mengtsz was opened as a treaty port, followed by Wuchow in 1897, and Kwangchow-wan (French) as a free port in 1898. With the relaxation of trade restrictions, the Red River and Si-kiang were established as the natural trade routes into Yunnan, Consequently the commercial importance of Pakhoi declined and

its trade sphere is now limited to its somewhat poor and sandy neighbourhood, between the coast and the mountains behind. The total maritime customs revenue of the port in 1924 was Hk. Taels 159,607, showing an increase over recent years. In 1924, the net foreign imports amounted to 2,895,298 Hk, Taels, and the net Chinese imports to 307,314, while exports were 1,819,189; total 5,021,801 Hk. Taels.

The interruption of the traffic with Hongkong in 1926 (owing to the boycott) led to a reduction by 50% of the total trade of Pakhoi, The population in 1926 was reckoned at 35,000.

PAKINGTON,

the name of a famous English Worcester-

shire family, now represented by the barony of Hampton. Sir John Pakington (d. 1560) was a successful lawyer and a favourite at court, and Henry VIII. enriched him with estates, including that of Westwood in Worcestershire. His grandnephew and herr, Sir John Pakington (1549-1625), was another prominent courtier, Queen Elizabeth’s “lusty Pakington,” famous for his magnificence of living. His son John (1600-1624) was created a baronet in 1620. His som, Sir John, the second baronet (16201680), played an active part on the royalist side in the troubles of the Great Rebellion and the Commonwealth, and was taken

Pakokku Hill Tracts, a district also in the Magwe division, lying to the west of the Pakokku district. It includes 3,100sq.m. of the forest mountains of the Aeakan Yomas, inhabited by 28,799 people (1921), mainly Chins and allied hill tribes. It includes one of the highest peaks of the Aekan Yomas, Mt. Victoria (about 10,000 ft.). Headquarters village is Kanpeket. In the north lies the district of the Chin hills, including an administered area of 8,000 m. in addition to large unadministered tracts. Pop, (1921) 110,079 (administered areas). The headquarters town is Falam, and the whole district consists of a succession of forested ridges inhabited by Chins.

PAL, KRISTO

DAS

(1839-1884), Indian publicist, was

born in Calcutta in 1839, of the Teli or oil-man’s caste. In 1872, after twenty-two years of successful journalism, he was made a member of the Bengal legislative council, where his practical good sense and moderation were much appreciated by successive lieutenant-governors. His opposition, however, to the Calcutta Municipal Bill of 1876, which first recognized the elective system, was attributed to his prejudice in favour of the “classes” against the “masses.” In 1878 he received the decoration of C.I1E. In 1883 he was appointed a member of the viceroy’s legislative council. He died on July 24, 1884. See N. N. Ghose, Kristo Das Pal, a Study (Calcutta, 1887),

PALACE,

strictly, the residence of a sovereign or ruler;

hence applied to any exceptionally large and lavish house, and also, in some cases to official buildings, as the French palais de justice. (See GOVERNMENT AND PusLic Burtpincs; CASTLE; House; and similar articles.)

PALACIO VALDES, ARMANDO

(1853— __ ), Spanish

prisoner at Worcester in 1651; Lady Dorothy, his wife (d. 1679), daughter of the lord keeper Thomas Coventry, was famous for her learning, and was long credited with the authorship of The Whole Duty of Man (1658), which has more recently been attributed to Richard Allestree (q.v.).

novelist and critic. His early writings, pungent essays remarkable

The baronetcy became extinct with the death of Sir John Pakington, the 8th baronet, in January 1830, but it was revived in 1846 for his maternal nephew and heir, John Somerset Pakington (1799~1880), whose name was originally Russell. In 1874

earthly passion, somewhat in the manner of Valera, Palacio Valdés achieved a very popular triumph which placed him in the first rank of contemporary Spanish novelists. He followed this up by

he was created Baron Hampton, and he died in London on the 9th of April 1880. From 1875 until his death Hampton was chief civil service commissioner. In 1906 his grandson Herbert Stuart (b. 1883) became 4th baron Hampton.

PAKKHTO: see Pusutu LANGUAGE. PAKOKKU, a district in the Magwe division of Burma, lying

west of the Irrawaddy river and south-west of Mandalay, with

the line of the Chin hills as a general boundary on the west. It has an area of 6,210 sq.m. and a population (1921) of 465,771. The part of the district along the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers is alluvial. Beyond this, however, the country rises gradually to the low Shinmadaung and Tangyi ridges, where it is very arid. To the westward there is a rapid drop to the well-watered valley of the Yaw river, and then a rise over broken, dry country before the valley of the Myit-tha river is reached. The principal products are millet, sesamum and sugar produced from toddy-palms in the tiverain districts, which also grow rice, grain, peas and beans. Tobacco and vegetables are also produced in some quantity, and maize is grown largely for the sake of the husk, which is used for native cheroot-wrappers, under the name of yawpet. The Yenangyat oil-fields, which produce quantities of petroleum, are in the south of the district, and iron used to be worked in a small way. There are large areas of reserved forests in the west of the district where a good deal of teak is worked out. The cutch—a yellow dye obtained from a small tree in the drier parts of the Yaw country— Is particularly esteemed. The heat in May and June is very great, nsing considerably above roo° F in the shade. The great majority of the population is Burmese, but in the

for independent judgment and refined humour, were printed in the Revista Europea. His first novel, El Seorito Octavio (1881), showed an uncommon power of observation and in Marta y Maria (1883), a portrayal of the struggle between religious vocation and

El Idilio de un enfermo (1883), a most interesting fragment of autobiography and by José (1885), a realistic picture of the manners and customs of seafaring folk, containing passages of animated description barely inferior to the finest penned by Pereda himself. The emotional imagination of the writer expressed itself anew in the charming story Riverita (1886), one of whose attractive characters develops into the heroine of Maximina (1887); and from Maximina, in its turn, is taken professed nun among the personages (1889), in which the love-passages and Gloria Bermudez are set off with

the novice who figures as a of La Hermana San Sulpicio between Zeferino Sanjurjo elaborate, romantic descriptions of Seville. ÆZ Cuarto poder (1888) is, as its name implies, concerned with the details, not always edifying, of journalistic life. La Espuma (1890) and La Fe (1892), were enthusiastically praised in foreign countries, but in Spain their reception was cold. Subsequently Palacio Valdés returned to his earlier and better manner in Los Majos de Cddiz (1896), in La Alegria del Capitán Ribot (1889) and in La Aldea Perdida (1903), In these novels, and still more in Tristdn, 6 el pesimismo (1906), he frees himself from the reproach of undue submission to French influences. His later works, Papeles del Doctor Angélico (1911), La Novela de un Novelista (1921) and La Hija de Natalia (1923) preserve much

of the charm, if not the freshness, of his earlier novels; in any case Palacio Valdés takes a prominent place in modern Spanish literature as a keen analyst of emotion and a sympathetic, delicate,

humorous observer.

(J. F.-K.)

PALACKÝ, FRANTISEK [Francis] (1798-1876), Czech historian and politician, was born on June 14, 1798, at Hodslavice (Hotzendorf) in Moravia, of a Protestant family. After some

70

PALAEO-ASIATIC

LANGUAGES—PALAEOBOTANY

years spent in private teaching Palacky settled in 1823 at Prague. Here he found a warm friend in Dobrovsky, whose good relations with the Austrian authorities shielded him from the hostility shown by the government to students of Slav subjects. Dobrovsky introduced him to Count Sternberg and his brother Francis, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest in Bohemian history. Count Francis was the principal founder of the Society of the Bohemian Museum, devoted to the collection of documents bearing on Bohemian history, with the object of reawakening national sentiment by the study of the national records. Public interest in the movement was stimulated in 1825 by the new Journal of the Bo-

hemian Museum (Casopis českého Musea) of which Palacký was the first editor. The journal was at first published in Czech and German, and the Czech edition survived to become the most important literary organ of Bohemia. Palacký had received a modest appointment as archivist to Count Sternberg and in 1829 the Bohemian estates sought to confer on him the title of historiographer of Bohemia, with a small salary, but it was ten years before the consent of the Viennese authorities was obtained. Meanwhile the estates, with the tardy assent of Vienna, had undertaken to pay the expenses of publishing Palacký’s capital work, Tke History of the Bohemian People (5 vols., 1836-67). This book, which comes down to the year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence, was founded on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in the libraries of the chief cities of Europe, and remains a standard authority. The first volume was printed in German in 1836, and subsequently translated into Czech. The publication of the work was hindered by the police-censorship, which was especially active in criticizing his account of the Hussite movement. In 1848 Palacky was deputed to the Reichstag which sat at Kromefice (Kremsier) in the autumn of that year, and was a member of the Slav congress at Prague. He refused to take part in the preliminary parliament consisting of 500 former deputies to the diet, which met at Frankfort, on the ground that as a Czech he had no interest in German affairs. He was at this time in favour of a strong Austrian empire, which should consist of a

federation of the southern German and the Slav states, allowing of the retention of their individual rights. These views met with some degree of consideration at Vienna, and Palacky was even offered a portfolio in the Pillersdorf cabinet. The collapse of the federal idea and the definite triumph of the party of reaction in 1852 led to his retirement from politics. After the liberal concessions of 1860 and 1861, however, he became a life member of the Austrian senate. His views met with small support from the assembly, and with the exception of a short period after the decree of September 1871, by which the emperor raised hopes for Bohemian self-government, he ceased to appear in the senate from 1861 onwards. In the Bohemian Landtag he became the acknowledged leader of the nationalist-federal party. He sought the establishment of a Czech kingdom which should include Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and in his zeal for Czech autonomy he even entered into an alliance with the Conservative nobility and with the extreme Catholics. He attended the Panslavist congress at Moscow in 1867. He died at Prague on May 26, 1876. Among his more important smaller historical works are: Wiirdigung der alten béhmischen Geschichtschreiber (Prague, 1830), dealing with authors many of whose works were then inaccessible to Czech students; Archiv česky (6 vols., Prague, 1840~72) ; Urkundliche Beiträge zur Geschichte des Hussitenkriegs (2 vols., Prague, 1872—74); Documenta magistri Johannis Hus vitam, doctrinam, causam . . . illus-

of: vocalic harmony by which the three classes of vowels, weak, strong, and neutral, are duly regulated. In ordinary conversation the women do not use the pronunciation of the men. The grammatical processes are numerous. Koryak has a dual and the

relation between subject and predicate is conceived differently in transitive and intransitive verbs. Prefixes and suffixes are numerous, number, location, size being thus indicated. The numbers are derived from manual concepts; five being a hand and 20 being

a man.

Higher numbers are composed with the word for man,

and numbers higher than 4oo are called “limit of knowledge.” Chukchee and Koryak have borrowed some words from Russian but possess the power to form new words for new ideas. Kamchatkan has been much modified by Russian. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Bureau

of

American

Ethnology,

Bulletin

40,

pt. 2, 1922.

PALAEOBOTANY

or

VEGETABLE

PALAEON-

TOLOGY, a branch of the science of botany, is concerned with the study of plants which lived in past ages, by means of their remains found as fossils in the rocks. Fossil plants may be regarded as the documents on which the history of the plant-world is founded. A surprising amount is known about the form of fossil plants from rocks as ancient as those of the Ordovician (see GroLocy), and, according to the latest estimates of geological] time, about 500,000,000 years have since elapsed. During that time the constitution of the flora of the earth has been changing continuously. Starting with the fossils found in the older sedimentary rocks and reviewing those of successively later formations, it becomes apparent that each species, genus, or larger systematic grouping has three phases in its history: its first appearance and development, its period of maximum abundance, and its dying out and final extinction. As one would expect, the fossils found in the more recently formed rocks are most like the plants living at the present day. While on the one hand the evolution of some families of plants appears to be an exceedingly slow process, for even as far back as the Ordovician there are found algae very similar in form to some of the living ones, there are on the other hand examples illustrating comparatively rapid evolution. Although the Angiosperms (plants with flowers) appear late in geological time they have already become the dominant plants of to-day. A reference to the diagram below will show that there is evidence that the more highly specialised groups such as the Cycadales, Bennettitales and Angiosperms have been evolved later than the comparatively simple types represented by the Algae and PRESENT DAY UPPER TERTIARY LOWER TERTIARY ALES NI

CYCADALES

BRYOPHYT. P

BENNETTITALES i

RHODOPHYCEAE

YT

aeCA GINKGOALES

Dm] = a EQUISETINEAE

2Q > ad

ALES

ANGIOSPERMAE

CRETACEOUS JURASSIC TRIASSIC PERMO-TRIASSIC 205

PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS 220 UPPER CARBONIFEROUS 240 aay

DOSPERMA ORDAITALES

Cc

PTERI

LOWER CARBONIFEROUS 300 UPPER DEVONIAN MIDDLE DEVONIAN LOWER DEVONIAN

Lo i

SILURIAN CHLO

PsiLo

'¥Y ANOPHYCEAE

UPPER ORDOVICIAN

440

PROTO-ARTICULATINEA

trantia (Prague, 1869). With Safarik he wrote Anfänge der böhmischen

DIAGRAM REPRESENTING DURATION AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF THE VARIOUS GROUPS OF PLANTS AT DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL PERIODS, WITH THE AGES IN MILLIONS OF YEARS CALCULATED FROM RADIO-ACTIVE MINERALS

PALAEO-ASIATIC LANGUAGES. The languages described as ‘‘Palaeo-Asiatic” are spoken in the extreme north-east of Siberia; Yukaghir, Chukchee, Koryak, Kamchatkan, and Gilyak. They contain features characteristic of many American languages. The phonetic system is rich and is marked by a scheme

Bryophyta and that simplicity in structure is in general an index of primitiveness. This agrees in a general way with the theory that the more specialised and complex plants have been evolved from simpler forerunners. It must be remembered, however, that although Lycopods, Cycads and Ginkgoales are represented in the present day flora the chances are that an investigator at a future period would find no trace of them among the fossil debris of the present age since they form such a small part of the vegetation. There is no reason to believe that the present day flora of the world has attained a permanent constitution; on the contrary, it

Dichtkunst (Pressburg, 1818) and Die ältesten Denkmäler der böhmischen Sprache (Prague, 1840). Three volumes of his Czech articles and essays were published as Radhost (3 vols., Prague, 1871-73). For accounts of Palacky see an article by Saint René Taillandier in the Revue des deux mondes (April, 1855) ; Count Liitzow, Lectures on the Historians of Bohemia (London, 1905).

GENERAL

PALAEOBOTANY

REMARKS]

is probably changing as rapidly, if not more rapidly, than at any part of its developmental history.

Earliest Land Plants.—About the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the Devonian, land-plants appear for the first time; and all plant-fossils found in earlier rocks than these

have so far proved to be Algae. It has been suggested that landplants may have arisen from sea-weed ancestors which became established on the land and in the process of migration under-

went considerable changes—a theory which is not disproved by the fossil-evidence. By the Upper Devonian period land-plants were in existence which in complexity of organization were little inferior to the plants of to-day; there were forests of tall trees, so that then the face of the earth with its mountains and forests

must have appeared much as it does now. It is from fossil-plants that information has been gained of the enormous fluctuations in climate and changes in the distribution of land and sea that have succeeded one another in the history of the earth’s surface. It is a striking fact that rich, perhaps tropical, floras are found in

the rocks of countries now in the frigid grip of polar conditions, e.g., Greenland and Spitsbergen. In the latter country the fact that coal is found in large quantities in Devonian, Carboniferous, Jurassic and Tertiary rocks, is clear proof of vigorous vegetation in lands which at the present moment have a scanty mantle of small herbs in their more favoured valleys. Conditions of Fossilization.—Before the history of the various groups of the Plant World is considered the nature of plant-fossils and the technique of palaeobotanical investigation may be briefly explained. Fossil-plants are to be found in two forms, incrustations and petrifactions. The incrustations are the commonest type found and have been formed by plant-fragments becoming embedded in the mud or silt of a lake or estuary. As the sediment was changed in the course of ages into shale or sandstone rocks the plants became compressed by the vertical stress of the overlying sediment and are finally found, when the rock is split open, in the form of a thin layer of black carbonaceous matter which gives silhouettes of the plants. In many fossils

this carbonaceous matter and retains to a varying (Plate I., fig. 7) while appeared. It is possible

is similar to coal (g.v.) in composition extent the outward form of the plant the internal structure has mostly dis-

to remove such a fossil from the rock and then the film may be translucent and some structure visible

(Plate I, fig. 6). It may happen that in an incrustation the original cuticle of the plant and sometimes the spores are preserved and may be isolated by chemical treatment. The petrifaction is the most valuable type of fossil for investigation of the internal structure but is comparatively rare. In the petrifaction the entire plant fragment has been converted into solid rock, mainly by a gradual substitution of mineral matter for the water which forms such a large proportion of most plant tissues, before the plant was subjected to any considerable pressure by the sand

and mud subsequently deposited over it. The mineral substances reach the plant by a process of diffusion from the water contained in the sediment in which the plant is embedded. The most perfectly preserved plants are those petrified in silica. The Middle Devonian chert found in-Aberdeenshire contains embedded in its siliceous matrix fossil-plants in which every cell-wall is so

Clearly defined (Plate I., fig. 2) that the knowledge of their Internal structure is practically complete. The beds of silica of Permian age at Autun in France have also furnished some very

perfectly preserved plants.

geological formations

Silicified wood is common

and a considerable

Mesozoic plants is known.

number

in many

of silicified

Concretionary masses known as “‘coal-balls” or “bullions” are found embedded in the coal of certain seams in Lancashire and Yorkshire, sometimes in such abundance that further working of the seam is unprofitable. These coal-balls consist largely of calaum and magnesium carbonates and contain well preserved plant fragments; they represent part of the vegetable matter of the seam which became petrified before the rest became compressed to form the coal.

Similar concretions are found in the Belgian,

Dutch, Westphalian and Silesian coal-fields. It is from the study of the plants in the coal-balls from Lancashire and Yorkshire \

7I

that Binney, Williamson and recently Scott, have been able to reveal so much about the structure of fossil-plants of the Carboniferous period. The coal-ball or other petrified mass may be cut into thin slices which are ground so thin and translucent that the cellular structure of the contained plants is made visible when viewed by transmitted light.

Form

Geneta.—Specimens

of fossil-plants which are suff-

ciently complete to show the connection between the different parts of the same plant, for example between the leaves and stem or the cones and stem, are very rare. It is therefore usually convenient to constitute form-genera to include the corresponding parts of a group of closely allied species. Thus in the genus of fossil-trees Lepidodendron the stems are included in the formgenus Lepidodendron, detached leaves in Lepidophyllum and the cones in Lepidosirobus, while the root-bearing parts which are indistinguishable from those of an allied genus Sigillaria are grouped with those of the latter genus in the form-genus Sfigmaria.

PLANTS OF THE PALAEOZOIC PERIOD In this great division of Geological time the oldest rocks which contain evidence of contemporary plant life were laid down. The various groups of plants present in the Palaeozoic will be treated in systematic order while the distribution and succession of the floras will be briefly dealt with at the end of this section. The Glossopteris or Southern type of Carboniferous and Permian flora will be considered in the section on the Mesozoic Period.

Thallophyta.

Algae (Seaweeds, etc.).—As a class the Algae

are difficult subjects to investigate in the form of fossils. Except in the case of a few of the groups of this large division of the plant kingdom the plant body is soft, consisting of a very large proportion of water, and therefore offering a very small amount of solid matter for the making of a fossil. In external form so many Algae are alike; they are often undifferentiated into stem and leaves, z.e., thalloid, and unless there is information available about their method of reproduction external form alone is of little value in determining their systematic position. A great many supposed fossil-algae have been described and named but it can often only be said about them that the outline of the mark they make on the rock suggests the outline of the frond of a seaweed. If none of the carbonaceous constituent of the plant is left and no cellular structure preserved such a fossil is of no scientific value. Some purely physical causes such as the flow of a small trickle of water over a mud surface can produce shapes like branching fronds and it has been shown fairly conclusively that certain marks which at one time were supposed to represent Algae in some early rocks are no more or less than the tracks of worms AFTER BERTRAND or some other animals in the mud AND LINDENBEIN which was finally consolidated to FROM (A, B) BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE BELGE form the rock. Where organic DE GEOLOGIE, (C) BULLETIN DE LA SOCIETE BOTANIQUE DE GENEVE residue is present and there is FIG. 1.—SOME ALGAL CONSTITUevidence that the structure is ENTS OF COAL AND BITUMINOUS really of vegetable origin furSHALES ther information cannot be got without cellular structure as a guide as there are other plants beside algae which have a thalloid form, e.g., some Liverworts. The Schizophyceae were present in all probability as early as the Cambrian. Marpolia spissa, one of several thalloid and filamentous types found in Middle Cambrian rocks in British Columbia shows structure which indicates that what appear to be branching filaments are really ‘compound, consisting of several cellular filaments united in a sheath. The cells of the filaments are exceedingly small. These features are also exhibited by the living genus Schizothrix of the Schizophyceae. Archaeothrix oscillatori.

72

PALAEOBOTANY

formis discovered by Kidston and Lang in the Middle Devonian

chert of Aberdeenshire is an Alga consisting of cellular filaments

which are so like those of some living Schizophyceae that there is no doubt of its systematic position in that group. Pachytheca, a small spherical algal colony built up of filaments of a similar

type is a characteristic fossil of the Silurian and Devonian and

[PALAEOZ

tetrads of spores are found embedded in the tissue In each bra The resistant nature of the spores suggests that they may |

been cutinised like those of the Pteridophyta.

Cutinised sp

are also found in the lower Devonian plant Parka, the “pude spawn” of the Forfarshire quarrymen, which consists of s circular thalli with small rounded masses of spores embedde them.

appears to be related to the Schizophyceae. Bryophyta.—Mosses and liverworts are found in almost e The Chlorophyceae (Green Algae) are not certainly known as of vegetation at the present day and it is surprising type fossils but it seems probable that they may have existed in the they are so rare in the fí is material le combustib a of deposit Palaeozoic. A considerable state. On structural grounds deposit known in Silurian rocks to the east of the Baltic. This be considered a relat must (Kuckersite) consists of a fossil-alga Gloeocapsomorpha (fig. 1 primitive and simple typ a be well may it C). The affinities of this plant are doubtful but plant. Several fossil livery green Alga. It has been shown that many bituminous shales and are known from the Upper colonies. algal small of deposit a cannel coals are mainly formed of ous of England. He bonifer Pila and Reinschia (fig. 1, A and B) form the main algal constiti is a very : Kidston cites uent of many shales and coals of Carboniferous and Permian plant (fig. 2, B) with two 5 nature age. The building up of combustible deposits of a similar lel rows of leaves one on e€ is taking place at the present day: a green alga, Botryococcus side of a relatively stout axi: ies cell-colon its of form coorongiana, almost identical in the two rows of smaller scal with Reinschia, forms masses of tough bituminous matter on the along the surface o: leaves shores of certain South Australian lagoons. While alive these algae axis. H. Willsit (fig. 2, A In of death store up oil in their cells and it is this oil which on the the plant is thi H, Langi the organism permeates the whole mass and gives the bituminous consisting of a ribbon-sl fossil the to also ly properties to this “‘coorongite” and presumab body which forked repeated deposits built up of algae with a similar cellular structure such H. metzgerioides a strand oi as Reinschia. The existing families of the Codiaceae and Dasyducting cells is present alon procladaceae are represented as far back as the Ordovician and of the thalloid body í middle vide us with the longest and perhaps most complete historical these liverworts a All plant. record of any living group of plants. In several of the genera of closely relate most be to both families a thick calcareous deposit accumulates on the outthe anacrogynous liverwort side of the cell-wall and it is in virtue of this deposit that they compare very closely with have been preserved and that some are important constitutents of the living ones in their vı of limestones formed during various geological, periods. Dimor- FIG. 2.—CARBONIFEROUS LIVER- tive structure. There is m the of some are phosiphon, Palaeoporella and Cyclocrinus dence of the presence of a living WORTS A. Thallose type. B. Leafy type Ordovician genera. Dimorphosiphon is remarkably like the Small : nous liverworts. on its genus Codium but differs in having a secretion of lime have spirally arranged leaves preserved as incrustations. M1 surface. which has al e polytrichaceus, and a very small petrified stem, Charophyta (Stoneworts).—There is evidence of the presenc walls, M. Bertrandi, have been cross oblique with hairs tive tella, of plants allied to the stoneworts in the Devonian; Palaeoni demonstrating fairl s, in Upper Carboniferous rocks in France, from the Aberdeenshire chert, with its whorled branch segment period. that at mosses of ce existen clusively the is very like a small Nitella. Pteridophyta. Psilophytales.—Among the several very i s filament fungal of remains ant —Abund etc.) , Fungi (Moulds known plants of the Lower Devonian, Psilophyton pr pletely chert and resting spores have been found in the Aberdeenshire cited as representing one of an important group of be may and establish the presence of Phycomcycetous fungi in the Middle which have certain primitive attributes. The name was gt Devonian. Some of the filaments have numerous septations which some specimens from Canada by Sir J. W. Dawson mor as Kidston and Lang have suggested may indicate the presence of half a century ago. Owing to the discovery of large mas higher fungi (Eumycetes) as well. There are several records of silica, containing petrified plants in beds of Middle Devoni Phycomycetes from the Carboniferous and Permian while F. E, in Aberdeenshire Kidston and Lang have been able to Weiss has demonstrated the presence, in a coal-ball, of roots be- struct, almost in their entirety, some plants which are longing to some gymnosperm infected with fungal hyphae. The related to Dawson’s Psilophyton princeps. The plants are an distribution of the fungus in the tissues suggests that here is petrified in their position of growth and five species grou plants higher to fungus of ship relation c symbioti the of example three genera have been distinguished which with Psilophyt« which is known as mycorrhiza. stitute the Psilophytales. One of them, Rhynia Gwynne-V« debeen Bacteria.—A number of supposed fossil bacteria have (fig. 3, B) a small plant with cylindrical shoots, about € scribed from Palaeozoic rocks but they are of practically no height, is remarkable for having no leaves or roots. The bacteria that scientific value. It is however practically certain parts of the shoots were horizontal and were furnished wit existed because petrified plant remains are found which show tufts of absorptive hairs on the under surface; while the p clear evidence of decay and no traces of fungi are visible. of stomata on the vertical parts bears witness to their Thallophyta of Uncertain Systematic Position. Nematophyton. aerial and green, Another species, Rynia major, been In the Silurian and Devonian, in several parts of the world, frag- slightly larger plant but both species of Rhynia must hai was which of bulk ments of a large plant are found the whole much alike in appearance. Sporangia are found on the built up of loosely packed tubes, the larger running parallel to the some of the aerjal branches containing numerous spores axis while finer ones are found forming an inter-lacing system fig. 2) which were produced in tetrads as in other Pterid is surface between them. In one specimen in which the outer The internal structure of the shoot is simple (Pl. I., fig. 1); preserved there is a narrow zone where the tubes turn outwards strand of xylem (wood) in the centre surrounded by a sł ion construct of type and meet the surface at right angles. This phloem (bast) constituted the vascular cylinder or stel is typically algal but the size of the fossils, some of which reach cortex is wide in relation to the vascular tissue and consis any unlike quite are they that a thickness of three feet, show inner zone of thin walled cells with large intercellular au America living alga. In Sporocarpon from the Upper Devonian of an outer zone, two or three layers deep, of large cell only the tips of the branches of what must have been a thalloid and plant have been found. These tips are forked and rows of isolated

are elongated at right angles to the surface. /

The epiderr

PALAEOBOTANY

PALAEOZOIC]

sists of a single layer of smaller, slightly thicker-walled cells and had a well developed cuticle. The stomata are infrequent and each consists of two simple guard cells surrounding a pore. Small

adventitious branches are found attached to some of the shoots and as there is no vascular connection between the adventitious branch and the shoot it is probable that these branches were

easily detached and served to propagate the plant vegetatively. Hornea Lignieri, a plant of similar dimensions and habit, has tuberous swellings at the base of

the shoots. The differentiation of vascular tissue, which forms a cylindrical strand in the stem, only extends for a short distance into the swollen base, whose under surface bore absorptive hairs. The sporangia differ from those of Rhynia in having asterile column of tissue extending from the base up into the midst of thespor-

angium.

This column has been

compared with the columella found in the capsules of the Liverworts and Mosses. In both RhyASTER KIDSTON AND LANG BY COURTESY THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

OF

FIG. 3.—TYPES OF LANDPLANT FROM THE DEVONIAN OF SCOTLAND. A. ASTEROXYLON, B. RHYNIA

nia and Hornea look something

the sporangia like swollen

branch-tips

in

and

Hornea

branched sporangia are known. Asteroxylon Mackei (fig. 3, A) a more complex plant, had smooth horizontal stems with small rootlike branches; true roots are absent just as in Rhynia and Hornea; the aerial shoots are erect and densely clothed with small scale-like leaves. The stele contains a fluted column of xylem which appears in section like a multi-rayed star. Small strands of tracheids connected with the stele pass out towards each leaf but stop short before entering the base of the leaf which had no vascular tissue. In Thursophyton a probably closely allied plant from the Middle Devonian the leaves are small and spine-like and vary considerably in size. These facts suggest that in plants of the small-leaved type such as the lycopods the leaves may be the homologues of spines or in other words the small leaf of the lycopod may have evolved from a small spine or emergence of the shoot by a gradual process of vascularisation, an early stage in the process being represented by the condition found in Asteroxylon where the vascularisation has not yet extended from the shoot into the leaf itself. The sporangia of Asteroxylon were borne, in all probability, on small smooth branches. Another species of Asteroxylon has been found in Germany which has leafless upper branches, com-

73

was clearly in Devonian times a group of plants in existence in which there was a combination of thallophyte and pteridophyte characters and, as Kidston and Lang point. out, “the facts are . consistent with the Rhyniaceae finding their place near the beginning of a current of change from an Alga-like type of plant to the type of the simpler Vascular Cryptogams.” Articulatales——This large group of the Pteridophyta includes the Proto-articulatineae, Sphenophyllineae, and the Equisetineae. The first is represented in the Middle Devonian of Germany by Calamophyton primaevum (fig. 4) a plant recently described by Kraiisel and Weyland. Thestems are jointed and have small bifid leaves attached at the nodes. The sporangia are borne in pairs on modified leaves which compare closely therefore with the sporangiophores of the Equisetineae. H-yenia of the same age has small deeply cleft leaves and in vegetative features resemble the Sphenophyllineae. The fertile leaves are forked and two or three sporangia are borne on the ends of each division. Sphenophyllineae. — Sphenophyllum, a genus common in the Carboniferous, FROM KRAŬÜSEL AND WEYLAND, ranges from the Upper Devonian to the “DEVONFLORA” (SENCKENBERGTriassic. The plant grew in the form of a ISCHE NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT) slender shrub which may have supported FIG. 4.—ARTICULATE its branches by scrambling over other PLANT OF MIDDLE DEVO. plants. The stems are jointed with whorls NIAN AGE (CALAMOPHYof small wedge-shaped leaves, which are TON PRIMAEVUM) A. Small branch. B. Leaves. often deeply dissected (Pl. I., fig. 8). The C. Two sporangiophores: leaves of one whorl lie immediately above each with two sporangia

those of the whorl below and are usu-

ally in multiples of three. This arrangement is related to the structure of the stele which is triangular in section and has a central column of xylem; at the nodes two vascular strands pass out from each corner to supply the leaves. The stems and roots have a considerable amount of secondary vascular tissue. While not much variation is shown in the vegetative parts of the known species of Sphenophyllum there is considerable variety in their cones. In Sphenophylium Dawsoni the cones are several inches long and at least half an inch thick. They are built up of whorls of leaf-like bracts and those of each whorl are coherent laterally __ WHORL OF BRACTS IN for half their length from the l] SURFACE View base so that each whorl forms a

cup

paring therefore with the supposed fertile branches of the Scot-

tish plant. Nothing is known about the sexual generation of these Devonian plants. A consideration of the Psiloplytales as a group suggests that they may represent, in the Asteroxylon-type with its small leaves, the fore-runners of the Lycopods. The branching shoot of Rhynia with its terminal sporangia suggests that the large megaphyllous fern frond with sporangia on its edges may

have originated from such a branching shoot. The column of tissue in the sporangium of Hornea suggests comparison with the columella of the moss or liverwort. The living group, the Psilotales, which compare with Rhynia in being rootless and sometimes almost leafless but which differ considerably in the position of the sporangia on the plant, may also be related. Finally, in the absence

of differentiation into stem and leaves,

the plant body of Rkynia with its simple thalloid form calls attention to the suggestion put forward by more than one writer

that land-plants are descended from algal ancestors.

It has been

remarked that the sporangia in the vascular plants correspond

morphologically to the branches of the algal thallus which bear the

reproductive organs (e.g., the stichidia in the red sea-weeds). This is interesting in view of the resemblance between sporangia and branch tips already referred to in Hornea and to the structure of the fertile branches in Sporocarpon the Upper Devonian thallophyte in which the tips bear isolated tetrads of spores. There

P| j

j

(fig. 5).

The

whorls

of

bracts overlap so that the cone is covered on the outside by their overlapping tips. The sporangia are

twice

as

numerous

as

the

bracts and are attached by narrow stalks (sporangiophores) to E A, the upper surface of the sheath of vG] SPORANGIOPHORES, bracts close to the axis of the M J/N, EACH BEARING 7 A SPORANGIUM cone. The sporangiophores are not all of the same length so that the sporangia had the appearance of being arranged in more than one whorl in each cup. In FIG. S.~--SPHENOPHYLLUM DAWBowmanites a cone belonging to SONI some closely related plant, the Diagram showing longitudinal secsporangiophores had a bract-like tion of the cone expansion at the end and each bore two sporangia. This arrangement suggests that bracts and sporangiophores may be equivalent structures and that the cone of Sphenophyllum may be regarded as being built up of a series of bi-lobed leaves, the ventral lobes being fertile while the dorsal assumed the form of subtending bracts. In S. fertile this theory receives support as dorsal and ventral lobes reveal their equivalence by both being fertile. In other species there are no distinct terminal cones; nodes with fertile leaves alternate with nodes fy Se

ry F

me

A

74-

PALAEOBOTANY

bearing sterile leaves. This hypothetical bi-lobed leaf may also be distinguished in Cheirostrobus, a very complicated cone of Lower Carboniferous age. Here the leaf is divided into three dorsal sterile and three ventral fertile segments. Each fertile segment bears four sporangia and in construction is exceedingly like the sporangiophore of the Equisetineae and it is possible that Cheirostrobus is a representative of the stock from which the Sphenophyllineae and Equisetineae have both sprung. Equisetineae——The fossil Equisetineae were at their zenith in Carboniferous times; in place of the small, herbaceous Equisetum (horse-tail) of to-day there were gigantic trees some with a girth of three metres and a height of 60 metres forming a conspicuous feature in some aspects of the vegetation. Calamites the best known genus had the same habit as the horse-tail with jointed stem and small leaves but differed in its much greater size. The internal structure of the stems, roots and leaves, is in many respects like that of Equisetum only there is secondary thickening in the stems and roots. The leaves, usually small, linear or lanceshaped, are often united near the base to form a sheath round the stem. Like Equisetum the stems are hollow with a large central cavity. Casts of these cavities in sandstone are frequently found showing longitudinal grooves representing the courses of the primary woody strands which projected into the pith cavity. There is a constriction on the cast at each node and the grooves of one internode alternate with those on the internode above and below. Two main types of calamite-foliage are known: Asterophyllites and Annularia; in the former the leaves are long and awl-shaped and quite separate. In Anmularia the leaves are usually more paddle-shaped terminating in a small sharp point. The single vein which passes out into this point had, in some species, a swelling near the tip of the leaf suggesting the presence of a water gland. In another type of Ammularia the margins of the leaf were inrolled and bore a fringe of hairs which probably sheltered the stomatal surface of the leaf. The cones exhibit a considerable range in form, indicating that several families and genera may be

[PALAEOZOI

other species are heterosporous some sporangia having large nur

bers of small spores while number of large spores. rangiophores unlike those axile of the bracts which

others in the same cone had a smalle In Palaeostachya (fig. 6, B) the spc of Calamostachys are attached in th subtend them. In Archaeocalamites, characteristically Lower Carboniferous plant, the leaves are lon and may be twice forked while the vascular strands of the inte;

faa

siie genei a ON o Pease a eee . °. ag aroe `* rI

.e. 6 s tnes anet sopo? sa ret < ye ee tate ome

SPORANGIOPHORE SPORANGIOPHORE SPORANGIUM

FIG. 7.—RECONSTRUCTION OF A LEPIDODENDRON, MARIAN BASE, TRUNK, LEAVES AND CONES

SHOWING

THE

ST

nodes pass straight through and do not alternate at the nod

The cones (fig. 6, A) are very like those of Equisetum but : SPORANGIOPHORE

long and constricted at intervals where forked leaves were attacl so that they resemble a branch in which the internodes . covered with sporangiophores. Although the presence of hete spory and secondary thickening are probably stages in the direct of a gymnospermous type the Equisetineae must be considered essentially Pteridophyta.

Lycopodiales.

(Club-Moss allies.) —The lycopods are typic:

small-leaved plants. There are three living genera: Selagine Isdetes and Lycopodium, interesting in view of their relation the Palaeozoic members of the group: the first two are ligu and the second has secondary thickening in its rootstock in tt respects comparing with the majority of the fossils. The lis forms must be regarded as the remnant of a once import (A AND B) FROM RENAULT, “BASSIN HOUILLER ET PERNIEN D'AUTIEN ET D°‘ERPINAC,” BY COURTESY OF THE MINISTER OF PUBLIC WORKS (FRANCE) group; they are all herbs, whereas the fossils were almost all tr FIG, 6.—EQUISETALEAN CONES, SHOWING LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF (a) Ligulateae. Lepidodendron (fig. 7) which may be taker (A) ARCHAEOCALAMITES, (B) PALAEOSTACHYA, (C) CALAMOSTACHYS the type of the group is of extended geological range; w included in Calamites. In Calamostachys the cones were terminal Protolepidodendron, a very doubtfully related plant, is of Mic on the branches and the axis of the cone bore whorls of peltate Devonian age Lepidodendron itself ranges from the Upper De sporangiophores similar to those of Equisetum but alternating nian to the Permian. The trunk reached a height of over 114 with whorls of sterile bracts (fig. 6, C). The sporangiophores are while above that the crown of forking branches rose for a fur! in superposed whorls while the bracts of one whorl alternate with 20 ft. The lance-shaped leaves are usually from one to | those above and below. Each sporangiophore bears four sporangia inches in length but sometimes reached the length of a yard; t in which the spores are found sometimes arranged in tetrads. In | were shed when the part of the plant bearing them reache some species the spores in the cone are all of the same size but certain age leaving a scar on the persistent leaf-base (fig. 8

PALAEOZOIC]

PALAEOBOTANY

Pl. I fig. 7). The ligule. a small secretory scale, is situated in a pit on the leaf-base just above the point of attachment of the leaf.

The leaf-bases are diamond-shaped in outline and are very regularly arranged on the surface of the stem. The leaves have a single median vein and the ventilating tissue of the leaf was connected with that of the stem by two strips of a similar iissue

termed parichnos which have left the two small marks one on each

75

were largely augmented by the enormous number of microspores produced in each microsporangium. Some coals of Carboniferous age consist very largely of compressed Lycopod spores. In Lepidocarpon (fig. 10, B), another type of cone, only one megaspore is present in the mature sporangium and an integument, formed from an outgrowth from the sides of the sporophyll-stalk invested the sporangium except for a narrow opening along the top. In

side of the vascular strand on the leaf-scar (fig. 8). There were

deciduous side branches arranged in two vertical rows on each side of the trunk or main branches: when these became detached they left a characteristic scar. In other species there were numerous vertical rows of these deciduous branches and while it is VASCULAR STRAND possible that these branches may have borne the cones in yet other species the cones are known CREVICES IN CUSHION to have been placed on the ends of the ordinary foliage twigs FIG. 8.—A LEAF-CUSHION FROM (fig. 7). The stems and THE SURFACE OF A TRUNK OF A branches were traversed by a LEPIDODENDRON cylindrical column of primary xylem, in some species solid, but in others with a parenchymatous core. The protoxylems are situated on the outer surface of this column and from them the small vascular strands to the leaves passed out through the external tissues. In most species secondary wood was formed round the primary. External to the wood was a tissue corresponding to the phloem surrounded by the inner and outer cortex, the former a lacunar, ventilating tissue, while the latter had a cambial zone near its outer limit which gave rise to corky tissue. A thin layer of the cortex outside the corky tissue afforded a foundation for the attachment of the persistent leafbases and became fissured later by the expansion due to the secondary growth within. The cones were in general construction like those of Selaginella only much larger and as in the living genus each sporophyll bore a ligule on its upper surface close to the abaxial face of the sporangium. In Lepidostrobus, cones which belong to various species of Lepidodendron, each sporophyll consists of a stalk bearing on its upper surface a radially elongated sporangium with the ligule placed in a pit just beyond. The stalk terminated in an upturned blade. Some cones are heterosporous

SPORANGIUM

SPOROPHYLL

FROM SCOTT, “STUDIES IN FOSSIL BOTANY" (A. & C. BLACK, LTD.) FIG, 9.—LEPIDODENDRON, SECTION OF HETEROSPOROUS

CONE

the upper sporophylls bearing micro-sporangia, while those at the base of the cone bear mega-sporangia (fig. 9). Each megasporangium contained 8-16 megaspores. Other spores are known which bear only microsporangia or only mega-

sporangia. It is also possible that such species bore the two kinds of cones on separate trees. Megaspores have been found with the prothallus and archegonia preserved; their reproduction must have been similar to that of Selaginella and it is probable that the

spermatozoids which fertilised the ova in the archegonia were liberated from microspores which became entangled in the spinous processes found on the outsides of the megaspores. The chances of megaspores and microspores becoming associated in this way

MICROPYLE

SPOROPHYLL

COAT OF MEGASPORE

|

VASCULAR BUNDLE

|

SPOROPHYLL

|

COAT OF MEGASPORE

| |

SPORANGIUM-WALL

SPORANGIUN-WALL

VASCULAR BUNDLE

FIG. 10,--SEED-LIKE ORGANS OF SOME FOSSIL LYCOPODS A. Miadesmia,

longitudinal

section of sporophyll.

B. Lepidocarpon,

trans

verse section of sporophyll

Miadesmia (fig. 10, A), the fructification of a herbaceous Lycopod of Carboniferous age, the integument is prolonged in the form of a sheath beyond the top of the sporangium. A fairly close comparison may be made between these two fossils and true seeds; in both fossils however, the sporophyll broke away from the parent plant with the sporangium before fertilisation took place or possibly even before microspores were deposited on it, unlike a true seed in which an embryo is usually developed before the seed is liberated from the parent plant. Among other Carboniferous lycopods Sigiélaria occupies an important position. Sigillaria had a large trunk with persistent leaf bases placed either like those in Lepidodendron or else in vertical rows. It is probable that many Sigzllariae were unbranched except for small, lateral, cone-bearing twigs and the tall trunks with the tufts of leaves at the tops must have presented a peculiar appearance. Szgzllaria was heterosporous and the distribution of the two kinds of spores in the cones was probably the same as in Lefidodendron. In Mazocarpon, a sigillarian cone, the sporophylls were curiously constructed; the wall of the sporangium had a curved plate projecting from its distal end and there is no integument. A large mass of sterile tissue is present inside, and attached to, the base of the sporangium and megaspores up to the number of eight were arranged in a single layer between this sterile tissue and the wall of the sporangium. Vascular tissue is present in the centre of the sterile tissue and it connects up with the vascular strand in the sporophyll. The megaspores are concave on the side next to the sterile tissue and archegonia are present in the prothallus in each spore opposite to the place at which the spore broke open. The megaspores when dispersed broke away part of the overlying

sporangium wall. Lepidodendron and Sigillaria are sometimes found attached to their root bearing parts which receive the name Stigmaria. The base of each Lepidodendron or Sigillaria consisted of four main downwardly directed branches which spread out and forked equally and repeatedly (fig. 7). These branching systems are often found penetrating the barren sandstone or shale under| neath the seams of coal and offer certain evidence that the coal has

76

PALAEOBOTANY

been formed in the actual place of growth of the trees from whose remains it has been formed. The surfaces of these underground branches are covered with roots which penetrated the surrounding soil. The morphology of these root-bearing structures is not yet fully elucidated; internally they are constructed more like stems than roots and the true roots which are attached to them are only very slightly endogenous. The whole branching, root-bearing system may be closely compared with the root stock of the living Isoétes in which there is a peculiar type of secondary thickening and which bears roots very similar in structure to those of Stig-

maria. (b) Eligulatae. This group of lycopods of which Lycopodium is the type are not so well represented as fossils; Spencerites, of Carboniferous age is the only certain eligulate Lycopod known in the Palaeozoic but it is possible that Cyclostigma, a Devonian genus, is eligulate, for no one has yet been able to show that a ligule is present, although poor preservation might account for that. Filicales (Ferns).—One of the striking features of the assemblage of plants found in the Carboniferous rocks is the frequency of fragments of fern-like plants. Up to the end of the roth century these were all considered to be true ferns; since then, however, evidence has been accumulating to show that many of them belong to a higher group of plants and our present knowledge of these fossils indicates that the majority of these fernlike fronds belong to an extinct group, the pteridosperms, plants which produced seeds and which cannot therefore be classed with the ferns. In addition to seeds the pteridosperms had microsporangia which contained microspores the equivalents to the pollen grains in the flowering plants. These microsporangia bearing fronds, unless their relation to the rest of the plant is established may easily be taken for fertile fern-fronds. No known pteridosperms had microsporangia bearing the specialised group or band of cells called the annulus which is part of the dehiscence mechanism of most fern sporangia; so that fronds found with annulate sporangia are almost certainly fronds of ferns. On the other hand fertile fronds with ex-annulate sporangia are known which are also certainly ferns but here it may be due to the difficulty of detecting the annulus where the plant is preserved in the form of an incrustation and the sporangia are very small. The best known Palaeozoic ferns are preserved in the form of petrifications. Unlike the Equisetales and Lycopodiales the formation of secondary tissues was as of rare occurrence in fossil ferns as among the living and no certain examples of heterosporous ferns are known from the Palaeozoic. The Botryopteridaceae fall into two groups: (a) Zygopterideae. This family contains over a dozen genera and one

[PALAEOZOIC

by the decay of the phloem and the wide zone of tissue occupying the greater part of the section is the cortex. The vascular structure of the leaf-stalk is peculiar, the xylem is in the form of a doubly grooved strand which appears like a double anchor in section (hence the name of the genus). The leaflets were given off alternately on each side of the petiole. In some zygopterids

these leaflets were forked at their bases so that the petiole apparently bears four rows of leaflets and has a bushy habit. The sporangia in some of the genera SPORE COATS e.g., Etapteris (fig. 11) have a multiseriate annulus and are comparatively large; they were grouped in small bunches on the smaller divisions of the frond. In Stauropteris the stalk or rachis of the frond had four distinct rows

of

secondary

stalks

or

FIG. 12.—GERMINATING SPORES or Yrachises and each of these bore STAUROPTERIS (MAGNIFIED) four rows of tertiary rachises. All the rachises are cylindrical and were presumably green as they have well developed photo-synthetic-tissue. Each frond thus consisted of a bush of small green twig-like divisions. The sporangia of Stauropteris had no annulus but germinating spores have been found (fig. 12) and the preliminary stages in prothallus formation is so essentially fern-like that there is no doubt that Stauropteris is a fern and not the pollen bearing part of a Pteridosperm, fos pollen grains would behave differently on germination. (b) Botryopterideae—Botryopteris cylindrica has a long thin stem 2—5cm. in diameter bearing leaves at wide intervals and branching dichotomously but other plants belonging to the same

family show considerable differences in habit. There is a simple stele consisting of a solid strand of tracheids with the smaller and first differentiated elements in the centre. The petiole is at its base very like the stem in structure. The sporangia differed from those of the Zygopterideae in being small and pear-shaped with a multiseriate annulus on one side only. The other members of the group. have a more complex structure. The similarity in structure between the petiole and the stem of Botryopteris cylindrica is a primitive character and fits in with the suggestion that the large type of leaf or frond is derived from a subordinated lateral branch of the shoot. The Botryopterideae as a group show several points of comparison with the living Osmundaceae, representatives of which family are found in the Permian. It is also possible that the Ophioglossaceae have descended from the same stock. Osmundaceae.—Petrified stems from the Permian are known of them, Asteropteris, was found in Upper Devonian rocks in the which give satisfactory proof of the existence of plants closely agreeing in many anatomical details with Osmunda (royal fern). State of New York while AnkyIn Thamnopteris the woody cylinder was solid but the central part ropteris, the best known genus, is GROUP OF SPORANGIA was like that in the Zygopterideae made up of parenchyma and represented by both Carbonifersmall tracheids. There is evidence to be drawn from closely reous and Permian species. Ankylated fossils that the type of stele found in Osmunda has been ropteris Grayi from the Lower derived in the course of descent from a solid stele such as that Coal Measures of England had found in Botryopteris, Zygopteris and Thamnopteris suggesting stems about 2cm. in diameter and SINGLE SPORANGIUM tN TRANSVERSE SECTION, intermediate steps in the process. Like Osmunda these Permian of considerable length; in fact SHOWING ANNULUS ON BOTH SIDES. MAGNIFIED fore-runners had short stems with densely crowded fronds and it was probably a climber. Large adventitious roots. Fructifications of Palaeozoic Osmundaceae fronds were attached at fairly have not yet been recognized with certainty but Discopteris, an wide intervals and their petioles Upper Carboniferous form, has perhaps some claim to recognition or stalks must have nearly Moarattiaceae.—Petrified stems have been found which in strucequalled the stem in thickness. They were arranged in spiral se- FROM ZEILLER, “BASSIN HOUILLES DE VA- ture are so very like those of the Marattiaceae that many botLENCIENNES” anists are inclined to regard them as proof of the existence of ries on the stem and ashort cylinFIG. 11.—ETAPTERIS PINNATA that group in the Palaeozoic. Psaronius, a form-genus of treedrical branch was present in the axil of each leaf. It is possible that the axillary branch is just the ferns ranges from the base of the Upper Carboniferous upwards smaller of the two branches of a forking of the stem effected and is quite common in the Permian. The stem has a complex close above the point of attachment of a leaf. The section of the vascular system, a polycylic dictyostele, except in Psaromius coal-ball shown in Plate I., fig. 4, contains a stem cut transversely. Renaultii, the Carboniferous species which has a colenostele. In The centre of the stele (vascular cylinder) appears as a small dark these respects a close comparison is possible with the living narrow-rayed star which consists of a mixture of parenchymatous Marattiaceae. In some species of Psaronius the fronds were tissue and tracheids; while surrounding this are the large tracheids attached alternately on opposite sides of the tree so that there of the periphal xylem whose outer limit retains the star-shaped were two vertical rows. In others there were several vertical outline. The annular space surrounding the xylem was produced series and as many as four fronds might be attached at the same

PALAEOBOTANY

PALAEOZOIC]

height from the ground. There was no secondary thickening but the stems were buttressed by a considerable development of adventitious roots forming a fibrous investment round them and giving them considerable rigidity.

Several types of fertile fronds

of Carboniferous plants are known which, though probably for

the most part Pteridosperms, are fern-like and bear microsporangia grouped in synangia somewhat like those of living Marattiaceous

ferns. Asterotheca has large multipinnate fronds which in the sterile condition would be grouped in the form-genus Pecopteris. The sporangia are united in synangia (fig. 13 A and A’) which are attached to small protuberances on the surface of the frond. In Scolecopteris the synangium has a short stalk with a central

vascular strand.

77

in the Palaeozoic is also slight; Oligocarpia, an Upper Carboniferous fern, shows in the form and grouping of sporangia close resemblance to the living Gleichenia. The fact that the annulus is sometimes formed of more than one series of cells led Kidston to doubt its relationship to the Gleicheniaceae; but sporangia are sometimes found with more than one series in Gleichenia so that this objection is not completely justified. Chansitheca from the

In the closely allied Acitheca the synangium

has no stalk but a vascular strand is present in the central column of tissue round which the sporangia are joined and each sporangium terminates in a sharp bristle. In Ptychocarpus the sporangia

are more intimately united and not so pointed. Danaeites an Upper Carboniferous type has long linear synangia, very like those of the living Danaea, with two rows of about ro closely packed sporangia each of which opened by a terminal pore. In view of the fact

ote

tage

ASTEROTHECA UNDER SURFACE OF LEAFLET OF ASTEROTHEGA STERNBERGH REPRESENTED DIAGRAMMATICALLY. FIVE SYNANGIA ARE SHOWN.

SYNANGIUM

i

A

J)

Nuy

A Ano A’ MODIRIED FROM TUR

,

OLIGOCARPIA

FOUR CLOSELY ADHERENT SPORANGIA

A

on i

f

,

:=

;

A sf

j

s

ose

è;

F

WGI VAAN AP 7

A

rts

Of of

e

ee

«fe

y 4; a

-

è d

is n

aa

SS fiN S

SENFTENBERGIA UNDER SURFACE OF ———

NNNNA Wher EY p>

\

aA

BN

=

Atat

FIG. 13.—SPORANGIA DOSPERMS

LEAFLET OF

SENFTENBERGIA, WITH SPORANGIA

Be

WEYLAND,

“BEVONFLORA"

(SENCKENBERGISCHE

i

VASCULAR SYSTEM OF A BRANCH

SECONDARY Woop

MEDULLARY

ROOT

SOME

CARBONIFEROUS

FERNS

AND

PTERI-

The evidence for the existence of Marattiaceae

in the Palaeozoic rests primarily on the Marattiaceous structure of the Psaronius stems. Schizaeceae. The sporangia of Senfienbergia (fig. 13, C), an Upper Carboniferous genus, like those of the living Schizaea have an apical group of thick-walled cells constituting an annulus. An apparently closely allied genus Klukia of Jurassic age would seem to form a link between Senftenbergia and Schizaea as regards the Sporangial structure. Gleicheniaceae. The evidence for the presence of Gleicheniaceae

RAYS

OUTER CORTEX WITH NETWORK OF FIBRES

ai?!

OF

NATURFCORSCHENDE

SECONDARY Woop

ADVENTITIOUS

that some fructifications, known to belong to Pteridosperms, were in the form of synangia it is as yet uncertain whether most of the plants included in Asterotheca, Scolecopteris, etc., are ferns or pteridosperms.

UND

FIG, 14.—ANEUROPHYTON, ONE OF THE MOST ANCIENT FRONDS KNOWN, FROM THE MIDDLE DEVONIAN OF GERMANY Chansi district in China also of Upper Carboniferous age has as many aS 20 sporangia in each group or sorus. It is not until the early part of the Mesozoic that undoubted Gleicheniaceae are encountered. Pteridosperms.—A considerable number of fossils are known which have in their vegetative structure such similarity to the Ferns and indeed may well have evolved from an ancestral group of Ferns by developing in the course of their history an advanced type of heterospory in which seeds (i.¢., integumented megasporangia) were produced and pollination or the provision of pollen grains (microspores) to the seed took place before the seed was liberated from the parent plant. No Pteridosperms have survived to the present day, they were apparently extinct by the middle of the Jurassic period. Eospermatopteris, a plant rather like a tree-fern in habit with large fronds consisting of finely divided rachises and practically no lamina, has been found in the Upper Devonian rocks of New York with seed-like bodies attached to its fronds. Hostimella racemosa a Middle Devonian fossil from

Pa

SER POEee LAEZ

ote] le

7

FROM KRAUSEL GESELLSCHAFT)

OUTER CORTEX WITH NETWORK OF FIBRES

INNER CORTEX PHLOEM AND PERICYCLE

AFTER

W.

C. WILLIAMSON,

IN “TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL

SOCIETY”

FIG. 15.—DIAGRAMMATIC RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STEM OF LYGINOPTERIS

Scotland consisting of branching linear stalks bore, on short lateral branches, oval-bodies which though certainly sporangia might conceivably be seeds while fronds called Aneurophyton (fig. 14) have been found in the Middle Devonian of Germany closely resembling the fronds of Eospermatopteris: so that there is a certain amount of circumstantial evidence for the presence of Pteridosperms as early as the Middle Devonian. In the Lower Carboniferous Pteridosperms form an important constituent of the vegetation and maintain that position right through the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic; in the Jurassic they disappear. The

78

PALAEOBOTANY

Pteridosperms form a large and varied group but agree in having fern-like fronds and secondary woody thickening as a normal feature in their vascular construction. Lyginopteris Oldhamia the most completely known Pteridosperm is of Upper Carboniferous age and is of common occurrence in the coal-measures round Oldham and other parts of Lancashire. It is found petrified in the coal-balls and also as impressions in the shales forming the

[PALAEOZOIC

like that of Heterangium and the stem could be briefly described as a polystelic Heterangium. The spirally arranged leaf stalks are of large size and contain a large number of small collateral vascular strands. The appearance of these petioles in section has given rise to the erroneous report that Monocotyledonous Angiosperms were present in the Carboniferous; they are however very like the petioles of Stangeria, one of the living Cycads. Another

genus Sutclifia had a large central stele with other smaller ones forming a system of meshes round it. Seeds have been found CUPULE OR HUSK POLLEN CHAMBER attached to fronds of Neuropteris (fig. 18, B) and Alethopteris. Trigonocarpon is a genus of seeds which were borne on some CENTRAL COLUMN species of Alethopieris; it resembles the seeds of living Cycads in (Top OF NUCELLUS) having a testa consisting of both soft and stony layers. The micropyle was of very considerable length. The pollen-producing organs of these plants (fig. 18, A and C) are still imperfectly CUPULE OR HUSK known. Potoniea (fig. 18, C) very probably represents the pollenbearing flower of a Neuropteris. The structures with toothed COAT OF margins were Originally cup-shaped with microsporangia placed MEGASPORE INTEGUMENT on the inner surface of the cup. Linopteris an allied frond-genus OF SEED had similar microsporangiate fructifications. Another fructification Whitileseya had large cups more than an inch deep and large SPACE OCCUPIED BY PROTHALLUS pollen grains have been isolated from them. In Telangium the VASCULAR SYSTEM microsporangiate fructification consists of synangia of from 6 to OF STALK,CUPULE, 25 fusiform sporangia attached to small terminal expansion of the AND SEED YS AFTER OLIVER mee mmm AND SCOTT AN divisions of the fertile frond. In Telangium bifidum and Telangium tetlianum, both from the Lower Carboniferous, the fertile BY COURTESY OF THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY AND OF PROF. OLIVER part of the frond branched repeatedly at wide angles. In T. teiliaFIG. 16.—SEED AND HUSK OF LYGINOPTERIS num the fertile part was at the extremity of the frond (fig. 19) A. Reconstruction of the seed in its husk. B. Seed and husk cut longitudinally and two large pinnae branching off from the rachis on either side roofs of the seams. The frond (Plate I., fig. 3) by an equal fork- acted as the foliage part of the frond. Several specimens have ing of the leaf-stalk is divided into two equal divisions. The been found in which there is a small abortive branch in place of stem (fig. 15) varies from 2 mm. to 4 cm. in diameter. There the fructification and the frond was entirely vegetative in function. is a pith forming the core of the stem surrounded by a ring In T. tezlianum the pollen producing synangia are known to have of scattered vascular strands which are connected with the been carried on the frond in this manner while in T. bifidum, a leaf supply system. In older stems the ring of strands is sur- closely related species small seed-husks have been found similarly rounded by a considerable quantity of secondary wood and bast. The outer cortex contained long anastomosing bands of fibres

MALE INFLORESCENCE OF NEUROPTERIS, HETEROPHYLLA

which formed a reticulum just below the epidermis. In Heterangium, a Closely allied genus the centre of the stem is occupied by a solid core of primary xylem and the strands of the leaf-trace

system were incorporated in the outer part of the primary xylem, Oliver and Scott in 1903 were able to identify a petrified seed found in a coal-ball, as the seed of Lyginopteris by the presence on its husk of glandular spines exactly like those on the frond and stems of Lyginopteris. The seed, Lagenostoma Lomaxi (fig. 16 A and B), is enclosed in a lobed husk or cupule; it is barrelshaped and its integument is furnished with a vascular system. One part of the nucellus (sporangium wall) is modified to form a complicated pollen M chamber or cavity in which the pollen became lodged. In structure the seed is very similar to those of the living Cycads or Ginkgo but the pollen-chamber is rather

SEED OF NEUROPTERIS HETEROPHYLLA

POTONIEA ADIANTIFORMIS, A MALE INFLORESCENCE PROBABLY BELONGING TO SOME SPECIES OF NEUROPTERIS

more complicated than any of these living plants. Kidston described some tassels of microsporangia (fig. 17) attached to small

pieces of fronds which bore leaflets of

the same shape as those of Lyginopteris Sikbomny (A& € BLACKI and there is no doubt that they represent Fig

17,—cROSSOTHECA

From BERTRAND, AFTER KIDSTON AND ZEILLER

the pollen producing organs of this plant. HOENINGHAUS!

In most seed-bearing plants the micro- Male fructification of Ly-

sporangia are borne on highly modified 879P fae structures, stamens, which are quite unlike leaves in appearance; but in many Pteridosperms the fronds which bear the microsporangia are very like the sterile foliage fronds and in this respect the Pteridosperms are primitive. The Medulloseae, another important group of Pteridosperms, of Carboniferous and Permian age had fern-like foliage belonging to the form-genera Neuropteris and Alethopteris. The stems, Medullosa, which are known to belong to the group are peculiarly complicated in structure; in place of the usual single vascular column they had several. Each vascular column was in structure

BY

COURTESY

OF

(A)

SOCIÉTÉ GÉOLOGIQUE BONNAIRE

THE

DU

ROYAL

NORD,

SOCIETY

AND

PROF.,

(C) THE SOCIÉTÉ

OLIVER,

GÉOLOGIQUE

(B)

THE

DIRECTOR

DE FRANCE:

OF

THE

COPYRIGHT H.

FIG. 18.—PTERIDOSPERM FRUCTIFICATIONS placed. The nature of the stems of Telangium is unknown. A large number of fossil-stems are known which, judging from their general structure, in all probability belong to the Pteridosperms. Nothing is known about their reproduction. In Megaloxylon, an Upper Carboniferous genus, the vascular cylinder consisted of a solid core of primary wood. The protoxylem elements are found in groups at the periphery and when followed upwards each group passes out to a leaf. On tracing them down-

PALAEOBOTANY

PLATE I

Ye she E pe

BY COURTESY

OF

(1, 2) THE ROYAL

SOCIETY

HEMINGWAY, FROM SCOTT, “STUDIES

Ray SR O2 o Po gies g Tanp

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RnG k

ty . S

ri Gn D

LŠS CoG

OU

RA

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OF EDINBURGH,

IN FOSSIL BOTANY”

PLANT oTtion

(9)

PREUSSISCHE

GEOLOGISCHE

(A. AND C. BLACK, LTD ), (4) D. H

FOSSILS

OF THE

2. of stem (after Kidston & Lang). n longitudinal section (after Kidston & Lang). E'N Frond showing the forking of the main leaf 4. Ankyropteris Grayi, cross section of stem o

me

+

FROM WEISS, “sy EINKOHLEN-CALMARIEN”; FROM (8) PHOTOGRAPH LANDESANSTALT, SCOTT, “ON A PALAEOZOIC FERN,” IN ANNALS OF BOTANY (CLARENDON PRESS)

PALAEOZOIC

BY

PERIOD

5. Sphenopteris obtusiloba (after Walton). 6. (after D. H. Scott). Renaultia gracilis (after Walton). 7. Lepidodendron sp. &. Sphenophyllum saxifragaefolium. 9. Paracalamostachys polystachya, branch

with leaves and cones

(after Weiss)

Prats II

PALAEOBOTANY

"eAR

FP

A

TAR La Be

Ry

Pon

we, >

OF (7, fl, 18, 19, 22, BY COURTESY OF CAINOZOIC “CATALOGUE CHANDLER BORDER” DUTCH-PRUSSIAN

23) E. M. REID AND MISS (12-17, 20, 21) PLANTS,”

M. THE

E.

TRUSTEES THE (1-6, 8-10) J. CHANDLER, OF EXPLORATION INSTITUT E OF GEOLOGICAL

OF THE

BRITISH THE NETHERLANDS

OF MUSEUM FROM E. M

AND REID FROM HISTORY, NATURAL REID “THE PLIOCENE FLORA OF THE

Y ILLUSTRATE MODES OF PRESERVATION AND VARIET FOSSIL TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY PLANTS TO FROM MATRIX FREED ORGANS 7-23, S FIGURE ROCK. ON SIONS FIGURES 1-6, IMPRES OF ORGANS.

Oligocene; P., Plioetc., follows the name and description of the plant: O. signifies Note: The name of the series in which the fossil occurs, Bembridge, diameters in on magnificati e cene; and E., Eocene; x 2, etc., indicates approximat nut, Brunssum, Swalmen, P. x 12. 13. Trapa natans (water-chestnut), para15. Proser1. Araucarites gurnardi, iwig, Bembridge, O. x 2. 2. Zizyphus P. x 2. 14. Fagus decurrens, beech-mast, Reuver pP. x 2. trialata, dısiacus var. paradoxus leaf, Bembridge, O. X 2, 3. Abelia reticulata, pinaca reticulata, fruit, Reuver, P.x 2. 16. Proserpinaca Clematis x 12. 17. P. fruits showing two of the three wings, Bembridge, O. x 2. 4. Brunssum, locules, 3 transverse section of fruit showing ra pulchra, vectensis, awned fruits, Bembridge, O. x 3. 5. Radermache gum-tree), nut, Swalmen, P. x 4.

seed with winged seed, Bembridge, O. x 3. 6. Apocynospermum dubium, leaf, Campappus, Bembridge, O. x 12. 7. Betula nana (Arctic birch), Bembridge,

bridge (Arctic-bed) x 6-8 Araucarites gurnardi, leaf-cuticle, O. x 125. 10. O. x 120. 9. Azolla prisca. male spore-mass, Bembridge, antiqua, Azolla prisca, male-spore, Bembridge, O. x 125. 11. Diospyros bruit, calyx, Hordie, E. x 4. 12. Ranunculus nemorosus (buttercup),

(American black Nyssa silvatica 18. Corydalis pulchrum, seed, Hordle, E. x 15.

19. Atropa Belladonna

faveolata, (deadly-nightshade), seed, Silchester, Roman x. 20. Actinidia seed (inside) seed (outside) Brunssum, P.x 12. 21. Actinidia faveolata, side), Tegelen, Swalmen P. x 12. 22. Vitis vinifera (grape), seed (ventral P. x3 P.x 3. 23. Vitis vinifera (grape), seed (dorsal side), Tegelen,

PALAEOZOIC]

PALAEOBOTANY

wards each group spreads laterally round the stele in a tangential direction and finally becomes indistinguishable from the rest of the primary wood and so disappears.

There was a considerable

development of secondary wood round the primary cylinder.

The Calamopityeae, from the Lower Carboniferous though pos-

sibly also represented in the Upper Devonian, have in the centre of the stem a mixture of tracheids and parenchyma surrounded by a ring of xylem strands in each of which the first differentiated

19

to scales. In some specimens these stalks were very short but in others the seeds are found hanging out of the catkins on elongated stalks. It is possible that the stalk of the ovule lengthened as the ovule developed into a seed. The ovules and seeds are flattened in a plane tangential to the catkin. The integument of the ovule consisted of a hard inner layer and a fleshy outer layer while the

nucellus had a well developed pollen chamber with a canal tracheids are in the centre. Surrounding the ring of strands is a J- leading to it and was much like sheath of secondary wood. The vascular supply to the leaf sepathe nucellus of the living Cycas. rates from one of the large xylem strands as in Lyginopteris and In the pollen-chamber large polthen divides further out into two strands each of which is surlen grains have been found simirounded by its own zone of secondary wood. This massive type lar to those found in the microof leaf supply is particularly characteristic of the Pteridosperms sporangia. The stem is conand is unlike the comparatively slender leaf-supply in the Gymstructed like that of a conifer exnosperms. In the Protopityeae, unlike all plants known to be cept that the pith is much larger Pteridosperms, the leaves were arranged in two opposite series as and consisted of soft tissue which in some species of Psaronius. ‘The pith is elliptical with a sheath split transversely into a series of of primary xylem surrounding it. The leaf vascular supply is diaphragms in the older condition given off from the ends of the ellipse. Secondary xylem was of the stem. When the stems present. Of more particular interest are the stems included in the started to decay these diaphragms Cladoxyleae. Cladoxylon scoparium (fig. 20) from the Middle broke down and internal casts Devonian of Germany is polystelic like Medullosa and the leaves in sandstone of these pith caviwhich have been found in this species are deeply cleft and twigties exhibit transverse grooves like and are only # inch in length. The fertile leaves are not so which correspond to the remains deeply cleft and each division has a small terminal sporangium. of the diaphragms at the edge of Other Cladoxyla are known from the Lower Carboniferous; sevthe pith. These casts receive the eral have secondary thickening. There still remains some doubt distinguishing name Artista and KRAUSEL UND WEYLAND, “DEVONFLORA” about the systematic position of Cladoxylon which may be either FROM it is not always possible to say (SENCKENBERGISCHE NATURFORSCHENDE GESELLSCHAFT) a Fern or a Pteridosperm. whether they belong to Cordaites Gymnosperms. (Cordaitales, Coniferales, etc.)—Cordaitales. FIG. 20.—-CLADOXYLON SCOPARIUM itself or to some nearly allied is a Middle Devonian plant from The Pteridosperms although they produced seeds had some very This Germany, with a very complex type genus. The wood is entirely cenobvious features of agreement with the ferns: in the Cordaitales of vascular organisation trifugal in Cordaites but in on the other hand there is little in common with the ferns and the closely allied genus Mesoxylon there was a small amount of they may be regarded as fairly typical gymnosperms. There are centripetal primary wood. The primary strands project into the three families provisionally grouped in the Cordaitales, the pith. In cellular organisation the wood is very like that of the Poroxyleae, Pityeae and the Corliving Araucaria but like most other Palaeozoic woods from the daiteae Cordaites, the type genus Northern area there is no evidence of seasonal periodicity in the of the Cordaiteae, of Carbonifergrowth as indicated by the presence of “annual rings.” The ous and Permian age, was a lofty vascular supply to the leaf is represented by two of the primary tree (fig. 21), unbranched except strands surrounding the pith, which at higher level pass outnear the summit and bearing wards and on reaching the base of the leaf fork repeatedly and large leaves, linear or spatulate in link up with the numerous veins of the leaf lamina. This double shape. The leaves are traversed vascular connection with the axis is also found in Ginkgo (maiden with numerous parallel veins and hair tree) and is also found in the Pteridosperms. Im the strucmust have looked somewhat like ture of the leaf some species of Cordaztes show close resemblance the leaves of the Aspidistra; they to the cycads, for in each vein the xylem is in two parts; the are inserted in spiral sequence larger strand lying next the upper surface of the leaf consisting of on the stem and branches. The centripetally developed secondary wood while the underlying name Noeggerathiopsis has been strand is centrifugal with the bast lying immediately below it. given to similar leaves found in In other species there is no strand of centrifugal wood. Both the Carboniferous and Permian these types of vein are found in the living cycads sometimes in of the Southern Hemisphere the same leaf for the base of a cycad leaf centrifugal xylem may where the Southern type of Palaebe present while higher up it may completely disappear. The ozoic flora is found: there is no veins in some species are surrounded with a sheath of cells with important difference between bordered pits just like the corresponding tissue in the leaf of the them and leaves of Cordaites and cycads. Thus in Cordaites we find a remarkable combination of a separate name seems unnecespteridosperm, cycad and conifer characters. The fossil roots called FIG. 19.-—-FROND OF A LOWER CARsary. The inflorescences consist of Amyelon radicans though as yet they have not been found actually BONIFEROUS PLANT, PROBABLY A small lateral branches each bear- PTERIDOSPERM, WITH THE TELANG- attached to the rest of the plant from their almost constant assoing humerous small catkins. Each IUM TYPE OF MALE FRUCTIFICAciation and agreement in certain microscopical characters are catkin is about a centimetre long TION (1/3 NATURAL SIZE) almost certainly parts of cordaitean plants. They are typical and has a short stout axis. In the staminate catkins the micro- gymnosperm roots and some of the smaller ones have been found sporangia are borne in bunches of from two to five at the ends of to be infested with fungal mycelium. From the position of the slender filaments which contained vascular tissue. These fila- fungus in the roots it is almost certain that they afford an example ments bearing the sporangia arise from between the small, of the association of a fungus with the higher plant which is comcrowded scale leaves which formed the bulk of the catkin or mon in living gymnosperms as well as in some of the angiosperms Were grouped together near the top. The pollen grains found in and is called Mycorrhiza (g.v.). The leaves of the Poroxyleae, a the sporangia are of large size. The ovulate or seed producing Permian family, attained the length of a metre and a fifth of a catkins like the staminate were formed of closely imbricating metre in width and show resemblance in structure to leaves of scales. Short stalks bearing ovules arose at intervals between the the cycads. The branches arise in the axils of the leaf as In some scales and according to one investigator corresponded in position species of Lyginopteris while the vascular tissue of the branch

80

PALAEOBOTANY

connects up with that of the stem as in the pine. Structurally the stem is more like Lyginopteris than Cordaites. The xylem of the primary bundles surrounding the pith is entirely centripetal. Where the vascular tissue to the leaf connects with the vascular tissue of the axis it consists of two bundles similar in construction to those of cycad leaves. When traced further down the stem these two bundles appear to fuse and still lower they are only rep-

[PALAEOZOLIC

sideration of the comparisons that have been made between these groups leads to the belief in a common ancestral group from which they have all descended.

Coniferales-—The conifers are the most important group of living gymnosperms and there is evidence of their existence as

early as the Palaeozoic.

Walchia which appears in the Upper

Carboniferous, though typically a Permian genus, had leaves and

branches very like those of Araucaria excelsa. Casts of the pith cavity which show the course of the primary bundles show that in

organisation the stem was also in substantial agreement with Araucaria. Cones have been found on the ends of the twigs of some species and R. Zeiller has shown that the seeds were in one species borne singly on the cone-scales, a distinctly Araucarian character. More is known about Voltzia a characteristic Permian and Triassic genus. The foliage shoots (fig. 22 A) of some species are much like those of Walchia and Araucaria excelsa and show the same variability in size of leaf even on closely adjoining portions of the same twig. The ovulate or seed-bearing cones (fig. 22, B) are built up of spirally arranged loosely packed scales. Each seed-bearing scale in the Permian species V. Liebeana (fig. 22, C, D) had three main lobes, each with a seed attached to its upper surface near its base, and two smaller lobes alternating with the three main lobes but set slightly behind them. In one specimen of a scale which has been investigated a thin pointed scale is present attached to the back of the lobed scale (fig. 22, D). The presence of this scale is of interest in considering the interrelationship of the different groups into which the living conifers are classified and in estimating their relative antiquity. In the Abietineae, the group of conifers to which the pine, cedar, larch, etc., belong, the cone is built up of two kinds of scales each with a vascular system of its own, sterile bract-scales and seed-scales which are situated in the upper angle between the bract scale and the axis of the cone and are

NA f

A

J

NA

partly coherent with the former, In the Japanese cedar (Crypiomeria) the two scales are coherent for a greater part of their length and only the tips are free. In others again eg., Sequoia (giant tree of California) there is

AFTER

GRAND

EURY

IN SCOTT,

“STUDIES

OF FOSSIL

BOTANY”

(A & C BLACK)

FIG. 21.—RESTORATION OF A CORDAJTES TREE, SHOWING ROOTS, TRUNK, AND BRANCHES BEARING LONG LANCEOLATE LEAVES AND FRUCTIFICATIONS

resented by a strand of secondary xylem. In the Pityeae, a Lower Carboniferous and Upper Devonian group, while there are characters indicating a relationship to the rest of the Cordaitales there are also features in their construction which mark them out as a rather distinct group. Pitys Dayi, a plant of arborescent habit from Lower Carboniferous rocks on the shore of the Firth of Forth, had short conical projections on its branches representing the leaves which had no flat, expanded surface. These short squat leaves must have made the tree appear like a coarse Araucaria excelsa. The stem had a wide pith with a ring of vascular bundles near the periphery with other smaller bundles scattered through it. The first differentiated elements are in the centre of these bundles. The relation between these strands and the rest of the vascular system is unknown. The lower part of the bundle supplying the leaf was situated in the peripheral ring and the upper part forked

into three strands in the base of the leaf. A zone of secondary wood surrounded the ring of primary strands but was separated from them by a narrow zone of parenchymatous tissue. Nothing is known about the fructifications of these plants. In Callixylon an Upper Devonian genus there are no scattered bundles in the pith but otherwise the structure is not unlike that of Pitys. There is little doubt that Callixylon and Pitys are closely allied. Although an older group than the Cordaiteae and Poroxyleae the Pityeae show closer resemblance to the Araucarian conifers and less evidence of affinity to the Pteridosperms and cycads. A con-

no outward evidence that two scales are present but the apparently single scale has a double set of vascular bundles which reveal its fundamentally double nature. In the Araucarineae the scale shows practically no indication of being double. For this reason and because the Araucarineae differ in many other ways from the rest of the Coniferae it has been suggested that they have had a separate ancestry from the others. It would appear however from a consideration of the type of double scale found in Voltzta which Fic. 22.—vOLTZIA; A PALAEOZOIC

is otherwise very like an Arau- CONIFER

—

caria that these two divisions of 4;,Lem, twin:B, Seed-oons e

the Coniferae may have diverged

seeds.

from a common

with adherent bract-scale

ancestral group

D. Dorsal face of seed-scale,

which was represented in Permian and Triassic times by plants of the Walchia and Voltzia type. The Distribution of Palaeozoic Floras.—We have seen that the Predevonian Floras consist of Thallophytes, either marine or fresh-water,

and we

have

no evidence

of a land vegetation

until after the close of the Silurian Period. In the Devonian there is evidence of a rich vegetation from as far north as Ellesmere land and Spitsbergen and as far south as the Falkland islands; so

that either the distribution of climatic zones fluctuated considerably or else the climate of the earth was more uniform. The former seems to be the more likely hypothesis. In the Lower

PALAEOBOTANY

MESOZOIC]

Devonian some large Thallophytes are still found, e.g., Nematophy-

ton, while Zosterophyllum, Psilophyton and Arthrostigma, also

characteristic of the period, may represent transition types between Thallophytes and Pteridophytes, but are distinctly nearer

in their affinities to the latter.

In the Middle Devonian more

complicated types appear and in the Upper Devonian several groups of a more modern aspect such as the Lycopods and Ferns become distinct. In the Lower Carboniferous the important groups are the Pteridosperms, Lycopods, Equisetales and ferns and with this constitution the flora persists right through the rest of the Carboniferous and Permian. In the Upper Carboniferous there is evidence of a change of a far reaching nature in the, southern hemisphere for a different flora is found there from that

in the north.

This difference was probably connected with the

glacial period which prevailed in the south in Carboniferous times

and which left unmistakable traces in contemporary rocks in South Africa and Australia. This southern flora, characterized by the fern-like plant Glossopteris, extended into parts of Russia and India but the greater part of the northern hemisphere had

8I

nearly all the fern-like shrubs and trees were not true ferns but plants for which it has been necessary to institute a new groupname, the Pteridosperma (see Palaeozoic section, above), because they produced seeds in place of the spore-cases (sporangia) which are characteristic of modern ferns. Some of the trees were similar in habit and in the structure of the wood to existing members of the Araucaria family, but they differed from all living gymnosperms in the nature of the reproductive organs. There were a few plants with leaves agreeing in form with the fronds of cycads, the surviving representatives in the vegetation of the present day of the Cycadophyta, a class which played an increasingly important réle as the Mesozoic floras succeeded one another. Similarly a wanderer in the Palaeozoic forests would note here and there trees with relatively broad, wedge-shaped leaves resembling in

form and in venation those of the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo). In the absence of flowering plants (Angiosperms) and in the unfa-

miliar features of most of the commoner trees, the forests of the Coal age formed a striking contrast to the woodlands of the modern world. The vegetation of the latter part of the Carboniferous an Upper Carboniferous flora of the west European type. An period persisted in diminished numbers into the Permian period outlier of the northern type of flora has been found in Carbon- which is the last chapter of Palaeozoic history. At the close of iferous rocks in Sumatra, while in northern South America and in the Carboniferous period changes in the earth’s crust, which were South Africa there is evidence in rocks of the same age of a flora sufficiently widespread and disturbing to be described as a geological revolution, created a new environment; humid swamps of an intermediate type. BrsLiocrapay.—A. C. Seward, Fossil Plants (1898-1919) ; A. Zeiller, were transformed into relatively dry and hilly regions or into Elements de Palaéobotanique (1900); D. H. Scott, Studies in Fossil arid wastes in which inland seas like the Caspian replaced estuBotany (1920-23) ; Extinct Plants and Problems of Evolution (1924); aries and fresh-water lakes. This shifting of the geological backC. Potonie, Lehrbuch der Palaobotanik (and edit. by W. Gothan, ground is reflected in the clearly marked change in the character 1921); F. Hirmer, Handbuch der Palaobotanik (1927). (J. Wy.) of the vegetation. The plants from Permian rocks are less nuMESOZOIC merous and less varied than those preserved in the coal seams and Introductory.—The middle period of geological history, which associated sediments of the latter part of the Carboniferous period. embraces a succession of ages extending over a few hundred mil- At the end of the Palaeozoic era the development of the plant lion years, is known as the Mesozoic era; it is divided into three world suffered a severe check; many of the Carboniferous trees periods, the oldest or Triassic period, followed by the Jurassic failed to survive; a few new forms were evolved, but on the whole and CRETACEOUS periods. The term Ruaetic (from the Rhaetian there was no marked alteration in the main botanical features of Alps) is used for the stage of earth-history between the Triassic the depauperated floras. and Jurassic periods. Before considering the march of plant-life Leaving the threshold of the Mesozoic age we may glance for a through the Mesozoic era, it is desirable to obtain a general idea moment at the records of plant-life preserved in the rocks classed of the relation of the world’s vegetation as it was at the beginning by geologists as Cainozoic or Tertiary, the rocks which chronicle of the middle period and of the broad features of the vegetation the events between the Mesozoic era and the relatively short which has been reconstructed from the remains preserved in the period which began with the great Ice age and shades imperrocks of the post-Mesozoic or Cainozoic era. We shall then be in ceptibly into the historical age. The vegetation of the Cainozoic a better position to appreciate the relation of the floras with which era was practically identical in its general composition with that we are now concerned to those which preceded and followed them. of tropical and sub-tropical lands at the present day. Then as now In the course of the Palaeozoic era a large portion of the earth’s flowering plants (Angiosperms) were the ruling dynasty and the surface had become colonized by many different kinds of plants; majority of gymnosperms, ferns and other groups were essentially some of them comparatively simple, others rivalling in the com- similar to their descendants which flourish at the present day. plexity of form and structure forest trees of the present day. The Palaeozoic forests were archaic and unfamiliar; those of These ancient land-plants were in all probability the modified de- the Cainozoic periods were definitely modern. ‘This transformation scendants of inconceivably remote ancestors which lived in the was effected during the Mesozoic era; it is therefore in hopeful primeval seas. A botanist familiar with the vegetation of to-day, expectation that the student of ancient floras turns to the fragif he could wander through the forest-covered swamps of the mentary samples of the vegetable world preserved in the rocks of latter part of the Carboniferous period (the Coal age), when the the intervening epoch of geological history. From a study of Palaeozoic floras reached the zenith of their luxuriance, might at Mesozoic floras we might expect to be able to connect the portions the first glance think himself in a world where tree ferns, giant of the chain of life reconstructed from Cainozoic fossils with the horsetails (Equisetum) and club mosses (Lycopodium, etc.) much more ancient pieces disinterred from Palaeozoic strata. played a dominant part, but on closer inspection he would find that While it is true to say that palaeobotanical research has contribthe great majority of the plants were in many respects far removed uted much towards a knowledge of the successive floras of the from all modern types. If he travelled across what are now Mesozoic era, it is equally true to say that we are still groping afEurope and North America and extended his journey into the ter clues which may eventually enable us to visualize the sequence Arctic regions, he would discover comparatively few well marked of events in the course of the middle or critical stage in the history differences between the western and eastern floras in this area. of the plant-world. The chief purpose of this article is to present He would see certain plant-associations on the drier ground and in as concise a form as possible the evolutionary tendencies in the others occupying the low-lying swamps, but the vegetation as a course of the long ages separating the Palaeozoic from the CainoWhole would not show any well defined contrasts. Were he to zoic era, so far at least as they can be discovered from the meagre travel into central China and to the Malay region he would be documents at our disposal. The imperfection of the geological struck by the general resemblance of the dominant plants to those record is well put by Sir Joseph Hooker: “We have not in a fossilin the northern hemisphere. We know that the forests of the Coal ized condition a fraction of the plants that have existed, and not age included many extinct members of the class Pteridophyta a fraction of those we have are recognizable specifically.”

(ferns, horsetails, club mosses, etc.) which in their tree-like di-

mensions and in other characters differed widely from the corre-

sponding diminutive plants of our own time. We know also that

So far no reference has been made to the Palaeozoic vegetation in the southern hemisphere. In order to obtain as complete a picture as possible of the immediate antecedents of the earliest Meso-

82

PALAEOBOTANY

zoic floras it is necessary to include in our summary the greater

[MESOZOIC

speaking the same for Gondwanaland as a whole. Beds of boulder

part of the earth’s surface on which we have any information.

clay containing innumerable erratic blocks, often many tons in

Owing to the difficulty of defining the boundary in some regions between the Carboniferous and Permian plant-beds it has been a common practice to employ the term Permo-Carboniferous as an admission of incomplete knowledge. We have already given a brief account of some of the salient features of the Permo-Car-

weight and resting on platforms grooved and striated by slowly

boniferous vegetation in the northern hemisphere. It is generally agreed that on the northern continents at the close of the Carboniferous period the climatic conditions were genial and favourable to the development of a luxuriant vegetation, and that in the course of the Permian period folding of the earth’s crust produced changes in the physical setting which reacted disastrously on the plant-world. We cannot separate the organic from the inorganic world; evolution must be considered from a double aspect, the evolution of the plants in relation to a changing environment. The Glossopteris Flora.—A precise correlation of beds in widely separated parts of the world is by no means easy; we cannot, for example, assert with confidence whether or not a flora revealed by a study of late Palaeozoic rocks in India and the southern hemisphere was actually contemporaneous with the forests of the northern hemisphere Coal age, or whether certain climatic conditions demonstrated by geologists in the lands south of the Equator synchronized with a strongly contrasted climate in the North. There is, however, a strong body of evidence in support of the view that before the close of the Carboniferous period, when large areas on the northern continents were covered with forests, the southern lands were in the grip of an Ice age and supported a sparse vegetation markedly different from that found on the northern swamps. In the early days of the Carboniferous period closely allied or even specifically identical plants grew in the Arctic regions, in Australia and in many other widely separated regions; the vegetation seems to have been remarkably uniform. In the later stages of the period, on the other hand, there was a well marked differentiation into two or more botanical provinces occupied by more or less sharply contrasted floras. In the latter part of the Palaeozoic era there were two large continents in the northern hemisphere, one including North America, Greenland and Europe which is sometimes spoken of as Eria; and another embracing a large part of Siberia known as Angara Land. Beyond the world-encircling Tethys sea, which washed the southern shores of these great continents, was the vast continent of Gondwanaland, formed of what are now India, Australia, Africa and South America. In geological maps Gondwanaland is usually shown as a continuous land mass parts of which are asssumed to have foundered. If we adopted the hypothesis of Wegener, Gondwanaland would have to be represented as a portion of the crust formed of the present southern continents and India fitted into one another like pieces of a jig-saw puzzle. From this compact mass, disrupted in the Mesozoic era by deep fissures, huge blocks slowly drifted away, like icebergs from a glacier, until they reached their present positions. The Permo-Carboniferous plants and sedimentary rocks of Gondwanaland indicate a state of affairs in the organic and inorganic worlds very different from that revealed by the records in the northern hemisphere. In New South Wales, for example, rocks containing remains of Lower Carboniferous plants agreeing closely with northern species are succeeded by thick masses of old boulder clays (tillites) which afford convincing evidence of a glacial period at the close of the Palaeozoic era, a reign of ice probably longer and more widespread than that which in comparatively recent times held sway over North America and Europe. Geological investigations in Australia have established the fact that before the end of the Carboniferous period the earth’s crust was uplifted into mountain-ranges and conditions were produced favourable to the accumulation of ice and snow. Throughout geological history there were recurrent cycles of mountain-building and shifting of the scenes which produced new sets of factors conditioning plant-life; revolutions in the inorganic world caused transformations in the organic world. The story told by the series of plant-beds and glacial deposits in Australia, though differing in detail from that derived from a study of the corresponding strata in India, South America and Africa is broadly

moving rock-studded masses of ice, occur over thousands of square

miles from one end of Gondwanaland to the other, from the Falkland Islands to Tasmania, from northern Australia to Afghanistan. The approximate areas which are occupied by glacial beds are indicated in the map. The discovery of plant remains in the

Argentine and in South Africa at the base of the glacial beds shows that in these regions, as probably elsewhere, the climatic

conditions were not fatal to the existence of vegetation. Gondwanaland towards the close of the Palaeozoic era may be compared with Alaska and Greenland at the present day, where glaciers and ice-sheets are bordered by an Arctic vegetation. One of the commonest Permo-Carboniferous plants on the southern continent was the genus Glossopteris (fig. 1), so named from the tongue-like form

of the leaves, the larger of which reached a

length of more than a foot. From a well-defined mid-rib are given of arching veins which by repeated unions form a fairly regular network. Glossopteris was formerly regarded as a fern similar in its fronds to the existing hart’s tongue (Scolopendrium) but differing from it in the architecture of the venation; it is now believed to be a member of the Pteridosperms (see above.) Seeds and leaves have not been found in organic union, but their frequent association in the rocks and the discovery of certain other pieces of evidence favour the conclusion that the stems which bore Glossopteris leaves bore also seeds. Because of the abundance of

Glossopteris fronds and pieces of the stems (Vertebraria) the flora of Gondwanaland is usually spoken of as the Glossopteris fiora. Another common genus is Gangamopteris with leaves on the whole larger than those of Glossopteris and distinguished by the feeble development or absence of a mid-rib: the two forms of leaf are not always easy to separate. Both genera are almost certainly Pteridosperms. Schizoneura is also a characteristic southern genus: more tobust than Equisetum but similar to the horsetail in its jointed stems, it is distinguished from the northern hemisphere Calamites by its longer and broader leaves coalescent in varying degrees into a sheath which enveloped the foliage-shoots at each node. The genus Neuropteridium (Gondwanidium) (fig. 2) is represented by simple pinnate fronds superficially resembling those of some modern ferns and characterized by the large lobed leaflets; from the lack of fertile leaves one suspects that it may be a Pteridosperm. Two sets of fronds have been called Neuropteridium, Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic fronds. It has recently been suggested that, as there is no satisfactory evidence of generic identity, the older forms should be renamed Gondwanidium, Neuropteridium being reserved for Triassic fronds (fig. 11), which were probably borne on ferns and not on Pteridosperms. These four genera do not occur in the later Carboniferous or in the Lower Permian floras on the continents north of the Tethys

sea. The Tethys was a broad sea, stretching across the world. The Mediterranean is its diminutive modern representative. The discovery in 1912 of Glossopteris and thin beds of coal by the heroic members of the second Scott expedition on the Beardmore glacier, 300m. from the South Pole, points to the existence of this plant far within the Antarctic circle. It also suggests the possibility that Glossopteris and perhaps some of its associates had their origin in the far South. With the more typical and more abundant members of the Glossopteris flora are associated in some regions, plants generically indistinguishable from northern forms. The long strap-like leaves originally described as Noeggerathiopsis, similar in size and shape to the foliage of Yucca, appear to be the foliage of trees closely allied to the common northern genus Cordaites. Similarly a few species of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron are recorded from South Africa and South America in company with Glossopteris. Other genera which afford points of contact between the two great botanical provinces are Psaronius, recorded from Brazil, a tree-fern allied to the tropical Marattiaceae in modern floras; the genus Sphenophyllum discovered in India, South Africa and Australia, Psygmophyllum with wedge-shaped, lobed leaves similar in form | to those of Ginkgo biloba (the maidenhair tree) but not neces-

MESOZOIC]

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PALAEOBOTANY

83

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MESOZOIC

FERNS

1. Two forms of Glossopteris (A '¥% nat. size, B nat. size). 2. Neuropteridium, probably a Pteridosperm, slightly less than nat. size. 3. Branch of Podozamites, 34 nat. size. 4. Fronds of Thinnfeldia (A slightly reduced, B'slightly enlarged). 5. Matonia (taller) and Dipteris, ferns,

much reduced. 6. Cycadean frond, 2 nat. size. 7. Two leaves of Sagenopteris (A nat. size, B slightly enlarged). &. Fruits believed to belong to Sagenopteris. Sa. Restoration of Gristhorpia Nathorati, nearly twice nat. size. Sb. Caytonia Sewardi, fruit. So. Caytonia Sewardi, longi

tudinal section. 9. Stem of Cycadeoidea gigantea, $ nat. size. 10a. Restoration of an unexpanded inflorescence, nat. size. 10b. Surface-view of seed-bearing centre (conical apex in 10a). 11. Fronds of Neuropteridium, attached to stem. 1% nat. size

sarily a member of the same class; also a few fern-like fronds

which are probably Pteridosperms. Apart from the abundance of Glossopteris, Gangamopteris and some other genera peculiar to the Gondwanaland flora, the most

striking distinctive feature of the southern vegetation is the absence of the great majority of species and of many genera which

played a prominent part in the northern forests. The important point is that the flora of Gondwanaland was relatively meagre and the commonest plants were peculiar to the southern province at

least up to the time of the middle of the Permian period. Several years ago some leaves of Glossopteris were found in beds of Upper

erman age in northern Russia; more recently this and other

members of southern flora have been recorded from several localities in Siberia, also remains of an Upper Permian flora which differed from contemporary floras in the northern hemisphere in the admixture of Gondwanaland species with plants characteristic of the northern province. This Kusnezk flora, so called from the locality in Siberia, has been traced from northern Russia through Siberia and north-west Mongolia to the coast at Vladivostock: it includes with Glossopteris such genera as Neuropteris, Callipteridium, and Lepidodendron represented by species characteristic of the northern province. With the Palaeozoic species agreeing with northern or southern forms it is of special interest to find some genera which are characteristic of Mesozoic

84

PALAEOBOTANY

[MESOz

floras: examples of these are species of Bazera, Phoemicopsis,

Tethys sea from the south and in part of representatives of n

Czekanowskia, all members of the Ginkgoales, characteristic of pre-Cretaceous Mesozoic floras and more or less closely allied to the maidenhair tree; also Podozamites (fig. 3), a genus of uncertain affinity but a gymnosperm probably similar in habit to recent species of the conifer Agathis (the kauri pine, etc.) which was very widespread in the earlier Mesozoic floras; Voltzia, a conifer, simulating in its leaves some living Araucarias, characteristic of Permian and early Triassic floras in the northern hemisphere and recorded from the Glossopteris flora of India, also Dioonites, a genus founded on cycad-like fronds similar to those of the existing Mexican genus Dioon. The discovery of beds containing Kusnezk species on the coast of Ussuri Land overlain by strata containing the typical Lower Triassic genus Pleuromeia indicates a Permian age for this widespread flora despite the occurrence of several Mesozoic types. There must have been a northward migration of Glossopteris and some of its companions across the Tethys sea either by a chain of islands or by a land-bridge. The genus Glossopteris is one of several genera which probably originated in the southern hemisphere and gradually spread across the Equator; by the end of the Permian period it was firmly established in the province of the Kusnezk flora and it has recently been recognized in the Rhaetic flora of Scoresby Sound, which is in east Greenland. Similarly the occurrence of Schizoneura in the early Triassic flora of western Europe illustrates the penetration of members of the Glossopteris flora into the northern hemisphere in the early part of the Mesozoic era. It has recently been shown that the Permian or Permo-Carboniferous vegetation of some regions in China was of the typical northern type. Prof. Halle of Stockholm in an exceptionally important memoir (1927) has given an account of the late Palaeozoic floras of central Shansi which are preserved in two series of sediments; the older strata known as the Yuehmenkou series and above it the Shihhotse series. Both floras included species of Calamiies, Sphenophyllum, Pecopteris, Callipteridium, Cordaites, Stigmaria and other northern Permo-Carboniferous types. As in the Kusnezk flora so also in the collections from the Shihhotse series there are species belonging to genera such as Cladophlebis, Neuropteridium, Chiropteris and Dioonites which bear a very close resemblance to members of Triassic floras in many parts of the world. Chiropteris is a genus represented by broad leaves with forking and anastomosing veins which in form remind one of the fronds of some species of the fern Ophioglossum; its systematic position is uncertain. Specimens are recorded from Triassic beds in Germany, South Africa and elsewhere. The name Cladophlebis is given to the branched fern fronds bearing comparatively short and often slightly curved leaflets, with a central rib and arching, forked lateral veins, attached by the whole of the base; species are characteristic of many Mesozoic floras but are seldom met with in Palaeozoic floras. The Shansi floras differ from the Kusnezk flora in the absence of Glossopteris and other Gondwanaland plants. The Shihhotse series is overlain by barren sedimentary beds indicative of desert conditions; it is highly probable, as Halle suggests, that in these beds we have evidence of a change from a genial and humid to a dry climate, which coincided in date with a corresponding revolution chronicled in the Permian period over a wide area in the northern hemisphere. Floras similar to those of Shansi are recorded also from Korea. This incomplete presentation of facts may serve to illustrate some of the broad features in the distribution and composition of floras at the stage of geological history immediately antecedent to the Mesozoic era. There were at least three botanical provinces characterized by floras that were distinguished by the abundance of certain genera: (1) A very widely distributed and fairly homogeneous northern flora which probably had its origin in the lands north of the Tethys sea and spread southward into China and members of it reached the Malayan region as invaders of the realm of Gondwanaland; (2) the Glossopteris flora from which in late Permian days some of the plants wandered far to the north,

ern Permian floras.

At the beginning of the Mesozoic era the prevalence of d conditions over a wide area in North America and in the World was highly unfavourable to the further development o continued existence of many members of the rich Permo-Carb erous flora. By far the greater number of the Palaeozoic sp

failed to survive; a few new forms were evolved, and some p such as Schizoneura and Voltzia were immigrants from Gondy land. A comparison of late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic | reveals a sharp contrast which furnishes an interesting illustr of the interdependence of organic and inorganic evolution, o effect of changing geographical conditions on the evolution o plant world. One of the well established conclusions of geol

is that there have been recurrent cycles of mountain-building as a necessary consequence, recurrent interferences with the tors conditioning plant life. One of these geological revolutiorx

curred at the end of the Palaeozoic era not only in the nor hemisphere but also in China and in some other regions. O the more important aims of the student of evolution is to dis connecting links in the plant world, particularly at epoc widespread crustal disturbances. Attention has already been to the presence in late Permian floras of genera that are char istic of Mesozoic floras: types, which became prominent in tl ter part of the Triassic period and persisted through the s stages of the Jurassic period, were already in existence, thoi a subordinate position, before the close of the Permian p The greatest contrast between the two eras is the marked ence in the general facies of the vegetation consequent c disappearance of most of the commoner members of the forests; but there is also a considerable difference which is « the relative abundance in the Mesozoic floras of plants of modern aspect, plants that are closely akin to living species a trasted with the more archaic and much less familiar types Palaeozoic floras. A comparison of the rich fern vegetation Upper Triassic and Rhaetiec floras with the comparatively number of true ferns in the Permo-Carboniferous vegetation a question which has not been fully answered; whence car more modern types of ferns which characterize the Me floras? The late Palaeozoic ferns, apart from the Maratt which can be linked with Triassic and Rhaetic forms are ver and the evidence they afford of direct relationship to Mi ferns is not convincing. Triassic Floras.—In a general account of the Mesozoic it would be out of place to discuss the precise geological hi within the Triassic period of the plant-bearing strata in d parts of the world, but it is important to consider the comp of the earlier Triassic floras in contrast to the richer plan munities which characterize the later stages of the period. Remains of early Triassic floras have been found at a few ties in Europe, notably in the Vosges district, on the northe of the Eifel, and elsewhere. Characteristic genera are Pleu. Schizoneura, Voltzia, Albertia, Pelourdea, Neuropteridium setites and a few examples of Cycadean plants. Pleuromeia resented by stems, occasionally reaching a length of 2 me more, with spirally disposed leaf-scars similar to those o species of the older genus Szgillaria. On the upper region stem were overlapping, short and broad scales bearing si reproductive organs. The lobed and swollen base of tt bearing numerous rootlets suggests comparison with thi quillworts (Jsoetes). We may picture the plant as a cc tively low unbranched shrub bearing needle-like leaves a higher level shorter and broader fertile scales, growing p among sand dunes in arid regions. It is one of the ra discovered in Mesozoic floras with the tree-like lycopoc plants of the Coal age. Along with species of Schizoneu large stems of Equisetites differing in their ampler proport possibly in structure from modern horsetails. Voltzia is a resembling in its foliage-shoots and in the structure of t] and Glossopteris penetrated to Greenland well within the Arctic species of Araucaria, e.g., the Norfolk Island pine, Arauc circle; (3) the Kusnezk flora of Upper Permian age, which was celsa, but in some respects differing from all recent conife in part composed of plants which had found their way across the bly in the structure of the female shoots. Albertia with its

MESOZOIC]

PALAEOBOTANY

leaves recalling those of Agathis—the genus which includes the kauri pine of New Zealand——may also be related to the Araucarias. In Arizona over many square miles of country petrified trunks of trees, some probably 2ooft. in length, have been laid bare by the denudation of early Triassic rocks; many of the stems are Arau-

carian or have Araucarian characters. Specimens of ribbon-like leaves have been described from Triassic beds as species of Fuccites, Bambusium, etc., because of their similarity to the leaves of Yucca and bamboos. It has been proposed to refer them to the

non-committal genus Pelourdea. The probability is that these leaves were borne by plants descended from Cordaites or other Palaeozoic gymnosperms. Reference has already been made to the fern-like fronds of Neuropteridium (Gondwanidium) as fossils characteristic of the Glossopteris flora; the name Neuropieridium is applied also to some Triassic leaves (fig. rz) which are probably not directly related to the southern and older examples. The occurrence of a few fronds such as Dioonites and Zamites in earlier Triassic floras prepares us for the rapid development of the Cycadophyta in the Rhaetic and Jurassic floras. It is, however, important to note that these generic names, suggested by the resemblance of the fossil leaves to those of the living Mexican and American Cycads Zamia and Dioon, should not be regarded as evidence of close affinity of the extinct to the living forms. The much greater abundance and variety of plants in later as

compared with the earlier Triassic floras affords evidence of amelioration in the physical environment. Collections made from the Richmond coal field in Virginia and from Upper Triassic beds in Austria and Switzerland enable us to follow the main lines along which the plant world was developing. Among equisetaceous types attention may be called to the genus Neocalamites which is not

always readily distinguishable from Schizoneura. It is characterized by long linear leaves springing in circles from the nodal joints and free to the base instead of being united into a sheath as in Equisetum. Neocalamites was a very widely distributed Triassic genus; it is recorded from Tongking, from South Africa and Australia, as well as from northern localities. A notable feature of the Keuper floras is the abundance of ferns; Macrotaeniopteris, characterized by simple banana-like fronds reaching a length of a metre and a breadth of 17cm., is probably a fern though no sporangia have been discovered. Fronds often described as species of Acrostichites, an unfortunate name because of its implication of relationship to the living genus Acrostichum, are in some instances at least members of the Osmundaceae, a family which has been traced as far back as the Permian period. Clathropteris platyphylla, with its large fronds divided into spreading lobes like the segments of a horse chestnut leaf and its approximately rectangular meshes of slender veins on either side of a central rib, is one of many ferns in Mesozoic floras agreeing closely with the Indian and Malayan species of the genus Dzpteris. The family Marattiaceae, now characteristic of the Tropics, was also represented by Pseudodanaeopsis, Marattiopsis and other genera closely resembling recent tropical species. These and other ferns are a few of many Triassic genera which give a modern aspect to the earlier Mesozoic floras. Another distinguishing feature of the later Triassic floras is the abundance of the Cycadophyta as illustrated by such genera as Sphenozamites with its handsome fronds bearing two rows of large truncate segments, Pterophyllum and Pseudoctenis with fronds similar to those of several existing cycads in the form of the leaflets. It must be remembered that the term Cycadophyta is used in a comprehensive sense embracing not only the living cycads, represented by a comparatively small number of species and genera for the most part tropical in range, but also an extinct group, the Bennettitales. The Bennettitales reached their maximum development in the Jurassic period and in the early days of

the Cretaceous period when they were represented by a large number of types: in the form and structure of the stem and in their large palm-like leaves many

of them must have borne a

striking resemblance to modern cycads, but in the structure of the reproductive organs they differed in many characters from all existing cycads (see p. 86). The point which concerns us at the

85

moment is that the much greater wealth of cycadean plants in the later Triassic floras than in the earlier floras of the same period prepares us for their further increase in Rhaetic and Jurassic floras. Similarly the occurrence in some Triassic beds of the genus Thinnfeldia (fig. 4), which is probably a pteridosperm, characterized by fern-like fronds with leathery leaflets, is another example of the appearance of a new type which played a conspicuous part in Triassic, Rhaetic and Jurassic floras in almost all regions of the world. The abundance in Upper Triassic floras of large-leaved species of the class Ginkgoales is a noteworthy character; the genus Baiera represented by large wedge-shaped leaves cut into linear segments and, in the more typical species, without a leaf-stalk, though already in existence in the Palaeozoic era began to play a prominent rôle in the vegetation of the Keuper stage; it

persisted through the Rhaetic and Jurassic periods and survived into the Cretaceous. Among other gymnosperms reference may be made to Podozamites (fig. 3), a tree with leaves similar to those of species of the living conifer Agathis, but distinguished from all recent genera by bearing its short, fertile, seed-bearing leaves in loose catkinlike clusters. Podozamites is an example of a genus which began its career in the Triassic period and became a cosmopolitan and abundant plant in Rhaetic and Jurassic floras. Our knowledge of the conifers is scanty; Voltzia survived from the early Triassic floras and with it some other members of the group which, through lack of material, cannot be closely compared with modern types. In illustration of the salient features of the Triassic vegetation of Gondwanaland a brief reference is made to the plant-beds of South Africa. Sedimentary strata included in the Stormberg series have yielded a flora which shows many points of contact

with the floras of the northern hemisphere. Voltzia, Baiera, Pterophyllum, Pseudoctenis, Thinnfeldia, Schizoneura, Neocalamites, genera of true ferns and plants with fern-like fronds occur with Glossopteris and other genera peculiar to southern Triassic floras. One of the most remarkable constituents of the South African vegetation is the genus Rhexoxylon founded on petrified wood; this was at first believed to be allied to a Palaeozoic group of gymnosperms, the Medulloseae, but an examination of additional specimens led J. Walton to compare it with certain species of Dadoxylon, a genus of conifers. The stem of Rhexoxylon reached a length of several metres and a diameter of 25cm.; it is characterized by a large pith with secretory ducts and some scattered vascular bundles, but more especially by the unusual arrangement of the wood, which was divided into wedge-shaped masses separated by bands of softer tissue and bears a very striking resemblance to the structure of some Dicotyledonous climbers in the tropical forests of the present day. Rhexoxylon is recorded from Triassic and probably Rhaetic beds in South Africa, and from the Antarctic continent. Nothing is known of the leaves or reproductive organs; the most interesting feature is the close agreement in the structure of the stem with that of certain living plants belonging to an entirely different section of the vegetable kingdom. From a comparison of the fossil plants obtained from South Africa, India, Australia and South America it has been established that in its main features the Triassic vegetation of Gondwanaland was fairly uniform; many of the genera are common to both hemispheres and the distinction between the northern and southern continents was less obvious than in the latter part of the Palaeozoic era. Rhaetic Floras.—The Rhaetic floras, richer than those of the Keuper series, are preserved in deposits formed for the most part in the estuaries of rivers and represented in many widely separated regions. Between the late Triassic plants and those furnished by the overlying Rhaetic rocks the difference is comparatively slight; there is a greater wealth of material in the Rhaetic beds and, though new forms occur, the general facies is similar to that of the Keuper vegetation. A rich Rhaetic flora has been described from Tongking; another equally rich flora has left abundant remains in southern Sweden and more recently a no less luxuriant flora has been described from Rhaetic rocks in the Scoresby

86 Sound district in Greenland (Harris, 1926).

PALAEOBOTANY Collections of the

same geological age have been made from central Europe and from many other regions. Though it is not easy precisely to correlate the rocks of Gondwanaland with those in the northern hemisphere, we know that in its broader features the vegetation which flourished south of the Tethys sea agreed with that of the rest of the world. This statement is not intended to give the impression of a vegetation unaffected by differences in climate; there were undoubtedly regional peculiarities, but there were many genera which appear to have had a remarkably wide geographical range. In the Rhaetic flora of Tongking Glossopteris is a connect-

ing link with the Permo-Carboniferous vegetation of Gondwanaland, and the recently re-recorded occurrence of the genus as far north as Lat. 70° N. in Greenland demonstrates clearly its capacity as a traveller. In the Tongking flora we find also Equiseites and Neocalamites represented by species closely allied to northern forms. Among the ferns are many splendid examples of Dictyophyllum and Clathropteris, suggestive of the fronds of Malayan species of Dipteris (fig. 5, the smaller fronds); also of the Osmunda family. The various forms of simple Taensopteris leaves recalling those of the hart’s tongue (Scolopendrium), may be the foliage of Cycadophyta and not true ferns. Pterophyllum seems to have been one of the most conspicuous members of the Cycadophyta, a class represented by other genera such as Ptilophyllum and Otozamites. The fronds known as Ptilophyllum are characterized by two rows of linear segments giving them an appearance similar to that of the leaves of the Mexican cycad Dioon: Otozamites fronds are distinguished by the eared base of the segments which are occasionally relatively broad. Species of the cosmopolitan Podozamites also occur. It is pointed out by Dr. du Toit, in his recent account of the older Mesozoic floras of South Africa, that while the Tongking flora contained sev-

[MESOZOIC

one another are often able to exist in places with sharply contrasted temperatures. Making due allowance for the adaptability of closely allied species to widely different conditions, and admitting the danger of applying knowledge derived from observations on living plants to species which became extinct many million years ago, there remains the problem of accounting for the occurrence in southern Sweden and in eastern Greenland of floras that are in general terms identical. What then are the salient features of the Arctic Rhaetic flora?

Among the Equisetales are species of Neocalamites in no way inferior to those from Queensland, Tongking, South Africa and elsewhere. The discovery of a large Lycopodiaceous cone, Lycostro-

bus Scotti, in the Rhaetic flora of Sweden and the subsequent recognition of spores in the Greenland beds, which are almost certainly referable to Lycostrobus, affords one of the few instances of the survival into the Rhaetic period of a plant bearing a striking resemblance to the Lepidodendra of the Carboniferous forests. Ferns are represented by large fronds of the genus Todites, that are so named from their likeness in form and in the structure of the spore-capsules (sporangia) to the living osmundaceous

fern Todea barbara of South Africa and New Zealand, and by species with fronds of the type designated as Cladophlebis a genus that was widespread also in the Jurassic period. The oc-

currence in Greenland of pieces of fronds hardly distinguishable from a species of Gletchenites described from the Lower Jurassic flora of Franconia in Germany, affords some evidence of the existence in the Arctic flora of a member of a family that is now very widely spread in the Tropics and in the Cretaceous period was particularly prominent in the vegetation of western Greenland. Among other ferns are Matonidium, similar in habit to the living Matonia (fig. 5), Laccopteris, Dictyophyllum, and Hausmannia, genera agreeing in habit and in the structure of the eral plants specifically identical with South African and Aus- sporangia with what has been called by F. O. Bower the Matoniatralian forms, the absence in the Far Eastern vegetation of Gink- Dipteris alliance. One of the most clearly established facts in the history of ferns goites, Thinnfeldia and other common Rhaetic genera is an interis the striking contrast between the present restricted geographiesting feature. As we analyse more carefully the Triassic-Rhaetic floras of the cal range of the two Malayan genera Matonia and Dipteris and the world we shall no doubt find evidence of regional differences com- almost world-wide range of Mesozoic ferns, described under sevparable, though less pronounced, to those in the vegetation at the eral generic names, which are believed on good evidence to be present day. The close correspondence between the floras of east nearly related to one or other of these plants. The two living genGreenland and the province of Scania (southern Sweden) is a re- era, figured by A. R. Wallace (fig. 5) side by side on Mt. Ophir markable fact. When we think of the enormous difference be- in the Malay Peninsula, may be regarded as relics of a remote tween the present north Temperate vegetation of Sweden and the past, survivors of a line of ancient lineage, which after wandering treeless and stunted Arctic flora it is very difficult to understand over the world from Arctic lands to the far south and east perthe extraordinary resemblance presented by the two fossil floras, sist as impressive links with a vanished world. Reference has already been made to the genus Thinnfeldia; not only in the number and variety of the plants but also in the size of the vegetative organs. It is very unlikely, so astronomers the fronds of this plant and those of a somewhat similar genus tell us, that the earth’s axis has changed its position, or at least Lepidopteris are widely scattered Rhaetic types. Lepidopieris, to an extent that would make any appreciable difference to cli- bearing small, thick leaflets with rounded tips, is one of the Rhaematic conditions during that portion of geological history with tic genera which though fern-like in habit is probably a Pteridowhich we are concerned. A possible explanation is offered by the sperm: it is recorded from Greenland, Sweden, Germany, Poland Wegener hypothesis; in the Rhaetic period Greenland may have and Madagascar. Thinnfeldia and Lepidopteris differ from ferns occupied a position relative to Europe and to the north pole dif- in the more leathery texture of the leaflets, which are more referent from that which it occupies to-day. There seems to be no sistant than those of ferns to certain chemical reagents, and by satisfactory solution of this and other climatic problems raised by the absence of any sporangia of the typical filicean type. Both palaeobotanical researches if we reject, as we probably must, the may be Pteridosperms, anachronisms in the Mesozoic floras. As we pass from Triassic to Rhaetic floras cycadean plants insuggestion that the axis of the earth has altered its position, and if we follow some of Wegener’s critics and reject also the hypothesis crease in number and diversity of habit. Our knowledge of these which assumes changes in the relative positions of portions of the plants is based mainly on external form of the fronds, some simple and undivided, others with a lamina dissected into broad, equal earth’s crust. There are few more attractive problems than those raised by or unequal segments (for example, Nilssonia) or, as in the the discovery of comparatively luxuriant floras in the Arctic re- leaves of modern cycads, with separate leaflets attached to a gions. It is clearly impossible to make any definite statement of strong rachis (é.g., Zamites, fig. 6, and Otosamites). It has, scientific value as to the temperature necessary for the existence however, been possible to supplement the distinguishing characof a vegetation composed of extinct species. We are apt to as- ters afforded by external differences by the more trustworthy crisume that a plant from Rhaetic or other strata, if it bears a re- teria furnished by the microscopical structure of the epidermal semblance to one which still exists, must have required for its layers. We know little of the reproductive organs of many of the normal development climatic or other conditions approximately Mesozoic Cycadophyta, but in a few instances it has been possithe same as those prevailing in the localities of its modern rep- ble to make out the characters of both the male and female or resentative. Such an assumption might be reasonable if based on gans. One example may be quoted: Prof. Nathorst describec a comparison of an assemblage of many extinct and recent forms, under the name Wielandiella regularly forking stems bearing it but it must be remembered that living plants closely related to the angles bud-like shoots consisting of a short and thick axi

PALAEOBOTANY

MESOZOIC]

covered with a mosaic of two kinds of appendages, the greater number sterile, slender scales (interseminal scales) with slightly expanded flat tops surrounding

similar appendages which were

fertile and bore each a small terminal seed. These seed-bearing and sterile scales may be regarded as modified leaves. From the base of the fertile axis “flower” were given off short modified

leaves bearing sporangia containing microspores

(pollen-grains).

The whole fertile shoot was surrounded by linear leaves (bracts). On the forked stem were simple foliage leaves similar in shape to small fronds of a hart’s tongue fern but with the blade divided into segments. The plants must have resembled a shrubby M agnolia, the fertile shoots being superficially comparable to the flower but differing from all existing flowers in the nature of the

female organs. Wéoelandiella agrees in the general plan of its “flowers” with the genera Cycadeoidea and Williamsonia, that came into prominence in the Jurassic period and flourished in the early days of the Cretaceous period. The two latter genera agreed in form and to a large extent in structure with living cycads: Wielandiella on the other hand differed widely both from the two

extinct genera and from all recent cycads in the much more slender and dichotomously branched stem. Among other genera met with in Rhaetic floras in many parts of the world are Sagenopteris and Podozamites. Sagenopteris is represented by leaves with a few (three to six) narrow oval or elliptical leaflets springing like the fingers of a hand from a single stalk and resembling Glossopéeris in the network of veins.

The genus has often been compared, on account of leaf resem-

blance, with the water fern Marsilia, but Dr. Thomas has made out a good case in favour of referring to Sagenopteris two different kinds of fertile shoots, or catkins, bearing spherical fruits (fig. 8A) or groups of pollen-sacs. The female shoots, described by him as species of Gristhorpia and Caytonia, consist of an axis bearing two rows of short branches each of which carries an apical case containing seeds which is compared with the carpel (pistil) of a flowering plant (fig. 8A-C). These “carpels” differ from those of modern plants in being modified leaflets, and not formed from complete leaves. The male shoots, referred to the genus Antholithus, are of similar form and their branches bear clusters of four-lobed stamens containing winged pollen-grains. The fruits, first described from the Jurassic rocks of Yorkshire,

contain closely packed seeds (fig. 8C); on the surface of the wall

near the attachment of the fruit to its stalk is a stigmatic lip (fig. 8B) for reception of the pollen. Dr. Thomas instituted a new class, the Caytoniales (from a locality near Scarborough where the fossils were found) for these supposed primitive Angiosperms. Rhaetic and Jurassic floras have long been known to be rich in gymnosperms, particularly in Cycadophyta, but with the exception of a single leaf, which if it had been found in Cretaceous or Tertiary beds would have been referred to a Dicotyledonous plant, no evidence of the existence of the great class Angiospermae (flowering plants) had been furnished by the earlier Mesozoic floras. One of the attributes of angiosperms is the production of ovules, which after fertilization become seeds, in a closed vessel or ovary, a character implied ‘in the name of the class (seeds contained in a case), in contrast to the naked seeds of conifers and cyads. It is at least certain that the Caytoniales which are represented in Rhaetic as well as in Jurassic rocks, are the most satisfactory examples so far discovered of extinct plants with a definitely angiospermous attribute. The abundance of angiosperms In some of the older Cretaceous floras and the rapidity with which they wandered over the world during the earlier stages of the Cretaceous period suggest that they must have been evolved long before they came to occupy the premier position in the vegetable kingdom. The primitive types of angiosperms probably differed widely in habit from those with which we are now familiar. Sagenopteris may be a pioneer of the present ruling dynasty, which aving passed slowly through the earlier stages of evolution reached its full vigour in the early days of the Cretaceous period. Conifers, though less prominent than Cycadophyta and ferns,

were fairly numerous in Rhaetic floras; some were closely allied to ving members of the Araucaria family; others such as Stachyo-

taxus with its yew-like foliage differed considerably in the fertile

87

shoots from all recent species. Species of Baiera, Ginkgoites and other members of the Ginkgoales with leaves similar in form and in the structure of the epidermal layer to the “living fossil” Ginkgo biloba, are among the most abundant and widely distributed Rhaetic plants.

JURASSIC FLORAS Samples of the vegetation prevalent in Jurassic times are scattered through the rocks from the far north in Franz Josef Land and Alaska to north and central Europe, Siberia, India, Japan, North America, and in Graham Land on the borders of Antarctica. One of the best known floras of the Middle Jurassic period is that preserved in the upraised sediments of estuaries which form the moors and cliffs of east Yorkshire. In its main characters the Jurassic vegetation carried on the tradition which began in the latter part of the Triassic period and was further developed in the Rhaetic period. Many Rhaetic genera persisted; some new types were evolved, and a comparative study has shown that while the Rhaetic facies in its broad features was maintained there are certain characters by which Jurassic floras can usually be recognized. A brief comparison with the present vegetation of the fern-covered river-banks and the shrubs and trees on the deltas in the area that is now traversed by the Yorkshire cliffs, from north of Whitby to south of Scarborough, may enable us to realize the more striking contrasts between the present and the past. Then as now there were horsetails (Equisetum) forming miniature forests on the swampy ground: the plants were more robust and taller than their modern descendants, though they were smaller than their Triassic forebears. The reign of Schizoneura and Neocalamites was almost over: among the commoner plants were many which no longer occur in Europe: a botanist wandering over the deltas would be reminded of lands south of the equator: ferns such as Dictyophyllum and Matonidium would recall Dipteris and Matonia; he would also find species belonging to the Schizaeaceae, Gleicheniaceae, Marattiaceae, and Cyatheaceae, families no longer represented in the British flora and most abundant in warmer, southern lands. He would note the prevalence of species, some of them unfamiliar in the architecture of the fronds, agreeing in the structure of the spore-capsules (sporangia) with the royal fern (Osmunda regalis). He would also discover clumps of Thinnfeldia probably occupying drier ground, the fern-like fronds characterized by their stiffer leaflets without sporangia of the normal fern type. Passing to the taller shrubs and trees he would be struck by the abundance of stems bearing crowns of fronds of diverse form resembling in a greater or less degree the sago palms (cycads) of the tropics. On closer inspection he would find that the cycadean plants bore shoots similar in shape to the flower heads of the globe artichoke (Cynara), some of them unisexual, others with male and female organs on a single axis instead of the male and female cones of modern cycads. The great majority of these cycadean plants belonged to the Bennettitales, a group that has long been extinct, and not to the cycads in the narrow sense. Most of them were constructed on the ordinary cycad plan as regards the stem, but the type represented in the Rhaetic floras by Wielandiella persisted under a slightly different form into the Jurassic period, This aberrant Jurassic type was described by Dr. Thomas as Williamsoniella; it had a comparatively slender and forked stem bearing scattered leaves (Taeniopteris) more fern-like than cycadean in form, and in the angles of the forked branches bisexual “flowers” resembling those of Wielandiella. He would probably look in vain for oaks, elms, Sycamores, the ash, alder, and other broad-leaved trees, though he might discover some plants which would puzzle him by the association of a strange type of foliage with flowers distantly related to those of some modern angiosperms. He would see cone-bearing trees reminding

him of the Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria excelsa), trees with shoots like those

of cypresses,

Temperate

of types

the incense

cedar

of America

(Libocedrus), and the Arbor vitae (Thuja); some with tworanked leaves recalling the yews, the giant redwood of California (Sequoia sempervirens) and other conifers. The conifers as a whole would seem familiar, though the association in the North region

that are now

widely

scattered

in

88

PALAEOBOTANY

warmer countries would afford ‘an interesting topic of speculation on the vagaries of plant-dispersal. He would be surprised to find many trees exhibiting clear signs of relationship to the

[CRETACEOUS

FLORA

Dakota and in other districts in North America of hundreds . stems preserved in wonderful perfection supplied material whi was described by Dr. Wieland in two well-illustrated volume maidenhair tree (Ginkgo). From his knowledge of present-day Some of the stems are unbranched; others consist of sever vegetation he would have difficulty in assigning to their position tuberous branches. A remarkable feature is the extraordina in the plant-world such genera as Sagenopteris, Thinnfeldia and abundance of fertile shoots on a single stem. The flowers are us other legacies from older floras. ally bisexual, some bearing male and female organs which we There were frequent though comparatively slight oscillations apparently functional; others with female organs only and w of the earth’s crust in the course of the Jurassic period which are scars showing the former presence of male organs. A fert registered in the varying nature of the sedimentary rocks—series branch ends in a depressed dome or in a tapered cone (fig. 10 of beds rich in the shells of marine creatures associated with de- covered with two kinds of appendages, fertile ovule-bearing posits formed in estuaries and lakes. The period is subdivided seed-scales, each surrounded by a rosette of steril2 inter-semi into stages grouped as Lower, Middle, and Upper Jurassic. A scales with swollen, flat tips (fig. 10B) forming a protective la: considerable interval of time separated the stages represented by over the whole “fruit.” Below the female portion was a circle the plant-bearing beds of Lower Jurassic age, such as occur in to—20 pinnately branched stamens bearing rows of compo England on the coast of Dorset, from Upper Jurassic dirt beds sporangia (pollen-sacs) with numerous pollen-grains. The stam (old surface-soils) near Lulworth cove in the same county. Beds were at first infolded round the flower-axis; after expanding ; intermediate in age are exposed on the Yorkshire coast. It is un- shedding the pollen they fell off. The fertile branch bore numer necessary to follow the changes in the rise and fall of individual hairy bracts, which surrounded a conical axis, bearing short fer species from the earlier to the later stages of the period; there organs (ovuliferous scales) and interseminal scales enclosed b were differences in detail, but the main features of the vegetation series of infolded leaves (stamens) bearing rows of compo so far as we know remained fairly constant. Ferns, Cycadophyta, sporangia (pollen-sacs). The seeds contained an embryo y Ginkgoales and conifers continued to be the ruling dynasties from two cotyledons. The male organs may be compared on a sr the Rhaetic through the Jurassic period. scale with the fertile leaves of modern ferns of the family Ma Cretaceous Floras.—In the south of England and in some tiaceae; while the female organs are of a type that is pect other parts of the world there is no sharp line of division between to the Bennettitales (¢.g., Wielandiella, Williamsoniella, Wilh the last phase of the Jurassic period and the dawn of the Cre- sonia, Cycadeoidea). The largest example of a flower so far taceous period. In the Weald district of Kent and Sussex, in corded is one described by Dr. Marie Stopes from Lower northern France, Germany and Belgium a series of fresh-water taceous beds in the Isle of Wight which produced thousand beds contains records of a time when rivers carried into a large small seeds on a single “fruit.” Cycadeoidea in its reproduc lake logs of wood, twigs, leaves, and other samples of the vegeta- apparatus differs fundamentally from existing cycads thoug tion which grew on the adjacent land. From the relics of this the form and structure of the stem it is similar to them. It flora preserved in the cliffs at Ecclesbourne, near Hastings, on the been suggested that the general resemblance of the bisexual south coast of England, and at other localities in western Europe ers to those of a magnolia may be an expression of actual aff it is possible to form a picture of the plant-world at the beginning and that the angiosperms, which replaced the Cycadophyta a of the Cretaceous period. The differences between this Wealden ruling dynasty in the early days of the Cretaceous period mz flora in northern Europe and the preceding Jurassic floras are connected with them by:descent. The chief difficulty in the comparatively slight: a few new forms are met with, for exam- of accepting this view is the lack in the flowers of the Ben ple a plant known as Weichselia Mantelli usually regarded as a tales of any structure definitely comparable with an ovar fern with spreading fronds bearing small and thick leaflets; an- few leaves discovered in strata on the Atlantic border o other fern Onychiopsis psiloteides, probably allied to the living United States of America, in the so-called Potomac serie genus Onychium, a member of the Polypodiaceae which is rep- lowest members of which are approximately equivalent t resented in the Far East and in other regions; also a fern of pe- English Wealden series, bear some resemblance to those of c culiar habit referred to the genus Tempskya, which may be a modern flowering plants; but their precise nature is uncertal member of the Schizaeaceae, recorded from.several European lo- the other hand Lower Cretaceous beds along a strip of the calities and from Montana; species of conifers agreeing in the Greenland coast on Disko island, on the coast of the ad, needle-like leaves and in the cones with members of the family mainland and on Upernivik island (Lat. 71° N.) have yielde Abietineae which includes pines, firs, cedars, larches and other eral Wealden species. A species of Ginkgoites, ferns alli genera. The genus Sagenopteris, though not yet extinct, was much Matoma and Dipteris, several forms of Gleichenites, closely less in evidence in early Cretaceous than in Jurassic floras. In the to tropical and sub-tropical Gleichenias and to fossil memb Wealden vegetation of northern Europe there were no trees, so the family recorded from Jurassic rocks, also some Wealde far as is known, other than conifers. The vegetation had still the cies of gymnosperms, associated with many leaves prac Jurassic facies at least in the main. Reference has already been identical in form and venation with those of living flo made to the structure of the fertile shoots of the Rhaetic genus plants. Plane trees, magnolias, oaks, also leaves descril Wielandiella and the Jurassic Wiliamsoniella, two examples of the Dalbergites because of their striking resemblance to the extinct Bennettitales which in their comparatively slender, forked of the tropical genus Dalbergia, a member of the Legumi It is signifcant that in no other part of the world do we stems differ widely from all existing cycads. One of the outstanding features of the early Cretaceous floras greater abundance and variety of angiosperms preserved < is the abundance of cycadean plants, a feature also of Jurassic side with ferns and gymnosperms, which appear to be spec vegetation. Most of the stems are of the type known as Cycadeo- indistinguishable from Wealden species from northern F idea; the splendid specimen (fig. 9) from Upper Jurassic rocks North America and many other parts of the world. It woul of southern England, Cycadeotdea gigantea, agrees closely with therefore, that many of'the broad-leaved trees may have he stems of some modern cycads in its bulky form and in the closely origin in the early days of the Cretaceous period on an packed persistent bases of old leaf-stalks which give a character- continent whence in later times they spread farther and istic appearance to the plant. This species differs from most ex- towards the south. It is worth while to consider in rather more detail the né amples in the absence of fertile branches. The first typical representative of the genus is one described by Carruthers from Lower the vegetation which flourished in Greenland in the earli Cretaceous beds in the Isle of Wight named Bennettites Gibson- of the Cretaceous period. We have already commented ianus and now included in Cycadeoidea. Embedded among the luxuriance of the Rhaetic flora of Scoresby Sound in east leaf-bases are several lateral branches bearing a terminal land; the Lower Cretaceous flora has been partially recon “flower” and numerous short, linear leaves. In this species the from specimens obtained from beds on approximately tl flowers appear to be unisexual and female. The discovery in latitude (Lat. 7o-71° N.) on the opposite coast. Anotherı

CRETACEOUS FLORAS]

PALAEOBOTANY 3

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_ FIG. 12.—MAP OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SHOWING, ON THE WEST COAST OF GREENLAND, THE DISTRICT WHERE A RICH LOWER CRETACEOUS FLORA HAS BEEN FOUND The arrows indicaté a Southern Migration of Arctic Cretaceous plants. land Cretaceous flora are shown by the various Jines

The present northern limits of families and genera represented in the Green.

of great importance and of no little difficulty is the apparently | anatomy of the leaf-stalk with existing species of Gleichenia. sudden transformation of the older Mesozoic vegetation, in which Among other ferns are Laccopteris, a genus that in the form of

flowering plants played little or no part, into what we may call a | the fronds and in the structure of the sporangia bears a striking vegetation that is entirely modern

in its dominant

characters. | likeness to

atonia; Hausmannia closely allied to Dipteris; spe-

The only indication in Rhaetic and Jurassic floras of plants fore- | cies of Sphenopteris and Cladophlebis which have not as yet been

shadowing angiosperms in the nature of their reproductive or-

assigned to a definite position in relation to living species. The

gans is furnished by the Caytoniales. From Lower Cretaceous Cycadophyta are represented by plants bearing leaves having the rocks in England above the Wealden series Dr. Marie Stopes de- | characters of Pseudocycas, Ptilophyllum and Otozamites genera scribed some highly specialized types of dicotyledonous wood | which played a prominent part in Jurassic floras. The fronds which cannot be regarded as primitive. It is therefore certain | known as Ptilophyllum are characterized by two rows of linear that angiosperms had reached an advanced state of development | segments giving them an appearance similar to that of the Mexiat a comparatively early stage in the Cretaceous period. can cycad Dioon; Otozamites fronds are distinguished by the The salient features of the west Greenland flora may be briefly | eared base of the segments which are occasionally relatively summarised as follows: Species of Gleichenites were the chief | broad. Trees with leaves like those of Ginkgo were abundant in representatives of the ferns; they agree closely in the forking of | the Arctic forests and with them were other members of the Gink-

the frond axis, in the structure of the spore-capsules, and in the | goales. Conifers were represented by species believed to be akin

QO

PALAEOBOTANY

to Araucaria and Agathis of the southern hemisphere, by members of the cypress family, relatives of the sequoias of California, at least one species of Abietineae, and by several conifers with leaves resembling in structure those of the umbrella pine (Sciadopitys) of Japan. With these were associated several species of dicotyledons surprisingly modern in the pattern of the foliage: iri addition to the genera previously mentioned special attention is drawn to Artocarpus, the tropical bread-fruit tree. The occurrence of leaves agreeing closely in venation with those of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum) and of members of the Menispermaceae, a family of flowering plants that is now characteristic of tropical and warm temperate countries, affords further evidence of unusual climatic conditions in the Arctic regions (Map, fig. 12). We cannot believe that the evolution of the flowering plants was a sudden event. The oldest known angiosperms so far discovered must be the descendants of a line of ancestors stretching far back into the earlier stages of the Mesozoic era. Conclusion.—A comparative study of the records of plant-life shows that the character of the vegetation was fundamentally changed during the later stages of the Palaeozoic era; a few of the older types survived, but most of the plants which flourished in the Coal age disappeared. By degrees as the Triassic period advanced, ferns of modern aspect increased rapidly in number and displaced the Pteridosperms from their position of dominance. The seed-bearing fern-like plants were by no means extinguished but they were overshadowed by the gradual rise to power of the Cycadophyta, the Ginkgoales, and other groups. The next great change in the plant-world was at the end of the Jurassic period and at the beginning of the Cretaceous period when the present dominant class, the angiosperms, began to assert its ascendancy and the floras became modified “as by a new creation.” It is impossible to follow in detail the progress of evolution during the Cretaceous period as a whole. The important point is that at the beginning of the period flowering plants were small in number or entirely absent; this is the conclusion based on the very incomplete data at present available. In the Lower Cretaceous floras of Greenland, North America, Bohemia and Sakhalin Island in which dicotyledons first appear in quantity there were also several representatives of gymnosperms and ferns which had survived from the Jurassic period. As we ascend to the higher divisions of the Cretaceous period the floras become more modern and the chief differences between them and those of our own day are geographical rather than botanical. The floras of North America and Europe, for example, agree much more closely with present-day floras in sub-tropical or even tropical lands than with the plant associations which now occupy the territory where the fossils have been found. The problem of climatic change raised by the Cretaceous vegetation of Greenland has still to be solved. On the accompanying map (fig. 12) the northern limit of distribution of some of the families and genera is roughly shown. If we assume that the Greenland Cretaceous species grew under conditions similar to those which govern the life of their presentday relatives, it follows that the climate must have been at least as warm as that in the Mediterranean region at the present time. It is certain that the Cretaceous vegetation could not have endured the hardships imposed on the present Arctic floras; but it is by no means certain that extinct species of living genera could not have existed under conditions which would be fatal to their modern descendants. The past is in many respects the key to the present; but it is dangerous to carry this principle too far. From the broken fragments of plants preserved in the sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic periods we have been able to reconstruct a few of the links in the middle portion of the chain of life and to follow the varying fortunes of certain groups and families through successive ages. The history of the plant-world may be compared with that of human races; for a time one race holds sway over a widening territory unchecked by serious competitors until, with apparent suddenness, a more efficient stock asserts itself and the balance of power is disturbed. In the contrast between the vegetation of the Cretaceous period and that characteristic of the earlier stages of the Mesozoic era we have one of the most impressive illustrations of the revolutionary aspect

[TERTIARY

of evolution presented by the records of the rocks. BrBLroGRAPHY.—Books of a more general character, text-books, etc,, are indicated by an asterisk. E. A. N. Arber, ‘“The Glossopteris Flora,” Brit. Mus. Cat. (1905); E. W. Berry, “Palaeobotany, a Sketch of the Origin and Evolution of Floras,” Smithsonian Report for 1918

(Washington, 1920); A. P. Coleman, Ice Ages Recent and Ancienj* (London, 1926); A. L. du Toit, The Geology of South Africas (London and Edinburgh, 1926); “The Fossil Flora of the Upper

Karroo Beds,” Ann. S. Afr. Mus. (1927), bibliography, of South African Triassic Halle, “Palaeozoic Plants from Central Surv. China (Peking, 1927), a very well

an illustrated account with and Rhaetic floras; T. G. Shansi,” Pal. Sinica Geol. illustrated volume in which

references to literature are given; T. M. Harris, “The Rhaetic Flora of Scoresby Sound, East Greenland,” Meddelelser om Grønland (Copenhagen, 1926) ; F. H. Knowlton, Plants of the Past* (Princeton,

1927), a popular account; A. Kryshtofovitch, “Pleuromeia and Hausmannia in Eastern Siberia,” Amer. Journ. Sci. (1923); D. H. Scott,

Studies in Fossil Botany* (vol. i., 1920; vol. il, 1923), special attention to Palaeozoic plants; Extinct Plants and Problems of Evolution* (London, 1924), a more general and less technical book;

A. C. Seward, Fossil Plants for Students of Botany and Geology3

4 vols. (1898-1919), with bibliographies Links with the Past in the Plant World* account of some existing plants closely “A Study in Contrasts; the Present and

and descriptions of genera: (Cambridge, 1925), a popular related to Mesozoic types; Past Distribution of Certain

Ferns,” Journ. Linn. Soc. (1922); “The Later Records of Plant Life,”

Pres. Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (London, 1924); “Antarctic Fossil Plants,” Brit. Antarct. (Terra Nova) Expedit., roro, Nat. Hist. Rep. (London, 1914); “The Jurassic Flora,” Brit. Mus. Cat. (190004) ; “The Wealden Flora,” Brit. Mus. Cat. (1894~95) ; “Contributions to our Knowledge of Wealden Floras,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (London, 1913); “The Cretaceous Plant-bearing Rocks of Western Greenland,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1926); M. C. Stopes, “The Cretaceous Flora,” Brit. Mus. Cat. (London, 1913-15); “New Bennettitean Cones from the British Cretaceous,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1918); C. A. Siissmilch, An Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales (Sydney, 1922); H. Hamshaw Thomas, “The Caytonialies,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1925); “On Wéilliamsoniella, a new type of Bennettitalean Flower,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1915); H. H. Thomas and N. Bancroft, “The Cuticles of some Recent and Fossil Cycadean Fronds,” Trans. Linn. Soc. (London, 1913), a description of cycadean fronds based on the characteristics of the epidermal layer; D. N. Wadia, Geology of India for Students* (London, 1919); J. Walton, “On Rhexoxylon, Bancroft,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1923); Lester F. Ward, “Status of the Mesozoic Floras of the United States,” 2zoth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv. (1900) and Monogr, U.S. Geol. Surv. (1905), these two volumes contain illustrated accounts of North American Mesozoic floras, written by several authors; A. Wegener, The Origin of Continents and Oceans* (London, 1924) ; G. R. Wieland, American Fossil Cycads (Washington, 1906-16); J. L. Willis, “The Fossiliferous Lower Keuper Rocks of Worcestershire,” Proc. Geol. Assoc. (London, 1910), a description of some of the few Triassic plants from England.

(A. C. Se.)

TERTIARY PLANTS Introduction.—The great geological divisions into Primary, Secondary and Tertiary eras are based chiefly upon the observations of marine strata and marine organisms. The reason for this classification lies in the fact that oceans are more continuous than land, and sea organisms therefore present a more universal basis for classification than land organisms. But changes in land life do not always coincide with changes in marine life, and for this reason a different grouping of geological periods is better for the study of plants. The last great phase in the development of plant life is the coming in of flowering plants. Tertiary botany is chiefly concerned with the history of these; but for their origin

we must go back to the Cretaceous. With the advent of flowering plants the age of world-wide floras is left behind. From this time onwards plants are grouped into localized floras comparable with those of the present day. Mode of Occurrence of the Plants.—Hardly ever has 4 whole fossil plant been found with its parts in association. Not uncommonly fruits containing seeds, and leaves attached to stems occur. Thus material available for the study of Tertiary plants is fragmentary. Most of the determinations are based on leaves, fruits and seeds, but there are notable exceptions. In the Baltic amber various delicate organs are preserved. Pollen has chiefly been studied from the Quaternary peat of northern Europe. , Tertiary and Quaternary plant deposits are formed in various ways. Sometimes the portions of the plants are embedded in the silts of ancient lakes, as in central France, Switzerland, and the

TERTIARY]

PALAEOBOTANY

Rocky mountains; sometimes in the silts of rivers, as in the beds formed by the old Rhine; or sometimes in the brackish water

QI

determinations only. But on the exact comparison with living plants depends our knowledge of the relation of fossil species to silts of estuaries, as in the beds of the Hampshire (England) living ones. coast. Again plant deposits may be the accumulations of swamps, Scope of the Study of Tertiary Plants.—Tertiary plants e.g., the brown coal of Germany; or of successive layers of vege- furnish some of the later chapters in the history of living plants, tation occupying the same spot, like the peat of northern Europe. and of the world; the latest of all being found in the Quaternary. Yet again plants may be buried by volcanic ejecta, as has hap- They give the most reliable information obtainable about the pened in Scotland, Ireland and central France. Or they may have ancestors of the living forms; where they lived and what their become entangled in resin, as has happened in the case of the various organs were like. That is to say, what changes in disBaltic amber. It is from such scattered information, overlapping tribution and structure they have undergone, or, on the other now in one place, now in another, that the history of Tertiary hand, what stability they may show. They give also the best inplant life in Europe is pieced together. Whatever the mode of formation obtainable as to past climate. origin, there are corresponding differences in the kind of matrix, In the early stages of the périod we can trace no living species, in the parts of the plant preserved, and, generally, in the com- but some species are sufficiently close to living ones to be placed ponents of the floras. in living genera. Others which cannot be placed in living genera Leaves usually occur in fine clay or tufa, and most frequently may yet be placed in living families. Nevertheless, until the close as mere impressions showing more or less clearly the form and of the Tertiary period, plants constantly occur whose living relanervation; but, in the case of coniferous and evergreen leaves, tions have not been discovered. Whether this is because the not infrequently part of the carbonized leaf itself is preserved plants have become extinct and left no link with the present, or covered by its tough cuticle. Delicate winged and pappus-bear- because our knowledge of living plants is inadequate to trace their ing fruits and seeds also occur in fine clays. Other fruits and relations is difficult to tell. Probably both causes operate. It is seeds, also wood, are found embedded in coarse material such as certain, however, that old forms more remote from the living sandy clays, sands and loam, and in peat. Usually if carbonaceous have yielded place to newer forms closer to the living; so that substance is present, it is impregnated with mineral matter. If, by the end of the Tertiary period (latest Pliocene) all known as is common, this is Iron pyrites, the close intermixture of hard fossil floras are composed, almost exclusively, of living species, pyrites with rotten carbonaceous matter makes it difficult to although the geographical distribution of these may have changed examine the objects by sectioning. Sometimes the carbonaceous in the interval. substance is entirely replaced by silica or calcite, when sectioning The study of a succession of floras in a given region, say becomes possible. western Europe, shows clearly that changes occur in their comMethods of Study.—Different organs being differently pre- ponents from age to age. Further, that the components of the served, each part of the plant requires a special method of study. successive floras are related to those of living localized floras; Leaf impressions require no preliminary treatment beyond ex- now to a tropical, now to a warm-temperate flora, and so on. posing any part concealed. When the leaf-blade is preserved, a But living plants are grouped into localized floras largely fragment must be chipped off with a knife and, by treatment under the influence of climate. Adverse climatic conditions will with nitric acid and chlorate of potash followed by ammonia, the kill developed, z.e., rooted, plants. Whole species, or even genera cuticle can be isolated, mounted on a microscope slide, studied would be killed out, were it not that plants have an inherent power and photographed. Winged and pappus-bearing fruits and seeds of movement in their embryo stage—the seeding stage. If the must be studied in the same way. Other fruits and seeds are members of a species can cast their seed beyond the range of isolated by disintegrating the matrix. This may be done by boil- the adverse conditions, that species may survive. If not, it must ing the seed-bearing material in a strong soda solution, or warm- die. But for survival, the change of climate must not overtake ing in a 10% solution of nitric acid over a water bath. The dis- its rate of travel, and there must be a suitable habitat within solved matrix is then strained off through sieves, leaving the reach. That plants continually try to occupy fresh ground is fossils behind. These can be examined as free entities. In the shown by the rapidity with which they spring up on waste land investigation of pollen grains the material is boiled with a 10% (Krakatoa after the earthquake, Flanders during the war). That solution of caustic potash. Wood, being large, is usually picked they fail to establish themselves, if the ground is already occupied out of the matrix with a knife or other instrument, and, if possi- by a healthy population, is shown by the rarity with which introble, sectioned and studied microscopically. duced plants are able to establish themselves among a native flora. The number of living species is so great, and the required It is largely by movement under changing climate that in process knowledge so detailed, that rarely does a worker attempt more of time plants have been grouped into the existing local floras. than one branch of the study. All workers have one initial need Under a change from heat to cold the movement will be from in common—as complete a collection as possible of those parts higher to lower latitudes and from higher to lower altitudes. Under of the living plant they wish to study. Ideally, all living species a change from cold to heat it will be in the reverse directions. should find place in the collection, and the material should be In considering the results which have accrued from the study of arranged so as best to suit the particular branch of study. The Tertiary plants, we propose to divide the subject under three arrangement of public herbaria is usually not very suitable for heads belonging to the three great geographical regions in conpalaeobotany. The reason lies in the method of classification of nection with which most of the work on Tertiary plants has been living plants. This is based principally on the arrangement of the carried out. These regions are Europe, North America and the floral organs, although other organs play a subsidiary part. In Arctic. The work on the Tertiary plants of all other parts of the consequence all collections of dried plants, and all books dealing world is, as yet, too scattered and too scanty to admit of treatwith classification, are arranged on this basis, and afford no ready ment in a short article. Space does not permit of more than a key to the palaeobotanist, as they do to the botanist. For the general indication of the characters of the floras which succeeded former the organs he studies have always to be re-classified. All one another in the three regions during the long Tertiary ages— great herbaria provide abundant material for the study of leaves, probably some tens of millions of years. For fuller knowledge but not for that of other organs. Fruits and seeds are badly repre- readers must consult the bibliography. Much of the older work sented, and there is great need for better collecting of these needs revision, chiefly because the knowledge of the plants of the organs. Far East—yjust those with which Tertiary plants are most closely Either from collections or illustrations, the student must gather allied—has increased so greatly during this century. In view of all possible material for comparison. But the living material is this increase in knowledge we illustrate the fossil floras of the the most important. He must examine the fossil and living part various periods, where we can, by the latest work, provided the m detail, using the microscope. Stress is laid on the comparison floras are large and their age well established. There is an addiwith living material, for sometimes palaeobotanists have been tional advantage in so doing because the later works give refercontent to follow the easier course of comparing with previous ences to the more important older works.

PALAEOBOTANY

92 Typical Plani Deposits

Europe

| Upper Cretaceous, and indicates similar warm-temperate or sub-

tropical conditions. Count G. de Saporta recorded from Gelinden, near Liége, species of oak, chestnut, laurel, cinnamon, camphor,

America, Am.; Arctic, A

a=Bas}

Litsea and Persea; also members of the Araliaceae, Meenisperma-

S | Roman, Celtic, etc.

ceaé, Celastraceae and Myrtaceae families. From tufa formed by

an. ancient waterfall at Sezanne he recorded, besides a profusion

o

of ferns, genera of Lauraceae, Tiliaceae, M eliaceae, Sterculiaceae;

D 3 Peat of north Europe S© | ‘3 | Dogger Bank peat, “Subo a

3

Z

5 7

merged Forests

5 Post-glacial, arctic = Q | Interglacial, warm

PEE EL ASE EAA Eastern Canada and eastern U.S.A.

S

& | Preglacial, arctic Cromer Forest bed Mougoudo, Reuver

Citronelle, Am.

Pliocene

also Symplocos, Artocarpus (the bread--fruit), M agnolia, hazel, alder, willow, viburnum, cornel, fig,ivy and vine; but nearly all the European genera show an exotic character. From the Paleocene near Paris, Watelet recorded Araucaria, bamboo and palms. Later in age are the Woolwich and Reading series of England l from which a small but interesting flora suggests a rather more temperate climate than that which preceded or followed it. Leaves of plane are abundant, and among the plants recorded are Robinia, a palm, two figs and a laurel. C. von Ettingshausen and J. Starkie Gardner who worked on the beds, recorded two ferns, Aneimia and Pteris; and two gymnosperms, Libocedrus, related to

the American L. decurrens, and a species of swamp cypress,

o

fa S

>

oa

qo

Q

S

D

Brown Coal, Oeningen

g | Aix

m j g

a

Florissant, Am.

Catahoula,

Bembridge, Baltic amber

Bluff, Am.

Am;

Alum

o | Hordle J Bournemouth, London clay | Green River, Am. A

[EUROPEAN PLANTS

Sezanne, Gelinden

Plant beds of Saxony, Bohemia, Portugal

Wilcox, Am.; Spitzbergen, Greenland, A.

Laramie, Am. Dakota, Am.; Potomac, Am.; Kome, A.

Secondary Cretaceous

CRETACEOUS

AND

TERTIARY

PLANTS

OF EUROPE

The plant deposits of Europe, though numerous, are usually of limited extent and confined to small areas. When intercalated with marine beds the geological age may be clear; but frequently this does not happen, and then the age is doubtful, unless the de-

posits contain the remains of land animals, which sometimes help in correlation. Cretaceous.—Flowering plants when they appear in Lower Cretaceous rocks, are represented, in Europe, by a few scattered specimens of very doubtful affinity; a few species represented by leaves, from Portugal, or wood, from England and so forth. As time progresses the remains become more frequent, but floras still retain their predominant Secondary character. By the Upper Cretaceous, flowering plants begin to dominate, and from various parts of central Europe a considerable number of species have been recorded. In Bohemia, besides conifers and ferns, there occur many dicotyledons. Credneria is a genus of unknown affinity, but other plants have been referred to living genera. Such are Myrica, Ficus, Quercus, Eucalyptus, Pisonia, Phillyrea, Rhus, Prunus, Bignonia, Laurus, Salix, Benthamia. But without the evidence of fruits or flowers in support, it is difficult to believe that so many living genera existed. After the Cretaceous there was an interval of unknown duration not represented by deposits in Europe. The Tertiary period which followed witnessed great changes in the physical geography of the continent. The great mountain-chains which span Eurasia were uplifted. As we shall see later this has had an enormous influence on the plant life of these regions ever since. In addition to mountain-building, there was also great volcanic activity in various parts. It is customary to divide the Tertiary into four periods: Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene.

Eocene.—The

earliest Eocene, the Paleocene, is not repre-

sented in Britain, but is found on the Continent in the north-east of France, and in Belgium. The flora is still close to that of the

Taxodium europaeum. The Oldhaven beds which follow have yielded fig and cinnamon. None of these beds have as yet been fully investigated, and the evidence is too scanty for a correct inference as to climate. The deposit next in age in England to which we must refer is the London Clay. It is the most important plant bed of Lower Eocene age in Europe. The fruits and seeds are very abundant

and beautifully preserved. For more than two centuries they have attracted attention. In 1840 Dr. James Scott Bowerbank published an admirable study of some of them, but the work was never finished. His botanical knowledge was inadequate to allow him to determine the species. In 1879 Ettingshausen made a very hurried study of Bowerbank’s material, and published a list of plants, but without any evidence to support his determinations. Critical examination of the same material by the writers, who are now engaged upon its study, proves that his work was faulty in the extreme and valueless. The work of revision is not completed, but it may be stated that, with the exception of a few representatives of sub-tropical genera, the affinity of all is tropical. scarcely any of the genera have living representatives in Europe. The Nipa palm was one of the commonest species. In the present era it abounds on the margins of estuaries and lagoons in the tropics of east Asia. Other palms are common, and families wholly tropical find representation. It can scarcely be doubted that the climate of Britain was tropical, or nearly so, when the London Clay was deposited. Similar evidence of tropical conditions comes from the Paris basin where, amongst other plants, numerous palms occur, including Nipa; Ottelia, a tropical water-plant of the Old World is also found. Saporta pointed out the further evidence for tropical conditions shown by the scarcity of caducous leaves, an absence which indicates the non-occurrence of seasonal changes. The middle Eocene of the Bournemouth beds (Hampshire) still shows something of a tropical character. The flora is as yet incompletely known, but Dr. Helena Bandulska has begun in connection with it, one of the few systematic studies of leaf-cuticles that has been made. Isolated cuticles have frequently been studied, but the systematic examination of living species is but begun. It may prove of great value. The Nipa palm (determined from fruits) flourished, also such tropical genera as Aniba, Litsea and Neolitsea; but somewhat cooler conditions may be evidenced by Lindera and Nothofagus. Gardner and Ettingshausen had previously recorded many ferns, also conifers including Araucarites. We must draw attention to a curious and important fact. It has been noted that the flora of the London clay was exotic. All Tertiary floras continued to be so in a large degree until towards the end of the period. At first even the families were mainly exotic. Gradually European families came in, but the relationship of the genera was exotic. Then European genera began to appear, but the relationship of the species was exotic. Lastly, at the end of the Pliocene the whole flora was transformed to one of European

species. Stated in another way: A flora of European relationship gradually replaced one of exotic relationship, which died out.

EUROPEAN PLANTS]

PALAEOBOTANY

The relationship of the dying flora is very remarkable.

In the

Eocene it was more or less world-wide, but with a marked leaning

to plants of the Far East. In floras later than the Eocene the relationship contracts. African affinities nearly disappear. Plants with relations in the Far East predominate. Next in order come North American and Mediterranean plants; then Australian, in spite of the fact that the Far East and America are so far, and the Mediterranean so near. Yet another way of stating the same fact

is, that a type of flora which was gradually killed out in Europe, survived largely in the Far East and in America, and only in a

very small degree in the Mediterranean. The parts of the Far East in which the living allies are found are Japan, China, Burma,

further India, the Malay Peninsula, Malay Islands, Formosa, the Philippines; also Australia.

In a general way as time passed the

relationship passed northward from Malaya to Japan and China, and from the West Indies through the United States to Canada.

The upper Eocene of Hordle (Hampshire), the flora of which

was described by M. E. J. Chandler, has yielded the conifers

Sequoia (related to the red-wood) and pine. In addition there occur among flowering plants such tropical or sub-tropical genera as Broussonetia, Chlorophora, Gordonia, Iodes, Meninspermum, Natsiatum, Nipa, Orites, Phellodendron, Symplocos, Zanthoxylon, and various vines. Among genera which now range into Europe are Corydalis, Liquidambar, Styrax, as well as the blackberry, elder and persimmon. Oligocene.—In the succeeding Oligocene the change of flora

is comparatively slow. The flora of the Bembridge beds (Hampshire) of Early Oligocene age, has lately been studied by E. M. Reid and M. E. J. Chandler. It contains a few tropical and subtropical genera such as Epipremnum, Neolitsea, Phyllanthera, Radermachera, Tylophora, but plants of a cooler range are also common; Araucarites, Catalpa, Cinnamomum (the cinnamon), Engelhardtia, Incarvillea, Libocedrus, Sabal (the palmetto), and numbers of genera which now have representation in Europe: Bulrush, bur-reed, pond-weeds, water-soldier, sedge, beech, oak, hornbeam, clematis, buttercup, poppy and Acanthus. A flora of somewhat the same age is preserved in the Baltic amber. Reference has already been made to its mode of preservation. The plants include the amber-pine itself, from which the resin dripped, enclosing insects, leaves, twigs, wood, flowers, seeds and hairs. Many of the flowers closely resemble living forms. Among exotic genera are two palms Phoenix (the date-palm) and Sabal, Clethra, Dalbergia, Deutzia, Ephedra, Hammamalis, Hibbertia, Magnolia, Stuartia, Trianthera and Ximenia. Among European genera are Daphne, Erodium, Geranium, Loranthus, Amarantus, Myrica, Smilax and Thesium, besides oak, chestnut, beech, willow, polygonum, flax, maple, holly, buckthorn and wildparsley. Probably this list needs revision. It will be noticed that a great number of these genera have not appeared in previous lists, and will not appear in later ones. The amber flora offers a good example of the selective process which accompanies different kinds of preservation. One of the largest known fossil floras belongs to the Oligocene, that of Aix in Provence. It was determined by Saporta. It comes from the bed of an old lake. The lake itself long continued in existence, and the life around and within it suffered many vicissitudes whilst the region was convulsed by the earth movements and volcanic activity of the time, although no very great change took place in the flora from beginning to end. Some of the exotic families represented are Bignoniaceae, Proteaceae and Sapotaceae. Among exotic genera are Aralia, Ailanthus, Bombax, Leucothoë, Magnolia, Sapindus, Sterculia, Zanthoxylon. Several conifers and palms occur. Lauraceae are represented by cinnamons and camphors. Among European genera are Arundo, Daphne, Smilax and Styrax, bur-reed, bulrush, pond-weeds, alders, birch, oak, fig, poplar, willow, laurel, jasmine, olive, oleander and persimmon. Miocene.—One of the earliest described and most famous of

Tertiary floras was obtained from the silted up lake of Oeningen in Switzerland. From this Oswald Heer recorded hundreds of

species. As his work needs revision, it will be better to take as a type of a Miocene flora the almost equally famous brown-coal of central Europe. Much recent work has been done on brown-coal

93

material derived from various localities by the late Dr. P. Menzel and Dr. R. Krausel. Numerous conifers are found—Seguozia, Taxodium, and Glyptostrobus. The walnut family is strongly represented by American and Asiatic forms. Catkin-bearing trees are abundant. Among exotic genera are Ampelopsis, Acanthopanax, Aralia, Cinnamomum, Elaeodendron, Lindera, Liquidambar, Magnolia, Persea, Symplocos. Among European genera are Cotoneaster, Paliurus, Sorbus, Spiraea, Trapa, Zizyphus, plane, plum, hawthorn, blackberry, maple, Euonymus, holly buckthorn, lime and ash. In this flora are found forms so near the living as to be named as mere varieties. It must be remarked, however, that genera found in Europe are still often represented by species of exotic relationship. The transition from Miocene to Pliocene is well represented in

the old volcanic region of central France. E. M. Reid has described from fruits and seeds a late Miocene (or Mio-Pliocene) flora from Pont-de-Gail. Among alien genera are Actinidia, Amethystia, Cleomella, Clerodendron, Ehretia, Epipremnum, Magnolia, Meliosma, Menispermum, Phellodendron, Polanisia, Symplocos, Trichosanthes. All are of east Asian or American affinity. There are besides numbers of European genera which cannot here be named.

Pliocene.—The Lower Pliocene flora of Mougoudo

(Cantal)

is a little newer. It was examined by Prof. L. Laurent who recorded exotic Lauraceae, Rhamnaceae and Malvaceae, also Zelkova, Abronia, Cissus, Grewia, Sterculia and Paulownia. The largest known Lower Pliocene flora is the Reuverian from the Dutch-Prussian border. It was studied by Prof. Laurent and by C. and E. M. Reid. Among exotics are Actinidia, Araucaria, Aralia, Brasenia, Carya, Epipremnum, Euryale, Glyptostrobus, Karwinskia, Magnolia, Meliosma, Menispermum, Myrsine, Nelumbium, Nyssa, Phellodendron, Proserpinaca, Pseudolarix, Pterocarya, Sequoia and Zelkova, besides many others. European genera are now numerous. Many living species occur, some of them European. Similar evidence comes from the Rhone valley where M. l’abbé Georges Depape has recorded Buettneria, Carya, Cinnamomum, Diospyros, Ginkgo, Glyptostrobus, Laurus, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, Oreodaphne, Persea, Pterocarya, Sapindus, Sassafras, Torreya, Zanthoxylon and Zelkova, amongst exotic genera. In the Middle Pliocene a great change occurred in the European flora. Very rapidly the old exotic plants disappeared and European plants took their places, almost with a rush. In the flora of Tegelen (Holland) but a few stragglers of the exotic genera remain: Actinidia, Dulichium, Euryale, Magnolia, Phellodendron, Pilea and Pterocarya. 84% of genera were European and 82% were represented by allies of European species. By the close of the Pliocene, z.e., the end of the Tertiary period, the Cromer forestbed flora shows an almost exclusive European alliance. The old flora had gone. CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF NORTH AMERICA

As distinguished from the European, the Tertiary flora of North America is characterized by the continuity of the great bulk of its elements from past to present, with only such changes as have attended evolution and plant migration within the continent; some of the more tropical forms having sought refuge in South America. When alien elements occur they show alliance with the Tertiary plants of Europe, or with the living plants of the Far East, and in a lesser degree with those of Africa and the Mediterranean. The alliance with the Far East continues to the present day, as Asa Gray and the late Prof. C. S. Sargent have pointed out. Hence the living flora of America is linked with the extinct Tertiary flora of Europe, and with the living flora of the Far East. The Cretaceous and Tertiary plant deposits of North America present a magnificent series, often covering extensive areas.

They may be divided into three chief groups: (1) The deposits of the southern and south-eastern coastal plains, a series studied by Prof. E. W. Berry. These show an ordered succession of strand floras of very similar character which lived under similar conditions, and are therefore closely comparable from age to age. They are dated by intercalated marine strata. (2) The deposits of the

PALAEOBOTANY

)4-

astern coastal plain; those of Cretaceous age being the most mportant. (3) The Rocky mountain group where a scattered ries of continental deposits occurs, some of them having been ormed, as were many in Europe, under the influence of mountainnuilding and volcanic action. The beds, like similarly isolated eds in Europe, are of somewhat doubtful age, but Cretaceous, “ocene and Miocene strata appear to be represented. The flora is of an inland type.

Cretaceous.—The Cretaceous witnessed in America, as in Europe, the passing of the flora of secondary type and the incoming of flowering plants. Conifers, cycads and ferns were still largely represented, but they diminished in number, and the older forms died out. The fiowering plants of the Lower Cretaceous were markedly different from those of the present day. They are referable to living families, but only a few, such as fig and sassafras, to living genera. In the Upper Cretaceous, the flora became richer and more varied. It indicates a mild climate without seasonal changes. In the coastal beds of the south and from beds of similar age, which extend through Alabama and New Jersey and are found in West Greenland, a rich flora is found in which figs, willows and magnolias are predominant. From the Dakota Sandstone Leo Lesquereux described a considerable number of genera, among which may be mentioned Aralia, Cinnamomum, Eucalyptus, Ficus, Ilex, Inga, Juglans, Laurus, Magnolia, Nyssa, Paliurus, Pinus, Populus, Quercus, Sassafras, Sequoia, Sterculia, Zizyphus. These also indicate mild conditions. The latest Cretaceous is found in the Laramie formation of the Rocky mountain

group.

The strata were laid down in a great

inland sea which was gradually drained by the elevation and

[ARCTIC

PLAN’

period in America was warmer than the Eocene, although t] is open to doubt, for the Oligocene floras are too small to

representative; while the Eocene floras also show a large p

ponderance of tropical forms. doubtedly the warmer period.

In Europe the Eocene was ı

Miocene.—The Miocene in the south is known only from sm

floras. Temperate forms mingle with those of a more tropi type, as they do in Europe, indicating a cooler flora supplanting warmer one, under the influence of a changing climate. T climatic conditions appear to have been very similar to those the same regions to-day.

In the Rocky mountain region more is known of Miocene flor The

Florissant

beds of Colorado,

studied

by Prof. T. D.

Cockerell, show beautiful leaf impressions, and recall the Oenin; beds of Switzerland. Ailanthus, Anona, Liquidamber, Pers Robinia, Sequoia, also persimmon, fig, oak and pine are typi

plants. The climate was probably similar to, but damper th that of the present day. Pliocene.—The Pliocene is not well represented. Its flore essentially modern, and includes existing species, although a f like Trapa (the water-chestnut), are now extinct in America. CRETACEOUS

AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS

Our knowledge of Arctic plants comes, in the first insta from the studies made by Heer between 1868 and 1883. He: ognized two periods for flowering plants. The older is refe to the Cretaceous. The newer, by him called Miocene, is ı generally referred to the Eocene. He described about 335 spe from the Cretaceous, and 282 from the Tertiary, but the n bers are certainly far too large, as indicated by Prof. A. Seward’s work in 1926. The plants come from various local

silting up of its bed. Coal seams indicate long persistent swamps and lagoons. In his study of the flora, the late Dr. F. H. Knowlton named ferns, the conifers Dammara and Sequoia, and, among within the Arctic Circle ranging as far north as Grinnell Li flowering plants, Anona, Ceanothus, Cercis, Hicoria, Magnolia, lat. 81, and Spitzbergen, lat. 79. That the plants are im sit Nelumbium, Pistacia, Sabal, Zizyphus, as well as species of wal- shown by the fact that some are rooted. nut, willow, poplar, oak, bread-fruit, fig, ivy, holly; but many of Cretaceous.—In the lower beds of the Greenland Cretace the plants can only be referred to families; their more exact from Kome, occurs one of the earliest known flowering pl: relationship being uncertain. called by Heer a poplar. From later beds at Atane, besides fe Eocene.—The Eocene saw a sudden development of modern some of which are referred to genera now tropical, come n types. Almost all the plants are closely allied to those which conifers such as Araucaria, Cupressus, Sciadopitys and Seqi inhabit ‘the warm regions of the earth. Even when genera range palms, Artocarpus, Liriodendron, Magnolia, Sapindus, Sassa into cooler regions they are, in almost every case, represented in Rhus; species referred to Proteaceae and Menispermaceae; the tropics also. The largest Lower Eocene flora is the Wilcox species of oak, poplar and fig. Still higher beds at Patoot cor flora described by Berry. Most of the plants are tropical or sub- Acer, Acerates, Aralia, Zizyphus, also species of fig, walnut, p tropical, a few are allied to temperate forms. Among genera are and buckthorn, among flowering plants; and Dammara ar Acacia, Anona, Aralia, Artocarpus, Avicennia, Banisteria, Bumelia, conifers. Canavalia, Canna, Carapa, Cassia, Cedrela, Celastrus, ChrysoEocene.—The late Prof. Nathorst stated that the Eocene balanus, Cinnamomum, Coccolobis, Combretum, Dalbergia, of Spitzbergen yield Taxodium, Sequoia, Libocedrus, grass, se Dodonaea, Drypetes, Engelhardtia, Fagara, Ficus, Fraxinus, pines, willows and pond-weed. From Cape Lyell he reco Glyptostrobus, Guettarda, Ilex, Inga, Juglans, Laurus, Magnolia, Sequoia, Grewia, Magnolia, water-plantain, maple, poplar, wi Maytenus, Myrica, Nectandra, Nyssa, Oreodaphne, Oreopanax, alder, birch, hornbeam, hazel, beech, oak, elm, plane and Osmanthus, Paliurus, Persea, Pisonia, Pistia, Pithecolobium, From Greenland Heer recorded Gingko, Libocedrus, Gl. Planera, Porana, Prunus, Quercus, Reynosia, Rhamnus, Sapindus, strobus, Taxodium, Sequoia, Pinus among conifers; Sassi Sideroxylon, Simaruba, Sophora, Sterculia, Taxodium, Trapo, Acerates, Nyssa, Vitis, Acer, Koelreuteria, Juglans, Rhus, Zamia, Zizyphus. It is to be noted that some of these genera many catkin-bearing trees among flowering plants. The cli such as Glyptostrobus, Laurus, Oreodaphne, Paliurus, Porana, was temperate. Sideroxylon and Trapa, are now confined to the Old World. Most of these genera reappeared in the Tertiary of Ei The Green river beds of the Rocky mountain group belong to and America. They are related to plants now living in Asi: a later Eocene age. Knowlton, who revised the flora in 1924, America. Some also live in Europe. The occurrence of stated that there is an overwhelming preponderance of species plants within the Arctic Circle has a most important be with living allies in tropical and sub-tropical regions. He ten- upon the interpretation of plant-history in the Northern I tatively divided the species into lowland and upland forms. The sphere. , flora is not a large one. Among the lowland forms he named TERTIARY PLANTS IN RELATION TO WORLD HISTO species of palm, a relation of the banana, and Brasenia (a species Summary.—The Tertiary floras of Europe, America an of water-lily), besides other genera which are the same as some Arctic, and the living floras of the Far East and North.Am recorded from the Wilcox beds. Oligocene.—The Oligocene is not well known from America. are all intimately related. What little is known of the Te From the coastal region Berry has described several small floras. floras of Russia and Asia indicates that they, too, were re Among them are those of the Alum Bluff beds and the Catahoula It follows that Tertiary floras of an east Asian-American al Sandstone. Like so many Oligocene floras in Europe the con- lived on to form the source of much of the living floras o stituents show mixed relationships. Some, such as palms, show Asia and America, but were killed in Eurasia. In those r alliance with tropical forms. Others, like Ulmus, Rhamnus and where they lived, there are no transcontinental mountainPaliurus, with cooler forms. Berry concludes that the Oligocene forming barriers between the Pole and the Equator, wher

QUATERNARY PLANTS]

PALAEOBOTANY

the regions where they died, there are. Further, the mountainchains were being formed whilst the extermination was in

95

which died out later.

Compared with the Tertiary, the Quaternary period was short

progress, and the extermination was greatest after they were

—a few hundred thousand years. The important facts regarding formed. Hence it may be inferred that the mountain-chains helped it are: (1) In north Europe a series of rapid and marked climatic to kill. There is another set of facts which points to the same changes took place. (2) Throughout the period man is known to conclusion. In the early Tertiary, the European flora showed have lived. With the Quaternary ice age, the cooling of the northern considerable alliance with Indian and African plants, indicating passage between these regions. Later, at the time when the bar- regions, which had been going on since the Eocene, reached a rier was in existence, the alliance died out. Again, therefore, the climax. The ice age was not a period of unbroken Arctic cold. barrier would seem to have helped to kill. Alliances must indicate This is shown clearly by beds of temperate plants intercalated either linkages through some common source, or direct linkage. between others showing cold conditions. Such temperate, interAlso, if the allies are far removed, they must indicate migration. glacial beds have been found throughout north Europe, includThe interruption of the alliances by east-west barriers must ing Britain. Most of the plants now live in these regions; a few indicate that the migration was north-south. Finally the presence are extinct: and others survive elsewhere. The British plants of ever cooler and cooler forms must indicate that it was from indicate a climate about as warm as, but drier than, that of the north to south. present day. Explanation.—The phenomena involved are of world-wide In beds of preceding and succeeding age colder types of plants significance, not localized. The best explanation is that originally occur. Dwarf arctic willow and the arctic birch flourished on the suggested by Saporta. It meets all the facts, and is based on the plains of Germany and in the south of England. The ground assumption that whilst the temperature of, at least, the northern was gay with arctic and alpine flowers—Primula farinosa, Saxiportion of the Northern Hemisphere underwent change, no change, fraga oppositifolia, Dryas octopetala, Polygonum viviparum, the or but very slight, took place in the position of the Poles. As the alpine poppy, flax, potentilla, geranium, scabious, campanula, genfull measure of the relationship with plants of the Far East has tian and the bearberry. Ranunculus hyperboreus, one of the most become better known, the evidence supporting this explanation arctic of buttercups, grew in the Isle of Wight. It now lives no has become more full and definite. The explanation is that in further south than the Dovrefjeld mountains, Lapland, Alaska Cretaceous and early Tertiary times the North Polar regions and Labrador. These changes were going on whilst palaeolithic supported a warm type of vegetation, allied to living plants. man lived in Europe. Subsequently the climate ameliorated. The snow and ice reIn the Cretaceous these were of a sub-tropical or warm-temperate type; in the Eocene of a cooler type, at which time the treated, although slight alternations of climate still occurred. flora of Britain and France was tropical. Slowly the climate Some of these have been traced by the statistical study of pollen cooled, and as it did so, plants migrated southward throughout in peat. Using this study for the investigation of peat dredged Europe, Asia and North America, their places being taken by from the floor of the Dogger Bank, 60 ft. beneath the sea, Dr. others of a cooler type. These new forms must have been evolved G. Erdtman, of Stockholm, discovered that it belonged to the in the north since the linkage of floras continued throughout the “boreal” period, when the climate was cold but not arctic. The Tertiary. The migrants must have suffered loss by the way and peat had previously been studied by the Reids who found eviundergone evolutionary changes even in America and east Asia, dence of a great fenland stretching from England to the Confor, although allied to one another, the living floras of these tinent. The “boreal” period which saw this fenland in existence regions differ. Some elements were lost here, others there. In belongs to the age of early Neolithic man. In Neolithic deposits Europe and western Asia the whole were ultimately destroyed. various cultivated plants are found: wheat, barley, millet, apples, pears, the opium poppy and flax. With the ever increasing cold behind, and the impassable mounAs prehistory passes into history we glean interesting scraps tains in front, they perished, leaving scarcely a trace. Space will not permit us to enter into any full discussion of the of information. Tutankhamun was buried with a string of seeds recurrence of Glacial and inter-Glacial periods and the influence from the magic mandrake around his neck; the Celts grew wheat, they may have had on the flora. It is evident, however, that if barley and beans at Glastonbury; and the Romans brought climatic alterations, such as those just described, are part of the coriander, fig, grape and mulberry to Silchester, also many vegenormal routine that has gone on through all geological periods, tables and wild fruits. and are not merely confined to the latest, then such changes must BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The literature dealing with Tertiary plants is evidently have had great influence on the evolution and geo- usually technical and is mainly embodied in papers published in graphical distribution both of species and of floras. Whether this scientific periodicals. Text-books on the subject are few, and treat it from the point of view of the botanist, without giving any account was so is a question still to be decided, for in dealing with extinct of the composition of successive floras. The most useful text-books floras it is difficult to decide, except in the most general way, to are: H. Potonie, Lehrbuch der Paliobotanik (revised by W. Gothan, what climatic conditions they point. We seem to find indications 1921); K. A. Zittel, Handbook of Palaeontology, vol. ii., trans. by of long-period climatic oscillations in Tertiary times, but none of C. R. Eastmann (London, 1925). Full references to all palaeobotanical published before 1889 will be found in Lester Ward, “The the sudden invasion of an Arctic flora, like that which occurred papers Geographical Distribution of Fossil Plants,” 8th Report U.S. Geoduring more recent times. logical Survey (Washington, D.C., 1889). References to all American It might appear from the above that the Eurasian continent literature up to 1919 will be found in F. H. Knowlton, “A Catalogue

was gradually depleted of plants. But this was not so. The flora was greatly impoverished, and has remained so, in marked contrast to that of America, and especially to that of the Far East. But new plants came in to form the living flora of Eurasia. Where they came from is not certain. Some may have come from the north, but many, possibly most, appear to have come from the vast highlands of central Asia. Their history has yet to be discovered. QUATERNARY PLANTS The latest chapters in the history of our planet belong to the Quaternary period, and to these chapters plants contribute a very important share. We confine our attention to the Quaternary of Europe, because from it comes almost the whole of our information. The most important feature so far disclosed in the Quaternary of America is the presence of a few east Asian or European plants—Xanthium, Pterocarya, cinnamon and laurel,

of the Cenozoic Plants of North America,” Bull. 696, U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington, D.C., 1919). E. W. Berry, Tree Ancestors (Baltimore, 1923), is an interesting popular work. Two important and interesting early works are O. Heer, The Primaeval World of Switzerland (trans. and edit. by James Heywood, 2 vols., London, 1876), and G. de Saporta, Le Monde des Plantes (Paris, 1879). Recent large European publications which give very full references to more recent literature are C. and E. M. Reid, “The Pliocene Floras of the Dutch-Prussian Border,” Med. Rijksops. Delfstoffen, No. 6 (The Hague, 1915); R. Kraiisel, “Nachtrage zur Tertiarflora Schlesiens,” Jahrb. Geol. Landersanst., vol. xxxix.—xl. (Berlin, 1920~21); G. Depape “La Flore Pliocéne de la vallée du Rhone,” Aun. des Se. nat. bot., vol. iv., roth series (Paris, 1922); E. M. Reid and M. E. J. Chandler, Catalogue of the Cainozoic Plants, vol. i., British Museum,

Nat. Hist.

(1926).

Literature on Quaternary

scattered and often appears in a supplementary

plants is even more

form to other work.

The only text-books dealing with the subject are C. Reid, The Origin

of the British Flora (London, 1899), which contains references to work prior to 1899, and C. Reid, Submerged Forests (Cambridge, 1913). J. R. Matthews, “The Distribution of Certain Portions of the

96

PALAEOGNATHAE—PALAEOGRAPHY

British Flora,” part 1, Ann. Bot., vol. xxxvii. (London, 1923), contains references to several papers dealing with British deposits. G. Erdtman, “Literature on Pollen-Statistics Published before 1927,” Geolog. Forens. (Stockholm, March-April, 1927), contains full references to all literature on pollen work. (E. M. R.; M. E. J.C.)

PALAEOGNATHAE,

the term used in ornithology (g.v.)

to denote the more primitive modern birds, replacing the older term Ratitae (¢.v.).

PALAEOGRAPHY,

the name given to the science of an-

cient handwriting acquired from a study of surviving examples. The word is sometimes erroneously used where epigraphy would be better (for inscriptions, g.v., on stone or metal). It is difficult, indeed, to define the boundary between the two sciences; many of the ancient inscriptions of the Far East, Cambodia, India, Ceylon, etc., may quite legitimately be dealt with as part of the study of palaeography, although they are usually treated by epigraphists as purely confined to their realm of activity. The different implements used from the beginning in the making of marks or outline characters, whereby man made a permanent record of his thoughts and experiences, have had their influence on the classification of writings as adopted by later scholars. For a discussion of the palaeography of Far Eastern peoples the article Inscriptions should be consulted. In the present article only Greek and Latin palaeography will be discussed. In the articles Ecyprt and Hieroctyenics will be found details of

the Egyptian records.

(X.)

GREEK A history of Greek handwriting must be incomplete owing to the fragmentary nature of the evidence. If we rule out the inscriptions on stone or metal, which belong to the science of epigraphy, we are practically dependent for the period preceding the 4th or sth century of the Christian era on the papyri from Egypt (see Papyro.ocy) the earliest of which take back our ‘knowledge only to the end of the 4th century B.c. This limitation is less serious than it might appear, since the few mss. not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman (E. H. Minns, Journ. of Hell. Stud., xxxv., 22 Seq.) or Dura (New Pal. Soc., ii., 156), the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a surprising uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; but some differences can be discerned, and it is probable that, had we more material, distinct local styles could be traced. Further, at any given period several types of hand may exist together. There was a marked difference between the hand used for literary works (generally called “‘uncials’” but, in the papyrus period, better styled ‘“book-hand’’) and that of documents (“cursive”) and within each of these classes several distinct styles were employed side by side; and the various types are not equally well represented in the surviving papyri. The development of any hand is largely influenced by the materials used. To this general rule the Greek script is no exception. Whatever may have been the period at which the use of papyrus or leather as a writing material began in Greece (and papyrus was employed in the sth century B.c.), it is highly

towards a truly cursive style; the letters are not linked, and though the uncial c is used throughout, E and Q have the capi-

tal forms. A similar impression is made by the few other papyri, chiefly literary, dating from about 300 B.C.; E may be slightly

rounded, Q approach the uncial form, and the angular È occurs as a letter only in the Timotheus papyrus, though it survived longer as a numeral (=200), but the hands hardly suggest that for at least a century and a half the art of writing on papyrus had been well established.

Yet before the middle of

the 3rd century B.c. we find both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri

happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the estab-

lishment of the great Alexandrian library, which systematically

copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of Hellenistic bureaucracy. Henceforward the two types of script were sufficiently distinct (though each influenced the other) to require separate treatment. Some literary papyri, like the roll containing Aristotle’s Consittution of Athens, were written in cursive hands, and, conversely, the book-hand was occasionally used for documents. Since the scribes did not date literary rolls such papyri are useful in tracing the development of the book-hand.

The documents of the mid 3rd century B.c. show a great variety of cursive hands. We have none from the chancelleries of the Hellenistic monarchs, but some letters, notably those of Apollonius, the finance minister of Ptolemy II., to his agent, Zeno, and those of the Palestinian sheikh, Toubias, arein a type of script which cannot be very unlike the Chancery hand of the time, and show the Ptolemaic cursive at its best. These hands have a noble spaciousness and strength, and though the individ-

ual letters are by no means uniform in size there is a real unity of style, the general impression being one of breadth and uprightness. H, with the cross-stroke high, I, M, with the middle strokes reduced to a very shallow curve, sometimes approaching a horizontal line, T, and T, with its cross-bar extending much

further to the left than to the right of the up-stroke, T and N, whose last stroke is prolonged upwards above the line, often curving backwards, are all broad; e, c, 6, and 8, which sometimes takes the form of two almost perpendicular strokes joined only at the top, are usually small; w is rather flat, its second loop reduced to a practically straight line. Partly by the broad flat tops of the larger letters, partly by the insertion of a stroke connecting those (like H, T) which are not naturally adapted to linking, the scribes produced the effect of a horizontal line along the top of the writing, from which the letters seem to hang. This feature is indeed a general characteristic of the more formal Ptolemaic script, but it is specially marked in the 3rd century B.c. Besides these hands of Chancery type, there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the probable that for some time after the introduction of the alpha- writer’s skill and degree of education, and many of them strikbet the characters were incised with a sharp tool on stone or ingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very metal far oftener than they were written with a pen. In cutting far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and a hard surface it is easier to form angles than curves; in writing the characters sloping to the right. A is reduced to a mere acute the reverse is the case; hence the development of writing was angle (

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PALLIUM or Parr, an ecclesiastical vestment in the Roman Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the pope, but for

Johannes Diaconus, Vita S. Gregorii M. lib. IV. cap. 8, pallium etus bysso candente contextum). The right to wear the pallium seems, in the first instance, to have been conceded by the popes merely as a mark of honour. The first recorded example of the

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many centuries past bestowed by him on all metropolitans, primates and archbishops as a symbol of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See. The pallium, in its present form, is a

from front or back the ornament resembles the letter Y. It 1s decorated with six purple crosses, one on each tail and four on the loop, is doubled on the left shoulder, and is garnished, back and front, with three jewelled gold pins. The two latter characteristics seem to be survivals of the time when the Roman pallium was a simple scarf doubled and pinned on the left shoulder. The papal pallia were at one time made of white linen (see

APINE D

etnies ete r

His collected Opere were published in Rome in 1844-1848.

harrow band, “three fingers broad,” woven of white lamb’s wool, With a loop in the centre resting on the shoulders over the chasuble, and two dependent lappets, before and behind; so that when seen

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VIEW OF PALL-MALL ALLEY, SHOWING A GAME BEING PLAYED IN THE 17TH CENTURY. TAKEN FROM AN OLD BOOK OF WOODCUTS called Pell-Mell.” The pronunciation here described as “vulgar” afterwards became classic, a famous London street having been named after a Pall Mall alley. A mallet and balls used in the

game were found in 1845 and are now in the British Museum.

PALLONE

(Italian for “large ball,” from palla, ball), the

national ball game of Italy. It is descended as are all other court games, such as tennis and pelota, from the two ball games played by the Romans, in one of which a large inflated ball, called folks, was used. The other, probably the immediate ancestor of pallone, was played with a smaller ball, the pila. Pallone was played in

152

PALM

Tuscany as early as the 14th century and is still very popular in northern and central Italy. It is played in a court (sferisterio), usually roo yds. long and 17 yds wide. A white line crosses the middle of the court, which is bounded on one side by a high wall, the spectators sitting round the other three sides, usually protected by wire screens. One end of the court is called the battuta, and the other the ribattuta. At the end of the battuta is placed a spring-board, upon which stands the player who receives the service. The implements of the game are the pallone (ball) and the

is in a loose way called “stemless,” as in some kinds of the Saba]

tribe, and as happens sometimes in the only species found in a wild state in Europe, Chamaerops humilis.

bearing a tall cluster of leaves which appears to rise from the ground. In many species the trunk is covered with a dense net-

work of stiff fibres, often compacted together at the free ends into spines. This material, which is so valuable for cordage, consists of

the fibrous tissue of the leaf-stalk,

bracciale (bat). The pallone is an inflated ball covered with leather, about 43in. in diameter. The bracciale is an oak gauntlet, tubular in shape, and covered with long spike-like protuberances. It weighs between five and six pounds and is provided with a grip for the hand. The game is played by two sides—blues and reds —of three men each, the battitore (batter), spalla (back) and terzino (third). At the beginning of a game the battitore stands on the spring-board and receives the ball thrown to him on the bound by a seventh player, the mandarino, who does duty for both sides. The batter may ignore the ball until it comes to him to his liking, when he runs down the spring-board and strikes it with his bracciale over the centre line towards his opponents. The game then proceeds until a player fails to return the ball correctly, or hits it out of bounds, or it touches his person. This counts a point for the adversary. Four points make a game, counting 15, 30, 40 and 50.

which

in these

cases

persists

after the decay of the softer portions. It is very characteristic of some palms to produce from the base of the stem a series of ad-

ventitious roots which gradually

thrust themselves into the soil and serve as buttresses to steady the tree and prevent its over-

throw by the wind. The underground stem of some species, e.g., of Calamus, is a rhizome, or rootstock, lengthening in a more or less horizontal manner by the development of the terminal bud, and sending up lateral branches like suckers from the root-stock, which form dense thickets of

See G. Franceschini, ZZ Giuoco del pallone (1903).

PALM, originally the flat of the hand, in which sense it is

still used; from this sense the word was transferred as a name of the trees described below. The emblematic use of the word (=prize, honour) represents a further transference from the employment of the palm-leaves as symbols of victory. The palms, botanically Palmae or Palmaceae, have been termed the princes of the vegetable kingdom. Neither the anatomy of their stems nor the conformation of their flowers, however, entitles them to such position, but in general character they are noble plants. Their stems are not more complicated in structure than those of the common butcher’s broom (Ruscus); their flowers are for the most part as simple as those of a rush (Juncus). The family Palmaceae is characterized among monocotyledonous plants by the presence, for the most part, of an unbranched stem bearing a tuft of leaves at the extremity only, or with the leaves scattered; these leaves, often gigantic in size, are usually frm in texture and branching in a pinnate or palmate fashion. The flowers are borne on.simple or branching spikes, very generally protected by a spathe or spathes, and each consists typically of a perianth of

The vegetable ivory

(Phytelephas) of equatorial America has a very short thick stem

cane-like stems. The branching of the stem above ground is unusual; however, in the Doum

palm of Egypt (Hyphaene), the

FIG.

2.—RATTAN

NOROPS

PALM

(DAEMO-

DRACO)

A. Young shoot (much reduced), B. Part of stem bearing male inflores-

cence, C. Part of female inflorescence,

stem forks, often repeatedly; this is due to the development of a branch to an equal strength with the main stem. The internal structure of the i

.

stem

does

not

differ

funda

mentally from that of a typical D. Ripe fruits monocotyledonous stem; the taller, harder trunks owe their hardness not only to the fibrous or woody skeleton but also to the fact that, as growth goes on, the originally soft cellular tissue through which the fibres run becomes hardened by the deposit of woody matter within the cells, so that the cellular portions become as hard as the woody fibrous tissue. The leaves of palms are arranged either at more or less distant six greenish somewhat inconspicuous segments in two rows, with six stamens, or pistil of one to three carpels, each with a single intervals along the stem, as in the canes (Calamus, Daemonorops} ovule and a succulent or dry fruit, never dehiscent. The seed or are approximated in tufts at the end of the stem, thus forming consists almost exclusively of endosperm or albumen in a cavity those noble crowns of foliage which are so closely associated with in which is lodged the relatively very minute embryo. Some of the general idea of a palm. In the young condition, while still unfolded, these leaves form “the cabbage,” in some species highly the more important modifications esteemed for food. may be noticed briefly. The adult leaf generally presents a sheathing base tapering upTaking the stem first, it is in wards into the stalk or petiole, and this again bears the lamina or very many palms relatively tall, blade. The sheath and the petiole often bear stout spines, as in the erect, unbranched, regularly cyrattan palms; and when, in course of time, the upper parts of the lindrical, or dilated below so as to leaf decay and fall off, the base of the leaf-stalk and sheath often form an elongated cone, either remain, either entirely or in their fibrous portions only, which smooth, or covered with the prolatter constitute the investment to the stem already mentioned. jecting remnants of the former leaves, or marked with circular FIG. 1.—A. PALM FLOWER (CHA- In size the leaves vary within very wide limits, some being only scars indicating the position of MAEROPS HUMILIS). B. UPPER POR- a few inches in extent, while those of the noble Corypha may be measured in tens of feet. In form the leaves of palms are rately those leaves which have now TION OF COCO-NUT SEED fallen away. It varies in diameter from the thickness of a reed (as simple; usually they are more or less divided, sometimes, as in in Chameedorea) to a sturdy pillar-like structure as seen in the Caryota, extremely so. Usually the leaves branch regularly in 4 date-palm, Palmyra palm or Talipot. In other cases the very slen- palmate fashion as in the fan-palms Latania, Borassus, Chamae- | der stem is prostrate, or scandent by means of formidable hooked rops, Sabal, etc., or in a pinnate fashion as in the feather-palms, | prickles which, by enabling the plant to support itself on the Areca, Kentia, Calamus, Daemonorops (fig. 2), etc. The form of . branches of neighbouring trees, also permit the stem to grow toa the segments is generally more or less linear, but a very distinct | very great length and so to expose the foliage to the light and air appearance is given by the broad wedge-shaped leaflets of such above the tree-tops of the dense forests, as in the genus Calamus, palms as Caryota and Mertinesia. These forms run one into anthe rattan or cane palms (see Lranes). In some examples the other by transitional gradations; and even in the same palm the trunk, or that portion of it above ground, is so short that the plant form of the leaf is often very unlike at different stages of its 1

PALM growth. The leaves are sometimes invested with hairs or spines; and, in some cases the under-surface is of a glaucous white or

bluish colour, from a coating of wax. The inflorescence of palms consists generally of a more or less

fleshy spike, either

simple

or much

branched,

studded

with

numerous, sometimes extremely numerous, flowers, and enveloped by one or more sheathing bracts called “spathes.”

These parts

153

coco-nut, Cocos nucifera, where the fibrous central portion invest-

ing the hard shell corresponds to the fleshy portion of a plum or cherry, while the shell or nut corresponds to the stone of stonefruits, the seed being the kernel. The seeds show a corresponding variety in size and shape, but always consist of a mass of endosperm, in which is embedded a relatively very minute embryo. The hard stone of the date is the

endosperm, the white oily flesh of the coco-nut is the same substance in a softer condition; the so-called “vegetable ivory” is derived from the endosperm of Phytelephas. The family contains upwards of 170 genera with probably about 1,500 species mainly tropical, but with some representatives in warm temperate regions. Chamaerops humilis is a native of the Mediterranean region, and the date-palm yields fruit in southern Europe as far north as 38° N. latitude. In eastern Asia the palms, like other tropical families, extend along the coast reaching Korea

ae 4, Var Ie

Fiprous PERICARP

and the south of Japan. In America a few small genera occur in the southern United States and California; and in South America the southern limit is reached in Jubaea spectabile (the Chile coconut) at 37° S. latitude. The great centres of distribution are tropical America and tropical Asia; tropical Africa contains only about a dozen genera, though some of the species, like the doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) and the deleb or palmyra palm (Boras-

BUMINATED NDOSPERM Y OTE

fj fini sy) REAA

|TCO RAS

uit fae tases

z

>

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4

weit sht

FROM KOHLER,

“MEDIZINAL

AT A

FIG. 3.—A. BETEL NUT OR ARECA PALM (ARECA CATECHU), OF ASIA. B, FLOWERING BRANCH, WITH MALE FLOWERS ABOVE AND FEMALE FLOWERS BELOW, Ç. A RIPE FRUIT, D. VERTICAL SECTION OF FRUIT

VERN

=

SRN

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es,

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ge

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1Wiities

= AMAR

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Aa 2RaeeeAS A\Yh

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FRAN h

may be small, or they may attain relatively enormous dimensions, hanging down from amid the crown of foliage, or under the crown, like huge tresses, and adding greatly to the effect of the leaves. In some cases, as in the Talipot palm, the tree flowers only once,

develops a huge inflorescence, and after the fruit has ripened, dies. The individual flowers are usually small, greenish and insignificant in appearance; their general structure has been mentioned already. Modifications from the typical structure arise from difference of texture, and specially from suppression of parts, in consequence of which the flowers are often unisexual, though the

flowers of the two sexes are generally produced on the same tree (monoecious), not indeed always in the same season, for a tree in one year may produce male flowers and in the next female flowers. In a few cases they are dioecious. Sometimes the flowers are

modified by an increase in the number of parts; thus the usually

six stamens may be represented by 12 to 24 or even by hundreds. There are usually three carpels, more or less combined. Owing to the arrangements already mentioned, the pollen has to be transported by the wind or insects to the female flowers. This is facilitated sometimes by the elastic movements of the stamens and anthers, which liberFIG.

iso

4.—FRUIT

OF

ENIX DACTYLIFERA)

DATE

PALM

ate the pollen so freely at certain times that travellers speak of the

date-palms of Egypt

(Phoenix

dactylifera) being at daybreak hidden in a mist of pollen grains. In other cases fertilization is effected by the agency of man, who

removes the male flowers and scatters the pollen over the fruit-

bearing trees. This practice has been followed in the case of the te from time immemorial. _ The fruit is various in form, size and character; sometimes, as m the common date, it is a berry with a fieshy rind enclosing a a ny kernel, the true seed; the fruit of Areca is similar:

q FIBROUS = MESOCARP SPATHE ENVELOPING THE FRUITS

nag

war we —.AN ippen, eae we Dean

Le

;

FIG. 5.—-AN AMERICAN PALM (ACROCOMIA SCLEROCARPA), MUCH REDUCED sus flabellifer) have a wide distribution. With three exceptions Old and New World forms are distinct—the coco-nut (Cocos nucifera) is widely distributed on the coasts of tropical Africa, in India and the South Seas, the other species formerly included in the genus being confined to the western hemisphere. The oil

palm (Elaeis guineensis)

is a native of west tropical Africa.

Raphia has species in both tropical Africa and tropical America.

The genera are arranged, according to Drude, in six tribes, distinguished by the nature of the foliage, the sexual conditions of the flower, the character of the seed, the position of the raphe, etc.

e imes it is a kind of drupe as in Acrocomia (fig. 5), or the | Other characters serving to distinguish the minor groups are

154

PALM

afforded by the habit, the position of the spathes, the “aestivation” | Trachycarpus Fortunei, etc., and the Chilean Jubcea spectabilis of the flower, the nature of the stigma, the ovary, fruit, etc. The date palm is commonly planted along the Mediterranean Palms are of the greatest economic importance. They furnish | coast. There are several low growing palms, such as Rhapis

food, shelter, clothing, timber, fuel, building materials, sticks, | flabelliformis, Chamaerops humilis, etc., which are suited for fibre, paper, starch, sugar, oil, wax, wine, tannin, dyeing materials, | ordinary green-house culture, and many of which are enabled resin and a host of minor products, which render them most | to resist the dry and often gas-laden atmosphere of living valuable to the natives and to tropical agriculturists. The coco- | rooms. For further details, see B. Seeman, History of the Palms (1856); G. Engler and A. Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1902); A. B. Rendle, Classification of the Flowering Plants (Cambridge, 1925); E. Blatter, The Palms of British India and Ceylon; as well as such great works as Martius, Historia Naturalis , . . Palmarum in 3 vols., and Barbosa Rodrigues, Sertum Palmarum

f

Se Sy

YU

NEET

Brasiliensium in 2 vols.

ESS

American

ANY —< fees AN ee ESSN ee mE ANS

he

WAG AALS AA NNN FA šENSEN +3

SNR = AU NS NNN

palms native in the

V. H. B.)

continental

United States, to which reference has been made above, are 1s or more species; a number of them are as yet imperfectly understood. Most of them are fan-leaved palms. In California one

palm is native, the sturdy Washingtonia filifera; this plant occurs about the borders of the Colorado desert, in canyons along streams or in seepage places in the open; the same or a similar species

bas recently been discovered in south-western Arizona. In Texas one species is native near the mouth of the Rio Grande, this being the northern limit, as far as known, of its distribution. It is a striking fan palm, Sabal texana. In eastern Texas the dwarf

Ny 2 ts

MK

Ne

6

Palms.—The

pe 4 Rete

ae gr

f= = Re

=

wia

A

a oa a

Lae SAC? KG fi hd Uf

WAN

ENA

Y

af i

SA £ ie "9

ANS NE meyer w

ag

body |

tge ane

À

SAN

, |NVfy Ri)J N Mj i j

} i \ ARNS eei

nut palm, Cocos nucifera, and the date palm, Phoenix dactyli-

APPANNA Fe 5

articles. Sugar and liquids capable produced by Caryota urens, Cocos Rhapis vinifera, Arenga saccharifera, vinifera, etc. Starch is procured in

abundance from the stem of the sago palm, Metroxylon, and others. The fleshy mesocarp of the fruit of Elaeis guineensis of western tropical Africa yields, when crushed and boiled, “palm oil.” Coco-nut oil is extracted from the oily endosperm of the coco-nut. Wax is exuded from the stem of Ceroxylon andicolum and Copernicia cerifera. Edible fruits are yielded by the date, the staple food of some districts of northern Africa, and by the pejibaye or Guihelma of tropical America. The coco-nut is a source of wealth to its possessors; and many species, e.g., Areca sapida (cabbage-palm and others), are valued for their “cabbage,”

ASAwy \ EEN \ LL YA Ny|

ae ENNY ENN ZNHAN: NN

FIG. 6.——DATE PALM (PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA), A NATIVE OF NORTHERN AFRICA AND SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA WHERE IT HAS BEEN LONG CULTIVATED, NOW GROWN ALSO IN MEXICO AND THE S. W. UNITED STATES

fera, are treated in separate of becoming fermented are nucifera, Borassus flabellifer, Phoenix silvestris, Mauritia

IÍ

A Ñ AALL EZ K x\\: \S si NYSi

=

aa

ysIN

jeM ag

aril]

\\\ Leas

f

A

Ai

AI

|

WANA

PANNU i

SAN a

ALIGU ul fast. bfots FIG.

7.—SAGO

PALM

(METROXYLON)

the terminal bud, whose removal causes the destruction of the | palmetto or blue-stem palm, Sabal minor, but better known as S. tree. The famous “coco de mer,” or double coco-nut, whose float- | glabra, is native, a small species that extends eastward to Arkansas, ing nuts are the objects of so many legends and superstitions, is | Alabama and North Carolina; also the saw- or scrub-palmetta,

Lodoicea malivica. The tree is peculiar to the Seychelles. Its | Serenoa repens (formerly called S. serrulata), which covers large fruit is like a huge plum, containing a stone or nut like two coco- | areas in pinelands and coastal plain to southern Florida and nuts (in their husks) united together. Areca Catechu is cultivated | South Carolina. Another low or scrub palmetto, Sabal Etonio in tropical Asia for its seeds (reca or betel nuts). (or S. megacarpa) is native in peninsular Florida; and there are

The only species that can be cultivated in the open air in Eng- | two tall or tree sabals or palmettos, the common cabbage-tree, land, and then only under exceptionally favourable circumstances, S. Palmetto, a coastal plant from North Carolina to Florida, but are the European fan palm, Chamaerops humilis, the Chusan palm, | in the peninsular part of the latter state becomin, widespread,

PALMA

155

and the recently described S. Deeringiana of southern Louisiana. The needle-palm, the low Rhapidophyllum Hystrix, ranges from

to the Fourth Centenary of the Discovery of America.

on certain hammocks or islands in the Everglades. More than 200 species of palms are recorded as planted in the

Parker, Peruvians of To-Day (Lima, 1919).

His

literary career began ın his youth with light verses and translaMississippi to Florida and South Carolina; this is a fan-palm tions from Victor Hugo. The Anales de la inquisición de Lima, known by the long needles in the sheaths at the base of the plant. which he had published in periodicals when he was in Chile, All the other palms native in the United States are confined appeared in book form in 1863, and this was followed by poems to Florida. They are in five genera, not counting the ubiquitous entitled Semblanzas (1867) and Pasionarias (1870). But his coconut as native: Thrinmax, Coccothrinax and Acoelorraphe fame chiefly derives from his Tradiciones, short prose sketches, (Paurotis), fan-palms; Pseudophoenix and Roystonea (Oreodoxa), mingled fact and fancy, of the colonial days of Peru. The first feather-palms. All of these plants are confined to the warmer volume of the series appeared in 1872 as Tradiciones, and was or semi-tropical parts of Florida, practically from the latitude succeeded by Ropa vieja (1889), Ropa apolillada (1891) and an of Miami southward. All may be considered as northern exten- Apéndice a mis últimas tradiciones. The best of them have been sions of West Indian species. The Pseudophoenix is restricted, collected in a single volume, under the title Las mejores tradiciones in Florida, to a few of the keys of the east coast. Roystonea is peruanas, one of the most popular books in Spanish-American represented by a single species, the so-called royal palm, native literature. Palma died in Miraflores, Lima, on Oct. 6, 1919.

continental United States.

A few are known mostly as glass-

See V. G. Calderón, Semblanzas de América (Madrid, 1919); W. B.

PALMA,

TOMAS

ESTRADA

(W. B. P.)

(1835-1908), patriot and

house subjects, although probably all are somewhere planted outside in the open or some of them perhaps under lath. They belong to more than 80 genera, as palm botany is now understood, and

first president of Cuba, was born near Bayamo, Santiago Province, Cuba, on July 9, 1835. He was educated at Havana and at the University of Seville in Spain. When the Ten Vears’ they represent many countries around the world. For the most War (1868-78) was planned, he entered into the patriot plans part, the planted palms of Florida and California represent unlike with great zeal, freeing his slaves and giving his money to the sets of species, those in California having a strong Mexican char- cause of Cuban freedom. He became a general in the revolutionacter. (L. H. Ba.) ary army, then secretary and finally, in 1876, president of the PALMA, JACOPO (c. 1480-1528), Italian painter of the provisional government which was instituted by the revolutionists. Venetian school. He was born at Serinalta, near Bergamo, and is In 1877, however, he was captured by the Spaniards and concalled Palma Vecchio (Old Palma), to distinguish him from his fined first in El Morro castle and then in Spain until the revolugrandnephew, Palma Giovane, also a painter. He worked mostly tion was suppressed. After his release he went to Honduras, in Venice. In his later years his fame spread abroad and he where he married the daughter of the president and became received commissions from Fontanelle near Oderzo, Zerman postmaster-general. Later he moved to Orange county, N.Y., near Treviso and from Vicenza. He also painted altarpieces in where he opened a boys’ school, most of the children attending three villages of his native Brembo valley, at Serinalta, Dossena being from Latin-American countries. In 1895, when the Cuban and Peghera. Palma Vecchio appears to have formed his style revolution again broke out he went to New York city and became after Titian and Giorgione; at a later period he was influenced by active in the work of the Cuban Junta. After the death of José Lorenzo Lotto. His altarpiece in S. Maria Formosa is famous for Marti, Palma became the real head of the revolution. In New the beautiful and majestic figure of St. Barbara on one of its York he was active in procuring money, arms and supplies for six panels. A favourite subject of the master was “the Santa the revolutionary forces, and was also the informally recognized Conversazione” where the holy family with saints and donors diplomatic representative of Cuba at Washington. After success are grouped against an idyllic landscape background, as in the had come to the Cubans through the aid of the United States museums of Naples, Vienna, Hampton Court, and in the Lichten- Palma demanded that the United States should ask for nothing stein collection (Vienna). The fine series of female portraits less than Cuban independence in the treaty with Spain. In 1901, in the Vienna gallery were probably painted from 1510-20. They when the United States was ready to turn the island over to the represent fair young women of the courtesan type with hair Cubans, Palma became the first president of the republic by an flowing round their bare shoulders. The Berlin gallery and the almost unanimous vote. His rule was honest and intelligent and National Gallery (the Mond collection) contain similar por- Cuba was brought to a high degree of prosperity. Palma joined traits, recalling the well-known Flora, by Titian. At the Dresden no political party at first and chose a non-partisan cabinet, but gallery is the famous “Three Sisters.” Here, too, are “Jacob and he was forced more and more to ally himself with the ConservaRachel” and “Venus” executed in the broad, blond manner in tives to get his measures through Congress. He allowed himself which he painted towards the end of his life (1520-25). Palma to become the candidate of the Conservatives for re-election in died in 1528 after a long period of illness. He left some 40 un- 1905, an election in which the Conservative bosses probably used completed pictures in his studio which were finished by his fraudulent methods at the polls without Palma’s previous knowlpupils; and this circumstance accounts for some inferior work edge. The Liberals charged a corrupt election and fomented the which came into the market under his name. revolution of 1906, which resulted in the resignation of Palma See C. Ridolfi, Le Maraviglie dell Arte (ed. v. Hadeln, 1914-24); on Sept. 6, 1906. The United States was forced to take control G. Novelli, Italian Masters in German Galleries (1883) ; M. v. Boebn, of the Government temporarily. Palma died in Santiago ProvGiorgione und Palma Vecchio (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1908); J. P. ince, Cuba, on Nov. 4, 1908. Richter, The Mond Collection (1910). (I. A. R.) See R. Martinez Ortiz, Los primeros años de independencia (1921); >

PALMA, RICARDO (1833-1919), Peruvian man of letters,

was born in Lima on Feb. 7, 1833. At the age of 20 he joined the navy, and in 1860 was forced by political exigencies to flee to Chile, where he devoted himself to journalism. Six years later, he returned to Lima, to join a revolutionary movement in favour

of war with Spain, and participated in the engagement between

the Spanish fleet and the batteries of Callao. In 1881, during the

War of the Pacific, he took part in the battle of Miraflores in which the Peruvian forces were defeated, and during the Chilean occupation he had the courage to protest against the vandalistic

destruction of the famous National Library by Chilean soldiery.

After the war he was for a while director of La Prensa in Buenos Aires, but soon was recalled by the Peruvian Government to rebuild the National Library. In 1887 he founded the Peruvian cademy and in 1892 was sent to Spain as Peru’s representative

E. Barbarrosa, El proceso de la república (1911); C. E. Chapman, History of the Cuban Republic (1927).

PALMA or PALMA DE MALLORCA, the capital of the Spanish province of the Balearic islands, the residence of a captain-general, an episcopal see, and a flourishing seaport, situated 135 m. S.S.E. of Barcelona, on the south-west coast of Majorca, at the head of the fine Bay of Palma, which stretches inland for about 10 m. between Capes Cala Figuera and Regana. Pop.

(1920), 77,418. Palma probably owes, if not its existence, at least its name (symbolized on the Roman coins by a palm branch), to Metellus Balearicus, who in 123 B.C. settled 3,000 Roman

and

Spanish colonists on the island. The bishopric dates from the 14th century. About 1 m. S.W. of Palma is the castle of Bellver, the ancient residence of the kings of Majorca. The more conspicuous buildings are the cathedral, the exchange, the royal palace, now

156

PALMA— PALMER

occupied by the captain-general, and the law courts, the episcopal palace, a late Renaissance building (1616), the general hospital (1456) and the town-house (end of the 16th century). The cathedral was founded in 1230 and finished in 1601. Palma has a seminary founded in 1700, archives dating from the 14th century, a school and museum of fine arts, a nautical school and an institute founded in 1836 to replace the old university (1503). The harbour was formed by a mole, 387 yd. long, in the 14th century and has been considerably improved at subsequent intervals. Palma has a thriving trade in grain, wine, oil, almonds, fruit, vegetables, silk, foodstuffs and live stock. There are manufactures of alcohol, liqueurs, chocolate, sugar, flour, soap, leather, earthenware, glass, matches, paper, linen, woollen goods and rugs.

fruit and vegetables. From four to six young are brought forth at a litter. Other species occur in Ceylon, the Himalayas and Malay. The small-toothed palm-civets from the Malay Archipelago form the genus Arctogale. PALMELLA, 2 town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon at the north-eastern extremity of the Serra da Arrabida, and on the Lisbon-Setubal railway. Pop. (1911), inclusive of the neighbour. ing village of Marateca, 13,318. Palmella is an ancient and pic-

turesque town, still surrounded by massive but ruined walls and dominated by a mediaeval castle. PALMER, SIR CHARLES MARK, Bart. (1822-1907), English shipbuilder, was born at South Shields on Nov. 3, 1822, His father, originally the captain of a whaler, removed in 1828 PALMA, or SAN MIGUEL DE LA PALMA, a Spanish island in to Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he conducted a ship-owning and the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Canary Islands (g.v.). ship-broking business. After two years’ experience at Marseilles Pop. 52,887; area 280 sq.m. Palma is 26 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 16 m. It lies 67 m. W.N.W. of Teneriffe. It is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which is 7,900 ft. above sea-level. At the broadest part is a crater 9 m. in diameter, known as the Caldera (i¢., cauldron).

Palmer entered his father’s business at Newcastle, and in 1842

he became a partner.

He then became a colliery manager, and

eventually purchased large colliery interests. Palmer built, largely according to his own plans, the “John Bowes,” the first iron screw-collier, and several other steam-colliers, in a yard

The bottom of the crater has an elevation of 2,300 ft., and it is overhung by peaks that rise more than 5,000 ft. above it. Santa Cruz de la Palma (pop. 7,024) on the east coast is the chief town.

established by him at Jarrow, then a small Tyneside village. He

of Florida, U.S.A., on the most easterly point of the east coast, 300 m. S.S.E. of Jacksonville. They are on Federal highway 1 and the East Coast Inland waterway, and are served by the Florida East Coast and the Seaboard Air Line railways, and several steamship lines. Palm Beach, on a long narrow island between the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Worth (an arm of the ocean) had

scale. The firm produced warships as well as merchant vessels,

PALM BEACH and WEST PALM BEACH, two cities

a resident population of 1707 in 1930 Federal census.

It is one

of the most luxurious winter resorts in America, with palatial hotels, clubs and private estates. West Palm Beach, stretching for 12 m. along the opposite side of Lake Worth, is also a pleasure resort and centre for tourists, with many hotels and furnished apartments, and in addition is the county seat of Palm Beach county and the commercial and financial centre of a wide area. Its population in 1930 was 26,610 by the Federal census; transient population of the two cities and their contiguous suburbs (“Greater Palm Beach”) in the winter of 1927-28 was about 100,000. Three bridges span the lake, which is usually dotted with yachts, sea-sleds and other small craft, and is the scene

then purchased iron-mines in Yorkshire, and erected along the Tyne at Jarrow large shipbuilding yards, blast-furnaces, steelworks, rolling-mills and engine-works, fitted on the most elaborate and their system of rolling armour plates, introduced in 1856, was generally adopted by other builders. In 1865 he turned the business into Palmer’s Shipbuilding and Iron Company, Limited,

In 1886 his services in connection with the settlement of the costly dispute between British shipowners and the Suez Canal company (of which he was then a director) were rewarded with a baronetcy. He died in London on June 4, 1907.

PALMER, EDWARD HENRY (1840-1882), English Orientalist, the son of a private schoolmaster, was born at Cambridge, on Aug. 7, 1840. He was educated at the Perse school, and, after a short period as a clerk in London, he returned to Cambridge. He entered St. John’s college in 1863, and in 1867 was elected a fellow on account of his attainments as an orientalist, especially in Persian and Hindustani. During his residence at St. John’s he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and Turkish manuscripts in the university library, and in the libraries of King’s and Trinity. In 1867 he published a treatise on Oriental Mysticism, of an annual regatta on Feb. 20, 21, and 22. West Palm Beach based on the Maksad-i-Aksā of Aziz ibn Mohammed Nafasi. He already has a substantial wholesale distributing trade and ships was engaged in 1869 to join the survey of Sinai, undertaken by considerable produce (especially fruits and early vegetables) and the Palestine Exploration Fund, and followed up this work in the its commercial importance will increase with further progress in next year by exploring the desert of El-Tih in company with reclaiming the northern Everglades. Both cities have a com- Charles Drake (1846-74). They completed this journey on foot mission-manager form of government. The assessed valuation and without escort, making friends among the Bedouin, to whom of Palm Beach for 1928—9 was $48,534,624; of West Palm Beach, Palmer was known as “Abdallah Effendi.” After a visit to the Lebanon and to Damascus, where he made the acquaintance of $98,000,000. The development of Palm Beach as a winter resort began Sir Richard Burton, then consul there, he returned to England about 1892. West Palm Beach was incorporated as a town in in 1870 by way of Constantinople and Vienna. At Vienna he met 1903 and as a city in r911. In 1900 its population was only 564; Arminius Vambéry. In the close of the year 1871 he became Lord in 1910, 1,743; and in 1920, 8,659. In 1924 an extension of the Almoner’s professor of Arabic at Cambridge. In 1881 Palmer left Cambridge, and joined the staff of the Seaboard Air Line gave connection by rail with the west coast. The Palm Beaches did not suffer from the storm which wrecked Standard newspaper to write on non-political subjects. He was ' Miami in Sept. 1926, but they were badly damaged (to the called to the English bar in 1874, and early in 1882 he was asked amount of approximately $30,000,000) by the hurricane of Sept. by the Government to assist the Egyptian expedition by his in1928, which devastated Porto Rico and parts of Florida, especially fluence over the Arabs of the desert El-Tih. He was instructed, the Everglades and the south-eastern shores of Lake Okeechobee; apparently, to prevent the Arab sheikhs from joining the Egyptian and about 13,000 refugees (chiefly from outside the city) were rebels and to secure their non-interference with the Suez Canal. under care of the Red Cross in West Palm Beach for a time. He went to Gaza, without an escort made his way safely through The coco-nut palms fringing Lake Worth, to which the cities owe the desert to Suez—an exploit of singular boldness—and was their name, are the result of the wrecking of a Spanish cargo of highly successful in his negotiations with the Bedouin. He was appointed interpreter-in-chief to the force in Egypt, and from coco-nuts off the coast in Jan. 1879. PALM-CIVET or PARADOXURE, the name of the mem- Suez he was again sent into the desert with Captain William John bers of the civet-like genus Paradoxurus, represented by several Gill and Flag-Lieutenant Harola Charrington to procure camels species mainly from South-east Asia. (See Carnivora.) Palm- and gain the allegiance of the sheikhs by considerable presents of civets are about the size of the domestic cat, or rather larger, money. On this journey he and his companions were led into ar arboreal in habits, with dark fur. The common Indian palm-civet ambush and murdered (Aug. 1882). Their remains, recoverec

(P. niger) ranges throughout India, wherever there are trees. Its

diet consists of small mammals and reptiles, birds and their eggs,

after the war by the efforts of Sir Charles (then Colonel) Warren now lie in St. Paul’s Cathedral.

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157

Palmer’s highest qualities appeared in his travels, especially in Viscount Palmerston and his wife Mary Mee. Much of Palmerthe heroic adventures of his last journeys. His brilliant scholar- ston’s early childhood was spent in Italy, but he was sent to ship is displayed rather in the works he wrote in Persian and other Harrow School at eleven. He had just left school when, in 1802,

Eastern languages than in his English books, which were generally

he succeeded his father in the peerage, an Irish one, which did not prevent membership of the House of Commons. From Harrow he went to Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of Dugald Stewart, with whom he boarded. He entered St. John’s College, Cambridge, in 1803; in 1806 he began his political career. Before he was four-and-twenty he had stood two contested elecliterary monument worthy of his powers. His chief writings are The Desert of the Exodus (1871), Poems of tions for the University of Cambridge, at which he was defeated, Behd ed Din (Ar. and Eng., 1876-1877), Arabic Grammar (1874), and he entered parliament for a pocket-borough, Newtown, Isle History of Jerusalem (1871), by Besant and Palmer—the latter wrote of Wight, in June 1807. Influence secured for him a junior lordthe part taken from Arabic sources; Persian Dictionary (1876) and

written under pressure. His scholarship was character, and lacked the critical qualities of of Oriental learning in Europe. All his works guistic range and very versatile talent; but he

wholly Eastern in the modern school show a great linleft no permanent

English and Persian Dictionary (posthumous, 1883); translation of the Koran (1880) for the Sacred Books of the East series, a spirited

ship of the admiralty in the Portland

administration

of 1807.

He delivered his maiden speech in the House of Commons in but not very accurate rendering. He also did good service in editing defence of the expedition against Copenhagen. When Perceval the Name Lists of the Palestine Exploration. formed his government in 1809, he proposed to this young man PALMER, JOHN MCAULEY (1817-1900), American of five-and-twenty to take the chancellorship of the exchequer. soldier and political leader, was born at Eagle Creek, Ky., on Palmerston, however, preferred the less important office of Sept. 13, 1817. In 1831 his family removed to Illinois, and in secretary-at-war, charged exclusively with the financial business 1839 he was admitted to the bar in that State. In 1852-55 he was of the army, without a seat in the cabinet, and in this position he a Democratic member of the State senate, but joined the Re- remained, without any signs of an ambitious temperament or of publican Party upon its organization and became one of its leaders great political abilities, for twenty years (1809-1828) under five in Illinois. He was a delegate to the Republican national con- prime ministers, steadily refusing preferment. During the whole of yention in 1856 and a Republican presidential elector in 1860. that period Palmerston was chiefly known as a man of fashion, During the Civil War he served in the Union army, rising from and a subordinate minister without influence on the general the rank of colonel to that of major-general in the volunteer policy of the cabinets he served. Some of the most humorous service and taking part in the battles of Stone River and Chick- poetical pieces of the New Whig Guide were from his pen, and amauga, and, under Thomas, in the Atlanta campaign. He was he was entirely devoted, like his friends Peel and Croker, to the governor of Illinois from 1869 to 1873. In 1872 he joined the Tory party of that day. Palmerston never was a Whig, still less Liberal-Republicans, and eventually returned to the Democratic a Radical; he was a statesman of the old English aristocratic type, Party. In 1891-97 he was a Democratic member of the United liberal in his sentiments, favourable to the march of progress, States Senate. In 1896 he was nominated for the presidency, by but entirely opposed to the claims of democratic government. the “Gold-Democrats,”” but received no electoral votes. He died He had been elected M.P. for Cambridge University in 1811, and sat for this constituency until 1831 when he was defeated because at Springfield, Ill., on Sept. 25, 1900. See The Personal Recollections of John M. Palmer—The Story of an he had adopted reform principles. Earnest Life, published posthumously in roor. In the later years of Lord Liverpool’s administration, after PALMER, SAMUEL (1805-1881), English landscape the death of Lord Londonderry in 1822, strong dissensions existed painter and etcher, was born in London on Jan. 27, 1805. In in the cabinet. Palmerston supported the measures of Canning 1819 he exhibited both at the Royal Academy and the British and his friends. The ‘“Canningites,” as they were termed— Institution; and shortly afterwards he became intimate with John Palmerston, Huskisson, Charles Grant, Lamb (Lord Melbourne) Linnell, who introduced him to Varley, Mulready, and, above all, and Dudley—were included by Wellington in his cabinet of 1827, to William Blake, whose strange and mystic genius had the most but a dispute between the duke and Huskisson soon led to the powerful effect on Palmer’s art. He died at Reigate on May 24, resignation of that minister, and his friends resigned with him. In the spring of 1828 Palmerston found himself in opposition. 1881. His English metrical version of Virgil’s Eclogues, which was pub- From that moment he appears to have directed his attention ished posthumously in £883, contains reproductions of his watet- closely to foreign affairs; indeed he had already urged on the colours, and etchings completed by his son A. H. Palmer. Other rep- duke of Wellington a more active imterference in the affairs of resentative plates are “The Early Ploughman,” in Etching and Etchers Greece; he had made several visits to Paris, where he foresaw ist ed., and “The Herdsman’s Cottage” in the 3rd edition. the impending revolution; and on June 1, r829, he made his first PALMER, a town of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., great speech on foreign affairs. Palmerston was no orator; his on the Chicopee river, r5 m. E. of Springfield. It is served by the language was unstudied, and his delivery somewhat embarrassed; Boston and Albany, the Boston and Maine, and the Central but he addressed the House of Commons in language adapted Vermont railways. Pop. (1920), 9,896 (28% foreign-born white); to the capacity and the temper of his audience. Wellington 9,577 In £930 Federal census. It occupies 31 m. of hilly country, sought, in September 1830, to induce Palmerston to re-enter the and embraces four villages. The more important manufactures cabinet, which he refused because he was now committed to are cotton and wire goods, metal culverts, brushes and carpets. parliamentary reform, and from that time forward he may be Palmer was settled in 1716, and received a considerable accession said to have associated his political fortunes with those of the of Scotch-Irish in 1718. In 1752 the plantation (called The Whig party. Lord Grey placed the department of foreigm affairs Elbows) was established as the district of Palmer, and in 1775 in his hands upon the formation of the ministry of 1830, and the district became a town. It was a centre of Shays’ Rebellion. Palmerston entered on the duties of an office over which be conPALMER, a pilgrim who as a sign or token that he had made tinued to exert his powerful influence, both in and out of office,

pilgrimage to Palestine carried a palm-branch attached to his staff, or more frequently a cross made of two strips of palm-leaf

fastened to his hat (see PruGRimace).

The name “palmer” or

palmer-worm” is often given to many kinds of hairy caterpillars,

specifically to that of the destructive tineid moth,

Vpsilophus

ligulellus, which chiefly attacks the apple; also to the grubs ofvarious beetles. Artificial flies used in angling, covered with

bristling hairs, are known also as “palmers” or “hackles.”

PALMERSTON, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, 3rp Viscount (1784-2865), English statesman, was barn at Broadlands, hear Romsey, Hants, on Oct. 20, 1984, the son of Henry, 2nd

for twenty years.

Foreign Minister—The revolution of July 1830 had just given a strong shock to the existing settlement of Europe. The British foreign office was especially concerned with the fate of Belgium, in revolution against the king of the Netherlands and coveted by France. In the end the policy of England prevailed; numerous difficulties, both great and small, were overcome by the conference, although on the verge of war, peace was main-

tained; and Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was placed upon the throne of: Belgium. Fhe independence of Belgium. was a solid success for Palmerston’s diplomacy.

158

PALMERSTON

In 1833 and 1834 the youthful queens Donna Maria of Portugal and Isabella of Spain were the representatives and the hope of the constitutional party in those countries—assailed and hard pressed by their absolutist kinsmen Don Miguel and Don Carlos. Palmerston conceived and executed the plan of a quadruple alliance of the constitutional states of the West to serve as a counterpoise to the northern alliance. A treaty for the pacification of the Peninsula was signed in London on April 22, 1834; and, although the struggle was somewhat prolonged in Spain, it

accomplished its object. But Louis Philippe was accused of secretly favouring the Carlists, and he positively refused to be a party to direct interference in Spain. The hesitation of the French court on this question was probably one of the causes of the extreme personal hostility Palmerston showed towards the king of the French down to the end of his life. Nevertheless, at this same time (June 1834) Palmerston wrote that “Paris is the pivot of my foreign policy.” Thiers was at that time in office. Unfortunately differences with France increased in each succeeding year; and a constant but sterile rivalry was kept up, which ended in results humiliating and injurious to both nations. In Near Eastern politics Palmerston had been from the beginning a strenuous supporter of the claims of the Hellenes against the Turks and the execution of the Treaty of London. But from 1830 the defence of the Ottoman Empire became one of the cardinal objects of his policy. He believed in the regeneration of Turkey. His two principal aims were to prevent the establishment of Russia on the Bosporus and of France on the Nile, and he regarded the maintenance of the authority of the Porte as the chief barrier against both these aggressions. Towards Russia he was suspicious and hostile. He was a party to the publication of the “Portfolio” in 1834, and to the mission of the “Vixen” to force the blockade of Circassia about the same time. He regarded the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi which Russia extorted from the Porte in 1832, when she came to the relief of the sultan after the battle of Konieh, with great jealousy; and, when the power of Mehemet Ali in Egypt appeared to threaten the existence of the Ottoman dynasty, he effected a combination of all the powers, who signed the collective note of July 27, 1839, pledging them to maintain the independence and integrity of the Turkish Empire. On three former occasions, in 1833, 1835 and 1839, the Turkish policy of Palmerston had been overruled by the cabinet. But in 1840 Lord Palmerston prevailed. France, though her ambassador had signed the collective note in the previous year, declined to be a party to measures of coercion against Mehemet Ali. Palmerston, irritated at her Egyptian policy, flung himself into the arms of the northern powers, and the treaty of July 15, 1840 between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, engaging to assist the sultan against Mehemet Ali, was signed in London without the knowledge or concurrence of France. This measure was not taken without strong opposition on the part of several members of the British cabinet. By now Palmerston was regarded as one of the most powerful statesmen of the age. At the same time, though acting with Russia in the Levant, the British government engaged in the affairs of Afghanistan to defeat her intrigues in Central Asia, and a contest with China was terminated by the conquest of Chusan, afterwards exchanged for the island of Hong-Kong. After the fall (1841) of the Melbourne administration Palmerston remained for five years out of office. The crisis was past, but the change which took place by the substitution of Guizot for Thiers in France, and of Aberdeen for Palmerston in England, was a fortunate event for the peace of the world. Palmerston distrusted France and believed that war between the two countries was sooner or later inevitable. Aberdeen and Guizot, by mutual confidence and friendly offices, entirely succeeded in restoring cordial understanding between the two governments, and the irritation which Palmerston had inflamed gradually subsided. During the Peel administration Palmerston led a retired life, but he

perious language which rendered him in the eyes of the queen and of his colleagues a dangerous minister. Lord John Russell’s failure to form a ministry (Dec. 1845) was due to Grey’s refusal to join a government in which Palmerston had the direction of foreign affairs. A few months later this difficulty was sur. mounted; the Whigs returned to power, and Palmerston to the foreign office (July 1846), with a strong assurance that Lord John Russell should exercise a strict control over his proceedings,

A few days sufficed to show how vain was this expectation. The

French government regarded Palmerston’s appointment as a sign of renewed hostility, and a despatch in which Palmerston had put forward the name of a Coburg prince as husband for the

young queen of Spain, served as an excuse for a breach of the engagements entered into between Guizot and Aberdeen. The efforts of the British minister to defeat the French marriages of the Spanish princesses, by an appeal to the treaty of Utrecht and the other powers of Europe, were wholly unsuccessful; France won the game, though with no small loss of honourable reputation.

The revolution of 1848 spread like a conflagration through

Europe, and shook every throne on the Continent except those of Russia, Spain and Belgium. Palmerston’s sympathies had been passionately awakened by the cause of Italian independence. He supported the Sicilians against the king of Naples, and the king of Sardinia against Austria. The British government, or at least Palmerston as its representative, was regarded with suspicion and resentment by every power in Europe, except the French republic; and even that was shortly afterwards to be alienated by Palmerston’s attack on Greece. This state of things was regarded with the utmost annoyance by the British court and by most of the British ministers. Palmerston had on many occasions taken important steps without their knowledge, which they disapproved. Over the foreign office he asserted and exercised an arbitrary dominion, which the feeble efforts of the premier could not control. The queen and the prince consort (see VICTORIA, QUEEN) did not conceal their indignation at the position in which he had placed them with all the other courts of Europe. When Kossuth, the Hungarian leader, landed in England, Palmerston proposed to receive him at Broadlands, a design which was only prevented by a peremptory vote of the cabinet; and in 1850 he took advantage of Don Pacifico’s very questionable claims on the Hellenic government to organize an attack on the little kingdom of Greece. Greece being a state under the joint protection of three powers, Russia and France protested against its coercion by the British fleet, and the French ambassador temporarily left London, which promptly led to the termination of the affair. But it was taken up in parliament with great warmth. After a memorable debate (June 17), Palmerston’s policy was condemned by a vote of the House of Lords. The House of Commons was moved by Roebuck to reverse the sen-

tence, which it did (June 29) by a majority of 46, after having

heard from Palmerston the most eloquent and powerful speech ever delivered by him, in which he sought to vindicate, not only his claims on the Greek government for Don Pacifico, but his entire administration of foreign affairs. It was in this speech, which lasted five hours, that Palmerston made the well-known declaration that a British subject—‘Civis Romanus sum”—ought everywhere to be protected by the strong arm of the British government against injustice and wrong. Yet, notwithstanding this parliamentary triumph, there were not a few of his own colleagues and supporters who condemned the spirit in which the foreign relations of the Crown were carried on; and in that same year the queen addressed a minute to the prime minister in which she recorded her dissatisfaction at the manner in which Lord Palmerston evaded the obligation to submit his measures for the royal sanction as failing in sincerity to the Crown. This minute was communicated to Palmerston, who did not resign upon it. This distrust and uneasiness reached their climax when Palmerston expressed to the French ambassador in London, withattacked with characteristic bitterness the Ashburton treaty with out the concurrence of his colleagues, his personal approval of the United States, which closed successfully other questions he the coup d’état of Louis Napoleon. Upon this Lord John Russell had long kept open. Palmerston approached questions of foreign advised his dismissal from office (Dec. 1851). Palmerston avenged policy with an amount of passion, of personal animosity, and im- himself by turning out the government on a militia bill; but

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159

although he survived for many years, and twice filled the highest office in the state, his career as foreign minister ended for ever,

desire than to avert the rupture of the Union which might have been the result of a refusal on the part of England and France and he returned to the foreign office no more. Indeed, he assured to recognize a blockade of the Southern ports, which was notorLord Aberdeen, in 1853, that he did not wish to resume the iously imperfect, and extremely prejudicial to the interests of seals of that department. Europe. The cabinet was not of this opinion, and, although the Upon the formation of the cabinet of 1853, which was com- belligerent rights of the South were promptly recognized, the posed by the junction of the surviving Peelites with the Whigs, neutrality of the Government was observed. When, however, the under Aberdeen, Palmerston accepted with the best possible grace Southern envoys were taken by force from the “Trent,” a British the office of secretary of state for the home office. At one moment packet, Palmerston insisted upon a full and complete reparation. he withdrew from it, because Lord John Russell persisted in But the difficulty with the American government over the “Alapresenting a project of reform which appeared to him entirely out bama” and other vessels, fitted out in British ports to help the of season; and he advocated, with reason, measures of greater Southern cause, was only settled at last (see ALABAMA ARBITRAenergy on the approach of war, which might possibly, if they had TION) by an award extremely onerous to England. been adopted, have averted the contest with Russia. As the The last transaction in which Palmerston engaged arose out difficulties of the Crimean campaign increased, it was not Lord of the attack by the Germanic Confederation, and its leading Palmerston but Lord John Russell who broke up the govern- States Austria and Prussia, on the kingdom of Denmark and the ment by refusing to meet Roebuck’s motion of inquiry. Palm- duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. There was but one feeling erston remained faithful and loyal to his colleagues in the hour in the British public and the nation as to the dishonest character of danger. Upon the resignation of Lord Aberdeen and the duke of that unprovoked aggression, and it was foreseen that Austria of Newcastle, the general sentiment of the House of Commons would ere long have reason to repent her share in it. Palmerston and the country called Palmerston to the head of affairs, and he endeavoured to induce France and Russia to concur with England entered, on Feb. 5, 1855, aged 70, upon the high office, which in maintaining the Treaty of London, which had guaranteed the he retained, with one short interval, to the day of his death. integrity of the Danish dominions. But those powers, for reasons Prime Minister.—A series of fortunate events followed his of their own, stood aloof, and the conference held in London in accession to power. In March 1855 the death of the emperor 1864 was without effect. A proposal to send the British fleet into Nicholas removed his chief antagonist. In September Sevastopol the Baltic was overruled and the result was that Denmark was was taken. The administration of the British army was reformed left to her own resources against her formidable opponents. In by a consolidation of offices. In the following spring peace was the following year, on Oct. 18, 1865, Palmerston expired at signed in Paris. Never since Pitt had a minister enjoyed a greater Brocket Hall, after a short illness, in the eighty-first year of his share of popularity and power, and, unlike Pitt, Palmerston had age. His remains were laid in Westminster Abbey. Character—Although there was much in the official life of the prestige of victory in war. He was assailed in parliament by the eloquence of Gladstone, the sarcasms of Disraeli, and the Palmerston which inspired distrust and alarm to men of a less animosity of the Manchester Radicals, but the country was ardent and contentious temperament, he had a lofty conception with him. Defeated by a hostile combination of parties in the of the strength and the duties of England, he was the irreconcilHouse of Commons on the question of the Chinese war in 1857 able enemy of slavery, injustice and oppression; and he laboured and the alleged insult to the British flag in the seizure of the with inexhaustible energy for the dignity and security of the lorcha “Arrow,” he dissolved parliament and appealed to the Empire. In private life his gaiety, his buoyancy, his high breeding, nation. The result was the utter defeat of the extreme Radical made even his political opponents forget their differences: and party and the return of a more compact Liberal majority. The even the warmest altercations on public affairs were merged in great events of the succeeding years, the Indian Mutiny, and the his large hospitality and cordial social relations. In this respect invasion of Italy by Napoleon III., belong rather to the general he was aided with consummate ability by the tact and grace history of the times than to the life of Palmerston; but it was of Lady Palmerston, the widow of the sth Earl Cowper, whom fortunate that a strong and able government was at the head he married at the close of 1839, and who died in 1869. of affairs. Lord Derby’s second administration of 1858 lasted but The Life of Lord Palmerston, by Lord Dalling (2 vols., 1870), a single year, Palmerston having casually been defeated on a with valuable selections from the minister’s autobiographical diaries measure for removing conspiracies to murder abroad from the and private correspondence, only came down to 1847, and was by Evelyn Ashley (vol. iii., 1874; iv., v., 1876). The whole class of misdemeanour to that of felony, which was introduced in completed was re-edited by Mr. Ashley, two volumes (1879), the standard consequence of Orsini’s attempt on the life of the emperor of biography. The Life by Lloyd in Sanders (1888) is an excellent shorter the French. But in June 1859 Palmerston returned to power, work, See also B. K. Martin, Tke Triumph of Lord Palmerston. A

and it was on this occasion that he proposed to Cobden, one of

study of public opinion in England before the Crimean war (1926).

Milner he had on the to con-

PALMERSTON: see NORTHERN AUSTRALIA; PorT DARWIN. PALMERSTON NORTH, a town in the Manawatu district of New Zealand, 87 miles north of Wellington. Pop. (1927)

his most constant opponents, to take office; on his refusal Gibson was appointed to the board of trade, although been the prime mover of the defeat of the government Conspiracy Bill. Palmerston had learnt that it was wiser

ciliate an opponent than to attempt to crush him. Although Palmerston approved the objects of the French invasion of Italy in so far as they went to establish Italian independence, the

annexation of Savoy and Nice to France revived his old suspicions of the good faith of Napoleon III. He believed that war with France was a contingency to be provided against and he induced the House of Commons to vote nine millions for the fortification of British ports and arsenals. Palmerston resisted the Suez canal project of Lesseps. He did not foresee the advantages to be derived by British commerce from this great work, and he was strongly opposed to the establishment of a powerful French company on the soil of Egypt. He also believed that England would be drawn by her interest,

a8 a great commercial power, in the canal traffic, into a more

direct interference in Egypt, which it was desirable to avoid.

Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Palmeston acknowledged that it was the duty of the British governMent to remain neutral; but his own opinion led him rather to

20,540. Itis the centre of a thriving dairy and sheep-raising district, an important railway junction, and the first borough of New Zealand to institute rating on “unimproved” capital values.

PALMERTON,

a borough of Carbon county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, 15 m. N.W. of Allentown. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the Chestnut Ridge, and (for freight) the Lehigh and the New England railways. Pop. (1920) 7,168 (33% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 7,678. It is the trade centre of a farming region, and manufactures zinc, silk and paints. The borough was incorporated in 1912.

PALMETTE,

any decorative form consisting of radiating

petals or scales, symmetrically disposed, and growing from a single focus at the bottom. The word is especially used of certain lotus (¢.v.) derivatives in Egyptian and Asiatic art, and for somewhat similar forms occurring in the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. The classic palmette is usually termed an anthemion (¢q.v.).

PALMETTO, in botany, a popular name for Sabal Palmetto, the palmetto

palm,

a native

of the southern

United

States,

PALMGREN—PALM

160

especially in Florida. It has an erect stem, 20 to 80 ft. high and deeply cut fan-shaped leaves, 5 to 8 ft. long; the fruit is a black drupe 4 to $ in. long. The trunks make good piles for wharves, as the wood resists the attacks of borers; the leaves are used for thatching. The palm is grown as a pot-plant in greenhouses. A similar species, the Texas palmetto (S. texana) occurs in southern Texas and Mexico. The terminal bud or cabbage is eaten. There is also a third species or dwarf palmetto (Sabal adansonii). The chamaerops humilis of South Europe is also called palmetto.

PALMGREN,

SELIM (1878-

), Finnish composer, was

born at Björneborg, Finland, on Feb., 16, 1878. In 1895 he went to Helsingfors conservatoire, where he studied composition under Wegelius and piano under Petzet. He afterwards worked with Ansorge and Busoni, and on his return to Finland became conductor of the Finnish Students choral society and later of the Musical Society at Abo. Since 1912 he has held no fixed appointment but has devoted himself to composition and undertaken concert tours with his wife Maikki Järnefelt, a singer. Palmgren has written two operas, Daniel Hjort (produced at Helsingfors 1910) and Peter Schlemihl, three piano concertos, and some pieces for violin and piano; but it is in his smaller piano works that his delicate and poetical writing finds the most appropriate medium. Among the best known of these are the Finnish Lyrics, Finnish Lullaby, the Studies, Preludium, The Sea, The Swan, Light and Shade and Bird Song.

PALMIET (Prionium Palmita), a shrubby, aloe-like, South African plant of the rush family (Juncaceae), reaching a height of six or seven feet, growing on the edges of streams. The stem is covered with the fibrous remains of old leaves. The plant propagates vegetatively by runners.

PALMISTRY, a predictive system whereby the various irregularities and flexion-folds of the skin of the hand are interpreted as being associated with mental or moral dispositions and powers as well as with the current of future events in the life of the individual. It is also called chiromancy or cheiromancy from xeip, the hand, and yarreta, divination. How far back in prehistoric times this system has been practised it is impossible to say, but in China it is said to have existed 3,000 years before Christ, and in Greek literature it is treated even in the most ancient writings as well-known belief. At the present day palmistry is practised in nearly all parts of China. It is also extensively practised in India, especially by one caste of Brahmins, the Joshi. In Syria and Egypt the palmist can be seen plying his trade at the cafés; and among the Arabs there are chiromantists who are consulted as to the probable success of enterprises. It is probably from their original Indian home that the traditional dukkeripen (fortune-telling) of the

gipsies has been derived. This system of divination has the charm of simplicity and definiteness, as an application of the “doctrine of signatures” which formed so extensive an element in the occult writings of the past six centuries. In the course of ages every detail has been brought under a formal set of rules, which only need mechanical

application.

There have been in past times considerable diver-

gences in the practice, but at present there is a fairly uniform system in vogue. One school lays special stress on the general shape and outline of the hand. Corvaeus enumerates 70 varieties, Pamphilus cuts them down to 6, John de Indagine to 27, and Tricassus Mantuanus raises them to 80. The characters of softness or hardness, dryness or moisture, etc., are taken account of in these classifications. The lines of cardinal importance are (1) the rasceta or cross sulci, which isolate the hand from the forearm at the wrist, and which are the fiexion folds between the looser forearm skin and that tied down to the fascia above the level of tbe anterior annular ligament. (2) The line which isolates the ball of the thumb, where the skin ceases to be tied to the front of the palmar fascia, is called the line of life. (3) A line starting above the head of the second metacarpal bone and crossing the hand to the middle of its ulnar border is the line of the head. (4) The transverse line below this which passes from the ulnar border a little above the level of the head of the fifth metacarpal and ends somewhere about the root of the index finger is the line of the heart. (5)

OIL

The vertical line descending from the middle of the wrist to end

about the base of the middle finger is the line of fortune. (6)

The oblique line which begins at the wrist end of the line of life and descends towards the ulnar end of the line of the head is the line of the liver. These lines isolate certain swellings or monticuli, the largest

of which is (1) the ball of the thumb, called the mountain of Venus; (2) that at the base of the index finger is the mountain of Jupiter; (3) at the root of the middle finger is the mountain of Saturn, while those at the bases of ring and little finger are respectively the mountains of the (4) Sun and (5) of Mercury, Above the mountain of Mercury, and between the lines of head and heart is (6) the mountain of Mars, and above the line of the heart is (7) the mountain of the Moon. The relative sizes of these mountains have assigned to them their definite correlations with characters: the rst with charity, love, libertinage; the 2nd with religiosity, ambition, love of honour, pride, superstition: the 3rd with wisdom, good fortune, prudence, or when deficient improvidence, ignorance, failure; the 4th when large makes for success, celebrity, intelligence, audacity, when small meanness or love of obscurity; the 5th indicates love of knowledge, industry, aptitude for commerce, and in its extreme forms on the one hand love of gain and dishonesty, on the other slackness and laziness, The 6th is related to degrees of courage, resolution, rashness or timidity; the 7th indicates sensitiveness, morality, good conduct, or immorality, overbearing temper and self-will. The swellings on the palmar faces of the phalanges of the several fingers are also indicative, the 1st and 2nd of the thumb respectively, of the logical faculty and of the will; the rst, 2nd and 3rd of the index finger, of materialism, law and order, idealism; those of the middle finger, humanity, system, intelligence; of the ring finger, truth, economy, energy; and of the little finger, goodness, prudence, reflectiveness. Over and above these there are other marks, crosses, triangles, etc., of which more than a hundred have been described and figured by different authors, each with its interpretation; and in addition the back of the hand has its ridges. The Chinese combine podoscopy with chiromancy. To the anatomist the roughnesses of the palm are of considerable interest. The folds are so disposed that the thick skin shall be capable of bending in grasping, while at the same time it requires to be tightly bound down to the skeleton of the hand, else the slipping of the skin would lead to insecurity of prehension, as the quilting or buttoning down of the covers of furniture by upholsterers keeps them from slipping. For this purpose the skin is tied by connecting fibres of white fibrillar tissue to the deep layer of the dermis along the lateral and lower edges of the palmar fascia and to the sheaths of the flexor tendons. The folds, therefore, which are disposed for the purpose of making the grasp secure, vary with the relative lengths of the metacarpal bones, with the mutual relations of the sheaths of the tendons, and the edge of the palmar fascia, somewhat also with the insertion of the palmaris brevis muscle. The sulci are emphasized because the subcutaneous fat, which is copious in order to pad the skin for the purpose of firmness of holding, being restricted to the intervals between the lines along which the skin is tied down, makes these intervals project, and these are the monticuli. The swelling of the mountain of Venus is simply the indication of the size of the muscles of the ball of the thumb, and can be increased by their exercise. Similarly the hypothenar muscles for the little finger underlie the three ulnar marginal mountains, the sizes of which depend on their development and on the prominence of the pisiform bone. That these purely mechanical arrangements have any psychic, occult or predictive meaning is a fantastic imagination, which seems to have a peculiar attraction for certain types of mind,

and as there can be no fundamental hypothesis of correlation, its discussion does not lie within the province of reason. (A. Mac.)

PALMITIC ACID: see Fatry Acws.

PALM OIL. A fatty oil obtained from the fleshy part of the fruit of the oil-palm (Elaezs guineensis Jacq.), a tree in-

PALMSTIERNA—PALMYRA coast of Africa!.

digenous to the west

Palm oil must not be

confounded with the oil from the kernel (palm-kernel oil), which differs widely from palm oil and resembles coconut

constitution, properties and applications.

oil in its

(See Om Pam.)

The ripe palm-fruit is gathered by natives and stored for three or four days; the fruits are then detached from the bunches

PALMSTIERNA,

1614

ERIK KULE, Baron (1877-

),

Swedish statesman, was born on Nov. 10, 1877. He entered the navy as sub-lieutenant, but gave up his naval career for administrative work, and became secretary of the central association for social work in 1906. From 1907 to 1915 he was organizer of the Svenska Stadsforbundt.

Elected by the Liberals and Social Demo-

and placed in a pit in the ground lined with leaves; water is crats to the Riksdag, he was minister of marine in the Coalition

sprinkled on the top, and the mass covered and allowed to ferment

Government of 1917, and minister of foreign affairs in the Branting Government. In 1920 Palmstierna was appointed minister at the court of St. James; the following year he represented Sweden at Geneva in the Aaland islands question.

PALM SUNDAY, the Sunday before Easter, so called from

ZL ay

j

P

A

n

FOIA yi

SKAMAR ne

IOAR DN ÀWas SIAN

the custom, still observed in the Roman Catholic Church, of blessing palm branches and carrying them in procession in commemoration of Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem. In the Western Church, Palm Sunday is counted as the first day of Holy Week, and its ceremonies usher in the series of services, culminating in those of Good Friday, which commemorate the Passion. The ceremonies on Palm Sunday as celebrated now in the Roman Catholic Church are divided into: (1) The solemn blessing

s

Sant ANNS N SS N

LA JAA 4

R & TINN MANS

P,

H

A.

A

a

K

Py?) ale

HA? NA N

Hy PEiNN AN PAIN

HAN Js

A

of the palms, (2) the procession, (3) the mass. In the Orthodox Eastern Church Palm Sunday (ù xuptaxy éopth T&v Batwr, éoprh Batodédpos, or 4 Gatopdpos) is not included

AWN] \

D

int

Oia NA WN Hi

OILY Fiprous PERICARP {YIELDING “PALM OIL”) STONY

(SHELL OF

ENDOCARP

“PALM NuT™)

OILY KERNEL YIELDING

“PALM KERNEL OIL")

DETAILS OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE OIL PALM (ELAEIS GUINEENSIS) A. The fruit bunch (female inflorescence)

composed of spikes (B), bearing

fruits, the structure of which is shown at C. D. A single fruit (drupe), bracts removed, containing

1 to 3 kernels

about 2,000 to 3,000 fruits.

in the “‘palm

nut.”

Each bunch

bears

Some 1,400 bunches of fruit are required for

the production of one ton of oil

in Holy Week, but is regarded as a joyous festival commemorating Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem. There is no longer a procession; but the palms (in Russia willow twigs) are blessed, and are held by the worshippers during the service. Of the reformed churches, the Church of England alone in-

cludes Palm Sunday in the Holy Week celebrations. The blessing of the palms and the procession were, however, abolished at the Reformation, and the name “Palm Sunday,” though it survives popularly, is not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer. BIBLIOGRAPEY.—See the article “Palmsonntag” in Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.), ix. 1319 sgq.; article “Woche, grosse,” by

Drews in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie

xxi. 425; Wiepen, Palmsonniags

(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908),

Prozesstonen

und Palmesel

(Bonn,

1903); L. Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien (2nd ed., Paris, 1898),

p. 237. For ceremonies anciently ohserved in England on Palm Sunday see M. E. C. Walcott, Sacred Arckaealogy (1868) and J, Brand,

Popular antiquities (ed. 1870). See also Catholic Encyclopaedia, s.v.

for one or two months. Under this treatment the fruit softens, “Palm Sunday.” so that the hard kernel can easily be separated. The softened PALMYRA, the Greek and Latin name of a famous city flesh is beaten to a pulp, and roughly squeezed in bags; a further of the East, now a mere collection of Arab hovels, but still an quantity of oil is obtained by boiling the pressed pulp with water.’ object of interest on account of its wonderful ruins. In If. Chron. Chop oil is a special grade of oil prepared by the natives for food, viii. 4, and in the native inscriptions, it is called Tadmor, and by boiling the fresh fruits with water and skimming off the oil this is the name by which it is known among the Arabs at the which rises to the surface. Owing to the fermentation occurring present day and, it would seem, as far back as the 12th century when the fruits are treated by the first method, the oil becomes B.c,, for “Tadmar which is in the land of the Amurrw” occurs hydrolysed, giving rise to large amounts of free fatty acids. Since in an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I. c. 1125~z100 3.c. (Dhorme the introduction of machinery, and with improved cultivation of in Rev. Bibl. 1924, pp. 106 ff.), The site lies r50m. N.E. of the trees, better quality oils have been produced, and oils with as Damascus and five days’ camel journey from the Euphrates, in little as 2% of free fatty acids can be prepared in bulk. an oasis of the Syrian desert, 1,300ft. above sea-level. At this Palm oil, which is liquid in the Tropics but a semi-solid fat in point the great trade routes met in ancient times, the one crosstemperate climates, varies in colour from yellowish-red to dark ing from the Phoenician ports to the Persian gulf, the other brownish-red; before use it is bleached, either by blowing air coming up from Petra and south Arabia. through the heated oil or by treating the oil with sodium bichroIn IL. Chron, viii. 4, Solomon is said to have built “Tadmor mate and hydrochloric acid. By these means an almost white fat in the wilderness”; I. Kings ix. 18, however, from which the is produced. Large quantities of palm oil are employed in the Chronicler derived his statement, reads “Tamar” in the Hebrew saap and candle industries; it is also used in tin-plate manufacture text, with “Tadmor” in the Hebrew margin; there can be nọ for protecting the heated steel plates before tinning, and for doubt that the text is right and refers to Tamar in the land of edible purposes. Attempts have been made to use palm oil as a Judah (Ezek. xlvii. 19; xlviii. 28). The Chronicler, we must supfuel for the internal-combustion engines of motor boats on the pose, altered the name because Tadmor was a city more renowned Congo and other West African rivers. (See also Orzs AND Fats.) in his day, or possibly because he wished to increase the extent of Solomon’s kingdom. The date of the Chronicler may be placed Imports of Palm Oil, 1926 about 300 B,c., so Palmyra must have been in existence centuries before then. Of its remoter history, except for the allusion in Tiglath-Pileser’s inscription, nothing is known. We may suppose United Kingdom | United States that after the fall of the Babylonian Empire (6th century B.c.), Arabian tribes began to take possession of the partly cultivated +

(E. L.; G.

H. W.)

Recently plantation cultivation of the oil-palm under scientific con-

as been introduced into the West Indies with encouraging results.

lands east of Canaan, and learned to speak and write in Aramaic, the language which was most widely current throughout the

region west of the Euphrates in. the time of the Persian Empire (6th-4th century B.C.). It is not till much later that Palmyra

162

PALMYRA

first appears in Western literature. We learn from Appian (Bell. civ. v. 9) that in 42-41 B.c. the city was rich enough to excite the cupidity of Mark Antony. The series of native inscriptions, written in Aramaic, begins a few years after; the earliest bears the date 304 of the Seleucid era, ze., 9 B.c. (Cooke, NorthSemitic Inscriptions No. 141=Vogiié, Syrie Centrale No. 30a); by this time Palmyra had become an important trade-post between the Roman and the Parthian states. Its characteristic civilization grew out of a mixture of various elements, Arabic, Aramaic,

Greek and Roman. The bulk of the population was of Arab race, and though Aramaic was used as the written language, in common intercourse Arabic had by no means disappeared. The proper names and the names of deities, while partly Aramaic, are also in part unmistakably Arabic: it is suggestive that a purely Arabic term (fakd, NSJ. No. 136) was used for the septs into which the citizens were divided. Originally an Arab settlement, the oasis was transformed in the course of time from a mere halting-place for caravans to a city of the first rank, and a religious centre, with the worship of the Sun-god dominating that of inferior deities. The chief luxuries of the ancient world, silks, jewels, pearls, perfumes, incense and the like, were drawn from India, China and southern Arabia. The trade followed two routes; one by the Red sea, Egypt and Alexandria, the other from the Persian gulf through the Syro-Arabian desert. The latter, when the Nabataean kingdom of Petra (g.v.) came to an end (A.D. 105), passed into the hands of the Palmyrene merchants. Their caravans (cvvodiat) travelled right across the desert to the great entrepdts on the Euphrates, (VSZ. Nos. 113-115). The trade was enormously profitable, not only to the merchants but to the town, which levied a duty on all exports and imports; at the same time formidable risks had to be faced both from the desert-tribes and from the Parthians, and successfully to plan or convoy a great caravan came to be looked upon as a service to the state, often recognized by public monuments erected by “council and people”

or by the merchants interested in the venture. These monuments, a conspicuous feature of Palmyrene architecture, took the form of statues placed on brackets projecting from the upper part of the pillars which lined the principal thoroughfares. Thus arose, beside minor streets, the imposing central avenue which, starting from a triumphal arch near the great temple of the Sun, formed the main axis of the city from south-east to north-west for a length of 1,240 yards, and at one time consisted of not less than “so columns of rosy-white limestone, each 55ft. high. Local industries do not seem to have been important. The prominent townsmen were engaged in the organization and even the personal conduct of caravans, the discharge of public offices such as those of stratégos, secretary, guardian of the wells, president of the banquets of Bel, chief of the market (see WSI. Nos. II4, I1§, 121, 122), sometimes the victualling of a Roman expedition. The capable performance of these functions, which often involved considerable pecuniary sacrifices, ensured public esteem; and to these honours the head of a great house was careful to add the glory of a splendid tomb, consecrated as the “long home” (lit. “house of eternity,” cf. Eccles. xii. 5) of himself, his sons and his sons’ sons for ever. These tombs, which lie outside the city and overlook it from the surrounding hills, a feature characteristically Arabic, remain the most interesting monuments of Palmyra. Some are lofty towers containing sepulchral chambers in stories; others are house-like buildings with a single chamber and a richly ornamented portico; the sides of these chambers within are adorned with the names and sculptured portraits of the dead. As a rule the buildings of Palmyra do not possess any architectural individuality, but these tombs are an exception. The style of all the ruins is late classic and highly ornate, but without refinement. The rise of Palmyra to a position of political importance may be dated from the first imperial period, when the city must have admitted the suzerainty of Rome, for decrees respecting its cus-

Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) the distinctive position of Palmyra as an intermediate state between the two great powers of Rome and Parthia was carefully watched. The splendid period of Palmyra

(A.D. 130-270), to which the greater part of the inscribed monu-

ments belong, started from the overthrow of Petra (A.D. 105), which left Palmyra without a competitor for the Eastern trade. Hadrian treated the city with special favour, and on the occasion

of his visit in A.D. 130, granted it the name of Hadriana Palmyra (iain sain NSI. p. 322). Under the same emperor the customs were revised and a new tariff promulgated (April, a.p. 137), can-

celling the loose system of taxation “by custom” which formerly had prevailed.

The great fiscal inscription, which still remains

where it was set up, gives the fullest picture of the life and commerce of the city. (NSJ. pp. 313-340). The government was

vested in the council (BovA7) and people (éjuos), and administered by civil officers with Greek titles, the proedros (president), the grammateus (secretary), the archons, syndics and dekaprétoi (a fiscal council of ten), following the model of a Greek municipality under the Roman Empire. At a later date, probably under Septimius Severus or Caracalla (beginning of 3rd century), Palmyra received the ius italicum and the status of a colony; the executive officials of the council and people were called stratégoi, equivalent to the Roman duumviri CNSI. Nos. 121, 127); and Palmyrenes who became Roman citizens began to take Roman names, usually Septimius or Iulius Aurelius, in addition to their native names. It was the Parthian wars of the 3rd century which brought Palmyra to the front, and for a brief period raised her to an almost dazzling position as mistress of the Roman East. The inscriptions enable us to follow the rise of one house in particular, which prefixed to their Semitic names the Roman gentilicium of Septimius; its members, therefore, had received the citizenship under Septimius Severus (A.D. 193—211). In the next generation Septimius Odainath or Odaenathus, son of Hairan, had at-

tained the rank of Roman senator (ovyxAn7uxds, Vogiié No. 21,

NSI. p. 285 n.) conferred no doubt when Alexander Severus visited Palmyra in A.D. 230-231; his son again, Septimius Hairan, seems to have been the first of the family to receive the title of Ras Tadmor (“chief of Tadmor”) in addition to his Roman rank (NSI. No. 125); while his son, the famous Septimius Odainath, commonly known as Odaenathus (q.v.), the husband of Zenobia, received even higher rank, the consular dignity (Smarexos) which is given him in an inscription dated A.D. 258, in the reign of Valerian (NSI. No. 126). The East was then agitated by the advance of the Parthian Empire under the Sassanidae, and the Palmyrenes with their Roman honours and their Roman civilization, which did not really go much below the surface, had to choose one side or other. Their choice leaned towards Rome

mainly because the Roman emperor was further off than the Persian king. In the contests which followed there can be no doubt that the Palmyrene princes cherished the idea of an independent empire of their own, though they never threw over their allegiance to the Roman suzerain until the closing act of

the drama. Their opportunity came with the disaster which befell the Roman army under Valerian (g.v.) at Edessa. The Persians swept victoriously over Asia Minor and North Syria; not however without resistance on the part of Odaenathus, who inflicted considerable losses on the bands returning home from the pillage of Antioch. It was probably not long after this that Odaenathus, with a keen eye for his advantage, made overtures to the Persian king, Shapur I., and when they were rejected he threw himself into the Roman cause. After the death of Valerian, Gallienus succeeded to a merely nominal rule in the East, and made no effort to recover the lost provinces. Thereupon the two leading generals of the Roman army, Macrianus and Callistus, renounced their allegiance and proclaimed the two sons of the former as emperors (Ap. 261). During the crisis Odaenathus remained loyal to Gallienus, and was rewarded for his fidelity by the grant of a position without parallel under ordinary cit tom-dues were issued by Germanicus (A.D. 17—10) and Cn. Do- cumstances; as hereditary prince of Palmyra he was appointed mitius Corbulo (a.D. 57—66). At the same time the city had dux Orientis, a sort of vice-emperor for the East (A.D. 262). He by no means surrendered its independence; even in the days of started promptly upon the work of recovery. With his Palmyrent

PALMYRA troops, strengthened by what was left of the Roman army corps, he took the offensive against Shapur, defeated him at Ctesiphon, and in a series of brilliant engagements won back the East for Rome.

During his absence at the wars, we learn from the in-

scriptions (A.D. 262-267) that Palmyra was administered by his deputy Septimius Worod, “procurator ducenarius of Caesar our lord,” also styled “commandant,” as being Odaenathus’ viceroy

(apyarérns, NSI. Nos. 127-129). Then in the zenith of his

success Odaenathus was assassinated at Homs (Emesa) along with

his eldest son Herodes (A.D. 266-267). The fortunes of Palmyra now passed into the vigorous hands of Zenobia (g.v.), who had been actively supporting her husband in his policy. Zenobia seems to have ruled on behalf of her young son Wahab-allath or Atheno-

dérus as the name is Graecized, who counts the years of his reign from the date of his father’s death. Under Odaenathus Palmyra had extended her sway over Syria and Arabia but now

the troops of Zenobia, numbering it is said 70,000, proceeded to occupy Egypt; the Romans under Probus resisted vigorously but without avail, and by the beginning of a.p. 270, when Aurelian succeeded Claudius as emperor, Wahab-allath was governing Egypt with the title of “king.” His coins of 270 struck at Alexandria bear the legend v(ir) c(onsularis) R(omanorum) im(perator) d(ux) R(omanorum) and display his head beside that of Aurelian, but the latter alone is styled Augustus. Meanwhile the Palmyrenes were pushing their influence not only in Egypt but in Asia Minor while still professing to act under the terms of the joint rule conferred by Gallienus. Then in the course of the

year AD. 270-271 came the inevitable and open breach. In Palmyra Zenobia is still called “queen” (BaciMosa, NSI. No. 131; cf. Wadd. 2628), but in distant quarters, such as Egypt, she and her son claim the dignity of Augustus; Wahab-allath

(sth

year) begins to issue coins at Alexandria without the head of Aure-

lian and bearing the imperial title; and Zenobia’s coins bear the same. It was at this time (A.D. 271) that the two chief Palmyrene generals Zabda and Zabbai, set up a statue to the deceased Odaenathus and gave him the sounding designation of “king of kings and restorer (or perhaps corrector) of the whole city” (NSI. No. 130). These assumptions marked a definite rejection of all allegiance to Rome. Aurelian, the true Augustus, quickly grasped the situation. At the close of A.D. 270 Probus brought back Egypt into the empire; then in 27x Aurelian made preparations for a great campaign against the seat of the mischief itself. He approached by way of Cappadocia, where he reduced the Palmyrene garrisons, and thence through Cilicia he entered Syria. At Antioch the Palmyrene forces under Zabda attempted to resist him, but they were compelled to fall back, and at Emesa they were defeated in a stiffly contested battle. The way was now open to Palmyra and probably in the spring of A.D. 272 Aurelian captured the city. In accordance with the judicious policy which he had observed in Asia Minor and at Antioch, he granted full pardon to the citizens; only the chief officials and advisers were put to death; Zenobia and her son were captured and reserved for his

triumph when he returned to Rome.

But the final stage in the

conquest of the city was yet to come. A few months later, in the autumn of 272—the latest inscription is dated August 272 (Vogüé, No. 116)—the Palmyrenes revolted, killed the Roman garrison quartered in the city, and proclaimed one Antiochus as their chief. Aurelian heard of it just when he had crossed the Hellespont on his way home. He returned instantly before any one expected him, and took the city by surprise. Palmyra was destroyed and the population put to the sword. Aurelian restored

the walls and the great Temple of the Sun (A.D. 273); but the city never recovered its splendour or importance. The famous almyrene archers, however, served in the Roman army in Africa and elsewhere, even in Britain, as the inscription now at South ‘ey gives evidence (NSJ. pp. 250, 312; Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, 1. 92). Language—The language spoken at Palmyra was a dialect of western Aramaic, and belongs to the same group as Nabataean and the Aramaic spoken in Egypt. In some important points,

wever, the dialect was related to the eastern Aramaic or Syriac (e.g. the plur. ending in é’; the dropping of the final ž of the pro-

163

nominal suffix third pers. sing. with nouns, and of the final @ of the third pers. pl. of the verb; the infin. ending #, etc.). But the relation to western Aramaic is closer; specially characteristic are the following features: the imperf. beginning with y, not as in Syriac and the eastern dialects with 2 or l; the plur. ending -ayy; the forms of the demonstrative pronouns, etc. As the

bulk of the population was of Arab race, it is not surprising that many of the proper names are Arabic and that several Arabic

words occur in the inscriptions. The technical terms of municipal government are mostly Greek, transliterated into Palmyrene; a few Latin words occur, of course in Aramaic forms. The writing is a modified form of the old Aramaic character, and especially interesting because it represents almost the last stage through Which the ancient alphabet passed before it developed into the Hebrew square character. The names of the months were the same as those used by the

Nabataeans, Syrians and later Jews, viz., the Babylonian. The calendar was practically a reproduction of the Julian, which

Roman influence disseminated throughout Syria. Dates reckoned by the Seleucid era, from October 312 B.C.

were

Religion.—The religion of Palmyra did not differ in essentials

from that of the north Syrians and the Arab tribes of the eastern desert. The chief god of the Palmyrenes was a solar deity, called

Samas or Shamash (“sun”), or Bel, or Malak-bel, transcribed Mahaxfijdos, Malagbelus (VSI. p. 268; Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, li. pp. 84, 92), whose

great temple is still the most imposing

feature among the ruins of Palmyra. Both Bel and Malak-bel were of Babylonian origin. Sometimes associated with the Sun-

god was ‘Agli-bol the Moon-god, who is represented as a young Roman warrior with a large crescent attached to his shoulders (Chabot, Choix d’Inscr. de Palmyre, Pl. xix. 1). The great goddess

of the Aramaeans, ‘Athar-‘atheh, in Greek Atargatis (g.v.), and

Allath, the chief goddess of the ancient Arabs, were also worshipped at Palmyra. Another deity whose name occurs in votive

inscriptions, is Baal-shamin, i.¢., “Baal of the heavens,” = Zevs Meytoros Kepatvios, sometimes called “lord of eternity.” Another interesting divine name is that of a distinctly Arabic deity “Sheʻaalqüm the good and bountiful god who does not drink wine” (NSI. No. 140 B); the name means “he who accompanies, the

protector of, the people’—the divine patron of the caravan. A common formula in Palmyrene dedications runs “To him whose name is blessed for ever, the good and the compassionate”; out of reverence the name of the deity was not pronounced; was it Bel or Malak-bel? It is worth noticing that this epithet like “lord of eternity” (or, “of the world”), has a distinctly Jewish character. Altogether about 22 names of gods are found in Palmyrene; some of them, however, only occur in compound

proper names. After its overthrow by Aurelian, Palmyra was partially revived as a military station by Diocletian (end of 3rd century A.D.), as we learn from a Latin inscription found on the site. Before this time Christianity had made its way into the oasis, for among the fathers present at the Council of Nicaea (A.D. 32 5) was Marinus bishop of Palmyra. The names of two other bishops (sth and 6th centuries) have come down to us and the foundations of two churches have been discovered, the larger of which, r148ft. by 88ft., may have held the seat of the bishop. About ap. 400, Palmyra was the station of the first Illyrian legion (Not. dign.

i. 85, ed. Bocking) ; Justinian in 527 furnished it with an aqueduct, and built the wall of which the ruins still remain (Procopius, De gedif, ii. 11). At the Moslem conquest of Syria, Palmyra capitu-

lated to Khalid (see CatrpHare) without embracing Islam (Yaqtit, i. 831). The town became a Moslem fortress and re-

ceived a considerable Arab colony. The ruins of Palmyra greatly interested the Arabs, and are commemorated in several poems quoted by Yaqit and others; they are referred to by the early poet Nabigha as proofs of the might of Solomon and his sovereignty over their builders the Jinn (Derenbourg, Journ. As. xii.

269). References to Palmyra in later times have been collected by Quatremére, Sultans Mamlouks, ii. pt. I. p. 255 seg. All but

annihilated by earthquake in the 11th century, it recovered considerable prosperity; when Benjamin of Tudela visited the city,

164.

PALNI

HILLS—PALUDAN-MULLER

which was still called Tadmor, he found 2,000 Jews within the walls (12th century). It was still a wealthy place as late as the r4th century; but in the general decline of the East, and owing to changes in the trade routes, it sunk at length to a poor group of

hovels gathered in the courtyard of the Temple of the Sun. The ruins first became known to Europe through the visit of Dr. William Halifax of Aleppo in 1691 (see PEFỌ. St. 1890). The architecture was carefully studied by Wood and Dawkins in 1751, whose splendid folio (The Ruins of Palmyra, London, 1753) also gave copies of inscriptions. But the epigraphic wealth of Palmyra was first opened to study by the collections of Waddington

(vol. iti.) and De Vogüé (La Syrie centrale) made in 1861-62. Since that time the most valuable document which has come to light is the great fiscal inscription discovered in 1882 by Prince Abamelek Lazarew. See also J. Mordtmann, Palmyrenisches (1899) ; Clermont-Ganneau, Etudes d’arch. or. i, Receuil. d’arch. or. iii, v., vii, viii.; Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i. and ii.; Sobernheim, Palm. Inschr. (1905). The RéperLoire d’épigr. sém. contains the new texts which have been published

since 1900, and Chabot, Choix d’Inscriptions de Palmyre, 1922, a valuable collection of texts and photographs. For the dialect, see Néldeke, ZDMG. xxiv. 85-109, and S. A. Cook JOR, xvi. 274 ff. Critical discussions of the history will be found in Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, (Eng. trans,, 1886), pp. 92 sqq. An expedition was made in r9r4 by Pères Jaussen and Savignac, under the auspices of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres; the report is given in

the Revue Biblique, 1920, pp. 359-419. The whole site is being explored afresh (1927) for the Académie by Prof. A. Gabriel, see Syria, viii. (1927) pp. 71-92. (G. A.C.)

PALNI HILLS, a range of bills in south India, in the Madura district of Madras. They are an offshoot from the Western Ghats, and, while distinct from the Anamalaı hills, form part of the same system, They contain the hill station of Kodaika-: nal (7,200 ft.). Coffee is cultivated on the lower slopes.

PALO

ALTO,

a city of Santa Clara county, California,

U.S.A., on the San Francisco peninsula, 28 m. S.E. of the city and 18 m. from the ocean. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway and by motor-coach lines. Pop. 5,900 in 1920 (83% native white); 13,652 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is a beautiful residential city, the seat of Stanford university (q.v.), five military academies, several private preparatory schools and a U.S. Veterans’ hospital. Palo Alto was laid out in 1891 by Senator Stanford, as a university town, and was incorporated ın 1894. In 1909 it was chartered as a city. The name was suggested by an isolated redwood-tree which stood on the site.

PALO

ALTO, a battlefield in Cameron county, Texas, be-

tween Point Isabel and Matamoras, about nine miles north-east of the latter. There on May 8, 1846, took place the first battle of the war between Mexico and the United States (1846-1848). Brigadier General Zachary Taylor’s forces of some 2,200 regulars, in an effort to join with beleagered troops at Fort Brown, came upon a superior number of Mexicans (variously estimated between 4,000 and 6,00a) under General Arista. Between the chaparral and the marshes the two lines were drawn up opposite each other, the Mexicans astride the road to Ft. Brown. Taylor's artillery, better handled than the Mexican heavy pieces, cut great swaths in the enemy’s lines in process of forming. An attempt to turn the American right by a superior force of Mexican cavalry was met by a hollow square of the sth Infantry. The grass was set on

fire by the powder wads from the shells, so that a dense smoke screen kept the two armies from seeing each other well. In this haze, the trained and disciplined subordinate leaders of the United states forces promptly met the Mexican attempt to encircle the left. Ringgold’s and Duncan’s batteries moved and fired handily in spite of the smoke. Because the battle began in the afternoon, there was not sufficient daylight for either side to have a decision. When darkness closed the issue for the day the Mexican loss was,

according to estimate, about seven times that of the Americans, The engagement is interesting in that it was the first instance in United States history where superiority of training against an

organized enemy rested with the Americans.

Breriograrpny.—Justin H. Smith, Tke War with Mexico, Vol. I. (1919) ; George B. McClellan, The Mexican War Diary (1917); C. M. Wilcox, History of the Mexican War (1892); W. A. Ganoe, The His-

tory of the United States Army (1924). Original Correspondence and Reports in Old Files Section, Adjutant General’s MAREE a EEN, D.C. . A.G.

PALOLO WORM (Eunice viridis), a marine annelid worm of the order Polychaeta, native to the waters surrounding the Samoan and Fiji islands. At the full of the October moon it comes

to the surface in immense numbers to breed and is caught in large quantities by the natives for food. (See ANNELIDA, Fig, 10). PALOMINO DE CASTRO Y VELASCO, ACISCLO ANTONIO (1653-1726), Spanish painter and writer on art, Although negligible as an artist, he produced a work on art, Æ] Museo pictorico y escala optica (1715—24), the third volume of which is a mine of biographical material relating to Spanish artists. On the strength of this he has been called “the Spanish Vasari.” The work was partially translated into English in 1739; an abridgment of the original (Zas Vidas de los pintores y estatuarios españoles) was published in London in 1742, and afterwards appeared in a French translation in 1749. A German version was published at Dresden in 1781, and a reprint of the entire work at Madrid in 1797.

PALO

VERDE

(Cercidium Torreyanum), a North Ameri-

can tree of the pea family (Leguminosae), native to the highly arid deserts of south-eastern California and adjacent Arizona and

Mexico.

It is a short-trunked, intricately branched tree, 1s to

20 ft. high, with smooth, conspicuously green bark and minute leaves which quickly wither and fall, their function being assumed by the green elements (chlorophyll) in the bark. The bright yellow flowers, borne in axillary clusters, are followed by bean-like pods about 3 in. long. The palo verde (Span. palo verde, green tree) is a characteristic woody plant along washes in the Colorado desert.

PALTOCK, ROBERT

(1697-1767), English writer, a Lon-

doner by birth, owes his fame to his romantic Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins (1751). It has been several times reprinted, notably with an introduction by A. H. Bullen in 1884. Paltock died in London on March 20, 1767.

PALUDAN-MULLER, FREDERIK (1809-1876), Danish poet, was the third son of Jens Paludan-Miiller, from 1830 to 1845 bishop of Aarhus, and born at Kjerteminde im Fiinen, on Feb. 7, 1809. In 1819 his father was transferred to Odense, and Frederik began to attend the Latin school there. In 1828 he passed to the university of Copenhagen. In 1832 he opened his

poetical career with Four Romances, and a successful romantic comedy entitled Kjaerlighed ved hoffeé (“Love at Court’’). This

was succeeded in 1833 by Dandserinden (“The Dancing Girl”). He was not, however, well inspired in his lyrical drama of Amor and Psyche in 1834, nor in his Oriental tale of Zuleimas flugi (“Zuleima’s Flight”) in 1835, both written under the strong

influence of Byron.

But he regained all that he had lost by his

two volumes of poems in 1836 and 1838. From 1838 to 1840 Paludan-Miller was making the grand tour in Europe and his genius greatly expanded; in Italy he wrote Venus, a lyrical poem of extreme beauty. In the same year, 1841, he began to publish a great work on which he had long been engaged, and which he did not conclude until 1848; this was Adam Homo, a narrative epic, satirical, modern and descriptive, into which Paludan-Miiller

wove all his variegated impressions of Denmark and of love. This. remains a Danish classic. In 1844 he composed three enchanting idylls, Dryadens bryllup (“The Dryad’s Wedding”), Tithan (“Tithonus”) and Abels död (“The Death of Abel”). From 1850 a certain decline in the poet’s physical energy became manifest and he wrote less. His majestic drama of Kalanus belongs ta 1854. Then for seven years he kept silence. Paradiset (“Para-

dise”) 1861; and Benedikt fra Nurcia (“Benedict of Nurcia”)

1861; bear evidence of malady, both physical and mental. Paludan-Miilller wrote considerably after this, but never recovered his early raptures, except in the very latest of all his poems, the enchanting welcome to death, entitled Adonis. The poet died at Copenhagen on Dec. 27, 1876. Paludan-Miiller was also the author of two prose romances: Ungdomskilden (“The Fountain of Youth”)

Historie (3 vols., 1866-73). published in 1878-79.

(1865); and Ivar Lykke’

His Poetiske

Skrifter

(8 vols.)

were

PALWAL—PAMIRS

165

PALWAL, a town of British India, in Gurgaon district, Punjab. Pop. (1921), 9,352. It is a place of great antiquity,

which claims many of the characteristics of the western Pamirs at its upper extremity, where the Karachukar, which drains it, supposed to figure in the earliest Aryan traditions under the name is a comparatively small stream. But where the Karachukar, of Apelava, part of the Pandava kingdom of Indraprastha. joining forces with the Khunjerab, flows northwards to TashkurPAMIERS, a town of southern France in the department of ghan, dividing the two parallel ranges of Sarikol and Kandar, Ariège, 40 m. S. by E. of Toulouse on the railway to Foix. Pop. which together form the Sariko] chain, the appellation Pamir can (1926) 9,777. Pamiers was originally a castle built in the early hardly be maintained. This is the richest portion of the Sarikol rath century by Roger IT., count of Foix, on lands of the abbey of province. Here are stone-built houses collected in scattered deSt. Antonin de Frédelas. The abbots of St. Antonin, and after- tachments, with a spread of cultivation reaching down to the wards the bishops, shared the authority over the town with the river. Here are water-mills and many permanent appliances of counts, which gave rise to numerous disputes. Pamiers was sacked civilization suited to the lower altitude (11,500 ft., the average by Jean de Foix in 1486, again during the religious wars, when height of the upper Pamirs being about 13,000), and here we are the abbey of St. Antonin was destroyed, and finally in 1628, by no longer near the sources of the river at the foot of the mounHenry II. of Bourbon prince of Condé. Pamiers is the seat of tain peaks. One other so-called Pamir exists to the east of Saria bishopric dating from the 13th century. The cathedral (chiefly kol, separated therefrom by the Kandar, which is known as Mar17th century) with an octagonal Gothic tower, is a mixture of iom or Mariong. But this Pamir is situated nowhere near the the Graeco-Roman and Gothic styles; the church of Notre-Dame sources of the Zarafshan or Raskam river, which it borders, and du Camp (17th and 18th centuries) has a crenelated and machic- possesses little in common with the Pamirs of the west. The olated facade of the 13th century. Iron and steel of good quality Mariom Pamir defines the western extremity of the Kuen Lun, are among its products. There are nursery gardens in the vicinity, which stretches eastwards for 250 m. before it becomes the poand the white wine of the district is well known. litical boundary of northern Tibet. The Muztagh Chain and Karakoram Extension.—The PAMIRS. The name of a chain of mountains in Central Asia. Our estimate of the extent of Pamir conformation depends Muztagh chain, which holds within its grasp the mightiest system much on the significance of the word Pamir. If we accept the of glaciers in the world, forms a junction with the Sarikol at the Persian derivation of the term, pai-mir, or “the foot of moun- head of the Taghdumbash, and also with the Hindu Kush. The

tain peaks,” we have a definition which is by no means an inapt illustration of the actual facts of configuration. The plateau of Tibet and the uplands of the Pamirs are not analogous in physiography, and do not merge into each other. Littledale points out (R.G.S. Journ., vol. vii.) that the high-level valleys of glacial formation which distinguish the Pamirs have no real counterpart in the Chang-t’ang or high plains of Tibet. The latter are 2,000 ft. higher, intersected by narrow ranges, are drained by no rivers of importance, but form a region of salt lakes and stagnant marshes, relieved by wide flat spaces of open plateau country. The absence of any vegetation beyond grass or scrub is a striking feature common to both Pamir and Chang-t’ang, but there the resemblance ceases, and the physical conformation of mountain and valley to the east and to the west of the upper sources of the Zarafshan is radically distinct. The Pamirs are divided by the great meridional mountain chain of Sarikol with Muztag Ata (24,388 ft.). This chain divides the

political boundary between Kashmir

and Sinkiang is carried by

the Zarafshan or Raskam river to a point in about 79° 20’ E. where it is transferred to the watershed of the Kuen Lum. Within the limits of these partially explored highlands, lying between the Pamirs and the Tibetan table-land, exact geographical definition is impossible. Godwin-Austen considers the main chain of the Muztagh to merge into the central system of the Tibetan Changt’ang, its axis being defined and divided by the transverse stream of the Shyok at its westward bend; whilst the Karakoram range, in which the Shyok rises, is a subsidiary northern branch. The pass over the Karakoram (18,500 ft.) is the most formidable

obstacle on the main trade route between Leh (g.v.) and Kashgar. The Taghdumbash Pamir.—The Taghdumbash Pamir oc-

cupies a geographical position of some political significance. One important pass (the Beyik, 15,100 ft.) leads from the Russian Pamirs into Sarikol across its northern border. A second pass (the Wakhjir, 16,150 ft.) connects the head of the Wakhan valhigh-level sources of the Oxus on the west from the streams which ley of Afghanistan with the Sarikol province across its western sweep downwards into the Turkestan depression of Kashgar on head, whilst a third (the Kilik, 15,600 ft.) leads into the head of the east. There are the true Pamirs (że., valleys reaching up in the Hunza river and opens a difficult and dangerous route to long slopes to the foot of mountain peaks) on either side, and Gilgit. those on the west differ in some essential respects from those on Glacial Sources of the Oxus.—The true source of the Oxus the east. On the west the following are generally recognized as probably lies in the snowfields of the Nicolas range and Lakes distinct Pamirs: (x) the Great Pamir, with Lake Victoria; (2) Chakmaktin (13,020 ft.) and Victoria (13,400 ft.) may’ be rethe Little Pamir, separated from the Great Pamir on the north garded as incidents, diminishing in volume day by day, in the by the Nicolas range; (3) the Pamir-i-Wakhan; the narrow course of glacial streams, rather than original springs or sources.. trough of the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus, the term Pamir The Nicolas glaciers also send down streams to the Panja or Wakapplying to its upper reaches only; (4) the Alichur—the Pamir han river, below its junction with the ice stream from Wakhjir. of the Yeshil Kul and Ghund—immediately to the north of the Climate and Population.—What is known of the climate of Great Pamir; (5) the Sarez Pamir, the valley of the Murghab the Pamirs is based on observations taken at Pamirski Post, on the tiver, which has here found its way round the east of the Great Murghab river. The rainfall is that of the steppe régime, most Pamir and the Alichur from the Little Pamir, and now makes rain falling in late spring and early summer. The air is rewestwards for the Oxus. At the foot of the Sarez Pamir stands markably dry, especially in summer. The mean winter (January) Murghabi. To the north-east of the Alichur are the Rang Kul temperature is —1°, and the mean summer temperature (July) and the Kara Kul Pamirs. Rang Kul lake occupies a central basin 58°. A very strong south-west wind blows up the valleys by day or depression; but the Kara Kul drains away north-eastwards throughout the year. There is much snow in the valley bottoms, through the Sarikol (as the latter, bending westwards, merges but the ridges are snow free and without glaciers. At the height into the Trans-Alai) to Kashgar and the Turkestan plains. Similar of 12,000 ft. the rainfall is only 2 in. per annum. characteristics distinguish all these Pamirs. They are hemmed in The population is mainly nomadic and includes a variety of and separated by snow-capped mountain peaks and ridges, which “drifts” from various surrounding regions. The main element is are seamed with glaciers terminating in moraines. Long sweeps usually called Pamiri, and is very broad-headed, with a white, of grassy upland bestrewn with boulders lead from the streams fresh skin, often much bronzed, and abundant brown hair, inclined up to the snowfields, yellow, grey or vivid green, according to to be curly; the men have much face hair. The stature is slightly season and the measure of sunlight, fold upon fold in interminabove the average (say 5 ft. 64 in.), the nose is narrow, prominent

able succession, their bleak monotony being only relieved by the

grace of flowers for a short space during the summer.

To the east of the Sarikol chain is the Taghdumbash Pamir

and straight or aquiline, the eyes are straight, as in Europeans, and may be light. Among the Pamiri tribes the purest are the mountaineers called Galchas. To the south are Dardi elements

166

PAMPA—PAMPERO

more related to the people of north-west India, but not usually with such extreme long heads as are found among the Rajputs and Sikhs. To the west occur the broad-headed Kirghiz, with yellowish-white skin, usually bronzed, very broad heads, large cheekbones, rather narrow noses, dark eyes of European type, and a tendency to stoutness. The first, or Pamiri type is, in practically every feature, akin to the Alpini type of Europe. Some of the Pamiri peoples are nearly related to the gypsies. There are Jews in the towns below the Pamirs. The Kirghiz are Sunni Mohammedans, but are said to retain traces of ancient Nestorian Christianity in their ritual practices, and it is thought that a Christian bishopric survived at Yarkand till about a century after its presence there was noted by Marco Polo. The last Gurkhan of the Kara Kitai Empire in the early 13th century (the legendary Prester John) was a member of a Christian tribe named Naiman, mentioned by Ney Elias and claiming kinship with the Kipchaks. Through the Pamirs have passed famous trade routes, ¢.g., from Yarkand, via Tashkurgan and Rang Kul, to the stations

in Turkistan north of the Oxus, or, via Tashkurgan and Lake Victoria, to Badakshan, while the Buddhist pilgrim route from Yarkand, and other cities of Sinkiang, across the Baroghil pass to Chitral, is also of historic importance.

Exploration.—Native explorers from India first began to be busy in the Pamirs about 1860, and in 1874 the mission of Sir D. Forsyth to Yarkand led to the first systematic geographical exploitation of the Pamir country. In 1885 Ney Elias made his famous journey across the Pamirs from east to west, identifying the Rang Kul as the Dragon lake of Chinese geographers—a distinction which has also been claimed by some geographers for Lake Victoria. Lockhart and Woodthorpe in 1886 passed along the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus from its head to Ishkashim in Badakshan, and completed an enduring record of most excellent geographical research. Bonvalot in 1887, Littledale in 1888, Cumberland, Bower and Dauvergne, followed by Younghusband in succeeding years, extending to 1890; Dunmore in 1892 and Sven Hedin in 1894-95, have all contributed to Pamir geography; but the honours of successful inquiry in those high altitudes still fall to the late Lord Curzon, whose researches in 1894 led to a singularly clear and comprehensive description of Pamir geography, as well as to the best map compilation made up to that time. Meanwhile Russian explorers and Russian topographers had been equally busy from the north. The famous soldier Skobelev was probably the first European to visit the Great Kara Kul. He was followed by scientific missions systematically organized by the Russian government. In 1883 Putiata’s mission started south. Gromchevsky was hard at work from 1888 to 1892. Yano began again in 1891, after a short spell of rest, and has left his mark as a permanent record in the valley of Sarhad (or Wakhan), between the Baroghil pass and Bozai Gumbaz. Finally, in 1895, the Russian mission under General Shveikovsky met the British mission under General Gerard on the banks of Lake Victoria, and from that point to the Chinese frontier eastward demarcated the line which thereafter divided Russian from British interests in highest Asia.

PAMPA,

LA, a territory of the southern pampas

region

of Argentina, bounded north by Mendoza, San Luis and Córdoba, east by Buenos Aires, south by the territory of Rio Negro, from which it is separated by the river Colorado, and west by Mendoza. Pop. (1914) 101,338. It belongs geographically to the southwestern part of the great Argentine pampas, from which its name is derived, but in reality only a part of its surface belongs to the plain region. The western and southern part (perhaps the larger) is much broken by hills, swamps and sandy wastes, with occasional stretches of wooded country. The western half is crossed by a broad depression, extending from Mendoza south-east to an intersection with the valley of the Colorado, which was once, perhaps, the outlet of the closed drainage basin occupied by the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and San Luis. This depression is partially filled with swamps and lakes, into which flow the rivers Atuel and Salado. An obscure continuation of these rivers, called the Chadi-leubu, flows south-east from the great swamps into the large lake of Urrelauquén, about 60 m. north of the Colo-

rado. There are a great number of lakes in La Pampa, especially in the south-east. The eastern half is described as fertile and wel] adapted for grazing, although the rainfall is very light. Since the closing years of the 19th century there has been a large migration of stock-raisers and agriculturists into La Pampa, and the terri. tory has become an important producer of cattle and sheep, wheat, Indian corn, linseed, barley and alfalfa. The climate is dry, and the temperature ranges from the severe frosts of winter to an extreme of 104° F in summer. Strong, variable winds are characteristic of this region. Railways have been extended into the territory from Buenos Aires and Bahia Blanca, the latter being the nearest seaport. There is connection also with the Transandine railway line on the north. The capital is General Acha (pop about 2,000), and the only other places of importance are Santa

Rosa de Toay and Victorica, both small “camp” villages.

PAMPAS, an extensive plain of Argentina, extending from the Rio Colorado north to the Gran Chaco, and from the foot-hills of the Andes east to the Parana and Atlantic coast. There are other pampas in South America, such as the pampas de Aullagas, in Bolivia, the pampas del Sacramento between the Huallaga and Ucayali rivers in eastern Peru, and others less well known, but when pampas is used alone the great Argentine plain is meant. The Argentine pampas was once the bed of an ancient sea, covered on the west by shingle and sand, and on the east by deposits of estuary silt. Its western and northern limits, formed by the foot-hills of the Andes, and by the south of the great forested depression of the Gran Chaco, cannot be accurately defined, but its area is estimated at 200,000 to 300,000 square miles, Its greatest breadth is across the south, between the 36th and 37th parallels, and its least in the north. It has a gradual slope from north-west to south-east, from an elevation above sea-level of 2,320 ft. at Mendoza to 20 ft. at Buenos Aires on the La Plata— the distance across being about 635 miles. Apart from a few sierras in the north-west and in the south, and a few longitudinal depressions in the west the plain appears perfectly level. The east, which is humid, fertile and grassy, has no natural arboreal growth, except in the vicinity of Cordoba and in the north, where algarrobas and some of the Chaco species are to be found. In the extreme south some species of low, thorny bushes cover considerable areas in the vicinity of the hill-ranges, otherwise the plain is destitute of native trees. Since the arrival of Europeans several species have been introduced successfully, such as the eucalyptus, poplar, peach, willow, ombú and others. The distinctive vegetation of the grassy pampas is the tall, coarse-leaved ‘‘pampas grass” whose feathery spikes often reach a height of 8 or 9 feet. It covers large areas to the exclusion of all other species except the trefoils and herbs that grow between its tussocks. Since the advent of Europeans other forage plants have been introduced, the most successful being alfalfa (lucerne). West of this region is a dry, sandy, semi-barren plain, called the “sterile pampas.” It has large saline areas, brackish streams and lakes and immense sandy deserts, and in singular contrast to the fertile, treeless region of the east it supports large areas of stunted trees and thorny bushes. The grassy plains are well watered by streams flowing to the Parana, La Plata and coast, though some of these are brackish. Civilized occupation is working many changes in the character and appearance of the pampas. The first change was in the introduction of cattle and horses. Cattle were pastured on the open pampas and were guarded by men called gauchos, who became celebrated for their horsemanship, hardihood and lawlessness. Attention was then turned to sheep-breeding, which developed another and better type of plainsmen. Then followed the extensive cultivation of cereals, forage crops, etc., which led to the general

use of fences, the employment of immigrant labourers, largely Italian and Spanish, the building of railways and the growth of towns. The picturesque gaucho is disappearing in the eastern provinces, and the herds are being driven farther inland.

PAMPERQO, the cold south-west wind which blows over the

great plains of southern Argentina. The term is somewhat loosely applied to any strong south-west wind in that region, but more strictly to a rain squall or thunderstarm arising suddenly in the

PAMPHILUS—PAN prevailing currents from north and north-east.

167

Pamperos occur

PAMPLONA, the capital of the Spanish province of Navarre,

at Buenos Aires on an average about a dozen times in the year.

and an episcopal see; situated 1,387 ft. above sea-level, on the left bank of the Arga, a tributary of the Ebro. Pop. (1920) 32,635. Pamplona has a station on the Ebro railway connecting Alsasua with Saragossa. From its position it has always been the principal fortress of Navarre. Originally a town of the Vascones, Pamplona was rebuilt in 68 B.c. by Pompey the Great, whence the name Pompaelo or Pompelo (Strabo). It was captured by Euric the Goth in 466 and by the Franks under Childebert in 542; it was dismantled by Charlemagne in 778, but repulsed the emir of Saragossa in 907. In the 14th century it was greatly strengthened and beautified by Charles III., who built a citadel on the site now occupied by the Plaza de Toros and by the Basilica de S. Ignacio, the church marking the spot where Ignatius de Loyola received his wound in defending the place against André de Foix in 1521. The citadel, south-west of the city, was constructed by order of

PAMPHILUS (ist century a.p.), a Greek grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus.

He was

the author of a comprehensive

lexicon, in 95 books, of foreign or obscure words (yAG@rrat #rou hétets), the idea of which was credited to another grammarian, Zopyrion, himself the compiler of the first four books. The work itself is lost, but an epitome by Diogenianus (2nd century) formed the basis of the lexicon of Hesychius. A similar compilation, called

Aepav (“meadow”) from its varied contents, dealing chiefly with

mythological marvels, was probably a supplement to the lexicon. See M. Schmidt, appendix to his edition of Hesychius (1862) vol. iv.

PAMPHLET,

a small tract especially of topical interest

(probably from Fr. pamphilet, derived from the rath century poem Pamphilus seu de amore). The first use of the word is

found in 1344 in Richard de Bury’s Philobiblon. The leaflets and broadsides of the 15th and 16th centuries were concerned with religious controversy. In the 17th century the more familiar type of polemical pamphlet became common, famous examples being Milton’s Areopagitica, and the anti-Cromwell tract Killing no

Murder (1657). But it was not until the 18th century that the

pamphlet first in the hands of Addison and Swift, and so down

to Burke and Rousseau became a regular weapon of political controversy, the medium as well for a stately argument as for a

bitter personal assault. Less pugnacious and less adroit in the roth and 2oth centuries, the pamphlet has become increasingly a means of propaganda. The corn laws, the Indian mutiny, Schleswig-Holstein, Irish home rule, the eastern question, vaticanism (and every sort of religious dispute), Dreyfus, tariff reform, prohibition, nationalization, etc.; all have produced a flood of pamphlet controversy. Generally speaking the pamphlet tends essentially to present one side of an argument and is usually more remarkable for its vigour than its balance.

PAMPHYLIA,

the region in the south of Asia Minor, be-

tween Lycia and Cilicia, extending from the Mediterranean to Mt. Taurus. It was bounded on the north by Pisidia and was a country of small extent, having a coast-line of about 75 miles with a breadth of about 30 miles. There can be little doubt that the Pamphylians and Pisidians were originally the same people; but

the distinction between the two seems to have been established at an early period. Herodotus, who does not mention the Pisidians, enumerates the Pamphylians (i. 28) among the nations of Asia Minor, while Ephorus mentions them both, correctly including the one among the nations on the coast, the other among those of the interior. The early Pamphylians, like the Lycians, had an alphabet of their own, partly Greek, partly “Asianic,” which a few inscriptions on marble and coins preserve. Under

the Romans the term Pamphylia was extended to include Pisidia and the whole tract up to the frontiers of Phrygia and Lycaonia. The country consisted almost entirely of a plain. The chief towns on the coast were: Olbia, the first town in Pamphylia, near the Lycian frontier; Attaleia (g.v.); and Side (g.v.). On a hill above the Eurymedon stood Aspendus (g.v.) and above the river Cestrus was Perga (g.v.). Between the two rivers, but somewhat farther inland, stood Sylleum, a strong fortress, which even ventured to defy the arms of Alexander. The coins of Aspendus, though of Greek character, bear legends in a barbarous dialect; and probably the Pamphylians were of Asiatic origin and mixed race. They became largely hellenized in Roman times, and have left magnificent memorials of their civlization at Perga, Aspendus and Side. The Pamphylians are first mentioned among the nations subdued by the Mermnad kings of Lydia, and afterwards passed in succession under the dominion

of the Persian and Macedonian monarchs.

After the defeat of

Antiochus ITT. in 190 B.c. they were included among the provinces annexed by the Romans to the dominions of Eumenes of Pergamum; later they joined with the Pisidians and Cilicians in piratical ravages. Pamphylia was for a short time included in the

Philip IL. (1556-98), and was modelled on that of Antwerp.

The

cathedral is a late Gothic structure begun in 1397 by Charles III. (El Noble) of Navarre, who is buried within its walls; of the older Romanesque cathedral only a small portion of the cloisters remains. The fine interior is remarkable for the peculiar structure of its apse, and for the choir-stalls carved in English oak by Miguel Ancheta (1530). The principal facade is Corinthian, from designs of Ventura Rodriguez (1783). The same architect designed the aqueduct by which the city is supplied with water from Monte Francoa, some nine miles off. Pamplona has a flourishing agricultural trade, besides manufactures of cloth, linen stuffs, flour, soap, leather, cards, paper, earthenware, iron and nails. The yearly fair in connection with the feast of San Fermin (July 7), the patron saint of the city, attracts a large concourse.

PAN, an Arcadian deity who never attained any high moral development or prominent place in cult outside of Arcadia (Ilar, Doric contraction of *rdwv, “pasturer,” cf. Lat. pa-sco; but commonly supposed in antiquity to be connected with dav “all”. His father is generally said to be Hermes; as his mother is often named PENELOPE (g.v.), probably not the wife of Odysseus, but commonly identified with her, hence one or another of the characters in the Odyssey is sometimes called his father. He is represented as more or less bestial in shape, generally having the horns, legs and ears of a goat; in later art the human parts of his form are much more emphasized, the bestial characteristics dwindling to a little pair of horns. His activities are those of a giver of fertility; hence he is represented as vigorous and lustful. His chief concern is with flocks and herds, not with agriculture; hence he can make men, like cattle, stampede in “panic” terror; like a shepherd, he is a piper, a late legend representing him as the lover of a nymph Syrinx (“pan-pipe”), who disappeared into a reed-bed when he pursued her, Pan making the first pipe from the reeds. Like a shepherd, again, he rests at noon, and dislikes having his sleep disturbed; he can also send visions and dreams. Again like a shepherd, he haunts the high hills, and another late story makes him love or be loved by the nymph Pitys (“pine-tree’’). Two picturesque stories are told of him. When the Athenians sent the runner Pheidippides (or Philippides) to ask help of Sparta before Marathon, he encountered Pan, who asked why Athens did not honour him, seeing that he was her friend and would be so again. After the battle, a cult of him was instituted (presumably because he had sent panic among the Persians). (See Herodotus, vi., 105.) In the time of Tiberius, one Thamus, pilot of a ship making for Italy, was thrice called by name and bidden to give the news that “great Pan was dead.” (Plutarch, de defect, orac., 17.) It is plausibly suggested by S. Reinach, although several scholars reject the idea, that what was really heard was Qayoits Qayods Oapots raupeyas réðvnke (“Tammuz, Tammuz, Tammuz the all-great is dead”), a ritual lament for Thammuz-Adonis.? See Immerwahr,

Kulte

und Mythen

Arkadiens

(1891);

Roscher,

dominions of Amyntas, king of Galatia, but after his death lapsed Lexikon, s.v. (bibl.); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, vol. v. (1909); H. J. Rose, Handbook of Greek Mythology (1928). mto a district of a Roman province. oS Cambridge Ancient History, vol. iii. (with useful bibliography) ; 1Cultes, Mythes et Religions, of course dy péyas and wépupeyas Lanckomiski, Les Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie (1890).

would be practically indistinguishable in pronunciation.

168

PANA— PANAMA

PANA, a city of Christian county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the central part of the State; served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Big Four, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Illinois Central railways. Pop. (1920) 6.122; and 5,835 in 1930. Coalmining is the principal industry. Roses are grown, large quantities of hay and grain are shipped, and there are several factories. The city was incorporated in 1857. Its name is probably a corruption of Pani (Pawnee), the name of an Indian tribe.

PANAMA,

a Latin American republic lying between Costa

Rica and Colombia, and occupying portions of the two geographical divisions, Central and South America; the Panama canal, crossing the narrowest and lowest point of land between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, bisects the republic from sea to sea. The republic lies approximately between 7° r5 and 9° 30 N. lat. and between 77° 15’ and 83° 30’ W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean sea, east by Colombia, south by the Bay of Panama and the Pacific ocean, and west by Costa Rica. The area is about 32,800 sq.m.; pop., exclusive of the Canal Zone (1927), about 446,000, or about 12 to the square mile. The coast line on the Atlantic side is 477 m. and on the Pacific 767 miles. The greatest length of the country is 420 m. and the greatest width 118 miles. Physical Features.—The Isthmus of Panama, co-extensive with the republic, is the whole neck of land between the American continents; in another use the term “Isthmus of Panama” is applied to the narrow crossing between the cities of Colon and Panama, the other narrow crossings, further east, being the Isthmus of San Blas (31: m.) and the Isthmus of Darien (46 m.). The use of the term “Isthmus of Panama” to include the whole country is becoming more common. The Caribbean coast-line is concave, the Pacific deeply convex. The Mosquito gulf is to the northwest, the Gulf of Darien to the north-east, and on the north coast are several bays. Almirante bay, near the Costa Rican boundary, is 2 to 13 m. wide, with many islands and good anchorage, protected by Columbus island, about 8 m. long; immediately east of it, and connected with it, is Chiriqui lagoon (area about 320 sq.m.), 32 m. long, 12 m. wide at the widest point, with a maximum depth of 120 ft., protected on the sea side by Chiriqui archipelago; immediately east of Colon, at the narrowest part of the isthmus, is the Gulf of San Blas, protected by a peninsula and by the Mulatas archipelago and having the excellent harbour of Mandinga in the south-west; still farther east is Caledonia bay with another good harbour. On the north coast there are about 630 islands with a total area of about 150 square miles. The Pacific coast is deeply indented by the Gulf of Panama, which is too m. wide between Cape Garachine and Cape Malo, and has the Bay of Parita on its west side, north of Cape Malo, and the Gulf of San Miguel on its east side, north of Cape Garachine. Darien harbour, formed by the Tuira and Savannah rivers, is a part of the Gulf of San Miguel and is rz m. long, 2 to 4 m. wide and nearly land-locked. In the Gulf of Panama there are 16 large and about roo smaller islands (the Pearl islands), with a total area of 450 sq.m., the largest being Rey or San Miguel (15 m. long and 7 m. wide), and San José (25 sq.m.); both are well wooded. West of the Gulf of Panama and separated from it by Azuero peninsula is the Gulf of Montijo, 20 m. long and 14 m. wide at its mouth, across which stretches Cebaco island, 134 m. long and 3 m. wide; west of Cebaco is Coiba, the largest island of the republic, 2 m. long and 4 to 12 m. wide. (W. Tao.)

Geology.—The surface eyerywhere shows great irregularity,

produced by heavy rainfall, which has developed a mature drainage system, and by marine erosion, shown by bold, rugged islands, such as those in the Gulf of Panama. There have been no active volcanoes in Panama since Pliocene time. A record of the earthquakes that have occurred in Panama from the time of the Spanish conquest until 1886 shows only two severe shocks,

one in 1621, the other in 1882. The line of volcanoes in Mexico and Central America probably dates from the end of Cretaceous time. Great volcanism, which was accompanied by orogenic changes, occurred in late Cretaceous and early Tertiary time. Most of the mountains of Panama were formed not by folding

due to lateral pressure, as nearly all the mountains of western

America

are, but by intrusions

of volcanic

rocks

as irregular

cores, sills and dikes. The intrusive rocks include basalt, diorite, andesite, granodiorite and rhyolite. They were injected in a molten condition through masses of volcanic agglomerate, breccia and tuff, and sedimentary beds of sandstone, argillite, limestone and shale, nearly all of Oligocene age. Most of the intrusions that formed basalt, andesite and rhyolite seem to have occurred ip Miocene time. The diorite is at least in part probably Eocene. The Isthmus appears to have been considerably uplifted and depressed during several geologic periods, some of the depressions carrying it below sea-level and thus uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific ocean and preventing the migration of land animals be-

tween North and South America.

(G. McL. Wo.)

The country has no lakes; the apparent exceptions are the artificial lakes, Bohio (or Gatun) and Sosa, of the Canal Zone. There are a few swamps, especially on the northern shore. But the drainage is good; about 150 streams empty into the Caribbean and some 325 into the Pacific. In the eastern part are three complicated drainage systems of rivers very largely tidal. The largest is that of the Tuira (formerly called Rio Darien), whose headwaters are near the Caribbean and which empties into the Pacific in the Gulf of San Miguel. The Chepo (or Bayano) also is a digitate system with a drainage area reaching from the Caribbean to the Pacific; it is navigable for about 120 m. by small boats. The Chagres flows from a source near the Pacific south-west and then north to the Caribbean; is a little more than roo m. long and is navigable for about half that distance; it varies greatly in depth, sometimes rising 35 ft. in 24 hours (at Gamboa), and drains about 1,000 sq.m. West of these three rivers are simpler and comparatively unimportant river systems, rising near the centre of the isthmus. Orographically the country is remarkable. The “exceedingly irregularly rounded, low-pointed mountains and hills covered by dense forests” (Hill) are Antillean, not Andean, and lie at right angles to the axes of the systems of North and South America. The only regular ranges in Panama are in the extreme western part where the Costa Rica divide continues into Panama, and, immediately south of this and parallel to it, the Cordillera of San Blas, or Sierra de Chiriqui, where the highest peaks are Chiriqui (11,265 ft.) and, on the Costa Rican boundary, Pico Blanco (11,740 ft.) and Rovalo (7,020 ft.); there are two passes, 3,600 and 4,000 ft. high respectively. On the eastern boundary of

iry

-a h

we

Be

nt

-

tm-
tion, I917~—I9. Pearl wrote, among other works, Variation and Differentiation in Ceratophyllum; Variation and Correlation in the Crayfish (with A. B. Clawson, 1907); Diseases of Poultry: Their Etiology, Diagnosis,

Treatment

and Prevention

(with F. M. Surface and M. R. Curtis,

1915); Modes of Research in Genetics (1915); The Nation’s Food (1920); The Biology of Death (1922); Introduction to Medical

Biometry and Statistics (1923); Studies in Human Biology (1924); I'he Biology of Population Growth (1925); Alcohol and Longevity (1926) ; To Begin With (19247); and The Rate of Living (1928).

PEARL.

Péarls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre,

produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal ornament. The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or which bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by boring parasites, are those most likely to yield pearls.

The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which lines the interior of many shells and is known as “mother-ofpearl.” Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this

substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of rays of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface—an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on @ suitable medium. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous | shell is digested in acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away,

PEARL

PLATE I

*

KE pF E Fok n>NPR eee o naEe

by ee

=~

BY COURTESY

OF

K,

MIKIMOTO

STAGES

IN JAPANESE

l. Rafts at one of the Mikimoto pearl culture stations situated at Gokasho Bay, Japan.

with young

By

means

oysters

of these

rafts

are suspended

numbers

of wire cages filled

to allow easy attention

to their

turban headdress 3. Boat, and diver in uniform,

showing

the type of apparatus

used for

in the

into the bay from

boats.

During the operating

season fram May to October hundreds of girls are employed in the

tubs,

They collect young

they

which

propel

through

oysters and place them the

water

by a twirling

movement

the cages.

Oysters remain

in these cages six or seven years

while in cultivation. The cages are examined twice a year. The oysters are removed, cleaned and transferred to new cages. On the

top of each cage is placed a tag giving the particulars of the contents 6. Cleaning the oysters from barnacles, seaweed and other deleterious

matter.

general diving purposes at pearl culture stations

CULTURE

pearl culture stations.

5. Landing

growth

2. Japanese diving girls collecting the young oyster spats to be used in the culture process. The girls wear goggles and a peculiar kind of

4. Diving girls plunging

PEARL

This secures

strong growth

the healthy state of the oysters, and ensures

PLATE II

CES

ws

HFE S

A

e

BY COURTESY

OF (1, 3, 6) DR. KERR

AND

THE

“JEWELEKS*

CinuuLAR,”

SPECIMENS ‘1. Gross section of a natural

centric

structure

pear! magnified

has developed

around

P

(2, 4, 5, 7) Ke MIKIMOTO

OF NATURAL

about 16 times.

the small

=

The con-

parasite

in the

to form a pearl centre, which was the irritant that caused the oyster . ap oe :

2. Cage of the type used in Japan for pearl cultivation; it has a capacity of about 150 pear! oysters 3. Cross section of a culture pearl, magnified about 16 times; it is without concentric structure in the core (a mother-of-pearl bead), and shows outer the line of cleavage which commonly separates the core from the layer of nacre 4. Cross section (magnified) of an Oriental or natural pearl

AND

aed

COMPANY,

(8,

9) THE

CULTIVATED

5. Cross section

‘

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL

HISTORY

PEARLS

(magnified)

of a culture pearl

‘

been

hell having

in half, part of the nacre she 6. Drilled culture pearl sawed broken away during cutting

?

J. Fine specimen of a culture pearl in the pear! oyster E &. The shell of an Oriental mollusc with imbedded Buddha images, curious product of pearl cultivation. Cultivated pearls have been ge duced in China since the 13th century. The Buddha figures are lead or tin 9. Fish imbedded and covered with mother of pearl in a pear! shell

421

PEARL leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown by Dr. Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is undistyrbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched. It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attachment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it may be flat on one side and convex on the other, forming what jewellers know as a perle bouton. In the course of growth the pearl may become involved in the general deposit of mother-of-

pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell. It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been unex-

pectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in the workshop. When a pearl oyster is attacked by a boring parasite the mollusc

protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point of invasion, thus forming a hollow body of irregular shape known as a “blister pearl.” Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed in trade cog de perle. Solid pearls of irregular form are often produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are termed

perles baroques, or “barrok pearls.” A pearl of the first water should possess, in jewellers’ language,

a perfect. “skin” and a fine “orient”; that is to say, it must be of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical pear-shape.

Peatl Fisheries.—The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly

from India and the Persian gulf, but at the present time they are also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores of Central America and some of the South Pacific islands. The ancient fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8m. off the western shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar. The Tinnevelly fishery is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of Government inspectors, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally commences in the second week in March, and lasts for from four to six weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets of from 60 to 70, and start usually at midnight so as to reach the oyster-banks at sunrise.

Each boat generally carries ro divers.

On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving commences. A stone weighing about 4o lb. is attached to the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord, drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the divers remain under water from 50 to 80 seconds, though exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as long as six minutes.

In his work the

diver makes skilful use of his toes, To arm himself against the attacks of sharks and other fishes which infest the Indian waters he carries spikes of ironwood; and the genuine Indian diver never descends without the incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short-lived man. Since the days of the Macedonians pearl!-fishing has been carried on in the Persian gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chief centre of the trade is the port of Lingah. Most of the products of this fishery are known as “Bombay pearls,” from the fact that many

of the best are sold there. Very fine pearls are abtained from the

Sulu archipelago, on the north-east of Borneo.

The mother-of-

pearl shells from the Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and back, which unfits them for many ornamental

good many pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore.

They

are also obtained from the neighbourhood of Timor, and from New Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific, mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though fine shells are also found in deep water outside the coral reefs. Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of Central America, especially in the Gulf of California, and to a less extent around the Pearl islands in the Bay of Panama. The fishing-grounds are in water about 4oft. deep, and the season lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that one

shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped in barrels from San Francisco and Panama. Some pearls of rare beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los Cayetes, in the Gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats, the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz in California. The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls. Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in

the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Caribbean sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from St. Thomas and from the island of Margarita, off the coast of Venezuela. From Margarita Philip IT. of Spain is said to have obtained in 1579 a pearl of 250 carats. River Pearls.—River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anodonta, especially by Unio margaritiferus. These species belong to the family Unionidae, order Eulamellibranchia. They inhabit the mountain-streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by Tacitus and by Pliny, and a breastplate studded with British pearls was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as 1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon, the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain to the queen of Charles IIL., presented her with a Conway pearl which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls. River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and have been,systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren county, O., and also on the Mississippi, especially about Muscatine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Amodonta japonica. Chinese Pearl Culture.—But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative purposes. More than 22 centuries before our era pearls are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned as products of the western part of the empire in the R#’ya, a dictionary compiled earlier than rooo B.c. A process for promoting the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the 13th century; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages. Large numbers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction of various for-

eign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked bamboo stick. These “matrices” are generally pellets of prepared mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood.

After a number of these

objects have been placed in convenient positions on one valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is repeated on the other valve. The mussels are then placed in shallow

ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of Purposes. Pearl oysters are also abundant in the seas around the night-soil being thrown in from time to time, After several Aru islands to the south-west of New Guinea. From Labuan a months, in some cases two or three years, the mussels are

422

PEARL

removed, and the pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells, while the molluscs themselves serve as food. Millions of such pearls are annually sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted as previously described. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicata. It should be mentioned that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden. Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L.; but these, though much prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade. They are also produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L. and other gastropods. Yellowish-brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa, and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta. Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of little value. The Pearl Oyster—Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae, which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot has a very stout byssus. Margaritifera is distinguished by the small size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are as follows. The type species is M. margaritifera, which has no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as black-edged Banda shell; those from

Australia and New Guinea and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in Tabiti, Gambier islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Madagascar and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in the Persian gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red sea variety is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies Panama shell, and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot-in diameter and a weight of 10 Ib. per pair of shells, is considered a distinct species, M. maxima. It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster. Dr. Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above 32 species of Margaritifera; all these have rudimentary teeth on the hinge. The most important species is M. vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern India, the lingah shell of the Persian gulf and the pearl oyster of the Red sea. Since the opening of the Suez canal the latter form has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate it on the French coast.

The species occurs also on the coasts of the Malay peninsula,

than those of M. margaritifera used as mother-of-pearl may þe mentioned the green ear or ormer shell (Haliotis tuberculata) and

several other species of Haliotis, besides various species of Turbo Origin of Pearls.—While there is no doubt that pearls whether found in oysters or mussels, are the results of pathological processes due to irritants, considerable variation of opinion exists as to the nature of the exciting bodies. As we have seen the Chinese long ago discovered that river-mussels could be in. duced to yield pearls by inserting into them foreign bodies to form matrices for the deposition of pearl matter, and pearl cul-

ture of this kind has become an industry of importance (see

PEARL, CULTIVATED). In the case of the fresh water mussel Filippi of Turin showed

in 1852 that the species of Trematode (fluke) Distomum duplj. catum was the cause of a pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta. Kuchenmeister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of water mite which is a very common parasite of

Anodonta.

Filippi however states that the mite is only rarely

found within a pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases. R. Dubois and Dr. H. Lyster Jameson have made special investigations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of Trematode belonging to the genus Lecithodendrium, a species

closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriae, which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers, Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another species of duck, namely the common scoter, Oidemia nigra, which is uotorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trematodes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and leaves it in the

form called cercaria (see TREMATODA). The cercaria makes its way into the tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the duck the cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl. Dr. Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts are plentiful. In the case of the Ceylon pearl oysters, Prof. Herdman concluded that the exciting cause of pearl formation was the larva of a cestode or tapeworm (g.v.). The cestode theory has, however, been somewhat discredited in recent years; it is by no means certain that the pearl nucleus is always a parasite; many different exciting causes may lead to pearl formation. Breviocrapay.—H. J. Le Beck, “Pearl Fishery in the Gulf of Manaar,” in Asiatic Researches (1798) ; D. T. Macgowan, “Pearls and Pearl-making in China” (1854) and C. T. Markham, “The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery”

(1867) in Journ. Soc. Arts; F. Hague, “On the Natu-

Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both for its shells ral and Artificial Production of Pearls in China,” Journ. Roy. Asiatic (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur on the Soc., vol. xvi. (1856); K. Möbius, Die echten Perlen (Hamburg, 1912); coasts of South Africa but have no market value. M. carchartarum 1857) ; H. Lyster Jameson, in Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901, 1902 andFisheries Report on the Ceylon Pearl is the Shark’s bay shell of the London market. It is taken in W. A. Herdman and J. Hornell, FishOyster Pearl the on Report others, and (1903) ; W. A. Herdman large quantities at Shark’s bay, Western Australia, and is of rather evies of the Gulf of Manaar (s vols. 190s); J. F. Kunz and C. H. small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality. The pearl Stevenson, Book of the Pearl, with bibliography (1908); T. Southoyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a variety of well and J. C. Kerkman, Report on Scientific Work done on the Ceylon Pearl Banks (Colombo, 1912); W. J. Dakin, Pearls (1913); L. M. vulgaris. M. radiata is the West Indian pearl oyster. (X.; L. C. M) Boutan, La Perle (1925). The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in were first pearls the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for PEARL, ARTIFICIAL. Fine artificial made in western Europe in 1680 by Jacquin, a rosary-maker m handles of fruit and dessert knives and forks and pocket-knives. It is also used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, Paris. Spheres of thin glass are filled with a preparation known as European lacquered papier-maché work, and trays, &c., and as an “essence d'orient,” made from the silvery scales of a small fish ornamental inlay generally. Among the South Sea islands the called the bleak (g.v.), which is caused to adhere to the inner shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks. Among shells other wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with white wax.

PEARL They are now manufactured in enormous quantities by different processes. An excellent substitute for black pearl is found in the so-called “ironstone jewellery,” and consists of close-grained haematite, not too highly polished. Pink pearls are imitated by turn-

ing small spheres out of the rosy part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral. PEARL, CULTIVATED. “Cultured” pearls are “natural” only as regards an outer skin averaging in thickness about threetenths to four-tenths of a millimetre.

Examination of a section of

a “natural” pearl shows, generally, a nucleus surrounded by a series of concentric layers of pearly nacreous matter. The concentric layers consist alternatively of Calcium Carbonate (Aragonite), and the protein Conchiolin (CayEIisN.0.). The nucleus varies, and may consist of sea-weed, sand, a parasite worm, or in general, anything which acts as a foreign irritant to the oyster, and which conforms to specific conditions to be described later.

Experimental work on the introduction of nuclei into the oyster so as to obtain pearls, has been carried out principally in China

and Japan, but the successful production of the “spherical” cultured pearl was only obtained after assiduous research by the

Japanese. K. Mikimoto commenced researches on pearl cultivation in 1891, working on a theory advanced by Dr. Mitsukuri (professor of Zoology, Imperial University of Japan). He inserted

a small spherical mother-of-pearl bead between the body of the oyster, and the shell, and after several years found that the bead was covered with pearl secretion. Unfortunately these beads were firmly attached to the oyster shell, and therefore resembled “Blister” pearls. A wide range of materials can be used as nuclei, but mother-of-pearl was chosen by the Japanese in order that the pearl should consist entirely of oyster products. The secretion is periodic, and occurs during the warm season. The most vital portion of the oyster for pearl development is the outside of the epithelium which surrounds the mantle. This epithelium secretes from the outside normally, mother-of-pearl, and abnormally, the pearl. The determining factor in the formation of a pearl is not the presence of a foreign body in the interior of the oyster, but the epithelial cells in the subepidermal

tissues of the mantle. These living epithelial cells are capable of secreting the nacreous matter. Nuclei which enter the body of the oyster without carrying a particle of the living epithelium will not cause the development of a pearl. In cases where the irritant or nucleus is directly attached to the epithelium of the mantle, the oyster envelopes it with a covering of epithelial cells, forming a sac, which is then coated with successive layers of nacre to produce the pearl. “Natural” pearls are found which contain no central nucleus, and Dr. Alverdes and K. Mikimoto independently, by transplanting small sections of the living epithelium cells of one oyster into another, demonstrated the development of pearl matter, but such pearls were very irregular in shape, and entirely free from nucleus. The Oysters Employed.—The

finest pearls are developed by

the strongest oysters, obtained by the Japanese by careful breeding and repeated examination for disease during growth. The oyster spawn is collected, and when old enough the young oysters or “spats” are placed in fine meshed cages in order to protect them from the attacks of star fish, octopuses or other enemies, and are lowered into the sea. Cleansing of the cages is necessary, and the oysters themselves are frequently examined for disease; at the age of two they are transferred into a wider meshed cage and returned to the sea. When they are three years old, the age of maturity, the oysters are operated upon for pearl development.

The shell of one oyster is removed, and a small spherical bead

of mother of pearl is placed on the outside of the secreting

epithelium of the mantle. This epithelium is then dissected from the oyster, and drawn over the mother of pearl nucleus so as to

form a sac, which is ligatured at one end. The sac is next taken

from the oyster, and grafted into the sub-epidermal tissues of a second oyster; the ligature is removed, and after treatment of the wound with astringents, the second oyster is placed in a cage, and finally returned to the sea. During the next seven years the oyster continues the secretion of the nacreous layers

upon the mother-of-pearl

nucleus, and development

proceeds

423

exactly as in the formation of a “natural” pearl. Supervision is maintained during this period, and finally the oysters are opened for the extraction of the “cultured” pearls. Approximately sixty per cent of the oysters operated upon yield pearls, but owing to the irregularity in shape, due to uncontrollable factors in their ‘development, those of marketable value are only about 5%. (J. R. D.) Distinction Between Cultured and Natural Pearis— The ordinary cultured pearl, because of its external appearance, can readily be distinguished by the expert from the natural. In the case of the finer grades, distinction was not at first easy except by the cutting of a cross-section, thus disclosing the interior of the pearl. Two French scientists, Chilowsky and Perrin, invented an instrument called the endoscope, which introduces into the holes of drilled pearls a powerful light so that the origin (whether natural or cultivated) of the pearl can be determined and the thickness of the pearly covering of cultivated pearls measured. A skilful and experienced operator can examine over 150 pearls in an hour. X-ray photography is now also employed successfully for the same purpose, but the process is rather slow. An instrument of German origin which makes use of powerful electro-magnets has proved successful in discovering the nature of pearls which have not been drilled. Many other types of instrument have also been employed, but not so success-

fully.

(X.)

BrBLiocRaAPHY.—Gray, “On the Structure of Pearls and the Chinese Mode of Producing Them,” Annals of Philosophy (new series, vol. ix. 1925); L. Boutan, “Perles naturelles et perles de culture,” Annales des Sciences nat., zoologie, t. vi. (Masson, Paris, 1923); “Une perle fine de culture sans noyau de nacre,” C.R. Acad. des. Sc. No. 8 (Aug. 21, 1922), and La Perle (Gaston Doin, Paris); Seurat, L’Huitre perlière (Masson, Paris); Lemaire, “La Production industrielle des perles fines au Japan,” Bull. de la Société franco-japonaise de Paris (xlviii, 1921); Lyster Jameson, “The Japanese Artificially Induced

Pearl,” Nature (May 1921) ; Alverdes, “Ueber Perlen und Perlbildung,” Zeit. fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie Bd. C. V. Heft. 4 epee oe

PEARL, THE.

The Middle-English poem known as “Pearl”

or “The Pearl” is preserved in the unique ms. Cotton Nero Ax at the British Museum; in this volume are contained also the poems “Cleanness,”’ “Patience,” and “Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight.” All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author. One other alliterative poem, “Sir Erkenwald,”’ may be assignable to him. The ms., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of the r4th or the beginning of the 15th century. “Pearl” is a poet’s lament for the loss of a girl-child, ‘“who lived not upon earth two years”; the poet is evidently the child’s father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of heaven—he sees her beneath “‘a crystal rock,” beyond a stream; the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all of them clad in white, their robes pearlbedecked like Pearl herself. There he sees, too, “ his little queen.” A great love-longing possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge into the stream that sunders him from her. In the very effort the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the mound where his Pearl had “strayed below.” “While the main part of the poem,” according to Gollancz, “is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and the parable of the Vineyard, the poet’s debt to the Romaunt of the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and reference. ‘The river from the throne,’ in the Apocalypse, here meets ‘thewaters of the wells’ devised by Sir Mirth for the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of Revelation, with its

4.24

PEARSALL—PEARSON

almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of the its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of the brilliancy of the poem. The poet’s fancy revels in the the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but his fancy nated to his earnestness and intensity.”

Rose, with wealth and richness of is subordi-

Leading motifs of “Pearl” are to be found in the Gospel—in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one pear! of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for the child-

bereft, “for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven.”

Naturally aris-

ing from the theme, and from these motifs, certain theological problems of the time are treated perhaps too elaborately. The poem consists of ror stanzas, each of 12 lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, bc, bc; the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines. Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute a section, of which accordingly there are 20 in all, the whole sequence being linked together by the device of making the first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to use it. By piecing together personal and other indications to be found in the poems an imaginary biography of the unknown poet may be constructed. It may be inferred that he was born about 1330-40, somewhere in Lancashire, or a little to the north; that he delighted in open-air life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in mediaeval hall and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study, theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and had a child perhaps named Margery or Marguerite —the Daisy or the Pearl—at whose death his happiness drooped and life’s joy ended. It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote the Latin eclogue “Olympia” in memory of his young daughter Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of interest; the direct

influence of the Latin on the English poem is doubtful, although “Pearl” may be later than “Olympia.” See Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth Century, edited, with a modern Rendering, by I. Gollancz (1891; with Olympia, 1921); S¢ Erkenwald, ed. I. Gollancz, Select Early English Poems (1922); Facsimile of ms. Cotton Nero Ax (E.E.TS., 1923); Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv. (bibl.). (I. G.)

PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795~1856), English composer, was born on March 14, 1795, at Clifton. He produced many works of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices in combination: from his part songs, such as “Oh, who will o’er the downs?” to his elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable eight-part compositions, “Great God of Love” and

“Lay a Garland.” He died on Aug. 5, 1856. PEARSE, PATRICK HENRY (1879-1916), Irish leader and poet, was born in Dublin on Nov. 10, 1879. Educated at the Christian Brothers schools and the Royal University of Ireland, he became editor of the Claidheamh Soluis, the weekly organ of the Gaelic League. He was secretary to the publication committee

Standard with The Evening Standard.

He was a strong sup-

porter of Mr. Chamberlain’s tariff reform movement, and was vice-president of the Tariff Reform League and vice-chairman of the Tariff Commission of 1903. In 1905 he amalgamated The

Evening Standard with The St. James’s Gazette which he haq

bought a few months previously.

In 1910 increasing—later com.

plete—failure of sight obliged him to retire from the active direc. tion of newspapers. Henceforth he devoted himself and his fortune with whole-hearted industry to efforts to ameliorate the condition of the blind. During the World War he established at his house, St. Dunstan’s, in Regent’s Park, London, a hospital {o; blinded soldiers, and became chairman of the Blinded Soldiers’

and Sailors’ Care Committee (1914). He also became president of the National Institution for the Blind. He was created a baronet in 1916 and G.B.E. in 1917. on Dec. 9, 1921.

Sir Arthur died in London

PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686), English divine and scholar, born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on Feb. 28, 1612, studied at Queen’s College, Cambridge, and became a fellow of King’s and a weekly preacher at St. Clement’s, Eastcheap, in London. In 16s

he published in London his famous Exposition of the Creed (see the ed. by Burton, 1883), Chevalier (1849) and Sinker (1882) and his Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr. John Hales

of Eton, with an interesting memoir.

In 1662 he was made

master of Trinity college, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted F.R.S. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius

in his Vindiciae epist. S. Ignatit (1672) was confirmed by J. B.

Lightfoot and other recent scholars.

In 1672 Pearson was ap-

pointed to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annales cyprianici were published at Oxford, with John Fell’s edition of the works of Cyprian. He died at Chester on July 16, 1686. His last work,

the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annales Paulini the principal part of his Opera posthuma, ed. H. Dodwell (1688). See memoir by E. Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson’s Minor Theological Works (2 vols., 1844). Churton also edited most of the theological writings.

PEARSON,

JOHN

LOUGHBOROUGH

(1817-1897),

English architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born in Brussels on July 5, 1817. He was articled at 14 to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, and afterwards worked under Anthony Salvin and Philip Hardwicke in London. He revived and practised with great proficiency the art of vaulting, though he was by no means a Gothic purist; he also followed Renaissance and classical models. From the erection of his first church of Ellerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843, to that of St. Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are Geometrical in manner and characterized by elegance of proportion and refinement of detail.

His best known work is Truro cathedral (1880), incorporating the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson’s conservative spirit fitted him ancient edifices, and among cathedrals and under his care were Lincoln, Chichester, and Exeter cathedrals, St. George’s chapel,

for the reparation of other buildings placed Peterborough, Bristol, Windsor, Westminster

of the League and an energetic member of its executive. After touring Belgium to study bilingual methods, he published several Hall and Westminster Abbey. In the surveyorship of the last he Fiana, tales from Irish manuscripts. Pearse’s chief interest was succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except for porches, the work of education and he approved Birrell’s Irish Education Bill, as it Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster Abbey, and gave the Irish control over their own education. He founded St. designed the organ cases. He was elected A.R.A. in 1874, R.A. m Enda’s school at Cullenswood, Dublin, moving it in 1910 to the 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a fellow Hermitage, Rathfarnham. After a tour in America, Pearse joined and member of the council of the Royal Institute of British the Irish Volunteer Movement and was commander-in-chief of Architects. He died on Dec. 11, 1897, and was buried in the nave the Irish forces in the rebellion of 1916. On April 30, 1916, he of Westminster Abbey. See Archit. Review, vol. i. (1897); Royal Inst. of Brit. Architects sent out an order to his troops to surrender. He himself was Journal, v. 113 (1897-98). arrested and executed on May 3, 1916. see his Life by Desmond Ryan (1919).

PEARSON, SIR CYRIL ARTHUR (1866-1921), British newspaper proprietor, was born at Wookey, near Wells, Feb. 24, 1866, and was educated at Winchester. He early founded the business of C. Arthur Pearson, Ltd., newspaper proprietors and publishers; and after making large profits with Pearson’s Weekly and other periodicals he founded in 1900 The Daily Express, a halfpenny rival to The Daily Mail. In 1904 he purchased The

PEARSON,

KARL

(:857-

), British mathematician,

was born in London in 1857, and educated at University college

school and at King’s college, Cambridge.

He was called to the

bar in 1882, and afterwards became an authority on the science of eugenics. He was subsequently appointed Galton professor of eugenics at London university and director of the Francis Galton laboratory for national eugenics. He was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society, of which he was elected fellow in

PEARY—PEASANT 1396, for his numerous contributions to the mathematical theory

of evolution and heredity.

Professor Pearson was the editor of Biometrika from 1902~24, and of The Annals of Eugenics (1925-26), and his other publications

include The Ethics of Free-thought (1887, 1901); The Chances of in Evolution (1897); Grammar of Science Death, and other Studies (1899, 1900, 1911); National Life from the Standpoint of Science Life, Letters and (1901); Tables for Statisticians (1914-24); The

Labours of Francis Galton (1915-25).

PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856—1920), American Arctic explorer, was born at Cresson, Pa., on May 6, 1856. In 1877 he graduated at Bowdoin college. He was made a lieutenant in the U.S. navy in 1881, acting as civil engineer and was assistantengineer in the Nicaragua ship canal surveys in 1884, becoming

their director in 1887-88. In 1886, however, he also made a study of the west coast of Greenland, in the region of Disco bay, with reference to its use as a base for polar exploration. In 1891 the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences put him in charge of a polar expedition of seven, including his wife. Inglefield gulf, on the north-west coast of Greenland, was the base. In the spring of 1892 he went, with the Norwegian Eivind Astrup, to the north-east coast, thereby proving that Greenland is an island. The Cape

York (Smith sound) Eskimos, the most northerly people in the world, were also studied.

This expedition was described by Mrs.

Peary in My Arctic Journal. In the following year he organized another expedition, also from headquarters in Inglefield gulf, where Mrs. Peary gave birth to a daughter. In 1894 Peary, Matt Henson, the negro member of the expedition, and Hugh Lee, were left alone and again crossed to the east coast. In the summer three meteorites, which the Eskimos used in making their iron implements, were found. These.had been reported in 1818 by Sir John Ross. All were eventually brought to the United States. In 1898 Peary described his work to date in Northward Over the Great Ice. In that year also, with the support of the Peary Arctic Club and Morris Jesup, he started on a four year’s exploring schedule. He used Eskimos in this expedition, which demonstrated, in 1900, that Greenland is bounded on the north by the polar ocean; the north coast of the island was surveyed. In 1902 Peary, with Henson and an Eskimo, advanced as far north as lat. 84° 17’ 27”, the highest point then reached in the Western Hemisphere. Lieut. Peary had now been promoted to the rank of commander, and on his return he was elected president of the American Geographical society. In Nov. 1903 he went to England on a naval commission to inquire into the system of naval barracks in Great Britain, and was presented with the Livingstone Gold Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Peary then began preparations for another expedition by the construction of a special ship, named the “Roosevelt,” the first ever built in the United States for the purpose of Arctic exploration. He sailed from New York on July 16, 1905, having two years’ supplies on board. The “Roosevelt” wintered on the north coast of Grant Land, and on Feb. 21 a start was made with sleds. The party experienced serious delay owing to open water between 84° and 85°, and farther north the ice was opened up during a six days’ gale, which cut off communications and destroyed the dépots which had been established. A steady easterly drift was experienced. But on

April 21, 1906, 87° 6’ was reached—the “farthest north” attained by man—by which time Peary and his companions were suffering severe privations, and had to make the return journey in the face of great difficulties. In rooy the narrative of his journey, Nearest the Pole, was published. In 1908 Peary started in the “Roosevelt” on the journey which was to bring him his final success as the discoverer of the North Pole. He left Etah on Aug. 18, wintered in Grant Land, and set forward over the ice from Cape Columbia on March 1, 1909. A party of six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished.

At the end of the month Capt. Bartlett was the only white man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87° 48’ N., the highest latitude then ever reached. Peary, with Henson and four Eskimos, pushed on, and on April 6, 1909 reached the North Pole. They

temained some 30 hours, took observations, and on sounding, a

few miles from the pole, found no bottom at 1,500 fathoms. The "a

MOVEMENT

425

party, with the exception of one drowned, returned safely to the “Roosevelt,” which left her winter quarters on July 18, and

reached Indian Harbour on Sept. 5. Peary’s The North Pole: Its Discovery in 1909 was published in 1910. In 1911 he was given the rank of rear-admiral and delegated to the International Polar Commission in Rome. In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote, The North Pole (1gra) and Secrets of Polar Travel (1917). He died in Washington, D.C. on Feb. 20, 1920. See Fitzhugh Green, Peary, the Man Who Refused to a .

PEASANT, a countryman, either working for others, or owning or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground (Fr. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the country). (See ALLOTMENTS and METAVAGE.)

PEASANT

MOVEMENT.

The World War gave a strong

impetus to the political consciousness of a class which had seemed obliterated since the Industrial Revolution. During the past century the peasants, even in western Europe, have been dominated by commerce and industry. In eastern Europe they have had no share in public life, except in sporadic risings. Yet in eastern Europe they form the bulk of the populations, and it is naturally in that region that the new peasant movement is asserting itself. Political Traditions of the Peasantry.—From the French Revolution till 1848 the peasants of western and central Europe were gradually freed from all their feudal servitudes. The peasants themselves played only an indirect rôle in that emancipation, which was due mainly to the efforts of the urban middle classes, acting under the stimulus of political, economic and social motives. The political division between town and country was later widened into a gulf by scientific Socialism. The angle of Socialist economics was essentially the same as that of Liberalism, except that what the latter regarded as economically well established Socialism looked upon as merely transitory; so that its own heaven was even more remote from the peasant world. The peasant holding and tilling land on a small scale was doomed. M. Vandervelde said (in 1898) that to wish to realise the ideal of the Biblical homestead was as futile as to try “to replace the Code Napoléon by the tables of Moses.” And not only futile but also pernicious; Marx praised capitalism for having at least

rescued “a considerable part of the population from the idiocy

of rural life.’ Hence he and his disciples placed the nationalisation of land and farming on a large scale for public account in the forefront of their programme. From that time date the many Conservative agrarian organisations in central and western Europe which found in the peasants credulous recruits; a circumstance whose electoral effects gradually led to a watering down of Socialist agrarian programmes. Populism.—The economic and political incentives which had harnessed the western bourgeoisie to the task of rural emancipation had then little meaning in the eastern half of the Continent. Politically that region was still in the autocratic stage; and its economic structure rested on a primitive agriculture and on artisan manufacture—capitalist industry being altogether absent But the third, social incentive stirred up reformers in the east if anything more deeply than in the west. In Russia the Slavophi revival had raised the peasant on a pedestal, and that only mace his serf’s chains more obnoxious in the eyes of the intelligentsia The younger intellectuals, imbued with 18th century humanitar ian philosophy, centred all their ideals on freeing the peasants But whereas to western Liberals that had been an end in itself for the Russian reformers it was merely the stepping-stone to ai independent and prosperous village life. They prided themselve in being Socialists, but, like Proudhon’s, theirs was a Socialisn for the peasants. Marxism was essentially an industrial polic: for the transformation of industrial societies. The eastern re formers were forced to form alternative conceptions and prc grammes suited to the problems of their peasant population: “Populism” (narodnichestvo, from narod—people) became th expression of that current of opinion. (See Russta, History.)

426

PEASANT

MOVEMENT

The kernel of the Populist position was the rejection of the Marxian economic determinism. Marxism considered a phase of capitalist concentration of production as the inevitable prelude to a Socialist society; the Russian Populists, basing themselves on the existence of the mir, contended that the capitalist-proletarian phase was not necessary in Russia, nor even possible in such backward agrarian countries. For capitalism would ruin the peasants, że., the only available customers for industrial products. Likewise the Populists held that revolutionary leaders were able to shape and guide events, provided that they acted in line with the needs and wishes of the masses. Above all they believed that a rural democracy offered the masses a better promise of happiness than they could expect from an industrial organisation. All they needed was more “Land and Liberty”; and the backbone of the Populist programme was a plea for equal distribution of land among the peasants. The later exponents of this policy were the Social-Revolutionaries who were the strongest party of the Left till the Bolshevik Revolution. That the Populist doctrine had its roots in the natural conditions of the region is proved by the way it spread to the other agrarian countries of eastern Europe. It was perhaps natural that Serbia and Bulgaria should come under its influence, as both countries stood in close intellectual dependence on Russia. The decisive test is supplied by Rumania—a Latin country, strongly averse to Slav influence; yet there also the new doctrine engendered the able Poporanist (popor, people) current, which together with the other groups never ceased denouncing Marxism. (See D. Mitrany, Marx and the Peasant, in “London Essays in Economics in Honour of Edwin Cannan.”) The Peasant Renascence.—The Populist movement had remained largely theoretical. In the region in which it was born the peasants were kept under by a rigid political and social

tutelage. Political activity among them, and claims for the distribution of land, were treated as revolutionary. The only out-

let for their grievances was occasional risings, like those of 1905 in Russia and 1907 in Rumania, which were mercilessly repressed. The World War and the Russian Revolution produced great’ changes. Sweeping agrarian reforms have transferred the land to the peasants, giving them potential economic independence and reducing in the same degree the influence of their former task-masters. In most of the countries concerned they have at the same time secured full political franchise. And everywhere they have been roused to a consciousness of their interests and of their power as a class. As a consequence powerful Peasant Parties have sprung up in all the countries of eastern Europe in which government is representative. The movement is yet in its infancy; its possibilities reside in the facts that more than half the population of the globe lives in the typically peasant “family economy,” and that of the hundred million European voters some 60-70 million are peasants, as against some 20 million industrial workers. Doctrine and Programme.—Unlike Socialism, which had a fully developed doctrine before it had an organised following, the Peasant Movement has sprung up suddenly and separately in the various countries, though out of similar convulsive events. Hence its sociology is in the making, and the programmes of the several Parties, which hitherto have had little contact with each other, show substantial variations. Essentially it is of course an, agrarian movement; but its philosophy and policy are eclectic, having taken over and adapted to its own use

elements from all the three chief political divisions—from Con-

servatism and Liberalism as well as from Socialism. Its fundamental standpoint is a bias for a rural society, based on small peasant property.

The radicalism of the eastern Peasant Movement is due to peculiar conditions in that region. Whereas in the west agrarian parties were a mixture of all rural classes, with the big landowners predominant, as in the German Landbund, the new Peasant Parties are exclusively peasant. Secondly, the oppression of the peasantry in the east has till now prevented the growth of a peasant middle class, so that the movement is carried more uniformly by a mass of small peasants. Thirdly, the general

peasant antagonism towards towns and capitalists has different effects in the two halves of Europe: in the west finance and industry are moving fast into a phase of international organisa. tion, by means of cartels, trusts, etc., and the outlook of the towns is cosmopolitan; as a reaction the countryside is Conger.

vative and nationalist. In the east the towns, industry and finance concentrate the essence of local nationalism, and the peasantry which has to pay the bill of protectionism, etc., favours in cop. sequence a Liberal and even Radical policy in all respects Fourthly, in the industrialised States agriculture produces mainly

for the home market and is anxious to be protected in it: the

peasants produce mainly for themselves with a surplus for export,

and desire free trade. National Organisations.—The new Peasant movement js peculiar to the eastern half of Europe. In the industrialised countries of the west, and even in Holland and Denmark, the

peasants have been drawn into agrarian Conservative parties, as a result of a general agrarian antagonism to industry and finance, partly through clerical influence, and largely by the effective use of the Socialist demand for land nationalisation as a bogey. But

just as western Socialism has stirred up industrial groups in the east and shaped their outlook, so the eastern Peasant Movement is bound to react upon peasant groups in the west.

In France a

Peasant Party was founded four weeks before the elections of 1928; none of its three candidates was elected, but the Party secured 80,000 votes and is actively organising itself. In Ger-

many, likewise before old Landbund formed and gained 13 seats Bavarian Bauernbund

that year’s elections, the left wing of the the new Christian National Peasant Party in the Reichstag. At the same time the

transformed itself into a German Peasant Party; it secured 8 seats in the Reichstag and dominates the parliamentary situation in Bavaria. The formation of a joint Peasant group in the Reichstag is foreshadowed. An attempt to establish a Peasant Party is also being made in Holland. Some of the eastern Peasant Parties were founded before the World War, but became important only after its end. Most countries have only one Party, but in Poland and other States bordering on Russia the chaos of the revolution is still reflected in a continuous splitting-up and reshuffling of political groupings. In the following list figures refer to 1928 except when otherwise stated. Bulgaria.—‘Agrarian Union,” founded 1899 as a professional body, became political in r90z. It polled in r9rz 14-45% of the votes cast, 31% in I919, 38-16% in 1920 and 52% in 1923. In June 1923 there was a military rising; Stamboliski and other Party leaders were murdered. At the following elections 26.8% of the votes, 33 deputies: the Party is recovering, but suffers from lack of leaders. In power from 1919 to 1923, it carried through considerable co-operative developments, also the law for compulsory service (see Int. Labour Office pamphlet, Legislative Series 1920), which is still in force. Czechoslovakia-—‘Republican Party of Farmers and Small Peasants.” Founded in 1896; first Conservative, veered towards the Left. Polled 603,618 votes in 1920 and 970,498 in 1925 in the Czech territories alone. Its leader has been in office since the establishment of the Republic; since 1922 Antonin Svehla has presided over two Coalition Governments. The Slovak, Dr. Milan Hodža, Minister of Education, is the most forceful exponent of the new movement.

Czechoslovakia is the only country

to have adopted the eight hours’ day for agriculture, also the only one of the eastern countries to have included members of the Minorities in the Cabinet; both measures due to the Party's initiative. Estonia.—‘Peasant Party,” founded after the war. 1926 election: 25 members of parliament. Leader Jaan Teemant is president and premier of the State. The Settlers’ Party has 14 mem-

bers of parliament, two leaders in the cabinet; represents the interests of the recently impropriated peasants. Finland.—‘Peasant League”: in 1924 had 44 members of parlia-

ment, 1927 rose to 32. Leader, Dr. Relander, is premier of the Coalition Government. , Hungary.—“Small Farmers’ Party”: made promising begm-

PEASANT

427

PROPRIETOR—PEAT

ning, but the introduction of open balloting in country districts has checked all political activity on the land. Latvia.—There are three Centre groups: Peasants’ Union with

have in addition formed a regional group within the bureau, to act politically in close contact, with a joint central executive. The group, like the bureau, is to work for the solution of political 16 deputies, Latgallian Catholic and Christian Peasants with s, and social problems according to peasant interests; it is to puband Latgallian Peasants with 2 deputies; and three groups of lish in one or more of the western languages the chief writings varying Leftward shades: Agrarian Settlers with 3, New Farmers of Peasant leaders, and prepare a peasant news agency. The and Small Peasants with 3 and Latgallian Peasant-Labour Party regional group was formed especially to resist jointly any attempt with 2 deputies. They differ mainly in regard to land reform and in their bias for closer relations with the west or with Russia.

at dictatorship, whether from the Left or from the Right.

(D. ML)

Lithuania.—Before the recent coup d’état the Peasant Union had rı members of parliament.

PEASANT PROPRIETOR: see Lanp TENURE. PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous

state of flux, largely for personal reasons. “Piast,” formerly the

industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at Darlington on May 31, 1767, the son of Joseph Pease (1737-

Poland—Polish

Peasant Parties have been in a continuous

strongest, now has only 28 deputies; its leader, Vincent Witos, has been twice premier; it is Conservative, admits land reform only against full compensation and is open to Clerical influences. “Wyzwolenie” secured 38 seats at the last election; Jan Dabsky, its leader, is vice-president of the chamber; it is radical, demands land reform without indemnity, regional autonomy for the minorities; it also is anti-clerical. A similar programme is supported by “Stronnictwo Chlopskie,” with 25 deputies, representing the small peasants. The “Stapinski” Peasant Party has 3 members and the extreme Radical Peasants’ Club has one member in parliament. It is noteworthy that while the political movement is divided by regional, clerical and personal influences, the peasants generally work together in each locality in their co-operative affairs. Rumania—The “National Peasant Party”; formed of the fusion two years ago of .the Peasant Party and of the National (Transylvanian) Party, has been able to assert itself as the only substantial Opposition in spite of elaborate “doctoring” of elections. It has now about 4o members in the Chamber, but its strength in the country is dominant. Of the leaders, Vaida-Voevod has once held office as premier, and Mihalache, Popovici, etc. have held cabinet positions. The Party secured power in November 1928 and formed the first truly parliamentary government in Rumania. Yugoslavia.—The “Croatian Peasant Party,” founded in 1904, had 3 deputies in 1908, 49 in 1920 and 60 in 1923. It dominates in Croatia and is gaining strength in Herzegovina and Dalmatia. Of the leaders, Stephen Radić, Pavle Radić (recently murdered) and three others have held cabinet office in Coalition Governments. Remarkable for its organisation, and especially for its spiritual strength, it is the only Peasant Party to have been founded in furtherance of a rural creed rather than of agrarian interests, by the brothers Radić (Dr. Ante Radić having previously done original work in rural sociology). International Organisation.—A number of international agrarian organisations have existed before the war or were formed after it, but of these none had the two distinguishing characteristics of being limited to truly Peasant groups and of being established for political action. Three attempts have been made to set up an international body on these lines: (1) Soon after the war an attempt was made by Bavarian and

1808), a woollen manufacturer. Edward Pease made the acquaintance of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in constructing the railway between Stockton and Darington. He died at Darlington on July 31, 1858. His grandson, Joseph Albert Pease, Lord Gainford (b. 1860), entered parliament in 1892, was junior Liberal Whip (18971905), a lord of the treasury (r905—10), chancellor of the duchy (r9r0~11), president of the board of education (1911-15), and postmaster-general (1916).

PEAT, a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of bogs in many parts of the world. The principal areas of the peat deposits of the world are as follows:— Russia .

65,000 square miles

Canada

37,000

Finland Sweden ; United States Germany Š Great Britain Ireland . : Newfoundland

Norway

Austria . Denmark

30,000 I19,000 II,200 9,909 9,400

”

”

» y 4, y ,,

2 99 99 n” ”

4,700 3,000

” ”»

” E

2,900

y

»

I,500

”

99

400

39

29

The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanuginosum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxidation and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi, in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water, which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata. As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers, under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a mean annual temperature of about 45°. The peat bogs of Great Britain and Ireland vary in thickness from 5 to 30 ft.; and those of North America vary from 5 to 25 it. Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance, reAustrian agrarians to join up the Peasant groups of central sembling turf or compressed hay, and containing conspicuous Europe, the Bavarian Dr. Heim being one of the initiators. The plant remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling tendency was strongly Conservative, anti-Bolshevik (in this be- black clay when wet and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two Ing included all the democratic influences coming from Berlin); typical forms may be noticed: “Hill peat’ (the mountain or and while some of the leaders kept neutral, others had a strong brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and conClerical bias. The attempt never materialised. sisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and “Bottom peat” (2) Though no Peasant Party exists, or would be allowed, in (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes, rivers and Russia, the Soviets encouraged some of the refugees living in brooks, and containing Hypnum. The latter kind always contains “oscow to set up a Peasant International there. Formed in 1923, much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before itheld its first Congress in 1925. It has made no visible impres- the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most sion on the Peasant movement. other purposes. A specimen dried at 100° C had the following (3) On the initiative of the Bulgarian Stamboliski an inter- composition: carbon, 60-48%; hydrogen, 6-10%; oxygen, 32-55%; national agrarian bureau was established in Prague in 1921, the nitrogen, 0-88%; ash, 3-30%; the ash is very variable—from 2 Czech, Bulgarian, Polish and Serbian Peasant Parties being its to 15% and even more—and consists principally of clay and sand, members; purely for research and information. In May 1928 the with lesser amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, etc. On airOrganisation was widened, being joined by the Croatian, Ruma- drying the peat loses from 8 to 20% of its moisture. In a good, man and other Peasant Parties, including the newly-formed French dry season peat may be air-dried down to 17 or 18% moisture, and Dutch Parties. Eight Parties of central and eastern Europe while under moderate conditions it may be saved with 25 to 30%

PEBA—PECHORA

4.28

moisture. Average air-dried peat containing 25% moisture may be taken as having a calorific value of about 6,000 B.T.U. The specific gravity has been variously given, owing to the variable water content and air spaces; when dried and compressed, how-

process it is claimed however that the peat can be dried down to

Germany as approximately 800,000 tons of air-dried peat. Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general practice is to cut a trench about 1 ft. deep with a peculiarly shaped spade, termed in Ireland a “slane,’’ and remove sods from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the next is

See The Winning, preparation and use of peat, by the Fuel Research Board (1921); The Utilization of Peat Fuel, Department of Mines

10% moisture and that 65% of the peat is recovered, that is ty

say in order to produce from 100 tons of raw peat 65 tons of d

peat, 35 tons of the raw peat are absorbed in drying. Perha ever, it is denser than water. The yield per sq.km. (0-386 sq.m.) Ireland is the largest producer with an output in the neighbour. for a depth of five metres (16-4 ft.) has been determined in hood of 6,000,000 tons annually of air-dried peat.

attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid step-working may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six weeks. Machine Working.—Mechanical power has been applied,

especially in Sweden and Germany, to the winning of peat, the operations involved being:—(1) The excavation and elevation of the raw peat from the bog. (2) The maceration and mixing of the raw peat by means of rotating and fixed knives and a single or double screw conveyor which forces the peat through a nozzle or nozzles in a stream which is cut into lengths for sods, (3) The transport of the formed sods and their deposition on the bog. (4) The collection and stacking of the air-dried peat. In the most recent German practice the operations indicated in (1) (2) and (3) are combined in one machine electrically driven. Several processes have been invented for the carbonization of peat and recovery of the by-products. Among these is the Ziegler process which is, or was, in operation at Oldenburg in Germany,

Rodkino in Russia and Beuerberg in Bavaria. The uncondensed gases from the coking plant at Beuerberg gave:— Carbon dioxide

Oxyeen

i

ow

Oe.

OR

Carbon monoxide . . . . Methane and other hydrocarbons Hydrogen Nitrogen .

m

tae

eh.

e

y

B O A an ae

15-5 per cent Ti

ae

n yy

99 5

28:6 219

4, ay:

5, 55

20°4 COA.

99°9

Carbon .

73°89 per cent 3°59

Oxygen

5

Sulphur Ash .

. j

Nitrogen

I4.52

Moisture

93 5)

3)

O20. DRO na

45 y

3°80

n

T'49

3» 23

»

99'99

and the calorific value of the semi-coke was 12,000 B.T.U. The volume of the gases amounted to 6,759 cu.ft, per ton. The results of working the process are stated to have been as

follows :— Per roo tons of air-dried peat

Ammonium sulphate Acetate of lime

Methyl alcohol Light oils . Heavy oils Parafín Creosote

Asphalt

.

.

.

.

.

R)

PEBA, a name for the nine-banded armadillo.

(See Ary-

DILLO.) PEBAN, a group of tribes of South American Indians some. what doubtfully to be regarded as constituting an independent

linguistic stock.

The Pebas (who have given their name to the

group), the Yameos, and Yaguas, who form the stock, are located on the northern side of the Amazon in the region of the Brazilian. Peruvian border. See C. F. P. von Martius, Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas, etc, (Leipzig, 1867).

PEBBLE WRITING.

From the very earliest times to which

the energy of man can be traced, date two kinds of writing: (c)

engraving of a visible object on some hard substance, such as the flat surface of a bone; (b) drawing, painting, or engraving marks which could again be identifed. Of the first kind are the engravings ọf reindeer, buffaloes, and other animals by the cave men of prehistoric times; of the second are a large number of pebbles discovered by M. Ed. Piette at Mas d’Azil, on the left bank of

the Arize, intercalated between the last layer of the Reindeer age and the first of the Neolithic period.

The stones were coloured

with peroxide of iron. The characters are of two kinds: (a) a series of strokes which possibly indicate numbers, (b) graphic symbols. The stones were scattered about without connection or relation one with another. Whatever the meaning may be, it is

clear that the markings are not accidental. It has been suggested that, like similar things among the American Indians, they may have been used in playing games or gambling.

PECAN, a North American species of hickory (g.v.) valued

for its timber and its edible nuts, called pecans, which are commercially cultivated in several Southern States. (See Nut.)

PECCARY, the name given to the New World representa-

The “coke” contained: Hydrogen

Canada (1912).

goo lb. 7,320

3»,

95

y

3,100

3}

40

5)

65 gal. 280 y

715 lb.

The manufacture of producer gas from peat, in regard to which a number of methods exist, mostly based on the Mond process, has proved more or less successful. The briquetting of peat has also been carried out. The briquettes contain approximately 18% of moisture and are said to yield a high quality charcoal. One of the chief factors operating against the commercial success of peat as a fuel in competition with coal and other fuels has been the cost of drying the peat. With the recently introduced “Peco”

tives of the swine (Suidae), from which they may be distinguished by the fact that the upper canine teeth (tusks) are directed downwards, and by other peculiarities of the teeth, stomach and feet. Peccaries range from New Mexico and Texas to Patagonia. The collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) is a dark grey animal with a white band across the chest from shoulder to shoulder. It is about 3ft. long, living in small herds of eight to ten, and has an extensive range in S. America. The whitelipped peccary (D. labiatus) is about 6in. longer, blackish in colour, with white lips. Peccaries form the sub-family Dicotylinae of the Suidae (see ARTIODACTYLA and Swine). Extinct peccaries are known as far back as the Miocene in North America, but only in superficial deposits in the southern continent. This indicates that the group entered North America in the Upper Oligocene and subsequently reached their present habitat.

PECHORA, a river of North Russia, which rises in the Urals,

almost on lat. 62° N. and flows west and then north, with a double north and south loop about 66° 20’ N. It enters the Gulf of Pechora on the Barents sea by a delta after a course of 1,150 m. Its main tributaries are the Izhma, Tsilma and Sula on the left, and the Ilych, Podcherem, Shugor and Usa on the right; the river and its tributaries provide 3,545 m. of navigable waterways, of which 2,335 are fit for rafts and timber floats only and 580 are suitable for steamer navigation. The drainage basin is, however, mainly coniferous forest, and north of lat. 67° N. bleak

tundra, the Great Land Tundra on the east, and the Small Land Tundra on the west. The scanty population consists mainly of Nomad Samoyede reindeer breeders and Zirian hunters. During the brief summer there is steamer connection between Pustozersk and Kuya on the right of the delta, and Archangel.

Short portages connect the Pechora waterway with the Kama and

the Volga, and with the Vychegda and Northern Dwina, and longet

4.29

PECK— PECORA portages, used mainly by Samoyedes, link it across the Urals with the Ob. In 1925 a cultural base, with 20 hospital beds, boarding facilities for 30 Samoyede pupils and a medical and veterinary

has an exceptional interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being one of the first writers to use the vernacular. An thought and style it is the work of a man of learning and ability.

staff was established on the Adzva river, a tributary of the Usa. The chief freightage on the Pechora waterways consists of rein-

A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Repressor published by C. Babington for the Rolls Series in 1860. Pecock’s other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the Donet, “an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith in the form of a dialogue between father and son”; and the Folewer to the

deer products, furs and fish going southward and grain and manufactured goods going north. Seals are caught in Pechora gulf, and fshermen migrate there from June to August, the Pechora salmon being specially valuable.

PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain. It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is 4 of a bushel. The impe-

rial peck contains 554-548 cu.in., and in the United States of America 537-6 cub.in. The word is in M.E. pek, and is found latinized as peccum or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found picotinus,

Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript.

His Book of

Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library of Trinity college, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909). See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820).

PECORA.

Horns, hoofs and a diet of grasses or foliage are

the three most obvious characteristics of the very important group of mammals known as the Pecora or true ruminants. The

“mensura frumentaria,” and picotus, “mensura liquidorum” (Du Cange, Gloss. $.vv.). PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292), archbishop of Canterbury,

name comes from the Latin pecus, cattle, but as used by the zoologist it includes not only oxen, sheep and goats, but the diverse

was probably a native of Sussex, and received his early education

mals possess either horns or antlers, all have been derived from hornless ancestors, and a few, like the musk-deer of central and eastern Asia, have never developed them. Apart from the horns, which vary very strikingly in shape and construction, not only from family to family but from species to species, the Pecora are a very homogeneous group; perhaps the most eccentric member is the long-necked giraffe, and even this is linked with the more normal types by the okapi, an animal belonging to the giraffe family but with a shorter neck and shorter limbs than the true giraffes. In the wild state ruminants, like all hoofed mammals, seek safety from their carnivorous enemies in flight, only using their antlers or horns as weapons of defence if driven to bay. Swiftest of all are the deer, antelopes and gazelles, while the goats and mountain sheep have a marvellous power of rapidly scaling steep heights to which few carnivores can follow them. It is therefore among the ruminants that we find a more perfect adaptation to a fugitive life than among any other of the larger mammals. Not only do their skeleton and muscular system form together a perfectly constructed running mechanism, but their digestive system is also elaborately planned so that they may hastily snatch a meal in some favourable grazing ground, and store the food temporarily in a special compartment of their stomach until they have found a refuge where they can masticate and digest it at leisure. Limbs and Feet.—In the skeleton, the proportions of the limbs and the structure of the feet are particularly noteworthy. As in all running animals the lower leg and foot are very long compared with the upper segment of each limb; this ensures a long stride and at the same time a swift one. The surfaces of the joints are grooved and keeled like pulley wheels, permitting free motion forward and backward but limiting the motion iin all other directions; joints of this type are very strong, and are admirably adapted for swift locomotion over a smooth surface, though less efficient on very rough ground. The feet are constructed on the “artiodactyl” plan (see ARTIODACTYLA): in each foot no more than two of the ancestral five toes are used, the rest being either lost or reduced to vestiges. The animal steps lightly on the very tip of these two remaining toes, the short terminal segments of which are encased by the hoofs. The upper segments (metapodials) of each toe, fused into a single strong bone termed the cannon bone, are, in contrast, very long, so that the joints corresponding to our wrist and ankle are raised high above the ground and are consequently often regarded as elbow and knee. Owing to the shortness of the upper segments of the limbs, corresponding to our upper arm and thigh, the true elbow- and knee-joints of the ruminant are close against its body, enclosed within the skin of the trunk. Dentition.—Quite as distinctive as the foot of a ruminant is its skull, and especially its dentition. Everyone will have noticed how a sheep, when it feeds, seems not so much to bite off the grass as to tear it off by quickly jerking its head. This is because the front teeth in the upper jaw are replaced by a horny

from the Cluniac monks of Lewes. About 1250 he joined the Franciscan order and studied in their Oxford convent. Shortly afterwards he proceeded to the university of Paris, where he took his degree under St. Bonaventure and became regent in theology. For many years Peckham taught at Paris, coming into contact with the greatest scholars of the day, among others St. Thomas Aquinas. About 1270 he returned to Oxford and taught there, being elected in 1275 provincial minister of the Franciscans in England, but he was soon afterwards called to Rome as lector sacri palatii, or theological lecturer in the schools of the papal palace. In 1279 he returned to England as archbishop of Canterbury, being appointed by the pope on the rejection of Robert Burnell, Edward I.’s candidate. Peckham was always a strenuous advocate of the papal power, especially as shown in the council of Lyons in 1274. The characteristic note of his primacy was an insistence on discipline which offended contemporaries. In philosophy Peckham represents the Franciscan school which attacked the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas on the “Unity of Form.” He wrote much on scientific, scriptural and moral subjects, and defended the Franciscan rule and practice. His hymns are characterized by a lyrical tenderness which seems typically Franciscan. Printed examples of his work as commentator and hymn writer respectively may be found in the Firamentum trium ordinum (Paris, 1512), and his office for Trinity Sunday in the “unreformed” breviary. The chief authority on Peckham as archbishop of Canterbury, is the Registrum fratris Johannis Peckham, edited by C. Trice Martin for the Rolls Series (London, 1882—1885). A sympathetic account of his life as a Franciscan is to be found in L. Wadding, Annales minorum

(Lyons, 1625, 1654). See also the article by Ċ. L. Kingsford in Dict. Nat. Biog., and Wilkin’s Concilia magnae Britanniae (London, 1737).

PECOCK (or Peacock), REGINALD (c. 1395—c. 1460), British prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was educated at Oriel college, Oxford. Having been ordained priest in 1421, he secured a mastership in London in 1431, and soon became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position of

the Lollards.

In 1444 he became bishop of St. Asaph, and six

years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures were not the only standard of right and wrong; in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these views the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Bourchier, ordered his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and he only saved himself from a painful death by privately, and then publicly (at St. Paul’s Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renouncing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called “the only great English theologian

of the 15th century,” was then forced to resign his bishopric, and

was removed to Thorney abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he

types of antelopes, giraffes and deer. Although most of these ani-

doubtless remained until his death. The bishop’s chief work is pad, while those of the lower jaw are directed forwards, and the famous Repressor of over-much weeting [blaming] of the simply press the grass tightly against this pad on closure of the Clergie, which was issued about 1455. In addition to its great mouth; when the head is jerked sideways the grass is cut through Importance in the history of the Lollard movement the Repressor by the sharp edges of the lower front teeth. It is also a matter of

430

PECS—PEDAGOGUE

common observation that in chewing its food a ruminant swings its lower jaw to the side: it usually swings it first a number of times to one side and then, reversing the direction, about an equal number of times to the other side, so that the grinding teeth on both sides of the mouth are used in turn. These grinding or “cheek teeth” are admirably adapted for triturating hard grasses and coarse foliage. Viewed from the side, they appear to be made up of a number of columns, but looked at from the grinding surface they are seen to have a crown pattern of four crescents or V’s, sometimes complicated by little additional folds (see figure of giraffe’s tooth in ARTIODACTYLA). Each crescent is enclosed by a border of enamel which, as it is a very hard substance, prevents the tooth from wearing down too quickly. Also, as the enamel does not wear down at the same rate as the softer substance within, the surface of the crown is always rough and therefore all the more effective as a grinding mechanism. The great height of the crown also ensures that the tooth shall last out the animal’s lifetime before it is quite ground away. Similar devices are characteristic of the molar teeth of all herbivorous mammals, since most grasses contain a great deal of silica and this causes very hard wear to the tooth. In those ruminants which feed on soft leaves rather than on grasses, the cheek teeth are much shorter than in the exclusively graminivorous types and have a less complex crown pattern. However high the grinding teeth, the mandible of a ruminant is a slender bone, slung somewhat loosely on to the skull, and the joint between mandible and skull is shaped so as to permit great freedom of movement in grinding. Digestive Processes.—The following account of the process of rumination is an abbreviation of that given by T. H. Huxley in his Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals. A ruminant does not masticate its food on first taking it into its mouth but swallows it hastily, well mixed with saliva. Only when its appetite is satisfied does it stop grazing and seek a place of safety where it can lie down and “chew the cud” at leisure. If we closely observe a cow which has just lain down in a field after a period of grazing, its body inclined to one side, we notice that after an interval of quiescence a sudden spasm, rather resembling a hiccough, passes over the animal’s flanks, and that at the same time something is quickly forced up the gullet into the mouth. This is a bolus of grass which, rendered sodden by the fluids in the stomach, is now returned to be masticated by the grinding teeth. This process is repeated until most of the grass which was originally cropped has been reduced to pulp. A ruminant’s stomach is divided into four compartments. When the food is first hastily swallowed it passes no further than the first and second of these. On second swallowing it passes along a groove in the roof of the second, directly into the third compartment; chemical digestion takes place in the fourth compartment, which alone has gastric glands in its walls for secretion of digestive juices. Horns.—There are four main types of horn construction among the Pecora: (1) The antlers of deer. These are usually found in the male deer only, but in the reindeer they are present in both sexes. They grow out from the frontal bones of the skull as solid processes which rapidly reach their full size. At first they are covered by soft and hairy skin. Then a circular ridge called the burr appears at a short distance from the base of the antler and divides the latter into pedicel, on the skull side of the burr, and beam, on the far side. The circulation in the beam now gradually dwindles, and the skin dies and peels off, leaving exposed the dead bone beneath it. Absorption and sloughing take place at the extremity of the pedicel, beam and burr are shed, and the end of the pedicel scabs over. Fresh skin gradually grows up under the scab, so that the pedicel becomes once more smooth and hairy. The antlers are shed and grown anew every year, usually adding additional branches each time. See DEER. (2) In the bovine ruminants the bony core formed by the frontal bone is covered by a horny sheath. The core itself is hollow, instead of solid as in the deer, and therefore the Pecora in this group are sometimes termed the “hollow-horned ruminants” or Cavicornia. The horny sheath is never shed but persists throughout life and grows with the growth of the core. This type of horn is never branched but may be curved, spirally twisted, or

compressed; it is often present in both sexes. See SHEEP ’ Goat, ANTELOPE, etc. (3) In the giraffes (g.v.) the horn-cores are Cove

ered with soft and hairy skin and are never shed. (4) In the North American pronghorn, Antilocapra, there is a permanent

unbranched horn-core enclosed in a horny sheath as in the Bovi.

dae, but this sheath is forked, and furthermore is shed yearly after

the rutting season owing to the development of a new sheath which pushes the old one off. See PRONGHORN.

These four types of horn are characteristic of the four families into which existing Pecora are classified: the Cervidae or deer the Girafñdae or giraffe and okapi, the Bovidae or oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, etc., and the Antilocapridae, solely represented by the North American pronghorn. Many other forms, now ex-

tinct, are known as fossils. The earliest of these were small forms with no antlers but a pair of long slender tusks in the upper jaw like those of the musk deer. From such as these were derived

not only the modern families but several families now quite ex. tinct. Especially noteworthy among these latter are the Merycodontidae and the Sivatheriidae. Merycodus was a small North

American Miocene form with a pair of simple forked antlers very like those of primitive deer but apparently never shed: many characteristics in the skeleton suggest relationship to Antilocapra.

Sivatherium of the Indian Pliocene, allied to the giraffes, was a gigantic animal with a pair of large palmate antler-like outgrowths on top of the skull and a smaller conical pair above the orbits. BIBLIOGRAPEY.— See that for ARTIODACTYLA.

(H. S. P.)

PECS, capital of Baranya county, Hungary, on the southeastern flank of the Mecsek hills. It is believed to date back to

Roman times and has been the see of a bishop since 1009. It was occupied by the Turks from

1543

to 1686 and several of its

churches were altered and used as mosques. The town is regularly

laid out with an inner old town in the form of a square and four suburbs. A beautiful cathedral, reputed one of the oldest churches in Hungary as well as one of its finest mediaeval buildings, is the principal architectural asset. The 14th century university, which

lapsed after the battle of Mohács, has been revived. Pop (1920),

47,550. PECTORAL, a word applied to various objects worn on the breast (Lat. pectus); thus it is the name of the ornamental plate of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman Church during the celebration of mass, the breastplate of the Jewish high priest, and the metal plate placed on the breast of the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The “pectoral cross,” a small cross of precious metal, is worn by bishops and abbots of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion. See “Pectoral” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia.

PECULIAR,

a term of ecclesiastical law applied to those

ecclesiastical districts, parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in which they were situated, and were subject toa

jurisdiction “peculiar” to themselves. They were introduced originally, in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, é.g., the Chapel Royal St. James’s, or St. George’s Windsor, peculiars of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars exercised jurisdiction (see ARcHES, CourT oF), and peculiars of bishops and deans (see DEAN). The jurisdiction and privileges of the “peculiars” were abolished by statutory powers given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes.

PECULIAR

PEOPLE,

a small sect of Christian faith-

healers founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James V.

14, and in cases of sickness seek no medical aid but rely on oil,

prayer

and nursing.

Their avoidance

attendance has led to severe criticism.

of professional medical

“Peculiar People” 1

applied to Israel in the Old Testament.

PEDAGOGUE, a teacher or schoolmaster, a term usually

implying pedantry, or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. marôaywyos (raid boy, aywyés leader) was not strictly an instructor. He

was a slave in an Athenian household who looked after the

PEDAL

personal safety of the sons of the master of the house, and took

them to and from

431

CLARINET—PEDIMENT

school and the gymnasium.

The Romans

adopted the paedagogus or pedagogus towards the end of the republic. He probably took some part in the instruction of the hoys (see ScHoors). Under the empire the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves, in the household of the emperor, the rich nobles and other persons; these boys lived to-

literature. It was founded on Luther’s version, and was edited by Peter Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others. See C. Pedersen’s Danske Skrifter, ed. C. J. Brandt and B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-56) .

PEDESTAL,

a square, polygonal or circular block used as a

support. Pedestals were originally employed only to carry statues or votive offerings, but the Romans, in the course of their many experiments in the decorative use of the orders, occasionally placed columns upon pedestals; this is notably the case in connection

with such isolated columns as that of Trajan (a.D. 114) and in the case of the engaged columns of triumphal arches, where the proportions seemed to demand them.

Similarly, in superposed orders,

as in the Colosseum, at Rome (A.D. 80), the parapet walls of each storey were projected out under each column as pedestals. The Renaissance designers attempted to develop a separate pedestal for each order, with all its dimensions in proportion to those of the column (see ORDER). This has no basis in Roman usage. PEDICULOSIS or PHTHIRIASIS, the medical term for the pathological symptoms in man due to the presence of lice

(pediculz), either on the head (pediculus capitis), body (pediculus corporis, or vestimentorum), or pubes (pediculus pubis).

PEDIMENT, in architecture, a triangular gable-end, crowned with a raking cornice which follows the slope of its upper edges; or a similar form used decoratively. In common usage, the term is restricted to the classic styles; in others, the word gable is used. The pediment was given great importance by the Greeks as it was the crowning feature of every temple front. In Greek work, the entablature over the columns is carried completely through, horizontally under the pediment; and the tympanum (g.v.), or triangular wall surface, between this horizontal cornice and the raking cornice above was often decorated with sculpture. The Romans not only used the pediment in this manner, as the end of a roof, but also adopted it as a purely decorative form to BY COURTESY

OF

TYPES OF

(B)

THE

MUSEUM

PEDESTALS

(A) Statue of Buddha,

Dynasty:

(C)

OF THE

FROM

700

UNIVERSITY

ANCIENT

OF

PHILADELPHIA,

TIMES

years old, from Gaya;

Type of Roman

Architecture

TO

THE

(B)

(E)

LORD

PRESENT

Chinese

under Septimus

146-211; (D) Statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, Venice, begun 1481; (E) Modern mahogany pedestal by Auguste Guenot

& TAYLOR

DAY

lion, Ming

Severus,

A.D.

by Verrocchi,

gether in a paedagogium, and were known as puert paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into “page.” !

PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in

“a r

a

1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the oboe family; it is constructed on practically the same principles as the clarinet, and consists of a tube roft. long. It is used in military bands and has a tone rich and full, except for the lowest notes which are unavoidably a little rough in quality.

PEDEN, ALEXANDER

Tam, nagi

SATIS

e

aft

l

=

,

Tameng,

m

J

rem)

A f

—

oy A

CR Pa

whe

f ka

Wer

AN mw ?

EAS eS

Va

:

DNA R

did ae

Wyae

Belle) A em Phd

oe

ees DNs 7? A) J) Ms EOE ced

(ce. 1626-1686), Scottish divine,

one of the leading forces in the Covenant movement, was born at Auchincloich, Ayrshire, about 1626, and was educated at Glasgow University.

È

`

He was ordained minister of New Luce in Galloway

in 1660, but had to leave his parish under Middleton’s Ejectment Act in 1663. His last days were spent in a cave in the parish of

re

Ds b:

Sorn, near his birthplace, and there he died in 1686. See A. Smellie, Men of the Covenant, ch. xxxiv.

PEDERSEN,

CHRISTIERN

(c.

1480-1554),

Danish

writer, known as the “father of Danish literature,” was a canon

of the cathedral of Lund, and took his master’s degree in Paris m r515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder Laale and (1514) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus. He worked at a continuation of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. Tn Holland he translated the New

Testament

(1529) and the

Psalms (1531) from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts.

After his

return to Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmo.

He published a Danish version (Krénike om Holger Danske) of the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately from the Norwegian Karlamagnus saga. His greatest work, the Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally

as “Christian III.’s Bible,” is an important landmark in Danish

eae

SS mi

DRINI

2 N

va

CO)MAHO)

— H] MA

A

DnE

A)

OITO (Gre i

i

X

a

D)

FROM BUHLMANN “CLASSIC AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE" (NEFF AND HELBURN) PEDIMENTS: (UPPER) ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ‘‘FLORENTINE'’ PEDIMENT, BY THE DELLA ROBBIAS, (LOWER) GREEK, THE ERECHTHEUM, ATHENS

crown doors, windows and especially niches. Where many such decorative pediments occur in a row, the Romans frequently made them alternately triangular and segmental in shape; in this they were copied by the High Renaissance in Italy. Following certain late Roman precedents, in which the line of the raking cornice is broken back in the centre, the designers of the Baroque period developed all sorts of fantastic broken, scrolled and reverse curved pediments; in some cases they even reversed the direction, so that the high part of the broken or sectional pediment was toward the outside of the composition rather than toward the centre, and in

432

PEDIPALPI—PEEBLESSHIRE

the Churrigueresque, or late Renaissance of Spain, little sections of pediment are used to intricate line patterning.

PEDIPALPI,

the name of a group of the class Arachnida

(g.v.), in some respects connecting the scorpions and the spiders but more nearly related to the latter. The most scorpion-like in appearance are the species of the order Uropygi which takes its name from the termination of the body by a distinct tail formed by the narrowing of the last three segments to form a jointed stalk for a post-anal horny appendage, the homologue of the scorpion’s sting, which acts as a tactile organ.

In the Urotricha, containing

the family Thelyphonidae, this appendage is long, flexible and lashlike: and the legs of the first pair are also tactile, while the palpi,

paralleled in South America for conscientious and enlightened tule. The slave trade was prohibited in 1850; in 1871 a law provided for the gradual emancipation of the slaves, and in 1888 an imperial disposition abolished slavery throughout Brazil. The em-

peror consistently sponsored public improvements, fostered publ,

instruction, and earnestly patronized art and science. He trayelled widely, visiting Europe in 1871, 1876 and 1886, and the

United States in 1876, affiliating himself closely with foreign in. tellectual life. In 1889 a crisis arose. The nobility were alienated

by the anti-slavery measures

and other legislation aimed at ye.

ducing their prerogatives; the military was demoralized by long

inactivity; the emperor showed too little interest in matters of

or chelae, are pincer-like and armed with powerful spikes for seiz-

state. On Nov. 15, Manuel D. da Fonseca (g.v.) led a Republi.

ing and impaling prey which consists mostly of beetles and other ground insects. The whip-scorpions, as these Arachnida are sometimes called on account of the lash-like tail, are not poisonous but when handled they emit a pungent, acid secretion which is defensive. They live for the most part in damp places, beneath stones or pieces of wood, in rock-crannies or termites’ nests or other crevices where shelter from light and protection from the rays of the sun are obtainable. Some species excavate burrows as dwellings for themselves and their young. The young are hatched from

W. B. P. PEEBLES, royal burgh and county town of Den Scotland, at the junction of Eddleston Water with the Tweed Pop. (1931), 5,853. It is 27 m. S. of Edinburgh by LNER.

eggs which the female carries about enswathed in a glutinous membrane and attached to the lower side of the abdomen. Most of

the species soon die when removed from their humid haunts; but in Florida a species is found which is adapted to dry sandy localities. Whip-scorpions are found in the East Indies where they range from India and Ceylon to southern Japan and the Fiji Islands and in the warmer parts of America from Brazil to the southern states of the Union. There are several genera of which the best known are Thelyphonus from India and Java, Vroproctus

from north-eastern Bengal and Mistigoproctus from Brazil, the

last two being the largest of the group, measuring about 4 in. in total length. A degenerate group related to the Urotricha, and known as the Tartarides, contains several genera (Trithyreus, Schizomus, ‘Hubbardia belonging to the family Hubbardiidae). The largest measures about 4 of an inch. Their habits and distribution are similar to those of the whip-scorpions but the group is found in

Africa as well as in Asia and America. The tailless Pedipalpi or Amblypygi recall spiders in appearance, having broader, flatter bodies and longer limbs than the whipscorpions. Their habits, however, are tolerably similar. They live for the most part under loosened bark or in natural crannies in forests, but do not burrow; and in the East Indies species of the genera Stygophrynus and Catageus frequent the dark recesses of caves and Sarax has been found beneath stones between tidemarks. There are many other genera (Tarantula, Phrynichus, etc.), the largest species rivalling the whip-scorpions in size. The group is widely distributed in tropical Asia, Africa and America. (R. I. P.)

PEDLAR: see HAWKERS AND PEDLARS. PEDRO II. (Dom PEDRO DE ALCANTARA) (1825-1891), second emperor of Brazil, was born in Rio de Janeiro on Dec. 2, 1825. On April 7, 1831, when he was not yet six years old, his father, Pedro I., abdicated in his favour, and for nine years the country was governed by a regency. He was declared of age on July 23, 1840, and was crowned July 18, 1841. He might have perpetuated his dynasty had he been more attentive to political exigencies. On his accession uprisings occurred in several provinces; these were promptly suppressed in Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes (1842) but held out in Rio Grande do Sul until 1845. The new government persisted in the policy of intervention in Uruguay which had caused the abdication of Pedro I. In 1852 Brazilian troops were chiefly responsible for the defeat of Rosas of Argentina; in 1864 a Brazilian army made Flores de facto dictator of Uruguay; and it was owing mainly to Brazilian arms and resources that Solano López, the dictator of Paraguay, was defeated in the Paraguayan War (1864-70). The government had

to combat

intermittent provincial rebellions

can revolt, supported by the army and navy. There was no re. sistance, the empire ended, and the emperor embarked with his family for Europe on Nov. 17. A Federal republic was proclaimed

:

and is also the terminus of a branch linc of the L.M.S. system from Symington. The burgh consists of the new town on the south of the Eddleston, and the old on the north. Portions of the town walls still exist, and there are cellars constructed in the 16th and 17th centuries as hiding-places against Border freebooters. The old cross stands in High Street. There are several woollen mills, and the town is an agricultural centre.

The name of Peebles is said to be derived from the pebylls, or tents, which the Gadeni pitched here in the days of the Romans. The place was a favourite residence of the Scots kings when they came to hunt in Ettrick forest. It probably received its charter from Alexander III., was created a royal burgh in 1367 and was the scene of the poem of Peblis to the Play, ascribed to James I. In 1544 the town was damaged in the expedition led by the rst earl of Hertford, afterwards the protector Somerset, and in 1604 it was partly destroyed by fire. Peebles lost its importance after the union of the Crowns. On the north bank of the Tweed, stands Neidpath Castle

(probably 13th century).

It was besieged and taken by Crom-

well in 1650.

PEEBLESSHIRE or TWEEDDALE, Scotland, bounded north and north-east and south-east by Selkirkshire, south by by Lanarkshire. Its area is 222,240 ac. surface consists of a succession of hills,

southern inland cownty, by Edinburghshire, east

Dumfriesshire, and west (excluding water). The which are highest in the south, and belong to the Silurian uplands of southern Scotland, succeeded by an Ordovician belt. The vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous tributaries intersect the uplands. South of the Tweed the highest points are Broad Law and Cramalt Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each 2,723 ft.), while north of the river the greatest heights reach about 1,800 ft In the north-west a part of the Pentland hills is included, showing upper Silurian and lower Old Red Sandstone rocks. Much glacial boulder clay, in the gravel and sand, rests upon the higher ground, while morainic deposits are found in the valleys. From the fact that for the first 36 m. of its course of 97 m., the river Tweed flows through the south of the shire, the county derives its alternative name of Tweeddale. The character of the soil varies considerably, peat, gravel and clay being all represented. The low-lying lands consist generally of rich loam, composed of sand and clay. The farming is pastoral rather than arable. About half the holdings are under roo acres. Under one quarter of the total area is under cultivation. The L.N.E. railway crosses the county in the north from Leadburn to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddlestone valley from Leadburn to Peebles and Thornielee, while in the south the L.MS. railway connects the county town with Biggar in Lanarkshire. In 1931 the population numbered 15,050. The chief towns art Peebles (pop. 5,853) and Innerleithen (2,359). The shire com-

(notably that in bines with Midlothian to return two members to parliament, and

Pernambuco, 1849), and was faced with diplomatic crises with England, France and the United States. But it left a record un-

forms a sheriffdom with the Lothians and Selkirkshire.

The country was early occupied by the Gadeni, a British tribe,

PEEKSKILL— PEEL

429

of whom there are many remains in the shape of camps and

ment, and by a style of speaking which owed its force to knowledge of the subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact in dealing with a parliamentary audience. Young

chief. The natives were reduced by the Romans, who have left traces of their military rule in the fine camp at Lyne, locally known as Randal’s Walls. On the retreat of the Romans the

Peel's lot, however, was cast, through his father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 1810, seconding the address, he defended the Walcheren expedition, which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of Lord Porchester’s committee. He began official life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool’s under-

sepulchral mounds. The standing stones near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are supposed to commemorate a Cymric

Gadeni came into their own again, and held the district until the consolidation of the kingdom after Malcolm IT.’s victory at

Carham in 1018, before which the land, constantly harried by

Danes, was nominally included in the territory of Northumbria.

This tract of Scotland is closely associated with the legend of Merlin. At Happrew, in the valley of the Lyne, the English defeated Wallace in 1304.

PEEKSKILL,

a village of Westchester county, New York,

U.S.A., on the east bank of the Hudson river, 40 m. above New York city, near the Bear Mountain highway bridge. It is served by the New York Central railroad and river steamers. Pop. (1920) 15,868 (85% native white); 1930 U.S. census 17,125. There is a U.S. naval magazine on Iona island, off Peekskill, and just above the village, on the river, is the State military camp. About 1760 the village took its present name

from that of the

adjacent creek or “kill,” on which Jans Peek, a Dutch trader, had established a trading post. It was incorporated in 1816. During the latter part of the Revolution it was an important outpost of the Continental army.

PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY

PEEL, 1st Viscount

(1829-1912), English statesman, youngest son of the great Sir

Robert Peel, was born on Aug. 3, 1829, and was educated at Eton and Balliol college, Oxford. He entered parliament in 1865, was parliamentary secretary to the poor law board (1868-71); secretary to the board of trade (1871-73); patronage secretary to the treasury (1873-74); and in 1880 he became undersecretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr. Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden) in 1884, Peel was elected Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and

secretary for war and the colonies under the Perceval administration. In 1812 he was transferred by Lord Liverpool (now premier)

to the more important but unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged till 1818 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and on the verge of rebellion. Peel plied the established engines of coercion and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, he had to combat Grattan, Plunkett, Canning and the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation in the House of Commons. He promoted joint education in Ireland as a means of reconciling sects. But his greatest service to Ireland as secretary was

the institution

of the regular Irish constabulary,

nicknamed after him “Peelers,” for the protection of life and property in a country where both were insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the violent abuse of O’Connell, whom he was ill advised enough to challenge—an affair which covered them both with ridicule. In 1817 he was elected member for the university of Oxford—an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on account of his unwavering hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation, Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long been weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he still supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and when Can ning retired on account of this affair Peel declined Lord Liverpool’s invitation to take the vacant place in the cabinet. During

this break in his tenure of office he had some time for reflection, which there was enough in the aspect of the political world to It had given him excela viscounty. He was keenly interested in licensing reform, and move. But early office had done its work. a high position; but and knowledge great business, of habits lent drafted a report for the royal commission of 1896-99, advocating though he was no a large reduction in the number of licensed houses, and that no it had left him somewhat stiff and punctilious, compensation should be paid from the public rates or taxes, the pedant in business; in corresponding on political subjects he loved views with the money for this purpose being raised by an annual licence-rental to throw off official forms and communicate his confidence was levied on the rateable value of the licensed premises; it at once freedom of private correspondence. Where his reserve. given without was it given, became a valuable weapon in the hands of advanced reformers. At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee Lord Peel died at Sandy, Bedfordshire, on Oct. 24, 1912. on the death of Horner. He was chosen for this important office He was succeeded by his son, WILLIAM ROBERT WELLESLEY Peet (b. 1867), 2nd Viscount and ist Earl (cr. 1929), educated by Huskisson, Ricardo and their fellow-economists, who saw in at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford, and called to the bar at him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary allethe Inner Temple in 1893. From 1908 to rgro he was leader of the giance to Pitt’s financial policy, and had actually voted with his Municipal Reform party. In 1916 he was chairman of the Com- Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool’s government mittee on the Detention of Neutral Vessels. He was appointed asserting that Bank of England notes were equivalent to legal coin. under-secretary for war in 1919, chancellor of the duchy of Lap- The choice proved judicious. Peel was converted to the currency caster (1921), minister of transport (1921-22), and was secre- doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his conversion in a tary of State for India from 1922 to 1924. He was made first great speech on May 24, 1819, in which he moved and carried commissioner of works in Baldwin’s second Government in 1924. four resolutions embodying the recommendations of the bullion committee in favour of a return to cash payments. This laid the

again in 1892. He will always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important office. On his retirement in 1895 he received

PEEL, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1788-1850), English states-

man, was born on Feb. 5, 1788, at Chamber Hall, near Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a cottage near the Hall. His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peelfold, and afterwards of Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who took to cotton-spinning with the spinning-jenny and grew a wealthy man. His father, Robert Peel (1750-1830), third son of the last-named, carried on the same business at Bury; he was M.P. for Tamworth,

was a supporter of Pitt, contributed munificently towards Pitt’s

war policy, and was rewarded with a baronetcy (1800).

Robert Peel was educated at Harrow

School and at Christ

Church, Oxford, where he took a first class both in classics and mathematics.

On leaving Oxford he was entered at Lincoln’s Inn,

and in 1809, at the age of 21, entered the House of Commons. He sat at first for the close borough of Cashel, then for Chippenham.

He made his mark in the House by the closest attention to all

his parliamentary duties. by a study of all the business of parlia-

foundation of his financial reputation, and his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal turn to his commercial

principles. In the course he took he somewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from his father, who remained faithful to Pitt’s depreciated paper, and between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching passage occurred in the debate. The

author of the Cash Payments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with vigour. The act was hard on debtors, including the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be paid in cash which had been contracted in depreciated paper; and Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with being biased by his

personal interests. But the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper had circulated, themselves contained a provision for a return to cash payments six months after peace. In 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. His domestic life was

PEEL

434

singularly happy, and he had many fast friends among the ablest

men of his time. Cold as he was in public, few men could be more

genial in private than Peel. In 1821 Peel rejoined Liverpool’s ministry as home secretary; and in that capacity he had again to undertake the office of coercing the growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emancipation. In 1825, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the government. He found a congenial task in reforming and humanizing the criminal law, especially those parts of it which related to offences against property and offences punishable by death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great work, as well as the great speech of March g, 1826, in which he opened the subject to the house, form one of the most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law reform was the reform of Romilly and Mackintosh, from the hands of the latter of whom Peel received it. But the bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Peel.

In 1827 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal illness of its chief, and under the new premier, George Canning, Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members of Lord Liverpool’s cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Peel were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference of connection and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and it is difficult to see how their position in Canning’s cabinet could have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in debate. Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to the end; and Canning’s son afterwards entered public life under the auspices of Peel. The charge of having urged Roman Catholic emancipation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed Canning for being a friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert Peel in the fierce Corn Law debates of 1846, was withdrawn by those who made it. In January 1828, after Canning’s death, the duke of Wellington formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it was, did not include the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for organic change by administrative reform, and by lightening the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than it had been-since the Revolutionary war, and the import of corn was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also introduced into London the improved system of police which he had previously established with so much success in Ireland. But the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could. Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emancipation was brought to a crisis by the election of O’Connell for the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled. He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1829, owing to the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the conclusion that without Peel’s aid in office there was no prospect of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours), and again extorted; and on March 5, 1829, Peel proposed Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having been elected for the university of Oxford as a

leading opponent of the Roman

right to resign his seat on being converted to emancipation. Hi friends put him again in nommation, but he was defeated by Si R. H. Inglis. He took refuge in the close borough of Westby whence he afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sa till his death. Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by cir. cumstances; but it was mainly owing to him that the measure wag

complete, and based upon equality of civil rights. This great cop. cession, however, did not save the Tory government. It fell on November 1830, but not before Peel had accomplished further important reforms in the administration of justice.

While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Drayton Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 2

1830). The old man had lived to see his fondest hopes fulfilledjn the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see thatafather must not expect to fix his son’s opinions. Peel’s resistance to the Reform Bill won back for him the allegiance of his party. His opposition was resolute but temperate and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire of his temper, in the debate of April 22, 1831, when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to dissolve the parliament which had thrown

out reform.

He refused to join the duke of Wellington in the

desperate enterprise of forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal

of the king to promise them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the passing of the Reform Bill, left him with barely

15o followers in the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly

swelled under his management into the great Conservative party, He frankly accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the middle classes, whose new-born power he appreciated, steadily supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and

O’Connell, and gained every advantage which parliamentary tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that, in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unreformed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader, though the skill ofa pilot who steered for many years over such waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of Wellington’s emphatic eulogy on him was, “Of all the men I ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth.” The duke might have added that his own ques tion, “How is the king’s government to be carried on in a reformed parliament?” was mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Peel, and by his personal influence on the debates and proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which followed the Reform Act. In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or desired it. He hurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose sagacious modesty yielded him the first place, and became prime minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and

chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to include in his cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and Sit James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted on the election of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835, and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on the question of appro-

priating part of the revenues of the Church in Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but the capacity, energy and resource he displayed in this short tenure of office raised him

immensely in the estimation of the house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of practical reforms which be brought forward, the plan for the commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the plan for settling the question of dissenters’ marriages bore fruit.

From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and

far-sighted opposition. In 1839, the Whigs having resigned on the sub: Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a government, and

mitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the commission owing t Catholics, he had thought it the young queen’s persistent refusal to part with any Whig ladie:

PEEL

435

The elections of

Corn-Law League. Peeb had\ been recognized in 1841 by Cobden of her bedchamber. 1841 placed the Whigs in a minority of 91; they resigned, and Sir as a Free Trader, and áftér- Expérience in office he had become (See VICTORIA, QUEEN.)

Robert Peel became first lord of the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses of Parliament. The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were in disorder. For some years there had been a growing deficit, estimated

for 142 at more than two millions, and attempts to supply this by

in principle more and more s9: Since his accession to power he

had lowered the duties of the sliding scale.

He had alarmed the

farmers by admitting foreign cattle and meat under his new tariff, and by admitting Canadian.com.

He had done his best

reform of the tariff, by which prohibitory duties were removed

in his speeches to put the maintenancerofthe-Corn Laws on low ground, and to wean the landed interest: from their reliance on protection. The approach of the Irish famine; in 384 g turned decisively the wavering balance. When at firsti, Peel ‘proposed to his cabinet the revision of the Corn Laws, ‘Lond: Stanley and the duke of Buccleuch dissented, and Peel resigked.,-But Lord

especially the raw materials of manufactures and prime articles of

office; and now, with the consent of all the cabinetybut Lord

additions to assessed taxes and customs duties had failed. The great financier took till the spring of 1842 to mature his plans. He then boldly supplied the deficit by imposing an income-tax on all incomes above £150 a year. He accompanied this tax with a

Peéhketurned: to

and other duties abated on a vast number of articles of import,

John Russell failed to form a new government.

food. Increased consumption, as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty. The income-tax was renewed and the

Stanley, who retired, he, in a great speech on Jan. 2My, 184.6, brought the repeal of the Corn Laws before the House off

1845. The result was, in place of a deficit of upwards of two mil-

both by political and personal enemies, with the most virulent invective, which he ignored. His measure was carried; but im- ` mediately afterwards the protectionists, led by Lord George

reform of the tariff carried still farther on the same principle in mons. In the long and fierce debate that ensued he was assaigs lions, a surplus of five millions in 1845, and the removal of seven

millions and a half of taxes up to 1847, not only without loss,

but with gain to the ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state of the finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yearly saving at once of £625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter to the public. In 1844 another great financial

measure, the Bank Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated the currency of the country. In Ireland O’Connell’s agitation for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening proportions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition; and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal was quelled in its chief. At the same time the Charitable Bequest Act, which gave Irish Catholics power to endow their own religion, an increased allowance to Maynooth,

Bentinck and Benjamin Disraeli, coalesced with the Whigs, and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He immediately resigned. Though out of ofñce he was not out of power. He had “lost a party, but won a nation.” The Whig ministry which succeeded him leant much on his support. He joined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the repeal of the navigation laws. He supported their bill for the emancipation of the Jews. One important measure was his own. While in office he had probed, by the Devon commission of inquiry, the sores of Ireland connected with the ownership and occupation of land. In 1849, in a speech on the Irish Poor Laws, he first suggested, and in the next year he aided in establishing, a commission to facilitate the sale of estates in a hopeless state of encumbrance. The Encumbered Estates Act transferred the land from ruined landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of property towards the people. On June 28, 1850, Peel made a great speech on the Greek question against Palmerston’s foreign policy of interference. This speech was thought to show that if necessary

and three new “Queen’s Colleges” open to Catholics and Protestants alike, improved the Irish situation. The last remnants of the penal laws against Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were swept from the statute-book, and justice was extended to the Roman Catholic Church in Canada and he would return to office. It was his last. On the following day Malta. In the same spirit acts were passed for clearing from he was thrown from his horse on Constitution Hill, and mortally doubt Irish Presbyterian marriages, for settling the titles of a injured by the fall. On July 2, 1850, he died. All the tributes large number of dissenters’ chapels in England, and removing the which respect and gratitude could pay were paid to him by the municipal disabilities of the Jews. The grant for national educa- sovereign, by parliament, by public men of all parties, by the tion was trebled, and an attempt was made, though in vain, to country, by the press, and, above all, by the great towns and introduce effective education clauses into the factory bills. To the the masses of the people to whom he had given “bread unalienation of any part of the revenues of the Church of England, leavened with injustice.” Peel was bred a Tory in days when party was a religion; he Peel never would consent; but he had issued the ecclesiastical commission, and he now made better provision for a number of entered parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four and populous parishes by a redistribution of part of the revenues of secretary for Ireland at twenty-five; his public life extended the Church. The weakest part of the conduct of Peel’s gdévern- over a long period rife with change; and his own changes were ment, perhaps, was its failure:to control the railway mania by all forward and with the advancing intellect of the time. He promptly laying down the lines on a government plan. It passed was undoubtedly one of the hardest workers and greatest adan act in 1844 which gave the government a right of purchase, ministrators England has ever had, and the young men trained and it had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but was com- in his school, Gladstone, Graham, Sidney Herbert, Cardwell, with pelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures, to the others who bore the name of Peelites, inherited a great tradition repeal of the Corn Laws. It failed also to avert the great schism of hard work and disinterestedness in the public service. Peel in the Church of Scotland. Abroad it was as prosperous as at had a great share in giving practical effect to the great legal home. It had found disaster and disgrace in Afghanistan. It and administrative reforms of his day. Of the three great speedily ended the war there, and in India the invading Sikhs issues with which Peel was confronted, parliamentary reform, were destroyed upon the Sutlej. The sore and dangerous questions Catholic emancipation, and protection, the controversies on with France, touching the right of search, the war in Morocco, the first two are dead; the third is still a matter on which there and the Tahiti affair, and with the United States touching the is a violent conflict of opinon. Nevertheless it was by the repeal pane boundary and the Oregon territory, were settled by negotia- of the Corn Laws that he won the masses of the people. If the question is, not whether he was a far-sighted statesman but ion. Yet there were malcontents in Peel’s party. The Young Eng- whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by the English people, landers disliked him because be had hoisted the flag of Conser- there is no arguing against the tears of a nation. vatism instead of Toryism on the morrow

of the Reform Bill.

The strong philanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked him because he was a strict economist and an upholder of the new poor

law. But the fatal question was protection. That question was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion and the Anti-

BrsriocraPHy.—-Consult

his own

posthumous

Memoirs

(1856),

edited by his literary executors Earl Stanhope and Viscount Cardwell; his private correspondence ed. C. S. Parker (1891—99); the four volumes of his speeches (1835-53) ; a sketch of his life and character by Sir Lawrence Peel (1860); an historical sketch by Lord Dalling (1874) ; Guizot’s Sir Robert Peel (1857) ; Kiinzel’s Leben und Reden

PEEL— PEERAGE

4.36

Bentinck Sir Robert Peel’s (1851); Disraeli’s Life of Lord GeorgeMontague (1858);

Morley’s Life of Cobden; monographs by F. C.

(1888), J. R. Thursfeld (1891), and the earl of Rosebery (1899) ; Peel and O’Connell, by Lord Eversley; the Life of Sir J. Graham

(1907), by C. S. Parker; Lord Stanmore’s Life of Lord Aberdeen (C. S. Pa.) (1893) ; and the general histories of the time. Of Sir Robert Peel’s five sons, Sir ROBERT PEEL (1822—1895) sold his father’s collection of pictures to the National Gallery for £75,000, SIR FREDERICK PEEL (1823-1906) held variousparlia-

mentary appointments and served the state in connection with the railway and canal commission, and Si WILLIAM PEEL (18241858) distinguished himself in the Crimea and in the Indian Mutiny. See also Peet, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, VISCOUNT.

For the history of the Peel family see Jane Haworth, A M emoir of the Family of Peel from the year 1600 (1836); Rt. Hon. Sir R. Peel, The Private Letters of Sir Robert Peel (1920), pp. 296.

PEEL, seaport, township, watering-place, on the west coast of the Isle of Man, r2 m. W. of Douglas on the Isle of Man railway. Pop. (1921) 2,690. It lies on Peel bay, at the mouth of the river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modern residential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the river-mouth St. Patrick’s Isle, connected with the mainland by a causeway, is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of Peel castle. St. Patrick is said to have

founded here the first church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears to date from the 8th or roth century. There is a round tower, also of very early date. The ruined cathedral of St. German has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath, and a nave with an early English triplet at the west end. There are remains of the bishops’ palace, of the palace of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while the whole is surrounded by battlements. In 1397 Richard II. condemned the

earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel castle and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received a like sentence. Peel has a long-established fishing industry. It was called by the Northmen Holen (island, ż.e., St. Patrick’s Isle), the existing name is Celtic, meaning “fort.”

PEELE, GEORGE

(1558?-1597?), English dramatist, was

born in London. His father, who appears to have belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ’s Hospital, and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Peele was educated at Christ’s Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall (Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571r. In 1574 he removed to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ’s Hospital requested their clerk to “discharge his house of his son, George Peele.” He went up to London about 1580, but in 1583 when Albertus Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobleman, was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Peele was entrusted with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager (ff. 1580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also complimented by Dr. Gager for an English verse translation of one of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed to write the Device of the Pageant borne before Woolston Dixie, and in 159r he devised the pageant in honour of another lord mayor, Sir William Webbe. This was the Descensus Astraeae (printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Peele had married as early as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which he speedily dissipated. The sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use of his name in connection with the apocryphal Merrie conceited Jesits of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories had done service before, but there are personal touches that may be biographical. He died before 1598, for Francis Meres, writing in that year, speaks of his death in his Palladis Tamia. His pastoral comedy of The Araygnenvent of Paris, presented by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth perhaps as early as 1581, was printed anonymously in 1584. Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this piece of Peele’s, said that if it had been less uneven in execution Fletcher’s Faithful Shepherdess “had been but a second name in this sort of writing.” Peele’s other reputed works are The Famous

Chronicle of King Edward the first (printed 1593); The Battell

[ORIGIN

of Alcazar—with

the death of Captaine Stukeley (acted 1 588-

1589, printed [anon.] 1594); The Old Wives Tale (printed 1595)

a play within a play, with a background of rustic folk-lore; and

The Love of King David and fair Bethsabe

(written c. 1589

printed 1599); Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes (printed 1 599) tás

been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds. Among his occasional poems are “The Honour of the Garter” and “Poly. hymnia” (1590). To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributeg “The Praise of Chastity.” Mr. F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits Peele with The Wisdom of Doctor Doddipoll

(printed 1600), Wily Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life an Death of Jack Straw, a notable rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second Parts of Henry VI., and on the authority of Wood and Winstanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany. Peele belonged to the group of university scholars who, in

Greene’s phrase, “spent their wits in making playes.” Greene went on to say that he was “in some things rarer, in nothing inferior,” to Marlowe. This praise was not unfounded. The credit given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of English dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused into blank verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Peele’s Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1829-39 and 1861) ; by A. H. Bullen (2 vols., 1888). An examination of the metrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R. Lammerhirt’s Georg Peele, Untersuchungen über sein Leben und seine Werke (Rostock,

1882). See also Professor F, B. Gummere, in Representative English Comedies (1903); an edition of The Battel of Alcazar, printed for

the Malone

Society in 1907;

P. Cheffand,

Etude

sur George Peele

(1913) ; W. W. Greg, an ed. of the Battell of Alcazar (1922).

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, an Irish Protestant secret society, formed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant peasantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics. The “Boys” gained their name from the hour of dawn which they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages. The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of “The Defenders.”

PEEPUL or PIPUL

(Ficus religiosa), the “sacred fig” tree

of India, is also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan, and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the Vaishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its shade.

It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds in caout-

chouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a walnut andis not much eaten. (See Fic.)

PEERAGE.

Although in England the terms “peerage” (Fr.

pairage; Med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere; O.Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. paris, “equal’’), “nobility,” “House of Lords” are commonly regarded as synonymous, in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be a peer and yet not be a member of the House of Lords, a member of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all peers are members of the House

of Lords, either in esse or in posse. In the United Kingdom the

rights, duties and privileges of peerage are centred in an individual, while to the old monarchical notions of the Continent, nobility conveyed the idea of family, as opposed to personal, privilege. The Origin of Peerage—Etymologically, “peers” are “equals” (pares), and in Anglo-Norman days the word was invariably so

understood.

The feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all

the peers of one another; so, too, a bishop had his ecclesiastical peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is clear from Magna Carta, for the term “judicium parium” therein must be under-

by bis stood to mean that every man had a right to be tried

equals. This right was asserted by the barons as a body im 1233 on behalf of Richard, Earl Marshal, who had been declared 2

traitor by the King’s command.

The English barons undoubtedly

were using the word in the sense it held in Magna Carta. The

change in England was gradual, and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater barons and the lesser widened,

until in course of time, for judicial purposes, there came to be

only two classes, the greater barons and the rest of the people. Ecclesiastics had special privileges for most purposes, being triable only by the Church. The first use of the word “peers,” as denoting

HEREDITARY

PEERAGE

PRINCIPLE]

437

those members of the baronage who were accustomed to receive and bishops received their writs with regularity, the summonses regularly a personal writ of summons to parliament, is found in to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater barons were interthe record of the proceedings against the Despensers in 1321. mittent. The prelate held an office which lived on regardless of (Stubbs, Const. Hist. ti. 347.) Anglo-Norman Baronage.—Properly

to

understand

the

growth and attributes of the peerage it is necessary to trace the

changes which occurred in the position of the Anglo-Norman paronage, first through the gradual strengthening of royal supremacy, with the consequent decay of baronial power locally,

and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards.

In place of the

individual absolute ownership of Saxon days, the Conqueror became practically the sole owner of the soil. The change, though not immediately complete, followed rapidly as the country settled down and the power of the Crown extended to its outlying frontiers.

The new

owners

became

direct tenants of the king.

All tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons (see Baron). The King’s Court.—The king’s tenants owed as a duty the service of attending the King’s Court (curia regis), and out of this custom grew the parliaments of later days. In theory all the king’s tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a right to be present as incident to their tenure. The King’s Court was held regularly at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other times as deemed advisable. The assembly for several generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and grew out of the custom of the Estates granting supplies only on condition that their

grievances were first redressed.

The great bulk of the tenants

were present for the purpose of assenting to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal dues. When necessary

a general summons to attend was sent through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system of local government which

the fate of its temporary holder, and if by reason of death, deprivation or translation the office became vacant, a writ still issued to the “Guardian of the Spiritualities.” The prior or the abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of the English Church, and sometimes even owing allegiance to a foreign order, was but the personal representative of a land-holding community. The conclusion, then, may be drawn that in theory the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates was office and personal importance, and in the case of priors, abbots, earls and barons, probably, in the main, extent of possession.

Hereditary Principle— The next point for consideration is when did the peerage, as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into a body definitely hereditary? Here again growth was gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout the reigns of the first three Edwards summonses were not always issued to the same individual for successive parliaments; and it is quite certain the king never considered that the issue of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition for the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity. Again we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom of primogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family succession, and if extent of possession had originally extracted the acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown it is more than probable that as successive heirs came into their inheritance they, too, would similarly be acknowledged. In early days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity, an unpleasant incident of tenure, in itself undesirable, and probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at least the two centuries

following the Conquest. Gradually the free and indiscriminate choice of the Crown became fettered by the principle that, once a summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament and he had obeyed that summons, he thereby acquired a right the general mass summoned through the sheriff. Magna Carta and Personal Summons to the Majores of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years, when Batones.—The sequel is found in Magna Carta, wherein it is the doctrine of nobility of blood became established, his heirs provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and greater were held to have acquired the same privilege by hereditary right. The earl’s position in the baronage needs some explanation. barons are to be called up to the council by writ directed to each severally; and all who hold of the king in chief, below the rank Modern historical opinion:inclines to the view that while originally of greater barons, are to be summoned by a general writ addressed an earldom may have been something of an office, it rapidly beto the sheriff of their shire. Magna Carta thus indicates two came little more than an added name of dignity conferred on one definite sections of the king’s tenants, a division which had already a leading member of the baronage. Earls received indievidently persisted for some time. The “greater barons” are the vidual summonses to parliament by the name of Earl (g.v.); but parents of the peers of later days. As for the rest of the tenants- there is reason to believe that in early days at any rate they sat in-chief, poorer in estate and therefore of less consequence, it is by tenure as members of the baronage. If we review the political situation at the beginning of the r4th sufficient here to note that they fell back into the general mass of manorial owners; and that their representatives, the knights century a great change is evident. The line between those memof the shire, after some hesitation, at length joined forces with the bers of the baronage in parliament and the rest of the people is city and burgher representatives to form the House of Commons. firmly and clearly drawn. Tenure as the sole qualification for From 1254 to 1295 in varying numbers there were summoned to presence in the national assembly has disappeared, and in its the King’s Councils representatives of the counties, boroughs and place there appears for the baronage a system of royal selection cities. The assembly of 1295, called the Model Parliament, is and for the rest of the people one of representation. Peerage a Personal Dignity.—Primogeniture, a custom regarded legally as the first of our freely-elected properly representative assemblies, but recent research now ascribes this charac- somewhat uncertain in early Anglo-Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law. As feudal dignities were, in ter to a Parliament summoned as early as 1275. To every spiritual and temporal baron accustomed to receive their origin, inseparable from the tenure of land, it is not suran individual writ, one was issued. Every county elected its prising that they, too, followed a similar course of descent, knights, and every city or borough of any importance was in- although as the idea of a dignity being exclusively personal structed by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of of representatives. It may be taken for granted, however, that law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the any assembly held since 1295, which did not conform substantially trth year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent John to the model of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally Beauchamp “Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kyddermynster, as a full parliament. The point is even of modern importance, to hold to him and the heirs of his body.” These letters patent as In order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must were not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed by be Proved that the claimant’s ancestor was summoned by indi- Beauchamp, for the king makes him “for his good services and Vidual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself or one in respect of the place which he has holden at the coronation (ż.e., of the heirs of his body was present in a full parliament. steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king’s Grades of Peerage.—An examination of the early writs issued councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his to individuals shows that the baronage consisted of archbishops, abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the kingbishops, abbots, priors, earls and barons, While the archbishops dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male of enabled him to reach every tenant.

In course of time to a cer-

tain number of barons and high ecclesiastics it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus distinguishing them from

4.38

PEERAGE

his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should be called by the name of “Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kyddermynster.” The grant rested wholly on the grace and favour of the

Crown, and was a personal reward for services rendered. Here, then, is an hereditary barony entirely a personal dignity and quite unconnected with land. From Richard’s reign to the present day, baronies (and, indeed, all other peerage honours) have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolution. Summons alone still continued side by side for many generations with summons founded on patent; but after the reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and during the last 250 years there have been no new creations by writ of summons alone. So, from the reign of Richard II., barons were of two classes, the older, and more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in a line usually of the direct male descendants of the person first ennobled. Peerages by Tenure.—It was long believed that, originally, there existed peerages by tenure alone and that such could devolve by right of tenure independent of descent. The Berkeley case of 1858-61 (better reported 8 H.C.L. 21) is essential for the student who wishes to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure

as an existing means of establishing a peerage right. Cruise on Dignities, 2nd ed., pp. 60 et seq.)

(See also

The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalienable quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and his heirs, or, aS a great judge put it in 1625, in the earldom of Oxford case, “he cannot alien or give away this inheritance because it is a personal dignity annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood” (Dodridge, J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones’s Reports). Dukes.—Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were barons with their special name of dignity added, and their names always appear on the rolls before those of the barons. In 1337 King Edward III. created his son, the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest of the peerage. Subsequently

several members of the royal family were created dukes, but no

subject received such an honour until 50 years later, when Richard TT. created his favourite, Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life). The original intention may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, since, with the exception of de Vere, it was some years before a dukedom was again conferred on a subject. Marquesses.—In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title Ito the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life, and was, in fact, resumed by the Crown in 1387, when its recipient was created duke of Ireland. Viscounts.—Under the name of viscount (qg.v.) Henry VI. added yet another order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in 1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont and giving him precedence next above the barons. The name of this dignity was borrowed from the Continent, having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king’s French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred as additional honours on men who were already members of the peerage.

Spiritual Peers.—The application of the hereditary principle

to temporal peerages early differentiated their holders from the spiritual peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were equally lords of parliament, but hereditary pretensions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the two orders. Gradually the temporal

peers, strong in their doctrine of “ennobled” blood, came to consider that theirs was an order above and beyond all other lords of parliament, and before long, arrogated to themselves the exclusive right to be called peers, and as such the only persons entitled to the privileges of peerage.

[FORFEITURE

The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted wi thout a struggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mis take of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their own order while endeavouring to retain every right possessedh

their

lay brethren.

They fell between

two

stools, lost thei

position as peers and were beaten back in their fight for ecclesiastical privilege.

For themselves Churchmen never claimed the

privilege of trial by peers, and when arraigned, alleged to he altogether

beyond

secular

authority.

The

Standing Orders of

the House of Lords for 1625 contain the statement that “Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not Peers” (Lords Journals, i

349).

In 1640 the “Lords Spiritual” were altogether excluded

from the House of Lords by act of parliament, and were not

brought back until the second year of the Restoration. Henry

VIII. and the Peerage.—tThe

reign of Henry VII

brought about far-reaching changes in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended the throne the hereditary element was

in a decided minority, but the balance was rapidly redresseq

until a bare hereditary majority was secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands, at once began to consolidate their position: precedents were eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act of parliament, failure of heirs or upon corruption. of blood by attainder. Surrender of Peerages.—From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage

is under Scots Law, which admits surrender) can be surrendered,

extinguished or in any way got rid of unless the blood be cor-

rupted. The rule is well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case (Law Reports [1907], A.C. 10), in which its development was traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. Historically, there is little to support such a decision, and, indeed, this rigid application of the law is of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and lawyers alike were all agreed right down to Tudor days, that such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made, but, according to the de cision of 1906, any living heirs of line of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can, if their pedigrees be provable and no attainders bar the way, come to the House of Lords with a fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Attainder and Corruption of Blood.—The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to peerages arises out of their close connection with the tenure of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded as personal until well on into the 14th century. Conviction for any kind of felony—and treason originally was a form of felony—was always followed by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was lost for ever. Such corruption, with all its consequences, could be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing, in 1285, of the statute

De

Donis

Conditionalibus

(g.v.), which

made

possible the

creation of estates tail, and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g., dignities conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs-general. In the reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought estates tail within the law ol forfeiture, but for high treason only. The position then became that peerages of any kind were forfeitable by attainder follow ing on high treason, while baronies by writ remained, as before, forfeitable for attainder following on felony. In 1708, just afte the union with Scotland, an act was passed by which, on the

death of the Pretender and three years after Queen Anne’s death

the effects of corruption of blood consequent on attainder fa high treason were to be abolished, and the actual offender onl} punishable (stat. 7 Anne, c. 21, sec. 10). Owing to the 174! rising, the operation of this act was postponed until the deceas'

PEERAGE

scOPTISH AND IRISH]

of the Pretender and all his sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, sec. 3). in 1814, forfeiture for every crime other than high and petty treason and murder, was restricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo. IIT. c. 145). Finally, in 1870, forfeiture, except upon outlawry, was altogether abolished, and it was provided that “no judgment of or for any treason or felony should

cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat.” In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course,

apart from the general law.

operate

In any event, attainder and for-

feiture of a dignity, whether

resulting from the rules

of the

of the first two Stuarts underwent a still greater increase.

In the

common law or from special or general acts of parliament can only be reversed by act of parliament. Growth of the Lords.—The numbers of the House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor period, and during the reign Great Rebellion the majority of the peers were the supporters, and thus inevitably involved themselves the royal cause. Under Cromwell they disappeared body and did not return to their ancient place until of Charles IT.

king’s stoutest in the ruin of as a legislative the restoration

From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been freshened by a steady stream of men who, as a rule, have served

their country as statesmen, judges, sailors and soldiers. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the Scottish peerage was given the privilege of

electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, 16 of their number to represent them in the House of Lords. Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, since only 16 of

their number were to become lords of parliament. Close upon roo years later Ireland was united with Great Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in tum to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual lords lost their seats. ‘The merger of the three kingdoms had an important effect on their peerages. Every peer, in his own country, had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right. The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the peer of Great Britain and the peer of the United Kingdom) continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. Although the Scottish and Irish peers lost this right by the two Acts of Union, they retained every other privilege of peerage. Henceforth they were to be lords of parliament only when their fellow peers elected them. The erection of southern Ireland into a self-governing dominion of the Crown has indirectly but definitely affected the status of the Irish peerage. This peerage belonged to the old united Ireland: and cannot to-day arbitrarily be divided between its two halves. The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, together with the machinery acts dependent thereon, has destroyed the

procedure whereby Irish representative peers are elected; whether intentionally or by accident is not known. Existing representative peers, having been elected for life, remain in the House of Lords, but no vacancies can henceforth be filled. The Irish peerage will thus slowly diminish in numbers as existing peerages die out.

The modern meaning of the term peerage can now be more clearly defined. It will be noted that there have always been separate peerages of England, Ireland and Scotland. After the union of England with Scotland new creations became .of the

peerage of Great Britain, and after the union of Great Britain with Ireland:

of the United

Kingdom

of Great

Britain and

Ireland; and now,

since the advent

of the Trish Free

probably we must

speak of the “United Kingdom

State,

of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland.” Many members of the House of Lords hold peerages in several of these groups.

Several attempts have been made to limit the absolute rights

of peers to a writ of summons, but this is a question which be-

439

longs rather to the history of the House of Lords as a legislative chamber. It will suffice here to note that in 1856 an attempt was made to create one of the judges a life peer, but the House, after

long debate, rejected the writ, and a patent of customary form had to be followed. In 1876 legislation was passed creating two lords of appeal (with power to appoint two more) with a right to sit and vote during the holding of office. In 1887 further legislation conferred on all lords of appeal and ex-lords of appeal life peerages. The Scottish Peerage.—The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin to feudalism. When the Scottish earls and barons came to parliament, they did not withdraw themselves from the rest of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland to deliberate together, and this custom persisted until the abolition of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to regard the honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by Richard II. This explains the frequent surrenders and altered grants which are so common in Scottish peerage history, and which, in sharp distinction to the English rule of law, are there regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish dukedom (except the royal dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate or viscounty created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland (and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages 63 were created in the period between James’s accession to the English throne and the Act of Union. There are now only 87 in all. The Irish Peerage.—The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with them the laws and the system of tenure to which they were accustomed in England, and consequently the growth of the baronage and the establishment of parliamentary government in Ireland proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII. the Irish were without representation in parliament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were enabled to élect representatives. In 1613 the whole country shared in representation (Balls Legislative Systems of Ireland). Just as James I. had added many members to the Scottish peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers. On the death of a representative peer of Scotland a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accordance with modern practice promotion to a United Kingdom peerage does not vacate the holder’s representative position (May’s Parlia-

mentary Practice, p. 11 n.). Scottish and Irish peers, if repre-

sentative, possess all the privileges of peerage and parliament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if non-representative all privileges of peerage, except the right to a writ of summons to

attend parliament and to be present at and vote in the trial of peers. Though many peers possess more than one peerage, quently of more than one country, only that title is used which is first in point of precedence. Every peerage according to the limitations prescribed in its patent of

and frepublicly descends creation

or its charter, and where these are non-existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general. (See ABEYANCE.)

In dealing with English dignities it is essential to realize the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage. The Crown, as the fountain of honour, is capable of conferring upon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but may even

invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted an order of hereditary knights which he styled baronets, and Edward VII.

created the duchess of Fife “Princess Royal”—a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales, earl marshal and lord great

chamberlain have been for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and social precedence, of themselves confer no right to a seat in the House of Lords—they are not peerages. There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created. As

440

PEERAGE

to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually approaching extinction. The Irish peerage is supposed always to consist of 100 exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown (before the erection of the Irish Free State) had power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the limit was reached no more peerages might be granted until existing ones had become extinct

or their holders succeeded to United Kingdom peerages.

Only

seven lords of appeal in ordinary may hold office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various statutes at 26. Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have usually been created on the recommendation of the prime minister

of the day, though the Crown, especially in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed in some instances to take its

monly known

as Viscount

Blackacre.”

Several cases are on

record in which peers’ eldest sons have actually borne courtes

titles not possessed as peerage honours by their fathers, but ip. asmuch as such are only accorded by courtesy, no question of peerage privilege arises. The younger sons of dukes and mar.

quesses by custom use the prefix “Lord” before one of their Christian names, and all the daughters of earls as well as of dukes

and marquesses are entitled similarly to style themselves “Lady” on the principle that all the daughters are equal in rank and

precedence.

The younger sons of earls and all the younger

children of viscounts and barons, including lords of appeal, use

the prefix “Honourable” before one of their Christian names but this style is one of written address and reference only, Usually, when the direct heir of a peer dies, his children are given, by the Crown, on the death of the peer, the courtesy titles and precedence they would have enjoyed had their father actually

own course; and, constitutionally, such action is entirely legal. By far the greater number of peerage honours granted during the

succeeded to the peerage. An alien may be created a peer, but while remaining an alien cannot sit in the House of Lords, nor, if a Scottish or Irish

ment assembling Feb. 1928 numbered 740. Privileges of Peerage—As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of use or been forgotten. The most important

claim without reference to the House of Lords, and issue a writ of summons to its petitioner. This would not in any way prevent the House of Lords from examining the patent and writ of

last two centuries have been rewards for political services. The roll of the lords spiritual and temporal for the session of parlia-

now in being are a seat in the House of Lords and the right to trial by peers on any charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin of this latter right, and some date it back to Saxon ‘times (Trial of Lord Morley, 1678, State Trials, vii. 145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its confirmatory authority. The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those wrongly condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P., v. 24). In 1442 the privilege received parliamentary confirmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c. 9). If parliament is sitting the trial takes place before the House of Lords in full session, ż.e., the court of our lord the king in parliament; if not, then before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lotd high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not been so for centuries and is now only granted pro hac vice. When necessity arises, the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer (usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hac vice (Blackstone's Comm., iv. 258). When a trial takes place in full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact. Should the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parliament, he summons a number of peers to attend as a jury, but rules alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress, it is the invariable practice to summon all the judges to attend and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two tribunals was fully discussed and recognized in 1760 (Trial of Earl Ferrets, Fostet’s Criminal Cases, 139). The most recent trial was that of: Earl Russell for bigamy (reported rgor, A.C. 446). ii l Peeresses and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have, with the exception of the right to sit in the House of Lords and its attendant privileges, every peerage privilege. In 1922 Sibyl Viscountess Rhondda presented a petition claiming the right to a writ of summons. The claim was heard and re-heard before the Committee for Privileges and eventually rejected. This decision has disposed of the claims of peeresses in their own right, under the existing law, to sit in the House of Lords.

peer, can he vote at elections for representative peers. Claims to peerages are of two kinds: (1) of right, (2) of grace, In theory the Crown, as the fountain of honour, might settle any

summons

when the favoured

petitioner or any heir claiming

through him came to take his seat. If of opinion that the patent was illegal the House might refuse admittance, as it did in the Wensleydale case. In the case of a petitioner who has persuaded the Crown to terminate in his favour as a co-heir the abeyance of an ancient barony and who has received his writ of summons, the matter is more difficult. The House cannot refuse to admit any person properly summoned by the Crown, as the prerogative is unlimited in point of numbers; but it can take into account the precedence of the newcomer. The Crown, therefore, unless there can be no question as to origin and pedigree, seldom terminates an abeyance without referring the matter to the House of Lords, and invariably so refers all claims which are disputed or which involve any question of law. The Committee for Privileges, which for peerage claims is usually constituted of the law lords and one or two other lords

interested in peerage history, sits as an ordinary court of justice and follows all the rules of law and evidence. The attorneygeneral attends as adviser to the committee and to watch the

interests of the Crown. According to the nature of the case the committee reports to the House, and the House to the Crown, that the petitioner (if successful) (1) has made out his claim and is entitled to a writ of summons, or (2) has proved his co-heirship to an existing peerage, and has also proved the descent of all co-heirs that can reasonably be traced. In the first case the writ of summons is issued forthwith, but the second, being one of abeyance, is a matter for the pleasure of the Crown, which need not be exercised at all, but, if exercised, may terminate the abeyance in favour of any one of the co-heirs. During the parliamentary session of 1926 the House of Lords

appointed a select committee to examine the history of abeyant

peerages and to report on the advisability of limiting future claims. After debate on the report, the House resolved that these claims ought not to be considered where long abeyance has existed and where the claimants possess only a small fraction of the original heirship. The resolution of the House was duly reported to the Crown. The recommendation of the House does not, and, in law, cannot affect the prerogative of the Crown to

doubt that the A widowed peeress retains her privilege of peerage while un- terminate any abeyance, but there can be little with the advisers ol married, but loses it if she marries a commoner (Co. Litt. 166; representations made will have due weight the Crown in the consideration of all future claims. The report Cowley v. Cowley [rg01} A.C. 450). a Hous The children of peers are commoners. The eldest son of a of and evidence taken by the committee is printed as of Lords paper (1927). . a G. Er.) peer of the rank of ear] (and above) is usually known socially I ParliaSee Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (vol. by the name of his father’s next peerage, but the courtesy nature ment” r91z); F. B. Palmer, Peerage Law in England (1907) ; na of such title is clearly indicated in every public or legal docu- Vernon Harcourt, His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers (1907 ment, the phraseology employed being “John Smith, Esq., com- |L. O. Pike, Constitutional History of the House of Lords.

PEEWEE—PEGMATITE PEEWEE, the name (from their cry) of two North American birds of the genus Myiochanes (fam. Tyrannidae). The wood peewee (M. virens) is a little bird about 6 in. long, dark olive above, with a whitish throat and yellowish belly. The name closely represents its musical call. It breeds in North America and migrates in winter through eastern Mexico to South America. West of longitude 1oo° it is replaced by M. richardsonii, the western wood peewee, which has no olive tinge above, and has the wings and tail slightly longer. It also winters in S. America. PEEWIT, an alternative name for the lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), from its cry. (See LAPWING.) PEGASUS (from Gr. mnyós compact, strong, not from ENYN, a spring), a winged horse said to have sprung from the trunk of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus. After

his service to Bellerophon (g.v.) and the latter’s fall, Pegasus served Zeus (Hesiod, Theog. 281). Later authors identify him with the constellation Pegasus or Equus. The spring Hippocrene or Hippucrene (Horsewell) on Mt. Helicon is said to have sprung

up from a blow of his hoof; for the connection between horses,

441

Various methods were adopted whereby the Treasury gained control of American securities. Originally, the British Government contented themselves with an appeal to holders of eligible stocks, the appeal being based partly upon patriotism, and partly on the fact that a highly attractive price was offered by the Treasury. This met with a certain degree of response. Later on, peaceful methods of persuasion were reinforced by a special two shillings in the pound income tax imposed upon dividends accruing from such American securities as were required by the Treas-

ury and which the holders declined to surrender. Finally, the power of the Defence of the Realm Act was invoked, and these securities were forcibly requisitioned, the original holder receiving a fair price as fixed by the Treasury. When the United States entered the World War these expedients were no longer necessary, as the United States Government could borrow dollars from its own nationals, and lend them to the Allied Governments in such quantities as proved necessary. This kept the peg firmly in place, while the question of repayment

was left over till after the war. It will be seen that the debt to

America took two forms. One consisted of the loans raised by erroneous derivation of rjyacos from myyn. Hence also the fancy the Allies on Wall street, due directly to the American investor. of modern poets (first in Boiardo, Orlando inamorato) that he is The other was debt due to the American government. The war provided the outstanding example of exchange pegging. the horse of the Muses and hence a symbol of poetry. or horse-shaped dazmones, and water, see Poserpon.

Hence the

See F. Hannig in Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen (1902), vol. viii, pt. 4, and in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie (bibl.).

PEGGING THE EXCHANGE.

The phrase and practice

of “pegging the exchange” finds its origin in the World War. It may be defined as consisting of continued governmental or oficial action to maintain the foreign exchange value of a country’s currency against the principal gold currencies at par or at any fixed point. Thus, during the World War, the Allied Governments pegged their respective rates of exchange upon New York at a point slightly below parity, while from 1926 to 1928 the French Government maintained the “de facto” stabilization of the franc, virtually another name for pegging the franc at a rate which quickly settled down at 124 francs to the pound sterling. As shown in the article upon foreign exchange (q.v.), a rate of exchange is the price of one currency in terms of another, and this price depends upon supply and demand. Hence, when a Government decides to peg the rate, it must adopt one of two alternatives. The first, which evasion rapidly renders impracticable, is to fix the rate by law. This, when tried, has nearly always failed. The second is for the Government, directly or through its agents, to buy and sell on the world’s exchange markets its own and foreign currencies in such a way and in such quantities as to counteract immediately any attempt of the rate to go beyond the limits within which the rate is pegged. During the World War the Allies were largely dependent upon the United States for food-stuffs and munitions. The purchase of these involved a steady demand for dollars, and as there was no counteracting supply of dollars at the disposal of the Allies —for export trade to the States was perforce curtailed by the concentration of the Allies’ productive energies upon the war— the allied currencies showed a steady tendency to depreciate against the dollar. To consider England alone: as early as rors, the British Government took steps to “maintain” the exchange,

though no definite peg was inserted. These steps consisted of the acquisition of dollars by the British Government and their sale in New York by Messrs. Pierpont Morgan, who were agents to the British Government, in such quantities as to balance the day to

day demand for dollars arising from the Allies’ purchases of Ameri-

can commodities. So long as the supply was equal to the demand,

the exchange was automatically maintained. The problem before the British Government was how to acquire

dollars in sufficient quantity to meet the abnormal war demand. To solve this, they depended partly upon dollar loans in America, and partly on the large volume of sound American securities held

by British nationals as a result of the heavy pre-war investments made by Great Britain in America. These last were acquired by

the British Treasury, transferred to their New York agents, and their sale provided the necessary supply of dollars.

Other examples can be found in the post-war reconstruction period. The method usually employed is for the Government or central bank of the country concerned to have credits opened in London and New York. In case of need, these are drawn upon, and the resulting sterling or dollars sold in the market in amounts sufficient to keep the peg in place. (See also Eee FOREIGN.) N. E. C.)

PEGMATITE, the name given by Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali felspars in crystalline intergrowth (see PETRotocy). The term (from Gr. riyua, a bond) was subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsely crystalline veins rich in quartz, felspar and muscovite, which often in great numbers ramify through outcrops of granite and the surrounding rocks. This application of the name has now obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many petrologists, to include vein-rocks of similar structure and geological relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros. Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedingly coarse-grained;

in granite-pegmatites the felspars may be several feet or even yards in diameter, and other minerals such as mica, apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. The pegmatites are always in visible association with plutonic intrusions and they consist largely of minerals similar to those characteristic of the particular magma from which they have been derived. On the whole pegmatites are most abundant along with acid rocks, especially granites, though they are also well known in association with syenites and gabbros. As a rule they are more acid in composition than the average of the parent magma, and this fact has a bearing on their mode of origin. The coarsely crystalline structure is not difficult to explain on physico-chemical principles. The pegmatites are shown by field-evidence to belong to a very late stage in the cooling of the parent magma, and many of them contain minerals rich in water and a number of elements of low atomic weight, such as are known to have a powerful effect in depressing the freezing-points of minerals in silicate melts: such are fluorine, chlorine and boron. The final residue of the magma became enriched in water, in these elements, and ‘in others capable of forming volatile compounds with them, such as tin and tungsten. Now such a solution would remain fluid down to a very low temperature, and would be extremely mobile, thus facilitating free diffusion of molecules and thereby favouring the formation of large crystals. Further, such a residual solution would naturally tend towards the composition of a eutectic, giving rise to the simultaneous crystallization of two or more minerals in graphic intergrowth. Among the more common of the minerals above referred to are tourmaline, which contains both boron and fluorine; apatite,

44.2

PEGOLOTTI—PEINE

which has varieties with either fluorine or chlorine, or both; muscovite and gilbertite both contain hydrogen as hydroxyl and fluorine; topaz may carry as much as 20% of fluorine. Among

the other elements of low atomic weight beryllium is found as beryl and lithium in various lithia-micas, lepidolite, zinnwaldite and spodumene. Tin and tungsten give rise to cassiterite and wolfram, which are common in pegmatites. There exists in nature a complete transition from pegmatites having, for example, the exact composition of a granite, to veins of nearly pure quartz; many of the last named contain a workable quantity of some metalliferous ore or metal. This transition may be seen not only by a comparison of the different veins of a district, but sometimes occurs along the extent of one individual

FORTE

ET DURE

and second Burmese Wars. It gave its name to the province (jp. cluding Rangoon) which was annexed by the British in 1852, The district, which was formed in 1883, consists of a portion

of the forested Pegu Yomas and an alluvial tract between the Pegu Yoma range and the Sittang river: area, 4,083 sq.m: pop, (1921) 445,620, showing an increase of 63,454 in the decade Christians numbered nearly 9,750, mostly Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is exported in large quantities ty Rangoon. The district is traversed by the railway, and also crossed by the Pegu-Sittang canal, navigable for 85 m., with locks, The division of Pegu comprises the districts of Rangoon town

Hanthawaddy, Insein, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, lying east of the Irrawaddy: area 13,707 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 2,030,044. vein. Nearest to or within the parent granite it may consist of PEGUY, CHARLES (1873-1914), French author and poet

quartz, felspar and mica, with accessories: when traced along born at Orleans in 1873, came of a family which had been vine. the strike away from the parent granite the felspar and mica growers for generations, and was proud of his peasant origin, progressively decrease till the more distant parts constitute a He was educated at the Ecole Normale and at the Sorbonne. The quartz-vein, which may be either metalliferous or barren. This is object of his life is perfectly indicated in the dedication of his an example of the process of differentiation applied to a case which first book, Jeanne d’Arc (1897), “& toutes celles et à tous ceur may be of great practical importance. Many such instances occur qui auront vécu... pour létablissement de la République in mining geology (see MINERAL Deposits). socialiste universelle.” His works from that time until his death The pegmatites of the syenite group, especially those of south- in Sept. 1914 are devoted to the glory of France. He was a deern Norway, are remarkable for the number of minerals containing termined republican; at the same time he was a devout Catholic. rare earths, which are associated with an unusually high percent- A mystical lover of France, and yet a strong socialist, he puzzled age of alkalis, especially soda, in the parent magma. Gabbro anti-clerical socialists and Catholic nationalists equally. His Notre negmatites are often extremely rich in apatite, which is for the Patrie, in which his views of what was necessary for the regeneramost part the chlorine-bearing variety, whereas the apatite of tion of the republic were set out, was written in 1905, but his acid pegmatite carries fluorine. Many of the finest specimens of most important prose works and the majority of his poems were minerals in museums have come from cavities in pegmatites, where written between 1910 and 1914. Les Cahiers de la Quinzaine, there was room for the development of crystal faces. founded by him in 1900, were devoted to the expression of truth (R. H. Ra.) without regard to party, and in them Péguy’s development, and

PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO BALDUCCI (f. 1315-40),

Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service of

the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity he was at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 1317; in London in 1317 and apparently for some time after; in Cyprus from 1324 to 1327, and also in 1335, when he obtained from the king of Little Armenia (i.e., mediaeval Cilicia, etc.) a grant of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and 1343, he compiled his Lzbro di divisamenti di paest e di misuri di mercatanzie e d’altre cose bisognevoli di sapere a’ mercatanti, commonly known as the Pratica della mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes or payments on merchandise as well as for “every kind of place where goods might be bought or sold in cities,” the Pratica next describes some of the chief trade routes of the r4th century, and many of the principal markets then known to Italian merchants; the imports and exports of important commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys, weights and measures. There is only one ms. of the Pratica, viz., No. 2,441 in the Riccardian Library at Florence (241 fols. occupying the whole volume), written in 14713; and one edition of the text, in vol. iii. of Gian Francesco Pagnini’s Della Decima e delle altre gravezze imposte dal commune di Firenze (Lisbon and Lucca—really Florence—z766); Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, il. 279-308, translated into English the most interesting sections of Pegolotti, with valuable commentary (London, Hakluyt society, 1866). See also W. Heyd, Commerce du Levant, ii. (Leipzig, 1886) ; H. Kiepert, in Sitzungsberichte der philos.-hist. Cl. der berliner Akad. (Berlin, 1881) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. (Oxford, 1906).

PEGU, a town and former capital of Lower Burma, giving its name to a district and a division. The town is situated on a river of the same name, 47 m. N.E. of Rangoon by rail; pop. (1921) 18,769. It is still surrounded by traces of the old walls, about 40 ft. wide, on which have been built the residences of the British officials. The most conspicuous object is the Shwe-mawdaw pagoda, 324 ft. high, considerably larger and even more holy than the Shwe-dagon pagoda at Rangoon. Pegu is said to have been founded in 573, as the first capital of the Talaings; but it was as the capital of the Toungoo dynasty that it became known to Europeans in the 16th century. About the middle of the 18th century it was destroyed by Alompra; but it rose again, and was important enough to be the scene of fighting in both the first

the development of the “new France” he did so much to inspire,

may be traced for over a decade. They were primarily imbued with his spirit, though in their pages many now well-known writers first came into public notice. For him truth was not to be found in compromise, and his extreme views were pronounced even at the risk of a subsequent volte-face. At the Ecole Normale he came under the influence of Bergson, to whom he has done homage in his Note sur M. Bergson (1914). He kept his own little shop in the shadow of the Sorbonne, where he was continually amending his works. There he sold the Cahiers. He lived in the country, walked into Paris every morning, and brought with him something of the province. When war came in 1914 he refused a captaincy, because he wished to go on foot with his men. He fell leading a company on the first day of the battle of the Marne. The first volumes of his collected works were published in 1916. See R. Johannet,

Péguy

et ses Cahiers

(1914);

J. E. Roberty,

Charles Péguy (1916); A. Suarés, Péguy (1916); D. Halévy, Charles Péguy et les Cahiers (1918); M. Péguy, La Vocation de C. Péguy (1926).

PEINE, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 16 m. by rail W.N.W. of Brunswick, on the railway to Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (1925) 17,036. Peine was at one timea strongly fortified place, and until 1803 belonged to the bishopric of Hildesheim. Its industries include iron and steel works, breweries and brickyards, and the manufacture of soap, sugar, malt, machinery and boots. There are also large cattle markets held here.

PEINE FORTE ET DURE, the term for a barbarous tor-

ture inflicted on those who, arraigned of felony, refused to plead and stood silent, or challenged more than 20 jurors, which was deemed a contumacy equivalent to a refusal to plead. Before he could be tried, a prisoner must plead “guilty” or “not guilty.”

By the Statute of Westminster, 1275, the penalty was “strong

and hard imprisonment,” but in 1406 pressing to death by heavy weights’ was substituted. This was abolished in 1772; “standing

mute” being then made equivalent to conviction. By an act of

1827 a plea of “not guilty” was to be entered against any prisoner refusing to plead, and that is the rule to-day. An alternative to

the peine was the tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip-

cord until pain forced the prisoner to speak. This was said to be a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the 19th century. The last recorded instance of the infliction of the peme was

PEIPING—PEISANDER

443

in 1741 at Cambridge assizes, when a prisoner was so put to death; the penalty of thumb-tying having first been tried. The only

See R. C. Archibald, Benjamin Peirce 1809-1880, Biographical Sketch and Bibliography (1925). (R. C.A.)

known American instance was in 1692 at Salem, Massachusetts, when Giles Corey, accused of witchcraft, was pressed to death.

PEIRCE, CHARLES (SANTIAGO) SANDERS (18391914), American philosopher and logician, was born at Cambridge, Mass., on Sept. 10, 1839. He was the son of Benjamin Peirce,

PEIPING: see PEKING. PEIPUS, a lake lying between north-west Russia and Estonia,

also known

as Perpst or CHUDSKOYE

Ozero.

The boundary

between the two countries passes northwards for 60 m. through the centre of the lake, leaving the east bank in Russia and

the west in Estonia, but turns east towards the north, thus including the whole northern shore and the outlet of the Narova river, in Estonia. Including its southern extension, sometimes known as Lake Pskov or Pihkwa, it has an area of 1,356 sq.m. Its shores are flat and sandy, and in part wooded; its waters are

deep, and they afford valuable fishing. The lake is fed by the Velikaya, which enters it at its southern extremity, and by the Embach or Ema, along which timber is brought to Tartu, and which flows in half way up the western shore of the lake. It drains into the Gulf of Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east corner.

PEIRAEEUS or PIRAEUS (Gr. Ilecpacets), the port of Athens, with which its story is inseparably connected. About 5 m. SW. of Athens, the sandy bay of Phaleron is closed westward by a rocky promontory which falls abruptly also landwards into the plain. Its highest point, called Munychia, is at the north-east end; the lower plateau, Acté, stretches seaward to south-west, beyond the saddle which connects two small coves, Munychia and Zea, on the south-east coast, with the completely landlocked basin of Peiraeeus, with its inner port, Cantharus, running northward between Munychia hill and the detached ridge, Eétioneia, which dominates the north side of the entrance. In early days Athenians used only the sandy Phaleron for sea traffic. It was Themistocles who persuaded the Athenians to fortify and utilize Peiraeeus, about 493 B.C., for their new fleet. The “long walls” from the base of Munychia hill to ‘Athens were built soon after 460 B.c., and the town of Peiraeeus itself was laid out on a rectangular plan by the architect, Hippodamus of Miletus, probably at the suggestion of

Pericles. The fortress of Eétioneia was added during the Pelo-

ponnesian war. Traces remain of the ship-houses surrounding Zea and Munychia; the town-plan is followed by the modern streets; and the tomb of Themistocles, on the Act, and the great gate

of Fort Eétioneia are conspicuous.

(See under ATHENS.)

See also Angelopoulos, Iept Te:paids xat r&v ALpéwv abrod (Athens, 1898) ; Curtius and Kaupert, Karten von Attica; Admiralty chart.

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN

(1809-1880), American astronomer

and mathematician, son of a Harvard university librarian and historian, was born at Salem, Mass., on April 4, 1809. He graduated from Harvard in 1825 and, returning there as a tutor in mathematics in 1831, continued to teach in the university till his death nearly 50 years later. Tributes concur in the estimate that he was a wonderfully inspiring teacher. In the United States he was the leading mathematician of his time. In Europe he was elected an associate of the Royal Astronomical Society, a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, a correspondent of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a correspondent of the

the Harvard mathematician.

He graduated at Harvard in 1850,

and at the Lawrence scientific school in 1863. Soon thereafter he joined the staff of the U.S. coast survey, where his work on the problems of geodesy and his researches on the pendulum received wide recognition. In 1877 he was the first American representative to the International Geodesic congress. In 1880-81 he gave a series of lectures on philosophical logic at Johns Hopkins university; in the spring of 1903 a series on pragmatism at Harvard and another in 1903—04 on logic at the Lowell institute, Boston. He introduced the principle of pragmatism into philosophy, defining his theory in the Popular Science Monthly for January 1878. Though he did not there call it pragmatism, he is known to have originated the word as well as the idea. It is said to have first appeared in print in his article in Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy, 1901. To avoid confusion with the theories of his contemporaries, he later changed the name to pragmaticism. He died at Milford, Pa., on April 14, 1914. In addition to his contributions in mathematical logic, meteorology, psychophysics, philology, and other subjects, his published works include: five papers

on logic in Proc. of Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vol. 7 (1867); Photometric Researches (1878); Studies in Logic (1883); “The Architecture of Theories,” Monist, vol. i. (1890); “What Pragmatism is,” Monist, vol. xv. (1905). PEIRESC, NICHOLAS CLAUDE FABRI DE (15801637), French archaeologist, naturalist, scholar and promoter of learning, was born on Dec. 1, 1580, at Beaugensier, Provence. Intended by his father for the law he early showed a preference for the study of antiquities, and from 1599 to 1602 travelled in Italy visiting the museums and galleries, meeting and debating with the learned men of the universities—among them Galileo—and studying for his legal degree, which he took at Aix in 1604. In the following year he succeeded his uncle as senator for Provence, and shortly after visited England, having interviews with King James I., Camden, Selden, William Harvey, and John Barclay (gq.v.). Apart from his very voluminous private correspondence no writings of Peiresc’s are known; but, owing both to his great erudition and his liberality in lending scholars books and in allowing them access to his collections of coins, medals and other antiquities, his influence on. the humanism and learning of the early 17th century was very great. It was largely due to him that Barclay’s Argenis (see BARCLAY, JOHN) was published in Paris (1621) shortly after its author’s death: he assisted in editing Duchesne’s Historiae Normannorum scriptores antiqui (1619), and was mainly responsible for the publication of Nicholas Bergier’s L’Histoire des grands

chemins de ’ Empire Romain (1622). The astronomers Pierre Gassendi, Grotius, Thomas Campanella, Maria Mersenne and William Camden, were all indebted in various ways to him. Peiresc was made abbé of the monastery of Guistres in 1618, and as senator was a judge of the parlement of Aix, the highest court for Provence. He was one of the earliest scholars to realize the importance of numismatics to historical research, and as Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Gottingen. About one-quarter evidence of his wide interests it may be mentioned that he seems of Peirce’s publications deal with topics in pure mathematics and to have introduced the Angora cat to Europe, and eider-down three-quarters with topics mainly in the fields of astronomy, geod- quilts and many exotic plants—including tulips—into France, and esy and mechanics. Of his rı works, in 12 volumes, six were ele- was the first to verify by experiment Harvey’s discovery of the mentary texts some of which went through several editions. Among circulation of the blood. He died at Aix on June 24, 1637. his other works were the notable Analytic Mechanics (1855), and BrpriocRaAPHy.—Pierre Gassendi’s N. C. Fabrici de Peiresc vita

the remarkably original Linear Associative Algebra (lithographed

edition of 100 copies, 1870; new ed. by his son C. S. Peirce in American Journal of Mathematics, vol. iv., 1881, reprinted 1882),

anticipating important work of Study and Scheffers. There are

many references in scientific literature to Peirce’s criterion for the rejection of doubtful observations, and it was only recently shown (Popular Astronomy, 1920) that this was fallacious. The computation of the general perturbations of Uranus and Neptune, and the resulting controversy with Leverrier, was the first work to

extend Peirce’s reputation. He died on Oct. 6, 1880.

(Paris, 1641) was translated into English by W. Rand and published as The Mirrour of true nobility and gentility, etc. (1657); Peiresc’s correspondence with Rubens has been edited by M. Rooses (6 vols., Antwerp, 1887-1909) and his general correspondence by Ph. Tamizey de Larroque (7 vols.; Collection de Documents inédits sur Vhistoire de France, 2e série, 1888-98). See also Ph. Tamizey de Larroque and A. Moultet, Autour de Peiresc (Aix-en-Provence, 1898); L. V. Delisle, Un grand amateur frangais (Toulouse, 1889); and C. T. Hagberg Wright, Nicholas Fabri de Peiresc (Roxburghe club, 1926, bibl.).

PEISANDER, of Camirus in Rhodes, Greek epic poet, supposed to have flourished about 640 B.c. He was the author of a

444

PEISISTRATUS—PEKING

Heracleia, in which he introduced a new conception of the hero, the lion’s skin and club taking the place of the older Homeric equipment. He is also said to have fixed the number of the “labours of Hercules” at twelve. The Alexandrians admitted it to

though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus.

To him ap

ascribed also the original Parthenon on the Acropolis, afterwards burned by the Persians, and replaced by the Parthenon oj

Pericles. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the dramatic

the epic canon—(but see Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, vi. 2). representations which belonged to the Dionysiac cult, and that it See fragments in G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenta (1878) ; was under his encouragement that Thespis of Icaria, by imperalso F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1844). sonating character, laid the foundation of the great Greek drama PEISISTRATUS (605?—527 B.c.), Athenian statesman, was of the sth and 4th centuries. Lastly, Peisistratus carried out the the son of Hippocrates and second cousin to Solon, whose friend- purification of Delos, the sacred island of Apollo of the Ionians. ship he retained in spite of their political opposition. About 570 all the tombs were removed from the neighbourhood of the shrine he became well known and popular as commander in the war with the abode of the god of light and joy. He gave equal encouragement to poetry; Onomacritus, the Megara which resulted in the recovery of Salamis. He next appears in politics as leader of the third party, the men of the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the oracles of hill-country (Diacrii), who were still discontented in spite of Musaeus, was a member of his household. As to the library of Solon’s reforms, which had given them freedom, but not land. Peisistratus, we have no good evidence; it may perhaps be a Peisistratus’ family estates at Marathon were in this district. His fiction of an Alexandrian writer. There is a strong tradition

eloquence and personal charm soon made him a popular favourite; Solon (frag. 8, Diehl) warned Athens of the danger, but was unheeded. The other two parties were the Shore (Parali), led by the Alcmaeonidae, at the moment represented by Megacles, and the Plain (Pedieis) under Miltiades. The chronology of Peisistratus’ rise to power is disputed, though the sequence of events is known. By feigning an attack on his life, Peisistratus got a guard assigned to him, armed with staves, with whose assistance he seized the Acropolis and established a tyranny

in 561-560. Almost at once a coalition between the Plain and the Shore drove him out, but in 560-559 Megacles had fallen out with his allies and recalled Peisistratus. Peisistratus married Coesyra, daughter of Megacles, and apparently refused to have children by her, the Alcmaeonidae being under a curse. The coalition was renewed, and in 556 Peisistratus was again driven out. He settled at Rhaecelus, where he founded a city and established friendly relations with Macedon, and then obtained command of the silvermines of Mt. Pangaeus. This enabled him to raise a mercenary

army, and he strengthened his position by intriguing with Thebes and Argos. Then he moved to Eretria as a base for operations against Athens, and in 564 landed near Marathon, among his own party, defeated the Government forces and established himself as tyrant for good. The Alcmaeonidae fled; Lygdamis, Peisistratus’ assistant in the business, he made tyrant of Naxos. Athens peaceably till his death in 527.

He ruled

There is no doubt that the rule of Peisistratus was generally beneficial to Athens. His foreign policy was remarkably adroit. His own interest demanded that the neighbouring States should not be alienated, or they would have harboured the plots of his exiled opponents. So he contrived to keep peace with Sparta, Argos, Thessaly, Aegina and Thebes all at the same time. Further afield he was more ambitious. The silver of Pangaeus and Laureium he already controlled. Its effect is seen in the increasing value of the Athenian tetradrachm, which reacted favourably on Athenian commerce. Of his other exploits the most important are in the northern Aegean. By recapturing Sigeium and encouraging Miltiades’ venture in the Thracian Chersonese he controlled the

vital corn route to the Pontus.

Of his domestic policy it is ad-

mitted that it was just and beneficent, and preserved the form of the Solonian constitution, while keeping the magistracies in the hands of himself and his family. It may be added that he completed Solon’s work by giving land (confiscated from his enemies) to those to whom Solon had only given freedom. He put a tax of one-tenth (or one-twentieth) on the produce of the land, and used it partly to advance money to the new proprietors, to the advantage of agriculture, partly on the fortification of the city. Thus Athens was free of wars and internecine struggle, and for the first time for years knew settled financial prosperity. The money which he accumulated he put to good use in the construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleisthenes of Sicyon and Periander of Corinth, he realized that one great source of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over the local cults. This he diminished by increasing the splendour of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion. With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and began,

that he first collected the Homeric poems, and had them sung at the Panathenaea.

It appears that Peisistratus was benevolent to the last, and, like Julius Caesar, showed no resentment against enemies and calumniators. What Solon said of him in his youth was true throughout, “there is no better disposed man in Athens, save for his ambition,” He was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus, by whom the tyranny was in various ways brought into disrepute. (See also

GREECE: History; ATHENS.)

BreviocGrapHy.—Ancient: Herod. i. 59; Plut., Solon 30; Arist, Poljtics, V. 12, 5-1315 b.; Constitution of Athens (Ath. Pol.) cc, 14-19, Modern: The Cambridge Ancient History (vol. iv., 1926) gives a com. plete bibliography for the Diacrii, see P. M. Ure, J.H.S., 131-142 (1906). For the chronology, F. E. Adcock in C.Q. xviii. 174 (1924). T, W. Allen, “Peisistratus and Homer,” in Classical Quarterly, vol. vi, p. 33. On the question of the family of Peisistratus see Wilamowitz-

Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893) andacriticism by

E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, vol. viii. p. 206, col. 2.

PEKALONGAN,

a residency of Java, Dutch East Indies,

area 5,668 sq. kilometres. It is in the north central part of the island, bounded on the west by Cheribon, on the east by Semarang, on the south by Banyumas, and on the north by the Java sea. Mountain groups flank all of its southern border—the Dieng, Slamat and Padontelu groups, the spurs of Slamat projecting into its centre, and from which flow its two rivers, the Chomal and Pomah. Along the valleys of these two rivers and the coast, fora considerable distance inland, the land is flat and fertile, and the Chomal and Pomali have built for themselves alluvial promontories at their mouths. The chief product of Pekalongan is sugar, and the manufacture of this is its chief industry, although

it is noted also for its batik industry, and it is a coffee-, cocoa- and kapok-growing district. Rice is the chief food crop. The population of Pekalongan is 2,399,419, almost entirely Javanese. The capital, Pekalongan, on the coast, in the eastern part of the residency, population 60,686 (645 Europeans and Eurasians), the seat of the resident, is a good port, its principal export being sugar, and is on the steam tramway line from Cheribon to Semarang, which runs along the coast of the residency. Tegal, population 33,143, is another port and is also on the tramway line, likewise Brebes, pop. 20,619, and Pemalang, 24,645. The railway from Cheribon to Surabaya passes through the residency, along the valley of the Pomali.

There is a road along the coast, and one

runs by the Pomali through to Purwakerta, in Banyumas. Pekalongan was granted to the Dutch by the Susuhanan in 1746.

PEKIN, a city of central Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river,

ro m. below Peoria; the county seat of Tazewell county. It 1s served by the Big Four, the Chicago and Alton, the Chicago and Illinois Midland, the Illinois Central, the Peoria and Pekin Union, the Peoria Terminal and the Santa Fe railways.

Pop. (1920)

12,086 (90% native white) ; in 1930, 16,129 by the Federal census. It is in a rich agricultural and coal-mining country. Grain and other farm products are shipped in large quantities; there are coal mines within the city limits, and the manufacturing industries

are varied, with an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $27,901,443. The city was founded about 1830 and incorporated in 1839. PEKING (officially renamed Pererne in 1928), the most re

nowned of all the cities of China, the capital of the Chinese

445

PEKING Empire from about 1267 to I 368 and again from 1421 to the fall of the Manchu Dynasty in 1911, and of the Republic of China from 191i to 1928. Peking is situated in lat. 39° 54’ N. and long.

116° 28’ E. at the northern apex of the alluvial Plain of North

China, where converge the narrow lowland passage from the Man-

churian steppes via Shan-hai-kwan (the “Gate between the mountains and the sea”), and the easiest routes from the Mongolian plateau through the bold scarps which intervene between it and the

Fêng) in Honan and Shêng-Ching (Mukden) in the north, so the future Peking was known at this period as Chung-Tu or the Middle Capital. This phase lasted until early in the thirteenth century when the greatest of all the steppeland powers arose, the Mongol empire. Kublai Khan took the decisive step of making it the metropolitan city of the immense Mongol Empire, which now stretched from the Pacific to beyond the Black Sea. But although

plain. It is separated by go miles of level agricultural country from the coasts of the Gulf of Pe-Chihli, but westwards and northwards the land begins to rise rapidly to the hills which are clearly visible from the walls of the city. It is not placed on any navigable river but lies at the outlet to the plain of the most important road from Mongolia—that which utilizes the valley of the Hun-ho

at Kalgan and debouches on to the lowland by the Nankow pass.

Only 35 miles north-west of the city at its nearest point, the Great Wall of China, following the crests of the scarpland belt at an elevation of 4,000 feet, marks the historic frontier defence of the agricultural plain against the pastoral nomads of the ina!et Seas ERNI eA it == F : terior plateaux. The narrow apex of the plain is thus the crucial E Eass region in the relations of China, Mongolia and Manchuria, and is a È eee historically the border zone between two strongly contrasted types of social organisation. The earliest city of which there is authentic record was that of Chi the capital of Yen, the most northerly of the feudal states which acknowledged the authority of the Chou Dynasty in the EXTERIOR VIEW OF A PALACE IN THE ‘FORBIDDEN CITY,” PEKING twelfth century B.c. Thus early was the site of Peking within the The Inner City, separated by a high wall fram the Outer City. is divided into three parts, the innermost being the “Forbidden City,” a nest of palaces and Chinese culture area, but Yen was clearly a buffer state, intended old buildings into which “barbarians” at one time were seldom admitted to keep back the Tartar hordes, and is significantly mentioned in records of the sixth century B.c. as possessing great numbers of this was the technical status of the city after Kublai had moved horses. Ch’ien Lung, the famous scholar-Emperor of the Manchu his headquarters there from Karakorum in 1267, it was as the Dynasty, made extensive researches into the exact site of Ch’ new capital of China that the choice was of the greatest ultimate and located it slightly to the north of the present city. It was significance. Kublai was indeed the “Great Khan who ruled in destroyed by Shih Huang Ti, the “First Emperor” and founder of China” but his descendants were primarily Emperors of China. the Chin Dynasty (221 B.c.), who unified China and completed The City Under Kublai Khan.—Under Kublai the city was the frontier defences of the Great once again rebuilt and on a more magnificent scale than ever

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Wall. Yen was one of the districts which made up his Empire. Under the Han Dynasty a new city arose close to the site of Ch’i and was known first as Yen and later as Yu-chovw. It remained a definitely Chinese city until the end of the Han Dynasty but in the ensuing period of anarchy and disintegration was for two centuries under Tartar control. The T'ang dynasty (7th to roth centuries), like the Han, maintained the frontier defences of the Em-

before. It was named Khanbalig (Cambaluc), “city of the Great Khan,” but the Chinese knew it as Ta-Tu or “great capital.” Thither came Marco Polo, who described its magnificence in glowing terms, its mint and its huge imports to feed the armies and retainers of the Great Khan. Later came the Pope’s emissary, Giovanni di Monte Corvina, who was graciously received by Kublai and made archbishop of Khanbalig in 1307. Later under the Ming and early Manchu Dynasties the Jesuit Fathers were in favour at the capital, and were encouraged to practise western mathematics and astronomy. The communications of Khanbalig

with the rest of China were actively developed by the construc-

pire intact, and Yu-chow was the

head-quarters of a military govemor. But early in the roth century it came into the hands of the Khitans, one of the most famous of the Tartar groups prior to the rise of the Mongols, who successfully resisted the attempts of the Sung Emperors to recover it for

China. The Khitans under the

Liao Dynasty (sometimes called

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BY COURTESY OF CANADI THE PORCELAIN PAGODA WEST HILL, PEKING

ON THE the Iron Dynasty) rechristened the city Nan-Ching, signifying southern capital and later (986) rebuilt it on imperial lines with

walls said to have been 13 miles in length and 30 feet high.

From early in the eleventh century it was known as Yenching

but the Khitans of the Iron Dynasty continued to hold it until 122 when it was captured by the chief of the Tartars of the Golden Horde from the northern steppes of Manchuria, who

greatly enlarged and beautified it and made it one of the three

capitals of his large Empire, that of the Kin or Chin (Gold) Dynasty. The other two capitals were Pien Ching (now Kai

tion of radial roads on which well-organized courier services were maintained, and by extending the Grand Canal from the Yellow River to Tientsin and connecting it by the Pai-ho and a small canal, the capital was brought into direct water-communication with the Lower Yang-tze and the rich cities of Manzi. The Mongols.—Khanbalig continued to be the capital of China throughout the Yuan Dynasty but the city temporarily lost its imperial status when in 1368 Chu Yuan Chang headed the successful revolt against the Mongols and established the native Ming Dynasty. After being under the control of foreign steppeland powers for about 450 years the region was once again under direct Chinese rule and Khanbalig, now known as Peiping-Fu (City of the North Place), served, as in the days of the Han and T’ang Dynasties, the function of a border garrison town, subordinate to the capital city of Nanking (southern capital). This phase lasted until 1421, when the third Ming Emperor, Yung Lo, transferred his court to the North and Peiping was given the

name of Peking (northern capital), by which it is known throughout the world. The reason for this decisive step was undoubtedly strategic, for the Mongols were still troublesome and the Manchurian tribes were becoming increasingly strong and restless. Peking was the only frontier capital which could guard both the vulnerable flanks. The menace from the north, increased by internal revolts, culminated in the Manchu conquest of 1644 and China once again came under Tartar domination. The new

PEKING

446

Manchu (or Ch’ing) Dynasty transferred their court from Mukden to Peking and administered their newly won Empire from a capital which, while it lay within the Chinese culture area, was in close contact with their own recruiting ground. When two and a half centuries later the rule of the decadent Manchus was ended by the Revolution of 1911 and the Imperial office was abolished, Peking continued to function as the capital of the new Republic. But the disintegrating effects of the civil war and the rise of the Nationalist movement, focussed in the South, meant that the rule of the Peking Government was increasinglyineffective and nominal. The final northward advance of the nationalist armies in the f BRS, spring of 1928 was quickly followed by the proclamation of \« IF i , aa 0s Nanking as tbe capital of the AESi] i new China and in autumn 1928 re H = LRT a the northern city had lost its =S metropolitan status and was Bost ES known once more as Peiping, REE Cpa the name which it bore under the Nicer rar early Ming Emperors. So, too, S= Ao the province, In the centre of | G

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which it lies, has reverted to the |= ancient name of Hopeh (“north of the River,” z.e., the Hwangho) in place of Chih-li (“Direct Rule”). Political and Intellectual

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only former residence of the emperor

been the political capital but also the intellectual centre of China. It has great traditions of learning and scholarship. Here under the old regime was held the highest examination in the Chinese Classics leading to the Chim Shih and much coveted Han Lin degrees, whose holders were marked out for high public office. This brought to Peking many of the most eminent scholars. Inevitably it became the chief educational centre of the country and this character it retained when the old system was abolished and education of a modern type was introduced. In the last years of the Manchu Dynasty and the early period of the Republic, before the Civil Wars arrested further progress, many schools, colleges and public educational institutions were established. These include the Government University, the National Teachers’ College, the Customs College, the Tsing

of Young China. (See under CHINA.) Another circum which in recent times has contributed to intellectual acti

Peking is that the social cleavage between natives and fori is less pronounced than in most Chinese cities. Peking has been a “Treaty Port” and, apart from the Legation Quarte its representatives of the Diplomatic Corps and Customs s

there is no foreign quarter.

But, subject to certain conc

foreigners have been allowed to rent houses in various p; the city and over 1,500 live outside the Legation quarter. greater extent than in the Treaty Port communities is there est in the cultural aspects of Chinese life and some meas social intercourse and exchange of thought between represen of Eastern and Western culture. New Developments.—Few cities are richer in intere romance than Peking. In recent years it has been much m

ised and “cleaned up” but it retains most of its historic by and ancient features and the new developments have not involved the wholesale clearances that have been the fate o westernised cities of the Orient. This is in part due to th

imperial lines on which it was designed by Kublai Khar spacious, rectangular ground-plan which he adopted was tained by the later Ming and Manchu builders and lend to modern development. Essentially it consists of twc “cities,” the northern or “Tartar City” in the form of a with walls nearly 15 miles in length, and the southern o:

nese” city in the form of an oblong with walls 14 miles in including 4 miles of the south wall of the Tartar city. the Tartar city is the Imperial City, also in the form of a

and with red-plastered walls, six and a half miles in leng within that again the Inner or Forbidden City, with walls t a quarter miles

long, plastered

with

a violet coloured ;

whence comes the popular name of the Purple City. Ex in an irregular chain from the north wall of the Tartar city south wall of the Imperial City are seven artificial lakes s from a moat outside the Walls, which is itself fed by a can:

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Hua (American Indemnity) College, the College of Languages, the Law School, the Higher Technical School, the Yenching University (under missionary auspices) and the magnificent Medical School and Hospital equipped by the Rockefeller Trust. A few years ago the Ministry of Education estimated the number of students of all grades in Peking as 55,000, of whom about 7,000 were women and girls. Many of the teachers in the higher colleges have been trained at foreign Universities | . and to them is mainly due ScENE IN THE GROUNDS OF THE the remarkable movement known WINTER PALACE, PEKING as the Chinese Renaissance or New Thought Movement, which has been particularly associated with the National University. Its most practical result is the literary revolution which has replaced the classical and “dead” language (Wén-li) by the “national language,” the Mandarin vernacular, as the medium of literary expression; this has given birth to a considerable modern literature of books, periodicals and papers .dealing, often in a revolutionary way, with almost every department of intellectual and social life, and has had a profound influence on the thought

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FEW WAS SOUNDED NIGHTLY the Jade Fountain in the “Western Hills” six miles northPeking. This also feeds the famous lake round the “t Palace” at the foot of the Western Hills. Grouped aro three most southerly of the seven lakes in the heart of th rial city is a great series of imperial palaces, gardens and | and here until the recent change of capital, was the offic dence of the President of the Chinese Republic. Government

Buildings.—The

Government

offices,

modern European style; line the broad Imperial roadwa: leads from the Forbidden City through the Ch’ien Men, t gateway to the Chinese city, and so to the spacious gro

the Temple of Heaven and Altar of Agriculture, which y scene of the great ceremonial acts of sacrifice and sup} performed by the Emperor. In close proximity to the Gov

offices is the large Legation Quarter, adjacent to the Tarté south wall, from which cannon fired on the British Legat ing the Boxer siege of 1900. By the terms of the sut

PELAGIA—PELAGIUS Protocol the portion of the wall overlooking the Legation was placed under their control and patrolled by their guards. In the north-east corner of the Tatar city stand close together some of the most historic buildings in China, including the Lama Temple, the Hall of Classics and the simple but beautiful Temple of Confucius. The northern portion of the Chinese city is essentially the commercial quarter and the most congested part of

Peking and is in close proximity

to the terminus of the Peking-

Hankow and Peking-Mukden Railways just outside the Ch’ien

Men. In great contrast, much of the southern part of the south city is agricultural land and the

grounds of the Temple of Heaven

447

Mount of Olives, where she died after three years of penance. See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seg.; H. Usener, Legenden der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn, 1879) ; H. Delehaye, The Legends of the Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197~205.

PELAGIUS L, pope, 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth, and first appears in history at Constantinople as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose overthrow in favour of Vigilius his intrigues promoted. He was sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on ecclesiastical business; he afterwards took part in the synod at Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. When Vigilius was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon, was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with Totila, the Gothic invader, saved the citizens from murder and outrage. He appears to have followed Vigilius to Constantinople; for refusing,

§f

with him, to accept the decrees of the fifth general council (the and of Constantinople, 553) he shared his exile. But when Vigilius died (June 7, 555), he accepted the council,

and Altar of agriculture take upa WẸ. considerable space, whichis some- |

surrounding districts, including the construction of macadamized

and was designated by Justinian to succeed the late pope. But the Roman clergy, suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship. He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius’s death in the church of St. Peter, he was accepted in his own immediate diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be removed from the diptychs. Other bishops withheld their fellowship, but neither Narses, nor Childebert, king of the Franks, to whom Pelagius appealed, was willing to interfere. Pelagius died on March 4, 561, and was succeeded by John III.

roads. Within the city itself most of the official work is carried on by the Municipal Council and the Police Board. The latter is invested with many responsibilities and Peking has been called “the best policed city in the Orient.” Apart from ordinary police functions, the Board is in charge of the fire and street-cleaning departments, the Census Bureau and of many public charitable institutions. The expenses of the Police Board have been mainly borne by the National Government and, with the removal of its headquarters to Nanking, the whole administration of the city is likely to be changed. Among the modern improvements of Peking may be noticed the metalling of the chief streets, the introduction

pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on Nov. 26. To make his apologies for this irregularity he sent Deacon Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great, as his apocrisiarius to Constantinople. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by reviving the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic patriarch, elicited a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the decretal which professes to convey the exact words of the document is now known to be false. He died in Jan. 590, and was succeeded by Gregory I.

times used for public meetings.

The government of the city has

been extremely complex, various functions having been exercised by the National Govern-

ment, the Provincial Government,

the Military Guard, the Munici-

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BY COURTESY SHIP CO.

OF

CANADIAN

PACIFIC

STEAM-

ONE OF THE BRONZE LIONS IN FRONT OF THE SUMMER PALACE, PEKING

pal Council and the Police Board. For about three centuries Peking has been the centre of a special Metropolitan District, including all territory within 75 miles of the city. This is under a Governor

who in recent times has introduced many improvements in the

of tramways and the installation of water, sewage and electric

PELAGIUS II., a native of Rome, of Gothic descent, was

PELAGIUS

(c. 360-c. 420), early British theologian.

Of

the origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. He seems to have been one of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of that remarkable series of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland, and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion they had received from it. Coming to Rome in the merchant class and will probably lead to a decrease of population, beginning of the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of at any rate temporarily. Peking must, however, remain the date 405), he found a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his remonstrances were met by the plea of human weakness. regional capital of North China. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. Favier, Péking, histoire et description (Peking, To remove this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human 1900—with 800 illustrations) ; describes Peking before modernization. nature became his first object. It seemed to him that the AugustinN. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking during ian doctrine of total depravity and of the consequent bondage the Summer of rg00 (1901) ; Bredon, Peking (Shanghai, 1922) ; Gamof the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and threw upon ble and Burgess, Peking. A Social Survey (New York, 1921), a detailed God the blame which really belonged to man. His favourite and illuminating study based on careful investigations. Geil, Eighteen Capitals of China (1911); An Official Guide to Eastern Asia: vol. iv. maxim was, “If I ought, I can.” Judging from the general style China (Published by the Imperial Japanese Government Railway,1915). of his writings, his religious development had been equable and PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin peaceful, not marked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the of fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop abrupt transitions, which characterized the experience of his great` rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (De virg. iii. opponent. With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing

light systems. The population of the city was estimated at 1,181,400 in 1923 but the presence of large bodies of troops has abnormally swollen its numbers for several years past. The removal of the seat of government has already caused considerable distress among the

1, 33; Ep. xxxvit. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons before him, and many of his practical counsels are marked by by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on Oct. 8 (Wright’s sagacity, and are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb Syriac Martyrology). In the Greek synaxaria the same day is (“corpus non frangendum, sed regendum est”). The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated in the comassigned to two other saints of the name of Pelagia—one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito and also “the sinner”; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus, in Cilicia. The legend of the former of these two is famous. She was a celebrated dancer

and courtesan, who, in the full flower of her beauty and guilty

sovereignty over the youth of Antioch, was suddenly converted by

the influence of the holy bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants and admirers. She was baptized, and, disguising herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a grotto on the

mentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409, might not so speedily have attracted attention had they not been adopted by Coelestius, a much younger and bolder man than his teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained as a lawyer, but abandoned his profession for an ascetic life. When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends crossed to Africa. There Pelagius once or twice met with Augustine, but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly expected that his opinions would be more cordially received. Coelestius remained in Car-

448

PELARGONIUM—PELASGIANS

thage with the view of receiving ordination. But Aurelius, bishop | considerably in his use of the word “grace.” In his most Carefyl of Carthage, being warned against him, summoned a synod, at statements he appears to allow to grace everything but the Initial which Paulinus, a deacon of Milan, charged Coelestius with hold- determining movement towards salvation. He ascribed to the ing the following six errors: (1) that Adam would have died even unassisted human will power to accept and use the proffered if he had not sinned; (2) that the sin of Adam injured himself salvation of Christ. It was at this point his departure from the alone, not the human race; (3) that new-born children are in the Catholic creed could be made apparent: Pelagius maintains, ex. same condition in which Adam was before the fall; (4) that the pressly and by implication, that it is the human will which takes whole human race does not die because of Adam’s death or sin, the initiative, and is the determining factor in the salvation of nor will the race rise again because of the resurrection of the individual; while the Church maintains that it is the divine Christ; (5) that the law gives entrance to heaven as well as the will that takes the initiative by renewing and enabling the huma, gospel; (6) that even before the coming of Christ there were men will to accept and use the aid or grace offered. This was the who were entirely without sin. To these propositions a seventh position most strongly contested by Augustine (g.v.). The resyt is sometimes added, “that infants, though unbaptized, have eternal was the rise of Semipelagianism, which was an attempt to holda life,” a corollary from the third. Coelestius did not deny that he middle course between the harshness of Augustinianism and the held these opinions, but he maintained that they were open ques- obvious errors of Pelagianism. It appeared simultaneously in tions, on which the Church had never pronounced. The synod North Africa and in southern Gaul. In the former Church, which condemned and excommunicated him. Coelestius, after a futile appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus, and there received ordination. In Palestine Pelagius lived unmolested and revered, until in 415

Orosius, a Spanish priest, came from Augustine to warn Jerome against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius was cited by Jerome before John, bishop of Jerusalem, and charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he desires it. This prosecution broke down, and in December of the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen bishops at Diospolis (Lydda). The proceedings, being conducted in various languages and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified Jerome’s application to the synod of the epithet “miserable.” But there is no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of Coelestius, that the divine grace and help consists only in free will, and in the giving of the law and instruction; at the same time he affirmed that a man is able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the commandments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pelagius naturally plumed himself on his acquittal, and provoked Augustine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that, being interpreted by his previous written statements, it involved a denial of what the Church understood by grace and by man’s dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole resented the decisions of Diospolis, and in 418 Zosimus, bishop of Rome, was prompted to draw up a circular

inviting the bishops of Christendom to subscribe to a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bishops refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good birth, approved sanctity and great capacity, who now became the recognized leader of the movement. But not even his acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420; Coelestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius in 428. The first principle of Pelagianism is a theory which affirms the freedom of the will, in the sense that in each volition and at each moment of life, no matter what the previous career of the individual has been, the will is in equipoise, able to choose good or evil. We are born characterless (non pleni), and with no bias towards good or evil (ut sine virtute, ita et sine vitio). It follows that we are uninjured by the sin of Adam, save in so far as the evil example of our predecessors misleads and influences us (non propagine sed exemplo). There is, in fact, no such thing as original sin, sin being a thing of will and not of nature; for if it could be of nature our sin would be chargeable on God the creator. This will, capable of good as of evil, being the natural endowment of man, is found in the heathen as well as in the Christian, and the heathen may therefore perfectly keep such law as they know. But, if all men have this natural ability to do and to be all that is required for perfect righteousness, what becomes of grace, of the aid of the Holy Spirit, and, in a word, of Christianity? Pelagius appears to have confused the denial of original sim (in the sense of inherited gwél¢) with the denial of inherited nature or disposition of any kind. Hence he vacillates

naturally desired to adhere to the views of its own great theg-

logian, the monks of Adrumetum

found themselves either sunk

to the verge of despair or provoked to licentiousness by his pre-

destinarian teaching.

When this was reported to Augustine he

wrote two elaborate treatises to show that when God ordains the end He also ordains the means, and if any man is ordained to life eternal he is thereby ordained to holiness and zealous effort. But meanwhile some of the monks themselves had struck out a vig media which ascribed to God sovereign grace and yet left intact

man’s responsibility. A similar scheme was adopted by Cassian of Marseilles (hence Semipelagians are often spoken of as Mos. silians), and was afterwards ably advocated by Vincent of Lerin; and Faustus of Rhegium. The differentia of Semipelagianism is the tenet that in regeneration and all that results from it, the divine and the human will are co-operating (synergistic) coefficient factors. Pelagius was familiar with the Greek language and the ology, and frequented Rufinus, upholder of Greek theology. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See F. Wiggers, Darstellung des Augustinismus una Pelagianismus (2 vols., Berlin, 1831-32; Eng. trans. of val. i., by R. Emerson, Andover, 1840) ; J. L. Jacobi, Die Lehre d. Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842); F. Klasen, Die innere Entwickelung des Pelagianismu (Freiburg, 1882); B. B. Warfield, Two Studies in the History oj Doctrine (New York, 1893); A. Harnack, History of Dogma, Eng. trans. v. 168-202; F. Loofs, Dogmengeschischte and art. in HauckHerzog, Realencyklopadie; and art. “Pelagianism” in Hastings, Ency-

clopedia of Religion and Ethics.

PELARGONIUM,

See also art. AUGUSTINE. (M. D.; S. H. M)

a genus of plants belonging to the ger-

anium family (Geraniaceae, g.v.) and including most of the culti-

vated ornamentals known as “geraniums.” There are 250 species, chiefly South African. (See GERANIUM.) PELASGIANS. Various traditions were current among thi Greeks with regard to the pre-Greek inhabitants of their country

They were inclined to call all these by the general name ofPelas: gians, although they recognized Carians and Leleges as distinct The Dorians claimed that the ĮJonians were Pelasgian or at least mainly so, and that they themselves were true Greeks.

The in

habitants of Attica, who were regarded as Ionian, boasted thai they were autochthonous, the original inhabitants of the land.

In the Homeric poems Pelasgians appear as allies of Troy

They appear to be settled in south-eastern Thrace close to the Ffellespont in a district called Larissa (Z, ii. 840-843, X. 429) Some suppose that the Larissa here mentioned is the town ol

that name in Thessaly, but the catalogue of ships, in which th

passage occurs, appears to follow a definite geographical order

Larissa stands between the Hellespont and Thrace. The Iiac also refers to the district of Argos near Mt. Othrys in Thessal as Pelasgic, and also uses the same epithet in a famous passagt

of the Zeus of Dodona (ZL, ii. 681-684, xvi. 233-235). In the

Odyssey Pelasgians appear in Crete (Od. xvii. 175-177). Hesioc refers to Dodona as “seat of Pelasgians,” while Hecataeus refer:

to Pelasgus as king of Thessaly. To Aeschylus and Sophocle Argos in the Peloponnese is the Pelasgian land. Herodotus know! of actual Pelasgians at Placie and Scylace on the Asiatic coas! of the Hellespont as well as near Creston on the Strymon. The

islands of Lemnos and Imbros had also, he informs us, a Pelasgial population, conquered by Athens at the close of the 6th centuty Apart from these actual instances of Pelasgians, both Herodotu:

PELECYPODA—PELHAM and Thucydides appear to regard any survival from pre-Greek times as Pelasgic. A well-known example of this is the prehistoric wall of the Athenian acropolis, anciently regarded and still commonly referred to as Pelasgian, and the epithet spread to all

similar prehistoric masonry, especially that built of large blocks, in any part of Greece.

449

were banished. Peleus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who purified him from the guilt of murder and gave him his daughter Antigone to wife and a third of the kingdom as her dowry. Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the

Calydonian boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time

to Iolcus, where he was purified by Acastus (q.v.). The most marriage with the seaIt has been held that the common Greek tradition arose from famous event in the life of Peleus was his son Achilles and his his both survived Peleus (q.v.). HecaThetis and goddess Hesiod by perhaps particularly ing, a misunderstand by Thetis to dwell away carried was and , of Neoptolemus Zeus the grandson taeus, of the two passages in the Jizad in which Dodona and the Thessalian Argos are referred to as Pelasgic. for ever among the Nereids. See Apollodorus, iii. 12, 13; Ovid, Metam. xi.; Pindar, Isthmia, viii. Where Homer used a general epithet meaning “remotely anNemea, iv. 101; Catullus, Ixiv.; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816; o; cient,” later writers have wrongly concluded that he referred Euripides, Andromache, 1242-60. specifically to actual Pelasgians as inhabitants of these places. If this is so, the problem is merely thrown farther back, for an explanation is needed of how the epithet Pelasgic had attained the general meaning of “ancient” by the time of the composition of the Homeric poems. To certain people at a certain period

“Pelasgic’ must have been a specific epithet.

The Pelasgians

must have been regarded either as very ancient people or as

former inhabitants of the land.

Much turns upon the meaning

of the epithet Pelasgic as applied in the Ziad to the Zeus of Dodona. Zeus is the last one would expect to be referred to as

Pelasgic, for of all the gods’ names his is most certainly Greek. The simplest explanation is perhaps that there existed at Dodona

a very ancient pre-Greek or pre-Achaean shrine occupied by Greeks who attached to the deity the name of their own god Zeus. All instances of actual Pelasgians from Homer to Herodotus point to their being a northern people. Thrace, Epirus and Thes-

saly are their homes.

inhabitants of Greece.

It is certain that there were pre-Achaean

The simplest view now held is that Greek-

speaking peoples broke down into Greece from the north in three

successive waves, lonian, Achaean and Dorian, subduing a pre-

vious “Helladic” population and setting up, after the second invasion (ie., of Achaeans), the Mycenean civilization in the Peloponnese. If this is the simplest view, it does not solve all problems and it does not as yet rest upon a certain foundation of fact. An early stratum of population in Greece was in close touch with Anatolia. A large number of Greek place-names point to the conclusion that Greece was colonized from Anatolia. By whom we do not know, and we are also ignorant of what language these early people spoke. It is also possible that the Achaeans themselves were in Asia Minor before they were in Greece and that they brought thither the Anatolian place-names. It is no more than tradition that connects such early people with the Pelasgians. The name Pelasgi which almost certainly stands for Pelak-skoi or Pelag-Skoi has been connected with méħayos, “the sea,” and the people consequently regarded as sea-faring. The connection is not very convincing. It has also been related to the name of the semi-Illyrian Pelagones of Macedonia, and it is possible, though unproven, that the names do represent the same stem. Possibly the Pelasgians were no more than Vlachs, or Wallachian shepherds, who in classical as in modern times have been. in the

habit of wandering in large numbers down into Greece. The name is perhaps no more than Velak-ski. If this were so, it would account for their being dotted over various regions in Thrace and the north and also, if their habits were the same at the dawn of history as afterwards, of their being an ancient and integral part

of Greek tradition and life. G. Sergi describes as “Pelasgian” one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African race. BrsLiocRAPHY.—Beloch, Griechische Geschichte I. 2 p. 162 seq.; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums I., 2 p. 767 seq. (3rd ed.) ; A. Fick, Vorgriechische Ortsnamen (1903); J. L. Myres, “A History of the Pelasgian Theory,” in Journal of Hellenic Studies XXVII., 171 seq. (1906); Treidler, “Alte Völker

der Balkanhalbinsel”

in Archiv. für

Anthropologie XL. 101 seg. (1913) ; H. Ehrlich, “Pelasger und Etrusker” in Verhandlungen d. 52 Phil-Vers. in Marburg (1913), P- 1503

A. Debrunner,

“Der

Besiedlung

des alten Griechenland

im Licht

der Sprachwissenschaft” in Neue Jahrbuch fiir d. Klassische Altertum(B. F. C. A.) wissenschaft, XLI. p. 443 (1918).

PELECYPODA, a name, now replaced by Lamellibranchia

(g.v.), for the bivalve Mollusca (q.v.).

_ PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia

in Thessaly, son of Aeacus, king of Aegina, and usually brother

of Telamon. The two, having killed Telamon’s third son Phocus,

PELEW ISLANDS: see Pacrric ISLANDS. PELHAM, the name of an English family, derived from Pel-

ham in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the possession of the same family before the Norman conquest. The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton (1706-1768), the earldom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of Newcastle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from 1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of Yarborough from 1837. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sm WILLram PELHAM (c. 1530

1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton,

Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. After much service abroad he was sent to Ireland in 1579, when he was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made his successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham’s action in proclaiming Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th earl of Desmond, a traitor, though his action was soon justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond. Thomas Butler, roth earl “of Ormonde, was entrusted with the campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1580. The English generals laid waste northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle, which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child. Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle. Pelham vainly sought for help from the gentry of the county, who sympathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submission by a series of “drives.” After the arrival of the new deputy, Lord Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England. Leicester desired his services in the Netherlands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estates as security for his liabilities. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in 1586, and accompanied Leicester to

England in 1587. He died at Flushing on Nov. 24, 1587.

From Sir William are descended the Pelhams of Brocklesby, Lincolnshire, earls of Yarborough (cr. 1837). From Sir Nicholas Pelham, elder brother of William, were descended the DUKES OF NEWCASTLE (g.v.). Among the other distinguished members of this family were THomas Peruam, earl of Chichester (17281805), who held many offices under George ITI.; Henry PELHAM (g.v.), GEORGE Petwam (1766-1827), bishop successively of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln; Thomas Pelham, 2nd earl of Chichester (1756-1826), who held office under Pitt and Addington. See Lower, Pelham Family (1873).

PELHAM,

HENRY

(1696-1754), prime minister of Eng-

land, younger brother of Thomas Holles Pelham, duke of Newcastle, was born in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, 1st Baron Pelham of Laughton (1650-1712; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace Holles, daughter of the 3rd earl of Clare. He was

educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford, which he entered in July 1710. In 1717 he entered parliament for Seaford, Sussex. Through strong family influence and the recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county. In 1724 he became secretary for war, exchanging this office in 1730 for the more lucrative one of paymaster of the forces. He supported Walpole on the question of the excise, and in 1743 a union of parties resulted' in the formation of an administration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of chan-

450

PELHAM— PELLAGRA

cellor of the exchequer; his brother, the duke of Newcastle, was very powerful in the cabinet, and there were occasional disputes between them. Being strongly in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with indifferent success. The king, thwarted in his favourite schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and Newcastle), who, however, at the king’s request, resumed office. Pelham remained prime minister till his death on March 6, 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects were among the chief elements of Pelham’s success, for one with a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant elements of the cabinet for any length of time. See W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Life of Henry Pelham (2 vols., 1829).

PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907), English scholar and historian, was born at Bergh Apton, Norfolk, on Sept. 19, 1846, son of John Thomas Pelham (1811-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl of Chichester. He was educated at Harrow, under Butler and Westcott, and at Trinity col-

lege, Oxford, where he took a first class in litterae humaniores in 1869. He was a tutor of Exeter college from 1869 to 1890, taking over the teaching of ancient history from C. W. Boase. In 1887 he became university reader in ancient history and, two years later, Camden professor. He became curator of the Bodleian library in 1892, and in 1897 president of Trinity college. He was also an honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of Harrow school. His chief contribution to ancient history was his article on Roman

history in the 9th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures were full of original research and learning. He married, in 1873, Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton. He died on Feb. I3, 1907. Apart from the Outlines he and the Colonate (1890), The articles in periodicals of which the Quarterly Review on the

published only The Imperial DomainsRoman Frontier System (1895) and the most important was an article in early Caesars (April 1905). Many of these articles were published in collected form after his death by Professor F. Haverfield (Essays on Roman History, 1911).

PELICAN, a large fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the

big extensible skin-pouch between the flexible rami of the lower jaw of its long, weak bill. The common pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) inhabits south-east Europe, south-west Asia and north-east Africa. It haunts the margins of large lakes and rivers, where fish are plentiful; and companies may be seen in a shallow bay, stretched out in a long line, fishing. The nest is on the ground among the reeds; the two white eggs, with chalky shells, hatch into greyish-brown plumaged young. The adult, except for the black primaries, is white, tinged with pink and, on the head, yellow. A larger eastern species, P. crispus, has a crest of curled feathers. Two humeri of pelicans have been found in the English fens and probably belong to this specles. There are two American CAN (PELECANUS CONSTRICILforms, whose methods of feed- LATUS), FOUND IN AUSTRALIA, ing and plumage

are

quite dif-

TASMANIA

AND

NEW

GUINEA

ferent, P. occidentalis, the brown. pelican, individually seeking its prey from the air, is marine; P. erythrorhynchos, the white pelican, often combining in companies to drive fish into the shallows. In summer it haunts fresh-water. Remarkable ceremonies of courtship and relieving guard at the nest occur. (See F. Chapman, Camps and Cruises o f an Ornithologist.) Allied species occur in south Asia and in Africa. It may be mentioned that the legend of the pelican feeding (and revivifying) its young with the blood from its own breast is entirely unfounded.

PELION, a mountain in Thessaly in the district of Magnesi

between Volo and the east coast (mod. Plessidi, 5,340 ft.). Tn Greek mythology, the giants piled it on Ossa to scale Olympus the abode of the gods. It was the home of the centaurs, especially

of Chiron, who in a cave near its summit educated many youthfij

heroes. On its summit at an altar of Zeus Actaeus, a festival Was held in the dog-days, by worshippers clad in skins.

PELISSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1364)

duke of Malakoff, marshal of France, was born on Nov. 6, 1794.

at Maromme (Seine Inférieure). His early service was mainly in Algeria. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a whole Arah tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where they

had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such indignation in

Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, publicly expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the governor-general of Algeria, gave it his approval, and secured for Pélissier the rank of genera]

of brigade, which he held till 1850, when he was promoted general of division. On May 16, 1855, he succeeded Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the French forces before Sevastopol. (See CRIMEAN War.) His perseverance was crowned with success in the storming of the Malakoff on Sept. 8. On the r2th he was promoted marshal. On his return to Paris he was named senator, created duke of Malakoff (July 22, 1856), and rewarded with a

grant of 100,000 francs per annum.

From March 1858 to May

1859 he was French ambassador in London, being recalled to take command of the army of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. In 1860 he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, and he died there on May 22, 1864. See Marbaud, Le Maréchal historiques, 2nd series (1859).

PELL,

JOHN

Pélissier

(1610-1685),

(1863);

Castille, Portraits

English mathematician, was

born on March 1, 1610, at Southwick in Sussex, where his father was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. Pell was professor of mathematics at Amsterdam (1643-46) and at Breda (1646-s2). He was Cromwell’s agent in Switzerland for some years. After the Restoration he took orders and held a living in Essex. He studied mainly algebra and Diophantine analysis. He introduced the sign’ + into England; and the indeterminate equation ax’--r=y? bears his name although his connection with it consists simply of the publication of solutions of it in his edition of

Brounker’s Translation of Rhonius’s Algebra (1668). He died on Dec. 12, 1685, in London in great poverty.

PELLA, the capital of ancient Macedonia, about 32 m. N.W.

of Salonika, at the village Neochori (Turkish Yeni-keui). The seat of government was transferred hither from Edessa by Philip Il., and his son Alexander was born here. Under Hadrian it was still of some importance.

Scanty remains are visible and neigh-

bouring springs are known as the “baths of Pel.”

PELLAGRA, the name given. to a chronic disease of comparatively modern recognition. For some time it was supposed to be practically confined to the peasantry'in parts of Italy (particularly Lombardy), France, the Asturias, Rumania and Corfu. But it has been identified in various outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes, India) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the Zulus and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had been observed up to 1906, but since then numerous

cases have been reported.

Probably the disease is even mote

widely spread through the world. The indications usually begin in

spring, decline towards autumn, and recur with increasing intensity and permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who 1s acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from headaches,

giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin, especially n the hands and feet, and diarrhoea, An erysipelatoid rash appears on the skin, the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially

where directly exposed to the sun. About July or August of the

frst season these symptoms disappear, the spots on the skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes more like a mummy, his skin shrivelled and sallow, or even black at certain

PELLICANUS—PELOPIDAS spots, his angles protruding, muscles wasted, movements slow and

See Piero Maroncelli, Addizioni alle mie prigioni (1834); G. Briano Della Vita e delle Opere di S. Pellico (1854) ; P. Giuria: S. Pellico e il suo tempo (1854) and A. Gustarelli: La Vita, “Le Mie Prigioni” e di Pellico. Saggio Biografico-critico (Florence 1917).

languid, and sensibility diminished.

Meanwhile there are more special symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping of the eyelid, dilatation of the

PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born

pupil, and other disorders of vision, together with symptoms re-

at Béziers on Oct. 30, 1624. In 1653 he published a Relation contenant V’histoire de académie francaise. He was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by permission to attend their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet, and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson stood by Fouquet, in whose defence he issued in 1661, Discours au roi, par un de ses fidèles sujets sur le procès de M. de Fouquet, and Seconde défense de M. Fouquet. Pellisson was released in 1666. He became historiographer to the king, and wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years 1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on Feb. 7, 1693. He was very intimate with Mlle. de Scudéry, in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante.

lating to the digestive system, such as a red and dry tongue, a purning feeling in the mouth, pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. Ultimately there is profound disorganization of the nervous system with melancholy, imbecility, and a curious mummified condition of body. After death a general tissue degeneration is observed. The condition is believed to be diabetic in origin, possibly due

to vitamin deficiency. It has been produced experimentally by withholding fresh meat, eggs and milk from the diet and has been observed to occur secondarily in disease of the stomach interfering with nutrition. Consequent on these experiences minor forms of the disease have been recognized, and it may well be that

in these forms the disease is more common than was supposed.

See G. D. Head, Arch. Int. Med., 1924, 34, 93; W. L. Bender, Jn. Amer. Med. Assn. 1925, 84, 1250.

PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), German humanist, whose original name was Kiirsner, was born at Ruffach, Alsace, on Jan. 8, 1478. He studied at Heidelberg and at Tubingen, where he

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv.; and F. L. Marcon,

Étuđe sur la vie et les œuvres de Pellisson (1859).

PELLITORY, a small hairy perennial herb which grows on

became a favourite pupil of the guardian of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, and began the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris brought him

a huge codex of the prophets borne on his own shoulders all the

way from Mainz. He learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the Star of the Messiah of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint or two from Reuchlin, who also lent him the

grammar of Moses Kimhi, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help of Jerome’s Latin. In 1501 he composed the

Pellicanus was ordained priest in r501, and continued to serve his order at Ruffach, Pforzheim and Basel till 1526. At Basel he did much laborious work for Froben’s editions. He abandoned his habit on receiving through Zwingli a call to Zürich as professor of Greek and Hebrew. He died on April 6, 1556. Pellicanus’s Latin autobiography (Chronicon C.F.R. ed. Riggenbach, 1877) is one of the most interesting documents of the period. See also Emil Silberstein, Conrad Pellicanus; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Studiums der hebr. Sprache (1900).

SILVIO

(1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was

born at Saluzzo, Piedmont, on June 24, 1788. At the age of ten he composed a tragedy under the inspiration of Caesarotti’s translation of Ossian. His tragedy Francesca da Rimini, was brought out with success by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818 (Eng. trs. 1915). The representation of his next tragedy Eufemio da Messina, was forbidden. Pellico attempted to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. He acted as secretary to the powerful literary executive which gathered about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, the management of the Conciliatore, which appeared in 1818-19 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him. In 1820 Pellico was arrested on the charge of carbonarism and after his removal to the Piombi at Venice in 1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies Ester d’Engaddi (Eng. trs. 1836) and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced on him in Feb. 1822 was commuted to fifteen years carcere duro, and in the following April he was placed in the Spielberg at Brünn. Here he composed the tragedy Leoniero

da Dertona, for the preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory. After his release in 1830 Ester was played at Turin in 1831, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared

his Tre nuovi tragedie, and the famous Le Mie prigioni (Eng.

trs. 1915), an account of his sufferings in prison. In 1834 the

Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons, bestowed on him a yearly pension of 1200 francs and in 1838 gave him a home inher palace. His tragedy Tommaso Moro appeared in 1833 and his Opere in 1837. He died on Jan. 31, 1854. The simple and naïve egotism of Le Mie prigioni established his fame.

old walls, hedgebanks and similar localities in the British Isles and is known botanically as Parietaria officinalis. It has a short woody rootstock from which spring erect or spreading stems 1 to 2 ft. long, bearing slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green flowers. It belongs to the nettle family (Urticaceae), and is nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs do not sting. A similar species, P. pennsylvanica, is widely distributed in North

America.

first Hebrew grammar in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards included in Reysch’s Margarita philosophica. The chief fruit of his Hebrew studies is the vast commentary on the Bible (Zürich, 7 vols., 1532—39).

PELLICO,

451

l

PELLOUX, LUIGI (1839-1924), Italian general and politician, was born on March 1, 1839, at Laroche (Haute-Savoie) of

Italian parents. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery in 1857, he fought at Custozza (1866) and at the siege of Rome (1870). He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti cabinets of 1891—1893, and in the Rudini cabinet of 1896, and was appointed senator. In May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill, fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000 a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari, where, without recourse to martial law, he restored public order. General Pelloux succeeded Rudini as prime minister in 1896, resigned in 1899, but again took office to repress the revolutionary elements in southern Italy. His new cabinet was military and conservative, and Pelloux was forced to resign office after the general election in June. In r901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin army. He died on Oct. 26, 1924. PELOPIDAS (d. 364 3.c.), Theban statesman and general. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia, where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epameinondas (g.v.). Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the Spartans (383 or 382) he fied to Athens, and took the lead in a conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger

Spartan force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus).

This victory he

owed mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300 infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly to the success of Epameinondas’s new tactics by the rapidity with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans. In 370 he accompanied his friend Epameinondas as

boeotarch into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuccessfully accused of having retained their command beyond the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessalians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne. In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home hostages, includ-

452

PELOPONNESIAN

ing the king’s brother, afterwards Philip IL, the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of troops, he overthrew the tyrant’s far superior force on the ridge of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own hand, he was cut down by the tyrant’s guards. Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Hellenica, vii. 1. See also THEBES.

PELOPONNESIAN

WAR,

Diodorus

THE,

xv. 62-81;

was

Xenophon,

the great war

waged towards the end of the 5th century B.c. by Sparta and the other members of the Peloponnesian Confederacy upon Athens and the Athenian empire. The cities of the Boeotian Confederacy under Theban leadership were Sparta’s allies from the first. Syracuse and other Sicilian cities gave active help in the last part of the war. Argos, her hands tied by a treaty with Sparta, remained neutral during the first ten years, but, as a democracy, was benevolently inclined towards Athens. Persia at first held aloof, waiting her opportunity to reassert her dominion over the Greek cities of the Asiatic seaboard which Athens had liberated and added to her own empire. Athens, indubitably unpopular with many members of her empire, found small sympathy beyond

constant

WAR drain

upon

Athenian

military

and

naval

resources

Sparta seized the chance. Confident of speedy victory, she re

fused the offer of arbitration upon all disputed questions made

her by Pericles, though the peace of 445 B.c. bound her to accept

it. The ultimatum despatched to Athens was tantamount to the

destruction of the prestige if not of the actual existence of the Athenian empire. At Pericles’ urging the Athenian people stood firm and Sparta declared war. She had a bad conscience but a

good war-cry, liberation of the Hellenes from Athenian despotism, THE

FIRST

YEARS,

431-427 B.C.

In a war between the chief military and the chief naval power

in Greece a decisive issue was unlikely to come speedily, Sparta

relied on the old traditional strategy of Greek warfare. She hoped by invading Attica and devastating ‘he crops to induce such war. weariness in the Athenians as to make them sue for peace, unless they could be provoked first to fight the one pitched battle

which must end the war.

In the numbers, as in the discipline

and efficiency of the troops, Athens was markedly inferior to the Peloponnesian-Boeotian levy. The flaw in this ‘strategy was that

Athens, unlike other Greek cities, could not be starved into sub-

mission. For her food supply she was independent of the produce of Attic soil. The old king of Sparta, Archidamus, realized this, and warned his folk that the war would be bequeathed to

their children. But the Spartans were confident of speedy victory. Upon this confidence Pericles based his own strategy. He was

fighting for the status quo ante bellum, for the survival, not for the aggrandisement, of the empire. To the enemy’s “Strategy of Annihilation” he opposed his own “Strategy of Exhaustion” which its limits. Her maritime supremacy however held the malcontents should give the foe no opportunity of any success in battle. Upon firmly in check. As the war progressed, the whole Greek world invasion by the enemy the country-folk took refuge within the became divided practically into two hostile groups, and both walls of the “linked-fortress” Athens-Peiraeus. So Athens became sides resented neutrality bitterly, as the cruel fate of Melos in “an island,” impregnable to attack. The great fleet should secure 416 B.c. showed. The war began on April 4, 431 B.c., by a Theban the empire against disaffection within and attack without, and, attempt to surprise Plataea, Athens’ ally and outpost on the offensively, was to raid the Peloponnesian coast. Meanwhile every northern base of Cithaeron. It ended on April 25, 404 B.C., when spring and autumn the Athenian land army should waste the Athens capitulated. Thus it lasted 27 years, and Thucydides, Megarid when the Peloponnesians were busy with their own writing its history after its close, definitely regards it as a single crops at home, and compel Megara to renew her former alliance war, though a peace concluded between Athens and Sparta on with Athens. All access from the Peloponnese by land into Attica April I1, 421 B.c., lasted technically some seven years. During would then be denied the enemy, and the dangerous Boeotian these years there was heavy fighting in the Peloponnese in which army on the north, invaluable allies to a Spartan force in Attica, Spartan and Athenian troops were engaged on opposite sides, and would not dare cross the Cithaeron-Parnes range unsupported. Thucydides’ view is so far justified. The war divides into three So the baffled enemy should offer acceptable terms of peace. main sections: (1) The “First” or “Archidamian” War, 431-421 This Periclean strategy also had elements of grave weakness, B.C.; (2) The “Sicilian” War, 421-413 B.c.; (3) The “Later” or quickly revealed, mainly psychological.. The Athenian temper “Ionian” or “Decelean” War, 412—404 B.C. proved unequal to the strain. The Spartans, though disappointed of their hopes, stuck doggedly to the war. Then chance struck CAUSE OF THE WAR Athens a heavy blow. In June 430 B.C. plague, imported by The true cause of the war was Sparta’s fear of the growth of merchant vessels from Egypt or Libya, seized on the city, and the the power of Athens. This is Thucydides’ own final judgment. crowding of the refugees within the walls in the glaring summer The whole history of the rise and power of the Athenian empire in heat spread the infection horribly. No adequate provision of the 50 preceding years justifies this view, though the immediate housing or sanitation had been made. Reinforcements sent to the occasions of the war concerned Corinth, Sparta’s chief naval ally, army blockading Potidaea carried the pestilence on the trooprather than Sparta. Since the peace of 445 B.c. Pericles had con- ships, and here too the mortality was great. No other Greek city solidated Athenian resources, made Athens’ navy incomparable, of any importance suffered. The devastation of the fields and concluded, in 433 B.C., a defensive alliance with the strong naval the ravages of the plague overcame Athens’ will to endure, depower Corcyra (Corinth’s most bitter enemy), and renewed spite all Pericles’ noble oratory. There were as yet no compensaalliances with Rhegium and Leontini in the West. The very tory successes. Megara, though starving, refused to submit. The food supply of the Peloponnese from Sicily was endangered. In naval raids round Peloponnese, one conducted on a great scale the Aegean, Athens could always enforce a monopoly of sea- by Pericles himself, were futile pinpricks. Sparta cared nothing for borne trade. To this extent the Peloponnesian War was a “Trade them. It was Athens which first became “exhausted,” thanks to War,” and on this ground chiefly Corinth appealed to Sparta to the Periclean strategy. Even her great financial superiority at the take up arms. The appeal was backed by Megara, well-nigh beginning of the war began rapidly to vanish. Pericles, in fact, ruined by Pericles’ economic boycott (he hoping thereby to com- in framing his strategy, had been too fearful of the “casualtypel her once more to join Athens), and by Aegina, reluctant mem- lst,” always a matter of grave peril to any statesman in a Greek ber of the Athenian empire, heavily taxed, and claiming as a right democracy. And, himself an admiral of repute, he had been established by treaty that Home Rule which Athens refused her. But had not Sparta herself been eager for war, peace would have lasted. She was but waiting the opportunity, which came when

Athens was temporarily embarrassed by the revolt of her subjectally Potidaea in Chalcidice in the spring of 432 B.C. The rebel city held out until the winter of 430 B.c. and its blockade meant a

curiously blind to the opportunities afforded an army, even admittedly inferior, by co-operation with a powerful fleet to harass

and distract the enemy.

A strong expeditionary force based on

Cythera, which should have been seized at once

(actually the

island was taken first—and uselessly—in June 424 B.C.) would

at least have kept Peloponnesian armies out of Attica, and havé

PELOPONNESIAN encouraged Athenian hopes. Pericles flung away the strategical chance offered him in the proper use of naval predominance.

As early as August 430 B.c. Athens sent a peace embassy to Sparta. It was fruitless, and the war continued. In the following winter Potidaea capitulated, and next year two remarkable naval

victories at Chalcis and Naupactus at the mouth of the Corinthian

Gulf, won by Phormio, the Nelson of Athens, further cheered the Athenians. In September 429 B.C. Pericles died, and when in the

June following, Mitylene, chief city of Lesbos, revolted, the very truth of the dead statesman’s main contention, that Athens’ maritime empire was unassailable, seemed questionable. It was howeyer soon triumphantly vindicated. The Spartan admiral Alcidas, sent a year later to redeem a promise of help to the rebels, was a coward and fled back home after a hurried raid on Ionia at a mere glimpse of two Athenian warships. Mitylene surrendered at discretion in July 427 B.c. The city was cruelly punished, though more mercy was shown than pleased an Athenian politician then coming into prominence, Cleon “the tanner,” bête noire of the playwright Aristophanes. In August 427 B.C. Plataea at last surrendered, when its tiny garrison was on the brink of perishing of hunger. At the insistence of their Theban enemies the Plataeans were slaughtered in cold blood and their city was utterly destroyed. Corcyra was finally secured for Athens by its democratic faction amid scenes of unspeakable barbarity, consummated in 426 B.c. by a ferocious massacre. But the whole

war languished and drew near to stalemate. ATHENS’

“SECOND

STRATEGY,”

426-421 B.C,

At last, in 426 B.c., Athens bestirred herself, under direction of Cleon and of Demosthenes, the latter her best tactician in the

war. The new leaders, though always hampered by the wealthy and influential Nicias, trusted chief and representative of the bourgeoisie, initiated a strategy of offence far more vigorous than the Periclean. Sicily, Boeotia, the Peloponnese itself, were all to be spheres of Athenian activity. To meet the cost, Cleon in 425 B.C. largely increased the tribute imposed on all members of the empire, in many cases up to or even beyond 50%. In June 426 B.C. Demosthenes with a handful of Athenian troops proceeded to Acarnania, ostensibly to consolidate Athenian influence in the district at the expense of Ambracia, Sparta’s chief ally there. His real hopes were centred upon an invasion of Boeotia by way of Phocis in co-operation with the main Athenian army which, under Nicias, was to invade by way of Tanagra on the south-east and threaten Thebes directly. The plan was a dismal failure. Demosthenes with his large army of local levies without any real stiffening by Athenian hoplites was trapped in the heart of the forests of Aetolia at Aegitium at the very outset of his enterprise, and his whole force was cut to pieces by the natives. He himself barely escaped with his life to the Athenian base at Naupactus, whence he did not dare to return to Athens to become the scapegoat of the people’s indignation. Nicias won an insignificant victory at Tanagra and then withdrew. Sparta entered on vigorous reprisals. A large army under Eurylochus marched. from Delphi, threatened Naupactus (which Demosthenes secured just in time), and laid siege eventually to Amphilochian Argos, Athens’ ally on the Ambraciot gulf. Then Demosthenes redeemed his reputation. Two brilliant victories, those of Olpae and Idomene, won by tactical devices novel in the humdrum warfare of the time, finally destroyed all Peloponnesian and Ambraciot influence In the entire district and shattered Spartan honour. Though Acarnanians and Ambraciots henceforward observed the war from a distance, the way was henceforth clear for Athenian ships to Sicily, and Demosthenes returned in triumph to Athens. Next year, 425 B.c., Athens, thanks to Demosthenes and Cleon, achieved the “crowning mercy” of Sphacteria. A fleet em route

for Sicily put in to Navarino bay and Demosthenes built and

himself garrisoned a rude fort here on Pylos promontory. The angry Spartans came down upon him by land and sea. He beat off the assault on the fort, and the Athenian fleet returning on his summons from its slow voyage to the north penned up the

Spartan navy in the bay and cut off a Spartan force landed on

the island of Sphacteria from all hope of rescue.

A temporary

WAR

453

armistice secured to Athens the peaceful surrender of the hostile fleet, which she refused to return when negotiations were broken off. So Sparta for a dozen years ceased to bave a fleet in being. The blockade of the island was protracted, and the approach of winter seemed likely to secure the escape of the garrison. Cleon, appointed general upon Nicias’ pusillanimous, even malignant, resignation, brought Demosthenes needful reinforcements, and the latter, landing at last in overwhelming numbers on Sphacteria, overcame the Spartans’ heroic resistance and brought the remnant of survivors, 292 in all, alive as prisoners to Athens. The moral effect of their surrender was prodigious throughout the Greek world. Not until the victory of Mantinea seven years later did Sparta wipe out the disgrace. Strategically the effect was to safeguard Attica from all invasion, so long as Spartan prisoners were

in Athens’ dungeons. Sparta now in her turn sued for peace, which Cleon refused. Then came the black year, 424 B.C. All the Athenians’ main offensive schemes miscarried. In the spring a congress held at Gela, persuaded by the Syracusan statesman Hermocrates, decided to adopt the “Monroe doctrine” of Sicily for the Sicilians, and the Athenian admirals had no choice but to return home,

where they were heavily punished for a quite unavoidable failure. In the summer the renewed plan of a converging attack on Boeotia, this time from three sides, resulted in November in a crushing defeat of the main Athenian army at Delium, inflicted by the resolution and tactical ability of the Theban Pagondas. His device of a deepened wing and his skilful use of cavalry for shock tactics anticipated the coming renown of the Theban army under Epaminondas. Meanwhile an attempt to capture Megara by treachery had been frustrated when on the very point of success by the sudden dash to the city’s rescue by Sparta’s greatest soldier Brasidas, and only Megara’s port Nisaea remained in Athenian hands. Then Brasidas completed the discomfiture of the Athenian “Second Offensive.” Marching at top speed through Boeotia and Thessaly he appeared in the early winter in Chalcidice, the Achilles-heel of the Athenian empire, offering liberty and protection to cities revolting against the tyrant Athens. Amphipolis quickly surrendered herself, and the historian Thucydides, then in naval command in the north Aegean, arrived in hot haste from Thasos only in time to save Eion at the Strymon’s mouth. Cleon’s vengeance punished him unjustly with 20 years’ exile. Athens sought to check Brasidas’ triumphant progress by concluding a truce, the “Truce of Laches,” in April 423 B.C., with Sparta, whose only anxiety was to recover the prisoners of Sphacteria. Brasidas paid no heed, taking Scione and Mende defiantly. The indignant Athenians hurried reinforcements to what was now the only scene of active war. Niclas recovered Mende this year, and in 422 s.c. Cleon hoped to end the matter. To carelessness in a reconnaissance outside Amphipolis he added cowardice. Brasidas sallied from the city, routed the enemy, and Cleon himself was-slain. But the Spartan, like Wolfe, fell in the moment of victory. So the two great advocates of bitter war unexpectedly perished, and Nicias was able, on April 11, 421 B.c., to conclude with Sparta that peace, called after his own name, which he hoped would end the Peloponnesian War for all time.

PEACE AND WAR, 421-417 B.C, There followed a period of uneasy peace between the Greek cities; of alliances projected, spoilt, effected; of recriminations and of diplomatic finesse, much of it wasted, all of it suspicious. Corinth and Boeotia refused stoutly to be parties to the Peace of Nicias. Neither Sparta nor Athens fulfilled its conditions, though the latter did surrender her Spartan prisoners in good faith. But

she retained Pylos and Nisaea when Sparta professed her inability to render up Amphipolis. And when, in July 420 B.c., a new Quadruple Alliance of Athens, Argos, Mantinea and Elis confronted a Spartan-Boeotian Alliance, the already moribund peace was doomed. This new democratic League was the work of one man at Athens, Nicias’ political rival Alcibiades. Like Disraeli entering on a public career about the age of 30, like him a man of brilliant talents and unbounded ambition he too in-

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PELOPONNESIAN

curred the undying distrust, even hatred, of the “respectable” majority of his fellow-citizens. Though henceforward to the end of the war Alcibiades’ personality dominates Athenian life and politics, his unquestioned oratorical and military abilities could not surmount finally this handicap, and the party-animosity which he provoked was the final cause of Athens’ downfall. This is Thucydides’ own certain judgment.

WAR

Demosthenes’ urgent entreaty to leave Syracuse.

At last he had

consented, after criminal delay, when, on August 27, an eclipse of the moon worked on the men’s superstitious fears and Nicias bowed to the soothsayers’ mandate

to remain.

The Syracusans

under Hermocrates and Gylippus seized the unexpected chance

The Athenian fleet was penned up in the Great Harbour by;

boom across its mouth, and, in a final desperate engagement, was

Athens’ “Third Offensive Strategy” was in idea her best. heavily worsted. The Athenians, abandoning the ships, struck Thanks to her new Peloponnesian allies she now threatened Sparta inland for the hills, then, their road here blocked by the enemy at home and made her rival stake her very existence upon the turned south again in two divisions. The rear, under Demosthenes fortunes of a single fight. Then, to her salvation, Sparta dis- was surrounded on Sept. 14 in the olive-yard of Polyzelus and covered in her King Agis the second of her great soldiers, one surrendered. The van, under Nicias, struggled on for two more remarkable alike for strategical and for tactical ability. Taking days until, cut off on the banks of the river Assinarus, the sy. the initiative, Agis assembled a powerful army at Phlius by a vivors of a bloody massacre surrendered also. The two captured masterly piece of night-marching and descended from the north generals were put to death, against Hermocrates’ pleading, in upon Argos. His Boeotian contingent failed him at the critical cold blood. Many prisoners perished in the horrors of the quarries moment, and, forced to extricate the remainder from peril as at Syracuse. Scarcely a man returned to Athens. The great best he could, he concluded a much misunderstood treaty with armada was annihilated. Thucydides’ story of this disaster ye. the enemy. A few months later Argos, at Alcibiades’ insistence, mains the masterpiece of Greek historical writing. In its stark denounced the treaty, and the allies, though including only a simplicity, sombre majesty, and tragic intensity, his narrative miserably inadequate Athenian contingent and weakened further has never been surpassed. by the selfish absence of the Eleans, threatened Tegea. Agis ATHENS’ RECOVERY, 412-408 B.C. hastened to the rescue, and the resulting battle of Mantinea in The whole Greek world now expected Athens’ immediate downAugust 418 B.c. was so striking a Spartan victory that by this, the greatest land battle of the war, Sparta redeemed her lost fall. Sparta, who had resumed war officially in August 414 Bc, reputation. Argos henceforward ceased to count. That the Third had the disposal of a fleet of equal or superior strength, with Athenian Strategy was so disastrous a failure was largely due naval reinforcements added from the west. Athens’ own best to the blind folly of Alcibiades’ political enemies, through whom mariners were dead. Her treasury was practically empty. In he himself was not elected general in this the decisive year of March 413 B.c. King Agis at Alcibiades’ suggestion had occupied Decelea and kept her in a state of semi-blockade, and 20,000 of its trial. her slaves deserted to the king. The cities of her empire fell THE EXPEDITION AGAINST SYRACUSE, 416-413 B.C. away from her in a series of revolts in 412—411 B.c. Persia now One hope only of bold offence now remained for Athens. In for the first time intervened actively in the war, and Sparta 416 B.c., on an appeal for help made by Egesta, Alcibiades ad- seemed able to count on the support of Tissaphernes, satrap of vocated vigorous intervention again in Sicily. To conquer Syra- Sardis. Finally there was a successful conspiracy in Athens hercuse, subdue the whole island, crush Carthage, and then return self against the utterly discredited democracy, and the oligarchic with triumphant prestige and added forces to finish the war at extremists, Antiphon, Peisander and Phrynichus, seizing the power home was a strategy which might seem to promise a great, even if in June 411 B.C., opened secret and treasonable negotiations with a temporary success, and did in fact come within an ace of suc- the enemy. Two men saved Athens in this extremity. At home the ceeding at Syracuse itself. The expedition to Sicily was no error “Moderate” leader Theramenes frustrated and crushed the exof judgment, and the glamour of the west which cast its spell tremists and established the “Constitution of the Five Thousand,” over the vigorous youth of Athens was no false gleam. In vain which guarded the city and maintained the struggle. Alcibiades Nicias urged the dreary alternative of continued operations in meanwhile had fled from Sparta to Sardis and by his charm so Chalcidice. Expedition after expedition had been sent there in prevailed upon Tissaphernes that the satrap’s aid to Sparta in 419-417 B.c. and all had been dolefully futile. Only in the west gold was niggardly and in ships was nil. The Athenian navy, could Athens win the war. The expedition was voted with en- strongly democratic in sympathy, recalled Alcibiades to command thusiasm. On May 22, 415 B.C., the Hermae busts in Athens’ at Samos, its base, and at Theramenes’ urging the people in the streets were mysteriously mutilated. Despite the omen the great city confirmed the election. Athens once more had a powerful armada sailed in June, under three generals of equal authority, fleet in being, but it was her last, and could not with safety be Alcibiades the author, Nicias the resolute opponent of the plan, divided, however strenuously reinforced. The last stages of the and Lamachus, a straightforward soldier. Hardly had it reached war are purely naval. , Presently operations shifted to the Hellespont, where a victory western waters when Alcibiades was recalled to stand his trial at Athens for sacrilege. He had in vain demanded a trial before won by the Athenian commanders Thrasybulus and Thrasylus he sailed. In his absence his enemies played upon the religious over the Spartan Mindarus at Cynossema in Sept. 411 B.C., if far credulity of the pious and upon the general dread of oligarchic from decisive, at least restored Athenian confidence, though all plots. Alcibiades’ own adherents were with him on shipboard. At hopes of Persian support had by this time been proved fallacious. Athens a death sentence awaited him. He eluded his escort and At this point Thucydides’ narrative breaks off short, and Xenofled, furious, to Sparta. phon, an inferior and dull, though an honest and trustworthy Some progress at first was made in Sicily. A preliminary land- writer, takes up the tale. But in March 410 B.c. Alcibiades and ing at Dascon in Syracuse Great Harbour in November 415 B.C. his colleagues won so crushing a victory over the hostile navy and resulted in a useless Athenian victory. But in April 414 B.c. the its supporting Persian army on land at Cyzicus in the Sea of whole fleet and army moved from Catana on Syracuse, and the Marmora that the Athenians were once again indisputable masAthenians began to encompass the city with a wall on the land- ters of the sea and Sparta actually suggested peace. The newly ward side while the fleet blocked the harbour approaches. But restored democracy under the demagogue Cleophon’s guidance presently everything went wrong. Lamachus was killed, the fleet let slip the opportunity. Next year Alcibiades recaptured rebel was heavily defeated, supplies ran short, a Spartan commander- Byzantium, cleared the Bosporus, secured Athens’ corn supply, in-chief, Gylippus, sent at Alcibiades’ prompting, arrived to stif- and so on June 16, 408 B.C., was able to make a triumphal entry fen the Syracusan defence, and the circumvallation was stopped into Athens after seven years’ absence. He received a rapturous by a cross-wall. In response to Nicias’ pitiful despatches Athens welcome, though there were many who cherished bitter ill-will sent out Demosthenes with a second armada of 73 vessels. On against him secretly; was appointed general with autocratic bis arrival, in July 413 B.C., he led an attack by night on the cross- powers; and so left to rejoin the fleet, now once again at Samos. wall. It was ruinously defeated. Nicias still dallied and refused He never saw his city again.

PELOPONNESUS—-PELTASTS ATHENS’

DOWNFALL,

407-404 B.C.

Sparta at last discovered a great admiral in Lysander. Coming to his naval base at Ephesus in the autumn of 408 B.c. he built up a large well-equipped fleet, assisted by the new satrap, Prince Cyrus, second son of the Persian king, who co-operated enthusias-

tically with the Spartan, placing Persia’s illimitable resources and

his own private purse at the latter’s command. Persian vacillation thus ended, the only flaw in Sparta’s naval organization was the rule forbidding the same man to hold the admiral’s office in two consecutive years. In 407 B.c. Lysander resisted steadily all Alcibiades’ efforts to entice him out to battle. Then that weakness, shortage of supplies, which hampered all Athenian operations in the “Ionian War,” compelled Alcibiades to divide his fleet.

He

himself sailed north to plunder enemy coast towns, leaving in observation at Notium a squadron under one Antiochus, a good seaman and an old friend from boyhood, with strict orders not to offer battle. During his superior’s absence at hostile Cyme Antiochus challenged Lysander insultingly to combat. The latter sallied out of harbour and routed him. Alcibiades returned and renewed the blockade of the foe, but the mischief was done.

His personal enemies at Athens persuaded the people to dismiss

him from his command. He withdrew quietly to a castle on the Hellespont, and a new board of generals next year replaced him. Lysander, too, was superseded by Callicratidas, a brave and energetic officer. The latter, overcoming all hindrances placed in his way by Lysander and Cyrus, blockaded the Athenian Conon

in Mitylene harbour. A large Athenian fleet, raised with desperate energy, sailed from Peiraeus to this general’s succour. At the resulting battle of Arginusae in August 406 B.c. the fleets engaged were the largest hitherto seen on both sides in the war, but the

tactics were nearly as clumsy as in the days before Phormio. Callicratidas was defeated heavily and he himself was drowned. Again Sparta offered peace. Again Cleophon, in drunken madness, secured its rejection. The very victory was marred bya failure, due in part only to heavy weather, to rescue many hundred drown-

ing Athenian sailors from sinking or waterlogged ships. The generals were recalled to Athens. Six who obeyed were put on trial and, illegally condemned en bloc, were executed, Theramenes,

whom they had tried to make their scapegoat, being largely responsible for their doom. By their removal he may have hoped to achieve Alcibiades’ recall even at the eleventh hour. In this he failed. The new generals of 405 B.C. were, with one exception, Alcibiades’ political opponents. These proceeding to Ionia, moved the entire fleet up to the open roadstead of Aegospotami in the Hellespont. Lysander lay opposite in security at Abydos. In vain Alcibiades rode down to warn his compatriots of their perilous position. Insults rewarded this, the last of his many efforts to save his city. By a clever ruse de guerre Lysander in Sept. 405 B.c. captured the whole of the opposing fleet without a blow and “in one single hour brought the longest of wars to an end.” Only Conon and some 20 Athenian ships escaped. So Athens lost her fleet and, with it, the war, thanks to incompetence and political partisanship combined. With slow deliberation Lysander sailed upon the city and blockaded Peiraeus. King Pausanias lay with his army outside the walls. After six terrible months of slow starvation Theramenes secured terms from Sparta tolerable compared with the utter

455

rank of a world-epic, almost of a world-tragedy, a struggle which has seemed to some little better than a petty quarrel of ancient days.

Breriocrapny.—(z) Ancient: Thucydides, Xenophon, Hellenica, I., IL.: Diodorus XII., 39-XIV., II.; Plutarch, Lives of Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander; Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, chs. xxvili—xl.; Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, chs. ii. and xii.; Aristophanes passim. (See list of passages cited in Henderson infra, Index II.; Nepos, Lives of Alcibiades, Lysander and Thrasybulus.) (2) Modern: J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians, ch. iil. (1909); G. B. Grundy, Thucydides and the History of his Age (1911); Cambridge Ancient History, vol. v., chs. viii-xii. (F. E. Adcock and W. S. Ferguson; (1927), full bibliography; B. W. Henderson, The Great War between Athens and Sparta, a companion to the

military history of Thucydides (1927). Index IV. contains references to modern writers. Chief among general histories of Ancient Greece

dealing with the war are those of Evelyn Abbott, J. B. Bury, E. A. Freeman, George Grote, Adolf Holm, Julius Beloch, Georg Busollt,

Eduard Meyer, K. Pöhlmann, Gustav Gilbert, Beiträge zur innern Geschichte Athens (1877) ; F. M. Cornford, Thucydides Mythistoricus (1907); Admiral Sir Reginald Custance, War at Sea (1919); G. F Abbott, Thucydides; a study in historical reality (1926). (B.W. H.)

PELOPONNESUS

(“Island of Pelops”), the ancient (and

modern Greek official) name for the part of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth. In mediaeval times it was called the Morea, from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape.

PELOPS,

in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of

Tantalus and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father’s home was on Mt. Sipylus in Asia Minor. Tantalus one day served up to the gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food except Demeter, who, distracted by the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the gods, till, from his father’s sins, he was cast out from heaven. Then, taking much wealth with him, he went to Pisa in Elis and won Hippodameia by the treachery of Myrtilus (cf. OENoMAUS). When Myrtilus claimed his promised reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea, and from his dying curse sprang the woes of the house of Pelops. Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes and Chrysippus. Pelops is closely connected with Olympia. A mound there was supposed (falsely) to be his tomb; his sacrifice was an important part of the festival; he is said to have celebrated the Games “more notably than any man before him” (Paus. v., 8, 2). It is likely that his family is of the eastern branch of the Achaeans known from Hittite records to have existed in Asia Minor in early times.

PELOTA, a Spanish word meaning ball. It is also used to

denote various ball games whose traditional home is in the Basque provinces of France and Spain, but which are played regularly or occasionally in many places, e.g., Madrid, Barcelona, Buenos Aires, Havana, etc. In the Basque country these games are the national pastime and every town and village has a court or courts.

PELOTAS, a city of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,

on the left bank of the São Gonçalo river near its entrance into the Lagôa dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio Grande. Area of municipio 1,037 sq.m.; pop. (1920) 82,294. The Rio Grande-Bagé railway communicates with the city of Rio Grande, destruction of the city demanded by Corinth and Thebes. On and with the railways extending to Bagé, Cacequy, Santa Maria, April 25, 404 B.c., Athens capitulated, and the Spartans marched Passo Fundo, Uruguayana and Porto Alegre. The São Gonçalo in. Her long walls were pulled down to the merry sound of river is the outlet of Lagôa Mirim, and Pelotas is therefore conflutes. Her empire was dissolved. Samos, alone defiant, was nected with the inland water routes. The city is built on an open taken. The oligarchy of the “Thirty Tyrants” was established at grassy plain (campo) little above the level of the lake (28 ft. Athens, and Critias, its chief, presently secured the judicial above sea-level). Pelotas is the centre of the xarque (jerked murder of Theramenes in the city and the assassination of Alci- beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul. In its outskirts and biades at Phrygian Melissa. “Liberty returned to Hellas.” The the surrounding country are an immense number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards where the dressed beef, Peloponnesian War was ended. With the war the greatest, if not the happiest days of Athens’ lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and air. There are many history are ended. Her political pre-eminence passes away. In- factories or packing-houses where the by-products are prepared terest centres rather on Thebes and Macedon in the 4th, on for market. Pelotas became a villa in 1830 and a city in 1835.

Achaea and Sparta in the 3rd century. Hence it is that the Peloponnesian War enjoys such importance in world-history. Apart from this, it is the genius of Thucydides which has raised to the

PELTASTS, properly, ancient Greek soldiers, carrying a light

instead shield (wéArn) carried by the Hoplites.

(örħor), of the heavier shield They were light infantry and were

456

PELTIER—-PEMBROKE

recruited originally from Thracian mercenaries.

After Iphicrates

made them an efficient fighting force the term peltasts was applied to all light infantry (cf. Xen. Hell. iv., 4, 16 and 5, 12).

PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (17851845), French physicist, born at Ham (Somme), found that heat is absorbed or liberated at the junction of two dissimilar metals in a circuit carrying an electric current. This is known as the “Peltier effect” (see ELtectrictty: Thermoelectricity). Peltier died in Paris on Oct. 27, 1845.

PELUSIUM, an ancient city and port of Egypt, now represented by two large mounds close to the coast and the edge of the desert, 20 m. E. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the

mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, which has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East.

The

extensive

family

possessions

were

now

divided

amon

Anselm’s five sisters and their descendants, the earldom of Pem.

broke reverting to the Crown. The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke WILLIAM DE VALENCE (d. 1296), a younger son of Hugh de

Lusignan, count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of

Angoulême (d. 1246), widow of the English king John, was born

at Valence, near Lusignan. In 1247 Wiliam and his brothers, Gu and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of their

half-brother, Henry III., who arranged a marriage between Wil. liam and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grand-daughter of William Marshal, ist earl of Pembroke. He was hated as one of the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. He quarrelled with Simon de Montfort, refused to comply with the

provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey castle at Winchester, where he was besieged and compelled to surrender PEMBA, an island in the Indian ocean off the east coast of and leave the country. In 1259 he and Earl Simon were formally Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zanzibar. Pemba lies reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in England, He 30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4° 80’ and 5° 30’ S., fought for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay and 39° 35’ and 39° 50’ E. It is some 4o m. long and io across in France, he landed in Pembrokeshire, and took part in 126s in

at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq.m. It is of coral origin. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its Arabic name of Al-huthera—“The Green.” The average rainfall is 83 inches a year; the mean temperature about 80° F. Pop. (1924) 87,649. Most of the inhabitants are of Bantu stock and are known as Wapemba. The land is chiefly owned by Arab proprietors, who work their plantations with Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Up to 1897 the labourers were slaves. The great majority of the plantations are devoted to cloves, the number of plantations of coco-nut palms being comparatively small. The preponderance of clove plantations dates from a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the clove-trees in the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their palms and planted cloves. The Llandolphia rubber-vine is indigenous, and since 1906 Ceara rubber-trees have been planted. Rubber is a minor export. Rice, the chief of Pemba’s imports, could be grown. Shaki-Shaki, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named port there

is a deep and well-sheltered harbour.

(See also ZANZIBAR.)

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke

has been held successively by several English families, the jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Book), the modern Chepstow, and who, after the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which he took part, joined the party of the empress Matilda, and married Henry I.’s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert de Beaumont, earl of Leicester. For his son Richard, 2nd earl and for William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who succeeded to the title through his marriage with Isabel, Richard’s daughter and heiress, see separate articles.

Marshalľ’s eldest son, WILLIAM MARSHAL (d. 1231), 2nd earl of Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales

and in Ireland, where he was justiciar from 1224 to 1226; he also

served Henry III. in France. His second wife was the king’s sister, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but he left no children. His brother RIcHARD MARSHAL (d. 1234), 3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party, and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry IIT. Fearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester in Aug. 1233, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemies to attack him, and in April 1234 he was overpowered and wounded, and died a prisoner. His brother GILBERT (d. 1241), who became the 4th earl, was a friend and ally of Richard, earl of Cornwall. When another brother, ANsELM, the 6th earl, died in Dec. 1245,

the male descendants of the great earl marshal became extinct.

the siege of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist victory he was restored to his estates and accompanied Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He died at Bayonne on June 13, 1296, and was buried in Westminster abbey.

His eldest surviving son, AYMER

(c. 1265-1324), fought at

Bannockburn; in 1317, when returning to England from Rome, he was taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large

ransom was paid. In 1318 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the formal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, was the founder of Pembroke college, Cambridge. In 1339 LAURENCE, Lorp Hastines (d. 1348), a great-grandson of William de Valence, having inherited through the female line a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke was created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son Jogy (d. 1376) married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson in 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown, while the barony of Hastings was dormant till 1840. In 1414 HUMPHREY PLANTAGENET, fourth son of King Henry IV,, was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for life, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a reversion as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of heirs to Humphrey, to WILLIAM DE LA Pore, earl of Suffolk. Accordingly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447 this nobleman became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in 1450 and his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to Sm JASPER Tupor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper being a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the predominance of the house of York, but was restored on the accession of Henry VIT. On his death without heirs in 1495, his title became extinct. During his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by SR WILLIAM HERBERT (d. 1469), a Yorkist, who had been raised to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for this

service Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468. His

son William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon in lieu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV., who thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son EDWARD, PRINCE of Wares; and when this prince succeeded to the throne as Edward V., the earldom of Pembroke merged in the Crown.

ANNE BoLEyn, a few months previous to her marriage with

Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532.

The title of earl of Pembroke was next revived in favour of

Sır WILLIAM HERBERT

(c. 1so1—1570), whose father, Richard

was an illegitimate son of the rst earl of Pembroke of the house of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VII's

sixth wife, and was created earl in 1551. The title has since been held by his descendants. His elder son Henry (c¢. 1534-1601), who succeeded as and earl, was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He mar-

ried in 1577 Mary Sipney, the famous countess of Pembroke

PEMBROKE

457

(c. 1561-1621), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife

had forfeited or lost them by 1168.

Mary Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney, her eldest brother, wrote the Countess of Pembroke’s Arcadia for her pleasure. The two also yorked at a metrical edition of the Psalms. On his death she

Leinster, driven out of his kingdom by Roderick, king of Connaught, came to solicit help from Henry II. He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster. The earl crossed over in person (1170), took both Waterford and Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 1171. In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to solicit help from Henry II.,

made herself his literary executor, correcting the unauthorized sditions of the Avcadia and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 ad 1591. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her, and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout’s come home againe; in Spenser’s Astrophel she is “Clorinda.” In 1599 Queen Elizabeth was her uest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea.

In that year Dermot, king of

speare’s sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner

and surrendered to him all his lands and castles. Henry crossed over in Oct. 1172; he stayed in Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the important places, Richard keeping only Kildare. In 1173 Richard went in person to France to help Henry II, and was present at Verneuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In 1174 he advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but fortunately Raymond le Gros reestablished his supremacy in Leinster. Early in 1176 Richard died, just as Raymond had taken Limerick for him. As he had no male issue his daughter, Isabel, became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the title was borne by her husband, Sir William Marshal. (See below.) Strongbow was the statesman, as the Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He was

of the published ms., while his mistress, Mary Fitton (g.v.), has been identifed with the “dark lady” of the sonnets. (See SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM.) He and his brother Philip are the “incomparable pair of brethren” to whom the first folio of Shakespeare

See Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio Dermat, ed. G. H. Orpen (1892).

The Countess’s other works include: A Discourse of Life and Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Mornay (1593), and Antoine (1492), a version of a tragedy of Robert Garnier.

WILLIAM HERBERT, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580—1630), son of the 2nd earl, was a conspicuous figure in the society of his time and at the court of James I. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household (1615 to 1625) and lord steward (1626 to 1630). He was chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and named it Pembroke college in his honour. By some Shakespearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the “Mr. W. H.” referred to as “the onlie begetter” of Shake-

buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his effigy and that of his wife are still preserved. hibernica; and the Song

of

PEMBROKE, WILLIAM MARSHAL, tst Eart oF (? — is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in London on 1219), English statesman, second son of John le Maréchal, by April 10, 1630. His brother, PurLIe HERBERT, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was Sibylle, the sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury, succeeded to the for some years the chief favourite of James I. In 1605 the king title through his marriage with Isabel, daughter of Richard, znd created him earl of Montgomery and Baron Herbert of Shurland, earl of Pembroke (g.v.). In 1170 he was admitted to the houseand since 1630, when he succeeded to the earldom of Pembroke, hold of Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the head of the Herbert family has carried the double title of the death of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage earl of Pembroke and Montgomery. Charles I., made him lord to the Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction chamberlain in 1626 and frequently visited him at Wilton. He for two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he worked to bring about peace between the king and the Scots in was pardoned by Henry II. and admitted to the royal service 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year the quarrel between about 1188. In 1rz89 he covered the flight of Henry II. from Charles and the English parliament was renewed, he deserted the Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful king who soon deprived him of his office of chamberlain. Trusted Richard Coeur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accession, by the popular party, Pembroke was made governor of the Isle promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king’s licence for his of Wight, and he was one of the representatives of the parliament marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match on several occasions, notably during the negotiations at Uxbridge gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales in 1645 and at Newport in 1648, and when the Scots surrendered and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency which Charles in 1647. In 1649, although a peer, he was elected and took the king appointed on his departure for the third crusade (1190). his seat in the House of Commons as member for Berkshire. He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the His eldest surviving son, Purtrp (1621-1669), became 5th justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but in 1193 earl of Pembroke, and 2nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice he joined with the loyalists In making war upon the prince. married, and was succeeded in turn by three of his sons, of whom Richard allowed him to succeed his brother, John Marshal, in the THomas, the 8th earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure during the interduring the reigns of William IIT. and Anne. His son Henry, the oth earl (c. 1689-1750), was a soldier, but regnum. was better known as the “architect earl.” He was largely reThough he quarrelled more than once with John, Marshal was sponsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The title one of the few English laymen who clung to the royal side through descended directly to Henry, roth earl (1734-1794), a soldier, the Barons’ War. He was one of John’s executors, and was subwho wrote the Method of Breaking Horses (1762); GEORGE sequently elected regent of the king and kingdom by the royalist Aucustus, r1th earl (1759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary barons in 1216. He prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and to Vienna in 1807; and Rosert Henry, 12th earl (1791-1862), the rebels with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May who died without issue. GzorcGe Ropert CHARLES, the 13th earl 1217) he charged and fought at the head of the young king’s (1850-1895), was a grandson of the rzth earl and a son of army, and he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the Baron Herbert of Lea (g.v.), whose second son Srpney r4th earl war was terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in (1853-1913), inherited all the family titles at his brother’s death. the straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the Sidney’s son REGINALD HERBERT (b. 1880) succeeded his father terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (Sept. 1217); but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by sound statesas 15th earl in rgr3. See G. T. Clark, The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby, manship. Self-restraint and compromise were the key-notes of 1880) ; J. R. Planché, “The Earls of Strigul” in vol. x. of the Proceed- Marshal’s policy. Both before and after the peace of r217 he ings of the British Archaeological Association (1855); and G. E. reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year 1219, and died C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (1895). on May 14, at his manor of Caversham near Reading. He was PEMBROKE, RICHARD DE CLARE, 2np Eart oF succeeded in the regency by Hubert de Burgh, in his earldom by d. 1176), commonly known as “Strongbow,” son of Gilbert de his five sons in succession.

Clare, the first earl, succeeded to his father’s estates in 1148, but

See the metrical French

life, Histoire de Guillaume

le Maréchal

PEMBROKE—PEMBROKESHIRE

458

(ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901); G. J. Turner, “Minority of Henry TI.” (Trans. Royal Hist. Soc., new series, vol. xviii., pp. 245—295); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, chs. xii. and xiv. (Oxford, 1896-97).

PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew county, 74 m. W.N.W., of Ottawa by rail on the south shore of Allumette lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways. Pop. (1931) 9,368. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an important centre in the lumber trade.

PEMBROKE,

municipal borough and county town of Pem-

brokeshire, Wales. Pop. (1931) (together with Pembroke Dock) 12,008. It is a walled town on a creek of Milford Haven, and consists of a long street running from the station on the east to the mediaeval castle on the west. A stone fortress seems to have been built here by Arnulf de Montgomery about rogo, and in the rath and 13th centuries the castle was enlarged by the Earls palatine of Pembroke who made it their chief seat. The circular vaulted keep built by William Marshall (c. 1200) is 75 ft. high with walls 7 ft. thick. The Great Hall is built over the “Wogan,” a natural subterranean passage giving access to the harbour. As capital of the Palatinate, and the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was one of the most important fortified sites of the west. Facing the castle are the remains of Monkton Priory founded by Arnulf de Montgomery in 1098 for Benedictine monks as a cell of Sées in Normandy, but given to St. Albans in 1473. The town grew around the castle and was first incorporated by Henry I. in rrog, and again by Richard de Clare in 1154, and its privileges were later confirmed and extended. With the Act of Union (England and Wales) 1536 the county Palatine of Pembroke was abolished and in 1835 the corporation of Pembroke town was remodelled. At the outbreak of the Civil War the castle was garrisoned for the Parliament by the Mayor John Poyer, but in 1647 he declared for the king. Cromwell himself besieged the castle which fell and Poyer was executed. The new town that grew around the government dockyard, established in 1814, is known as Pembroke Dock. The dockyard was closed down in 1926.

PEMBROKESHIRE

(Sir Benfro, Dyfed), the most west-

erly county of South Wales, bounded north-east by Cardigan, east by Carmarthen, south by the Bristol Channel, and west and north-

west by St. Bride’s bay and Cardigan bay of St. George’s Channel. The coastline is much indented and over 140 m. in length. Area (administrative county) 393,003 acres. Pop. (1931) 87,179. Geology.—The region falls naturally into an upland northern section of older rocks, and a lowland southern section of somewhat newer rocks. In the north the rocks range from pre-Cambrian near St. Davids to the Ordovician and Silurian, forming the mass of the Preseli hills which reach 1,760 ft. in Preseli Top. The general strike of the beds is south-west to north-east. From the Carmarthenshire border westward the rocks of the northern section of the county become older and older,—Silurian, Ordovician (Arenig, Llandeilo and Bala beds) Cambrian (Lingula Flags and Treinadoc beds) and finally pre-Cambrian granitic (Dimetian) and volcanic (Pebedian) rocks near St. Davids. As the rocks get older to the west so the elevation of the hills becomes reduced and the Preseli finger out to sea forming numerous headlands, islands and bays. The rocks of the north and west are interspersed with igneous material such as the gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head, Fishguard, Llanwnda and Preseli; diorites north-west of St. Davids, bostonites and porphyrites about Abercastle and the basaltic laccolite of Pen Caer, besides various con-

temporaneous acid lavas and tuffs. The Ordovician and Silurian

shore of St. Bride’s bay; they are bordered on the north ang south-east by the Millstone Grits, Carboniferous Limestone series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding the limestone

appears again farther south at Pembroke, Caldy island and Gowan’s Head; most of the remaining ground about Milford

Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone with infolded strips

of Silurian.

There has been much general subsidence of the

coastline and the lower sections of many of the valleys have been drowned. Cleddan

The submerged lower reaches of the eastern and westem

form Milford Haven.

There are submerged forests in

the vicinity Amroth. History and Early Settlement.—The outstanding feature of the early history of Pembrokeshire is its importance in Mega.

lithic times. The north-west section of the county (including the

southern slopes of the Preseli hills) is especially rich in Megalithic

remains—dolmens,

alignments, standing stones and stone circles,

There are similar remains in the southern half of the county byt

they are not nearly so marked, as a group, as in the north-westerm district. This wealth of Megalithic remains suggests that north-

west Pembrokeshire had cultural relations with many of the north-

west coastal promontories of Europe in the days when metal was beginning to be known in the west. The interest of the stone circle culture in Pembrokeshire was increased when it was shown that the stones forming the inner circle at Stonehenge were derived from rocks in Pembrokeshire (see H. H. Thomas “The Source of the Stones of Stonehenge,” Antiquaries Jour. vol. iii,

1923). There are well preserved dolmens at Longhouse near Mattery, Pentre, Evan, Nevern and near Moylgrove. The stone circle known as Parc-y-Marw near Fishguard is well preserved. The county does not show a wealth of Bronze Age objects though isolated finds fringe, as it were, the megalithic area. The

number of hill-top camps, presumably of Romano-British type and date, is important, especially guarding ways in from the coast, though actual Roman influence in the county is very slight, Castell Flemish on the south-west slopes of the Preseli was probably a military site. It is probable that the hill-top camps continued to be occupied through the post-Roman centuries as the county suffered badly from raiders from over the sea, In Pembrokeshire, as in Ireland, the native cultures lived on uninterrupted by Roman influences, and Pembrokeshire was apparently invaded by the Irish Deisi about A.D. 270. In the early centuries of our era the county maintained its contacts with Ireland and Brittany and became a great centre of Celtic Christianity. Memorials of this period remain in the numerous church dedications and in the beautiful Celtic crosses such as those of

Carew, Penally and Nevern.

Stones with Ogham inscriptions

have been found at Caldy, Bridell, St. Dogmells, Cilgerran and other places. The route that had linked Ireland, Pembrokeshire,

Cornwall, Brittany and north-west Spain in Megalithic times became the route of the Celtic saints and, in the middle ages, an important pilgrim’s way to the shrine of Santiago da Compostella (north-west Spain) (see A. Hartwell Jones, 1912). In a sheltered valley, at a focus of roads of little landing places on the north-west coast of there grew up the great cathedral of St. Davids

Y Cynimrodor, from a number Pembrokeshire, (g.v.), soon to become itself a centre of pilgrimage, and at the landing places were built chapels for the pilgrims. St. Non’s and St. Patrick's are probably very early.

Pembrokeshire was known to the Welsh in these early times as Dyfed. On the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877, Dyfed fell nominally under the sway of the princes of Deheubarth, or south Wales; their hold was never very secure, nor were they able to

rocks extend southward to the neighbourhood of Narberth and

protect the coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. This is

fyrnach,

shown by the large number of Scandinavian place names that are found in the coastal districts, especially near the south coast. In 1092 Arnulf de Montgomeri, son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury, did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With

Haverfordwest, where Arenig, Llandeilo, Bala and Llandovery beds are recorded. Silver-bearing lead has been mined at Llan-

The southern plain is open to the sea and may be of the

looked upon geologically as a continuation westwards

south Wales coalfield, with associated Lower Carboniferous, Old

Red Sandstone and narrow belts of Silurian rocks, the whole

having been considerably folded and faulted, producing a general north-west to south-east strike. The coal measures, highly in-

clined and anthracitic, stretch across from Carmarthen bay to the

the building of Pembroke castle, the Normans began to spread over southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing in Fish-

guard bay and building the castle of Newport at Trêfdraeth, won for himself the extensive lordship of Kemes (Cemmaes) between the river Teifi and the Preseli mountains.

Flemish settlers were

PEMMICAN—PEN

459

lanted in the hundred of Rhés, or Roose, in or about the years ae 1108 and 1111 with the approval of Henry I., and again in i ae. % ph ere making a firm stand against French tutelage and against the gon’s head. Perseus then gave the French desire to infuse the new blood of America’s man-power head of Medusa to Athena, and, into their own military system. And while the Washington war with Danaé and Andromeda, tTT ʻ iyu Lehre ` mye z aa N department was contemplating a limited liability war, Pershing in hastened to Argos to see his France was methodically laying the foundation for an army of grandfather, Acrisius, once more. = = WA 3,000,000 men-—stamped with the Pershing seal. If this plan, But before his arrival Acrisius, inevitably slow in fruition, imposed a severe’ strain on the exfearing the oracle, had fled to Larissa in Thessaly. Thither Per- OF ART hausted Allies, it was justified not only by the proverbial warning seus followed him, and unwit- PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA, FROM against “putting new wine into old bottles”; for the alternative tingly slew his grandfather by A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL IN THE would have demanded an unprecedented sacrifice of national presthe throw of a discus. Ashamed CAPITOLINE MUSEUM, ROME tige. If the realization of an independent American army would to return to Argos, Perseus gave his kingdom to Megapenthes be, as Pershing felt, a serious blow to German morale, it was also (Acrisius’s nephew) and received from him Tiryns in exchange. likely to uplift the military spirit and self-confidence of the United There he reigned and founded Mideia and Mycenae and became States not only for the moment but for all time. the ancestor of the Persides, amongst whom were Eurystheus and The disasters of early 1918 seemed to show that a great risk Heracles. had been taken in pursuit of this ideal, and they led Pershing to See E. S, Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-96). place all his resources freely at Foch’s disposal. But directly the PERSEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern crisis began to pass he reverted to his policy, and at St. Mihiel hemisphere, called after the Greek legendary hero. It contains a in September it was consummated by the victory of the first double cluster forming an interesting object for low-power tele- American army in the first entirely American operation. This scopes. The second brightest star in the constellation is the famous was followed by the Meuse-Argonne battle (q.v.; see also WORLD eclipsing variable AtcoL (q.v.). War) under Pershing’s direction. If the attainment of its aims PERSEUS OF MACEDONIA (b. c. 212 8.c.), the last king was slower and more costly than had been expected, Pershing of Macedonia, eldest son of Philip V. He had his brother De- had accepted the actual battle-ground in deference to his allies metrius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179. and against his own preference for a blow towards Metz. Even War broke out with Rome in 171 B.c. when P. Licinius Crassus so, it is probable that he underrated the difficulties of breaking was sent to attack him. Perseus defeated Crassus at Callinicus in through a strongly organized trench system, as well as the causes Thessaly, but in 168 he was annihilated at Pydna by L. Aemilius that had sapped the offensive spirit of the French. He had a GrantPaulus. He died in captivity at Alba Fucens. (See Maceponta.) like ruthlessness, similarly lacking the personal magnetism which W,

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dier, was born near Laclede, Mo., on Sept. 13, 1860—destined to as astonishing a rise from humble circumstances as Joffre, the first commander-in-chief in the World War of the other great

leads men to lay down their lives gladly, but he had the character which compels men not only to die but to work, grumbling perhaps but respecting him. It was a just recognition of his achievement in creating almost

PERSHORE—PERSIA som nothing the vast structure of the national army that, on Sept. 1, 1919, he was confirmed in the permanent rank of general,

547

three major zones :—

1. The Elburz (Elbrus) mountains—folded mountains with a thick sedimentary series showing movement towards the north. Grant, Sherman and Sheridan. In 1921 he was appointed chief- Large volcanoes are situated in these ranges. ofstaft, and during his tenure of ofice he designed the new per2. Central Persia—a high plateau region but with large depresmanent framework of the United States army. Subsequently, ap- sions; old crystalline rocks, early Palaeozoics and Mesozoics pointed by President Coolidge as the United States representative poorly developed. Volcanoes active throughout the Tertiary. 3. The Zagros system—the mountain belt of S.W. and S. and ex-officio head of the commission to supervise the plebiscite mder the Tacna-Arica arbitration award, he went to Arica in July, Persia, strongly folded and overthrust structures, the movement 1925, but, owing to health, had to resign. He returned home in having been directed against the Arabian foreland. Some Palaeozoic rocks, thick Cretaceous and Tertiary series. Feb, 1926. (See TACNA-ARICA QUESTION.) (B. H. L. H.) a grade held previously by only four Americans—Washington,

PERSHORE,

market town, Evesham

parliamentary divi-

Geological History—Nothing is known of the pre-Palaeozoic

sion, Worcestershire, England, 113.m. N.W. of London and 8 m.

history of Persia. Ancient crystalline rocks, granite, gneiss and schists have been described from many localities, but they may represent in part metamorphosed Palaeozoic sediments. The oldest marine rocks of Persia are of Cambrian age (probably Middle). A shallow sea seems to have transgressed over an old levelled surface in Central Persia and in the Gulf region. Near Kerman and at Narghun, 65 miles S.W. of Isfahan, a thin series of trilobite limestones, shales and sandstones has been

territories of Russia; on the east by Turkistan, Afghanistan and Baluchistan; on the south by the Persian gulf, and the Oman gulf

found. Farther south the Middle Cambrian is developed in a lagoonal facies. Fossiliferous limestones and dolomites, together

SE, of Worcester on the G.W. railway. Pop. (1921) 4,035. Market gardening and fruit-growing (especially plums) are carried on and agricultural implements are manufactured. The churches of Holy Cross and St. Andrew face one another, the former being a mitred Benedictine abbey. Pop. of rural district (1931) 12,927. PERSIA, a kingdom of western Asia, bounded on the north by the Caspian sea and the Transcaucasian and Transcaspian

with sandstones with “salt pseudomorphs,” shales and gypsum, have been carried up by intrusive salt masses. The salt is probFrontiers.—The frontier from Mt. Ararat to Astara on the ably also of Cambrian age. The fossils include trilobites with Caspian sea is that laid down in the treaty of Turmanchai (Feb. Ptychoparia affinities in igneous intrusive rocks of post Cambrian 22, 1828) and further defined in a Convention of July 8, 1893. and pre Cenomanian age are present. Ordovician and Silurian rocks are unknown in Persia, the next The boundary between Russia and Persia starts from the slopes of Mt. Ararat (Aghri Dagh) and runs north-east to the Aras river, marine transgression being of Middle Devonian age. In the which it follows to lat. 48° E. It then runs for about 35 m. Araxes Valley, the Middle Devonian is represented by grey argilsouth-east through the Mughan steppes to Pilsowar on the laceous limestone containing Calceola sandalina (L.), etc., the Bulgharu river and then south with a bend to the west, to the Upper by reddish limestones with Spirifer verneuili Murch. On Astara river and port, whence it follows the shore of the Caspian the south flank of the Elburz mountains, the Devonian is develuntil it touches the bay of Hasan Quli, north of Astarabad. East oped in an Old Red Sandstone facies. Middle Devonian limeof the Caspian and beginning at Hasan Quli Bay the river Atrek stones are known near Isfahan. At Narghun a limestone of serves as the frontier as far as Chat. It then extends east and either Devonian or Lower Carboniferous age is separated from south-east to Sarakhs on the Tejen river. The frontier east of the Cambrian by only 1oo ft. of white and pink spotted sandthe Caspian was defined by the Akhal-Khurasan Boundary Con- stones. No angular unconformity has been observed. Carboniferous limestones extend in North Persia from the vention of Dec. 21, 1881, and the Frontier Convention of July 8, 1893, which separates Persia from Afghanistan-and British India. Araxes valley through the Elburz mountains. Along the Elwand The eastern frontier extends from Sarakhs on the north to a range there is a great development of phyllites or grauwackes. point on the coast of the Gulf of Oman near Gwaittar, a dis- An interbedded limestone has yielded an Orionasiraea type of tance of some 800 m. first following the river Tejen, or Hari coral, probably Lower Carboniferous. Permo-Carboniferous limeRud, to a point near Kuhsan, thence almost due south to the stones with a Punjabian fauna occur at Julfd and in Luristan, . border of Seistan in Lat. 31 N. It then follows the line fixed by in the Kalian Kuh and Kubh-i-Kellar. The Upper Permian and the Trias are unknown in Persia. A sit F. Goldsmid in 1872 and by Sir A. H. MacMahon in 1903-05 to Kuh-i-Malik Siah. From this point to the sea the frontier thick series of plant beds perhaps of Rhaetic age is present in separates Persian territory from British Baluchistan and runs the Elburz, followed by marine Lias and Bajocian. East of Lake south-east to Kuhak and then south-west to Gwattar. This last Urmia, Upper Lias, Callovian and Lower Kimmeridgian fossils section was determined by Sir F. Goldsmid’s Commission in 1871. have been found. The Upper Jurassic is well developed in north The south boundary is the coast line from the mouth of the Persia, extending from Armenia eastward to the Hindu Kush. Shatt-el-Arab to the vicinity of Gwattar, a distance of some 870 In Central Persia, Lias plant-bearing shales are coal-bearing at m. The islands in the Persian Gulf nearest to the Persian shore several places along the line Hamadan, Isfahan, Kerman. Upper are Persian territory; they are, from east to west, Hormuz, Larak, Lias is marine in the Grestener facies. No Jurassic fossils have Qishm, Henjam, Farur, Qais, Hinderabi, Shaikh Shu‘aib Kharag been found in the Zagros, but a series of red and green radioand Kharagu. larian cherts, associated with basic intrusive and extrusive rocks Southwards from Mt. Ararat the frontier dividing Persia first may be of Upper Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age. from Turkey later from Iraq, extends for about 700 m. until it Lower (Neocomian) and Upper Cretaceous rocks are widecuts the left bank of the river Shatt-el-Arab about 12 m. above spread in the Elburz. In the Zagros mountains, Valanginian and Mchammerah, whence it follows the high-water mark line of the Aptian are known in isolated localities. Upper Cretaceous is well fiver to its mouth at Qasbah opposite Fao, leaving the fairway developed and from this time onward to late Tertiary sedimentachannel in Turkish, now Iraq, territory. This is the line referred tion was continuous in the Mesopotamian—south-west Persian to in the Treaty of Erzeroum of 1847, as finally demarcated in geosyncline. Upper Cretaceous consists of limestones, locally of the Arabian sea, and on the west by Turkey in Asia and the new State of Iraq.

1914 by Perso-Turkish Commissioners, assisted by British and

Russian Commissioners with arbitral powers, appointed in virtue

of a special agreement concluded in 1913 between Persian and Turkish plenipotentiaries at Constantinople. (P. Z. C.) GEOLOGY

Persia lies within the great Alpine-Himalayan fold system,

forming the connecting link between the Taurus structures and those of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It may be divided into

hippuritic, and fossiliferous marls, often bituminous, which attain

a thickness in places of about 3,000 ft. Cretaceous limestones form many of the highest ranges. In Central Persia, Upper Cretaceous is irregularly developed, in places resting with marked unconformity on older rocks. Eocene is present throughout the greater part of North Persia, but it does not attain any great thickness. In Central Persia it overlies Upper Cretaceous or older rocks unconformably and consists of limestones and marls with interbedded tuffs and andesitic

PERSIA

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lava flows. In the Zagros mountains Eocene is present as massive nummulitic limestones or as globigerina marls, up to 2,500 ft. in thickness. Oligocene is probably represented by tuffs and lavas in North and Central Persia, in Zagros by limestones with Lepidocyclina or Nummulites intermedius-Fichteli, conformably overlying the Eocene. Miocene unconformably overlies older rocks in North and Central Persia. It consists of limestones, marls and some gypsum. Tt is not a thick series except in some of the major depressions such as Dasht-i-Kavir. In the Zagros, the Lower Miocene is represented by a massive limestone known as the Asmari limestone and important as the main reservoir rock of the oil-fields. This is overlain by the Lower Fars gypsum group, then a Middle Miocene marine limestone group, the Middle Fars, followed by a thick series of marls, sands and conglomerates (Upper Fars and Bakhtiaris), extending in age up to Upper Pliocene. In Central Persia, Pliocene is present only in isolated basins. A Pontian bone deposit with Hipparion gracile has been found at Maragha in North Persia, also in Bakhtiari country where it is cemented with bitumen. Tectonics.— Little is known of Palaeozoic earth movements. The lack of Ordovician and Silurian suggests Caledonian movement. During the Mesozoic-Tertiary movements, Central Persia acted as a “Zwischengebirge,” while strong folding outwards took place in the Elburz on one side and in the Zagros on the other. The first folding phase is of Middle Cretaceous age and in Central Persia there was a Cretaceous Eocene phase. The greatest movements were in the late Tertiary continuing into the late Pliocene. In the Zagros, great overthrust nappes have been formed in the inner zones. Farther south-west is a belt of anticlinal folding, the intensity of which diminishes in the direction of the unfolded Arabian table-land. Cretaceous and Eocene limestones form the higher mountains, while the foothills are formed exclusively of Miocene and Pliocene sediments. Central Persia was elevated to form a great plateau, but isolated depressions were formed in which sedimentation and later folding took place. Economic Geology.—Lack of modern transport facilities pre-

vents the exploitation of the many ore deposits of Persia. The following metals are known:—Gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc, tin, mercury, nickel, chrome iron, and iron, also antimony and manganese.

Lower Jurassic coal is worked on the flanks of Mt.

Demavend for market in Tehran.

Minor indications of oil are very widespread, but as yet the only proved oil-fields are at Masjid-i-Sulaiman and Haft Kal, near Shushtar. The production of oil for 1927 was 4,831,800 tons.

(See ANGLO-PERsIAN Ort Co., Ltp.) Large deposits of salt, gypsum and sulphur are common, but they are only exploited for local use. Precious stones are won on a small scale, rubies near Meshed, turquoise at Maadan near Nishapur and at Khun, south of Jewezm and north of Shahr-

babek. Iron, ochre and rock salt mines are worked with profit in the Persian gulf. See A. F. Stahl, Persien, Handbuch

der regionalen Geologie, 1911;

H. de Béckh and others, Tectonics of Asia, British Association, 1928.

(See also Perstan Gutr, Geology.)

Physical lowlands of Caspian sea half of what between the

(G. M. L.)

Geography.—The kingdom of Persia, excepting the Khuzistan and the maritime plains bordering the and the Persian gulf, forms the western and larger is known as the great Iranian plateau, raised aloft valleys of the Tigris and the Indus. To the north-

west this plateau is united by the highlands of Armenia with the mountains of Asia Minor, while to the north-east the Paropamisus range and the Hindu Kush link it with the Himalayas and the highlands of Tibet. Between those zones of connection the plateau is bounded, on the north by the desert steppes of South Russia, Khiva and Bokhara, the scarp being formed by the Kuren and Kopet ranges to the east, and the main Caucasus range to the west, of the intervening depression formed by the

Caspian sea. From Mount Ararat south-eastwards the wall of the plateau is formed by the Zagros range and its extensions,

running more or less parallel to the course of the river Tigris and the lie of the Persian gulf until they reach the Indo-Persian

frontier in Baluchistan.

On the east the plateau is bounded by

the ranges overhanging the valley of the Indus. The total area thus enclosed is somewhat over 1,000,000 square miles of which

PHYSICAL FEATURES]

PERSIA

persia occupies upwards of 600,000. Its average height above a-level is probably about 4,000 feet, varying from 8,000 ft. or even more in certain of the outer features to not more than soo

in the most depressed portions of the centre. This greatly increased elevation towards the rim clearly demonstrates the basinlike character of the plateau.

The lie of the mountain ranges is

for the most part from north-west to south-east. The main system, which extends almost unbroken for nearly 800 miles, from Azerbaijan to Baluchistan, may aptly be called the Central

Range. It has many peaks 9,000 to 10,000 feet in height, and some of its summits rise to an elevation of 11,000 feet, and, near

Kerman, of nearly 13,000 feet (Kuh-i-Jupar). plains west of the Central

Range,

The valleys and

as for instance those of

Mahallat, Joshekan, Isfahan, Sirjan, have an elevation of 5,000 to 6,500 feet; those within the range, as Jasp, Ardal, So, Pariz, are about 1,000 feet higher; and those east of it slope from an elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet down to the depressions of the

central plateau which, east of Qum, are not more than 2,600 feet, and east of Kerman 1,500 to 1,700 feet above sea-level. Some of the ranges west of the Central Range, which form the highlands of Kurdistan, Luristan, Bakhtiari and Fars, and are parallel to it, end near the Persian gulf; others follow the Central Range, and take a direction to the east at some point between

Kerman and the sea on the western frontier of Baluchistan. Some of the western ranges rise to considerable elevations; those form-

ing the Turko-Persian frontier west of the lake of Urmia have

peaks 12,000 feet in height, while the Sahand, east of the Lake and south of Tabriz, has an elevation of 12,000 feet. Farther south, the Takht-i-Bilkis, in the Afshar district, rises to 11,200 feet, and the Elvend (ancient Orontes) near Hamadan, to 11,600. The Shuturun Kuh south of Burujird is over 11,000 feet in height, the Shahan Kuh, Kuh-i-Gerra, Zardeh Kuh and Kub-iKaran, all in the Bakhtiari country west of Isfahan, are 12,800 to 13,000 feet in height. Still farther south, towards Kerman, there are several peaks (Bid-Khan, Lalehzar, Shah-Kuh, Jamal Bariz, etc.) which rise to an elevation of 13,000 feet or more and the Kuh-i-Hazar, south of Kerman, is 14,700 feet in height. Beginning near Ardebil in Azerbaijan, where the cone of Savelan rises to an elevation of 15,792 feet (Russian trigonometrical survey), and ending in Khorasan, the great Elburz range presents on its southern or inwatd face a more or less abrupt scarp rising above immense gravel slopes, and reaches in some of its summits a height of neatly 13,000 feet; and the peak of Demavend, north-west of Tehran, has a height of 18,600 feet. There are several important ranges in Khurasan, and one of them, the Binalud, west of Meshed and north of Nishapur, has several peaks of 11,000 to

12,000 feet in height. In south-eastern Persia the Kuh-i-Basman,

a dormant volcano, 11,000 to 12,000 feet in height, in the Basman district, and the Kuh-i-Taftan, an active triple-peaked volcano in the Sarhad district, 12,681 feet in height, are notable features,

Of the surface drainage of the Iranian plateau as a whole less than half flows outwards. Taking the area occupied by Persia at 628,000 sq. miles the drainage may thus be distributed: (I) into the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, 135,000 sq. miles; (2).into theCaspian, 100,000; (3) into the Seistan depression, 43,000; (4) into the Urmia Lake, 20,000; (5) into the interior of Persia,

330,000. The first district comprises most of the south-western provinces and the whole

of the coast region as far east as

Gwattar; the second relates to the tracts west, south and east of

the southern part of the Caspian sea. The tracts south of-the

Caspian are not more than 20 to 50 miles wide; those on the west

widen out to a depth of 250 miles, meeting the watershed of the Tigris on the one side and that of the Euphrates and Lake Van on the other, and embracing between the two the basin of Lake Urmia. On the east the watershed of the Caspian gradually Increases in breadth, the foot of the scarp extending considerably to the north of the south-eastern angle of that sea, three degrees

fast of which it turns to the south-east, parallel to the axis of the Kopet Dagh.

The third drainage area comprises

Persian

Seistan with part of the Helmund basin and a considerable tract

adjoining it on the west. The fourth is a comparatively small area on the western frontier containing the basin of Lake Urmia,

549

shut off from the rest of the inland drainage, and the fifth area takes in a part of Baluchistan, most of Kerman, a part of Fars, all Yezd, Isfahan, Kashan, Qum, Iraq, Khamseh, Kazvin, Tehran, Samnan, Damghan, desert regions.

Shahrud, Khurasan

and the central

Four rivers belonging exclusively to Persia, in reference to the Caspian watershed, are the Safid Rud or Kizil Uzain on the southwest, the, Herhaz on the south and the Gurgan and Atrek at the south-eastern corner of that inland sea. The Safid Rud rises in Persian Kurdistan in about 35° 50’ north, and 46° 45’ east, a few miles from Senendij. It has a very tortuous course of nearly 500 m. for the distance from its source to the Caspian, 58 m. east of Resht, is only 210 m. in a straight line. The Kizil Uzain takes up some important affluents and is called Safid Rud from the

point where it breaks through the Elburz to the sea, a distance of Jo miles. It drains 25,000 to 30,000 square miles of country. The Herhaz, though not important in length of course, or drainage,

also, like the Safid Rud, breaks through the Elburz range from the inner southern scarp to the north. It rises on the slopes of the Kasil Kuh, a peak 12,000 feet in height within the Elburz, and about 25 miles north of Tehran, flows easterly through the Lar plateau, where it is known as the Lar river, and takes up several affluents; turns to the north-east at the foot of Demavend, leaving that mountain to the left, and flows due north past Amol to the Caspian. Its length is about 120 miles. The Gurgan rises on the Armutlu plateau in Khurasan east of Astarabad, and enters the Caspian in 37° 4’ north, north-west of Astarabad, after a course of about 200 miles. The Atrek rises a few miles from Kuchan and enters the Caspian at the Bay of Hassan Kuli in 37° ai’ north, after a course of about 300 miles,

From the sea

to the Russian frontier-post of Chat the river forms the frontier between Persia and the Russian Transcaspian region. The drainage of the rivers which have no outlet to the sea and form inland lakes and swamps (Kavir) may be estimated at 350,000 square miles, including the drainage of Lake Urmia, which is about 20,000 square miles. Fourteen small rivers flow into the Jake. During heavy rains and when the snows on the hills melt, thousands of streams flow from all directions into the in-

numerable depressions of inner Persia, or help to swell the per-

ennial rivers which have no outlet to the sea. These latter are few in number, and some of them barely suffice for purposes of agricultural irrigation, and in summer dwindle to small rills, “The great desert region of Persia,” writes Le Strange (Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, 1905), “stretches right across the high plateau of Iran going from north-west to south-east, and dividing the fertile provinces of the land into two groups; for the desert is continuous, from the southern base of the Elburz mountains, which to the north overlook the Caspian, to the arid ranges of Makran, which border the Persian Gulf. Thus it measures nearly 800 miles in length, but in breadth varies considerably; for in shape this immense area of drought is somewhat like an hour-glass, with a narrow neck, measuring only some roo miles across, divid-

ing Kerman from Seistan, while both north and south of this the breadth expands and in places reaches to over 200 miles. At the present day the desert, as a whole, is known as the Litt or Dashti-Liit; the saline swamps and the dry salt area being more particularly known as the Dasht-i-Kavir, the term Kavir being also occasionally applied to the desert as a whole.” Climate,—-In winter the prevailing winds are north-easterly, but in the north are interrupted three or four times a month by the eastward passage of depressions from the Mediterranean,

bringing westerly winds and moderate rainfall. In summer a strong dust-laden northerly wind blows almost unceasingly for about four months. This wind is known as the Shamal; in June

it often carries dust far out into the Persian Gulf, but in July the south-west monsoon sets in along the coast, and the northerly winds are mostly limited to the interior. Seistan, in Eastern Persia, is known as “The Land of the Winds,” and is especially noted for the “Wind of 120 days” which sets in at the end of May and blows from a little west of north until the end of September, reaching a velocity of over 70 miles an hour, The mean annual temperature reaches 80° F over the coast of Mekran and is 75° F at Bushire, but in the interior it is consid-

PERSIA

550

erably lower, owing to the greater altitude and the cold winds of winter. The annual variation of temperature is very great in the north, where July is more than 40° F warmer than January, but diminishes rapidly southward to 22° on the south coast. The highlands have very severe winters; thus Tehran, at a height of 4,000 feet, has a January mean of 35° F, while extreme temperatures below o° F have been recorded in Isfahan. The most pleasant season on the highlands is spring, with a moderate temperature and ground still moist from the winter rain and snow. In autumn, though the temperature is moderate, the air is dry and dusty. Summer is everywhere very hot, the mean temperature in July and August exceeding 80° F over almost the whole country. The day temperature is very high, but the nights are cool. Maximum temperatures exceeding 110° F have occurred at elevations of 5,000 feet, and even at Dehbrid (8,000 feet) 93° F has been recorded. On the coast the nights are very warm and oppressive. Annual Rainfall in Persia

Period Lat. N. | Long. E. | Altitude | of observations

Station

ae:

oa

a

Feet

Lenkoran Merv. ; Urmia (Sair)

38 46 37 35 37 28

48 51 61 47 45 8

— 66 686 6,225

50 I I

41°62 6°36 QI°SI

Ashurada Astarabad. Meshed . Tehran Isfahan . Seistan . .| Husseinabad Bushire .

36 36 36 35 32 31 30 28

53 54 59 5I 5I 62 61 50

— 80 —70 3,104 4,002 5,817 2,000 1,600 14

19 7-8 26 25 27 9 3-5 44

17:07 16°28 9°22 9°53 4°49 1:88 2°20 10°39

Resht

.

.|

3717 | 40 35 54 52 16 41 40 0 52 59

55 26 35 25 44 o 23 53

—50

Years | Inches

2

56°45

[FLORA AND Fauna Variations of Monthly Mean Temperature in Persia Station

Lenkoran Meshed Tehran Isfahan Seistan

.

Husseinabad TFAo Bushire Jask

t29° 58’ N., 48° 30’ E.— Height unknown.

the northern slopes of the great mountain range which separates those provinces from the highlands of Persia, the flora is similar to that of Grisebach’s “mediterranean region.” At higher altitudes many forms of a more northern flora appear. As we approach

inner Persia the flora rapidly gives place to “steppe vegetation”

in the plains, while the mediterranean flora predominates in the hills. ‘The steppe vegetation extends in the south to the outer range

of the hills which separate inner Persia from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Beyond this outer range and along the shore of the sea the flora is that of the “Sahara region,” which extends

eastwards to Sind. Generally speaking, everywhere, excepting in the northern low-

lands and in a few favoured spots.in the hilly districts, the vege-

tation is scanty. In inner Persia the hills and plains are bare of trees, and steppe and desert predominate. The date-palm thrives well as far north as Tabbas in latitude 33° 36’ and at an altitude of 2,000 ft. and in the south extensive date-groves, producing excellent fruit, exist at altitudes of 2,000 to 5,000 ft. The olive is Jask 25 44 57 47 13 28 4°51 cultivated at Rudbar south of Resht in Gilan, and a few isoThe rainfall is small everywhere except on the Elburz moun- lated olive-trees have been observed in central and southern tains, which receive a heavy fall in winter owing to depressions Persia. which originate over the Caspian. At Resht, the annual average is Of fruits the variety is great, and nearly all the fruits of Europe 56 inches, but the amount decreases rapidly eastwards to less than are well represented. The common, yet excellent melons, water20 inches over the eastern end of the range. Over the plateau melons, grapes, apricots, cherries, plums, apples, are within the south of the mountains the annual total is about 9 inches in the reach of the poorest. Less common and picked fruits are expensive, north, but decreases “southward and especially south-eastward, particularly so when cost of transport has to be considered; for being only two inches a year at Husseinabad and Seistan. At the instance, a good orange costs 2d. or 3d. in Tehran, while in head of the Persian Gulf the rainfall is somewhat greater, slightly Mazandaran (only roo m. distant), whence the oranges are over ten inches, but the Mekran coast has again a very small brought, it costs 4d. Some fruits are famous and vie in excellence amount, generally about 5 inches. The rainfall is almost entirely with any that European orchards produce; such are the peaches of limited to the months of October to May inclusive and is heaviest Tabriz and Meshed, the sugar melons of Kashan and Isfahan, the from December to March, any one of which may be the wettest apples of Demavend, pears of Natanz, figs of Kermanshah, etc. month. The rainfall is very spasmodic, and more than half the The strawberry was brought to Persia about 1859, and is much annual total may fall in a single day; thus 5-53 inches fell in one cultivated in the gardens of Tehran and neighbourhood; the raspday at Bushire, and falls of more than an inch have been recorded berry was introduced at about the same time, but is not much at Husseinabad and Seistan. In consequence of this variability, appreciated. Currants and gooseberries are now also grown. The disastrous droughts sometimes occur. Thunderstorms are experi- common vegetables also are plentiful and cheap, but only a few, enced on a few days each year. Taking Persia as a whole the such as the broad-bean, egg-plant (Solanum melongena), onion, snowfall may be said to be very variable and uncertain. In the carrot, beetroot, black turnip, are appreciated by the natives. maritime areas a fall of snow is naturally a very rare occurrence. Nearly all the European garden flowers can be seen. In the highlands, on the other hand, country over 4,000 feet in alti- ‘ Fauna.—W. T. Blanford, after a journey taken in 1872, tude is liable in any winter to be under snow for days and not divided Persia into five zoological zones: (x) the Persian plainfrequently weeks together, between December and April. Dur- teau, from the Kopet Dagh southwards nearly to Lat. 28 N., ing such periods of severe weather the passes leading from the including all Khorasan up to the Perso-Afghan border, its western plains to the plateau become closed to wheeled traffic, while dur- limit being indicated by a long line to the north-west from near ing the ensuing thaw they are little less difficult for pack-animals. Shiraz, taking in the whole of northern Persia west of that line During the World War, when British troops were located along to the Elburz and the Russian frontier; (2) the provinces south the Baghdad-Enzeli route and the line of communications had nec- and south-west of the Caspian; (3) a narrow strip of wooded essarily to be kept open, great labour was involved in keeping the country south-west of the.Zagros range, from the Diyala R. track clear of snowdrifts, especially on either side of the Sultan (then in Turkey in Asia, now in Iraq) to Shiraz; (4) the PerBulagh pass between Hamadan and Kazvin. An interesting sian side of the Shatt-el-Arab, and Arabistan (now Khuzistan) account of the migration of a Bakhtiari tribe, from the plains of east of the Tigris; and. (5) the shores of the Persian’ Gulf and Arabistan to their summer quarters in the highlands near Isfahan Baluchistan. under severe snow conditions; is to be found in Grass by C. Merian The fauna of (1) he described as “Palaearctic, with a great

Cooper (1925). Flora.—In the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad

on the Caspian, from the shore to an altitude of about 3,000 ft. on

prevalence of desert forms; or perhaps more correctly, as being of the desert type with Palaearctic species in the more fertile regions.” ,

PERSIA

FLORA AND FAUNA] In the Caspian provinces palaearctic also, “most of the south-eastern Europe.” Some, and he observed “a singular

he found the fauna, on the whole, animals being identical with those of

however, were essentially indigenous

character given to the fauna by the presence of certain eastern forms, unknown in other parts of Persia, such as the tiger; a remarkable deer of the Indo-Malayan group, allied to Cervus axis; and a pit viper (Halys).”

Coupling the oak-forests of Fars with the wooded slopes of the Zagros, he found as regards his third division that however little known was the tract, it appeared to contain, like the second, “a

Palaearctic fauna with a few peculiar species.” As to the 4th division, Persian Mesopotamia, he considered its fauna, as far as he was in a position to judge, to belong to the same Palaearctic region as Syria. The sth and last division, Baluchistan and the shores of the Persian gulf, presented, he considered, among those animals common to it and to the highlands, “for the most part desert types, whilst the characteristic Palaearctic species almost entirely disappear, their place being taken by Indian or Indo-African forms.” Blanford wrote in 1876, but his work is out of date only in matters of detail. Among the mammals, it is to be feared that the lion, fairly plentiful in places, at the time he wrote, is now practically extinct

(1929), no live specimen being in existence in captivity and no authoritative report of its occurrence having been received for some years past.

The Mazamdaran tiger though not so plentiful as of yore is still to be met with. There was at one time a disposition to regard it as a distinct race on the score of smallness of size and paleness of colour, but the character of specimens obtained in recent years by Colonel R. L. Kennion hardly supports that theory. The same oficer’s sporting activities have also demonstrated that the wild sheep of Persia are separable into two if not three races: one found on the southern slopes of the Elburz identical with the Armenian moufflon (Ovis orientalis); a second on the north of the range, of the urial or shapu type; and farther eastward in the Kopet Dagh range another race of the urial type but distinctly bigger and described by Dr. Lydkker as Ovis vignei arkal. The Caspian red deer is now known to science as Cervus elephus maral, the type locality being the Caspian provinces of Persia. Of the axine deer and the fallow deer mentioned by Blanford no specimens have been forthcoming for many years. À roe has been found to occur sparsely in the lower slopes of the Zagros in Southern Kurdistan, and in the neighbourhood of Kermanshah. This deer is distinguished from other known members of the genus Capreolus by the cold-grey coloration of its winter coat, and has accordingly been described as a distinct species (Cervus capreolus coxi), the nearest allied species being the roe-deer of normal dark colour found in the mountains of Talish and Mazandaran (C.C. armenius). Apart from the species referred to above the following occur in a wild state, in suitable localities: ibex, moufflon, wild ass, leopard, lynx, brown bear,’ hyaena, wolf, jackal, hog, badger, fox, hare, porcupine, polecat, weasel, marten. Lastly, Persia boasts an ‘indigenous cat, with a world wide reputation. From it with careful breeding spring the beautiful creatures familiar as “Persian Cats.” In the domain of ornithology, over 400 species and races of birds are known in Persia. Since Blanford wrote his work much has been done both by British and Russian ornithologists. Zarudny, Witherby and Buxton in Persia and Cox and Cheesman in the Persian gulf have given a comprehensive account of

Sa

differences Persia, the resembling game birds

from those living in the arid desert regions of East latter country together with its birds more closely conditions usual in Central Asia north of the Oxus. Of (Tetrogallus), pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), black partridge (Francolinus), chukor (Alectoris graeca), the see-see or sand partridge (Ammoperdix), and Indian grey-partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus) occur in those parts of the country suitable to their habits. In winter large numbers of wildfowl, woodcock and snipe visit the country. Flamingoes and pelican breed on the northern shores of the Persian gulf. The dryness of the Persian climate favours the rearing of poultry which are of good quality, especially the turkey which can be seen in huge droves and can be purchased for comparatively small sums. The fish principally caught along the southern shore of the Caspian are: the sturgeon, “‘sagmahi,” literally “dogfish,” for which the word is also used (Acipenser ruthenus and A. kuso); sheatfish or silure, “simm” or “summ” (Sülurus glanis); salmon, “azad-

mahi” (Salmo salar); trout, “maseh” or “qizil” (Salmo trutta); carp, “kupur” (Cyprinus ballerus and C. carpio); bream, “subulu” (Abramis brama); pike-perch, “mahi-suñd” (Perca lucioperca or Sandra lucioperca). There is also a herring which frequents only the southern part of the Caspian, not passing over the ‘shallow portion of the sea from Baku eastwards: as it was first observed near the mouth of the R.Kur it has been named Clupea kurensis. Our knowledge of the freshwater fish is meagre. Population.—The population of Persia is estimated by recent competent authorities at about 12,000,000, which gives an average of about nineteen per sq.m. Various partial censuses have been taken in the past and, in 1927, a more complete and general census of the country was under way, but in 1928 was still incomplete. (The Financial & Economic Situation in Persia. By A. C. Milspaugh. Published by the Persian Government 1926.) Towns.—With the exception of Tehran, only rough estimates of the population of towns—on which little reliance should be placed, as they cannot be substantiated by actual figures—are available. The principal towns of Persia with their estimated populations are:—Teheran [Tehran] (210,000, census of 1922); Tabriz (200,000); Isfahan (80-100,000); Meshed (6080,000); Hamadan (70,000) ; Kerman, Kermanshah, Shiraz, Yezd (s0-60,000); Kazvin (40-50,000); Barfurush, Kashan, Urmia (35~40,000); Resht, Senna (Sinandaj) (30-35,000); Zinjan (25,000); Burujird, Dizful, Khoi, Qum (20-25,000); Birjand, Bushire, Khunsar, Maragha, Sabzawar, Semnan, Shushter (15~20,000); Astarabad, Ardabil, Bandar Abbas, Bujnurd, Damghan, Kuchan, Lahijan, Minab, Nishapur, Sari, Saveh (10—15,000); Amol, Bam, Darab, Firuzabad, Gulpaigan, Kazerun, Khurramabad, Lar, Lingeh, Mohammerah, Nusratabad (Seistan), Niriz, Pahlavi ed Qain, Saujbulaq, Sultanabad, Turbat-i-Haidari (410,000).

Constitution and Government.—Up to the year 1906 the

government of Persia was an absolute monarchy, resembling in its principal features that of the Ottoman Empire; but with this exception, that the ruler was not the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the community. His powers were consequently qualified by the limitations imposed by the Shara’a or divine law of Islam. In 1905 however the public began to press for reform, more particularly in the administration of justice, and in 1906 went a step further and forced the reigning Shah to grant a Constitution, under which a Majlis or National Consultative Assembly should be established. This parliamentary body, now generally referred to as the Majlis was to be representative of various the birds in those regions and have added largely to Blanford’s classes of the community; princes, clergy, chiefs, nobles, landlist. Persia is essentially Palaearctic in its fauna and flora, but owners, agriculturists, merchants and tradesmen, and racial and ts Aves display a slight infiltration from the Oriental Region religious minorities. The number of elected deputies, who were and perhaps one or two relic species from the Ethiopian Region, to function during the sessions of 2 years, was fixed at 60 for namely Hypercolius ampelinus and Acrocephalus griseldis. Within the capital and 102 for the provinces, to be increased up to 200, itself, Persia shows many marked differences in its Avian popula- as necessary; in 1928 there were 136. Electors must be males not tion. The Elburz mountains appear to have developed slight less than 25 years of age, while the qualifications for membership differences among the birds which inhabit them, and in many cases of parliament were: age between 30 and 70, ability to read and lose living on the damper northern slopes differ from the same write the Persian language and a good reputation in the conbird when living on the dry southern slopes. Again those birds stituency. Persons serving in the army, or navy, or other governliving in South-west Persia, within any species, show marked ment employ, were to be considered ineligible, as well, of course, 4

554

PERSIA

as undischarged bankrupts and persons who had been convicted | of criminal offences. Deputies were to be immune from prosecution, except with the consent of parliament. By a rescript dated Feb. 2, 1907 Mohammed Ali Shah confirmed the previous ordinance of Dec. 1906, and on Oct. 8, 1907, signed the Constitution in its final form and took the oath of kingship prescribed therein, in the presence of the assembled Majlis. As time passed however this monarch, chafing under the unwonted trammels of constitutional government, rashly attempted to suppress the Majlis and overthrow the Constitution, but his effort proving abortive resulted in his enforced abdication and exile to Europe, and the accession of his son, Sultan Ahmed Shah (a child of 12 years of age), in accordance with the provision of the Constitution, perpetuating the Kajar dynasty. During a precarious reign of 16 years this young potentate contrived to alienate the affections of his subjects completely and on Oct. 31, 1925, the Majlis voted by a large majority for his deposition and for the convening of a Constituent Assembly which should reform the constitution and appoint the then prime minister, Riza Khan Pahlavi, head of a provisional government pending the conclusion of its labours. This body elected Riza Khan Pahlavi to the throne on Dec. 13, 1925; he took the oath two days later, and on April 25, 1926, was crowned at Tehran. Ahmed Shah (b. 1898) retired to Europe on his deposition, and died in the American Hospital at Neuilly, on February 27, 1930. Under the Constitution, the Shah’s powers are in general those ordinarily accorded to the ruler of a State under a Cabinet system of government. The prime minister, who is the constitutional executive, actually receives his appointment from the Shah, but is responsible to the Majlis, whose approval and support are of course a sine qua non. He, in turn, selects his ministers and introduces them to the Shah and to the Majlis. With his ministers he constitutes the Cabinet, or Council of Ministers, which possesses general executive powers, issues decrees for the enforcement of laws, and, during the usual parliamentary recesses, exercises a measure of provisional legislative power; but the sole right of imposing, reducing, or abolishing taxes, making appropriations, approving loans, or granting concessions, rests with the Majlis. In 1928 the Council of Ministers was composed of the prime minister and eight ministers holding the following portfolios: War, Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Justice, Posts and Telegraphs, Public Instruction and Public Works.

[ARMED FORCES

administration uniform

became

regulations

local and personal,

applying

to the

and there were yy

whole

country.

To-day

modern and uniform principles of administration are becoming universal. The Constitution provides that, throughout the empire provincial

and

departmental

councils

shall be established, the

members of which shall be elected by the local inhabitants. Lega] provision has accordingly been made and town councils. In 1928, the 26 provinces of Persia (1) Astarabad (13) (2) Azerbaijan (Tabriz) (14) (3) Burujird

(4) Damghan bined

(hitherto comwith

Semnan,

now separated) (5) Fars and Southern ports

(6) Gilan (7) Gulpaigan

for the election of rural

were as follows:— Kermanshah

Khurasan (rs) Khuzistan

(16) Kurdistan (17) Malayir

(18) Mazanderan (19) Nehavend

(20) Qazwin (Kazvin) (21) Qum

(8) Hamadan (9) Iraq (10) Isfahan

(22) Semnan (23) Shah Rud (24) Tehran

(12) Kerman

(26) Zinjan

(x1) Kashan

(25) Yezd

Armed Forces.—The Persian armed forces consisted in 1927 of a regular army of some 40,000 men, a Gendarmerie (Amnieh) of about 7,000 and a police-force of 5,000. The existing regular army is entirely the creation of Reza Shah Pahlavi, whose eleva-

tion to the throne of Persia was effected mainly through the instrumentality of the homogeneous force which he had created out of the motley military formations to which political exigencies and periodic aspirations in the direction of reform on the part of the Persian people had at various times given birth. The more important of these forces were the South Persia Rifles, organised and trained by British officers, the Persian Cossack Division, commanded by Russian officers, the Gendarmerie, which had made a promising start under Swedish officers during the few years preceding the World War, and the decrepit remnants of the Nizam, the old Persian regular army, formed and reformed by successive “missions” of European officers of French, British, Austrian and other nationalities, since the time when Abbas Mirza, the son of Fateh Ali Shah, first decided that drilled and disciplined troops could more effectively oppose Russia than the irregular masses of tribesmen upon which Persia had hitherto relied for her defence. Reza Pahlavi, when he became minister of War in 1921, set himself in the first place to eliminate foreign influence entirely from the army, and in the second place to weld these various forces, with their different organisations, their diverse POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS methods of training, even their different words of command. Persia, for purposes of administration, was, in 1928, divided into into a uniform and truly national Perisan army, obedient to himtwenty-six provinces, which are governed by Governors-General self and imbued with some spirit of patriotism. Under his leaderwho, in many cases, are officers of high rank. The provincial ship the army, officered entirely by Persians, rapidly established governors are directly responsible to the Central Government and a mastery over the country, such as had been unknown for many come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. Prov- years. A degree of security remarkable in comparison with the inces are sub-divided, either wholly or in part, into districts disorder of previous years was achieved and maintained with (buluk) each under a deputy-governor (naib-ul-hukumeh.), and fair consistency; the tribes who for long had been almost a comprising a number or group of villages rather than a definite law unto themselves, were brought to submission, and the payarea. The buluk, however, is usually only a name, the administra- ment of revenue regularly enforced. The country was divided tive unit being the village. Local government in the villages is into six military districts, five of which, the Central, the Northsimple, the principal authority in agricultural affairs being the Western, the Western, the Southern and the Eastern, with headKadkhuda, or head-man. In addition to a Kadkhuda, many of the quarters respectively at Tehran, Tabriz, Kermanshah, Shiraz and larger villages appoint as their representatives a number of elders Meshed, are each garrisoned by a lashkar (a force approximating or grey-beards who take the side of the villagers in the event to a division), and the sixth by a strong independent brigade with of a dispute. In many districts, the distribution of water is in headquarters at Resht. Each of these forces is composed of the special charge of a waterman. When a dispute arises over cavalry, artillery, and infantry with the essential ancillary services, water or land, it is often submitted to the impartial decision of in proportions and strengths varying according to local needs, these elders. When any case requiring a legal judgment arises, the greatest strength and the most mobile troops being mamappeal is made to the local Mulichs, to the deputy-governor, or tained at Tehran whence they are despatched as need arises to reinforce the provincial divisions. A small air force of 10 to even to the governor of the province. 15 machines is located at the capital. The cities and towns are in general governed by municipal comRecruitment for the ranks of the army is by conscription. missions. The last vestiges of the ancient satrapal system of local administration are rapidly disappearing in Persia; but for a long Officers are recruited partly from the ranks and partly from time after its forms had vanished its spirit prevailed and ad- the Military Cadet college at Tehran. A considerable number ministrative services such as the post, telegraphs, the mint and the of officers have in recent years received further training = collection of various taxes were “farmed” out. As a result, Europe. The Shah personally exercises the supreme command

RELIGION]

PERSIA

and ig assisted by a chief-of-staff, who controls the two branches

553

have their bishop located at Tabriz, with scattered communities

i the army staff the general and the administrative. The gen- at Tabriz, Khoi, Salmas, Urmia, and Maragha and in some 30 iamerie (Amnieh) has for its principal duties the policing of villages close to the Turco-Persian frontier. The other half, with

he country outside the towns, and also the patrolling, and (in headquarters and a bishop at Isfahan, have small colonies in re-operation with the army) the protection of roads. It is organ- Tehran, Hamadan, Isfahan (Julfa), Shiraz, Bushire, Resht, and sed in mixed units 1n the proportion, usually, of one of cavalry other towns. The Armenian is an astute man of business and engages freely in trade and commerce, often possessing considerio four of infantry. Navy.—The Persian Government possesses the following ves- able capital, but the bulk of them live on the proceeds of agriculture. The prominent services of Yeprim and other Armenians during the Persian revolution of 1909 did a good deal to earn the good will of the Persian public and relations between the The ex-minesweeper of German type, built in 1917. 200 tons 800 hp. two nationalities improved considerably in consequence. Burns oil fuel. Jvy. An English yacht formerly employed on the Armenians also are represented by a deputy in the Majlis. The Nestorians (g.v.), whose church has been established in Niger. Acquired by the Shaikh of Mohammerah after the war. An old gunboat on the Caspian. Captured by Soviet forces in Persia since the year A.D. 435, possessed, at the time of the out1920, but understood to have been restored to the Persian Govern- break of the World War, a large community numbering from 50,000 to 60,000 souls, occupying the city of Urmia and numerous ment. Several small river steamers. Religion.—At the present day it may be said-that with the towns and villages in that neighbourhood. As a Christian comexception of Persian Kurdistan which like the rest of the Kurdish munity their sympathies were naturally with the Allies, and as element is Sunni, practically the whole of Persia is Shiah. Under long as Russia was one of them they had little to fear; but on this faith the power wielded by the priestly hierarchy has always Russia’s defection in the spring of 1918 they were left in the air been very great, owing no doubt to the fact that the foundations in a position of great danger. In May 1918 a Turkish force of Society were based almost exclusively on religious Jaw. But moving on Tabriz via Urmia was effectively checked for the time there is no sacerdotal caste; any person capable of reading the by the gallant and stubborn opposition of the “Jelus’” (as they Koran and interpreting its Jaws may function as a priest or were called by British troops) but later in the summer, during “mullah,” and as soon as one of them has established a reputation the absence of 2,000 of their best men who had been sent to for just interpretation of the sharta or divine law, and a profound Bijar to bring back a convoy of ammunition supplied by the knowledge of the “traditions” and articles of faith (usually ac- British army in Iraq, the Turks made a determined attack on quired only by many years of study at the Holy Places) he is Urmia, and the Christian inhabitants feeling that resistance accorded the title of “Mujtahid.” This word which means literally was useless poured out of the town and fled towards Bijar after “one who strives” (ż.e., after knowledge) was without any their absent comrades. They suffered very great losses on the doubt intended to denote “a doctor of law,” but as it is in fact way, both from the pursuing enemy and from sickness and privathe religious luminaries who interpret the law, it has become tion. The enemy pursuit was indeed checked at Sain Kala by synonymous with “learned divine” or “chief priest.” Time was the British 14th Hussars, but only some 50,000 reached Bijar when there were only 4 or 5 recognized mujtahids in Persia, but out of 80,000 who were believed to have started on the trek. nowadays every large town boasts of one or more of them, as These were gradually evacuated in batches to a large refugee well as of several mullahs or akhunds. Nevertheless those of the camp prepared for them at Baquba near Baghdad and maintained highest eminence and repute seem to gravitate almost invariably there at British expense until peace had heen declared and they to the Holy Places of Iraq, Karbala, and Najaf, where they could, as far as possible, be repatriated. It will be realised that live in a great odour of sanctity and whence their decisions are this small nation was badly shattered and it is difficult yet to anounced and accepted throughout Shiah Islam. It is to be ascertain precisely to what extent and in what numbers they have noted that neither the Shah nor the government has any voice been able to re-establish themselves. Protestants, Roman Catholics, Jews and Baha/’is, includwhatever in the appointment of these mujtahids or of the lesser lights; on the other hand in every large town where there are ing Europeans and converted Armenians and Nestorians, probably several mosques there is an important religious functionary called number about 7,000. The religious missions administering to their the “Imam Juma’? who does receive his appointment from the welfare are: (x) The Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Government and enjoys certain allowances. His function is to preach in the principal mosque and to read the Friday oration, Church of America, established since 1835. (2) The Church Misor maintain a deputy for the purpose, known as a “khatzb.” The sionary Society established since 1869. (3) The Anglican Mission leader of the congregation’s prayers is called the “Pisknamaz,” established by the Archbishop of Canterbury for work among and the crier who calls to prayers, the “Muazzin,” Priests are the Nestorians. (4) The London Society for promoting Christioften, but not necessarily, appointed guardians of the shrines anity among the Jews. (5) The British and Foreign Bible Society. Roman Catholics, European and natives (mostly Armenians) or tombs of honoured scions of the Prophet’s line; these are known as “mutawalis” and are responsible for the careful ad- number from 4 to 5 thousand and have churches at Tehran, Julfa, ministration of the endowments. The shrines of some of the more and Tabriz, served by members of the French Lazariste Mission. The Jews in Persia number about 40,000 and are to be found famous or favourite saints are so richly endowed by pious testators as to be able to keep up an immense staff of attendant priests, in nearly all the chief cities in the country, but communities with synagogues and priests exist only in the larger cities. servants, and miscellaneous retainers. Baha’ism formerly Babiism (qg.v.) is a creed of recent origin Zoroastrianism.—The few remaining Zoroastrians, commonly known in Persia as “gabrs,” are to be found principally round which only made its appearance in 1844. Though for many years Yezd and Kerman, though small communities of them also inhabit past the followers of the Bab have been immune from persecution Tehran, Kashan, Isfahan, and Shiraz. They are mostly engaged by the Persian Government, they have from time to time been in commerce but have earned the reputation of being expert made the target of violent fanaticism on the part of the Shiah gardeners and individuals are in demand for that purpose through- population. There was a bad outbreak in 1903 in Yezd and several out Persia. Their interests as a minority community are looked other towns in Persia, and a serious outbreak against them at after by their co-religionists in India whose representative either Sultanabad in 1920. Owing to this liability to persecution, the resides in Tehran or pays periodical visits. They have their majority of Bahais still think it prudent to conceal their beliefs, so that it is not possible to make any satisfactory estimate of own deputy in the parliament. The Armenians of Persia, numbering probably 60,000, are their numbers. There is no doubt however that the movement is divided into two main communities, the one in Azerbaijan and gaining steadily in force. In so far as it is possible in these cirthe other at Isfahan, whither they were transplanted by Shah | cumstances to speak of the Baha’is as a community they are Abhas. The larger moiety appertain to the former centre and | friends of progress and reform and ready to co-operate towards els: Persepolis. An old gunboat of 600 tons and 450 hp. built n 1884; in bad condition and of no fighting value. Mozafferi. 4n old Belgian yacht of 379 tons, built in 1899. Pehlevi, An

554

PERSIA

their attainment. Instruction.—Public instruction, properly so-called, is a plant of comparatively recent growth in Persia. Previous to the reign of H.M. Nasr-ud-Din Shah the people of Persia were lamentably uneducated. Each town and village, it is true, has generally some sort of school, but it was often nothing more than a class held by a Mullah in the local mosque, where children were taught the rudiments of the Persian equivalent of “the three R’s” and a parrot knowledge of the Koran. Comparatively few ever mastered the art of writing and anyone who could read and write passably styled himself “mirza.” Such as it was however this measure of education could be had cheaply, the fees amounting to less than two shillings per month for each child. At that period there were no higher schools, the only form of secondary education, and that of a very limited extent, being provided by the Madressehs, or religious colleges, which catered for those aspiring to the professions of religion, law, or medicine. Every town of importance boasted of one or more of these, many of them richly endowed by pious testators, but none of them in any way subject to the control of the Government. Realising how backward his kingdom was in this respect, one of Nasr-udDin’s first acts on ascending to the throne was to found an institution in the capital, styled the ‘Madresseh-i-Shah” or King’s college, to be maintained by the State through a Ministry of Public Instruction. Pupils for this college could be entered at all ages and remained as a rule for 6 or 7 years. Colleges, nominally on the same basis, were opened in due course at Tabriz and Isfahan; excellent in their way but on too small a scale to make any appreciable impression on the general conditions of illiteracy. In the reign of Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah (1898), a further advance was made by the transfer of a number of private establishments to State control and the opening of new schools in Tehran and other towns. From that time onwards education fared better, mainly owing to the activities of foreign missions. All these were supported by voluntary subscriptions and donations and provided instruction for boys and girls alike. Educational institutions are still gravely inadequate but under the progressive régime of Reza Khan Shah Pahlavi the educational system of the country is being improved from year to year and greater facilities for education provided for both sexes. In addition to the Government schools, educational establishments are also maintained by the following foreign missions: the English Church Missionary Society; the American Presbyterian Mission; the Alliance Française; the Alliance Israelite; and the French Roman Catholic Mission; and there are schools run by the Russian and German Governments. The figures of the Ministry of Public Instruction show that for the year 1927 there were in the country 298 Government schools, 272 national schools, 112 private schools, 279 religious schools and 245 foreign schools, providing instructions for about 250,000 individuals of both sexes. The religious schools still subsist on their liberal endowments, but the Government pays the whole of the budget of the Government schools and also makes grants to the public, private and foreign institutions. Apart from general education technical colleges or schools have been founded for the study of medicine, fine arts, pedagogy, engineering, and mechanical science and chemistry, law and political science, agriculture, and military subjects. The agricultural school has an American director, while the law, medical, and political schools are under the supervision of foreign experts of various nationalities. A scheme is understood to have been recently approved under which a number of promising young students will be sent to Europe annually to complete their studies; roo in 1928, 200 in 1929, and so on until a maximum contingent of 600 is reached. An account of the educational position in Persia at the present epoch would be incomplete without reference to the educational work of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in southern Persia. At Masjidi-Sulaiman two elementary schools have been inaugurated, for the sons of employees; at Ahwaz the Company maintains a primary and a secondary school, and at Abadan an elementary school; these latter institutions offer education free to all suitable boys whether sons of employees or not.

[JUDICIAL sysrpy

Judicial System.—There exist at present in Pers ia two mutually contradictory judicial systems, that of the State as expressed in legislation, and in decrees, and that of the Islamic law, as traditionally interpreted and administered in Persia This dualism is an essential part of the fundamental laws of 1906 and

1907, by which the present constitutional system is regulated and its abolition is an indispensable preliminary to any serious improvement in the judicial and legislative system, which is indisputably the least satisfactory branch of governments

activity in Persia, and that in which the least progress has heey

made.

Under the fundamental laws of 1906 and 1907, themselves contradictory and without logical structure, all legislation what. ever passed by the Majlis must conform to Islamic law, and 5 doctors forming a committee of religious law (ulama) are empowered to veto any law or part of any law which in their view contravenes this principle. Though this veto has been seldom

exercised, many laws have been enforced without submission to such a committee, and there is always a possibility that they may be declared unconstitutional by a judicial tribunal, or by the committee itself.

Apart from Islamic law, and from the fundamental laws above

mentioned, the corpus of Persian legislation consists in the main

of the following enactments :—

1. Penal Code.

This is based on French law, but is subject

(under Act 1) to Islamic law, which treats crimes dealt with therein on wholly different lines. This fundamental contradiction inevitably renders the application of the law by the Courts inconsistent and uncertain. The law itself leaves much to be desired. 2. Civil Code is still under preparation. It is understood to be based on Islamic law, with some adaptations from French

and Egyptian legislation. 3. Code of Civil Procedure is based on the Russian law of Igro and is now under revision, but no improvement seems possible so long as the dualism referred to above is maintained and enforced. 4. Code of Criminal Procedure. This is based on the Russian Code of 1910, and is likewise under revision. 5. Commercial Code is an incomplete adaptation of French law, which is considered by experts to be defective, especially as regards limited liability companies. 6. Civil Service Law. Under revision. 7. Registration of Lands and Documents. It is understood that it is intended to revise this law, which is in many respects highly defective.

Jurisdiction over Foreigners.—Until 1920 most foreigners resident in Persia were subject to the jurisdiction of their respective

Consular

authorities

in matters

exclusively

affecting

them. Thus suits between foreigners of the same nation were heard and decided in a Consular Court, subject, in certain cases, to appeal to the Courts of the country concerned. Matrimonial and testamentary cases and similar matters were dealt with in like manner. This system of extraterritoriality, which is frequently, but incorrectly, referred to as “the capitulations” on the analogy of Turkey, originated in a voluntary grant made by Shah Abbas in 1600 to Sir Anthony Sherley, an English knight, as an inducement to British merchants to enter Persia for purposes of trade. ‘These and cognate privileges were, in course of time, cXtended to other foreigners, but were not formally recognised until, as part of the settlement of Russia arising out of the disastrous war of 1827, they were embodied, with certain limitations, in the Treaty of Turkmanchai. Other nations, including Great Britain, were accorded, under later treaties, most favoured nation treatment. In May 1928 extraterritorial jurisdiction over foreigners came to an end, but the Persian Government agreed to introduce certain safeguards in respect of British subjects, which may be briefly summarised as follows:— ; The rules of international law will be followed by the Persian Government in all its relations with foreigners. a In all civil or commercial cases to which one of the parties is a foreigner, only written evidence will be admitted. All judg-

PERSIA

pRODUCTS]

555

ments will be in writing and will contain the considerations of

which in some years when swollen by snow or excessive rainfall,

judgment will be obtainable.

watercourses for eight months of the year. In such conditions agriculture relies for the most part on irrigation, drawn either by

aw and fact on which they are based.

Copies of evidence and

Only the Courts subordinate to the Ministry of Justice will he competent to deal with cases in which one of the parties is

run away to waste in marshes

or lakes, but are ordinarily

dry

(i.) gravitation from those rivers holding a supply from spring

to autumn, or more commonly by (ii.) “ganats,” artificial subteruw when a case brought before a special tribunal has been ranean canals starting from the foot hills and collecting water for long distances, possibly 12~20 miles till they are brought to the established, such a tribunal may take cognizance of the case. surface, and the stream led above-ground to the lands to be irriForeigners can only be tried by non-religious tribunals. Persons will only be sentenced to imprisonment by a police- gated. Cereal and other crops raised by means of such irrigation are court who ask for imprisonment in lieu of fine. Such imprisonment shall not exceed a week in duration. No sentence of corporal watered at regular intervals from March to June, and what are known as “summer crops” from May till September. The return punishment shall be inflicted on foreigners. No foreigner may be arrested or imprisoned without a warrant on irrigated land for wheat and barley sown is rarely more than save flagrante delictu, nor may he be kept imprisoned for more ten-fold, usually much less. Side by side with this irrigation in than 24 hours without being brought before a magistrate. No some districts, and exclusively in some of the higher altitudes entry or search of foreigners’ houses or offices may be undertaken on the central Iranian plateau, between 6,000 and 8,000 feet, dry cultivation, dependent entirely on the rainfall, is practised. Dry without a warrant. Foreigners arrested and imprisoned shall have the right to cultivation is indeed the sole resource of the great alluvial Persian communicate with their nearest consul, who shall be permitted Gulf plain extending from the province of Khuzistan to the southern extremity of Dashti district, and in the Sistan belt in the east. to visit them.

aforeigner. In the event, however, of the proclamation of martial

Facilities for release on bail shall be granted save in cases of serious crime. Trials will be held in public save in very exceptional cases. The accused is free to choose his own counsel, who need not be a Persian. Prisons “fulfilling the necessary hygienic conditions” are to be constructed. A foreigner sentenced to more than a month’s imprisonment may claim transfer to one of these. In affairs of succession, divorce, and status non-Muslim British

subjects in Persia shall have recourse to their own Courts, if they so wish. Muslim British subjects will be subject to Persian religious Courts “‘till the question is definitely settled.” No tax or impost shall be levied on foreigners which is not levied on Persian subjects.

All judgments given by the former tribunals shall stand. Questions relating to security for costs, orders for the payment of costs and expenses, execution of judgments, etc., shall be regulated by separate conventions. British subjects are permitted to acquire, occupy, or possess such property in Persia “as is necessary for their dwelling and for the exercise of their commerce and industry.” British subjects cannot be arrested or suffer restraint in their

individual liberty in order that civil claims of a pecuniary nature against them may be provisionally safe, except where there would seem to be a serious risk that distraint to be made, owing to any act on the part of a debtor, upon that debtor’s possessions which are actually in Persia, would not be effective and could not otherwise be assured. Similar safeguards over other foreign subjects will doubtless be embodied in due course by the Persian Government in treaties with other foreign powers. AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS

Generally speaking agriculture, in extent, yield, diversity and method, has changed little in the past half-century—or, indeed— for centuries, in all probability. There is no disposition, on the part of the sons of landlords and gentry, to go on the land and

apply their education to the development of their properties.

They prefer to remain town-dwellers or absentee landlords, rarely putting back into their properties a proportion of the rents tecelved except it be in the form of repairs to ganats. The method of cultivation of cereals is governed—geographi-

cally for the most part—by the division into irrigated and unirri-

gated lands; the Caspian zone, with a rainfall which may exceed

so inches and produces great humidity, being to some extent an

exception, though even there the rice-fields need irrigation. The vers of Persia capable of being worked for irrigation by gravilation are few; on the northern seaward slopes, the Safid Rud,

On the shores of the northern end of the Gulf the rainfall may

average 12 inches at Bushire; and at Shiraz, 120 miles inland across the mountains, 13 inches, as compared with a bare 3 inches in the year at Isfahan on the central plateau. Wheat and barley are sown after the ground, hard baked by the powerful summer sun, is sufficiently softened by the first rain which may be as early as the first week in November, or as late as the first week in January. In the case of barley reaping will not be later than the 15th to 2oth of April, while wheat is harvested from the end of April to the first days of May, roughly one month earlier than in upper Fars, and 24 months earlier than harvesting in the altitudes above 6,000 ft. A full ploughing season is reckoned by the peasants as 40 days. The all-important factor, in the dry cultivation as distinct from the irrigated crop, is a succession of regular and soaking rainfalls between February 15th and April rst, particularly about March 21st. If such timely rains occur (even if sowing should have been delayed till late December or early January), a yield of 20 times the quantity of seed sown is common, as compared with up to 12-fold in the transmontane districts of Fars. On the other hand, excellent rains during November to January, are often followed by a hold-off of rain in late February and March, the result of which is a meagre harvest hardly returning the seed sown. Harvest records in the Persian Gulf zone may be summarized over cycles of II years as 1 good year, 2 to 3 medium, 4 poor and 2 or 3 extremely bad. In years of penury numbers of peasants migrate, from spring to autumn, to work in the date-gardens of the Shatt-el-Arab. A law for re-assessment of the land-tax due from private properties, on a basis of 34 per cent of the average yield of four years, was passed in 1926; but such re-assessment by 1928 had covered only a small portion of the country. In 1925 the Ministry of Finance estimated the total production of wheat in Persia at the equivalent of some 1,092,000 standard tons (of which Khurasan province 145,000; Azerbaijan province 145,000; Fars 87,500; Kerman 72,500; Kermanshah 72,500; Kurdistan 58,000); and of barley at 568,000 tons, while the figures of the Customs administration, for the year March 1925—26 give the total export from Persia as wheat 2,460, barley 430 standard tons, nearly all to Russia. Export duty 1 kran per 130 Ib. In years of fair harvest the price of wheat in provincial towns may be the equivalent of 5s. 6d. per cwt. and upwards, rarely much less. The usual ploughing implement is of rough hewn wood with an iron shoe for share, drawn by a pair of bullocks or donkeys, furrows being rarely more than 3 to 4 inches deep; the seed is ploughed in, in most cases, on sandy soil not prepared by a preliminary cleaning or manure. Reaping is by sickles, and the grain is trodden out from the straw by bullocks or asses on the thresh-

Harhaz, Gurgan and Atrak; in the S. the Karun, Jarrahi and ing-floors of the Bible. Ridging in the European sense is not Qara Agach, which reach the Gulf. The main Iranian plateau is practised. By 1928, except perhaps for a few machines in the

watered by a number of streams, mostly of inconsiderable length,

Karun valley, in the whole country south of Isfahan only two

556

PERSIA

tractors had been introduced (and these by European farmers). The experience of the latter is that the deeper ridging by ma-

chinery, and ploughing before the rains begin make both for economy in seed, and a stronger, heavier crop. In the Tehran district the Government since 1921 has instituted farms for training students, and given exhibitions of farming machinery, while certain of the great magnates have imported tractors for their estates; but, in general, agricultural machinery is rarely in use. The peasants, particularly in the south, look with no kindly eye on such improvements, and are inclined to thwart experiments or changes, the absence of skilled or reliable mechanics being an additional obstacle to the use of agricultural machines, Rice cultivation flourishes above all in the Caspian provinces, Gilan and Mazandaran, production there being estimated by the Ministry of Finance at the equivalent of some 230,000 standard tons. But, though this was considered eight-ninths of the whole production of Persia, in all parts where there is irrigation from

rivers and springs (że. except in the Persian Gulf zone, Baluchistan and the east), and in the higher altitudes rice is grown mainly for local consumption, in the form of pilau chiefly, it being almost as much a staple food as bread, especially in the Caspian, zone. In the Persian year 1925-26 the export of rice—almost all to Russia—amounted to 61,450 standard tons; while on the Persian

shore of the Gulf 20,380 tons were imported from India. In Gilan sowing takes place in March, transplanting and pricking out in May, and after two or three hoeings harvest in August or September. In South Persia (Fars) early in April the seed is put in a wet cloth or a pit and left for some 36 days to

sprout, then into a bed till the seedlings are well up where they are finally transplanted into large squares and kept regularly flooded till the end of September, when water is cut off; cutting takes place in late October and the stalks are then put under the feet of cattle for the paddy to be separated. The yield in some

Isfahan and Yazd provinces.

[PRODUCTS

In the year 1925-26, 17,728 tons

of which eleven-twelfths to Russia, one-twelfth to British India, were exported. It is too short in the staple, too weak and uneven in quality, and contains too many impurities owing to the ab. sence of ginning machinery, to find a market in western or central

Europe. An American variety, acclimatized in Asiatic Russia has been introduced to Khorassan of recent years, and experiments have been made since 1925 in Fars with American cotton acck. matized in Iraq. It is sown after the danger of frost is considered past, z.¢., from the end of March to early May, flooded by surface

irrigation water about six times, and picked from October to No. vember, according to the climate of the province. Dried and fresh fruits form an important export and source of wealth to the country. In the year March 1925~26 the Cys.

toms gave the total weight as 88,811 tons, of a total approximate

value of £1,762,090. Of this Russia took 26,370 tons of dried raisins, 4,094 tons of dried apricots, 2,752 tons of oranges and limes, 1,853 tons of almonds and other nuts, 3,102 tons of other fresh or dry fruit; while 43,709 tons of dates were exported, from Khuzistan province almost entirely, to the British Empire and

Protectorates, and 2,280 tons of almonds and pistachio nuts. Scientific fruit-growers in Europe think that the parents of many of the cultivated fruits of Europe are to be found in north Azer. baijan and the Caucasus region; but little or no attempt through

the centuries has been made to improve stocks by grafting. The vine grows well in all regions except the Gulf littoral and.

apart from the exports of raisins mentioned above, there is a very large consumption in the country of the fruit in the fresh or dried state. The making of wine (and of arak, a spirit distilled from grapes), forbidden to Muslims, is limited to the requirements of the country, chiefly the Jewish and Armenian communities: it probably has not increased much since 1666 when Tavernier, the French traveller, noted that the wine of Shiraz (the ‘best-known in Persia, almost entirely made nowadays from grapes of the Khullar district) weighed 200,025 mans.

southern districts is given as high as 60-fold, but is generally from Silk.—The mulberry is grown for sericulture chiefly in Gilan r5 to 20. Prices in the south of Persia are about 26s, 8d. per cwt. for the best quality (“champa”) and less than 20s. for and Mazandaran, to a lesser extent in Yazd and Kashan. In the 16th and 17th centuries the finding of a market for the silk trade second grades. Other cereals grown as “summer crops” (saif) for local con- of Persia was a source of preoccupation and profit for the Safavi sumption are: maize (Zea mays), sown at the end of May and har- monarchs, and up to 1860 the total production annually was vested in September: beans (Faba vulgaris): lentils (Ervum valued at £1,000,000, The breeding of silk-worms from 1864lens): millet or sorgo (Sorghum vulgare). Peas (Pisum sativum) 1890 declined to small proportions (about go tons of cocoons) owing to the disease “pebrine”; but, at the end of the roth cenare grown as a winter crop (shitwt). tury, an import to Gilan of selected silk-worm eggs from Brusa in Among agricultural products for commerce are:— Opium.—From 1880 cultivation greatly increased with the Turkey led to a revival of the industry, the output of dried codemand from the Far East, both landowners and peasants find- coons in r91z being nearly 1,700 tons, while in the year 1925-26 ing it more profitable to put part of their corn-land under poppy some 216 tons were exported, chiefly to Italy and Russia, besides (Papaver somniferum, L. var. album D.C.). It has become one about 1,000 tons of raw floss and waste silk. One factory for of the chief methods for financing the payment of imported goods spinning silk exists at Resht. The hand weaving of silk carpets and by merchants, for in the districts of production the opium season other stuffs in Kashan, Yazd and other places accounts for the releases large sums in cash, which, passing through a number of balance production. “Pebrine” is considered to have died out, hands—cultivator pedlars, petty merchants, brokers or land- but another disease “flacherie’’ is endemic. Wool.—In a country where the rearing and maintenance of owners—till the opium reaches the merchant and is paid for by bills on the ports or abroad, enable purchases of all kinds of flocks of sheep is the principal occupation of the nomad tribes in goods to be made and impart activity to trade. The export of the particular and of the peasantry in general it is perhaps remarkable prepared drug weighed 770,516 lb. in 1913-14: 875,166 lb. in 1914-15 and, after falling to 255,697 Ib. in 1921-22, rose again to 660,647 Ib. in 1922-23, 1,077,290 Ib. in 1924-25 and 1,130,057

lb. in 1925—26. (The prepared drug includes gunjideh gum, and other solvents used for adulterating opium to the percentage of morphine desired.) This represented an export invoice value of £698,416 in 1913-14, £1,565,121 In 1925~26. The crude sap coming under government excise control in 1923-24 weighed 1,340,000

lb., but the Persian Government estimated that total production in that year was not less than 1,950,000 Ib. Though a proportion is doubtless smuggled, consumption in the country mainly accounts for this difference, between 5 and ro per cent of the population in the interior being reckoned as addicts to opium smoking. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) is grown, in nearly all provinces of Persia for home consumption (and the total production has been estimated as high as 30,000 tons), but for export preponderantly on the Caspian seaboard, and in the Khorassan,

that the export of raw wool did not exceed 5,420 tons in 1925-26.

But the explanation is to be sought in the requirements of the

carpet-weaving industry, which in addition to home needs in that

year exported 3,840 tons of non-aniline and 1,086 tons of aniline-

dyed carpets and rugs, valued respectively at £2,163,765 and £449,140. In 1925-26, in order of importance, the chief centres

where the exported carpets were woven, were Sultanabad, Hama-

dan, Tabriz, Qum, Shiraz, Kerman, Khorassan, Fars. Further. 653,043 lambskins were exported, nearly all to Russia.

Tobacco.—In, recent years excise taxation and the growing habit of cigarette smoking have been responsible for the reduced acreage under cultivation of that distinct species of tobacco known as Nicotiana Persica (“Tambaku”) for smoking in water-pipe, i.e., kalians ur hookahs. Some 1,028 tons were exported, almost entirely to Egypt, in 1925-26, whereas about 1885 some 4,000 tons Were exported annually, and in Isfahan province alone in 190° the crop was about 3,000 tons, and in 1911 x,500 tons. “Tutun

PERSIA

PRODUCTS]

(Nicotiana rustica) is cultivated in the Urmia and other districts near the Turkish frontier, and was introduced to Gilan

about 1875; several varieties of it are now grown for cigarette

smoking. “Tambaku” for export comes chiefly from Isfahan and Kashan districts; that from the Simakan, Jahrum and other parts

of south and east Fars is favoured for home consumption.

Forests and Timber.—The main forest belt still existing in

Persia lies on the northern slopes of the Elburz range towards the

Caspian, in particular the provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran. Little use has been made of them industrially, except in the case

of boxwood, which from 1865 began to be bought by traders from

Russia and Europe, and from 1886-1909 was exploited to such an extent under a monopoly that the lower. lands have been largely

537/

is making rapid progress; Anatolia is once more becoming a serious competitor, and the looms set up in Greece by the Greek and Armenian weavers expelled from Turkish territory during the War are also beginning to make their influence felt. Another interesting industry is the calico-printing of Isfahan and the neighbourhood—-Manchester calico block-printed in colours. As a rule one block-design is used for the whole piece, and the resulting prints are popular for use as summer curtains, bedcoverlets, and table-cloths. The material is also used locally for shrouds for the dead, for which purpose special designs are used bearing suitable inscriptions from the Koran. During the summer the dry bed of the Zindeh Rud at Isfahan may be seen covered with bright and freshly printed fabrics laid out to dry in. the sun.

The export of this, walnut and

Space forbids more than brief mention of several other minor arts

other woods has exceeded £50,000 in value in some years, though since 1920 of small account. Kurdistan, Luristan and the Bakhtiari are also well wooded in parts. South Persia, except for the

and industries such as the pierced brass-work of Isfahan, used especially for lamps, of beautiful design; the repousse silverwork of Shiraz and Isfahan; the wood-carving of Abadeh and Gulpaigan; the mosaic and tile-work of Shiraz and Kerman; and last but not least, the beautiful decorative painting work carried out on lacquered papier-maché which the pictorial artists of Persia have found a facile medium for the expression. of their art in the form of Qalamdans (reed-pen boxes), mirror backs, bookcovers, Koran-stands, and such like articles; while inseparable from the Qalamdan is the finely engraved seal. Fisheries.—The fisheries of the Persian littoral of the Caspian are a valuable asset and source of revenue to the State. In 1868 they were leased, as a monopoly, to a Russian firm, the concession being renewed for short periods from time to time until 1906 when a long extension was granted to 1925. The upheaval caused by the World War having, however, resulted in failure on the part of the concessionnaire to pay the royalties, the concession was withdrawn by the Persian Government in 1918 and leased to another Russian firm. This lease was short-lived, for the port of Enzeli (Pahlavi), which is the headquarters of the industry, soon afterwards fell into the hands of the Soviet authorities and with it the control of the fisheries. It is hoped however as the result of negotiations which have been in progress (1928) that this rich industry will shortly be restored to the control of the Persian Government. No such concession or regularized fisheries have been in vogue in the case of the Persian shore of the Persian Gulf. Here the ordinary fishing is unrestricted, and a considerable element of the riparian population take part in the famous pearl fisheries of the Gulf, the small port of Lingah being the chief distributing centre for the Persian shore. Roads.—The existing roads in Persia may be placed very roughly into four categories :— (a) Metalled, ze., consisting of stones loosely thrown on the surface which the passage of transport is expected to crush into permanent condition—about 7oo m. (b) Partially metalled, że., with a light surfacing of stone or gravel—about 1,700 m. (c) Unmetalled tracks, but passable for light motor traffic, at most seasons, though sometimes with difficulty—about 3,300 m. (d) Natural caravan tracks. Till the Road-tax law was enacted in 1926, various tolls and municipal taxes were levied on merchandise in transport and sup-

denuded of this valuable wood.

northern portion of the Kuhgilu tribal district, and a few miles of

dwarf oaks in central Fars, is practically de-forested, although ample supplies for the needs of towns and villages in firewood and charcoal still exist.

No replacement

of this cut wood by

afforestation on the part of the landowners or Government is apparently taking place. Since 1926 however a German forest expert has been employed to report on these matters, and super-

vise the forests of Mazandaran. Trees flourishing in Persia are, among others:—Alder (Alnus glutinosa, A. barbata, A. cordifolia), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Elm (Ulmus compestris, U. effusa, U. pedunculata), Wych-elm (U. montana),

Hombeam

(Carpinus betulus), Juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. communis, J. sabina), Maple (Acer campesire, A. pseudo-platanus), Oak (Quercus ballota, Q. castaneaefolia, Q. sessilifiora, Q. pedunculata), Walnut (Juglans nigra), Tamarisk (Tamaris), various kinds of poplar, Jujube (Zizyphus), etc. Manufactures.—The State is nowadays primarily an agricultural rather than an industrial one. If we exclude oil products, bullion and re-exports, 68% of her exports during the year 192627 consisted of agricultural products and only 25% of articles of home manufacture. Owing, no doubt, in a great measure to the fact that their wealth is mainly in the form of property and kind, Persians themselves cannot readily find money for investment in industrial enterprise, while practically all attempts made during the past half-century to finance Persian industries with foreign capital have ended in failure. Manufactures of gas, glass, sugar, matches, and cotton textiles have all been tried but have all succumbed in turn from one cause or another. It is encouraging however to note that some signs of industrial revival are now

apparent. An enterprising Kazvini, who for some time has had a cotton-spinning factory in operation at Tabriz has achieved sufficient success there to enable him (in 1928) to erect works for wool-spinning in his native town; silk is being spun at Resht; a defunct cotton and wool-spinning factory has been restarted in Tehran; while a new spinning and weaving factory, equipped with German machinery, which was erected in Isfahan in 1926 is said to be turning out excellent blankets and rough cloth. It is perhaps questionable however whether it could continue to thrive but for the accord of strenuous support on the part of the

Central Government, in the shape of cash and contracts and the Issue of decrees making’ it incumbent on officials to wear homemade cloth. So much for machine made goods. The hand-made

posedly spent on the roads; but in that year the various imports were replaced by a compounded road-tax leviable at the frontiers

on all exports and imports, and the road administration placed

carpets and rugs of Persia which have been so famous for the last

under an American engineer. In 1926-27, the Persian Govern5 centuries still constitute her most important and valuable indus- ‘ment spent £240,000 on the construction of new roads and £200,ity and in 1925-26 were exported to the value of nearly 24 mil- ooo on the repair and maintenance of existing roads. The number lions sterling. Nevertheless experts are not without misgiving for of motor lorries in operation had increased from 103 in 1925 to the future of the industry, owing partly to the appearance of new 492 in 1926 and 967 in 1927, while motor cars had increased from

and more accessible sources of manufacture but also, unfortu-

nately, to the increasing employment of the aniline dye, which has done so much to harm the time-honoured reputation

529 to 1,330 in the same period. Motor transport is thus tending

to replace pack transport on a few of the principal roads.

The principal constructed roads more or less suitable for heavy

of the Persian carpet. Other countries, it is true, make use of as well as light motor-traffic, are as follows:— aniline dyes, but with them the yarn is dyed faster and the

colours are superior in quality to the crude shades of red and luchsine which the Persian weaver is prone nowadays to use in stich abundance. At the same time Chinese and Italian production

(1) Tehran—Kazvin—Resht—-Pahlavi

(Enzeli)=230 m.

(This

road was constructed by the Russians, but ceded to the Persian

Government by treaty in 1921.) (2) Kazvin~Hamadan—Kirmanshah—Qasr Shirin= 380 m.

PERSIA

558

[TRANSPORT AND Posts

should be built with Russian capital, and (2) that the first railwa

(3) Tehran—Hamadan, via Nubaran= 204 m.

(4) Tabriz-Julfa~Khoi=140 m. The first section of this road runs alongside the Tabriz—Julfa railway and would lose some of its utility should the latter be put into running order. The principal roads of categories (b) and (c), że., lightly metalled, or unmetalled, or partly the one and partly the other, :— but generally passable for light motor traffic, are the following (1) Tehran—Semnan—Damghan-Shah Rud—Nishapur—Meshed =

to be undertaken should be that from the Persian Gulf to the

58 m.

that they had now come to the decision that the most needed line for construction at the moment was one from Khanikin to Te.

(2) Tehran-Firuzkub-Aliabad-Meshed-i-Sar;

Sari-Bandar Jaz—Astarabad.

(3) Meshed-Kuchan-Ashgabad

and

(Trans-Caspian

Aliabadrailway) =

160 m.

(4) Tehran—Qum—Nazar—Dalijan—Isfahan= 287 m. (s) Isfahan—Yezd-i-Khast~Shiraz = 290 m. (6) Isfahan—Nain—Yezd—Kerman =400 m. (7) Isfahan—Sultanabad—Gulpaigan—Hamadan= 267 mi. (8) Kazvin—Zinjan—Mianeh-Tabriz=270 m. (9) Meshed~Turbet-i-Haidari-Birjand—Duzdab (Indian railhead) =600 m. (10) Bushire—Borasjun—Kazerun—Shiraz= 180 m. (11) Bushire-Bandar Dilam—Hindiyan—Khalafabad—-Ahwaz= ssom. (The Khalafabad and Hindiyan rivers are crossed by pontoon bridges erected by the A.P.O. Co.) (12) Hamadan—Malayer—Khurramabad==190 m.

(13) Mohammerah—Ahwaz

(90 m.)—Dizful (190 m.).

(14) Mohammerah—Abadan= 10 m. Railways.—In 1892 the only railway in operation was a metre-gauge line connecting the capital with the shrine of Shah Abdul Azim 5 miles away, used solely for conveying pilgrims to the mosque. Since then there has been a measure of concrete progress. Firstly, a line 85 miles in length has been built from Tabriz to the Perso-Russian frontier, making connection at Julfa with the Russian Caucasus system. From Sofian station on this line a branch 30 miles in length takes off to the shores of Lake Urmia at Sharifkhaneh. These two sections were built by a Russian company, opened to traffic in 1916, and transferred to the Persian Government in 1921. Secondly, a short length of 74 miles of narrow-gauge line has been brought into operation between Resht and Pir-i-Bazar on the Enzeli lagoon, whence goods are taken by water to Pahlavi Port on the Caspian. In addition to the

foregoing, 104 miles of rail were laid by the Government of India during the World War from their railhead at Mirjawa to Duzdab. This is at present a part of the North-western Railway system of India, but its future, at all events as regards the portion in Persian territory, is uncertain. Another stretch of about 35 miles of narrow-gauge line was built by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in 1923, from Dir-i-Kazineh on the Karun to the oilfields at Musjid-i-Sulaiman, but as it is privately owned and is employed only for transport to and from the oil-fields it hardly comes within the category of national railway development. The history of the railway problem in Persia during the past quarter of a century does

not however

begin and

above modest projects.

end with

the execution

of the

A considerable amount of negotiation

and survey work has at any rate taken place with an eye to

more ambitious schemes. Thus, in 1911 a British company, ‘““The Persian Railways Syndicate,” was formed for the purpose of constructing railways in Southern Persia, the first of which was

to be a line from Mohammerah, on the Shatt-el-Arab, to connect with a line to be built under Russian auspices from Khurrumabad to Tehran via Hamadan and Kazvin, with an extension from Kazvin to Resht, which would have given through communication between the Caspian and the Persian Gulf and from Tehran to the north and south. This project was the outcome of negotiations carried on early in 1911 between the British group and the Persian Government during the regency of Nasir-ul-Mulk, the Russian representative being brought into the discussion later, in respect of that portion of the line, between Burujird and Tehran, lying within the Russian sphere of influence. As the result a comprehensive scheme of railway construction was evolved covering the main transport routes throughout Persia, it being agreed (1) that the railways within the Russian sphere

Caspian, with a branch from Kazvin to Tehran, because of its

greater importance in Persian eyes and the greater prospects of remunerative working which it offered.

These arrangements Were

upset by the fall of M. Shuster, the Treasurer General of the Persian Government (see later, History) and then by the Worl War. In 1920, the Persian Government intimated to the Syndicate

hran, connecting with the Iraq line from Khanikin to Baghdad and so providing speedier communication between Tehran and the Mediterranean, especially in the event of the contemplated Baghdad to Haifa railway taking shape. Such a line they con. sidered would also be of great service to Shiah pilgrims travelling

to Kerbela. They asked the Syndicate to undertake the survey of this line on the same terms as in the case of the previous survey. The invitation was accepted by the Syndicate and the survey duly carried out; it is the more disappointing therefore to have to record that the services thus rendered by the British syndicate and their constantly expressed readiness to exercise their options for the execution of the projects contemplated have

borne no fruit, and that even their claims for survey work done remain unsettled (1928). Meanwhile a concession for the construction of the southern line above referred to, but with its terminus on the Khor Musa instead of at Mohammerah as pre.

viously contemplated, has been given to a German-American syndicate. Preparations for construction work are understood to be in train and the prospective terminus has been officially styled

“Bandar Shahpur.” It is clear that the realisation of this project, traversing as it will the mountainous region of Luristan, will be no mean engineering achievement, and its execution must occupy several years, but Persia is much to be congratulated on having an important trunk railway at last in sight, which when completed will materially promote the development of her rich natural resources. Posts.—The past history of postal services in Persia has been one of considerable interest. Down to 1874 there were no regular post-offices in the interior of Persia, nor indeed any at all except those maintained by the Government of India in the Persian ports of the Persian Gulf. Previous to that time, arrangements for the carriage of letters had been “farmed out,” the head farmer being known as the Chaparchi-bashi, and letters and small parcels being conveyed by him and his agents at high and arbitrary rates and without any responsibility. But as one of the results of Nasir-ud-Din Shah’s visit to Europe in 1873, two officials of the Austrian postal service were engaged (1874) and in the course of the 3 years following postage stamps were brought into use (1875) and some modest experimental services inaugurated between the capital and outlying districts. The general organisation gradually improved and in 1877, with the support of the Government of India, Persia was admitted to membership of the International Postal Union. In the meantime in 1864 on the urgent representations of its local agents the Government of India had decided, in the interests of the British communities concerned, to establish a postal service of its own between Bombay and the ports on both shores of the Persian Gulf and in Turkish Arabia; mails being conveyed under contract by the British India Steam Navigation Co., whose vessels plied regularly to the Persian Gulf ports and Basrah. Under these arrangements post-offices of the Indian inland system were successively installed in the British consular agencies Bushire, Lingeh, Bandar Abbas and Jask, British Indian stamps being used for franking the letters. On the entry of Persia into the International Postal Union the existence of these post-offices assumed a somewhat anomalous aspect, and became a fruitful source of friction with the local Persian authorities. At the same time their safe and efficient amenities had been a great boon to the

British and Indian communities in the Persian Gulf and they were naturally loth to be deprived of the time-honoured privilege. However in 1920, as the result of friendly negotiations between

the Indian and the Persian postal authorities, on behalf of thet Governments, the British Indian offices were withdrawn.

PERSIA

TELEGRAPHS]

since the engagement of the two Austrians above mentioned Persian postal services have been administered under the superyision of European experts, and, assisted by the gradual improvement of road-communications

and an increasing public demand

jor facilities, have made substantial progress. Thus, a weekly mail-service is in operation (1928) between Tehran and Pahlavi, and between Tehran and the rail-head of the Iraq system at Khanikin, connecting with the weekly trans-desert service between

Baghdad and Beirut. An air-mail service has also been inaugurated, the German Junkers Company having taken a contract for a subsidised weekly mail service between Tehran and Pahavi, Tehran and Bushire, and Tehran and Kuraitu (on the Iraq

frontier); but this service is still in its infancy. The TehranPahlavi section of the above service links up with a PahlaviBaku section, operated by Russians and Persians, but included, it is understood, in the contract with Junkers. From Baku the

Russian air lines communicate with Moscow.

Telegraphs.—Lying, as she does, across the most direct course fom Europe to India, Persia finds herself exceptionally well equipped in this respect and the history of the country in the sphere of telegraphy is one of no little interest. In addition to a net-work of some thousands of miles of local lines belonging to the Persian Government, worked by Persian telegraphists in the Persian character, for internal traffic, two important trunk lines

traverse the country, owned by the Indo-European Telegraph Company and the Indo-European Telegraph Department of the Government of India, and worked by British personnel in the Roman character. The first length of line to be constructed in Persia was a domestic one, from Tehran, 160 miles in the direction of Tabriz. This was commenced in 1859 and finished in 1862, but in the

year following it was extended to the Russian frontier at Julfa, where junction was effected with the Russian system. In the same year a Convention was concluded between the British and Persian Governments for the construction of a land-line through Persia with the object of linking up the Indian and the European systems, the project being carried out by British engineers at the cost of the British Government. The alignment chosen was from Baghdad, the last station on the Turkish system, to Kermanshah, Hamadan, Tehran, Isfahan, Shiraz and Bushire on the Persian Gulf, from whence there was a cable to India. But experience showed that this line was so liable to interruption that it was unsafe to rely on it for international work, and an alternative route was accordingly provided by an extension of the Turkish land-line from Baghdad to Fao, at the mouth of the Shatt-elArab, and the laying of a short length of cable onwards to Bushire. Communication with India was effected for the first time in January 1865 on completion of this project, but the service still failed to give complete satisfaction owing to the frequent delays which occurred in the passage of messages between India and Europe. The complaints which arose led in 1866 to the formation of committee of the British Parliament which considered various proposals put before it for the improvement of the service, with the result that the firm of Siemens and Company of London and Berlin offered to construct a double line from London to Tehran, provided that they enjoyed the effective support of H.M.’s Government. This being duly accorded the Company was able to obtain the necessary concessions from Germany, Russia and Persia for the passage of the line through their territories, and an English organisation, the “Indo-European Telegraph Company,” was formed to work the section LondonTehran, while the section Tehran-Karachi, via Bushire, was undertaken by the Indo-European Telegraph Department of the

Government of India. Through communication by this route was established on January 31, 1870, and worked satisfactorily. Towards the end of the century the largely increased volume of trafic pointed to the need for a supplementary line between Tebran and Karachi, and accordingly in 1901 a further Convention , Was concluded with Persia which provided for the construction of a 3-wire line from Tehran via Yezd and Kerman to the IndoPersian frontier at Hurmak, there to meet an extension constructed by the Indo-European

Telegraph

Department

from

559

Quetta. This line, which was designated the “Central Persian Line,” was opened for traffic in 1907. By the terms of the current Convention, which continues until January 31, Persian Government are entitled to the use of one of wires for messages between stations in Persia, while maining wires remain available for international traffic. derived from messages originating or terminating in

1945, the the three the 2 reRevenue Persia is

shared between Persia and the British organisations, while for international messages in transit a fixed royalty is paid to the Persian Government. If we except the occasional local depredations of irresponsible tribal riflemen on migration, to whom the insulators form an irresistible attraction, the telegraph lines and operating staff are treated with universal respect and goodwill by the inhabitants, while as a service the personnel have earned a

deservedly high reputation as well as the gratitude of numberless travellers who have enjoyed their hospitality and co-operation when in difficulty. At the present time this modest system of 700 to 800 miles is probably as efficiently run as any line in the world. : Until 1909 the domestic lines of the Persian Government were ordinarily farmed out to individuals under contract, but since that date they have been operated directly by the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs for the Government. There were in 1928 about 150 offices in the country with a total length of nearly 10,000 miles. Persia became a member of the International Telegraph Union as far back as 1860. Wireless.—In the spring of 1925 a high power wireless plant purchased by the Ministry of War from the Soviet, was erected outside Tehran. This developed into “The Pahlavi Radiotelegraph Station” notified by the Persian Telegraph Administration in December 1927 to the International Telegraph Bureau at Berne, as having been installed and opened for international telegraphic correspondence. It is understood to work on the continuous wave system with a wave-length of 4,000 metres.

Telephones—A Persian limited company has held a monopoly

from the Central Government for some 25 years past for the establishment of telephone systems in the towns of Persia, except those of the Gilan province wherein telephones heve been installed by a local firm. Tehran, which boasts of some 1,500 subscribers,

and the other principal towns are now equipped and the service generally is being improved. In addition to these urban services communication has* also been established in some localities between one town and another, but roo miles is about the limit of distance in these cases. The British telegraph lines are of course fitted with telephone

attachments for use between control stations. Currency and Weights and Measures.—The coinage of the country is a silver one, and it fluctuates in value according to the market price of silver. The monetary unit is called a “Kran,” with its decimal variations, of higher and lower value, viz., the “Toman” (= r0 krans) and the “Shahi” (= !,kran). The superscription in Persian is “Yek Hazar dinar” (=1,000 dinars), a conservative employment of the ancient title appearing on the coin when first established in the country. The subsidiary coins to the kran are the 1-shahi and 2-shahi pieces: One shahi=-o5 of a kran (5 cents); two shahis=-1o of a kran (ro cents), there being 20 shahis to one kran. These are represented by a good type of nickel coin struck in Birmingham. Two-kran “Do Hazar dinar” and 5-kran “Panj Hazar dinar” silver coins are also in circulation, the 2-kran piece being more universally in demand. The kran weighs one miscal or 71-04 grains, and is of goo fineness, and taking silver at its present (1928) price of 264d. and allowing for all charges of minting, etc., it would bring the present

day intrinsic value of the kran in sterling to 4-8d. In recent years the currency has been greatly improved, a good deal of it being struck in Russia and in England, while through the good offices of the Imperial Bank of Persia in assisting the Government, the currency has been cleansed by persistent withdrawals from circulation of the short weight, short value anc badly minted coins struck at the Tehran mint.

PERSIA

560

For all practical purposes there are no gold coins in circulation, though a few gold coins are specially minted each year. Note Issue-——Supplementary to the silver coinage, a cumbersome medium of currency owing to its weight, is the note issue of the Imperial Bank of Persia. These circulate throughout all the large cities of the country in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and roo tomans. Weights and Measures are not uniform throughout the country. The Tabriz maund is the unit more universally in use, and is equal to approximately 6 Ib. 9 oz. or 2-970 kilogrammes. For weighing heavy solids the Kharvar (donkey load) is generally commercially used, equivalent to about 650 lb. There are various new weights and measures under an act passed by Parliament on May 31, 1926, based on the decimal system, to be brought into force within three years of its passing, the Government to create the machinery necessary for its enforcement four months previously, by giving notice in every district of the impending change. Finance.—Of recent years the Persian Government has devoted much attention to the reform of the methods of collection of its revenues and to the presentation of annual financial statements on the lines adopted by all European States. Considerable progress has been made in both directions, and even more would have been achieved but for frequent changes in the administration of the Ministry of Finance. Doctor A. C. Millspaugh, a U.S. citizen nominated in 1922 at the request of the Persian Government by the U.S. Government, as administrator general of Persian finances, was the third westerner to hold that office. On the expiry of his contract in 1927 his place was taken by a German citizen, who was simultaneously appointed as treasurer general. The receipts from all sources for the year ending March 21, 1927, were officially estimated as follows:— Millions of krans Direct and indirect taxes Customs . : í

Royalties

EE

Crown domains and road taxes

Post and telegraphs

.

Expenditure for the same period was estimated at 243 million krans, made up as follows:— Millions of krans

Army and police Civil list. . Public works. . Post and telegraphs Education

Interest on public debt Municipal grants . ee eee Parliamentary expenses and salaries .

Too 80 18 18 II

[FINANCE

The Customs Department is efficiently administered by Be.

gians who have been in charge of this department since 1902: but the proportion of Persians appointed to responsible posts js bein ê steadily increased.

The national debt of Persia cannot be precisely stateg as various Claims arising out of the War are unsettled, but it igesti-

mated at between 3 and 4 million pounds, or not much more than 7s. 6d. per head of the population and is being steadily reduced: the Persian Government has at all times scrupulously fulfilled its admitted obligations, and its financial status since the War has been correspondingly satisfactory.

The action of the Government

of the U.S.S.R. in ofħcially cancelling the Persian debt to Russia amounting to 324 million gold roubles, and the’ large sums ex. pended in Persia by the belligerents, including the British Goyernment during the World War, greatly contributed to the sound

financial position in which Persia finds herself to-day.

Banking.—No banking system existed in Persia till 1899 when

Baron Julius de Reuter obtained a concession for a State bank

The concession primarily conveyed to the bank a monopoly of the issue of notes, and mining rights, and contained also other

privileges, such as exemption from taxation, stamp duties, etc., but subject to payment by the Bank of a royalty of 6% on its net profits. In the same year the Imperial Bank of Persia was formed

in London under a British royal charter with an authorised capital of £4,000,000 in £10 shares, of which £1,000,000 was issued at £12 per share and fully paid up. Despite the conditions under

which it has had to conduct its business and its varying fortunes, it has‘continued to progress, and is the repository for the Govern. ment’s funds. It has 24 branches in Persia, with its chief office at Tehran. Other banks established in the country include branches of the New Oriental Banking Corporation at Bushire, Isfahan, Tehran and Tabriz, which were latterly (1890) absorbed by The Imperial Bank of Persia; the Banque de Prêts de Perse, a Russian institution which disappeared with the Russian tsarist régime, and although its assets (and liabilities) were handed over to the Persian Government by the Soviet as a free gift, it has never functioned under its new owners, who restyled it the Bank-i-Iran (Bank of Persia); and has confined itself to the collection of outstanding loans. The Bank-i-Pahlavi formed as a convenience for Persian army officers was established in 1925, but its activities are now confined to minor matters connected with military movements and transport of mails, etc. A National Bank is also in process of formation constituted by an act of the Majlis in May, 1927. It is to be an entirely Persian national institution, and the direction of its affairs is to be controlled by officials selected by ministers of State. A German citizen was appointed in 1928 as director. A Soviet-owned bank, ‘‘Ruspers” is also established in Northern Persian towns, its activities being restricted to financing RussoPersian trade. The Imperial Ottoman Bank has also some agencies in the country. The main function of the Imperial Bank of Persia is to finance the requirements of the Persian Government and the trade of the country, both local and foreign. In this latter sphere extreme caution is necessary, in view of the special circumstances of the country. Insistence upon European standards and principles of

Receipts thus show a surplus over expenditure of 113 million krans, apart from a sum of about £1,000,000 p.a., the proceeds of a special surtax on imported tea and sugar, the proceeds of which are earmarked for railway construction. It will be seen from the foregoing that land taxes and customs banking has done much to improve conditions, yet there is still are the most important sources of revenue, closely followed by a great deal of room for improvement. For example up to quite the royalties on oil paid by the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd. (16% recently there has been no proper safeguard for bills of exchange on net profits), the total thus paid for the year 1926-1927 being and no machinery exists by which an irregular bill of exchange can nearly £1,400,000. be noted or protested, but an improvement in this respect is foreThe re-survey cf taxable areas has been attempted, but in the shadowed by discussions in Parliament of a commercial code, absence of an accurate cadastral survey and of skilled officials, the compilation of which has been entrusted to Continental jurists. little progress has been made; it is moreover open to question Commerce.—Persia was formerly a much more generally selfwhether the results likely to be obtained would justify the heavy supporting country than at present and produced almost all she expenditure involved and the mentally unsettling effect of the needed, leaving a surplus of certain of her products for export. operations upon the peasant population and on landowners. Since the introduction of cheap machine-made articles, many of The collection of land revenue has been systematized and is the home industries of Persia have languished and to-day Persia now effected by agents of the central Government posted through- is dependent largely on external sources for the supply of many out the country, with satisfactory results. of her manufactured necessities, e.g., cotton goods and yarns,

PERSIA

FINANCE]

metal goods, machinery, etc. Among food commodities, largely imported, are tea and sugar. The principal exports of Persia are natural products: mineral oils, raw materials (cotton, silk, wool), fruits, opium, rice, skins and hides, gums and tobacco. Almost the only manufactured product exported by Persia is carpets. The principal centres of active trade are Tabriz, Tehran, Kermanshah, Resht, Shiraz, Kerman, Meshed and Duzdab; the chief ports are Pahlavi (Enzeli), Bushire, Mohammerah, Abadan and Bandar Abbas. The value (in thousands of krans) of Persia’s foreign trade, including oil shipments and bullion and specie, for the fiscal years ending March 20, for which complete customs statistics are available, is as follows :—

EErYear 1911-12 . 1912-13 1913-14

ees

1914-15 .

Imports

570,208 567,576 647,165

ba Exports 420,785 436,333 455,840

464,108

377,135

499,322

1915-16 .

1916-17 .

396,058

494,771

433,895

1918-19 . 1919—20 . 1920-21 .

476,287 629,793 482,352

270,869 367,817 371,199

1922-23.

619,205

1917-18.

1021—22

1923-24

468,066

.

338,714

609,775

.

502,045

681,322

1924-25 . 1925-26 .

1926-27 . (approx.)

Mineral oils . . Carpets (woollen) Opium . . ., Fresh and dried fruits . Raw cotton Rice Wool Be own Hides and skins Gum tragacanth Cotton tissues Tobacco .

895,380

841,243

928,666

806,780

7475156 997,610 853,551

I,II1,820

1,000,163 1,059,390

768,392

1,449,714

768,000

1,104,000

1,890,800

1,771,608 1,940,415

Excluding bullion and specie and oil shipments, the total trade

of Persia amounted to 1,053,408 in 1913-14 (the year immediately preceding the War) and 1,340,969 in 1925-26. It would be erroneous to regard this as necessarily indicating an increase in the volume of Persia’s general trade, when the rise in prices is taken into consideration. Table showing the Balance of Trade for the years 1925~26 and

1926-27 (in thousands of krans) :— 1926-27

ae Pee erchandise

834,373

779,240

Total

881,025

786,800

505,083

441,386

8,719 544,688

8,264 654,350

Exports— Merchandise Bullion and specie A.P.0.C. shipments

Total

;

7,560

I,059,390

1,104,000

1,040,415

1,890,800

Excess of Exporis over Imports (all categories) . af, xs

178,365

317,200

Excess of Imports over Exports (excluding bullion and specie and A.P.O.C.) . 2.

228,890

337,854

Total Trade (all categories)

1922-23

5,

313,544

7

1923-24 „ 1924—25 „

208,827 286,083

» »

showing in general a gradual downward tendency until 1925—26,

When an upward tendency set in. It is probable, however, that etsian exports are under-valued as compared with imports, and

that this adverse balance is largely fictitious. Tables showing the principal Articles of Import and Export:—

4'5

1°8

U.S.A., G.Br.

4'4 2-6

3'5 1-6

G.Br., Rus., Germ G.Br., France

59°3 II 8-7

2'9 5: £°9 2: 1-7 I3 -3 3

G.Br.,Br. Ind., Egypt U.S.A., Turkey, G.Br. Singap., Rus., Jap., China

Rus., Br. Ind. Rus., Br. Ind. Rus. Rus., Br. Ind. Rus., G.Br. G.Br., Irag., Rus. Rus., Afgh. Egypt

country nevertheless

until recently supplied its needs almost entirely from Russia, as the diffRELS OF 42 U.S. GALLONS culties and cost of transport from S. W. Persia of this commodity made it impossible to supply the markets of Central and N. Persia from Abadan. Energetic steps are now being taken by the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., with the benevolent assistance of the Persian Government, to place its products on the market in N. and Central Persia in competiGRAPH SHOWING THE PRODUCTION tion with those of Russia. OF CRUDE PETROLEUM IN PERSIA Next to oil production the Figures for 1927 are preliminary

manufacturing

of carpets

forms

the most important of Persian industries, the export of this commodity constituting about 11% of the total export trade. The value of carpets exported amounted in 1924~25 to 101,881,000 krans, 1925—26 to 117,581,000 krans and 1926-27 to 122,563,000 krans. Despite the apparent increase in the trade during the past three years, there are indications that this special industry of Persia is meeting with increasing competition from the Indian, Chinese, Armenian and Greek productions of a similar nature. The looms set up in Greece in particular, by Greek and Armenian weavers, expelled from Turkey after the Great War, are already making their influence felt. Table showing Percentage of Total Trade (including bullion and specie and oil shipments) of Persia with the principal countries :— Percentages

This adverse merchandise balance

1919-20 to 442,403 krans (thousands).

2*0

G.Br., Br. Ind., Rus. Rus., Belg. Br. Ind. Rus., Br. Ind. Rus. G.Br., Br. Ind., Japan Br. Ind.

I15°7 7'4 4°4 2-8 2-5

Two of the items of export call for special comment. Regarding mineral oils, although Persia possesses enormous oil resources —this product forming from 50-60% of her annual exports—the

Thus if bullion and specie and oil products are excluded there is an adverse balance of trade. amounted in

29°5

Sugar Tea. . . h Cereals and flour . Mineral oils Cotton yarn .

Rice of og oe Carriages, motors and accessories . Machines, tools, iron manufs. . Woollen tissues .

Origin, in order of

importance

Cotton tissues

990,993 1,003,909 1,103,005

1,353,184

46,152

Imports

Exports

771,445 881,025

Bullion and specie

1

Percentage of total

Total

733,983

1925-26

561

1913-14. Great Britain India . Russia Egypt. . United States France

Iraq

Germany Italy . Turkey All other countries

I2 9 60 “a I 2

(Included in Turkey) 3 I 5 7

PERSIA

562

Thus in the year before the World War the trade of Russia reached 60% of the total trade as against 21% for the British Empire. To-day the position is reversed, being British Empire 579% and Russia 18% in 1925-26, and 60% and 18% respectively in 1926-27. Table showing the Principal Lines of Trade, into and out of Persia, in 1925-26 :— Percentage of Direction

Centre Total

W. N.W. N. N.E.

S.E.

S. i S.W. S.W.

S.W.

Kermanshah . Tabriz (and Julfa) Pahlavi (Enzeli) Meshed . i

. . ,

:

Bandar Abbas Bushire Mohammerah

i

i

Duzdab (Indian railhead) . . .

Abadan

Excluding

trade

oilpro ducts

13:2 74 9'7 2'0

IQ 10-7 I4'0 2'8

2°8 9°8 3'4

4'I I4'I 5

4'6

6-7

30

hi

Diagram showing the principal lines of trade into and out of Persia—with amount of imports, exports and total trade. CO)Miuions OF KRANS ASTARA 18,279 83,769

PAHLAVIV

L 119,940,247 EX. 68,282,752

MESHED-I-SAR 1. 10,684,122 EX, 16,557,336

QASR-I-SHIRI

i. 9,980,663 EX 241,110

MESHED f. 18,945,092 EX. 29,393

KERMANSHAH 1. 294,210,149 EX. 61,445,372

AHWAZ 1. 27,895,912 EX. 354,310 MOHAMMERAH ~ 51,134,552 EX. 16,063,106

_

H

EX. 545,565,996 Į, RUE EX. 90,045,434

BANDAR ABBAS I. 48,532,905 ? + EX. 16,018,778

LINGEH l. EX, 8,077,731 3,136,213

[ARCHAEOLOGY

Excluding Abadan (the trade of which consisted almost wholly of oil shipments), the total trade, by way of the Gulf ports Was

186,000 tons, as compared with 221,000 tons through the ports

of the Caspian sea. The Caspian Sea trade was entirely Russian: of the Persian Gulf trade, 70% was British, the bulk of the

remainder being Persian, German, and Japanese. BrstiocraPHy.—I. General: Lady (M. L.) Shiel, Life and Manners

in Persia (1856); C. J. Wills, In the Land of the Lion and the Sun (1883) ; Sir A. H. Layard, Early Adventures in Persia (1884) S.G. W Benjamin, Persia and the Persians (3rd edition 1891) ; Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Persia and tae Persian Question (1892) with account of European literature relating to Persia (a.D. 900-1901); J. de Morgan

Mission scientifique (vols. i-v., 1897-1904) ; C. E. Yate, Khurasay and Sistan (Edinburgh, 1900); H. S. Landor, Across Coveted Lands

(1902); N. Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town (Yezd) (1905): (1906); E. C. Willan

A. V. W. Jackson, Persia, Past and iresent

Across

Persia

Adventures

(1907);

the works

of Hajji Baba

of James

Morier, especially his

of Ispakan, throw much light on Persian

society in the early years of the 19th century; E. G. Brown, The Persian Revolution (1910); Lt. Col. Sykes, The Glory of the Shia World (x910); Ella C. Sykes, Persia and its People (1910); H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East (1913); B. B. Moore, From Moscow to the Persian Gulf (1915) ; Maj. Gen. L. C. Dunsterville, The Adventures of Dunsterforce (1920) ; Sir Percy Sykes, History of Persia (2nd ed. 1921); Hon. J. M. Balfour, Recent Happenings in Persia (1922) ; C. C. Rice, Persian Women and their Ways (1923); Capt. L. S. Fortescue, “W. Elburz and Azerbaijan,” R.GS., Journal, vol, 3 (1924); A. C. Millspaugh, The American Task in Persia (1925): Merian C. Cooper, Grass (1925) ; Brig. Gen. F. J. Moberly, The Campaign in Mesopotamia, vol. 4 (1927); V. Sheean, The New Persia (1927) ; M. Epstein, Statesman’s Year-Book (1928) ; H. T. Montague Bell, Near East Yearbook (1928). II. Economic: E. Lorini, La Perse economica contemporanea e le sug questione monetaria (1900); Y. M. Goblet, La Perse entre les Anglais

et les Russes (Questions Dipl. et Col., XXXVIII., 1914); Chaurad de Sainte-Eustache, La questione d’Oriente ed i suoi determinati'geografici, demograf ed economici, L'Universo, VII. (1926) ; H. Blink, Herstel van Perzie als economisch gebied, Ts. voor Economische G., XVIL (1926);

E. Dubuc, Note sur le commerce

exterieur de Ja Perse, La

Geographie, XLV. (1926) ; Moustafa Khan Fateh, The economic position of Persia (1926); A. C. Millspaugh, The financial and economic situation of Persia (1926); E.R. Lingeman, Report on the Finance and Commerce of Persia, 1925-1927 (Department of Overseas Trade, 5450-~-0-27) ; Tableau General du commerce avec les pays etrangers, 1926 (Statistique commerciale de la Perse, Tehran) ; A. S. Sventitski, “Transport routes in Persia” (Trans. from the Novi Rostok), Journ. Cent. As. Soc., pt. IT. (1928). (P. Z. C.)

ARCHAEOLOGY The fact that the archaeology of the Iranian plateau is scarcely known before an advanced period in the Iron Age is due mainly to insufficient exploration and an absence of excavation. In Elam, geographically a part of Mesopotamia, but politically attached to Persia in modern times as in the 6th century B.c., civilization began as early as in Babylonia, and the two countries were using

The total Tonnage of Trade, in 1925-26, at all the ports of Persia, amounted to 4,241,000 tons, of which 299,000 tons represent imports and 3,942,000 tons exports. This trade was distributed as follows :— Imports

Exports

(tons) 79,000

(tons) 55,000

(tons) 134,000

practically nothing can be stated, but it may be inferred that

10,000 7,000 9,000 8,000

9,000 9,000 7,000 28,000

19,000 16,000 16,000 36,000

took place in Elam, which followed in the wake of Mesopotamia. Perhaps the older portions of the Avesta, which may have been

113,000

108,000

221,000

the conditions prevalent throughout Iran during the early Iron

64,000 44,000 44,000 14,000 10,000 10,000

3,770,000 22,000 8,000 5,000 5,000 24,000

3,834,000 66,000 52,000 19,000 15,000 34,000

Total Persian Gulf

186,000

3,834,000

4,020,000

Total all ports of Persia

299,000

3,042,000

gaat eos:

Caspian Sea Pahlavi. Meshed i Sar Astara Bandar Jaz Other ports

Total Caspian Sea

Persian Abadan Mohammerah Bushire . Bandar Abbas

Lingeh . Other ports ;

Gulf : . . .

Total

related types of painted pottery before 3000 B.c. Some of this Elamite pottery, found at Susa (see SuMERIANS) has counterparts in a district of Turkestan contiguous to the north-east frontier of modern Persia, and in Sistan, on the borders of Persia, Baluchistan and Afghanistan, hence the progress of exploration may be expected to reveal traces of this very ancient culture at many places in the intervening plateau, if not in the Caspian depression. Of life on the plateau in the third and second millennia B.C., dissimilar

physical

features

prevented

such

a development as

composed in Northern Persia early in the first millennium, describe

Age; these reveal an insecurity, resulting from an absence of

large communities, which left the small settled population to the mercy

of nomads

and rival chieftains.

Significant material re-

mains could not be expected from such a society, especially since unbaked brick and small timber would normally be used for building. A pair of fire-altars of the Zoroastrian cult, cut from the rock near Persepolis, perhaps antedate the Achaemenian period,

for their mouldings offer no known parallel; the only other monuments of early type, rock-cut tombs and reliefs in the Zagros mountains which separate the plateau from Mesopotamia, might

ARCHAEOLOGY]

PERSIA

conceivably be due to a local school of the Achaemenian age and

in any case cannot be more than a few centuries older.

On the

routes from Mesopotamia towards the Caspian and Turkestan, already traversed by caravans and occasionally by Assyrian armies, the local chiefs were compelled to construct forts on

patterns supplied from Nineveh, but of neither of these nor of the market-towns along the roads have traces yet been found.

Forti-

fed hill-tops, such as are frequently seen in Persia, must go back in

many cases to remote antiquity: they were used in the Bronze Age by the megalithic people of the Caspian basin, but on the

plateau the one familiar example is the fortress at Pasargadae,

563

the tomb come from eastern Asia Minor or from the north; but it is impossible to deny that the Persian work offers fewer analogies to the scantily known architecture of those regions than to the architecture of western Asia Minor, the sphere of Greek influence. This remark applies also to the so-called fire-temples of Pasargadae and Nakht-i-Rustam (near Persepolis), tall, rectangular buildings of yellow limestone, supplied with a doorway and two tiers of blind windows in black limestone; the interior contains a small chamber, presumably for sepulchral purposes, since neither light nor air could be admitted except through the door, which was carefully constructed so that when closed it

known as the Takht--Suliman or Throne of Solomon, which has

hermetically

been attributed to Cyrus but must have been built later in the Achaemenid dynasty or during the Hellenistic Age, because the

producing the effect of brick and wood, characterises the buildings of Cyrus, so that these tombs may be assigned to Cambyses or other members of the family of Cyrus. Darius commemorated his stormy accession by a great inscription and relief carved, perhaps in 516, upon the cliff at Behistun (Bisitun), near the scene of one of his victories. He is shown, attended by two nobles at his back, planting his foot upon the prostrate body of the Magian, behind whom comes a line of nine other rebels, standing in chains; the last, a Scythian wearing a tall, pointed hat, was carved later than the others, obliterating part of the inscription. The symbol of the god Ahuramazda, which floats in the air above the prisoners, is carved after the manner of the Assyrian Asshur, and many of the other details as well as the plan of the whole relief, are purely Assyrian. But the figures project further from the background, so that the forms require more rounding than was necessary in Mesopotamia, while the region of the eyes and the folds of the drapery are rendered in a more naturalistic style than had ever been seen in these countries. The nearest parallel to the drapery over the legs of Darius and his nobles occurs in a column-base from the temple at Ephesus, and the evident attempt to vary the facial types of the personages may likewise be due to Greek influence. Later in his reign, Darius began the construction of a new capital at Persepolis, lower down the valley of the river which flows past Pasargadae. A low spur of rock, that projects into the valley from the bounding range of hills, was levelled into three terraces and strongly fortified. The buildings which arose upon the platform were composed, like the palaces of Cyrus, of unbaked brick reinforced with stone, but differ from them in many particulars. Thus the two-colour scheme is abandoned; the pillared rooms are square instead of oblong and much larger than those at Pasargadae (the Hall of the Hundred Columns actually measures two hundred and twenty-five feet in each direction); small rooms are interpolated round the main hall, in the palace for private audiences; walls had no dado of carved slabs but were broken by stone windows and by niches of the same size and shape, which served as cupboards or tables; doorways bear the feathercrowned cornice characteristic of Egyptian work, instead of a simple, flat-faced dripstone; the columns have their shafts invariably fluted instead of smooth, their bases and caps have elaborate floral ornaments, and they terminate in a heavy member topped by the fronts of two kneeling bulls, set back to back —a motive that occurs in older bronzes from Armenia, as a pedestal for figures of deities, while complete winged bulls seem to have been used in Assyria for the bases of columns. The palaces had ceilings of cedarwood, carried on thick baulks that rested on the backs of the bulls; the ends of the beams penetrated to the exterior of the building, and on the cornice above these ran a frieze of lions.

regularity of the masonry indicates Greek influence of about the fourth century.

It is questionable whether there survives so much as a description of any work of the short-lived Median empire, which grew up in the Assyrian sphere of influence in North Persia, but the monuments of its Achaemenid successors are very numer-

ous and represent practically every reign (550-331 B.c.). Two buildings at Pasargadae bear the inscriptions of a King Cyrus, almost certainly to be identified with Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian empire, not with the ambitious prince in whose rebellion Xenophon took part. An oblong hall, supported by pillars, forms the main feature of each building, while small rooms or towers projected at the corners and were connected by pillared porches. The walls themselves were of mud brick, although stone was used for the foundations, for the pillars, for the door-ways and for tall blocks at the corner of each room, which are notched at the top to contain the beams of the wooden ceiling. No evidence exists for the presence of an upper storey in any Achaemenian building, indeed the exceptional slimness of the columns would render it impracticable; the roofs must have been flat, being formed no doubt of a thick bed of compressed earth, in accordance With the local conditions. The king must have required far more accommodation for his large retinue of servants and clerks, his. harem and his guards, and these were doubtless housed in buildings entirely composed of mud-brick and therefore easily destroyed through the action of the weather, leaving only the stone portions of these two palaces, intended respectively for

private business and for public audiences. In shape the ruins bear a certain relation to the bit kilani or pilared house of Syria and Asia Minor, sometimes adopted by the Assyrians, but the type may possibly have been indigenous to the wooded hills of Anshan, the original principality of Cyrus. One of his palaces at Pasargadae was lined with a dado of carved slabs, the few scraps of which appear to represent foreigners bringing tribute to the king; both dado and subject are almost invariable features of the Assyrian palace. One side of a doorway is occupied with a relief of a winged genius, whose head bears a crown imitated from that of Egyptian deities; here again the composition and details have a clear similarity to Assyrian work, while the dress is identical with that worn by the last Elamite king on the Assyrian reliefs of the late seventh century, and by figures in the rock-carvings of the Zagros mountains. The inscription cut above the figure, “I, Cyrus, the king, the Achaemenid,” misled former scholars into the belief that the sculpture was a portrait, but the formula recurs in various parts of both

ruins and, like the similar inscriptions in Mesopotamia, refers merely to the author of the buildings. The tomb of Cyrus, also at Pasargadae, was doubtless constructed during his lifetime. In a small court, surrounded by Pillared cloisters, stands a stepped platform, surmounted by a little gabled building that resembles Lycian tombs in western Asia Minor, which in their details display Greek influence. It ls, therefore, not surprising that the base, with horizontal flutings, of one of the columns of the cloister, resembled to a certain extent a type used at Ephesus, in the temple begun with

the help of Croesus but probably completed during the reign of Cyrus. Professor Herzfeld, who minimises the Greek influence in Persia, has recently claimed that the only foreign elements in

sealed the chamber.

The

two-colour

scheme,

re-

Sculpture within the palaces was otherwise confined to the doorjambs, on which the king is seen enthroned, walking or standing with his attendants, or unconcernedly stabbing a rampant monster in the traditional pose of Mesopotamian art. Greek influence was perhaps responsible for a change in the carving of the beard during the reign of Darius; at Behistun the king’s beard is represented frontally on a profile head, following the Assyrian

convention, while at Persepolis both are invariably seen in profile like the rest of the figure. Magnificent double staircases placed

flat against the walls—an

architectural

innovation—are

lined

with a number of figures of the royal guards and also of several

564

PERSIA

foreign subjects bringing tribute (see Dress), in rows preceded by panels of an allegorical scene of a lion killing a bull. There remain at Persepolis, it is said, 1,200 figures, all monotonously applied to these few subjects, and although a space of 150 years intervenes between the earliest and the latest reliefs the difference in style is insignificant. The increase of Greek influence—official approval of which is now guaranteed by the statement that the sculptor Telephanes was employed by Darius and Xerxes (presumably the first two kings of those names)— results in greater grace and delicacy in the reign of Xerxes, to whom most of the buildings probably owe their construction or at least their completion. The main gateway, guarded by pairs of enormous human-headed bulls at either side, bears only the name of Xerxes: it should also be noted that on the winged

monsters of the east side the tips of the wings curl upwards, as in the art of Asia Minor and Greece, whereas the Assyrian colossi, which in other respects they so closely resemble, have straight wings. Some of the buildings carry no inscriptions, perhaps because the death of a king left them incomplete, and it is therefore possible that these fill the gap of 465-358, between Xerxes and Artaxerxes IIl., the only other king whose works can be identifed. His name appears on a palace, with reliefs distinguished merely by their crudity, as well as on a staircase, bearing excellent reliefs, which was added to the side of a palace begun by Darius and continued by Xerxes; in the latter instance the sculptures possibly antedate the inscription by several generations. The palace at Susa, built by Darius and rebuilt by Artaxerxes II. (404-358) after a fire, contains friezes in glazed and coloured bricks of lions, monsters and archers, reaching in the human figures a fairly high standard, but lacking the freshness of the best work at Persepolis, which indeed at the time of Xerxes had no peer in the world, but was soon eclipsed by the over-naturalistic work of Greece and declined rapidly throughout the fourth cen-

tury. Incidentally the Elamites had used glazed bricks at Susa; in other respects Mesopotamian influence in Persian art was derived from Assyrian rather than Babylonian sources, in spite of the fact that the Assyrian empire fell before the Medes, but the Babylonian empire before the Persians themselves. Whether or not the Median empire acted as an intermediary cannot yet be decided, and the states of Elam and Anshan may be suggested as an alternative; the Elamites are known, from an inscription of Assurbanipal, to have followed the Assyrian custom of placing guardian monsters at the gates, but in other relevant points the arts of these kingdoms remain obscure. Further evidence of the decay of Achaemenian sculpture is obtained from the rock-cut tombs of the kings. Of those at Nakht-i-Rustam near Persepolis, one bears the inscription of Darius, while the remaining three are usually connected with the names of his immediate successors, while the three similar tombs in the cliff behind the platform of Persepolis doubtless belong to later members of the dynasty and their sculptures exhibit inferior qualities. In every case the central part of the sculpture, 60 ft. in width, represents the facade of a palace, and above (as though upon the roof) is set a dais, supported by figures of subject races, upon which the king worships the gods, whose presence is indicated by the symbol of Auramazda and the Moon The interlors of the tombs are simple chambers with niches cut in the rock for the reception of bodies; but a skeleton has been found at Susa buried in a bronze tub and, from the Greek accounts of his tomb, the same practice seems to have been followed in the burtal of Cyrus. Apart from the royal remains, nothing is known of the buildings of the age; houses must all have been of mud brick and it is questionable whether any temples existed. The only private sculptures of the age are a couple of reliefs found near the capital of the satrap of northern Asia Minor. The Achaemenid art was essentially dynastic, not national, confined to the king and his courtiers. The same condition extends to the minor arts: the gold and silver ornaments and vessels (such as comprise the British Museum’s “Treasure of the Oxus”), the stone vases,

the engraved gems, are all luxuries suited only to the houses

[ARCHAEOLOGY

of rich nobles. Here again, as in architecture and sculpture Persian art. reveals itself as a modification of Assyrian art, with elements drawn from Egypt and Asia Minor, and a varying meas-

ure of Greek influence in the style. In some statuettes from the Oxus treasure the Greek influence is overwhelming, but these may be later than the destruction of the Achaemenid empire by Alexander, which brought with it the

eclipse of Asiatic art. In Syria and north India, however, the Achaemenian palace was imitated during the Hellenistic age, while in Mesopotamia and Persia it was ignored in the fashion for Hellenism. Apparently under both Macedonian and Parthian rule a Hellenistic style was adopted in Persian buildings, and in the Parthian rock-carvings of Behistun Hellenistic methods are ap-

plied to oriental subjects of royal glorification: no other sculp. tures of the Parthian age have been discovered in Persia, except a couple of satyr-heads by a Greek sculptor, which may have

belonged to one of the numerous Greek settlers. The art of the Parthian period has left more traces in Mesopotamia where lay

the capital of the empire; in Persia itself there is obscurity.

The Sassanids restored Persia to its former predominance in western Asia, with the result that art flourished once more within the borders of their ancestral principality. The traditions of the Parthian

empire were, however,

retained

under the new rulers

and it is possible that among the great mass of “Sassanian” material are included a few objects which in reality should be described as Parthian; this claim has been advanced both for buildings and for some pieces of silver plate. Since the Sassanid

monarchy was modelled on the Achaemenid, the main features of the Persepolitan palace were preserved—the great hall for public levées, the hall for private audiences with small adjacent offices —but these features were united into one and the same building. Moreover the method of construction was radically different from that of the pre-classical period; instead of mud-brick walls, carrying flat mud roofs on wooden ceilings, walls of small-cut stones or burnt bricks bound with mortar, carried barrel-vaults over the offices or corridors, and domes over the halls. The barrel-vault had already been employed on a grand scale in the palace at Hatra,

which dates from the first or second century A.D. The develop-

ment of the dome is still obscure but it seems to have proceeded in the east rather than in the west: the Pantheon in Rome has a hemispherical roof, constructed on the lines of a barrel-vault, over a building itself following the same curve, while the use of the dome over a square chamber was apparently a Sassanian invention. The chronology of “Sassanian” buildings has been much disputed; indeed the two great ruins on Persian soil, the palaces at Firuzabad and Sarvistan, were described by Dieulafoy as Achaemenian, and the theory has not yet been completely abandoned in all quarters, although it is generally modified to a suggestion of Parthian date. On archaeological grounds neither building can reasonably be ascribed to a period earlier than the palace at Hatra, and a date in the third century is more plausible. No sound objection can be reared against the view that Firuzabad was built by the first Sassanid king and that Sarvistan shows a further development of the same plan. In the former, a large vaulted entrance flanked by side chambers, forms a block, which is connected with a triple row of domed rooms and these in turn lead to the small rooms that surround the great court. The blank external walls are relieved by arcades and pilasters, of no structural import, as at Hatra and in Roman Syria, while arched doorways and niches break the line of inner walls, and a cornice with the Egyptian cavetto rises incongruously over the arch

to emphasise the resemblance to Persepolis. At Ctesiphon, in the

palace built during the next reign, the entrance again serves as audience-hall, but at Sarvistan a shallow porch communicates with the great domed hall and this again leads into a court behind, while the smaller rooms to right and left form separate

entities, which communicate with the outside as well as with

the central block. The result has more the character of a residence than has Firuzabad, which might serve in case of need as a fortress. The walls bore no ornaments except perhaps of stucco or

565

PERSIA

ARCHAEOLOGY]

other applied work; legend says that the walls of Ctesiphon were encrusted with precious stones, suggesting that some kind of coloured ornamentation, perhaps friezes, were present. Persian influence may be traced in pictures in the caves of Chinese Turkestan and presumably that influence was directly pictorial. Statues

must have been as rare as under the Achaemenids and in the nor-

mal course of events Muslim prejudice would prevent their survival; indeed a statue near Shapur, the colossus of a standing king, is the sole example. There remain a few statuettes attributable to the Sassanian period but the characteristic sculpture of the epoch was the rock-cut relief, in which as in other forms

bird was adopted both in ‘Iraq and in Chinese Turkestan. Turkish patterns have their exact Sassanian prototypes, and in many respects the decorative work of Persia has remained unchanged.

Sassanian influence reached Europe when naturalism had ceased to satisfy, and the development of the Byzantine school must have been stimulated by contact with its formal ideals, while the Byzantine architects followed the Persians in the use of the dome. (See also BEHISTUN, ECBATANA, PASARGADAE, PERSEPOLIS, Susa.)

of art the relationship to Achaementan work is noticeable; more-

Brsri0cRraAPuy.—F. Sarre, Die Kunst des alten Persien (translated as L’Art de la Perse ancienne) ; F. Sarre and E. Herzfeld, Iranische Felsreliefs; O. M. Dalton, Treasure of the Oxus, znd edn. (for minor arts) ;

king, Ardashir is cut in the cliff of Nakht-i-Rustam, which holds the tombs of Darius and his successors. Here the god

A ANCENE

over the carvings of the Sassanids were sometimes placed next to monuments of the earlier dynasty with the deliberate intention of provoking comparison. For instance, a relief of the first

Auramazda

(on the

right)

hands

the king the

symbol

G. N. Curzon, Persia, vol. ii. (for description of all the monuments; critical matter now insufficient and largely antiquated) : the strict significancea of the word,

of

as Per_sovranty, a large ring tied round with ribbons; a servant holds denotes the country inhabited by the people designated a fly-whisk over the king’s head. Beneath the feet of each horse | 51405, 4.6., the district known in antiquity as Persis (g.v.), the mod-

ern Fars. Custom, however, has extended the name to the ae whole WEN E S oe : Iranian plateau; and it is in this sense that the term Persia is here i ea basi though less adept than later works, yet exemplifies most of the employed. historical times we find the major Ancient Ethnography.—In aJ ! i virtues and defects of Sassanian sculpture; in monumental power the style has had few rivals, but it suffers from laboured symmetry, | Portion of Iran occupied by peoples of Indo-European origin, and their lanZend, Airya) heaviness, and a lack of grace in the minute details, in which, as terming themselves: Aryans RE (Arya; NARTA : with the coins and gems, the mixed classical and oriental art guage Arvan—so in the inscriptions of Darius—-the same name their nearest of the Parthians enjoys a renaissance after the Achaemenian used by the consanguineous tribes of India who were model. The limitations of artists’ knowledge led to distor- relations. The whole country is designated Ariana (Zend, Airyana)

is a human figure, that on the right representing Ahriman, the Evil Spirit, the other the last of the Parthian kings. This relief,

tions of the human body, though it is questionable whether these have a deleterious effect; thus the figure is represented in profile

—‘the land of the Aryans”—the original of the Middle-Persian Eran and the modern Jran; the Greek C Ces geographers Eratosthenes

Strabo were in error when they limited the name to the eastern though the breast and the eye are seen from the front. The style |204 grew more naturalistic with time, the more obvious errors being districts of Iran. Thus the name of Iranians DAET is understood to corrected: this was largely due to Roman influence, which rapidly | comprehend all these people of Aryan nationality. becomes very marked; portions of the reliefs depicting the capture | _ Besides the Iranians, numerous tribes of alien origin were found

of the emperor Valerian, in 260, might even be mistaken for | in Iran. In Baluchistan, even yet, we find side by side with the thither a few classical work, and lend colour to a legend that Roman prisoners |eponymous Iranian inhabitants, who only penetrateddistinct race of philologically

centuries ago, the ethnologically and were employed on the royal monuments. Towards the latter end of the third century, sculpture reached | the Brahui, who are probably connected with the Dravidians of its acme, simultaneously with the coins. Reliefs of the mid- | India. In them we may trace the original population of these dis-

dle of the dynasty are inclined to be traditional and have less | tricts; and to the same original population may be assigned the

merit, but an interesting theory traces in some battle-scenes the tribes here settled in antiquity : the P aricanii and Gedrosii (Gad-

influence of China, a country with which Persia had come into| rosii), and the Myci (Herod. ili. 93, vii. 68; the Make of Darius, close contact through a mutual interest in the silk trade. Re- | the modern Mekram), to whom the name “Aethiopians” is also

latter have parallels in the paintings of Chinese Turkestan and

occasionally geographers Pliny, Nat. ’Aviapakar) uf Caspii, and A

had long since passed out of fashion.

merous smaller tribes that we can refer to no known ethnological

markably pictorial in treatment is the latest group of reliefs, cut by order of Khosru II. (590-629), in which an Indian influence seems to have provoked

the large, landscape scenes, while de-

based classical elements are conspicuous in other panels; the

applied : (Herod. iii. 94, vii.: 70). In MediaA the Greek mention a people of Anariacae (Strabo xi. 508, 514; Hist, vi. 48; A Ptolem. vi. 25; in Polyb. A v. 44. 9,7 i Amardi, i.e., . “Non-Arians.” z To these the ; Tapuri, ; especially the Cadusii or Gelae—situated in Ghilan on :

were probably derived from the Gandharan or Bactrian art of | the Caspian—probably belonged. In the chain of Zagrus we find, this region, instead of from the Mediterranean world, where they in Babylonian and Assyrian times, no trace of Iranians; but InuAlthough contemporary

coins are deplorable, the details of these reliefs are excellently | group, ¢.g., the Gutaeans and Lulubaeans, the Cossaei and in carved; they give in particular much information as to the fine | Elymais or Susiana the Elymaeans (Elamites).

vestments worn by the Sassanians.

That the Iranians must have come from the East to their later

Muslim historians tell of a magnificent tapestry at Ctesiphon, | home, is sufficiently proved by their close relationship to the In-

but such work survives only in small scraps, which bear designs | dians, in conjunction with whom they previously formed a single

of flowers and animals (more or less fantastic), scenes of the king | people, bearing the name Arya. Their residence must have lain at the chase or in battle, etc. These silk tapestries travelled to| chiefly in the great steppe which stretches north of the Black sea the ends of the known world, to both the Merovingian and the | and the Caspian, through South Russia, to Turan (Turkestan)

Chinese courts, and were much imitated abroad. Equally wide was the vogue for Sassanian plate, showing the exploits of king | Bahram Gur (420-438): the old treasuries of Europe contain | other pieces, south and east Russia is full of such work, and }

and the Oxus and Iaxartes. For here we continually discover traces of Iranian nationality. The names and words of the Scythians (Scoloti) in South Russia, which Herodotus has preserved, are for the most part perfectly transparent Iranian formations,

it seems to have been extensively imitated round the Caspian | identified by Zeuss and Müllenhoff; among them are many proper sea, while a Persian shape of jug was adopted in eastern Asia. names in Aria- (Apto-) and aspa (-horse, - agros; Zend, aspe).

After the Muslim conquest, the manufacture of plate and textiles | The predatory tribes of Turan (¢.g., the Massagetae) seem to are distinguished continued without appreciable alteration; moreover Sassanian have belonged to the same stock. These tribes : : “enemies,” robAdar), (Gr. Daha as peasants Iranian the by motives were taken into the arts of nearly every region of the 3

east and long survived the dynasty. Thus the characteristic re- | bers”; by the Persians as Sacae; and by the Greeks generally as cumbent animals, enclosed in the curling tendrils of plants, were Scythians. used in the Caliphs’ palace at Samarra, the Sassanian type of | From the region of the steppes the Aryans must have penetrated

506

PERSIA

into the cultivable land of Eastern Iran: thence one part spread over the district of the Indus, then on again to the Ganges; another moved westward to Zagrus and the borders of the Semitic world. The date of this migration cannot yet be determined with certainty. We know only that the Aryans of India already occupied the Punjab in the Vedic era, c. 1600 B.c. On the other hand, Aryan

names appear at first in contemporary documents from the 16th century downwards in Mesopotamia and Syria. In the kingdom of Mitanni (in northern Mesopotamia) the Aryan origin of the dynasty is proved by the names of the kings (Artatama, Shutarna, Artasumara, Dushratta); in a treaty the Indian gods Mithra and Varuna, Indra and the Nasatyas are invoked by the side of the Mitarnian gods, and in the archives of Boghazkeui a book on Norse races written by a Mitarnian, named Kikkuli, has been found, in which Indian numerals and other Indian words are used. Among the dynasts of Syria and Palestine whose correspondence to their sovereign, the Pharaoh of Egypt, is preserved in the archives of Tel-el-Amarna (about 1400 B.c.), many bear Iranian names, ¢.g., Artamanya, Arzawiya, Shuwardata, and their portraits are represented in Egyptian reliefs (e.g., in the tomb of Haremhab, now in Leyden), and whose features are of an European

character, totally different from those of the Semites and of the Hittites. Later still, in the Assyrian inscriptions we occasionally meet with Iranian names borne by North-Syrian princes—e.g., Kundaspi and Kustaspi (=Hystaspis). It appears, then, that towards the middle of the second millennium before Christ, in the time of the Hyksos empire, Indian and Iranian tribes made a great forward movement to the West, at first probably in the rôle of mercenaries. In the Egyptian and Hittite texts they form a ruling military class under the Aryan name “Marianni” i.e., warriors. Some of their leaders founded principalities of their own in Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine, much as did the Germans under the Roman empire, the Normans, Turks, etc. With this we may probably connect the well known fact that it was about this very period (1700 B.c. approximately) that the horse made its appearance in Babylonia, Egypt and Greece, where for centuries subsequently its use was confined to war and the warchariot. Before this it was as foreign to the Babylonians, even in the time of Khammurabi, as to the Egyptians under the XIIth Dynasty. On the other hand, it had been familiar to the Aryans from time immemorial: indeed they have always been peculiarly a people of riders. Thus it is quite conceivable that they brought it with them into Western Asia: and the quarter from which it came is sufficiently indicated by the fact that the Babylonians write the word “horse” with a group of signs denoting “ass of the East.” These Aryan warriors and dynasts in the West were extirpated in the many wars with the Egyptians, Hittites and Arryrians, or absorbed by the native population. At the same time, the great highland of Iran was occupied by the Iranians. They are divided into numerous tribes: these, again, being subdivided into minor tribes and clans. The principal, according to the inscriptions of Daritus—which closely agree with Herodotus—are the following, several of them being also enumerated in the Avesta:—

1. The Medes (Mada) in the north-west (see Menta). 2. The Persians (Parsa) in the south (see Persts). To these belong the Carmanians and the Utians (Yutiya), who are mende ree by Darius as inhabiting a district in Persis (Beh. IT. 40). 3. The Hyrcanians (Varkdna in Darius, Zend Vehrkana) on the eastern corner of the Caspian, in the fertile district of Astarabad. 4. The Parthians (Parthyaei; Pers. Parthava) in Khurasan (see PARTHIA).

[ANCIENT ETHNOGRAPHY

mand and its tributaries round Kandahar. They are mentioned jp the lists of Darius and by the Greeks after Alexander. In Herod-

otus their place is taken by the Pactyans, whose name survives to the present day in the word Pushtu, with which the Afghans denote their language (Herod. iii. 102, iv. 44, vii. 67, 85). Prob.

ably it was the old tribal name, Arachosia being the local designation. The Thamanaeans, who appear in Herodotus (iii. 93, 117) must be classed with them. 8. The Bactrians (Pers. Bakhiri), on the northern declivity of

the Hindu Kush, as far as the Oxus. Their capital was Bactra, the

modern Balkh (see BACTRIA). 9. The Sogdians (Pers. Sugudu), in the mountainous district between the Oxus and Iaxartes.

ro. The Chorasmians (Khwarizmians, Pers. Uvarazmiya) in the great oasis of Khiva, which still bears the name Khwarizm.

They stretched far into the midst of the nomadic tribes. 1r. The Margians (Pers. Margu), on the river Margus (Murghab); chiefly inhabiting the oasis of Merv, which has preserved their name. Darius mentions the district of Margu but, like Herodotus, omits them from his list of peoples; so that ethno-

graphically they are perhaps to be assigned to the Arians. 12. The Sagartians (Pers. Asagarta); according to Herodotus (vii. 85), a nomadic tribe of horsemen; speaking, as he expressly

declares, the Persian language. Hence he describes them (i. 125)

as a subordinate nomad clan of the Persians. They, with the Drangians, Utians and Myci, formed a single satrapy (Herod. iii,

93). Ptolemy (vi. 2, 6) speaks of Sagartians in the Eastern Zagros in Media. 13. We have already touched on the nomadic peoples (Daha, Dahans) of Iranian nationality, who occupied the steppes of Turkestan as far as the Sarmatians and Scythians of South Russia (about 700 B.c.). That these were conscious of their Aryan origin is proved by the names Ariantas and Ariapeithes borne by Scythian (Scolot) kings (Herod. iv. 76, 87). Still they were never

counted as a portion of Iran or the Iranians.

To the settled

peasantry, these nomads of the steppe were always “the enemy”

(dana, daha, Adar, Dahae). Side by side with this name we find

“Tian”

and “Turanian”;

a designation applied both by the

later Persians and by modern writers to this region. The origin of the word is obscure, derived perhaps from an obsolete tribal name. It has no connection whatever with the much later “Turks,” who penetrated thither in the 6th century after Christ. Though found neither in the inscriptions of Darius nor in the Greek authors, the name Turan must nevertheless be of great antiquity; for not merely is it repeatedly found in the Avesta, under

the form Tura, but it occurs already in a hymn, which, without doubt, originates from Zoroaster himself, and in which “the Turanian Fryana” and his descendants are commemorated as faithful adherents of the prophet (Yasna, 46, 62). The dividing line between Iranian and Indian is drawn by the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of the Indus district. The valley of the Kabul (Cophen) is already occupied by Indian tribes, especially the Gandarians; and the Satagydae (Pers. Thatagu) there resident were presumably also of Indian stock. The non-Aryan population of Iran itself has been discussed above. Of its other neighbours, we must here mention the Sacae, a warlike equestrian people in the mountains of the Pamir plateau and northward, who are probably also of Aryan origin. Herodotus relates that the Persians distinguished “all the Scythians’—

i.e., all the northern nomads—as Sacae; and this statement is confirmed by the inscriptions of Darius. The Babylonians employ the name Gimiri (ż.e., Cimmerians) in the same sense. i Beginnings of History-—-A connected chain of historical evi5. The Arians (’Apetor, Pers. Haraiva), in the vicinity of the dence begins with the time when under Shalmaneser (Salmanasriver Arius (Heri-rud), which derived its name from them. This sar IT.), the Assyrians in 836 3.c. began for the first time to penename, which survives in the modern Herat, has of course no con- trate farther into the mountains of the east; and there, in addition nection with that of the Aryans. to several non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes. 6. The Drangians (Zaranka in Darius, Sarangians in Herod. ii. These wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyri93, 117, vil. 67), situated south of the Arians, in the north-west an power in these regions attained its zenith under Sargon (¢.2-); of Afghanistan (Arachosia) by the western affluents of Lake who (715 B.C.) led into exile the Median chief Dayuku (see DET Hamun, and extending to the present Seistan. oces), a vassal of the Mini (Mannaeans), with all his family, and 7. Arachotians (Pers. Harauvaii), in the district of the Hel- subjected the princes of Media as far as the mountain of Bikni

PERSIA

ACHAEMENIDS]

(Elburz) and the border of the great desert. At that time 28 Median “town-lords” paid tribute to Nineveh; two years later, 13 B.C.) no fewer than 46. Sargon’s successors down to Assurbani-pal (668-626 B.C.) maintained and even augmented their

suzerainty over Media.

Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal,

on which the extant Assyrian annals are silent, can an independ-

ent Median empire have arisen. For the history of this empire see Mena.

In 612 3.c. Nineveh

and the other capitals of the Assyrian empire were conquered and destroyed by Cyaxares of Media and Nebopolassar of Babylon, and the provinces divided between the victors. The Median empire extended far over Iran; the kings of Persia also became their vassals, In the west Armenia and Cappadocia were subdued by Cyaxares; in a war with the Lydian empire the decisive battle was

broken off by the celebrated eclipse of the sun on May 28, 585 B.C., foretold by Thales

(Herod. i. 74). After this a peace was

arranged by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon and Syennesis of Cilicia, recognizing the Halys as the borderline. In this state of equilibrium the great powers of the Near East remained during the first half of the 6th century. The Empire of the Achaemenids.—The balance, however, was disturbed when the Persian Cyrus, king of Anshan in Elam (Susiana), revolted against his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, and three years later defeated him at Pasargadae (g.v.)1. Shortly afterwards Astyages was taken prisoner, Ecbatana reduced, and the Median empire replaced by the Persian. The Persian tribes were welded by Cyrus into a single nation, and now became the foremost people in the world (see Persis and Cyrus). At first Nabonidus of Babylon hailed the fall of the Medes with delight and utilized the opportunity by occupying Harran (Carrhae). But before long he recognized the danger threatened from that quarter. Cyrus and his Persians paid little heed to the treaties which the Median king had concluded with the other powers; and the result was a great coalition against him, embracing Nabonidus of Babylon, Amasis of Egypt, Croesus of Lydia, and the Spartans, whose highly efficient army seemed to the Oriental states of great value. In the spring of 546 B.c., Croesus opened the attack. Cyrus flung himself upon him, beat him at Pteria in Cappadocia and pursued him to Lydia. A second victory followed on the banks of the Pactolus; by the autumn of 546 Sardis had already fallen and the Persian power advanced at a bound to the Mediterranean. In the course of the next few years the Greek littoral towns were reduced, as also the Carians and Lycians. The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the Persian suzerainty. In 539 Nabonidus was defeated and Babylon occu-

pied, while, with the Chaldean empire, Syria and Palestine also became Persian (see Jews). The east of Iran was further subdued, and, after Cyrus met his end (528 B.c.) in a war against the eastern Nomads (Dahae, Massagetae), his son Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B.c.). Cyprus and the Greek islands on the coast of Asia Minor also submitted, Samos being taken by Darius. On the other hand, an expedition by Cambyses against the Ethioplan kingdom of Napata and Meroe came to grief in Nubia. The

usurpation of Smerdis (522—521 B.C.) and his death at the hands of Darius was the signal for numerous insurrections in Babylon,

Susiana, Persis, Media, Armenia and many of the Eastern provinces. But, within two years (521—519), they were all crushed by

Darius and his generals: The causes of this astonishing success, which, in the brief space of a single generation, raised a previously obscure and secluded tribe to the mastery of the whole Orient, can only be partially discerned from the evidence at our disposal. The decisive factor was of course their military superiority. The chief weapon of the Persians, as of all Iranians, was the bow, which accordingly the

king himself holds in his portraits, e.g., on the Behistun rock and the coins (darics). In addition to the bow, the Persians carried

short lances and short daggers. But it was not by these weapons, nor by hand-to-hand fighting, that the Persian victories were won.

They overwhelmed their enemy under a hail of arrows, and never allowed him to come to close quarters. While the infantry kneeled to shoot, the cavalry swarmed round the hostile squadrons, threw

‘See further, BABYLONIA AND AssyRIA: History.

-

567

their lines into confusion, and completed their discomfiture by a vigorous pursuit. In a charge the infantry also might employ lance and dagger; but the essential point was that the archers should be mobile and their use of the bow unhampered. Consequently, only a few distinguished warriors wore shirts of mail. For purposes of defence the rank and file merely carried a light hide-covered shield, which the infantry, in shooting, planted before them as a sort of barrier against the enemy’s missiles. Thus the Persian army was lost, if heavy-armed hoplites succeeded in gaining their lines. In spite of all their bravery they succumbed to the Greek phalanx, when once the generalship of a Miltiades or a Pausanias had brought matters to a hand-to-hand conflict; and it was with justice that the Greeks—Aeschylus, for instance—viewed their battles against the Persian as a contest between spear and bow. None the less, till Marathon, the Persians were successful in discomfiting every enemy before he could close, whether that enemy consisted of similarly accoutred bow-

men (as the Medes), of cavalry armed with the lance (as the Lydians), or of heavily armoured warriors (as the Babylonians, Egyptians and Greeks). To all this should be added the superiority of their leaders; Cyrus especially must have been an exceedingly able general. Obviously, also, he must have understood the art of organizing his people and arousing the feeling of nationality and the courage of selfsacrifice. In his time the Persians were a strong manly peasantry, domiciled in a healthy climate and habituated to all hardships—a point repeatedly emphasized, in the tales preserved by Herodotus, as the cause of their successes (e.g., Herod. ix. 122). Herodotus, however, also records (i. 135) that the Persians were “of all mankind the readiest to adopt foreign customs, good or bad,” a sentence which is equally applicable to the Romans, and which in the case of both nations goes far to explain, not merely their successes, but also the character of their empires. Organization of Darius.—The fundamental features of the imperial organization must have been due to Cyrus himself. Darius followed in his steps and completed the vast structure. His

role, indeed, was peculiarly that of supplementing and perfecting the work of his great predecessor. The organization of the empire is planned throughout on broad, free lines; there is nothing mean and timorous in it. The great god Ahuramazda, whom king and people alike acknowledge, has given them dominion “over this earth afar, over many peoples and tongues”; and the consciousness is strong in them that they are masters of the world. Thus their sovereign styles himself “the king of kings” and “the king of the lands”—that is to say, of the whole civilized world. For the provinces remaining unsubdued on the extreme frontiers to the west, the north and the east are in their view almost negligible quantities. And far removed as the Persians are from disavowing their proud sense of nationality (“a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan stock” says Darius of himself in the inscription on his tomb)—yet equally vivid is the feeling that they rule the whole civilized world, that their task is to reduce it to unity, and that by the will of Ahuramazda they are pledged to govern it aright. .. This is most clearly seen in the treatment of the subject races. In contrast with’ the Assyrians and the Romans the Persians invariably conducted their wars with great humanity. The vanquished kings were honourably dealt with, the enemy’s towns were spared, except when grave offences and insurrections, as at Miletus and Athens, renderéd punishment imperative; and their inhabitants were treated with mildness. Like Cyrus, all his successors welcomed members of the conquéred nationalities to their service, employed them as. administrators or generals and made them grants of land: and this not only in the case of Medes, but also of Armenians, Lydians, Jews and Greeks. The whole population of the empire was. alike bound to military service. The subject-contingents stood side by side with the native Persian troops; and the garrisons—in Egypt, for instance—were composed of the most varied nationalities. ei Among the subject races the Medes particularly stood high in favour. Darius in his inscriptions always names them immediately after the Persians. They were the predecessors of the Per-

508

PERSIA

sians in the empire and the more civilized people. Their institutions, court ceremonial and dress were all adopted by the Achaemenids. Thus the tribal distinctions began to recede, and the

ground was prepared for that amalgamation of the Iranians into a single, uniform nation, which under the Sassanids was completely perfected—at least for the west of Iran. The lion’s share, indeed, falls to the dominant race itself. The inhabitants of Persis proper—from which the eastern tribes of Carmanians, Utians, etc., were excluded and formed into a separate satrapy—pay no taxes. Instead, they bring the best of their possessions (¢.g., a particularly fine fruit) as a gift to their king on festival days; peasants meeting him on his excursions do the same (Plut. Artax. 4. 5; Dinon ap. Aelian. var. hist. i. 31; Xen. Cyr. viii. 5, 21, 7, 1). In recompense for this, he distributes on his return rich presents to every Persian man and woman—the women of Pasargadae, who are members of Cyrus’s tribe, each receiving a piece of gold (Nic. Dam. fr. 66. Plut. Alex. 69). In relation to his Persians, he is always the people’s king. At his accession he is consecrated in the temple of a warrior-goddess (Anaitis?) at Pasargadae, and partakes of the simple meal of the old peasant days —a mess of figs, terebinths and sour milk (Plut. Artax. 3). The Persians swear allegiance to him and pray to Ahuramazda for his life and the welfare of the people, while he vows to protect them against every attack, and to judge and govern them as did his fathers before him (Herod. i. 132; Xen. Cyr. xviii. 5, 25, 27). For helpers he has at his side the “law-bearers” (databara Dan. iii. 2, and in Babyl. documents; cf. Herod. iii. 31, v. 25, vil. 194; Esther i. 13, etc.). These—the Persian judges—are nominated by the king for life, and generally bequeath their office to their sons. The royal decision is based on consultation with the great ones of his people; and such is the case with his officials and governors everywhere (cf. the Book of Ezra). Every Persian able to bear arms is bound to serve the king— the great landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot. The noble and well-to-do, who need not till their fields in person, are pledged to appear at court as frequently as possible. Their children are brought up in company with the princes “at the gates of the king,” instructed in the handling of arms, in riding and hunting, and introduced to the service of the state and the knowledge of the law, as well as the commandments of religion. Then such as prove their worth are called to high office and rewarded, generally with grants of land. The highest rank was held by the descendants of the six great families, whose heads stood by Darius at the killing of the Magian. The Greeks class them and the king together, under the name of “the seven Persians.” These enjoyed the right of entering the presence unannounced, and possessed princely estates in the provinces. Besides these, however, numbers of other Persians were despatched to the provinces, settled there, and endowed with lands. There existed, in fact, under the Achaemenids a strong colonizing movement, diffused through the whole empire; traces of this policy occur more especially in Armenia, Cappadocia and Lycia, but also in the rest of Asia Minor, and not rarely in Syria and

Egypt. These colonists formed the nucleus of the provincial military levy, and were a tower of strength to the Persian dominion. They composed, moreover, the Persian council and vice-regal household of the Satraps, exactly as the Persians of the homecountry composed that of the king. Though the world-empire of Persia was thus deeply impressed by a national character, care was nevertheless exercised that the general duties and interests of the subject races should receive due consideration. We find their representatives, side by side

with the Persians, occupying every sort of position in the regal and vice-regal courts. They take their part in the councils of the satraps, precisely as they do in military service (cf. the evidence of Ezra); and they, too, are rewarded by bounties and

estates. “To wield a peaceful authority over all the subjects of the empire, to reward merit, and to punish transgression—such is the highest task of king and officials. i On bis native soil Cyrus had built a town, with a palace and a tomb, in the district of Pasargadae (now the ruins of Murghab). This Darius replaced by a new capital, deeper in the centre of

[DARIUS

the country, which bore the name “Persian” (PGrsa), the Persepo-

lis (g.v.) of the later Greeks. But the district of Persis was too remote to be the administrative centre of a world-empire, The

natural centre lay, rather, in the ancient fertile tract on the lower Tigris and Euphrates. The actual capital of the empire was therefore Susa, where Darius I. and Artaxerxes IT. erected their magnificent palaces. The winter months the kings chiefly spent in Babylon: the hot summer, in the cooler situation of Ecbatana, where Darius and Xerxes built a residence on Mt. Elvend, south of the city. From a palace of Artaxerxes II. in Ecbatana itself, the fragments of a few inscribed columns (now in the possession of Lindo Myers and published by Evetts in the Zeitschr. f. Assyr. V.) have been preserved. To Persis and Persepolis the kings paid only occasional visits especially at their coronations. Method of Government.—Within the empire, the two great civilized states incorporated by Cyrus and Cambyses, Babylon and Egypt, occupied a position of their own. After his defeat of Nabonidus, Cyrus proclaimed himself “king of Babel”; and the same

title was

borne by Cambyses,

Smerdis

and Darius,

So, in Egypt, Cambyses adopted in full the titles of the Pharaohs, In this we may trace a desire to conciliate the native population,

with the object of maintaining the fiction that the old state still continued. Darius went still farther. He encouraged the efforts of the Egyptian priesthood in every way, built temples,

and enacted new laws in continuance of the old order. In Babylon

his procedure was presumably similar, though here we possess no local evidence. But he lived to see that his policy had missed its goal. In 486 B.C. Egypt revolted and was only reduced by Xerxes in 484. It was this, probably, that induced him in 484 to renounce his title of “king of Babel,” and to remove from its

temple the golden statue of Bel-Marduk

(Merodach), whose

hands the king was bound to clasp on the first day of each year.

This proceeding led to two insurrections in Babylon (probably in 484 and 479 B.c.), which were speedily repressed. After that the “kingship of Babel” was definitely abolished. In Egypt the Persian kings still retained the style of the Pharaohs; but we hear no more of concessions to the priesthood or to the old institutions, and, apart from the great oasis of el-Kharga, no more temples were erected. At the head of the court and the imperial administration stands the commandant of the body-guard—the 10,000 “Immortals,” often depicted in the sculptures of Persepolis with lances surmounted by golden apples. This grandee, whom the Greeks termed “Chiliarch,” corresponds to the modern vizier. In addition to him, we find seven councillors (Ezra vii. 14; cf. Esther i. 14). Among the other officials, the “eye of the king” is frequently mentioned. To him was entrusted the control of the whole empire and the superintendence of all officials.

The orders of the court were issued in a very simple form of

the cuneiform script, probably invented by the Medes. This com-

prised 36 signs, almost all of which denote single sounds. In the royal inscriptions, a translation into Susan (Elamitic) and Babylonian was always appended to the Persian text. In Egypt one in hieroglyphics was added, as in the inscriptions of the Suez canal; in the Grecian provinces, another in Greek (¢.g., the inscription of Darius on the Bosporus, Herod iv. 37, cf. iv. 91). The cuneiform script could only be written on stone or clay.

Thus there has been discovered in Babylon a copy of the Behistun (g.v.) inscription preserved on a block of dolerite (Weissbach, Babylonische Miscellen., p. 24). For administrative purposes, however, it would seem that this inconvenient material was not employed, its place being taken by skins (ĉiphépat, parchment),

the use of which was adopted from the western peoples of the

empire. On these were further written the journals and records kept at the court (cf. Diod. 11. 22, 32; Ezra iv. 15, V. I7, Vb 2;

Esther vi. 1, ii. 23). With such materials the cuneiform script could not be used; instead, the Persian language was written m

Aramaic characters, a method which later led to the so-called

Pahlavi, że., Parthian script. This mode of writing was employed

in the state-services since Darius I.; and so may be explained the fact that, under the Achaemenids, the Persian language rap

idly declined, and, in the inscriptions of Artaxerxes III., only

PERSIA

DARIUS]

569

appears in an extremely neglected guise (see CUNEIFORM InscrirTIONS; ALPHABET). Side by side with the Persian, the Aramaic, which had long been widely diffused as the speech of commerce, enjoyed cur-

these, again, there might lie large town settlements whose internal affairs were controlled by the elders or the officials of the community: as Babylon, Jerusalem, the Egyptian cities, Tarsus, Sardis

rency in all the western half of the empire as a second dominant language. Thus all deeds, enactments and records designed for these provinces were furnished with an official Aramaic version

priests, with their great temple-property; as Bambyce in Syria, the two Comanas in Cappadocia, and so forth. Vast districts were

(Ezra iv. 7). To the three cuneiform inscriptions of his tomb at Nakshi Rustem Darius added an Aramaic version; and of the account of his deeds in the inscription in Behistun he distributed copies in Aramaic over his empire; of one of these, written in beautiful characters, large fragments have been preserved in the

papyri of the Jewish garrison at Elephantine, together with numerous documents in the same tongue.!

The coins minted by

the satraps and generals usually bear an Aramaic inscription.

(So, also, a ion-weight from Abydos, in the British Museum).

The Demotic in Egypt was employed in private documents. In the Hellenic provinces only of the empire Greek replaced Aramaic

(cf. the letter to Pausanias in Thuc. i. 129; an edict to Gadatas

in Magnesia, Cousin et Deschamps, Bulletin de corresp. hellénique, xii. 530; Dittenberger, Sylloge

2; so, also, on coins)—a

clear

proof that the Persians had already begun to recognize the independent and important position of Greek civilization.?

Provincial Organization.—Darius I. divided the Persian empire into 20 great provinces, satrapies, with a “guardian of the

country” (khshathrapavan; see SaTrap) at the head of each. A list is preserved in Herodotus (iii. 89 sqg.); but the boundaries were frequently changed. Each satrapy was again subdivided into several minor governorships. The satrap is the head of the whole administration of his province.

He levies the taxes, controls the

legal procedure, is responsible for the security of roads and property, and superintends the subordinate districts. The heads of the great military centres of the empire and the commandants of the royal fortresses are outside his jurisdiction: yet the satraps are entitled to a body of troops of their own, a privilege which they used to the full, especially in later periods. The satrap is held in his position as a subject by the controlling machinery of the empire, especially the “eye of the king”; by the council of Persians In his province with whom he is bound to debate all matters of importance; and by the army: while in the hands of the messengers (Pers. &oråvôĝat or a&yyapor—a Babylonian word: see ÅNGARIA) the government despatches travel “swifter than the crane” along the great imperial highways, which are all provided with regular postal stations (cf. the description of the route from Susa to Sardis in Herod. v. 52). Within the satrapies the subject races and communities occupied a tolerably independent position; for instance, the Jews, under their elders and priests, convened a popular assembly in Jerusa-

lem (cf. the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah). Obviously also, they enjoyed, as a rule, the privilege of deciding lawsuits among themselves, their general situation being similar to the former situation of the Christian nationalities under the Ottoman empire, or to that of many tribes in the Russian empire before the revolution. The pressure of despotism was manifest, not so much in that the king and his officials consistently interfered in individual

and others.

On the same footing were the dominions of the high

either converted into royal domains (7apdéeoo:) with great parks and hunting grounds under royal supervision, or else bestowed by the king on Persians or deserving members of the subject-races

(the “benefactors”) as their personal property. Many of these estates formed respectable principalities: e.g., those of the house of Otanes in Cappadocia, of Hydarnes in Armenia, Pharnabazus in Phrygia, Demaratus in Teuthrania, Themistocles in Magnesia and

Lampsacus. They were absolute private property, handed down from father to son for centuries, and in the Hellenistic period not rarely became independent kingdoms. These potentates were styled by the Greeks dvvaorat or uóvapxot.

The last class, quite distinct from all these organizations, was formed by the city-states (aéXers) with an independent constitution—whether a monarchy (as in Phoenicia), an aristocracy (as in Lycia), or a republic with council and popular assembly (as in the Greek towns). The essential point was that they enjoyed a separate legalized organization (autonomy). This was only to be seen in the extreme western provinces of the empire, among the Phoenicians, Greeks and Lycians, whose cities were essentially distinct from those of the east; which, indeed, to Greek eyes, were only great villages (xwuorddes). It is readily intelligible that their character should have proved practically incomprehensible to the Persians, with whom they came into perpetual collision. These sought, as a rule, to cope with the difficulty by transferring the government to individual persons who enjoyed their confidence: the “tyrants” of the Greek towns. Only Mardonius, after his suppression of the Ionic revolt—which had originated with these very tyrants—made an attempt to govern them by the assistance of the democracy (492 B.Cc.). Coinage, Commerce and Civilization.—The provinces of the empire differed as materially in economy as in organization. In the extreme west, a money currency in its most highly developed form—that of coinage minted by the state, or an autonomous community——had developed since the yth century among the Lydians and Greeks. In the main portion, however, of the Oriental world—Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia and Babylonia—the old mode of commerce was still in vogue, conducted by means of gold and silver bars, weighed at each transaction; a money currency only began to make headway in these districts in the 4th century B.c. In the eastern provinces, on the other hand, the primitive method of exchange by barter still held the field. Only in the auriferous and civilized frontier districts of India (the Punjab) did a system of coinage find early acceptance. There Persian and Attic money was widely distributed, and imitations of it struck, in the sth and 4th pre-Christian centuries. Thus the empire was compelled to grapple with all these varied conditions and to reconcile them as best it might. At the court, “natural economy” was still the rule. The officials and Oriental

Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan (1906); Sachan, Aramäische Papyri und Ostraka aus einer jüdischer Militär-

troops received payment in kind. They were fed “by the table of the king,” from which 15,000 men daily drew their sustenance (cf. Heracleides of Cyme in Athen. iv. 145 B, etc.) and were rewarded by gifts and assignments of land. The Greek mercenaries, on the contrary, had to be paid in currency; nor could the satraps of the west dispense with hard cash. The king, again, needed the precious metals, not merely for bounties and rewards, but for important enterprises in which money payment was imperative. Consequently, the royal revenues and taxes were paid partly in the precious metals, partly in natural produce—horses and cattle, grain, clothing and its materials, furniture and all articles of industry (cf. Theopomp. fr. 124, 125, etc.), The satraps, also in addition to money payments, levied contributions “for their table,” at which the officials ate (Nehem. v. 14). The precious metals brought in by the tribute were collected in

Century (1923). *Weissbach, Die Keilinschriften der Achimeniden scriptions and translation of all the texts).

the great treasure-houses at Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and Ecbatana, where gigantic masses of silver and, more especially, of gold, were stored in the bullion or partially wrought into vessels

cases, but, that they did so on isolated and arbitrary occasions, and then swept aside the privileges of the subject, who was impotent to resist. The subject population can be divided into distinct groups. In the desert (as among the Arabian and Turanian nomads), in wild and sequestered mountains (as in Zagrus in north Media, and Mysia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia and Bithynia in Asia Minor), and also in many Iranian tribes, the old tribal constitution, with the chieftain as its head, was left intact under the imperial suzerainty. The great majority of the civilized provinces were subdivided into local administrative districts governed by officials of the king and his satraps. These the Greeks named 2vn, “peoples.” Within kolonie für Elephantine (1911) ; Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth

(x911)

(trans-

57°

PERSIA

(Herod. iii. 96; Strabo xv. 731, 735; Arrian iii. 16, etc.); exactly as was the case over 2,000 years later in the shah’s treasure-

chamber. When the king required money he minted as much as was necessary. A reform in the coinage was effected by Darius,

[DARIUS

and compelled them in future to address themselves, not to the community at large, but to individuals, to promise, not political

success nor the independence of the people, but the welfare of the man. Thus they became at once universal and capable of extension

who struck the daric (Pers. Zarig, i.e., “piece of gold”; the word has nothing to do with the name of Darius), a gold piece of 130 grains (value about 23s.); this being equivalent to 20 silver pieces (“Median shekels,” oiydot) of 86-5 grains (value according to the then rate of silver—134 silver to 1 gold—about 1s. 2d.). The coinage of gold was the exclusive prerogative of the king; silver could be coined by the satraps, generals, independent communities

spirited part.

and dynasts.

whose religious convictions are enshrined in his inscriptions—and,

The extent of the Persian empire was, in essentials, defined by the great conquests of Cyrus and Cambyses. Darius was no more a conquistador than Augustus. The task he set himself was to round off the empire and secure its borders: for this purpose in Asia Minor and Armenia he subdued the mountain-tribes and advanced the frontier as far as the Caucasus, Colchis alone remaining an independent kingdom under the imperial suzerainty. So, too, he annexed the Indus valey and the auriferous hill-country of Kafiristan and Cashmir (Kdomio: or Kaoverpor, Herod. iii. 93, vii. 67, 96; Steph. Byz.), as well as the Dardae in Dardistan on the Indus (Ctesias, Ind. fr. 12. 70, etc.). From this point he directed several campaigns against the Amyrgian Sacae, on the Pamir Plateau and northwards, whom he enumerates in his list of subject races, and whose mounted archers formed a main

division of the armies despatched against the Greeks.

It was

obviously an attempt to take the nomads of the Turanian steppe in the rear and to reduce them to quiescence, which led to his un-

fortunate expedition against the Scythians of the Russian steppes (c. 512 B.C.; see Darrus). Side by side with these wars, we can read, even in the scanty

tradition at our disposal, a consistent effort to further the great civilizing mission imposed on the empire. In the district of Herat, Darius established a great water-basin, designed to facilitate the cultivation of the steppe (Herod. iii. 117). He had the course of the river Indus explored by the Carian captain Scylax of Cary-

anda, who then navigated the Indian ocean back to Suez (Herod.

iv. 44) and wrote an account of his voyage in Greek. The desire to create a direct communication between the seclusion of Persis and the commerce of the world is evident in his foundation of several harbours, described by Nearchus, on the Persian coast. But this design is still more patent in his completion of a great canal, already begun by Necho, from the Nile to Suez, along which several monuments of Darius have been preserved. Thus it was possible, as says the remnant of an hieroglyphic inscription there discovered, “for ships to sail direct from the Nile to Persia, over Saba.” In the time of Herodotus the canal was in constant use Gi. 158, iv. 39): afterwards, when Egypt regained her independence, it decayed, till restored by the second Ptolemy. Even the circumnavigation of Africa was attempted under Xerxes (Herod. iv. 43). Religion and Art—It has already been mentioned, that, in his efforts to conciliate the Egyptians, Darius placed his chief reliance on the priesthood: and the same tendency runs throughout the imperial policy towards the conquered races. Thus Cyrus himself gave the exiled Jews in Babylon permission to return and rebuild Jerusalem. Darius allowed the restoration of the Temple; and Artaxerxes I., by the protection accorded to Ezra and Nehemiah, made the foundation of Judaism possible (see Jews: $819 sqgq.). Analogously in an edict, of which a later copy is preserved in an inscription (see p. 569), Darius commands Gadatas, the governor

of a domain (apééecos) in Magnesia on the Maeander, to ob-

serve scrupulously the privileges of the Apollo-sanctuary. With all the Greek oracles—even those in the mother-country—the Persians were on the best of terms. And since these might reasonably expect an enormous extension of their influence from the establishment of a Persian dominion, we find them all zealously mediatizing during the expedition of Xerxes. For the development of the Asiatic religions, the Persian empire was of prime importance. The definite erection of a’ Single, vast, world-empire cost them their original connection with the state,

by propaganda; and, with this, of entering into keen competition one with the other. These traits are most clearly marked iy

Judaism; but after the Achaemenid period, they are common to all Oriental creeds, though our information as to most is scanty in the extreme. In this competition of religions that of Iran played a most

The Persian kings—none

more

so than Darius,

with the kings, their people, were ardent professors of the pure doctrine of Zoroaster; and the Persians settled in the provinces

diffused his creed throughout the whole empire. Thus a strong

Persian propagandism arose especially in Armenia and Cappadocia, where the religion took deep root among the people, but also in Lydia and Lycia. In the process, however, important modifications were introduced. In contrast with Judaism, Zoroastrianism did not

enter the lists against all gods save its own, but found no difficulty in recognizing them as subordinate powers—helpers and servants of Ahuramazda. Consequently, the foreign creeds often reacted upon the Persian. In Cappadocia, Aramaic inscriptions have been discovered (1900), in which the indigenous god, there termed Bel the king, recognizes the “Mazdayasnian Religion” (Din Mazdayasnish)—i.e., the religion of Ahuramazda personified as a woman—as his sister and wife (Lidzbarski, Ephem. f. semit. Epigr.i. 59 sqq.). The gorgeous cult of the gods of civilization (especially of Babylon), with their host of temples, images and festivals, exercised a corresponding influence on the mother-country. Moreover, the unadulterated doctrine of Zoroaster could no more become a permanent popular religion than can Christianity. For the masses can make little of abstractions and an omnipotent, omnipresent deity; they need concrete divine powers, standing nearer to themselves and their lot. Thus the old figures of the Aryan folk-religion return to the foreground, there to be amalgamated with the Babylonian divinities. The goddess of springs and streams (of the Oxus in particular) and of all fertility—Ardvisura Anahita, Anaitis—is endowed with the form of the Babylonian Ishtar and Belit. She is now depicted as a beautiful and strong woman, with prominent breasts, a golden crown of stars and golden raiment. She is worshipped as the goddess of generation and all sexual life (cf. Herod. i. 131, where the names of Mithras and Anaitis are interchanged); and religious prostitution is trans-

ferred to her service (Strabo xi. 532, xii. 559). At her side stands

the sun-god Mithras, who is represented as a young and victorious hero. Both deities occupy the very first rank in the popular creed; while to the theologian they are the most potent of the good powers—-Mithras being the herald and propagator of the service of Light and the mediator betwixt man and Ahuramazda, who now fades more into the background. Thus, in the subsequent

period, the Persian religion appears purely as the religion of Mithras. The festival of Mithras is the chief festival of the empire, at which the king drinks and is drunken, and dances the national dance (Ctes. fr. 55; Duris fr. 13). This development culminated under Artaxerxes II., who, according to Berossus ({r. 16 ap. Clem. Alex. prot. i. 5, 65), first erected statues to Anaitis in Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactria, Susa, Babylon, Damascus and Sardis. The truth of this account is proved by the fact that Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes ITI. are the only Achaemenids who, in their inscriptions, invoke Anaitis and Mithra side by side with Ahuramazda. Other gods, who come into prominence, are the dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Artagnes) and the Good Thought (Vohumano, Omanos); and even the Sacaean festival is adopted

from Babylon (Berossus fr. 3; Ctes. fr. 16; Strabo xi. 512, etc.). The chief centres of the Persian cults in the west were the district

of Acilisene in Armenia (Strabo xi. 532, etc.) the town of Zela in Cappadocia (Strabo xii. 559), and several cities in Lydia. The

position

of the Persian monarchy

as a world-empire is

characteristically emphasized in the buildings of Darius and Xerxes in Persepolis and Susa. The peculiarly national basis, still

PERSIA

THE ACHAEMENIDS: SOURCES]

recognizable in Cyrus’s architecture at Pasargadae, recedes into insignificance. The royal edifices and sculptures are dependent, mainly, on Babylonian models, but, at the same time, we can trace in them the influence of Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor; the last in the rock-sepulchres. All these elements are combined into an

organic unity, which achieved the greatest creations that Oriental

a

century we obtain some information from the so-called ‘““Demotic Chronicle,” published in 1914; cf. Eduard Meyer, Aegyptische Documente aus der Perserzeit, Sitzungsberichte der Berl. Ak. 1915, 287 sqq. (reprinted in Kleine Schriften, vol. II. 1924). The external history of the empire is treated under the in-

dividual kings (see also history sections

architecture has found possible. Nevertheless, the result is not a national art, but the art of a world-empire; and it is obvious that

EcypT; etc.). The order is as follows:—

foreign craftsmen must have been active in the royal services—

lon from 538.

among them, the Greek sculptor Telephanes of Phocaea (Pliny xxiv. 68). So, with the collapse of the empire, the imperial art vanishes also: and when some

500 years later, a new art arose

under the Sassanids, whose achievements stand to those of Achaemenid art in much the same relation as the achievements of the two dynasties to each other, we discover only isolated reminis-

cences of its predecessor. For the organization

and

character

of the Persian empire, see

Barnabas Brisson, De regio Persarum principatu libri iii. (1590); Heeren, Ideen über Politik, Handel und Verkehr der altenEastern Welt,

Five i; G. Rawlinson, History of Herodotus, ii. 555 sqq.; Monarchies, iii.; Eduard Meyer, Geschichie des Altertums, iii. On the Satrapies, cf. Krumbholz, De Asiae minoris satrapiis persicis (1883). See also Miruras. The rock sculptures and part of the ruins of the Achaemenids and the Sassanids are published and analysed in the work of Sarre and Herzfeld, Iranische Felsreliefs (1910). See also Sarre, Die

Kunst der Alten Perser (1925). Many ruins and inscriptions have since then been discovered by Herzfeld; cf. his preliminary account in Zeitschrift d. deutschen Morgent. Ges. (Bd. 80, 1926). See also MITHRAS. The Achaemenids: Sources.—The history of the Persian empire was often written by the Greeks. The most ancient work preserved is that of Herodotus

(g.v.), who

supplies rich ma-

terials up to 479 B.C. These are drawn partly from sound tradition, partly from original knowledge—as in the account of the satrapies and their distribution, the royal highway, the nations in Xerxes’ army and their equipment. They also contain much that is admittedly fabulous: for instance, the stories of Cyrus and Croesus, the conquest of Babylon, etc. Forty years later (c. 390 B.c.), the physician Ctesias of Cnidus, who for 17 years (414-398 B.C.) remained in the service of the Great King, composed a great work on the Persian history, known to us from an extract in Photius and numerous fragments. Ctesias (g.v.) possesses a more precise acquaintance with Persian views and institutions than Herodotus; and, where he deals with matters that came under his own cognizance, he gives much useful information. For the early period, on the other hand, he only proves how rapidly the tradition had degenerated since Herodotus; and here his narrations can only be utilized in isolated cases, and that with the greatest caution. Of more value was the great work of Dinon of Colophon

of articles GREECE;

Cyrus (558-528); conquered the Medes in 550; king of Baby-

CAMBYSES (528—521). SMERDIS (521). Darius I. (521-485). XERXES I. (485-465). ARTAXERXES I. (465-425). XERXES IT. and Secydianus or Sogdianus (425-424). Dartus II. Nothus (424-404). ARTAXERXES IT. (404-359). ARTAXERXES ITT. Ochus (359-338). ARSES (338—336). Darrius III. (336-330). The chronology is exactly verified by the Ptolemaic canon, by numerous Babylonian and a few Egyptian documents, and by the evidence of the Greeks. The present article gives only a brief conspectus of the main events in the history of the empire. The Wars Against Greece.—Though, unlike Cyrus and Cambyses, Darius made no new expeditions of conquest, yet a great empire, which is not bounded by another equally great, but touches on many small tribes and independent communities, is inevitably driven to expansion. We have already seen that the attempt of Darius to control the predatory nomads in the north led to his expedition against the Scythians; this, again, led to the incorporation of Thrace and Macedonia, whose king Perdiccas submitted. And since a great portion of the Mediterranean coast-line belonged to the empire, further complications resulted automatically. In contrast with the Greeks Carthage took the part of Persia. Darius, indeed, numbers the city—under the name of Karka—-among his dominions; as also the Maxyans (Maciya) on the Syrtes (Andreas, Verhandl. d. xii. oriental. Congresses, Hamburg, 1902, p. 97). But, above all, the Greek cities with their endless feuds and violent internal factions, were incessant in their appeals for intervention. Nevertheless, Darius left European Greece to itself, till the support accorded to the Ionian and Carian insurgents by Athens and Eretria (499 B.c.) made war inevitable. But not only the expeditions of Mardonius (492) and Datis (490), but even the carefully prepared campaigns of Xerxes, in conjunction with Carthage,

completely failed (480-479).

On the fields of Marathon and

Plataea, the Persian archers succumbed to the Greek phalanx of on the same level may be placed a few statements from Heraclides hoplites; but the actual decision was effected by Themistocles, of Cyme, which afford specially important evidence on Persian who had meanwhile created the Athenian fleet which at Salamis institutions. To these must be added the testimony of the other proved its superiority over the Perso-Phoenician armada, and thus Greek historians (Thucydides, Ephorus, Theopompus, etc., with precluded beforehand the success of the land-forces. The wreck of Xerxes’ expedition is the turning-point in the the histories of Alexander), and, before all that of Xenophon in the Anabasis and Hellenica. The Cyropaedia is a didactic romance, ' history of the Persian empire. The superiority of the Greeks was written with a view to Greek institutions and rarely preserving so pronounced that the Persians never found courage to repeat genuine information on the Persian empire. Of Oriental sources, their' attack. On the contrary, in 466 B.c. their army and fleet only the contemporary books of Ezra and Nehemiah are of much were again defeated by Cimon on the Eurymedon, the sequel being importance; also, a few statements in the much later Esther that the Greek provinces on the Asiatic coast, with all the Thracian romance. Berossus’s history of Babylon contained much valuable possessions, were lost. In itself, indeed, this loss was of no great and trustworthy information, but next to nothing has survived. significance to such a vast empire; and the attempts of Athens to That the native tradition almost entirely forgot the Achaemenid annex Cyprus and conquer the Nile valley, in alliance with the empire, has been mentioned above. For a more detailed account revolted Egyptians, ended in failure. Athens, in fact, had not sufficient strength to undertake a serious invasion of the empire of the empire of these sources see separate articles on HERODOTUS, etc.; Ezra; and NrewemiaAH. The scanty amount of original docu- or an extensive scheme of conquest. Her struggles with the other ments from the time of the Achaemenids (among them a large Hellenic states constrained her, by the peace of Callias (448), quantity of business contracts from Babylonia, dated after the definitely to renounce the Persian war; to abandon Cyprus and (c. 340), which we know from numerous excellent fragments; and

years of the Kings) has been greatly increased by the Aramaic documents from Elephantine (see above) from the time of Darius

Egypt to the king; and to content herself with his promise—not

procedures in Egypt (cf. Eduard Meyer, Zu den aram. Papyrt am Elephantine, Sitzungsberichte der preuss. Akad. 1911, 1026 sqq.). For the struggle of the Egyptians for independence in the 4th

was, rather, that the disasters of Salamis and Plataea definitely

IL, which throw light on the administration and the judicial

that he would surrender the littoral towns, but that he would abstain from an armed attack upon them. The really decisive point shattered the offensive power of the empire; that the centre of

gravity in the world’s history had shifted from Susa and Babylon

572

PERSIA

to the Aegean sea; and that the Persians were conscious that in

younger Cyrus against his brother (401 B.c.) had demonstrated the

spite of all their courage they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy superior in arms as well as in intellect whom they could not hope to subdue by their own strength. Decay of the Empire—Thus the great empire was reduced to immobility and stagnation—a process which was assisted by the deteriorating influences of civilization and world-dominion upon

surprising ease and rapidity with which a courageous army could penetrate into the heart of the empire—when the whole force of

the character of the ruling race. True, the Persians continued to produce brave and honourable men. But the influences of the harem, the eunuchs, and similar court officials, made appalling progress, and men of energy began to find the temptations of power stronger than their patriotism and devotion to the king. Thus the satraps aspired to independence, not merely owing to unjust treatment, but also to avarice or favourable conditions. As early as 465 B.c., Xerxes was assassinated by his powerful vizier (chiliarch) Artabanus, who attempted to seize the reins of empire in fact, if not in name. A similar instance may be found in Bagoas (g.v.) after the murder of Artaxerxes III. (338 B.c.). To these factors must be added the degeneration of the royal line —a degeneration inevitable in Oriental states. Kings like Xerxes and more especially Artaxerxes I. and Artaxerxes II., so far from being gloomy despots, were good-natured potentates, but weak, capricious and readily accessible to personal influences. The only really brutal tyrants were Darius II., who was completely dominated by his bloodthirsty wife Parysatis, and Artaxerxes III. who, though he shed rivers of blood and all but exterminated his whole family, was successful in once more uniting the empire, which under the feeble sway of his father had been threatened with dissolution. The upshot of these conditions was, that the empire never again undertook an important enterprise, but neglected more and more its great civilizing mission. In considering, however, the subsequent disorders and wars, it must be borne in mind that they affected only individual portions of the empire, and only on isolated occasions involved more extensive areas in long and serious strife. To most of the provinces the Achaemenid dominion was synonymous with two centuries of peace and order. Naturally,

however, the wild tribes of the mountains and deserts, who could be curbed only by strict imperial control, asserted their independence and harassed the neighbouring provinces. Among these tribes were the Carduchians in Zagrus, the Cossaeans and Uxians in the interior of Elam, the Cadusians and other non-Aryan tribes in northern Media, the Pisidians, Isaurians and Lycaonians in the Taurus, and the Mysians in Olympus. All efforts to restore order in these districts were fruitless; and when the kings removed their court to Ecbatana, they were actually obliged to purchase a free passage from the mountain tribes (Strabo xi. 524; Arrian iii. 17, 1). The kings (e.g., Artaxerxes IT.) repeatedly took the field in great force against the Cadusians, but unsuccessfully. When, in 400 B.c. Xenophon marched with the mercenaries of Cyrus from the Tigris to the Black sea, the authority of the king was non-existent north of Armenia, and the tribes of the Pontic mountains, with the Greek cities on the coast, were completely independent. In Paphlagonia, the native dynasts founded a powerful though shortlived kingdom, and the chieftains of the Bithynians were absolutely their own masters. The frontier provinces of India were also lost. Egypt, which had already revolted under Libyan princes in the years 486-484, and again with Athenian help in 460-454, finally asserted its independence in 404. Henceforward the native dynasties repelled every attack, till they succumbed once more before Artaxerxes III. and Mentor of Rhodes. In the other civilized countries the old passion for freedom had been completely obliterated; and after the days of Darius L— apart from the Greek, Lycian and Phoenician towns—not a single people in all these provinces dreamed of shaking off the foreign dominion. All the more clearly, then, was the inner weakness of the empire revealed by the revolts of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom—quite contrary to the original imperial organization—which entrusted the provincial military commands to the satraps, who began to receive great masses of Greek mercenaries into their service. Under Artaxerxes I. and Darius II., these insurrections were still rare. But when the revolt of the Ei

[WARS AGAINST GREECE

that empire had proved powerless, not only to prevent some 12,000 Greek troops, completely surrounded, cut off from the: communications, and deprived through treachery of their leaders from escaping to the coast, but even to make aserious attack an them—then, indeed, the imperial impotence became manifest. After that, revolts of the satraps in Asia Minor and Syria were of everyday occurrence, and the task of suppressing them was complicated by the foreign wars which the empire had to sustain

against Greece and Egypt. At this very period, however, the foreign policy of the empire gained a brilliant success. The collapse of the Athenian power before Syracuse (413 B.c.) induced Darius II. to order his Satraps

Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, in Asia Minor, to collect the tribute overdue from the Greek cities. In alliance with Sparta (see PELOPONNESIAN War), Persia intervened in the conflict

against Athens, and it was Persian gold that made it possible for Lysander to complete her overthrow (404 B.c.). True, war with Sparta followed immediately, over the division of the spoils, and the campaigns of the Spartan generals in Asia Minor (399-395) were all the more dangerous as they gave occasion to numerous

rebellions. But Persia joined the Greek league against Sparta, and in 394 Pharnabazus and Conon annihilated the Lacedaemonian

fleet at Cnidus. Thus the Spartan power of offence was crippled: and the upshot of the long-protracted war was that Sparta ruefully returned to the Persian alliance, and by the Peace of Antalcidas (g.v.), concluded with the king in 387 B.c., not only renounced all claims to the Asiatic possessions, but officially proclaimed the Persian suzerainty over Greece. Ninety years after Salamis and Plataea, the goal for which Xerxes had striven was actually attained, and the king’s will was law in Greece. In the

following decades, no Hellenic state ventured to violate the king's peace, and all the feuds that followed centred round the efforts of the combatants—Sparta, Thebes, Athens and Argos—to draw the royal powers to their side (see GREECE: Ancient History). But, for these successes, the empire had to thank the internecine strife of its Greek opponents, rather than its own strength. Its feebleness, when thrown on its own resources, is evident from the fact that, during the next years, it failed both to reconquer Egypt and to suppress completely King Evagoras of Salamis in Cyprus. The satrap revolts, moreover, assumed more and more formidable proportions, and the Greek states began once more to tamper with them. Thus the reign of Artaxerxes II. ended, in 359 B'c,

with a complete dissolution of the imperial authority in the west. His successor, Artaxerxes Ochus, succeeded yet again in restoring the empire in its full extent. In 355 3.c., he spoke the fatal word, which, a second—or rather a third—time demolished the essentially unsound power of Athens. In 342 he reduced Egypt, and his generals Mentor and Memnon, with his vizier Bagoas (q.v.), crushed once and for all the resistance in Asia Minor. At his death in 338, immediately before the final catastrophe, the empire to all appearances was more powerful and more firmly established

than it had been since the days of Xerxes. Progress of Greek Influence.—-These successes were won only by means of Greek armies and Greek generals. And simultaneously the Greek civilization—diffused by mercenaries, traders, artists, prostitutes and slaves,—advanced in ever greater force. In Asia Minor and Phoenicia we can clearly trace the progress of Hellenism (g.v.), especially by the hafta The stamp is cut by Greek hands and the Greek tongue predominates more

and more in the inscription. We can see that the victory of Greek

civilization had long been prepared on every side. But the vital point is that the absolute superiority of the Hellene was recognized as Incontestable on both hands. The Persian sought to protect

himself against danger by employing Greeks in the national service

and turning Greek policy to the interests of the empire. In the Greek world itself the disgrace that a people, called to universal

dominion and capable of wielding it, should be dependent on the mandate of an impotent Asiatic monarchy, was keenly felt by all

who were not yet absorbed in the rivalry of city with city. The

HELLENISTIC DOMINION]

PERSIA

573

other writers gave expression to it, notably, the historian Callis-

the republics of Greece. To this corresponds the fact that, instead of acting on the doctrines of Aristotle and Callisthenes, and treat-

thenes of Olynthus. Union between Greeks, voluntary or compul-

ing the Macedonians

spokesman of this national sentiment was Isocrates; but numerous sory, and an offensive war against Persia, was the programme they

propounded. Nor was the time for its fulfilment far distant. The new power

which now rose to the first rank, created by Philip of Macedon, had no ingrained tendency inimical to the Persian empire. Its immediate programme was rather Macedonian expansion, at the

and Greeks

as masters,

the Asiatics

as

servants, Alexander had impartial recourse to the powers of all his subjects and strove to amalgamate them. In the Persians particularly he sought a second pillar for his worldempire. Therefore, as early as 330 B.c., he drafted 30,000 young Persians, educated them in Greek customs, and trained them

and his satraps supported the Greek towns in Thrace—Perinthus

to war on the Macedonian model. The Indian campaign showed that his Macedonian troops were in fact inadequate to the conquest of the world, and in the summer of 326 they compelled him to turn back from the banks of the Hypasis. On his return to Persia he consummated at Susa (February, 324 B.c.) the union of Persian and Macedonian by the great marriage-feast, at which all his superior officers, with some 10,000 more Macedonians, were wedded to Persian wives. The Macedonian veterans were then

and Byzantium—against Macedonian aggression; in 338 he con-

disbanded, and the Persians taken into his army.

cluded an alliance with Demosthenes. When Philip, after the victory of Chaeroneia, had founded the league of Corinth (337) embracing the whole of Greece, he accepted the national programme, and in 336 despatched his army to Asia Minor. That he never entertained the thought of conquering the whole Persian

at the Olympian festival of 324, the command was issued to all the cities of Greece to recognize him as god and to receive the exiles home.” In 323 B.C. the preparations for the circumnavigation and subjection of Arabia were complete: the next enterprise being the conquest of the West, and the battle for Hellenic culture against Carthage and the Italian tribes. At that point Alexander died in Babylon, on June 13, 323 B.C. The Diadochi—Alexander left no heir. Consequently, his death not only ended the scheme of universal conquest, but led to an immediate Macedonian reaction. The army, which was considered as the representative of the people, took over the government under the direction of its generals. The Persian wives were practically all discarded and the Persian satraps removed—at least from all important provinces. But the attempt to maintain the empire in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by the generals (diadochi), for the inheritance of the great king.’ It was soon obvious that the eastern rulers, at all events, could not dispense with the native element. Peucestas, the governor of Persis, there played the rôle of Alexander and won the Persians completely to his side; for which he was dismissed by Antigonus in 315 (Diod. xix. 48). A similar position was attained by Seleucus—the only one of the diadochi who had not divorced his Persian wife, Apama—in Babylonia, which he governed from 319 to 316 and regained in the autumn of 312. While Antigonus, who, since 315, had striven to win the kingdom of Alexander for himself, was detained by the war with his rivals in the west, Seleucus, with Babylon as his headquarters, conquered the whole of Iran as far as the Indus. In northern Media alone, which lay outside the main scene of operations and had only been partially subject to the later Achaemenids, the Persian satrap Atropates, appointed by Alexander, maintained his independence and bequeathed his province to his successors. His name is borne by north Media to the present day—Atropatene, modern Azerbaijan or Adherbeijan (see MeprA). So, too, in Armenia the Persian dynasty of the Hydarnids held its ground; and to these must be added, in the east of Asia Minor, the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia, founded c. 301, by the Persians Mithradates I. and Ariarathes

expense of Thrace and Illyria, and the subjection of the Balkan peninsula. But, in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek

states, it was bound to make use of the tendencies which aimed at the unification of Greece for the struggle against Persia: and this ideal demand it dared not reject. Thus the conflict became inevitable. In 340, Artaxerxes III.

empire is certain. Presumably, his ambitions would have been satisfied with the liberation of the Greek cities, and, perhaps, the subjection of Asia Minor as far as the Taurus. With this his dominion would have attained much the same compass as later under Lysimachus; farther than this the boldest hopes of Isocrates never went.

But Philip’s assassination in 336 fundamentally altered the situation. In the person of his son, the throne was occupied by a soldier and statesman of genius, saturated with Greek culture and Greek thought, and intolerant of every goal but the highest. To conquer the whole world for Hellenic civilization by the aid of Macedonian spears, and to reduce the whole earth to unity, was the task that this heir of Heracles and Achilles saw before him. This idea of universal conquest was with him a conception much stronger developed than that which had inspired the Achaemenid rulers, and he entered on the project with full consciousness in the strictest sense of the phrase. In fact, if we are to understand Alexander aright, it is fatal to forget that he was overtaken by death, not at the end of his career, but at the beginning, at the age of 33. The Hellenistic Dominion.—How Alexander conquered Persia, and how he framed his world-empire,' cannot be related in detail here. The essential fact, however, is that after the victory

of Gaugamela (Oct. 1, 331 B.C.) and, still more completely, after the assassination of Darius—avenged according to the Persian laws, on the perpetrators—Alexander regarded himself as the legitimate head of the Persian empire, and therefore adopted the dress and ceremonial of the Persian kings. With the capture of the capitals, the Persian war was at an end, and the atonement for the expedition of Xerxes was complete—a truth symbolically expressed in the burning of the palace

at Persepolis. Now began the world-conquest.

For an universal

empire, however, the forces of Macedonia and Greece were in-

sufficient; the monarch of a world-empire could not be bound by the limitations imposed on the tribal king of Macedon or the general of a league of Hellenic republics. He must stand as an autocrat, above them and above the law, realizing the theoretical doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, as the true king, who is a god among men, bound no more than Zeus by a law, because “himself

he is the law.” Thus the divine kingship of Alexander derives in direct lines, not from the Oriental polities—which (Egypt apart) know nothing of royal apotheosis—but from these Hellenic theories of the state. Henceforward it becomes the form of every

absolute monarchy in a civilized land, being formally mitigated

only in Christian states by the assumption that the king is not God, but king “by the grace of God.” The expedition of 332 B.C.

tothe shrine of Ammon was a preliminary to this procedure, which,

In 324, was sealed by his official elevation to divine rank in all ‘See ALEXANDER THE GREAT; MACEDONIAN Empire; HELLENISM (for later results).

Simultaneously,

I. These states were fragments of the Achaemenid empire, which had safely transferred themselves to the Hellenistic statesystem. ; The annexation of Iran by Seleucus Nicator led to a war for the countries on the Indian frontier; his opponent being Sandracottus or Chandragupta Maurya (g.v.), the founder of the great Indian empire of Maurya (Palimbothra). The result was that Seleucus abandoned to the Indian king, not merely the Indian provinces, but even the frontier districts west of the Indus (Strabo 2We can accept neither the discussion of “The Deification of Alexander the Great,” Review, ii, (1887) (cf. E. Meyer, Kleine article of W. Tarn, “Alexander’s droupjarua

these events by Hogarth, in the English Historical Schriften i. 330) nor the and the World-Kingdom”

Journ. of Hellenic Studies, XLI. 1921, who tries to prove that the account of Diodorus 18, 4 H. about Alexander’s plans and their cessa-

tion by the army after his death is not taken from Hieronymus of Cardia and is quite untrustworthy. 3See Provemirs; Serecciy Dynasty.

574

PERSIA

[HELLENISTIC DOMINION

xv. 689-724) receiving as compensation 500 elephants, with other

from

18 D.). His next expedition was to the west to assist Lysimachus,

foreign yoke, and the higher classes adopted the external forms of the alien civilization even though they were unable to renounce their innate characteristics. Eratosthenes, for instance, speaks (ap. Strabo i. 66) in high terms of the Iranians (Ariani), ranking

presents (Appian, Syr. 55; Justin xv. 4; Plut. Alex. 62; Athen. 1.

Ptolemy and Cassander in the overthrow of Antigonus.

The battle of Ipsus, in 301, gave him Syria and the east ofAsia Minor: and from then he resided at the Syrian town of Antiochia on the Orontes. Shortly afterwards he handed over the provinces east of the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, who, in the following years, till 282, exercised in the East a very energetic and beneficial activity, which continued the work of his father and gave the new empire and the Oriental Hellenistic civilization their form. In his campaigns Alexander had founded several cities in Bactria, Sogdiana and India, in which he settled his veterans, and before his death he had begun or planned the foundation of Greek cities in Media and other parts of Iran. These plans were now executed by the Seleucids on the largest scale. Most of the new cities were based on older settlements; but the essential point is, that they were peopled by Greek and Macedonian colonists, and enjoyed civic independence with laws, officials, councils and assemblies of their own; in other words, an autonomous communal constitution, under the suzerainty of the empire. A portion, moreover, of the surrounding land was assigned to them. Thus a great number of the country districts—the €$vy7 above mentioned—were transformed into municipal corporations, and thereby withdrawn from the immediate government of the king and his officials (satraps or strategi), though still subject to their control, except in the cases where they received unconditional freedom and so ranked as “confederates.” The native population of these villages and rural districts. at first, had no civic rights, but were governed by the foreign settlers. Soon, however, the two elements began to coalesce; in the Seleucid empire, the process seems generally to have been both rapid and complete. Thus the cities became the main factors in the diffusion of Hellenism, the Greek language and the Greek civilization over all Asia as far as the Indus.

At

the same time they were the centres of commerce and industrial life: and this, in conjunction with the royal favour, and the privileges accorded them, continually drew new settlers (especially Jews), and many of them developed into great and flourishing towns (see further under HELLENISM) (cf. Eduard Meyer, Blüte und Niedergang des Hellenismus in Asien, 1925). Shortly after his conquest of Babylonia, Seleucus had founded a new capital, Seleucia (g.v.), on the Tigris: his intention being at once to displace the ancient Babylon from its former central position, and to replace it by a Greek city. This was followed by a series of other foundations in Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Susiana (Elam). “Media,” says Polybius (x. 27), “was encircled by a sequence of Greek towns, designed as a barrier against the barbarians.” Among those mentioned are: Rhagae (Rai), which Seleucus metamorphosed into a Hellenic city, Europus, Laodiceia, Apamea and Heraclea (Strabo xi. 525; Plin. vi. 43: cf. MEDIA). To these must be added Achaea in Parthia, and, farther to the east, Alexandria Arion in Aria the modern Herat: also Antiochia Mar-

giana (Strabo xi. 514, 516; Plin. 46, 93), now Merv, and many others; further, Alexandria in Arachosia, near Kandahar, and the towns founded by Alexander on the Hindu-Kush and in Sogdiana. Thus an active Hellenic life soon arose in the East; and Greek settlers must have come in numbers and founded new cities which afterwards formed the basis of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom.

Antiochus’s general Demodamas crossed the Iaxartes and set up an altar to the Didymaean Apollo (Plin. vi. 49). Another general, Patrocles, took up the investigation of the Caspian, already begun by Alexander. In contrast with the better knowledge of an older period, he came to the conclusion that the Caspian was connected with the ocean, and that it was possible to reach India on ship-

board by that route (Strabo ii. 74, xi. 518; Plin. vi. 38). A project

the rude mountain

dreamed

of for centuries.

tribes, no national resistance was The

Iranians

quietly accepted the

them (as well as the Indians, Romans, and Carthaginians) on a

level with the Greeks as regards their capacity for adopting city civilization. The later Parsee tradition contends that Alexander burned the sacred books of Zoroaster, the Avesta, and that only

a few fragments were saved and afterwards reconstructed by the

Arsacids and Sassanids. This is absolutely unhistorical. The Persian religion was never attacked by the Macedonians and Greeks. Under their dominion, on the contrary, it expanded with

great vigour, not only in the west (Armenia,. north Syria and

Asia Minor, where it was the official religion of the kings of Pontus and Cappadocia), but also in the east, in the countries of

the Indian frontier. That the popular gods—Mithras, Anaitis, etc.—had come to the forefront has already been mentioned, This propagandism, however, was void of all national character, and ran on precisely the same lines as the propagandism of the Syrian, Jewish and Egyptian cults. Only in Persis itself the national character of the religion survived side by side with the memory of their old imperial position; here a local Persian

dynasty was allowed to rule in the centre of the province at Istakhr (cf. Persis). Decline of the Seleucids—In 282 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 28r he was assassinated in crossing to Europe, and his son Antiochus I. was left supreme over the whole empire. From that time onward the Seleucid empire was never at rest. Its gigantic extent, from the Aegean to the Indus, everywhere offered points of attack to the enemy. The Lagidae, especially, with their much more compact and effective empire, employed every means to weaken their Asiatic rivals; and auxiliaries were found in the minor states on the frontier—Atropatene, Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus and Bithynia, the Galatians, Pergamum, Rhodes and other Greek states. Moreover, the promotion of Greek civilization and city life had created numerous local centres, with separate interests and centrifugal tendencies, struggling to attain complete independence, and perpetually forcing new concessions from the empire. Thus the Seleucid kings, courageous as many of them were, were always battling for existence (see SELEUCD DvyNaAsTY). These disturbances severely affected the borders of Iran. While the Seleucid empire, under Antiochus II. Theos (264-247), was being harried by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and the king’s attention was wholly engaged in the defence of the western provinces, the Greeks revolted in Bactria, under their governor Diodotus (g.v.). Obviously, it was principally the need of protection against the nomadic tribes which led to the foundation of an in-

dependent kingdom; and Diodotus soon attained ‘considerable

power over the provinces north of the Hindu-Kush. In other provinces, too, insurrection broke out (Strabo xi. 575; Justin, xli. 4); and Arsaces, a chief of the Parni or Aparni—an Iranian nomad tribe (therefore often called Dahan Scythians), inhabiting the steppe east of the Caspian—made himself master of the

district of Parthia (g.v.) in 248 B.c. He and his brother Tiridates

(g.v.) were the founders of the Parthian kingdom, which, how-

ever, was confined within very modest limits during the following decades. Seleucus II. Callinicus (247-226) successfully encountered Arsaces (or Tiridates), and even expelled him (c. 238); but new risings recalled Seleucus to Syria, and Arsaces was enabled to return to Parthia. Greater success attended Antiochus III. the Great (222-187).

of Seleucus to connect the Caspian with the Sea of Azov by means of a canal is mentioned by Plin. (vi. 31). To Patrocles is due the information that an active commerce in Indian wares was carried

At the beginning of his reign (220) he subdued, with the help of his minister Hermias, an insurrection of the satrap Molon o Media, who had assumed the royal title and was supported by

509). While Hellenism was thus gaining a firm footing in all the East, the native population remained absolutely passive. Apart

peace from King Artabazanes

on = the shores of the Black sea, via the Caspian (Strabo xi. his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis (Polyb. v. 40 $44.) He further

seized the opportunity

of extorting

an advantageous

of Atropatene, who had con-

siderably extended his power (Polyb. v. 55). After waging 40

PERSIA

PARTHIAN EMPIRE]

unsuccessful war with Ptolemy IV. for the conquest of CoeleSyria, but suppressing the revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former provinces of the empire in that quarter,

Antiochus led a great expedition into the East, designing to restore the imperial authority in its full extent. He first removed (orr) the Armenian king Xerxes by treachery (Polyb. viii. 25; John of Antioch, fr. 53), and appointed two governors, Artaxias

and Zariadris, in his place (Strabo xi. 531). During the next year he reduced the affairs of Media to order (Polyb. x. 27); he then conducted a successful campaign against Arsaces of Parthia

(209), and against Euthydemus

(g.v.) of Bactria (208-206),

who had overthrown the dynasty of Diodotus (Polyb. x. 28 sqq., 48 sqq., Xi. 34; Justin xli. 5). In spite of his successes he concluded peace with both kingdoms, rightly considering that it would be impossible to retain these remote frontier provinces

permanently.

He next renewed his old friendship with the

Indian king Sophagasenus (Subhagasena), and received from him

so elephants (206 B.c.). Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in the valley of the Etymander (Helmand), he marched to Carmania and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia he re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a voyage from the mouth of the Tigris, through the Arabian

gulf to the flourishing mercantile town of Gerrha in Arabia (now Bahrein) (Polyb. xiii. 9).

575

further reduced the Elymaeans, sacked their temple in the mountains, and captured the Greek city of Seleucia on the Hedyphon (Strabo xvi. 744; Justin xli. 6). The Seleucids, meanwhile, were harassed by aggravated disorders and insurrections. Nevertheless, in 140, Demetrius II. Nicator took the field in order to save the east, but was defeated and captured. Shortly afterwards Mithradates I. died. His son Phraates II. (c. 138-127) was attacked in 130 by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius II., on which the Parthian king released the latter. Antiochus pressed successfully on, and once more recovered Babylonia, but in 129 was defeated in Media and fell in a desperate struggle. With this battle the Seleucid dominion over the countries east of the Euphrates was definitely lost. The Babylonian towns, especially Seleucia (qg.v.), were handed over by Phraates to his favourite, the Hyrcanian Himerus, who punished them severely for their resistance. During these wars great changes had taken place in eastern Iran. In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the Chinese call Yue-chi and the Greeks Scythians, forced their way into Sogdiana, and, in 139, conquered Bactria (Strabo xi. 571; Justin xlii. 1; Trog. Prol. 41; see BACTRIA). From Bactria they tried to advance farther into Iran and India. Entering into an alliance with Antiochus VII., they assailed the Parthian empire. Phraates II. marched to encounter him, but was himself defeated and slain, and his country ravaged far and wide. His successor Artabanus I. (c. 127-124), the uncle of Phraates, also fell in battle against

Shortly afterwards, however, his successful campaign against Ptolemy V. Epiphanes led to a war with Rome in which the power of the Seleucid empire was shattered (190 B.c.), Asia the Tocharians, the principal Scythian tribe (Justin xlii. 1, 2; Minor lost, and the king compelled to pay a heavy contribution Johannes Antiochen. fr. 66); but his son Mithradates II., surto Rome for a long term of years. In order to raise money he named “The Great” (c. 124-88), defeated the Scythians and plundered a wealthy temple of Bel in Elam, but was killed by restored for a while the power of the Arsacids. He also defeated the inhabitants, 187 B.c. (Diod. xxviii. 3, xxix. 15; Strabo xvi. Artavasdes, the king of Great Armenia; his son Tigranes, a 744; Justin xxxli. 2; S. Jerome [Hieronymus] on Dan. xi. 19; hostage in the hands of the Parthians, was only redeemed by the Euseb., Chron. 1. 253). The consequence of this enfeeblement of cession of 70 valleys (Strabo xi. 532). When Tigranes attempted the empire was that the governors of Armenia asserted their to seize Cappadocia, and the Roman praetor P. Cornelius Sulla independence. Artaxias founded the kingdom of Great Armenia; advanced against him, Mithradates in 92 B.c. concluded the first Zariadris, that of Sophene on the Euphrates and the sources of treaty between Parthia and Rome (Plut. Sulla, v.; Liv. epit. 70). the Tigris (Strabo xi. 531). In other districts also, rebellions The dynastic troubles of the Seleucids in Syria gave him an occurred; and in the east, Eutbydemus and his successors opportunity for successful intervention (Jos. Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, 4; (Demetrius, Eucratidas, etc.) began the conquest of the Indus 14, 3). Shortly afterwards he died; and, with his death, the region and the Iranian borderland (Arachosia, Aria). (See Bac- Arsacid power collapsed for the second time. The possession of the western provinces and the dominant position in western Asia TRIA} EUTHYDEMUS; EUCRATIDES; DEMETRIUS; MENANDER.) But the energetic Seleucids fought desperately against their passed to the Armenian Tigranes (g.v.), who wrested from the fate. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-163) restored once more Parthians Mesopotamia and the suzerainty of Atropatene, the Eastern dominion, defeated Artaxias of Armenia (Appian, Gordyene, Adiabene, Osroene. Simultaneously began a new and Syr. 45; Diod. xxxi. 17a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. 40), restored severe conflict with the Scythians. Parthian coins, probably several towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His dating from this period (Wroth. Catal. of the Coins of Parthia, attempt, however, to plunder the sanctuary of Nanaia failed 1903, p. xxx. and p. 40), mention victorious campaigns of (Polyb. xxxi. 11; cf. Maccab. i. 6, ii. 1, 13; App. Syr. 66). Persis, Parthian kings and a conquest of the provinces of Aria, Margiane also, and Media were still subject to him. He tried to strengthen and (?) Traxiane (cf. Strabo xi. 505). But how confused the Hellenism throughout his empire by settling Greek colonists and situation was is shown by the fact that in 76 B.c. the octogenarian mercenaries in the native towns—then, also, in Babylon and king Sanatruces was seated on the Parthian throne by the Jerusalem—and granting them the right of Greek cities. But Scythian tribe of the Sacaraucians (cf. Strabo xi. 511; Trog. after his death at Gabae (Isfahan) in Persis (163 B.C.; cf. Polyb. Prol. 42). The names of his predecessors are not known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual dynastic feuds xxxi. 11; Maccab. i. 6, ii. 9; Jos. Ant. Jud. xii. 9, 1), the Romans took advantage of the dynastic broils to destroy the Seleucid (cf. Trog. Prol. 42). Not till Sanatruces’s successor Phraates empire. They reduced its army and fleet, and favoured every re- III. (70-57) do we find the kingdom again in a settled state. A fact of decisive significance was that the Romans now began bellion: among others, that of the Jews. In spite of all, Demetrius I. Soter (161-150) succeeded in suppressing (159) a revolt of to advance against Tigranes. In vain Mithradates of Pontus and Timarchus of Miletus, governor of Babylon, who had occupied Tigranes turned to the Parthian king, the latter even proffering Media, assumed the title of “great king,” and had been recognized restitution of the conquered frontier provinces. Phraates, though by the Romans (Appian, Syr. 45-47; Trogus, Prol. 34; Diod. rightly distrusting Rome, nevertheless concluded a treaty with Lucullus (69 B.c.) and with Pompey, and even supported the xxxi. 27 A; cf. the coins of Timarchus).! The Parthian Empire.—Meanwhile, in the east, the Arsacids latter in his campaign against Tigranes in 66. But after the had begun their expansion. Phraates I. (c. 175-170) subdued victory it was manifest that the Roman general did not conthe Mardians in Elburz. His brother Mithradates I. (c. 170- sider himself bound by the Parthian treaty. When Tigranes had 138) had to sustain a difficult war with Eucratides of Bactria, submitted, Pompey received him into favour and extended the but eventually succeeded in wresting from him some districts Roman supremacy over the vassal states of Gordyene and on the Turanian frontier. Indeed, he penetrated as far as, and Osroene; though he had allured the Parthian king with the pros-

farther than, the Indus (Diod. xxxiii. 18; Oros. v. 4, 16). In the west he conquered Media, and thence subdued Babylonia. He "For the whole of this period see further ANTIGONUS; ANTIOCHUS I~V.; SELEUCID Dynasty ; HELLENISM.

pect of the recovery of his old possessions as far as the Euphrates. Phraates complained, and simultaneously attacked Tigranes, now

a Roman vassal (64 B.c.). But when Pompey refused reparation Phraates recognized that he was too weak to begin the struggs

576

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PARTHIA. THE THICKER BROKEN LINE MARKS THE BOUNDARIES OF PROVINCES UNDER CONTINUOUS PARTHIAN OF THE EMPIRE CONTINUALLY VARIED, AND THE OUTLINES OF CERTAIN VASSAL PROVINCES ARE SHOWN

RULE.

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with Rome, and contented himself with forming an alliance with | enumerates 19; but, of these, Sacastene formed no part of the Tigranes, in hopes that the future would bring an opportunity for | Parthian empire, as has been shown by von Gutschmid. his revenge (Dio Cass. xxxvi. 3, 5; xxxvii. 5 sgg.; Plut. Luc. 30; The lower provinces (i.e, the districts west of Parthia) are: Pomp. 33, 38; cf. Sallust’s letter of Mithradates to Arsaces). (1) Mesopotamia, with northern Babylonia, from the Euphrates Although Phraates III. had not succeeded in regaining’ the | bridge at Zeugma to Seleucia on the Tigris; (2) Apolloniatis, the full power of his predecessors, he felt justified in again assuming | plain east of the Tigris, with Artemita; (3) Chalonitis, the hillthe title “king of kings”—-which Pompey declined to acknowledge | country of Zagrus; (4) Western Media; (5) Cambadene, with —and even in proclaiming himself as “god” (Phlegon, fr. 12 ap. | Bagistana (Behistun) the mountainous portions of Media; (6)

Phot. cod. 97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.c. the “god” | Upper Media, with Ecbatana; (7) Rhagiane or Eastern Media. was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates. Then with the Caspian Gates—the pass between Elburz and the Organization.—The Parthian empire, as founded by the con- | central desert, through which lay the route from west Iran to quests of Mithradates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. | east Iran—the upper provinces begin; (8) Choarene and (9) and again by Phraates III., was, to all exterior appearance, a Comisene, the districts on the verge of the desert; (ro) continuation of the Achaemenid dominion. Thus the Arsacids Hyrcania; (11) Astabene, with the royal town Asaac on the

now began to assume the old title “king of kings” (the shahanshah | Attruck (see PARTHIA); (12) Parthyene with Parthaunisa, where of modern Persia), though previously their coins, as a rule, had | the sepulchres of the kings were laid; (13) Apavarcticene (now

borne only the legend “great king.” The official version, preserved Abiward, with the capital Kelat); (14) Margiane (Merv); (15) by Arrian in his Parthica (ap. Phot. cod. 58: see PARTHIA), de- | Aria (Herat); (16) Anauon, the southern portion of Aria; (17) rives the line of these chieftains of the Parnian nomads from | Zarangiane, the country of the Drangians, on the lake of Artaxerxes IT. In reality, however, the Parthian empire was totally Hamun; (18) Arachosia, on the Etymander (Helmand), called different from its predecessor, both externally and internally. It | by the Parthians “White India,” extending as far as Alexanwas anything rather than a world-empire. The countries west | dropolis (Kandahar), the frontier city of the Parthian empire. of the Euphrates never owned its dominion, and even of Iran

On the lower Etymander,

the Sacae had established them-

itself not one-half was subject to the Arsacids. There were in- selves—obviously on the inroad of the Scythian tribes—and deed vassal states on every hand, but the actual possessions of the | after them the country was named Sacastene (now Sejistan, kings—the provinces governed by their satraps—consisted of a

Seistan).

Arachosia (north-west Afghanistan), and following the course

|- Round these provinces lay a ring of numerous minor states

Through it lay the route to Kandahar;

and for this

tather narrow strip of land, stretching from the Euphrates and | reason the district is described by Isidore, though it formed no north Babylonia through southern Media and Parthia as far as part of the Parthian empire.

of the great trade-route which from time immemorial had carried | which as a rule were dependent on the Arsacids. They might, the trafic between the west’ of Asia and India. We still possess | however, partially transfer their allegiance on the rise of a new a description of this route by Isidore of Charax, probably dating | power (e.g. Tigranes in Armenia) or a Roman invasion. Thus it

from the Augustan period (in C. Müller, Geographi graeci | is not without justice that the Arsacid period is described, in minores, Vol. i.), in which is contained a list of the 18 imperial | the later Persian and Arabian tradition, as the period of “the provinces, known also to Pliny (vi. 112; cf. 41). Isidore, indeed, | kings of the part-kingdoms”~—among which the Ashkanians (é¢.

PARTHIAN EMPIRE]

PERSIA

77

the Arsacids, from Ashak, the later pronunciation of the name Arshak=Arsaces ) had won the first place. This tradition, how-

7. East of the Tigris lay the kingdom of Elymais (Elam), to which belonged Susa and its modern representative Ahwaz,

ever, is nebulous in the extreme; the whole list of kings, it gives, is totally unhistorical; only the names of one (=Vologaeses) and of the last Ardewan (=Artabanus) heen preserved. The period, from the death of Alexander Sassanid Ardashir I., is put by the Persian tradition at 266

farther down on the Eulaeus.

which Balash having to the years;

The Elymaeans, who had already

offered a repeated resistance to the Seleucids, were subdued by Mithradates I., as we have mentioned above; but they remained a separate state, which often rebelled against the Arsacids (Strabo xvi. 744; cf. Plut. Pomp. 36; Tac. Ann. vi. 50). Of the kings which was afterwards corrected, after Syro-Grecian evidence, who apparently belonged to a Parthian dynasty, several bearing to 523 years. The actual number is 548 years (i.e. 323 B.C. to the name Cammascires are known to us from coins dated 81 and Ap, 226). The statements of the Armenian historians as to this 71 B.C. One of these is designated by Lucian (Macrobii, 16) “king of the Parthians”; while the coinage of another, Orodes, disperiod are also absolutely worthless. plays Aramaic script (Allotte de la Fuye, Rev. num., 4me serie, The ten most important of the vassal states were:—~ 1. The kingdom of Osroene (g.v.) in the north-east of t. vi. p. 92 sgg., 1902). The kingdom, which is seldom mentioned, Mesopotamia with Edessa as capital, founded about 130 B.c. by survived till Ardashir I. In its neighbourhood Strabo mentioned the chieftain of an Arabian tribe, the Orrhoei, which established “the minor dynasties of the Sagapenians and Silacenians” (xvi. 745). The Uxians, moreover, with the Cossaeans and other itself there. 2, To this must be added, the numerous Arabian tribes of the mountain tribes, maintained their independence exactly as under Mesopotamian desert, under their chiefs, among whom one the later Achaemenids (Strabo xvi. 744; Plin. vi. 133). 8. The district of Persis, the local dynasts, became indeAlchaudonius comes into prominence in the period of Tigranes and Crassus. Their settlement in Mesopotamia was encouraged pendent after the time of Antiochus IV. They perpetuated the by Tigranes, according to Plutarch (Luc. 21) and Pliny (vi. Achaemenian traditions, and on their coins—which bear the 142). In later times the Arabic town Atra in an oasis to the Persian language in Aramaic characters, że., the so-called Pahlavi west of the Tigris, governed by its own kings, gained special —appear as zealous adherents of Zoroastrianism and the Firecult (see Persrs). They were forced, however, to acknowledge importance. 3and 4. To the east of the Tigris lay two kingdoms: Gordyene the suzerainty of Parthia, to which they stood in the same position (or Cordyene), the country of the Carduchians (now Bohtan), a as the Persians of Cyrus and his forefathers to the Median emwild mountainous district south of Armenia; and Adiabene pire (cf. Strabo xv. 728, 733, 736; Lucian, Macrob. 15). In later (Hadyab) the ancient Assyria, on either side of the Zab (Lycus). times, before the foundation of the Sassanid dominion, Persis s, On the farther side of Zagrus, adjoining Adiabene on the was disintegrated into numerous small local states. Even in east, was the kingdom of Atropatene in north Media, now often Carmania we find independent kings, one of whom gave his name to a town Vologesocerta (Balashkert). simply called Media (q.v.). 9. The east of Iran—Bactria with Sogdiana, Eastern Arachosia While the power of Armenia was at its height under Tigranes (86-69 B.C.) all these states owned his rule. After the victories and Gedrosia—was never subject to the Arsacids. Here the of Pompey, however, the Romans claimed the suzerainty, so that, Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian kingdoms held their own, during the next decades and the expeditions of Crassus and An- till, in 139 B.c., they succumbed before the invading Mongolian tony, they oscillated between Rome and Parthia, though their and Scythian tribes (see Bactria and works quoted there). But inclination was generally to the latter. For they were all Orientals in the Indus district the Greek kings held their ground for an and, consciously or unconsciously, representatives of a reaction appreciably longer period and, for a while, widely extended their against that Hellenism which had become the heritage of Rome. power (see MENANDER oF INDIA). Among the kings then folAt the same time the loose organization of the Parthian empire, lowing, only known to us from their coins, there appears a afforded them a greater measure of independence than they could dynasty with Iranian and sometimes peculiarly Parthian names which seems to have reigned in the Punjab and Arachosia. Its hope to enjoy under Roman suzerainty. 6. In the south of Babylonia, in the district of Mesene (the best-known representative, Gondophares or Hyndopherres, to modern Maisan), after the fall of Antiochus Sidetes (129 B.c.), whom legend makes the apostle Thomas write, reigned over an Arabian prince, Hyspaosines or Spasines (in a cuneiform in- Arachosia and the Indus district about A.D. 20. Further, about scription of 127, on a clay tablet dated after this year, he is called A.D. 70, the Periplus of the Erythraean sea mentions that the Aspasine) founded a kingdom which existed till the rise of the great commercial town of Minnagar in the Indus Delta was under Parthian kings, “who spent their time in expelling one Sassanian empire. Its capital was a city (mod. Mohammerah), first founded by Alexander on an artificial hill by the junction of another.” Here, then, it would seem there existed a Parthian the Eulaeus (Karun) with the Tigris, and peopled by his veterans. dynasty, which probably went back to the conquests of MithThe town, which was originally named Alexandria and then re- radates I. (cf. Vincent A. Smith, “The Indo-Parthian Dynasties built by Antiochus IV. as Antiochia, was now refortified with from about 120 B.C. to A.D. 100,” in the Zeitschr. der deutschen dikes by Spasines, and named Spasinu Charax (“the wall of morgenl. Gesellsch. 60, 1906). Naturally, such a dynasty would Spasines”), or simply Charax (Plin. vi. 138 seg.). In the follow- not long have recognized the suzerainty of the Arsacids. It sucing centuries it was the main mercantile centre on the Tigris cumbed to the Indo-Scythian empire of the Kushana, who had obtained the sovereignty of Bactria as early as about A.D. 50, and estuary. The kingdom of Mesene, also called Characene, is known to thence pressed onward into India. In the period of the Periplus us from occasional references in various authors, especially (c. A.D. 70) the Scythians were already settled in the Indus valley Lucian (Macrobii, 16), as well as from numerous coins, dated (pp. 38, 41, 48), their dominion reaching its zenith under by the Seleucian era, which allow us to frame a fairly complete Kanishka (c. A.D. 123-153). This empire of the Kushana merits special mention here, on list of the kings.! The Arabian dynasty speedily assimilated itself to the native population; and most of the kings bear account of its peculiar religious attitude, which we may gather ` Babylonian—in a few cases, Parthian—names. The official lan- from the coins of its kings, on which an alphabet taken from the guage was Greek, till, on the destruction of Seleucia (A.D. 164), Greek is employed (cf. Aurel Stein, “Zoroastrian Deities on it was replaced on the coinage by Aramaic. Another Babylonian Indo-Scythian Coins,” in The Babylonian and Oriental Record, dynast must have been Hadadnadinaches (c. 100 B.c.), who built vol. i, 1887). Kanishka, as is well known, had embracedof = Tello the fortified palace which has been excavated by de Buddhism, and some of his coins bear the image and name Buddha. Iranian divinities, however, predominate on his curarzec, rency: Mithras (Mikro or Helios) ;the Moon Mah (also Selene) ; lSee Saint-Martin, Recherches sur la Méstne et la Characéne (1838) ; Athro, the Fire; Ortkragno (Verethragna); Pharro= Farna Reinaud, Memoires sur le royaume de la Méséne (1861) ; E. Babelon, (hvarena), “the majesty of kingship”; Teiro=Tir (Tistrya “the Numism. et chronol. des dynastes de la Characéne” in Journ. Internat. archer”); Nana (Nanaia); and others. Here, then, we have a @’Archeol. mumism. vol. 1. (1898).

578

PERSIA

perfect example of syncretism; as in the Mithras cult in Armenia, Asia Minor, and still further in the Roman empire. Buddhism and Zoroastrianism have been wedded in the state religion, and, in characteristic Indian fashion, are on the best of terms with one another, precisely as, in the Chinese empire at the present day, we find the most varied religions, side by side, and on an equal footing. 10. Originally, a part of the Turanian steppe belonged to the Arsacids; it was the starting-point of their power. Soon, however, the nomads (Dahae) gained their independence, and, as we have seen, repeatedly attacked and devastated the Parthian empire in conjunction with the Tocharians and other tribes of Sacae and Scythians. In the subsequent period, again, we shall frequently meet them. Character of the Empire.—It may appear surprising that the Arsacids made no attempt to incorporate the minor states in the empire and create a great and united dominion, such as existed under the Achaemenids and was afterwards restored by the Sassanids. This fact is the clearest symptom of the inner weakness of their empire and of the small power wielded by the “king of kings.” In contrast alike with its predecessors and its successors, the Arsacid dominion was peculiarly a chance formation—a state which had come into existence through fortuitous external circumstances, and had no firm foundation within itself, or any intrinsic raison être. Three elements, of widely different kinds, contributed to its origin and defined its character. It was sprung from a predatory nomad tribe (the Parnian Dahae, Scythians) which had established itself in Khorasan (Parthia), on the borders of civilization, and thence gradually annexed further districts as the political situation or the weakness of its neighbours allowed. Consequently, these nomads were the main pillar of the empire, and from them were obviously derived the great magnates, with their huge estates and hosts of serfs, who composed the imperial council, led the armies, governed the provinces and made and unmade the kings (Strabo xi. 515; Justin xli. 2; the former terming them ovyyevets “kinsmen” of the king, the latter probuli). Of these great families that of Surenas held the privilege of setting the

diadem on the head of the new king (Plut. Crass. 21; Tac. Ann. vi. 42). The military organization, moreover, was wholly nomadic in character. The nucleus of the army was formed of armoured horsemen, excellently practised for long-distance fighting with bow and javelin, but totally unable to venture on a hand-to-hand conflict, their tactics being rather to swarm round the enemy’s squadrons and overwhelm them under a hail of missiles. When attacked they broke up, as it seemed, in hasty and complete flight, and having thus led the hostile army to break its formation, they themselves rapidly reformed and renewed the assault. How difficult it was for infantry to hold their own against these mounted squadrons was demonstrated by the Roman campaigns, especially in broad plains like those of Mesopotamia. In winter, however, the Parthians were powerless to wage war, as the moisture of the atmosphere relaxed their bows. The infantry, in contrast with its earlier status under the Persians, was wholly neglected. On the other hand, every magnate put into the field as many mounted warriors as possible, chiefly servants and bought slaves, who, like the Janissaries and Mamelukes, were trained exclusively for war. Thus Surenas, in 53 B.c., is said to have put at the king’s disposal 1,000 mailed horsemen and, in all, 10,000 men, including the train, which also comprised his attendants and harem (Plut. Crass. 21; description of the military organization in Dio Cass. 40, 15; Justin xli. 2). In the army of 50,000 mounted men

which took the field against Mark Antony there were, says Justin,

only 400 freemen. How vital was the nomadic element in the Parthian empire is obvious from the fact that, in civil wars, the deposed kings consistently took refuge among the Dahae or Scythians and were restored by them. But, in Parthia, these nomads were amalgamated with the native peasantry, and, with their religion, had adopted their dress and manners. Even the kings, after the

first two or three, wear their hair and beard long, in the Iranian

[PARTHIAN EMPIRE

fashion, whereas their predecessors are beardless. Although the Arsacids are strangers to any deep religious interest (in contrast to the Achaemenids and Sassanids), they acknowledge the Per. sian gods and the leading tenets of Zoroastrianism. They erect fire-altars and even obey the command to abandon all corpses to the dogs and fowls (Justin xli. 3). The union, moreover, recommended by that creed, between brother and sister—and even son and mother—occurs among them. Consequently, beside the council of the nobility, there is a second council of “Magians and

wise men” (Strabo xi. 515). Again, they perpetuate the traditions of the Achaemenid empire. The Arsacids assume the title “kings of kings” and deriye

their line from Artaxerxes II. Further, the royal apotheosis, so common among them and recurring under the Sassanids, is prob-

ably not so much of Greek origin as a development of Iranian views. For at the side of the great god Ahuramazda there stands a host of subordinate divine beings who execute his will—among these the deified heroes of legend, to whose circle the king is now

admitted, since on him Ahuramazda

has bestowed victory and

might.

This gradual Iranianization of the Parthian empire is shown by the fact that the subsequent Iranian traditions, and Firdousi in particular, apply the name of the “Parthian” magnates (PojJavan) to the glorious heroes of the legendary epoch. Consequently, also, the language and writing of the Parthian period, which are retained under the Sassanids, received the name Pahlavi, i.e., “Parthian.” The script was derived from the Aramaic. But to these Oriental elements must be added that of Hellenism, the dominant world-culture which had penetrated into Parthia and Media. It was indispensable to every state which hoped to play some part in the world and was not so utterly secluded as Persis and Atropatene; and the Arsacids entertained the less thought of opposition as they were destitute of an independent national basis. All their external institutions were borrowed from the Seleucid empire: their coinage with its Greek inscriptions and nomenclature; their Attic standard of currency; and, doubtless, a great part of their administration also. In the towns Greek merchants were everywhere settled. Mithradates I. even followed the precedent of the Seleucids in building a new city, Arsacia, which replaced the ancient Rhagae (Rai, Europus) in Media. The further the Arsacids expanded the deeper they penetrated into the province of Hellenism; the first Mithradates himself assumed, after his great conquests, the title of Philhellen, “the protector of Hellenism,” which was retained by almost all his successors. Then follow the surnames Epiphanes “the revealed god,” Dikaios “the just,” Euergetes “the benefactor,” all of them essentially Greek in their reference, and also regularly borne by all the kings. After the conquest of the Euphrates and Tigris provinces it was imperative that the royal residence should be fixed there. But as no one ventured to transfer the royal household and the army, with its hordes of wild horsemen, to the Greek town of Seleucia, and thus disorganize its commerce, the Arsacids set up their abode in the great village of Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia, which accordingly retained its free Hellenic constitution (see CTESIPHON

AND SELEUCIA).

So also Orodes I. spoke good Greek, and Greek

tragedies were staged at his court (Plut. Crass. 33). In spite of this, however, the rise of the Arsacid empire marks the beginning of a reaction against Hellenism—not, indeed, a conscious or official reaction, but a reaction which was all the more effective because it depended on the impetus of circum-

stances working with all the power of a natural force. The essential point is that the east is completely divorced from the Mediterranean and the Hellenic world, that it can derive no fresh powers from that quarter, and that, consequently, the influence of the Oriental elements must steadily increase. This process can be most clearly traced on the coins—almost the sole me-

morials that the Parthian empire has left. From reign to reign the portraits grow poorer and more stereotyped, and the inscriptions more neglected, till it becomes obvious that the engraver himself no longer understood Greek but copied mechanically the

signs before his eyes, as is the case with the contemporary Indo-

WARS WITH ROME]

PERSIA

Scythian coinage, and also in Mesene. Indeed, after Vologaeses

IL (51-77); the Aramaic Script is occasionally employed.

The

political opposition to the western empires, the Seleucids first, then the Romans, precipitated this development. Naturally

enough the Greek cities beheld a liberator in every army that marched from the west, and were ever ready to cast in their lot with such—a disposition for which the subsequent penalty was not lacking. The Parthian magnates, on the other hand, with the

army, would have little to do with Greek culture and Greek modes of life, which they contemptuously regarded as effeminate and

mmanly. They required of their rulers that they should live in the fashion of their country, practise arms and the chase, and

appear as Oriental sultans, not as Grecian kings.

These tendencies taken together explain the radical weakness

of the Parthian empire.

It was easy enough to collect a great

amy and achieve a great victory; it was absolutely impossible to hold the army together for any longer period, or to conduct a

` regular campaign. The Parthians proved incapable of creating a firm, united organization, such as the Achaemenids before them, and the Sassanids after them gave to their empire. The kings themselves were toys in the hands of the magnates and the army who, tenaciously as they clung to the anointed dynasty of the

Arsacids, were utterly indifferent to the person of the individual Arsacid. Every moment they were ready to overthrow the reigning monarch and to seat another on his throne. The kings, for

their part, sought protection in craft, treachery and cruelty, and only succeeded in aggravating the situation. More especially they saw an enemy in every prince, and the worst of enemies in their own sons. Sanguinary crimes were thus of everyday occurrence in the royal household; and frequently it was merely a matter of chance whether the father anticipated the son, or the son the father. The conditions were the same as obtained subsequently under the Mohammedan caliphate (q.v.) and the empire of the Ottomans. The internal history of the Parthian dominion is an unbroken sequence of civil war and dynastic strife. For the literature dealing with the Parthian empire see Parrot.

The Wars. with Rome.—These

conditions elucidate the fact

that the Parthian empire, though founded on annexation and perpetually menaced by hostile arms in both the east and the west, yet never took a strong offensive after the days of Mithradates II. It was bound to protect itself against Scythian aggression in the east and Roman aggression in the west. To maintain, or regain, the suzerainty over Mesopotamia and the vassal states of that region, as also over Atropatene and Armenia, was its most imperative task. Yet it always remained on the defensive and even so was lacking in energy. Whenever it made an effort to enforce its claims, it retreated so soon as it was

confronted by a resolute foe. Thus the wars between Parthia and Rome proceeded, not from the Parthians—deeply injured though they were by the encroachments of Pompey—but from Rome herself. Rome had been obliged, reluctantly enough, to enter upon the inheritance of Alexander the Great; and, since the time of Pompey, had

definitely subjected to her dominion the Hellenistic countries as far as the Euphrates. Thus the task now faced them of annexing

the remainder of the Macedonian empire, thé whole east from the Euphrates to the Indus, and of thereby saving Greek civilization (cf. Plut. Comp. Nic. et Crass. 4). The aristocratic republic quailed before such an enterprise, though Lucullus, at the height of his successes, entertained the thought (Plut. Luc. 30). But the ambitious men, whose goal was to erect their own

sovereignty

on the ruins of the republic, took up the project. With this ob-

jective M. Licinius Crassus, the triumvir, in 54 B.C., took the aggressive against Parthia, the occasion being favourable owing to the dynastic troubles between Orodes I., the son of Phraates MI., and his brother Mithradates III. Crassus fell on the field

of Carrhae (June 9, 53 B.C.). With this Mesopotamia was re-

gained by the Parthians, and King Artavasdes of Armenia now entered their alliance. But, apart from the ravaging of Syria 51 B.C.) by Pacorus the son of Orodes, the threatened attack on

the Roman empire was carried into effect neither then nor during the civil war of Caesar and Pompey. At the time of his assassina-

579

tion Caesar was intent on resuming the expedition of Crassus. The

Parthians

formed

a league with

previously with Pompey, but B.C. a Parthian army, led by Labienus, harried Syria and pulsed by Ventidius Bassus, Pacorus himself fell on June Syria.

Brutus

and

Cassius,

as

gave them no support, until in 40 Pacorus and the republican general Asia Minor. But it was easily rethe lieutenant of Mark Antony. 9, 38 3.c. at Gindarus in northern

Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C., and pene-

trated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was defeated by Phraates IV.—who in 37 B.c. had murdered his father Orodes I. —and compelled to retreat with heavy losses. The continuation of the war was frustrated by the conflict with Octavian. Armenia alone was again subdued in 34 B.c. by Antony, who treacherously captured and executed King Artavasdes. Roman opinion universally expected that Augustus would take up the work of his predecessors, annihilate the Parthian dominion,

and subdue the east as far as the Indians, Scythians and Seres (cf. Horace and the other Augustan poets). But Augustus disappointed these expectations. His whole policy and the needs of the newly organized Roman empire demanded peace. His efforts were devoted to reaching a modus vivendi, by which the authority of Rome and her most vital claims might be peacefully vindicated. This the weakness of Parthia enabled him to effect without much difficulty. His endeavours were seconded by the revolt of Tiridates II., before whom Phraates IV. was compelled to flee (32 B.c.), till restored by the Scythians. Augustus lent no support to Tiridates in his second march on Ctesiphon (26 3.c.), but Phraates was all the more inclined on that account to stand on good terms with him. Consequently in 20 B.C., he restored the standards captured in the victories over Crassus and Antony, and recognized the Roman suzerainty over Osroene and Armenia. In return, the Parthian dominion in Babylonia and the other vassal states were left undisputed. Thus it was due not to the success and strength of the Parthians but entirely to the principles of Roman policy as defined by Augustus that their empire appears as a second great independent power, side by side with Rome. The precedence of the Caesars, indeed, was always admitted by the Arsacids; and Phraates IV. soon entered into a state of dependency on Rome by sending (9 B.c.) four of his sons as hostages to Augustus—a convenient method of obviating the danger threatened in their person, without the necessity of killing them. In 4 B.C., however, Phraates was assassinated by his favourite wife Musa and her son Phraates V. In the subsequent broils a Parthian faction obtained the release of one of the princes interned in Rome as Vonones I. (a.D. 8). He failed, however, to maintain his position for long. He was a stranger to the Parthian customs, and the feeling of shame at dependency on the foreigner was too strong. So the rival faction brought out another Arsacid, resident among the Scythian nomads, Artabanus II., who easily expelled Vonones —only to create a host of enemies by his brutal cruelty, and to call forth fresh disorders. Similar proceedings were frequently repeated in the period following. In the intervals the Parthians made several attempts to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there install an Arsacid prince; but on each occasion they retreated without giving battle so soon as the Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropatene was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsacid ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out under Vologaeses I. (51-77), who made his brother Tiridates king of Armenia. After protracted hostilities, In which the Roman army was commanded by Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a peace was concluded in a.D. 63, confirming the Roman suzerainty over Armenia but recognizing Tiridates as king (see Corsuto). Tiridates himself visited Rome and was there invested with the diadem by

Nero (a.D. 66). After that Armenia continued under the rule of an Arsacid dynasty. These successes of Vologaeses were counterbalanced by serious losses in the east. He was hampered in an energetic campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and Sacae. Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under a separate line of kings. A little later the Alans, a great Iranian tribe in the south

580

PERSIA

of Russia—the ancestors of the present-day Ossets—broke for the first time through the Caucasian passes, and ravaged Media and Armenia—an incursion which they often repeated in the following centuries. On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses I. is characterized by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against Hellenism. The line of Arsacids which came to the throne in the person of Artabanus II. (a.D. 10) stands in open opposition to the old kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tinge of Hellenism. The new régime obviously laid much more stress on the Oriental character of their state, though Philostratus, in his life of Apollonius of Tyana (in reality a fantastical romance which contains scarcely any historical information), states that Vardanes I. (A.D. 40~45), the rival king to the brutal Gotarzes (A.D. 40-51), was a cultivated man (Vit. Ap. i. 22, 28, 31 sgq.); and Vologaeses I. is distinguished by the excellent relations which subsisted all his life between himself and his brothers Pacorus and Tiridates, the kings of Media and Armenia. But the coins of Vologaeses I. are quite barbarous, and for the first time on some of them appear the initials of the name of the king in Aramaic letters by the side of the Greek legend. The Hellenism of Seleucia was now attacked with greater determination. For seven years (A.D. 37-43) the city maintained itself in open rebellion (Tac. Ann. xi. 8 seq.), till at last it surrendered to Vardanes, who in consequence enlarged Ctesiphon, which was afterwards fortified by Pacorus (a.D. 78-105: v. Ammian, 23, 6, 23). In the neighbourhood of the same town Vologaeses I. founded a city Vologesocerta (Balashkert), to which he attempted to transplant the population to Seleucia (Plin. vi. 122: cf. Th. Nöldeke in Zettschr. d. deutsch. morgenl. Gesellschaft, xxviii., 100). Another

of his foundations was Vologesias (the Arabian Ullaish), situated near Hira on the Euphrates, south of Babylon, which did appreciable damage to the commerce of Seleucia and is often mentioned in inscriptions as the destination of the Palmyrene caravans. After Vologaeses I. follows a period of great disturbances. The literary tradition, indeed, deserts us almost entirely, but the coins and isolated literary references prove that during the years A.D. 77 to 147, two kings, and sometimes three or more, were often reigning concurrently (Vologaeses II. 77~79, and III—147; Pacorus 78-c. 105; Osroes 106-129; Mithradates V. 129-147; also Artabanus III. 80-81; Mithradates IV. and his son Sanatruces II. 115; and Parthamaspates 116-117). Obviously the empire can never have been at peace during these years, a fact which materially assisted the aggressive campaigns of Trajan (113-117). Trajan resuscitated the old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the empire of Alexander as far as India was to be won for western civilization. In pursuance of this plan he reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia and Babylonia to the position of imperial provinces. On his death, however, Hadrian immediately reverted to the Augustan policy and restored the conquests. Simultaneously there arose in the east the powerful Indo-Scythian empire of the Kushana, which doubtless limited still further the Parthian possessions in eastern Iran. An era of quiet seems to have returned with Vologaeses III. (147-191), and we hear no more of rival kings. With the Roman empire a profound peace had reigned since Hadrian (117), which was first disturbed by the attack of Marcus Aurelius and Aelius Verus in 162. This war, which broke out on the question of Armenia and Osroene, proved of decisive significance for the future development of the east, for, in its course, Seleucia was destroyed by the Romans under Avidius Cassius (164). The downfall of the great Greek city sealed the fate of Hellenism in the countries east of the Euphrates. Henceforward Greek culture practically vanishes and gives place to Aramaic; it is Significant that in future the kings of Mesene stamped their coinage with Aramaic legends. This Aramaic victory was powerfully aided by the ever-increasing progress of Christianity, which soon created, as is well known, an Aramaic literature of which the language was the dialect of Edessa, a city in which the last king of Osroene, Abgar IX. (179—214), had been converted to the faith. After that Greek culture and Greek literature were

[SASSANIAN EMPIRE

only accessible to the Orientals in an Aramaic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the king Valgash, who, according to a native tradition, preserved in the Dinkart, began a collection of the sacred writings of Zoroaster—the origin of the Avesta which has come down to us. This would show how the national] Tranian element in the Parthian empire was continually gathering Strength, The Roman war was

closed in 165 by a peace which ceded

north-west Mesopotamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place in 195~202 between Vclogaeses IV. (191-209) and Septimiys Severus, and again in 216~217 between Artabanus IV, (209-226)

and Caracalla.

They failed, however, to affect materially the

position of the two empires. The Sassanian Empire.—That have

endured

some

350 years

the Arsacid empire should

after its foundation, was a re.

sult, not of internal strength, but of chance working in its externa] development. It might equally well have so existed for centuries more. But under Artabanus IV. the catastrophe came. In his days there arose in Persis—precisely as Cyrus had arisen under Astyages the Mede—a great personality. Ardashir (Artaxerxes) I., son of Papak (Babek), the descendant of Sasan, was the sovereign of one of the small states into which Persis had gradually fallen. His father Papak had taken possession of the district of

Istakhr, which had replaced the old Persepolis, long a mass of ruins. Thence Ardashir I., who reigned from about a. 212, subdued the neighbouring potentates—disposing of his own brothers among the rest. This proceeding quickly led to war with his suzerain Artabanus IV. The conflict was protracted through sev-

eral years, and the Parthians were worsted in three battles. The last of these witnessed the fall of Artabanus (A.D. 224), though a Parthian king, Artavasdes—perhaps a son of Artabanus IV.—who is only known to us from his own coins, appears to have retained a portion of the empire for some time longer. The members of the

Arsacid line who fell into the hands of the victor were put to death; a number of the princes found refuge in Armenia, where the Arsacid dynasty maintained itself till ap. 429. The remainder of the vassal states—Carmania, Susiana, Sakastan (Seistan), Mesene—-were ended by Ardashir; and the autonomous desert fortress of Hatra in Mesopotamia was destroyed by his son Shapur

(Sapor)

I., according to the Persian and Arabian traditions,

which, in this point, are deserving of credence. The victorious Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctesiphon and assumed the title “King of the kings of the Iranians” (Bactdeds Bacitéwy ’Apravar), The new empire founded by Ardashir I—the Sassanian, or Neo-Persian empire—is essentially different from that of his Arsacid predecessors. It is, rather, a continuation of the Achaemenid traditions which were still alive on their native soil. Consequently the national impetus—already clearly revealed in the title of the new sovereign—again becomes strikingly manifest. The Sassanian empire, in fact, is once more a national Persian or Iranian empire. The religious element is, of course, inseparable from the national, and Ardashir, like all the dynasts of Persis, was an ardent devotee of the Zoroastrian doctrine, and closely connected with the priesthood. In his royal style he assumed the designation “Mazdayasnian” (Macddcvas), and the fire-cult was everywhere ‘vigorously disseminated. Simultaneously the old claims to world dominion made their reappearance. After

the defeat of Artabanus, Ardashir, as heir of the Achaemenids,

formulated his pretensions to the dominion of western Asia (Dio. Cass. 80, 3; Herodian vi. 2, 4; Zonar xii. 15; similarly under Shapur rr.: Ammian. Marc. xvii. 5, 5). He attacked Armenia, though without permanent success (cf. von Gutschmid in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xxxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian atcount of these wars), and despatched his armies against Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman empire, and the widespread tendency of its troops to mutiny and usurpation, favoured his enterprise. Nevertheless, the armies of Alexander Severus, supported by the

king of Armenia, succeeded the Romans sustained severe of his reign Ardashir resumed (241-272) reduced Nisibis

in repelling the losses (231—233). the attack; while and Carrhae and

Persians, thoug Towards the end his son Shapur I. penetrated inte

Syria, but was defeated by Gordian IIT. at Resaena (243). Soon afterwards,

however,

581

PERSIA

gaSSANIAN EMPIRE] the

Roman

empire

seemed

to collapse

utterly. The Goths defeated Decius (251) and harried the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor, while insurrections broke out

everywhere and the legions created one Caesar after the other. Then Shapur resumed the war, subdued Armenia and plundered

Antioch. The emperor Valerian, who marched to encounter him, was overthrown at Edessa and taken prisoner (260). The Persian armies advanced into Cappadocia; but here Ballista or Balista

(d. c. 264) beat them back, and Odenathus (Odainath), prince of Palmyra (g.v.), rose in their rear, defeated Shapur, captured his harem, and twice forced his way to Ctesiphon (263—265).

or rather West Iran, together with the districts on the Tigris and Euphrates. This fact, again, is most closely connected with its military and administrative organization. The external and internal conditions of the empire are in mutual reaction

upon

one another. The empire, which in extent did not exceed that of the Arsacids with its vassal states, was protected on the east and west by the great'deserts of central Iran and Mesopotamia. For the defence of these provinces the mounted archers, who formed the basis of the army, possessed adequate strength; and though the Scythian nomads from the east, or the Romans from the west, might occasionally penetrate deep into the country, they never succeeded in maintaining their position.

But the

Shapur was in no position to repair the defeat, or even to hold power of the neo-Persian empire was not great enough for furArmenia; so that the Sassanid power failed to pass the bounds of ther conquests, though its army was capable and animated by a

the Arsacid empire. Nevertheless Shapur I., in contrast to his father, assumed the title “King of the kings of the Iranians and

far stronger national feeling than that of the Parthians. It still consisted, however, of levies from the retinue of the mag-

non-Iranians” (Gaotdevs Bactdéwr *Aprdvev cal Avaprdvwv; shah an shah Iran we Aniran), thus emphasizing his claim to world dominion. His successors retained the designation, little as it cor-

nates led by their territorial lords; and, although these troops would stream in at the beginning of a war, they could not be kept permanently together. For, on the one hand, they were actuated by the most varied personal interests and antipathies,

responded to the facts, for the single non-Iranian land governed by the Sassanids was, as under the Parthians, the district of

the Tigris and Euphrates as far as the Mesopotamian desert; western and northern Mesopotamia remained Roman.

Organization—The

Sassanid

the “Kingly Majesty,”

ruler is the representative

derived from Ormuzd, which

of

appears

in the Avesta as the angel Kavaem Hvareno, “the royal glory,” and, according to legend, once beamed in the Iranian kings, unattainable to all but those of royal blood. A sculpture, which frequently recurs in the rock-reliefs of Ardashir I. and Shapur L., represents the king and the god Ormuzd both on horseback, the

latter in the act of handing to his companion the ring of sovereignty. Thus it is explicable that all the Sassanids, as many of the Arsacids before them, include the designation of “god” in their formal style. From this developed (as already under the Arsacids) that strict principle of ‘legitimacy which is still vigorous in Firdousi. It applies, however, to the whole royal house, precisely as it did later in the Ottoman empire. The person of the individual ruler is a matter of indifference. He can readily be removed and replaced by another; but no usurper who was not of the legitimate blood can hope to become the genuine king. Therefore the native tradition carries the Sassanid line back to the Achaemenids and, still further, to the kings of the legendary period. Officially the king is all-powerful, and his will, which is guided by God and bound up in His law, unfettered. Thus, externally, he is surrounded by all the splendour of sovereignty; on his head he wears a great and resplendent crown, with a high circular centre-piece; he is clothed in gold and jewels; round him is a brilliant court, composed of his submissive servants. He sits In dazzling state on his throne in Ctesiphon. All who would approach fling themselves to the ground, life'and death depend on his nod. Among his people he is accounted the fairest, strongest and wisest man of the empire; and from him is required the

practice of all piety and virtue, as well as skill in the chase and Ardashir I., moreover, and his

In arms—especially the bow. successors endeavoured

to establish the validity of the royal

will by absorbing the vassal states and instituting a firmer organization. Nevertheless they failed to attain the complete independence and power of the Achaemenids.

Not strong enough to

break wp the nobility, with its great estates, they were forced

not all of which the king could could not, owing to the natural his dominions, maintain and pay time. Thus the great hosts soon successfully, ended such circumstances ing different species plan of campaign,

satisfy; on the other hand he character and organization of a large army for any length of melted away, and a war, begun

ingloriously, and often disastrously. Under an elaborate tactical organization employof arms, or the execution of a comprehensive was out of the question. The successes of

the Sassanids in the east were gained in the later period of their dominion; and the Roman armies, in spite of decay in discipline and military spirit, still remained their tactical and strategical superiors. A great victory might be won—even an emperor might be captured, like Valerian—but immediately afterwards successes, such as those gained against Shapur I. (who was certainly an able general) by Ballista and Odenathus of Palmyra, or the later victories of Carus, Julian and others, demonstrated how far the Persians were from being on an equality with the Romans. That Babylonia permanently remained a Sassanian province was due merely to the geographical conditions and to the political situation of the Roman empire, not to the strength of the Persians. Among the magnates six great houses—seven, if we include the royal house—were still regarded as the foremost, precisely as under the Achaemenids, and from these were drawn the generals, crown officials and governors (cf. Procop. Pers. i. 6, 13 sqq.). In the last of these positions we frequently find princes of the

blood, who then bear the royal title (shah). Some of these houses —whose origin the legends derive from King Gushtasp (że. Vishtaspa), the protector of Zoroaster (Marquart, Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xlix. 635 sqg.)—already existed under the Arsacids. e.g., the Suren (Surenas, vide supra, p. 798) and Karen (Carenes, Tac. Ann. xii. 12 sqq.), who had obviously embraced the cause of the victorious dynasty at the correct moment and so retained their position. The name Pahlavan, moreover, which denoted the Parthian magnates, passed over into the new empire. Below these there was an inferior nobility, the dikkans (“village-lords”) and the “knights” (aswar); who, as among the Parthians, took the field in heavy scale-armour. To an even greater extent than under the Arsacids the empire was subdivided into a host of small provinces, at the head of each being a Marzban (“boun-

to utilize its services and still further to promote its interests;

dary-lord,” “lord of the marches”). These were again comprised

materially contributed to the disintegration of the empire and the humerous insurrections of the satraps. But the older Achaemenids held an entirely different position;

himself feared. But to break through the system or replace it by

while their dependence on its good-will and assistance led inev- in four great districts. With each of these local potentates the itably to incessant gifts of money, lands and men. This state of king could deal with as scant consideration as he pleased, always affairs had also prevailed under the later Achaemenids, and had provided that he had the power or understood the art of making

and hardly a single Sassanid enjoyed even that degree of power which was still retained by the later Achaemenids. It was of fundamental importance that the Sassanian empire could not make good its claim to world dominion; and, in spite of the title

of its kings, it always remained essentially the kingdom of Iran—

another was impossible. In fact he was compelled to proceed with great caution whenever he wished to elevate a favourite of humbler origin to an office which custom reserved for the nobility. Thus it is all the more worthy of recognition that the Sassanian empire was a fairly orderly empire, with an excellent legal administration, and that the later sovereigns did their utmost to repress the encroachments of the nobility, to protect the

PERSIA

582 commonalty, taxation.

and, above

all, to carry

out a just system

of

Religious Development.—Side by side with the nobles ranked the spiritual chiefs, now a far more powerful body than under the Arsacids. Every larger district had its upper Magian (Magupat, mobed, i.e., “Lord of the Magian’’). At their head was the supreme Mobed, resident in Rhagae (Rai), who was regarded as the successor of Zoroaster. In the new empire, of which the king and people were alike zealous professors of the true faith, their influence was extraordinarily strong (cf. Agathias li. 26)—-comparable to the influence of the priesthood in later Egypt, and especially in Byzantium and mediaeval Christendom. As has already been indicated, it was in their religious attitudes that the essential difference lay between the Sassanid empire and the older Iranian states. But, in details, the fluctuations were so manifold that it is necessary at this point to enter more fully into the history of Persian religion (cf. especially H. Gelzer, “Eznik u. d. Entwickel. des pers. Religions-systems,” in the Zeitschr. f. armen. Philol. i. 149 sqq.). The Persian religion, as we have seen, spread more and more widely after the Achaemenian period. In the Indo-Scythian empire the Persian gods were zealously worshipped; in Armenia the old national religion was almost entirely banished by the Persian cults (Gelzer, “Zur armen. Götterlehre,” in Ber. d. sächs. Gesch. d. Wissensch., 1895); in Cappadocia, North Syria and the west of Asia Minor, the Persian gods were everywhere adored side by side with the native deities.

It was in the 3rd

century that the cult of Mithras, with its mysteries and a theology evolved from Zoroastrianism, attained the widest diffusion in all Latin-speaking provinces of the Roman dominion; and it even seemed for a while as though the Sol invictus Mithras, highly favoured by the Caesars, would become the official deityin-chief of the empire. But in all these cults the Persian gods are perfectly tolerant of other native or foreign divinities; vigorous as was their propagandism, it was yet equally far removed from an attack on other creeds. Thus this Parseeism always bears a syncretic character; and the supreme god of Zoroastrian theory, Ahuramazda (i.e. Zeus or Jupiter), in practice yields place to his attendant deities, who work in the world and are able to lead the believer, who has been initiated and keeps the commendments of purity, to salvation. But meanwhile, in its Iranian home and especially in Persis, the religion of Zoroaster lived a quiet life, undisturbed by the proceedings of the outside world. Here the poems of the prophet and fragments of ancient religious literature survived, understood by the Magians and rendered accessible to the faithful laity by versions in the modern dialect (Pehlevi). Here the opposition between the good spirit of light and the demons of evil—between Ormuzd and Ahriman—still remained the principal dogma of the creed; while all other gods and angels, however

estimable their aid, were but subordinate servants of Ormuzd, whose highest manifestation on earth was not the sun-god Mithras, but the holy fire guarded by his priests. Here all the prescriptions of purity—partly connected with national customs, and impossible of execution abroad—were diligently observed; and even the injunction not to pollute earth with corpses, but to cast out the dead to vulture and dog, was obeyed in its full force. At the same time Ahuramazda preserved his character as a national god, who bestowed on his worshippers victory and world dominion. In the sculptures of the Sassanids, as also in Armenian traditions, he appears on horseback as ‘a war-god. Here, again, the theology was further developed, and an attempt made to annul the old dualism by envisaging both Ormuzd and Ahriman as emanations of an original principle of infinite time

(Zervan), a doctrine which long enjoyed official validity under the Sassanids till, in the reign of Chosroes I., “the sect of Zervanites” ‘was pronounced heretical! But, above all, the ritual and the doctrine of purity were elaborated and expanded, and there was evolved a complete and detailed system of casuist-

ry, dealing with all things allowed and forbidden, the forms of llt may be observed that this innovation was also known to the Mithras-cult of the west, where Zervan appears as a lov.

[SASSANIAN EMPIRE

pollution and the expiation for each, etc., which, in its ariq and spiritless monotony, vividly recalls the similar prescriptions in the Pentateuch. The consequences of this development were that orthodoxy and literal obedience to all priestly injunctions

now assumed an importance far greater than previously ; henceforward, the great commandment of Zoroastrianism, as of Juda-

ism, is to combat the heresies of the heathen, a movement which had already had an energetic representative in the prophet himself. Heathenish cults and forbidden manners and customs are a pollution to the land and a deep insult to the true God. Therefore the duty of the believer is to combat and destroy the unbeliever and the heretic.

In short, the tolerance of the Achaemenids and

the indifference of the Arsacids are now replaced by intolerance and religious persecution.

Such were the views in which Ardashir I. grew up, and in their energetic prosecution he found a potent instrument for the building up of his empire. It has previously been mentioned that Vologaeses III. had already begun a collection of the holy writings; and the task was resumed under Ardashir. At his order the orthodox doctrines. and texts were compiled by the high priest Jansar; all divergent theories were prohibited and their adherents proscribed. Thus arose the Avesta, the sacred book of the Parsees.

Above all, the sacred book of laws, the Vendidad,sbreathes

throughout the spirit of the Sassanian period, in its intolerance, its casuistry degenerating into absurdity, and its soulless monotony. Subscription to the restored orthodox doctrine was to the Iranian a matter of course. The schismatics Ardashir imprisoned for a year; if, at its expiration, they still refused to listen to reason, and remained stiff-necked, they were executed.

It is even

related that, in his zeal for uniformity of creed, Ardashir wished

to extinguish the holy fires in the great cities of the empire and

the Parthian vassal states, with the exception of that which burned in the residence of the dynasty. This plan he was unable to execute. In Armenia, also Ardashir and Shapur, during the period of their occupation, sought to introduce the orthodox religion, destroyed the heathen images—even those of the Iranian gods which were here considered heathen,—and turned the shrines into fire-altars (Gelzer, Ber. sachs. Ges. p. 135, 1895). Shapur I., who appears to have had a broader outlook, added to the religious writings a collection of scientific treatises on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, zoology, etc., partly from Indian and Greek sources. A short time afterwards, the Roman empire followed the example of the Sassanids and attempted to enforce unity of creed on all subjects: with Decius (A.D. 250) began the systematic persecution of the Christians. For, meanwhile, the Christian religion had spread far in east and west with an equally zealous propagandism and an equal exclusiveness and intolerance. In the countries of the Tigris and Euphrates, now altogether Aramaic, Christianity had eyerywhere gained a firm footing.? But its missionary enterprise stretched over the whole of Iran, and even farther. The time was come when, in the western and eastern

worlds alike, the religious question was for large masses of people the most important question in life, and the diffusion of their own ereed and the suppression of all others the highest and holiest of tasks. The man who thinks thus knows no compromise, and s0 Zoroastrianism and Christianity confronted each other as mortal enemies. Still the old idea that every religion contained a portion of the truth, and that it was possible to borrow something

from one and amalgamate it with another, had not yet lost all its power. From such a conception arose the ‘teaching of Mani or Manes. Our knowledge of Manichaeism (g.v.) has been greatly increased by the discovery of many fragments of its literature in Eastern Turkistan (Turfan); but they. all are surpassed in importance by a large Chinese manuscript in the

British Museum containing translations of Manichaéan hymns 2For the propagation and history of the Christians in the Sassanid empire, cf. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans lempire perse sous dynastie sassanide (1904) ; Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christenthums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 2. Auf. (1906), Bd. 11. p. 121 seg.; Chabot, Synodicon orientale (1902) (a collection

of the acts of the Nestorian Sassanids) .

synods held under the rule of the

PERSIA

gASSANIAN EMPIRE]

and ritual; the publication and explanation of it has been begun by Waldschmidt and Lenz (Jr. As. Soc. 1926, 116f. Die Stellung Jesu im Manichaeismus, Abh. Preuss. Akad. 1926). We can now clearly see that Manichaeism originated from a Gnostic sect. Mani, a Persian from Babylonia, proclaimed himself as the last and greatest apostle of Jesus and as the paraclete announced in

the Gospel of John. But with the Gnostic interpretation of the Gospel he tried to combine the doctrine of Zoroaster and Jesus to create a new universal religion.

He is said to have made his

first appearance as a teacher on the coronation day of Shapur I. At all events he found numerous adherents, both at court and among the magnates

of the empire.

The king even inclined to

him, till in a great disputation the Magians gained the predom-

inance. None the less Mani found means to diffuse his creed far and wide over the whole empire. Even the heir to the throne, Hormizd I. (reigned 272—273), was favourably disposed to him;

but Shapur’s younger son, Bahram

I. (273—276), yielded to

sacerdotal pressure, and Mani was executed. After that Manichaeism was persecuted and extirpated in Iran. Yet it maintained itself not merely in the west, where its head resided at Babylon—propagating thence far into the Roman empire—but also in the east, in Khurasan and beyond the bounds of the Sassanian dominion.

There the seat of its pontiff was at Samark-

and; thence it penetrated into Central Asia, where, buried in the desert sands which entomb the cities of eastern Turkistan, numerous fragments of the works of Mani and his disciples, in the Persian language (Pahlevi) and Syrian script, and in an East Iranian dialect, called Sogdian, which was used by the Manichaeans of Central Asia, have been discovered.

foreign

583 literature,

principally

Indian,—one

instance

being

the

celebrated book of tales Kalilah and Dimmah (see Syrtac LirERATURE), dating from Chosroes I., in whose reign chess also was introduced from India. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Side by side with the accounts of Roman and Greek authors stands the indigenous tradition which, especially for the later years of the empire, is generally trustworthy. It goes back to a native work, the Khkudai nama (“book of Lords”), compiled under Chosroes I. and continued to Yazdegerd III. Its narrations are principally preserved in Tabari, though there combined with numerous Arabian traditions; also in the poetical adaptation of Firdousi. To these may be added Syrian accounts, particularly in the martyrologies, which have been excellently treated by G. Hoffmann, Aussiige aus syrischen Akten persischer Méartyrer (1880); also the statements of the Armenian historians. The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Néldeke’s Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari (1870, trans. with notes and excursuses chiefly on the chronology and organization of the empire). On this is based Noldeke’s Aufsätze zur pers. Gesch. (1887), containing a history of the Sassanian empire, pp. 86 sqqg. A. Christensen, L’empire des Sassanids (Mém. de l’acad. de Danemark 1907). For the geography and numerous details of administration: J. Marquart, “Eranshahr” (Abh. d. götting. Ges. d. Wissensch., 1901). For the monuments: Fiandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse (1851) ; Stolze, Persepolis (1882) ; Dalton, The Treasure of the Oxus (Brit. Mus. 190%); Fr. Sarre and E. Herzfeld, Iran Felsreliefs (t910) ; Fr. Sarre, die Kunst der Alten Persien (1923).

History of the Sassanian Empite—In foreign policy the problems under the Sassanid kings! remained as of old, the defence and, when possible, the expansion of the eastern and western frontiers. In the first two centuries of the Sassanid empire we hear practically nothing of its relations with the east. Only occasional notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads had not ceased, and that the extent of the empire had by no

Art and Literature.—Like the Arsacids the kings resided in Ctesiphon, where, out of the vast palace built by Chosroes I., a portion at least of the great hall is still erect. On the ruins of means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion—Sacastene Seleucia, on the opposite bank of the Tigris, Ardashir I. built the (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east, on both sides city of Veh-Ardashir (“good is Ardashir”), to which the later of the Indus, the Kushana empire was still in existence, though kings added new towns, or rather new quarters. In Susiana it was already hastening to decay, and about A.D. 320 was disShapur I. built the great city of Gondev-Shapur, which succeeded placed from its position in India by the Gupta dynasty. In the the ancient capital of the Persian empire. At the same time the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern Mesopotamia (now mother-country again gained importance; especially the capital of Roman provinces), with the fortresses of Edessa, Carrhae and Persia, Istakhr, which had replaced the former Persepolis (now Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the Sassanids were all the more the ruins of Hajjiabad). Farther in the south-east, Ardashir I. eager to regain, since there the Arsacid dynasty still survived and built Gur (now Firuzabad), under the name of Ardashir-khurre turned for protection to Rome, with whom, in consequence, new (“the glory of Ardashir”). At these places and in Sarwistan, near wars perpetually broke out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276—293), Shiraz and elsewhere, lie ruins of the Sassanid palaces, which in the emperor Carus, burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, their design go back to the Achaemenid architecture, blending penetrated into Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and with it, however, Graeco-Syrian elements and serving in their reduced Coche (near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden turn as models for the structures of the Caliphs (see ARCHITEC- death, in December of 283, precluded further success, and the TURE: Sassanian). After its long quiescence under the Arsacids Roman army returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to native art underwent a general renaissance which, though not effect anything, as his brother Hormuzd was in arms, supported aspiring to the Achaemenian creations, was still of no small by the Sacae and other tribes. (Mamertin, Panegyr. Maximin. importance. Of the Sassanian rock-sculptures some have already 7. 10; Genethl. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy been mentioned; besides these, numerous engraved signet-stones peace with Diocletian by means of presents. After his death have been preserved. The metal-work, carpets and fabrics of this (293), his uncle Narses was forced by his magnates to rebel period enjoyed a high reputation; they were widely distributed against Bahram III. and gained the crown. In memory of his victory he has erected a great tower in the mountains west of and even influenced western art. In the intellectual life and literature of the Sassanid era the the upper Diyala, at Paikuli, discovered 1843 by Rawlinson and main characteristic is the complete disappearance of Hellenism explored in three expeditions by Herzfeld (published by Herzfeld, and the Greek language. Ardashir I. and Shapur I. still appended Pai Kuli 1924; since then, he has cleared a great number of Greek translations to some of their inscriptions; but all of later lList of kings (after Nöldeke, Tabari, p. 435). date are drawn up in Pahlavi alone. The coins invariably bear Ardashir I., 224—241. Peroz, 459-484. Shapur I., 241-272. Balash, 484—488. a Pahlavi legend—on the obverse the king’s head with his name Hormizd I., 272—273. Kavadh I., 488-531. and title; on the reverse, a fire-altar (generally with the ascripBahram I., 273-276. (Djamasp. 496-498).: , tion “fire of Ardashir, Shapur, etc.,” ie. the fire of the royal Bahram IT., 276-293. Chosroes (Khosrau) I., Anushirpalace), and the name of the place of coinage, usually abbreviBahram IIT., 293. van, 531—579. ated. The real missionaries of culture in the empire were the Narseh (Narses), 293—302. Hormizd IV., 579-590.

Aramaeans (Syrians), who were connected with the west by their Christianity, and in their translations diffused Greek literature through the Orient. But there also developed a rather extensive

Pahlavi literature, beginning with the translations of the sacred books (the Avesta) though not limited to religious subjects, but containing works in belles lettres, modernizations of the old Iranian sagas and native traditions, e.g., the surviving fabulous

history of Ardashir I., ethical tales, etc., with translations of

Hormizd II., 302—310. Chosroes II., Parvez, 590-628. Shapur II., 310-379. (Bahram VI., Cobin, Bistam 590Ardashir II., 379—383. 596). Shapur III., 383-388. Kavadh IIL., Skeroe, 628. Bahram IV., 388—399. Ardashir III., 628—630. Yazdegerd I., 399—420. (Shahrbaraz, 630). Bahram V., Gor. 420-438. (Boran and others, 630—632). Yazdegerd IL., 438-457. Yazdegerd III., 632—651. Hormizd III., 457-459. , On most of these kings there are separate articles.

584

PERSIA

further blocks of the inscription, which are not yet published). It is covered with his busts and with a large inscription in the two forms of Pahlavi writing, the Parthian and the Persian, of which many blocks have been preserved. It contained an account of the way in which he defeated his opponent, and gives at the end a long list of the kings and dynasts, who sent embassies of congratulation at his accession, headed by the Kushan-shah of India and the Caesar of Rome. From this list we see that the east of Iran did not belong to the empire, but was ruled by a great many local dynasts, some of whom, just as the kings of the Arabic tribes in Babylonia (the Lakhmids of Hira, etc.), may have acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sassanids. After his victory, Narses occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor

Galerius at Callinicum (296). But in the following year he sustained a severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his warchest and harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene, were ceded to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Petr. Patr. fr. 13, 14; Rufus brev. 25). In return Narses regained his household. This peace, ratihed in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids from the disputed districts, lasted for 40 years. After the death of Hormuzd II. (302-310), the son of Narses, the magnates imprisoned or put to death his adult sons, one of

whom, Hormisdas, later escaped to the Romans, who used him as a pretender in their wars. Shapur IL., a posthumous child of the late king, was then raised to the throne, a proof that the great magnates held the sovereignty in their own hands and attempted to order matters at their own pleasure.

Shapur, however, when

he came to manhood proved himself an independent and energetic ruler.

Shapur ITI——Meanwhile the Roman empire had become Christian, the sequel of which was that the Syro-Christian population of Mesopotamia and Babylonia—even more than the Hellenic cities in former times—gravitated to the west and looked to Rome for deliverance from the infidel yoke. On similar grounds Christianity, as opposed to Mazdaism enforced officially by the Sassanids, became predominant in Armenia. Between these two great creeds the old Armenian religion was unable to hold its own; as early as A.D. 294 King Tiridates was converted by Gregory the Illuminator and adopted the Christian faith. For this very reason the Sassanid empire was the more constrained to champion. Zoroastrianism. It was under Shapur II. that the compilation of the Avesta was completed and the state orthodoxy perfected by the chief mobed, Aturpad. All heresy was proscribed by the state, defection from the true faith pronounced a capital crime, and the persecution of the heterodox—particularly the Christians—began (cf. Sachall, “Die rechtlichen Verhältnisse der Christen in Sassanidenreich,” in Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische Sprachen für Berlin, Bd. X., Abt. 2, 1907). Thus the duel between the two great empires now becomes simultaneously a duel between the two religions. In such a position of affairs a fresh war with Rome was inevitable.t It was begun by Shapur in A.D. 337, the year that saw the death of Constantine the Great. The conflict centred round the Mesopotamian fortresses; Shapur thrice besieged Nisibis without success, but reduced several others, as Amida (359) and Singara (360), and transplanted great masses of inhabitants into Susiana. The emperor Constantius conducted the war feebly and was consistently beaten in the field. But, in spite of all, Shapur found it impossible to penetrate deeper into the Roman territory. He was hampered by the attack of nomadic tribes in the east, among whom the Chionites now begin to be mentioned. Year after year he took the field against them (353~ 358), till finally he compelled them to support him with auxiliaries (Ammian. Marc. 14, 3, 16, 9; 17, 5; 18, 4, 6). With this war is evidently connected the foundation of the great town New-Shapur (Nishapur) in Khorasan. By the resolution of Julian (363) to begin an energetic atFor the succeeding events see also under Rome: Ancient History; and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian kings.

[SASSANIAN EMPIRE

tack on the Persian empire, the conflict, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, assumed a new phase. Julian pressed forward to Ctesiphon but succumbed to a wound; and his successor Jovian soon found himself in such straits, that he could only extricate himself and his army by a disgraceful peace at the close of 363, which ceded the possessions on the Tigris and

the great fortress of Nisibis, and pledged Rome to abandon Armenia and her Arsacid protégé, Arsaces III., to the Persian. Shapur

endeavoured

Zoroastrian orthodoxy.

to occupy

Armenia

and introduce the

He captured Arsaces III. by treachery

and compelled him to commit suicide; but the Armenian mag-

nates proved refractory, placed Arsaces’s son Pap on the throne and found secret support among the Romans. This all but ledto a new war; but in 374 Valens sacrificed Pap and had him killed in Tarsus. The subsequent invasions of the Goths, in battle with whom Valens fell at Adrianople (375), definitely precluded

Roman intervention; and the end of the Armenian troubles was that (c. 390) Bahram IV. and Theodosius the Great concluded a treaty which abandoned

Romans

the extreme

west of Armenia to the

and confirmed the remainder in the Persian possession.

Thus peace and friendship could at last exist with Rome; and in 408 Yazdegerd I. contracted an alliance with Theodosius IT. In Armenia the Persians immediately removed the last kings of the house of Arsaces (430), and thenceforward the main portion of the country remained a Persian province under the control of a marzban, though the Armenian nobles still made re. peated attempts at insurrection. The introduction of Zoroas.

trianism was abandoned; Christianity was already far too deeply rooted.

But the sequel to the Roman

sacrifice of Armenian in-

terests was that the Armenian Christians now seceded from the orthodoxy of Rome and Constantinople, and organized themselves into an independent national church. This church was due, before all, to the efforts of the Catholicos Sahak (390-439), whose colleague Mesrob, by his translation of the Bible, laid the foun-

dations of an Armenian literature (see ARMENIAN CHURCH). From Yazdegerd I. to the Turks—In the interior of the Sassanian empire the old troubles broke out anew on the death of Shapur II. (379). At first the magnates raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then in 383 deposed him and enthroned Shapur’s son as Shapur ITI. In 388, however, he was assassinated, as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetic and intelligent sovereign, who held the magnates within bounds

and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment. He even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Church, put an end to the persecutions, and allowed the Persian Christians an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is consequently known as “the sinner.” In the end he was probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against him that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the throne. One of them, however, Bahram V., found an auxiliary in the Arab chief Mondhir, who had founded a principality in Hira, west of the lower Euphrates; and, as he pledged himself to govern otherwise than his father, he received genera! recognition. This pledge he redeemed, and he is, in consequence, the darling of Persian tradition, which bestows on him the title of Gor (“the wild ass”), and is eloquent on his adventures in the chase and in love. This

reversal of policy led to a Christian persecution and a new war with Rome. Bahram, however, was worsted; and in the peace of 422 Persia agreed to allow the Christians free exercise of their religion in the empire, while the same privilege was accorded to Zoroastrianism by Rome. Under his son, Yazdegerd II. (438457), who once more revived the persecutions of the Christians and the Jews, a short conflict with Rome again ensued (441):

while at the same time war prevailed in the east against the remnants of the Kushan empire and the tribe of Kidarites, also

named Huns. , Here a new foe soon arose in the shape of the Ephthalites (Haitab), also known as the “White Huns,” a barbaric tribe which shortly after ap. 450 raided Bactria and terminated the Kushana dominion (Procop. Pers. i. 3), and soon began to & tend their invasions into India, where they destroyed the Gupta

SASSANIAN EMPIRE]

PERSIA

empire about A.D. 500. These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457-484)

585

The Turks and the Arabs.—Meanwhile, about AD. 560, a new nation had sprung up in the East, the Turks. Chosroes concluded an alliance with them against the Ephthalites and so fell in battle against them; his treasures and family were cap- conquered Bactria south of the Oxus, with its capital Balkh. tured and the country devastated far and near. His brother Thus this province, which, since the insurrection of Diodotus in Balash (484-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and 250 B.C., had undergone entirely different vicissitudes from the blinded, and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488-531), rest of Iran, was once more united to an Iranian empire, and the ihe son of Peroz. As the external and internal distress still con- Sassanid dominions, for the first time, passed the frontiers of the tinued he was dethroned and imprisoned, but took refuge among Arsacids. This, however, was the limit of their expansion. Neither the Ephthalites and was restored in 499 by their assistance—like the territories north of the Oxus, nor eastern Afghanistan and the so many Arsacids by the arms of the Dahae and Sacae. To these Indus provinces, were ever subject to them. That the alliance struggles obviously must be attributed mainly the fact that in the with the Turks should soon change to hostility and mutual attack was inevitable from the nature of the case; in the second whole of this period no Roman war broke out. But, at the same time, the religious duel had lost in intensity, since, among the Roman war the Turkish Khan was leagued with Rome. Chosroes bequeathed this war to his son Hormuzd IV. (579— Persian Christians, the Nestorian doctrine was now dominant. Peroz had already favoured the diffusion of Nestorianism, and 590) who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish in 483 it was officially adopted by a synod, after which it re- peace. Hormuzd had not the ability to retain the authority of mained the Christian Church of the Persian empire, its head his father, and he further affronted the Magian priesthood by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring that, being the patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Kavadh proved himself a vigorous ruler. On his return he in his empire, both religions should dwell together in peace. restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked the Romans and Eventually, he succumbed to a conspiracy of his magnates, at captured and destroyed Amida (mod. Diarbekr), but was com- whose head stood the general Bahram Cobin, who had defeated the Turks, but afterwards was beaten by the Romans. Hormuzd’s pelled to ratify a peace owing to an inroad of the Huns. Toward the close of his reign (527) he resumed the war, defeating Beli- son, Chosroes II., was set up against his father and forced to sarius at Callinicum (531), with the zealous support of the wild acquiesce in his execution. But immediately new risings broke Arab Mondhir II. of Hira. On his death his son Chosroes I. out, in which Bahram Cobin—though not of the royal line—attempted to secure the crown, while simultaneously a Prince Bisconcluded a peace with Justinian (532), pledging the Romans to an annual subsidy for the maintenance of the Caucasus for- tam entered the lists. Chosroes fled to the Romans and the emtresses. In his home policy Kavadh is reminiscent of Yazdegerd peror Maurice undertook his restoration at the head of a great I, Like him he had little inclination to the orthodox church, and army. The people flocked to his standard; Bahram Cobin was favoured Mazdak, the founder of a communistic sect which had routed (591) and fled to the Turks, who slew him, and Chosroes once more ascended the throne of Ctesiphon; Bistam held made headway among the people and might be used as a weapon against the nobles, of whom Mazdak demanded that they should out in Media till 596. Maurice made no attempt to turn the cut down their luxury and distribute their superfluous wealth. opportunity to Roman advantage, and in the peace then conAnother feature of his programme was the community of wives. cluded he even abandoned Nisibis to the Persians. Chosroes II. (590-628) is distinguished by the surname of The crown-prince, Chosroes, was, on the other hand, wholly orthodox; and, towards the close of his father’s reign, in con- Parvez (“the conqueror”), though, in point of fact, he was imjunction with the chief Magian, he carried through the con- measurably inferior to a powerful sovereign like his grandfather, demnation of the Mazdakites, who were butchered in a great or even to a competent general. He lived, however, to witness massacre (528). Chosroes I. (531-579), surnamed Anushirvan unparalleled vicissitudes of fortune. The assassination of Maurice (“the blessed”), then restored the orthodox doctrine in full, pub- in 602 impelled him to a war of revenge against Rome, in the lishing his decision in a religious edict. At the same time he pro- course of which his armies—in 608 and, again, in 615 and 626— duced the official exposition of the Avesta, an exegetical trans- penetrated as far as Chalcedon opposite Constantinople, ravaged lation in the popular tongue (Pahlavi), and declared its contents Syria, reduced Antioch (611), Damascus (613), and Jerusalem binding. Defection from Zoroastrianism was punished with (614), and carried off the holy cross to Ctesiphon; In 619 Egypt death, and therefore also the proselytizing of the Christians, was occupied. Meanwhile, the Roman empire was at the lowest though the Syrian martyrologies prove that the kings frequently ebb. The great emperor Heraclius, who assumed the crown in ignored these proceedings so long as it was at all possible to do so. 610, took years to create the nucleus of a new military power. Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the This done, however, he took the field in 623, and repaid the Sassanian empire. From him dates a new and equitable adjust- Persians with interest. Their armies were everywhere defeated. ment of the imperial taxation, which was later adopted by the In 624 he penetrated into Atropatene (Azerbaijan), and there deArabs. His reputation as an enlightened ruler stood so high that stroyed the great fire-temple; in 627 he advanced into the Tigris when Justinian, in 529, closed the school of Athens, the last Neo- provinces. Chosroes attempted no resistance, but fled from his platonists bent their steps to him in hopes of finding in him the residence at Dastagerd to Ctesiphon. These proceedings, in contrue philosopher-king. Their disillusionment, indeed, was speedy junction with the avarice and licence of the king, led to revoluand complete, and their gratitude was great, when, by the con- tion. Chosroes was deposed and slain by his son Kavadh IT. ditions of the armistice of 549, he allowed their return. From 540 (628); but the parricide died in a few months and absolute chaos onward he conducted a great war against Justinian (527-565), resulted. A whole list of kings and pretenders—among them the which, though interrupted by several armistices, lasted till the General Sharbaraz and Boran, a daughter of Chosroes—followed 50 years’ peace of 562. The net result, indeed, was merely to rapidly on one another, till finally the magnates united and, in restore the status quo; but during the campaign Chosroes sacked 632, elevated a child to the throne, Yazdegerd III., grandson Antioch and transplanted the population to a new quarter of of Chosroes. In the interval—presumably during the reign of Ctesiphon (540). He also extended his power to the Black sea Queen Boran—peace was concluded with Heraclius, the old and the Caucasus; on the other hand, a siege of Edessa failed frontier being apparently restored. The cross had already been (544). A second war broke out in 577, chiefly on the question of given back to the emperor. Thus the roo years’ struggle between Rome and Persia, which Armenia and the Caucasus territory. In this Chosroes ravaged Cappadocia in 575: but the campaign in Mesopotamia was un- had begun in 527 with the attack of the first Kavadh on Justinian, successful. In the interval between these two struggles (570) he had run its fruitless course, utterly enfeebling both empires and despatched assistance to the Arabs of Yemen, who had been consuming their powers. Room was given to a new enemy who assailed and subdued by the Abyssinian Christians; after which now arose between either state and either religion—the Arabs and period Yemen remained nominally under Persian suzerainty till Islam. In the same year that saw the coronation of Yazdegerd its fate was sealed by the conquests of Mohammed and Islam. 111.—the beginning of 633—the first Arab squadrons made their

PERSIA

586

[SASSANID

DYNASTY’s FALL

entry into Persian territory. After several encounters there en- | number of Persians, who still smarted under their defeat unde

sued (637) the battle of Kadisiya (Qadisiya, Cadesia), fought on

one of the Euphrates canals, where the fate of the Sassanian empire was decided. A little previously, in the August of 636,

Syria had fallen in a battle on the Yarmuk (Hieromax), and in 639 the Arabs penetrated into Egypt.

The field of Kadisiya laid

Ctesiphon, with all its treasures, at the mercy of the victor. The king fled to Media, where

his generals

attempted

to organize

the resistance; but the battle of Nehavend (641) decided matters there. Yazdegerd sought refuge in one province after the other, till, at Jast, in 651, he was assassinated in Merv (see CALIPHATE: §A, §r). Thus ended the empire of the Sassanids, no less precipitately and ingloriously

than

that of the Achaemenids.

By 650 the

Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus. Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan), the “generals” of the house of Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed) maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs—exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them. The fall of the empire sealed the fate of its religion. The Muslims

officially tolerated the Zoroastrian

creed, though

oc-

casional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the oasis of Yezd), the faithful finding a refuge in India at Bombay. These Parsees have preserved but a small part of the sacred writings; but to-day they still number their years by the era which begins on June 16, A.D. 632, with the death of Yazdegerd III., the last king of their faith and the last lawful sovereign of Iran, on whom rested the god-given Royal Glory of Ormuzd. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Besides the works on special periods quoted above, the following general works should be consulted: Spiegel, Eranische Altertumskunde (3 vols., 1876 sqq.); W. Geiger and Ernst Kuhn, Grundriss der iranischen Philologie herausg., vol. ii. (Literature, History and Civilization, 1896 sqg.); G. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies, The Sixth Monarchy, The Seventh Monarchy. Further

Mokhtar, embraced Islam and drifted into the towns to form a nucleus of sedition under the Shiah preachers. In the reign of Yazid II. (720—724) serious risings took place in Khorasan, and

in spite of the wise administration of his successor Hisham (d 743), the disorder continued to spread, fanned by the Abbasids and the Shiah preachers. Ultimately in the reign of Merwan IĮ the non-Arabic Muslims found a leader in Abu Moslim, a maula (client) of Persian origin and a henchman of Ibrahim b. Moham. med b. Ali, the Shiah imam, who raised a great army, drove the caliph’s general Nasr b. Sayyar into headlong flight, and finally ex.

pelled Merwan. Thus the Abbasids became masters of Persia and also of the Arab empire. They had gained their success largely by the aid of the Persians, who began thenceforward to recover their lost sense of nationality. At the same time the Khorasanians had fought for the old Alid family, not for the Abbasids, and

with the murder of Abu Moslim discontent again began to grow among the Shiahs (g.v.). turbances

broke

In the reign of Harun-al-Rashid dis-

out in Khorasan

which

peased by a visit from Harun himself.

were

temporarily ap-

Immediately afterwards

Rafi‘ b. Laith, grandson of the Omayyad general Nasr b. Sayyar, revolted in Samarkand, and Harun on his way to attack him died at Tus (809). Harun’s sons Amin and Mamun quarrelled over the succession; Amin became caliph, but Mamun by the

aid of Tahir b. Hosain Dhu ’1-Yaminain (“the man with two right hands’) and others succeeded in deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (820) received the governorship of Khorasan, where he succeeded in establishing a practically independent Muslim

dynasty (the Tahirids) which ruled until about 873 in nominal obedience to Baghdad.

From 825 to about 898 a similar dynasty,

the Dulafids or Dolafids, reigned nominally as governors under the caliphs till they were put down by Motadid. In the reign of the caliph Motasim a serious revolt of Persian Mazdakite sectaries

(the Khorrami) in alliance with Byzantium was with difficulty suppressed, as also a rising of Tabaristan under an hereditary chief Maziyar who was secretly supported by the Turkish mercenaries (e.g., Afshin) whom the caliph had invited to his court. To another Turk, Itakh, the caliph Wathiq gave a titular authority over F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch (1895). See also ROME; GREECE; all the eastern provinces. In the reign of the tenth caliph MotaEGYPT; SYRIA, etc. (Ep. M.) wakkil the Tahirids fell before Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar, who with B.—TRANSITION PERIOD: FROM THE FALL OF THE the approbation of the caliph founded a dynasty, the Saffarid in SASSANID DYNASTY TO THE DEATH OF TIMUR (1405) Seistan. Minor Dynasties.—It is convenient at this point to mention Alien Rulers.—With the final defeat of the Sassanids under Yazdegerd III. at the battles of Kadisiya (Qadisiya) (637) and several other minor dynasties founded by nominal governors in Nehavend (641) Persia ceased to exist as a single political unit. various parts of Persia and its borderland. From 879 to about The country passed under a succession of alien rulers who cared 930 the Sajids ruled in Azerbaijan, while in Tabaristan an Alid nothing for its ancient institutions or its religion. For about 150 dynasty (the Zaidites) was independent from 864 to 928, when it years it was governed, frst from Medina and afterwards from fell before the Samanids. Subsequently descendants of this house Baghdad, by officers of the Mohammedan caliphs whose principal ruled in Dailam and Gilan. Throughout this period the caliphate aim it was to destroy the old nationality by the suppression of its was falling completely under the power of the Turkish officers. religion. The success of this policy was, however, only apparent, Mohtadi, the 14th Abbasid caliph, endeavoured vainly to replace especially in Iran, the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in them by Persians (the Abna). His successor Motamid was atthe most superficial manner, and it was from Persia that the blow tacked by the Saffarid Yakub who however was compelled to fell which destroyed the Omayyad caliphate and set up the flee (see CALIPHATE). Yakub’s brother Amr (reigned 878-900) Abbasids in its place (see CALIPHATE). Even before this event received the vacant position, but was taken prisoner by Isma'il b. adventurers and dissatisfied Muslim officers had utilized the slum- Ahmad, the Samanid, and the Saffarids were henceforward 4 bering hostility of the Persian peoples to aid them in attacks on merely nominal dynasty under the Samanids (goo—1229). The the caliphs, and the policy of eastern expansion brought the Arab Samanids (g.v.) were the first really important non-Arabic Persian dynasty since the fall of Yazdegerd III. They held sway armies perpetually mto the Persian provinces. In the reign of Merwan I. the Persians (who were mostly over most of Persia and Transoxiana, and under their rule scholarShiahs) under a Muslim officer named Mokhtar (Mukhtar), ship and the arts flourished exceedingly in spite of numerous civil whom they regarded as their mahdi, vainly attempted to assert wars. Ultimately they fell before the Ghaznevid dynasty of their independence in Kufa, but were soon defeated. This rising Sabuktagin. In the reign of Motadid who, as we have seen, put down the was followed by many more (see CALIPHATE) in which the caliphs were generally successful, and Abdalmalik (d. 705) con- Dolafids, and also checked the Sajids of Azerbaijan in their de siderably strengthened the Muslim power by instituting a signs on Syria and Egypt, the Kharijites of Mesopotamia were thorough system of Muslim currency and enforcing Arabic as the put down by the aid of the Hamdanites of Mosul, who were to official language throughout the empire. In the succeeding reign become a dynasty of some importance. Subsequently the caliPersia was further subdued by the great conqueror Qoteiba phate, which had temporarily recovered some of its authority, (Qotaiba) b. Moslim, the Arabic governor of Khorasan. Omar resumed its downward course, and the great families of Persia IT., however, extended to non-Arabic Muslims immunity from once again asserted themselves. In the reign of Qahir (d. 934),4 all taxes except the zakat (poor-rate), with the result that a large new dynasty arose in Persia, that of the Buyids (Buwayhids). This the mutually supplementary work of Th. Noldeke, Aufsätze zur persischen Geschichte (1887, Medes, Persians and Sassanids), and A. v. Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans von Alexander d. Gr. bis zum Untergang der Arsaciden (1888). A valuable work of reference is

PERSIA

SASSANID DYNASTY’S FALL]

587

family was descended from one Abu Shaja Buya, who claimed to

cers, however, were far from loyal to their lords. In every part of the empire they gradually superseded the Seljuk princes and

Dailam. He had successively fought for the Samanids and the Ziyarids, a dynasty of Jorjan, and his son Imad addaula (ed-

founded minor dynasties. Khwarizm.—Before passing on to the Mongol conquerors of Persia it is necessary briefly to notice the shahs of Khwarizm, who have frequently been mentioned as overthrowing the minor dynasties which arose with the decay of the Seljuks. These rulers were descended from Anushtajin, a Turkish slave of Ghazni, who became cupbearer to the Seljuk Malik Shah, and afterwards governor of Khwarizm (Khiva) in 1077. In 1138 the third of the line, Atsiz, revolted but-was defeated and expelled by Sinjar. Shortly afterwards he returned, firmly established his power, and extended the Khwarizm empire as far as Jand on the Sihun. The brief reigns of Il-Arslan and Sultan Shah Mahmud

be of the old Sassanian house and had become

a chieftain in

dowleh, originally Abu *l Hlasan Ali) received from Mardawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; his second son Rokn addaula (Abu Ali Hasan) subsequently held Rai and Isfahan, while the third, Moizz addaula (Abu 71 Hosain Ahmad) secured

Kerman, Ahvaz and even Baghdad.

The reign of the caliph Mottaqi was a period of perpetual strife between the Dailamites, the Turks and the Hamdanid Nasir addaula of Mosul. In the next reign Moizz addaula took Baghdad

(945). It was at this time that the three brothers took the titles

Imad, Rukn (Rokn), and Moizz addaula. The authority of the family was absolute, though they paid outward respect to the

caliphs. Moizz addaula repelled an attack of the Hamdanids of

Mosul. The Buyids, and especially Adod addaula (Azud-edDowleh, and similar forms), ruled Baghdad wisely and improved the city by great public works such as the great dike, still known as the Bend Amir on the Kur (Cyrus) near Persepolis. Their

sway extended from the Persian gulf to the Caspian sea. Ulti-

mately however, the Buyid dynasty grew weaker under the quarrels of its members and fell an easy prey to the Ghaznevids.

In the meantime (999) the Sassanids fell before the Ilek-Khans of Turkestan, to the great advantage of the Ghaznevid princes. Ghaznevids and Seljuks.—The centre of force in Persian politics now changes from west to east. Hitherto the ultimate power, at least nominally, had resided in the caliphate at Baghdad, and all the dynasties which have been noticed derived their authority formally from that source. With the rise of the Ghaznevids and later the Seljuks, the Abbasid caliphate ceased to count as an independent power. As we have seen, the Ghaznevid armies in a brief space destroyed most of the native dynasties of Persia. The first of the house was Alptagin, a Turkish slave of the Samanid Mansur I., who, having quarrelled with his master, took refuge in Afghanistan and founded a semi-independent authority. After his death three unimportant governors of his house held sway, but in 977 the power fell to another former slave, Sabuktagin, who was recognized by the Samanid Nuh Il. His son and successor Mahmud (g.v.) was attacked by a brother, Ismail, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been governor). The Samanids then fell under the power of the Tatar Iikhans, but Mahmud returned, triumphed over both the Samanids and the Tatars, and assumed the independent title of sultan with authority over Khorasan, Transoxiana and parts of northwest India. Mahmud was a great conqueror, and wherever he went he replaced the existing religion by Mohammedanism. He is described as the patron (if a somewhat ungenerous one) of literature; it was under his auspices that Firdousi collected the ancient myths of Persia and produced the great epic Shahnama (Book of the Kings). His descendants held a nominal rule till 1187, but in 1152 they lost all their extra-Indian territories to the Ghorids, and during the last 35 years reigned in diminished splendour at Lahore. Even before this time, however, the supremacy which they enjoyed

under Mahmud

in Persia had

fallen,

into the hands of the Seljuks who, in the reign of Mas'ud I., son of Mahmud, conquered Khorasan. In 1037 Seljuk princes were recognized in Merv and Nishapur, and in the ensuing 18 years the Seljuks conquered Balkh, Jorjan, Tabaristan, Khwarizm, Hamadan, Rai, Isfahan, and finally Baghdad (1055). The Abbasid caliphs, who still enjoyed a precarious and shadowy authority at the pleasure of Turkish viziers, gladly surrendered themselves to the protection of the Mohammedan Seljuks, who paid them all outward respect. i Thus for the first time since the Arab conquest of the Sassanian realm Persia was ruled by a single authority, which extended its conquests westward into Asia Minor, where it checked the rulers of Byzantium, and eastward to India and Central Asia. The history of this period is treated at length in the articles CALIPHATE and SELJUKS. The empire of the Seljuks was essentially military. Their authority over their own officers was so precarious that they Preferred to entrust the command to Turkish slaves. These offi-

were succeeded by that of Tukush (1172-99) and Ala ed-din Mohammed (1199-1220). The former of these subdued Khorasan, Rai and Isfahan, while the latter brought practically all Persia under his sway, conquered Bokhara, Samarkand and Otrar, capital of the Karakitai, and had even made himself master of Ghazni when his career was stopped by the hordes of the Mongol Jenghiz Khan. In 1231 the last of his house, Jelal ud-din (Jalaluddin) Mangbarti, or Mango-berti, was banished, and thus the empire of the Khwarizm shahs, which for a brief period had included practically all the lands conquered by the Seljuks, passed away. Thus from the fall of the Samanids to the invasion of the Mongols five or at most six important dynasties held sway over Persia, while some 40 small dynasties enjoyed a measure of local autonomy. During the whole of this period the Abbasid caliphs had been nominally reigning throughout the Mohammedan world with their capital at Baghdad. But with hardly any exceptions they had been the merest puppets, now in the hands of Turkish ministers, now under the protection of practically independent dynasts. The real rulers of Persia during the years 874-1231 were, as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids, the Ghaznevids, the Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous petty dynasties which succeeded the Seljuks were all swallowed up in the great Mongol invasion. Mongols.—In later years of the 12th century the Mongols began their westward march and, after the conquest of the ancient kingdom of the Karakitai, reached the borders of the territory of the Khwarizm shahs, which was at once overwhelmed. Jenghiz Khan died in 1272, and the Mongol empire stretching from the Caspian to the Yellow sea was divided up among his sons. Persia itself fell partly in the domain of Jagatai and partly in that of the Golden Horde. The actual governor of Persia was Tului or Tule, whose son Hulagu or Hulaku is the first who can be rightly regarded as the sovereign of Persia. His accession occurred in 1256 and henceforward Persia becomes after 600 years of spasmodic government a national unit. Hulagu at once proceeded to destroy a number of nascent dynasties which endeavoured to establish themselves on the ruins of the Khwarizm empire; about 1255 he destroyed the dynasty of the Assassins by the capture of their stronghold of Alamut (Eagle’s Nest), and finally in 1258 captured Baghdad. The 38th and last Abbasid caliph, Mostasim, was brutally murdered, and thus the Mohammedan caliphate ceased to exist even aS an emasculated pontificate. The Persian empire under Hulagu and his descendants extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to that of the Egyptian dynasts on the south, and from the Byzantine empire on the west to the confines of China. Its rulers paid a nominal homage to the Khakhan (Great Khan) in China, and officially recognized this dependence in their title of Ilkhan, 7.¢., provincial or dependent khan. From 1258 to 1335 the Ilkhans were not seriously challenged. Hulagu fixed his capital at Maragha (Meragha) in Azerbaijan, where he erected an observatory for Nasir ud-din Tusi, who at his request prepared the astronomical tables known as the Zidj-1-Ilkham. He died in 1265 and was succeeded by his son Abagha or Abaka, who married the daughter of Michael Palaeologus, the Byzantine reer. Abagha was a peaceful ruler and endeavoured by wise administration to give order and prosperity to a country torn asunder by a

588 long period of intestine war and the Mongol invasion.

PERSIA He suc-

[DEATH OF TIMUR

five minor dynasties, (1) the Jelairids, (2) the Mozaffarids, (3)

ceeded in repelling two attacks by other Mongolian princes of the

the Sarbadarids (Serbedarians), (4) the Beni Kurt and (5) the Jubanians, all of which ultimately fell before the armies of Timur,

in 1281. This prince was converted to Isla an event of great moment both to the internal peace and to the external relations of Persia. His persecution of the Christians led them into alliance with the Mongols, who detested Islam; the combined forces were

Persia from at least as early as 1395 till his death in 1405. was

house of Jenghiz Khan; otherwise his reign was uneventful. His brother Nikudar (originally Nicolas) Ahmad Khan succeeded him

too strong for Nikudar, who was murdered in 1284. The external results were of more importance. The Ilkhans, who had failed in their attempt to wrest Syria from the Mameluke rulers of Egypt

had subsequently endeavoured to effect their object by inducing the European Powers to make a new crusade. The conversion of Nikudar put an end to this policy and Egypt was for some time free from Persian attack (see Ecypt: History). The Mongol leaders put on the throne a son of Abagha, by name Arghun. His reign was troubled. His first minister Shams ud-din was suspected of having poisoned Abagha, and was soon put to death. His successor, the amir Bogha, conspired against Arghun and was exe-

cuted. Under the third minister (1289-91), a Jewish doctor named Sa'd addaula (ed-Dowleh), religious troubles arose owing to his persecution of the Mohammedans and his favouring the Christians. The financial administration of Sa‘d was prudent and successful, if sornewhat severe, and the revenue benefited considerably under his care. But he committed the tactical error of appointing a disproportionate number of Jews and Christians as revenue officials, and thus made many enemies among the Mongol nobles, who had him assassinated in 1291 when Arghun was lying fatally ill. It is possible that it was Sa‘d’s diplomacy which led Pope Nicholas IV. to send a mission to Arghun with a view to a new crusade. The reign of Arghun was also disturbed by a rebellion of a grandson of Hulagu, Baidu Khan. Arghun died soon after the murder of Sa‘d, and was succeeded by his brother Kaikhatu, or Gaykhatu, who was taken prisoner by Baidu Khan and killed (1295). Baidu’s reign was cut short in the same year by Arghun’s son Ghazan Mahmud, whose reign (1295-1304) was a period of prosperity in war and administration. Ghazan was a man of great ability. He established a permanent staff to deal with legal, financial and military affairs, put on a firm basis the monetary system and the system of weights and measures, and perfected the mounted postal service. Ghazan fought with success against Egypt (which country had already from 1293 to Dec. 1294 been ruled by a Mongol usurper Kitboga), and even held Damascus for a few months. In 1303, however, his troops were defeated at Merj al-Saffar, and Mongol claims on Syria were definitely abandoned. It was even suggested that the titular Abbasid caliphs

But

the authority

of Timur, which was dominant

throughout.

never unchalienged. He passed from one victory to another, but the conquered districts were never really settled under his admin. istration. Fresh risings of the defeated dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal with the Mongol hordes whose territory marched with northern Persia. His descendants were for a brief period the overlords of Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-46) and Ala addaula (1447), the so-called Timurid dynasty ceased to have any authority over Persia. There were Timurid governors of Fars under Shah Rukh, Pir Moham-

med (1405-09), Iskendar (1409-14), Ibrahim (1415-34) and Abdallah (1434); in other parts of Persia many of the Timurid family held governorships of greater or less importance. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The works relating to Persia will be found under articles on the main dynasties (CALIPHATE; SELJUKS; Mowncots), and the great rulers (JeEncaIz KHAN; MASMUD OF GHAZNI; Timur). For

general information and chronology see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. (Leyden,

1888);

Sir H. Howorth,

History

of the Mongols

(1876-88); S. Lane Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties (1894).

(J. M. M.; F. M. S.)

C.—FROM

THE

DEATH OF TIMUR TO THE SAFAVI DYNASTY, 1405-1736

FALL

OF THE

Tamerlane died in harness. At the age of seventy, he actually

started on a great expedition, which he had organised for the conquest of China, when he was taken ill and died. Shah Rukh, 1404-1447.—There was a struggle for power after the death of the Great Conqueror, during which period his fourth son, Shah Rukh, who was Governor of Khorasan, consolidated his position. His rivals proved to be utterly incapable and he occupied Central Asia, but loving Herat, he continued to rule the empire from that city. Throughout his long reign, he worked incessantly to restore the prosperity of his empire and erected splendid buildings. He was also a successful soldier, defeating the Chief of the “Black Sheep” dynasty in three battles, and his empire stretched from Chinese Turkestan to Asia Minor. Ulugh Beg, and Sultan Husayn.—His successor had ruled Samarcand under his father. Not only did he erect splendid buildings that still challenge our admiration, but, under his patronage, the astronomical tables were drawn up, which constitute the greatest legacy in that science that the East has bequeathed to the West. After his succession to the empire, the Turkoman sacked Herat, the Uzbegs looted Samarcand and, to complete the tragedy, he was murdered by his own son, in 1449. After the (who retained an empty title in Cairo under Mameluke protec- death of Ulugh, the Timurid dynasty rapidly broke up. The only tion) should be reinstated at Baghdad, but this proposal was not remaining member of note was Sultan Husayn, who ruled over a carried into effect. Ghazan is historically important, however, much diminished empire from 1487 to 1506. He was the patron mainly as the first Mongol ruler who definitely adopted Islam with of a very great period, rivalling that of the Renaissance in Europe, a large number of his subjects. He died in 1304, traditionally of the period of Jami the Poet, of Behzad the Painter, and of Mirkanger at the Syrian flasco, and was succeeded by his brother hond the historian. The “Black Sheep” and “White Sheep” Turkoman.—DurUljaitu (Oeljeitu). The chief events of his reign were a successful war against Tatar invaders and the substitution of the new ing the decay of the Timurid dynasty, there was a fight for power city of Sultania as capital for Tabriz, which had been Ghazan’s -between two families of Turkoman. Kara Yusuf, the Chief of the headquarters. Uljaitu was a Shiah and even stamped his coins “Black Sheep” was, as mentioned above, defeated by Shah Rukh, with the names of the 12 Shiah imams. He died in 1316, and but made peace with him and, at his death was a most powerful was succeeded by Abu Sa‘id, his son. The prince, under whom a ruler in the country round Lake Van. His successor, Iskandar, the definite peace was made with Malik al-Nasir, the Mameluke ruler builder of the famous Blue Mosque of Tabriz, was captured and of Egypt, had great trouble with powerful viziers and generals put to death by Uzun Hasan, the celebrated Chief of the “White which he accentuated by his passion for Bagdad-Khatun, wife of Sheep.” Hasan defeated the reigning Timurid Prince and was the the amir Hosain and daughter of the amir Chupan. This lady virtual ruler of Persia. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453; he eventually married, with the result that Chupan headed a revolt of his tribe, the Selduz. Abu Sa‘id died of fever in 1335, and Venice attempted, albeit with scant success, to unite the Princes with him the first Mongol or Ilkhan dynasty of Persia practically of Europe against the common foe. Uzun Hasan, who had been came to an end. The real power was divided between Chupan and defeated by the Turks, sent an extremely welcome embassy to Hosain the Jelair (or Jalair), or the Ilkhanian, and their sons, the Doge at this juncture. This step was probably inspired by known respectively as the Little Hasan (Hasan Kuchuk) and the his wife, Theodora, who was a daughter of one of the last Emgreat Hasan (Hasan Buzurg). After a brief succession of obscure perors of Trebizond. The return embassy was headed by Caterino priaces Hasan Buzurg definitely installed himself as the first Zeno, whose wife was a niece of Theodora. The ambassador was, khan of the Jelairid or Iikhanian-Jelairid dynasty. in consequence, most kindly received and was able to induce Practically from the reign of Abu Sa‘id Persia was divided under Hasan to co-operate with the Venetian fleet in an attack on the

PERSIA

sAFAVI DYNASTY] south coast of Asia Minor,

In 1472, a body of Persian cavalry

ravaged the province, but was defeated by a Turkish column.

In

the following year, a powerful Turkish force was repulsed in an attempt to cross the Euphrates, but Hasan who followed it up, suffered heavy losses.

After this, he sent Caterino to rouse the

589

force led by the Shah, although able to defeat the Uzhbegs, was no match for a Turkish army. It is stated that, after this defeat, Ismail never smiled again. He died in 1524, deeply regretted by his subjects. He is described by the Venetian Angiolello in the following words: “He is fair, handsome and pleasing; not very

rulers of Europe against the Turks, and wisely took no further direct action. Uzun Hasan died in 1478, and his successor was

tall, but of a light and well framed figure. His hair is reddish, he

mainly owing to the struggle for power among its members, and thus made way for the coming national dynasty of the Safavi. The Safavi Dynasty, 1499-1736.—The Persian nation was deeply attached to the Sasanian dynasty, overthrown by the Arabs early in the 7th century A.D. The religion founded by Mohammed was gradually adopted, but the national feeling found expression in the adoption as their spiritual leaders of the Caliph Ali and his descendants. They believed that Husayn, the son of Ali had married a daughter of their last king Yezdigird, and that his descendants inherited the divine right of the Sasanian monarchs. Mainly on this account, the Persians broke off from the “Sunnis” or “Traditionists,” and termed themselves “Shiah” or “Separatists.” Their chief doctrine was that of the Imamate, by which Ali and eleven of his descendants were considered to be sinless and to be

suchim

poisoned after a reign of seven years. The family then broke up,

spiritual and temporal leaders by divine right. The Safavi dynasty

claimed unchallenged descent from the seventh Jmam and was deeply venerated, especially Safi-u’-Din, from whom the family took its title of Safavi. Uzun Hasan gave one of his daughters to Haydar, later head of the family. She bore him three sons, the youngest of whom, Ismail, became the sole survivor and the founder of the dynasty. Raising a force of his adherents, he

defeated the Chief of the “White Sheep” and marched on Tabriz, which surrendered. There, in 1499, he proclaimed himself Shah, this date marking the foundation of the dynasty. The coronation of Shah Ismail evoked a wave of national and religious sentiment of overwhelming force among his subjects who regarded Ismail as both Saint and Shah, and were ready to give their lives for him with fanatical devotion. Ismail spent the first years of his reign in extirpating the ““White Sheep” dynasty and in annexing the provinces over which they had ruled. This was not accomplished without fighting, but Ismail was a formidable warrior and his activity was exceptional. Defeat of the Uzbegs, 1510.—After making good his position in Western and Central Persia, Ismail determined to attack the Uzbegs, who devastated Khorasan every year. When he was ready, he marched with extreme rapidity towards Merv. His force was numerically weaker than that of Shaybani Khan, the Uzbeg Chief but, luring the enemy- into an ambush, he cut them to pieces. The victory was crowned by the death of Shaybani Khan, whose skull was mounted in gold to serve as a goblet to the victor. i The Defeat of Ismail, 1514.—It was most unfortunate for Ismail that his contemporary on the throne of Turkey was Selim, the greatest soldier of the house of Othman. The rise of a Shiah family to the throne of Persia would naturally excite deep religious animosity and the Sultan determined to extirpate it before it struck roots. As a preliminary measure he sought out and put to death some forty thousand of his subjects, who were believed : oe to the heretical sect. He then marched to the Persian rontier. Selim commanded the most formidable army of the period, consisting of thousands of long-service musketeers—the celebrated Janissaries—a strong artillery, and a division of cavalry. Ismail, on the other hand, depended entirely on his tribesmen, who were commanded by their chiefs. The Persian attempt to attack on

both flanks was defeated by the deadly fire of the musketry and

artillery. Ismail displayed the greatest gallantry, killing the Aga of the Janissaries, but he was wounded and nearly taken prisoner and, after suffering terrible losses, the survivors fled from the field.

Selim massacred his prisoners and then marched on Tabriz, which

submitted. Owing to the lack of supplies, which caused a mutiny, the victor was obliged to evacuate Tabriz, but he annexed Georgia, Diarbekr and Kurdistan. Of far greater importance was the deadly blow given to Persian moral, since it was realised that a

only wears moustachios. He is as brave as a gamecock stronger than any of his lords.” Shah Tahmasp, 1524-1576.—The eldest son of Ismail ceeded to the throne when a mere boy. Unfortunately for he was a contemporary of Sulayman the Magnificent, who

and

repeatedly invaded Persia, taking Tabriz and advancing as far into the interior as Sultania on one of his campaigns. He also captured Van, which was considered to be impregnable. Tahmasp followed an entirely defensive policy and is the theme of Milton’s lines: As when the Tartar from his Russian foe, By Astracan, over the snowy plains, Retires, or Bactrian Sophi, from the horns Of Turkish crescent, leaves all waste beyond The realm of Aladule, in his retreat To Tauris and Casbeen.

(The Sophi is the Safavi monarch; Tauris and Casbeen are Tabriz and Kazvin.)

These lines reveal a remarkable knowledge of the political situation in Persia and there is every reason to believe that Milton gained his information from the account given by Anthony Jenkinson, who conceived the bold plan of trading with Persia across Russia. Descending the Volga, he crossed the Caspian Sea to Shamakha, where he was well received by the Persian Governor. At Kazvin, he presented the letters of Queen Elizabeth, but the fanatical Shah replied “Oh thou unbeliever, we have no need to have friendship with the unbelievers.” The Shah, who was treating with Sulayman at the time, indeed thought of sending Jenkinson’s head as a suitable gift to the Sultan, but the intrepid Englishman finally returned to England with good profits to show for the risks he had run. Peace with Turkey, 1555.—As the years passed, fanaticism lessened and both powers grew weary of the constant warfare. Negotiations were opened and the Sultan laid down that “‘so long as the frontiers were respected, there would be no hostilities.” Turkey considered that she was dealing with a defeated power. At the same time, the Sultan wished to reduce his commitments in Asia. It is of especial interest to note that Busbecq, the Ambassador of the Emperor at Constantinople, stated that: “It is only the Persian who stands between us and ruin.” The Death of Tahmasp—lIn 1576, Tahmasp ended his long reign, leaving Persia much weaker than he had found it. After his death there was a period of anarchy, furious rivalries being unchained among the various rivals for power. At this period the position in Persia was one of anarchy, but it was destined to be followed by a reign, during which the dynasty reached its zenith. Shah Abbas I., 1587-1629.—The 16th century was a wonderful epoch, alike in Europe and in Asia. It was an epoch of great rulers Charles V., Elizabeth, Sulayman and Akbar constituting a remarkable group, in which Shah Abbas can fittingly take his place. And yet, how unpromising were the prospects of the infant, who was destined to make Persia a great power. Left by his father, Khudabanda, in Khorasan, as its nominal ruler, he was a mere puppet throughout his boyhood in the hands of

rival chiefs. His guardian, the Shamlu Chief fought the Chief of the Ustajlu, and Abbas took part in the fight, having his horse shot under him. The Ustajlu Chief, having won the day, stopped the pursuit to throw himself at the feet of young Abbas and secured his person. At this period Khudabanda, who was almost blind and entirely unfitted to reign, was attempting to enforce his authority in Fars, but Abbas was proclaimed Shah by his new guardian, who advanced on Kazvin and occupied it. The unfortunate Khudabanda was thereupon deserted by his followers and shortly afterwards died, and Abbas, who matured

quickly, put his guardian to death and seized the reins of power. Peace with Turkey, 1590.—In view of Turkish predominance, the position of Abbas was far from enviable. In 1587, a

590

PERSIA

Turkish force surprised and defeated a Persian army. This victory culminated in the occupation of the Western provinces of Persia, from Georgia in the north to Arabistan in the south. Abbas realised that he could not face the Turks and wisely decided to make peace with the Sultan as a temporary expedient, although it meant bringing Turkey on to the Caspian sea in the north and into the valley of the Karun in the south.

Unfortunately for Abbas the Uzbegs attained the zenith of their power at this period under Abdulla II., who ruled an empire that stretched from Khotan to Balkh. He raided Khorasan annually with impunity and even drove the Prince of Gilan, who was an ally of the Turks, from Astrabad. In Khorasan, Herat fell into his hands shortly after the accession of Abbas and the sacred city of Meshed was invested. Abbas collected troops to relieve Meshed: but illness delayed his movements with the result that Meshed was also taken and sacked. Finally the Shah appeared on the scene and, in 1597, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Uzbegs, who ceased their annual raids during his reign. Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Sherley were typical adventurers, who had already distinguished themselves in various campaigns. Upon the return of Abbas from his victory over the Uzbegs, they presented themselves (1598), as English knights who had heard of his fame and desired to serve him. Reorganisation of Army.—The young Shah was most favourably impressed by the brothers. He realised, as did his advisers, that he could not defeat a Turkish army and expel the hated invaders from Persia, until he was master of a regular army, and he determined to utilise the services of the Englishmen for this purpose. His army consisted only of 60,000 light cavalry, who were brave but undisciplined, and would only obey their Chiefs, in whose hands the real power rested. To meet this fundamental difficulty, Abbas reduced this force to one half and organised 10,000 cavalry, 10,000 infantry and some batteries of artillery, to be paid and officered by the crown. It is of interest to note that, in Imitation of the Janissaries, the infantry and artillery were manned with Georgian and Armenian converts to Islam. As a still further counterpoise to the intriguing Chiefs, Abbas founded a tribe, termed Shah Savan or “Friends of the Shah.” This step was entirely successful, thousands of men leaving their tribes to serve directly under the Shah, who was thus released from his dependence on the Chiefs. The Sherleys were well prepared for their task, having had the foresight to bring a cannon-founder among the members of their staff. The Persian Commander-in-Chief and his officers all favoured the creation of a regular army, and their zeal seconded the knowledge of the Sherleys so well that, in a comparatively short time, a revolution was effected and, in place of an ill-organised mass of mounted tribesmen, an army consisting of cavalry, artillery and infantry was created.

[VICTORIES OVER TURKS

Genius of Shah Abbas.—The fame of Abbas does not rest

solely on his military exploits; it is also founded on his genius

for administration. Realising the vital importance of communica-

tions, he built bridges and caravanserais on every main route He repressed brigandage with merciless severity and encouraged

trade, not only in Persia, but also with foreign countries, whose

representatives were welcomed

at his Court.

To prove his zeal

for pilgrimages, he walked the entire distance of eight hundred miles from Isfahan to Meshed, to worship at the shrine of the Imam Riza. His subjects, deeply influenced by the example of

their beloved Shah, followed him by thousands, and these pil-

grimages, perhaps more than anything else, welded the different races—Persians, Turks and Arabs—into a nation. The most striking administrative act of Shah Abbas was the creation of a new capital at Isfahan. There, on almost the only river of the plateau, a superb city grew up, approached by stately bridges which led past the luxurious gardens of the courtiers, to the Royal Square. The most important building was the Chehel Sutun or “Hall of Forty Columns.” This great Hall of Audience

was open in front, while the throne was set in a room opening out from it. Behind, was a gallery containing three immense oil paintings on each side. Capture of Hormuz, 1507.—One of the most important events in history was the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1487, and the subsequent establishment of direct intercourse by sea between Europe and the East. Greatest among the Portuguese captains was Alfonso D’Albuquerque who, with a squadron of six ships, captured the island emporium of Hormuz. Owing to intrigues, D’Albuquerque was unable to retain his conquest on this occasion but, eight years later, he returned as Viceroy in command of a powerful fleet, and built the famous fort, which is almost as perfect to-day as at the

date of its construction. Throughout the 16th century, the Portuguese, owing to their sea-power,

dominated

the Persian Gulf,

to the intense anger of the Shahs, whose ports were raided, and

whose subjects were oppressed without mercy. Atrival of English, 1601.—The English appeared in Eastern waters just a century later than the Portuguese. Their chief commodity was broadcloth, for which there was little demand in India, and it was consequently decided to open up relations with Persia, which was reported to have a cold climate. In view of the position of the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, it was decided to commence operations at Jask and, in 1616, a ship loaded with a trial cargo, was despatched to that port. The English were well received by Abbas. Apart from the hope that they might help him to expel the Portuguese, he was most anxious to export silk, which was a royal monopoly, by the Persian Gulf, and thereby deprive the Turks of a large source of customs’ revenue. Persian Victories over the Turks.—Shah Abbas was eager The Portuguese viewed the arrival of the English with intense to prove his new weapon, and fortunately, the Sultans who were hostility. They attempted to capture the pioneer ship, but were his contemporaries were not great soldiers. He broke the peace just too late. However, when a second expedition appeared on in 1603, and invested Tabriz, which surrendered and, after the scene, they were waiting off Jask, and attacked the English. 18 years, again formed part of the Persian empire. Abbas fully In spite of their superior force, they were unable to capture the realised that, sooner or later, he would have to meet a powerful English ships, and were completely defeated. The result of this Turkish army. Nor was he mistaken for, upon the death of the action was most important. The Shah realised that his hoped-for voluptuary Mohammed III., the youthful Ahmad organised a chance of expelling the Portuguese had come and, the English large force, which marched to the Persian frontier. Abbas like were induced to co-operate. his predecessors, chose the plain in the vicinity of Lake Urmia As a preliminary operation, the English and their allies capfor the trial of strength and, although the enemy were 100,000 tured the fort of Kishm Island, on which the Portuguese depended strong against 62,000, they had lost much of their former effi- for their supplies, Hormuz itself producing neither supplies nor ciency whereas the Persians for the first time fought as a regular fresh water, the entire surface of the island being covered with a army. Abbas upset the Turkish plan of battle by detaching a salt efflorescence. The English then towed boats laden with considerable force of cavalry to make a wide detour, to demon- Persian troops on the main objective. The Portuguese squadron strate on the rear of the enemy, and to create the impression made no attack on the encumbered English and were tamely that this was the main force. The Turks were deceived and destroyed at anchorage. A battery was then set up on shore and while they were countermarching, the Persians charged home and a breach was effected. The garrison of the fort beat off a Persian won a decisive victory, 20,000 heads being piled up in front of assault, but their position was desperate and they surrendered to the Shah’s tents. The fruits of this victory were the lost provinces the English. Thus fell Hormuz. This was the first great feat of, Persia, but, of greater importance, was the feeling that the of arms performed by the English in the East and, since that Safavi dynasty was able to meet the hereditary foe in battle date, their connection with Persia has been continuous. and defeat him. Decline of Safavi Dynasty.—After the death of Shah Abbas,

GHILZAI INVASION]

PERSIA

his descendants occupied the throne for a century, but it was a period of decline, during which only the veneration in which the dynasty was held, prevented a powerful official from ousting his

degenerate descendants.

Thanks to the jealousy which Abbas

591

of Turkey was those western provinces, which she held at the accession of Shah Abbas. In the following year, the Turks enforced their claims by force of arms.

Ashraf, who had succeeded Mahmud, was a capable ruler, resembling his uncle Mir Wais. He enjoyed great prestige among his fellow-tribesmen, whose moral he increased. His position was of eunuchs. Shah Safi, who succeeded Abbas, not only put to one of difficulty. He held Isfahan, Shiraz and South-east Persia, death his own relations of both sexes, but he executed most of but could hardly be said to administer the country. Indeed the the generals and councillors, who had made the reign of his grand- Afghans were totally lacking in the art of administration. Tahfather an illustrious epoch in Persian history. The contemporary masp was collecting a force in Mazanderan, Russia was determined Syltan was Murad IV., the last of the warrior Sultans, who in- to maintain her position, and Turkey had already seized Tabriz vaded Persia repeatedly, and massacred the inhabitants of Ham- and Hamadan. Ashraf despatched an embassy to remonstrate adan, Tabriz and Baghdad, which latter city was annexed. Other at the action of a Sunni power uniting with Christians in hostile monarchs reigned and displayed pomp and pageantry, which action against Persia, which was now governed by Sunni Afghans. dazzled European travellers, until the accession of Sultan Husayn, In spite of the feeling excited at Constantinople, the Turks dein 1694. This monarch was both meek and pious, but was placed clared war and an army captured Kazvin and marched on Isfahan. on the throne at a time when such qualities were as much out of The Afghan leader, who was a fine soldier, cut to pieces a Turkplace as they were in Edward the Confessor. Under the Safavi ish detachment of two thousand men. This success produced a dynasty, the province of Kandahar had been a bone of conten- considerable moral effect on the Turks and when Afghan mullas tion with the Moghul rulers of India. It was in Persian hands appeared in their camp and demanded of the Turkish Pasha how when Sultan Husayn ascended the throne and, as the Ghilzais, he dared to war on Muslims, who were obeying the divine law in whose chief city it was, were intriguing with Delhi, it was decided subverting the power of the heretical Shiahs, there were serious to send a Georgian Prince as Governor, supported by a strong desertions. The Pasha determined to fight immediately and, alPersian force. Gurgin Khan, as the Persians called him, arrested though he outnumbered the Afghans by three to one, his sullen Mir Wais, the Ghilzai Chief and instead of executing him, sent troops were defeated with heavy loss. With consummate diplomhim as an exile to Isfahan. There he won over the credulous acy Ashraf refused to pursue; moreover he released his prisoners Shah with a story that Gurgin Khan was conspiring to hand over and even restored their property to them. This masterly moderaGeorgia to Peter the Great. He was, thereupon, reinstated and, tion resulted in the Sultan making peace. He recognized Ashraf upon his return, successfully plotted against Gurgin Khan, who as Shah of Persia, while the Afghan recognised him as Caliph. was killed, while his Persian escort was cut to pieces. Mir Wais Actually the Turks gained the provinces they had seized and Persia remained dismembered. then strengthened his position at Kandahar until his death. Tahmasp and Nadir Kuli, 1727.—Ashraf was no sooner Ghilzai Invasion, 1722.—His successor, Mahmud, raided Persia in 1720, and captured Kerman, but was driven back to freed from the Turks than he was confronted with another serious Kandahar by a capable Persian governor, who was subsequently danger. Tahmasp, at this juncture, was joined by Nadir Kuli, dismissed. Two years later, he again invaded Persia. On this leader of a robber band, who was destined to achieve fame as the occasion he failed to take Kerman or Yezd, and was considering conqueror of Delhi. He brought with him some 5,000 of hbis the advisability of retreating when envoys from the Shah offered Afshar tribesmen. Tahmasp had previously collected some 3,000 him a large sum of money to leave the country. Encouraged by Qajar Turks under their Chief, Fath Ali Khan, and recruits bethis proof of weakness, the raiders advanced on Isfahan and gan to pour in who were determined to destroy the hated Afghans. halted at Gulnabad, a village situated on the open plain, rz miles Nadir soon made away with the Qajar Chief and induced the Shah to secure Khorasan before attacking the Afghans. This camfrom the capital. The Persian army was 50,000 strong and was provided with paign was entirely successful, both Meshed and Herat being reartillery. Its base was the capital and it was fighting for the captured from the Chiefs who had occupied them. Expulsion of the Afghans, 1730.—Meanwhile Ashraf, who very existence of Persia. The Ghilzais were 20,000 strong andtheir artillery consisted of one hundred camel guns. They were was seriously alarmed at the national revival, determined to in splendid training and despised their enemy. The battle opened attack before the Persian army became too strong. The two with a charge by the Persian right wing, which met with some armies met at Mehmandost in the vicinity of Damghan in 17209. success, The Persian left wing also charged but suffered heavy The Afghans, whose moral was very high after their victory over losses from the Ghilzai guns. The tribesmen then advanced and the Turks, charged, but were met with a heavy musketry and finding the Persian artillery without an escort, cut down the artillery fre by Nadir, who then advanced and drove the Afghans gunners and turned their guns on the infantry, who fled from the from the field. They stood again at Isfahan, and at Shiraz, but feld in a panic. Isfahan was then invested and, owing to the were finally crushed, and the survivors were hunted across Persia cowardice of its defenders, the Afghans were able to cut off its to the desert, where the Baluchis intercepted and killed Ashraf. supplies. During this investment, Tahmasp, the Heir-Apparent, The Afshar tribesman, Nadir Kuli, destined to restore the left Isfahan and attempted to raise a force but failed. Finally, power and prestige of Persia, was born in a tent close to Mofamine compelled the Shah to surrender and Isfahan fell to a hammedabad in the district of Darragaz, in the province of raiding band of Afghan tribesmen. Although the dynasty was Khorasan. In the summer his father inhabited the village of not actually ended until Nadir Kuli was crowned Shah, it ceased Kupkan, situated on the route between Kuchan and Mohammedato rule when the meek Husayn surrendered and Persia fell, owing bad. He died young, leaving his wife very poor and, when Nadir to the rule of Shahs who were trained by eunuchs. ' was eighteen, both he and his mother were carried off by a band Action of Russia and Turkey.—The fall of Persia con- of Uzbegs and sold as slaves. Four years later, Nadir escaped stituted the opportunity of Russia and Turkey. Peter the Great and returning to Persia, entered the service of the Governor of was the first in the field. He captured the key-fortress of Der- Darragaz. The times were troublous and Nadir soon won a repbent in 1722 and, in the following winter, when the Afghans be- utation for bravery and so distinguished himself that his master seged Resht, he acceded to the prayer of its governor, and oc- gave him his daughter in marriage. Upon his death Nadir succupied not only the capital of Gilan, but also the province. In ceeded to his post. Summoned to Meshed by Malik Mahmud, the summer of 1723, he captured Baku. the ruler of Khorasan, he defeated a raiding force of Uzbegs, The Turks arrived on the scene rather late. They, however, but claiming what was considered to be an excessive reward, he annexed Shirwan and Georgia. They particularly coveted Baku, was beaten and dismissed. He soon reappeared on the scene at but were forestalled by Peter. In 1724, the two powers agreed the head of a body of robbers. But he aimed at higher things, to the dismemberment of Persia, Russia to take the districts al- and capturing Nishapur, he occupied it in the name of Shah ready occupied and the three Caspian provinces, while the share Tahmasp, whose service he entered.

had shown towards his sons, princes of the blood, instead of peing trained to arms, were immured in harems under the tutelage

592

PERSIA

Turkish Campaigns.—Nadir fought three campaigns against the Turks at this period of his career. He lost one battle, but finally defeated the national enemy, and recovered the western provinces of: Persia. The Russian Government, after the death of Peter the Great, decided to withdraw

from Persia, and re-

stored her Caspian provinces, in 1732. Three years later, war broke out between Russia and Turkey. Nadir took advantage of the situation to secure Baku and Derbent, by a threat to join Turkey unless these important fortresses were surrendered to him and Russia yielded. Nadir had dethroned Tahmasp, who had made a disastrous treaty with the Turks, and his infant son had opportunely died. Nadir had freed Persia from Afghans, Turks and Russians, and the Persian nation was profoundly grateful to him. At an assembly of the leading men in Persia, he was unanimously elected Shah. D.—FROM

NADIR

SHAH

TO THE

REVOLUTION,

1736-1907

Nadir had settled accounts with Turkey and Russia, but the nation thirsted for vengeance on the Afghans, the recovery of whose country would restore to Persia all the territories ruled by Shah Abbas. Accordingly, in the year after his coronation, he led a powerful army 80,000 strong, towards Kandahar. The city was ruled by Husayn, brother of the captor of Isfahan, who was quite unable to meet Nadir in the field, but decided to defend the city, trusting to its great strength. Nadir, who possessed no heavy guns, was reduced to a blockade, which operation he carried out with great thoroughness, building a wall, fortified with towers outside the perimeter of the city. For a year the blockade was continued with no decisive results. Nadir then assaulted and captured some of the outworks, up which guns were dragged with great difficulty and Kandahar lay at his mercy. Having in mind further campaigns, the victor treated the Ghilzais with marked clemency, so much so that he enlisted a number of them in his

army, and they served him loyally until his death. Invasion of India, 1738.—During the tedious months spent . outside Kandahar, Nadir prepared his plans for a campaign in India, which was the natural sequel to the recovery of the eastern provinces of Persia. The great Moghul dynasty had declined rapidly since the death of Aurungzeb, in 1707, and Mohammed Shah, his degenerate descendant “was never without a mistress in his arms and a glass in his hand.” This despicable monarch and his effeminate troops were no match for virile Nadir and his warlike veterans. Treachery was also at work and more than one Indian noble had opened up relations with the Shah. With incredible folly, the Court at Delhi relied on Kandahar to repulse

[NADIR SHAR

description. Nadir wisely did not assault the Indian camp, py he surrounded it, and prepared to bombard it. Mohammed Shah realising that his troops would not fight again

decided to surrender before famine appeared among them. He was received with courtesy by the victor, whose letter describing the battle and surrender have come down to us. Acting on the principle that Mohammed Shah was, like himself, of Turkoman descent, he commissioned his son Nasrulla to meet him outside

the camp and when he entered his tent, “we delivered over to him the signet of our Empire.” After paying this empty compli. ment, the victor, who marched in triumph into Delhi, determined

to strip the people of all their portable wealth. In this he wag successful and the value of his loot was estimated at £87,000,000,

However that may be, it made Nadir a miser. Had he employed this wealth wisely, it would have proved to be a blessing to

impoverished Iran and the course

of history would have run

differently.

A rising in Delhi, suppressed with such pitiless severity that a “Nadir Shahi” is synonymous for a massacre in modern Delhi, and a marriage between Nasrulla and the daughter of the defeated

Mohammed were the chief incidents of the stay at the capital,

Nadir, realising that he could not hold Delhi, restored it to Mo. hammed, who was, at any rate, utterly unwarlike. He, however, annexed the provinces on the right bank of the Indus, which,

during the reign of Darius had formed part of the Persian Empire. Thus, after a stay of only two months in India, he returned to Afghanistan with greater power, wealth and fame than any other

Asiatic conqueror since Tamerlane. It remains to add that he was the last great Asiatic conqueror. Campaign Against Bokhara, 1740.—During the siege of

Kandahar, Nadir had despatched his eldest son and heir against Balkh, whose ruler had promised help to the Ghilzai Chief, Rize Kuli had proved himself worthy of the command, for his assault was so fierce and so continuous that the city was surrendered. The

young prince had then crossed the Oxus and defeated a strong army of Uzbegs. Nadir, unwilling to attack Bokhara at this juncture, recalled his son and wrote to the Amir of Bokhara that

he had ordered him “not to disturb countries ruled by descendants of the Turkoman.” The situation was now entirely changed. Nadir had not forgotten that he had been a slave at Khiva, and he realised that a campaign against the two Uzbeg states would form a natural corollary to the conquest of Northern India, and would protect Khorasan against raids for many years to come. Finally, he anticipated rich spoils and little resistance. Large quantities of grain had been collected at Balkh and loaded into Nadir and, not only made no preparations for defence, but treated boats, and the expedition commenced its march down the Oxus Nadir’s requests that no fugitives should be granted asylum across to Charjui, where a bridge of boats was constructed. The Amir the frontier with contempt. of Bokhara, realising that he could not resist Nadir’s veterans, After the capture of Kandahar, Nadir, whose prestige was promptly submitted and proceeded to the Persian camp. There, greater than before, marched north, following in the footsteps of at first, he was treated with disdain, but he was finally restored Alexander the Great, and captured Kabul, which was the key to to the throne on condition that the Oxus should again constitute the Khyber Pass, the main land-gate of India, There he secured the boundary of Persia, and that he should supply a contingent of a large sum of money, which enabled him to pay his troops, and troops for the Persian army. The treaty, which was accompanied also to arrange with the Afridis that his passage of the Khyber by the payment of huge sums of money, was cemented by a should not be opposed. Mohammed Shah was thoroughly alarmed double marriage between the two monarchs. by this time, but before the situation was really grasped by him Conquest of Khiva, 1740,—After Bokhara it was the turn of or his councillors, Nadir had captured Peshawar and had crossed Khiva. The Khan realised that Nadir depended entirely for his the Indus at. Attock. supplies on the boat-loads of grain and made a desperate effort Battle of Karnal, 1738.—One of the historical battlefields to capture them. However, Nadir suddenly appeared on the scene of India is at Karnal, situated some sixty miles to the north of and, although his men were suffering terribly from thirst, the Delhi, on the right bank of the Jumna. There Mohammed Shah charge he led was irresistible. The army then advanced down the formed a strongly entrenched camp and supinely awaited the river, with the precious grain guarded by the entire force, but Invaders. Nadir realised the strength of the Indian position and there was no further resistance and the Khan tamely surrendered. the fact that his men were unused to assault fortifications. While Before the campaign he had put to death or mutilated the envoys he was considering the best course to pursue, Saadat Khan, a of Nadir, who justly executed the barbarous ruler together with leading feudatory Prince, who had brought a reinforcement of twenty of his councillors. Among the prisoners were two English30,000 men, attacked a raiding party of Kurds. Troops were men, members of the staff of Jonas Hanway, the intrepid merbrought up on both sides until the engagement became general. chant, who attempted to trade with Persia and Central Asia Nadir laid an ambush with complete success, Saadat Khan was across Russia, and has left us a most valuable account of the taken prisoner and the panic-stricken Indians took refuge in their state of Persia at this period. Nadir treated the Englishmen with camp. The Persians had killed 20,000 of the enemy; and part of kindness, giving them passports and a promise of redress for their

the Indian artillery fell into their hands with rich spoils of every

losses. One result of this campaign was the release of thousands

ASSASSINATION OF NADIR]

PERSIA

of Persian and Russian slaves. Many of the former were settled in Nadir’s homeland of Darragaz, especially in a village which

the Shah founded on the site of his birthplace. The conquests of Nadir were now finished. He had restored the boundaries of Persia and made them wider than those of the Safavi dynasty. He had made Persia famous as a great fighting power and he had not only released the inhabitants of Khorasan

who were slaves, but had ensured their safety in the future. Had he possessed any administrative capacity, he could have restored

prosperity to Persia, but success and wealth had spoilt his character and made him a miser, and the remaining years of his life are a record of ever-increasing avarice and cruelty, which made him detested by his subjects. Lesgian Campaign, 1741-1742.—There is a Persian proverb which runs, “If any Shah is a fool, let him march against the Lesgians.” During the Indian campaign, these savage tribesmen

of Daghestan had raided Shirwan and had killed Ibrahim Khan,

Nadir’s only brother.

He was

therefore bound in honour

to

invade their country and punish them severely. At first all went well and certain sections of the tribe, who inhabited the lower hills, submitted. But the main body of the Lesgians retreated into the dense forests until they were able to attack the Persian

army and inflict heavy losses. Nadir refused to retreat until supplies failed when he was forced to make for Derbent, where the situation was only saved by the arrival of supplies shipped from Astrakhan. It was this bitter experience which induced Nadir to organise a fleet on the Caspian Sea. For the time being he retired from the scene baffled and sullen. Like Shah Abbas, Nadir suffered from jealousy of his son, who was a distinguished soldier. He was shot at from an ambush by two Afghans and believed that the assassins were in the pay of his son. However that may be, he ordered him to be blinded and bitterly repented it when too late. Persians remember the remonstrance of the Prince: “It is not my eyes but those of Persia which you have put out.” The success of the Lesgians caused rebellions to break out in various parts of the empire, but they were suppressed with merciless severity. Nadir had unwisely attempted to reunite Islam by abolishing the Shiah sect and by substituting the Zmam Jafar for Ali, the patron saint of Persia. At the time, there was no open opposition to the change by his subjects, who feared to oppose him, but the following decision was given by the religious leaders of Turkey: “The new sect is contrary to the true belief, and it is permitted to kill the people of Persia.” This decision was followed by an enormous Turkish army, which was determined to avenge former defeats, but Nadir was as great a general as ever, and inflicted a crushing defeat, capturing the whole of the artillery and military stores of the enemy. Negotiations for peace followed, in which Nadir agreed to abandon his claims to found a new sect and released his prisoners. This was his last victory. Assassination of Nadir, 1747.—As the years passed, Nadir put to death so many of his trusted officers that finally, in selfdefence, he was attacked at night by his own body-guard and killed, fighting to the bitter end. Thus fell Nadir Shah, who, endowed with superb physique, a voice of thunder, dauntless courage and a genius for war, had hewn his way to the throne. Like Napoleon, with whom he may well be compared, success caused moral deterioration, and when he died, the nation which

he had saved from the Afghans, the Turks and the Russians, received the news with intense relief. Had he died after the conquest of Khiva, he would have been the national hero for all time. The assassination of Nadir Shah gave the signal for the breakup of his composite army. The Afghans under Ahmad Khan alone remained loyal, but being unable to avenge his fallen leader, he

marched off to Kandahar and, aided by the capture of a treasure convoy, founded the kingdom of Afghanistan, which included most of the Indian provinces situated on the right bank of the Indus. Throughout, he remained loyal to the family of Nadir and when, after desperate contests for power, the son of ill-fated Riza Kuli was set on the throne of Khorasan and then blinded,

and constituted Khorasan a separate kingdom Afghan protection and suzerainty.

593 for him under

Rival Claimants in Persia.—Fath Ali Khan of the Qajar tribe, who was killed by Nadir when he joined Tahmasp, had a son, Mohammed Husayn Khan. After the death of Nadir Shah,

he raised a force, with which he successfully opposed Ahmad Shah, and occupied the Caspian provinces. A second claimant was Karim Khan, a member of the Zand tribe of Fars. A man of humble extraction, he raised himself to power by sheer force of character and had a large following in South Persia. Finally there was Azad the Afghan general, who was in charge of Azerbaijan. A curious triangular contest ensued, in which each claimant at one period seemed to have won, but finally Mohammed Husayn was defeated and killed, and Azad surrendered, leaving Karim Khan supreme. The Zand Dynasty, 1750-1794..-Karim Khan never aspired to the title of Shah, but termed himself Vakil or Regent. He made Shiraz his capital and adorned it with many fine buildings. Under his kindly rule, Persia gained a sorely needed rest, and began to recover something of her ancient prosperity. Upon his death, however, there was the usual fight for power among the members of his family. Meanwhile Aga Mohammed Khan, the eunuch chief of the Qajar tribe, collected a force and, winning over to his side Haji Ibrahim, the redoubtable Vizier of the Zand monarch, finally defeated Lutf Ali the heroic representative of the Zand dynasty, who was barbarously done to death by the cruel Qajar. The Qajar Dynasty, 1794-1925.—Aga Mohammed was a good

soldier and, after the final defeat of his rival, decided to attack Heraclius who, upon the death of Nadir Shah, had declared the independence of Georgia, and had annexed provinces up to the River Aras. He had also made a treaty with Russia, by the terms of which he was entitled to receive protection. Heraclius realised that he could not receive immediate help from Russia, yet he foolishly met the overwhelming Persian army in the field and was defeated. Tiflis was taken, the priests and infirm were massacred and the able-bodied of both sexes were enslaved. After Georgia, the Shah turned his attention to Khorasan. The wretched Shah Rukh was unable to offer any resistance, but Aga Mohammed required more than submission. He coveted with passion priceless jewels from Delhi, which he knew were in the possession of the blind monarch, and set his torturers to work. Day by day some valuable gem was produced. Last of all the famous ruby of Aurungzeb was extracted and Shah Rukh, worn out by the tortures, died cursing the Qajar eunuch. Shortly afterwards, the tale of his cruelties was brought to an end by the hands of two of his body-servants whom he had doomed to death, but yet permitted to attend him. Thus, in 1797, after only three years rule over the whole of Persia died the founder of the Qajar dynasty, who was rightly detested by all classes. Fath Ali Shah—Under his nephew, Fath Ali, Persia came within the orbit of European politics. The first step was taken by the British rulers in India. In 1798, Lord Wellesley received a letter from the Amir of Kabul in which he stated his intention of making an expedition into India. This would have upset British policy and Wellesley sent a Persian, who was acting Resident at Bushire, to induce the Persian Court to put pressure on the Amir. The task of the envoy was made easy by an Afghan demand for the cession of Khorasan, to which the young Shah replied that he intended to restore the eastern boundaries of Persia, as they were in Safavi days. He followed up this threat by despatching a force to help two Afghan pretenders, with the result that the Amir retired from Lahore to meet the threat in the west. The mission of the British Agent was thus entirely successful and paved the way for an accredited British Envoy, who was about to land on Persian soil. French Threat to India.—The genius of Napoleon dominated his adversaries to such an extent that even his fantastic schemes caused them great alarm. Among these must be reckoned his plan of using the Shah as an instrument for the invasion of India in co-operation with French and Russian troops. To us, who have

Ahmad Shah, as he had proclaimed himself, avenged Shah Rukh | studied accurate maps and realise the barren nature of these

594

PERSIA

countries, the scheme was impracticable but, in 1800, it was seriously considered by Napoleon and Paul of Russia. Indeed, the latter actually ordered the Don Cossacks to march on India. The movement was begun, without supply-columns or maps, but it was stopped at the Volga upon the death of the Tsar, which was fortunate for all concerned. The British, determined to forestall

the French, instructed their Agent, Captain John Malcolm to induce the Shah to bring pressure on the Amir of Kabul, to counteract the designs of the French, and to negotiate a political and commercial treaty. Malcolm’s success was complete and he speedily gained all his objects. Moreover he established a high regard for British honour in Persia, which still exists. The British foolishly withdrew Malcolm and left no permanent representative at Tehran. Napoleon took advantage of the favourable position and, in 1802, made definite overtures to Persia. These were followed up, in 1805, by the appearance at Tehran of a French envoy who, in view of the fact that the Emperor had declared war on Russia, offered to restore Georgia to Persia and to subsidise the Shah, who, in return, was to join France in an invasion of India. Fath Ali was most unwilling to become the ally of a nation which had put its monarch to death. However he could obtain no reply to his appeals from the British, who could not make up their minds what to do. Finally, therefore, he agreed to the French proposals. Fortune, however, favoured the British since, by the time that the Persians had agreed to the French proposals, Napoleon had made peace with the Tsar, and Persia lost all hope of recovering Georgia through his aid. Treaty with Great Britain, 1814.—Outwardly a French Mission held the field and Malcolm, when he again landed in Persia, was affronted. In spite of this the situation was changing, the French Mission was dismissed and Sir Harford Jones representing the Crown, as apart from the Governor-General of Bengal, was given a magnificent reception and a new treaty was negotiated. In 1814, a definite treaty was signed, by the terms of which treaties or military co-operation with nations hostile to Great Britain was barred, Persia further pledging herself to use her influence with the states of Central Asia to adopt a similar policy. In return, Persia was granted a subsidy of £150,000 per annum, which was to be stopped if she engaged in an aggressive war. This treaty dealt with the French peril after it had passed. On the

[STRUGGLE FOR GEORGIA

pleted, Russia occupied the areas. stirred, opinion before month.

Persian opinion was deeply

recruits poured in, and the Shah was forced by public to break the treaty. At first the Persians carried al! them, and occupied Shirwan and Talish in less than a But the Persians would not face Russian troops.

Defeat of Persian Army.—lIn an action fought near Ganjg although the Persians were numerically superior, their cavalry fled, demoralised by artillery fire. The Russian infantry then advanced and swept the Persians off the field. Fath Ali was a miser; he refused to pay the troops in the winter, and they perforce were disbanded. Realising the position, a small Russian force marched on Tabriz and captured not only the city but also the entire artillery park of the Persian army. Thus ignominiously hostilities were ended. By the Treaty of Turkomanchai, the Aras became the boundary of Persia. An indemnity was demanded and

extra-territorial rights were included as well as a commercial treaty, by the terms of which there was a 5% tax on imports and exports.

This treaty inaugurated a new era and became the basis

on which other European nations conducted their intercourse with Persia. Great Britain recognised the changed position and, in view of the fact that Persia was the aggressor, declined to pay the

subsidy. Persia was, however, in dire straits from lack of money to pay the Russians, and it was arranged that a single payment of £150,000 should be held to cancel all further claims on the subsidy. Persia and Afghanistan.—Persia realised that her defeat by Russia was final. To salve her wounded pride, she decided to make strenuous efforts to recover Herat and other provinces that now formed the state of Afghanistan. This trend of policy was viewed with apprehension by the British Government, since Persia was under Russian influence and, if she reconquered Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, Russian agents would be established close to the Punjab. Actually her objective during this period was Herat, and

Great Britain made strenuous and successful efforts to keep that province outside the influence of both Persia and Russia. Abbas Mirza was more successful in Eastern Persia than against Russia. He gradually reconquered Khorasan until Sarakhs alone held out, encouraged by the presence of the Khan of Khiva. However the Khan, alarmed, by the surrender of Kuchan, retired and Sarakhs was stormed, a feat which restored Persian prestige in Central Asia. Shortly afterwards, Abbas Mirza and then Fath other hand, it was not realised by British statesmen that, so far Ali Shah died. Mohammed Shah was the son of Abbas Mirza and, when he as Persia was concerned, the annexation of Georgia and Karabagh by Russia had created an entirely new situation, that the treaty had defeated various pretenders and established himself on the had not recognised the fact and was therefore likely to lead to throne, it was clear that he was determined to capture Herat. He had already, during his father’s lifetime, commanded a force trouble. Struggle for Georgia.—Persia was bound to fight for Georgia which was besieging that city, but had hastened to Tehran to and the campaigns that followed may be considered to fall into secure his nomination as Heir-Apparent, upon hearing the news two distinct periods. The first ended with the defeat of Persia in of his father’s death. At this period a second British Military 1812, peace being made in the following year by the Treaty of Mission reached Tehran, but it was received with marked coldness Gulistan. Thirteen years later, Persia again attempted to recon- by the young Shah and was unable to serve any useful purpose. quer Georgia, and her final defeat is recorded in the Treaty of Siege of Herat.—It is impossible to give any account of Turkomanchai, which was signed in 1828. The Persian army was British policy in Afghanistan, and we must confine ourselves to commanded by the Heir-Apparent, who invariably lost his head the question of Herat. In 1837, the Shah opened his campaign, on the battlefield, and rendered the efforts of a handful of British and the first prisoner that was captured, was bayoneted in his instructors nugatory. The first campaign opened with the siege of presence. Yar Mohammed, the able Vizier of the Prince of Herat, Erivan by a Russian force, which was so harassed by its lines of had made every preparation for a siege. The fortifications had communication being cut, that the operation was abandoned. The been repaired and strengthened; supplies in large quantities had campaign was ended, in 1812, by a decisive action fought at been stored, and all villages within twelve miles of the city had Aslanduz. A small Russian column surprised the Persian army in been burned. By a singular stroke of good fortune, an English broad daylight. The British officers had drawn up their men when artillery officer, Eldred Pottinger, arrived on the scene, and soon Abbas Mirza in a panic, ordered a hasty retreat, with the result became the life and soul of the defence. In the spring of 1838, that the force was annihilated. the British Envoy reached the Persian camp and nearly persuaded After this disaster, the Shah, who was also panic-stricken, the Shah to break off the siege. However, at this juncture, the agreed to abandon all claims to Georgia; he also ceded Derbent, Russian Envoy offered the services of a Russian officer. Sir John Shirwan and Karabagh. Russia, at this very time, was at the crisis McNeill was consequently flouted and quitted the Persian camp. of her fate owing to the invasion of Napoleon. Consequently Shortly after his departure, the Shah made his final effort. For Persia was to be blamed for abandoning her possessions and mak- six days the defences were battered, but the general assault ing no further effort against such a sorely embarrassed enemy. failed. The Shah was utterly dejected and when he received 4 As was to be expected, Persian opinion regarded the Treaty of communication from the British Minister that his Government Gulistan as a national disgrace. It had been vaguely worded, so would view the occupation of Herat as a hostile act, and that the much so that the possession of three districts remained in dispute. island of Kharak had been seized by British troops, he agreed to Negotiations were being carried on but, before they were com- their demands and broke up the siege. He died in 1848, leaving

PERSIA

AFGHAN QUESTION] Persia on the verge of revolution and bankruptcy.

Nasir-ud-Din began his reign well. He brought with him from Tabriz his adviser, Mirza Taki Khan, and appointed him his Vizier. He was the most remarkable Persian of bis generation, being not only capable and hard-working, but also incorruptible. He set to work to abolish the sale of appointments and of justice; and the embezzlement of the soldiers’ pay, the grant of pensions to favorites and many other abuses were all taken in hand. His reforms raised up a host of enemies, among them the mother of

the Shah who persuaded her son that the Vizier was too_powerful with the result that he was executed—a terrible blow to Persia. After this the Shah, generally speaking, ruled in the bad old way,

although he was a more enlightened ruler than his predecessor, partly owing to his visits to Europe. Religion of the Bab.—During the early part of Nasir-udDin’s reign, an inhabitant of Shiraz preached a new religion. He proclaimed himself the Bab or “Gate,” through which men might attain to knowledge of the Twelfth Jmam. The Bab was the son of a grocer and, when he attempted to convert his fellow-townsmen, he was considered to be a madman and was imprisoned. His followers, however, increased to such an extent that the Shah

finally ordered him to be executed at Tabriz. After his death, the doctrine spread far and wide, causing risings and an attempt on the Shah’s life, which was

met with pitiless persecutions.

The

religion founded by the Bab still exists and counts many followers, not only in Persia but, in the Levant, and in America. Settlement of Afghan Question.—During the generation that followed her victories over Persia, Russia not only strengthened herself in that country by the creation of a naval base on the Persian island of Ashurada in Astrabad Bay but made great efforts to gain a footing in Central Asia and in Afghanistan. It was probably at her instigation that Nasir-ud-Din determined to win renown by the capture of Herat. Yar Mohammed, the capable Vizier had died, leaving the province to his son, who was mentally deficient, and whose first act was to open up negotiations with Persia. The British Government thereupon imposed a treaty on Persia, by the terms of which that power promised not to send troops into the Herat province, unless it was attacked from outside. The treaty caused intense irritation to Persia and was the main cause of relations being broken off between the two countries. Persia then gained possession of Herat through an Afghan nominee in 1856, and there was intense delight throughout the country. But Great Britain had to be reckoned with. In addition to paying a subsidy to the Amir, she declared war on Persia and landed an expeditionary force at Bushire. Under Outram, a march was made inland and a Persian force was defeated. The troops were then transferred to the mouth of the Karun River, where a second success was gained. Persia had already sued for peace and, by the terms of a treaty signed in Paris, in 1857, the Shah agreed to evacuate Herat and to recognise the independence of Afghanistan. No indemnity or concessions were demanded. The Awakening of Persia.—Nasir-ud-Din was fated to see the advance of Russia across Central Asia until that Power entirely enveloped his northern frontiers in Asia. The khanates, as they were termed, were annexed one by one, until only the Turkoman was left. In 1881, after more than one failure, Skobeleff stormed the stronghold of the Tekke Turkoman at Geok Teppe, the other tribes gradually submitted and Russia forced Persia to accept a boundary that was most unfavorable to her, and gave her new neighbour a strangle-hold on Khorasan.

We must now turn to the advance of the Indian empire. Baluch-

istan had relapsed into anarchy at the end of the eighteenth

century and no immediate attempt would have been made to Interfere with this state of affairs, but for the fact that it was decided to construct a telegraph line from England across Persia to India. Negotiations were opened with Persia, with the result that a boundary was finally drawn between Persian and British Baluchistan. This latter province may be said to have been the creation of that great frontier officer, Sir Robert Sandeman, through whose exertions law and order were gradually introduced Into a “No Man’s Land.” From the Persian point of view these boundaries, which included the delimitation of her frontier with

595

Turkey, completed her envelopment. Constitutional Movement.—The desire for a constitution in Persia is quite recent. Persia was affected by the construction of telegraph lines and so forth, but her national pride in her own perfection was also strong. The Shah as a young man was in favour of progress, but the failure of the attempt at constitutional government in Turkey in 1876 frightened him, and his later policy trended towards keeping Persia free from dangerous new ideas. “I want ministers who do not know whether Brussels is a city or a cabbage,” was his frank avowal and, although his point of view was selfish, the event has proved that Persia was not ripe for the new order. Nasir-ud-Din was assassinated in 1896. His successor, Muzaffar-ud-Din was a poor creature, who led Persia down the broad road to bankruptcy by borrowing large sums of money from Russia, which he wasted on his journeys to Europe and on his favorites. During his reign all fear of the Shah passed away, and, with it, the tribes robbed with impunity on the caravan routes, inflicting serious losses on all classes. The movement in favour of a new order was led by Jamal-udDin, an agitator, who gained considerable influence in Turkey and Persia during the last years of Nasir-ud-Din. He was rather a Pan-Islamist than a constitutionalist, who vehemently denounced the corruption of the Persian Vizier. Another moving spirit was Prince Malkom, a clever Armenian with a French education. He was Persian Minister in London and, while holding this post, quarreled with the Vizier over a lottery, which the Shah had sold to him, but which the latter wishéd to cancel. In a paper which he published, Prince Malkom advocated a Parliament for Persia, while he never ceased to denounce his enemy the Vizier. The weakening of the power of the Shah encouraged the reformers and, in 1905, a definite movement began in favour of a constitution. It commenced with a protest against the Vizier, who was held to be responsible for the costly journeys of the Shah, for the corrupt government and for the disorder in the country. A number of merchants followed a time-honoured custom and took bast or sanctuary at a mosque in the capital, where they were joined by some mullas. Driven from the mosque by orders of the Vizier, they proceeded to the shrine of Abdul Azim outside Tehran, where their numbers rapidly increased. In vain the Shah intervened by sending his favourite to induce them to disperse. Finally the Shah was obliged to dismiss the obnoxious Vizier and to promise to convene an Adalatkhana or ‘““House of Justice”—it is to be noted that there was no demand for a constitution at this juncture. Upon receiving the royal promise, the bastis returned to their homes and the Shah took no steps to convene a House of Justice. In 1906, the Shah had a paralytic stroke and the Vizier decided to take strong measures against the reformers. This led to the Second Bast, which ended in the departure of the Mujtahid or “Doctors of the Divine Law” to Qum and the threat that they would lay the land under an interdict. Simultaneously thousands of citizens took bast at. the British Legation and declined to leave it until a National Assembly had been granted by the dying Shah. This was, at length, conceded by Muzaffar-udDin, who opened the Assembly in October 1906, and died shortly afterwards. The Revolution.—Mohammed Ali, who succeeded his father, was an Oriental despot of the worst type. He attempted to blind the reformers by twice pledging himself to adhere to the new constitution. However, he had no intention of keeping his solemn promises, for he resented any infringement of his absolute power to dispose of the revenues of Persia for his own purposes. The able Vizier of Nasir-ud-Din was recalled to office with secret instructions to overthrow the constitution. He set to work to gain the consent of the majority of the Majlis for the raising of a loan, as the Shah had found the treasury empty, and could not buy partisans without money. It seemed as if the Vizier was achieving his purpose when he was assassinated. This black deed was

glorified and the fortieth day after the suicide of the assassin was observed as a national holiday.

Public opinion forced the

Shah to appoint Nasir-ul-Mulk, who had been educated at Oxford, to be his Vizier. This honest statesman realised that it was essential to restore the finances of Persia but, before he could

PERSIA

596

[FROM 1909

carry through any of his reforms, the Shah, who had collected gangs of ruffians, called out his forces with the intention of closing

under the presidency of a well-known figure in Persian politics Mustaufi-ul-Mamalik, with a sprinkling of the most able of he

the obnoxious Majlis and of arresting its leaders. But he suddenly hesitated and stayed his hand. The Majlis thereupon collected armed volunteers and sent telegrams to the provinces asking for

Young Persian element. Nevertheless the first year of the revived constitution was marked by a continuation of cabinet crises and

support, which evoked a wave of enthusiasm. The Shah yielded to the popular feeling and sent a Koran to the Assembly sealed with an oath that he would observe the con-

stitution. This is the most solemn form of oath in Persia. Six months later, the Shah bombarded the building, in which the Majlis sat, arresting some of the leaders and regaining control of the government for the time being. The answer to this outrage was a rising at Tabriz. In vain the Shah despatched troops to crush the rebellion. They merely blockaded the city and, in the spring of 1909, the Russians broke up the blockade in the interest of their subjects. The defence of Tabriz gave time for national forces to be organised at Resht and Isfahan. These forces combined and entered Tehran, whereupon the Shah who was in camp a few miles from the capital, threw up the sponge and took refuge in the Russian Legation. He was deposed by the victors and left Persia. ‘Thus with little loss of life, the Persian revolution was successfully accomplished.

by the division of the Majlis into a number of conflicting factions After the nationalist occupation of Tehran, Yeprem Khan, the military leader of the revolutionaries, had promptly organised

a vigorous police administration which gave the city immunity

from any of those disorders which are so often experienced in such cases, and the lives and properties of foreigners were in

no way molested.

Nevertheless, on the plea that special measures

were needed for the protection of their nationals, Russian troops were forthwith despatched to Kazvin, and having thus succeeded in effecting a temporary occupation, they altogether refused ig withdraw, notwithstanding the earnest remonstrances of Great Britain, who advocated a policy of non-intervention in accordance

with the spirit of the 1907 Convention. The lack of administrative experience on the part of the personnel of the new régime, soon made it apparent that the departments of the government

could not be effectively reorganised without the assistance of foreign advisers, and when the subject came up for specific dis. cussion Great Britain and Russia not unreasonably required that

Angilo-Russian Agreement, 1907.—For a century there had been keen rivalry in Asia between Great Britain and Russia,

nationals of one or more of the minor Powers should be engaged, failing which they must press for the appointment of their

which, in 1885, had nearly led to war between the two empires owing to the famous Panjdeh incident. The military party in Russia, which desired to approach ever nearer and nearer to India, was averse from any settlement with Great Britain, but the disasters of the war with Japan had a chastening effect and made the Russian military party ready to come to terms. These feelings were warmly reciprocated by the British, and were embodied in an Agreement, which represented a comprehensive effort to settle all questions connected with Tibet, Afghanistan and Persia. Here reference will only be made to the Agreement, so far as it affected Persia. It began with a solemn declaration to respect the “strict independence and integrity of Persia,” and then stipulated that each state binds itself to seek’ no concession of any kind in regions conterminous to the frontier of the other. To avoid misunderstandings, the commercial spheres were then defined. That of Russia included Northern and Central Persia, while Great Britain merely reserved the deserts of South-East Persia. It was a mistake not to have included the whole of South Persia, as there alone would commercial concessions be sought, and leaving it

own nationals.

neutral was certain to lead to trouble. This was pointed out at the time, and the subsequent enormous development in oil proved that this view was correct. Persia naturally disliked the Agreement. She had based her policy on the rivalry of her two neighbours, and viewed with dismay the new order, by which, in her opinion, they had agreed to dismember her. British policy was honest and was entirely benevolent, so far as Persia was concerned. On the other hand, Russian officials considered that Northern Persia had been made over to them and, when the World War broke out, they were gradually annexing it. The Agreement has been annulled both by Great Britain and by Russia since the conclusion of the World War. (P. M. S.) E.—HISTORY

OF THE PERIOD, 1909-1929

The deliberations in this connection extended into the new year (1911) and eventually it was decided that Americans should be engaged for the supervision of finances and Swedes for police

and gendarmerie. Action was taken accordingly and in due course,

in the following May, an American citizen, Mr. Morgan Shuster, was engaged to serve as treasurer general for a period of three years, with a staff of 4 assistants, for the supervision, collection, and disbursement of the revenues of Persia. Hardly had they got to work, when, on June 17, the recently deposed Mohammed Ali Shah unexpectedly landed at Gumesh Tepe on the Caspian, bent on an attempt to recover the throne; while at the same time his brother, Salar-ed-Dowleh, making a sudden appearance in Kurdistan, there too raised the standard of revolt, ostensibly on his brother’s behalf. At first the menace to the capital from these two directions was undeniably serious, but the ex-Shah’s effort was conducted with that incapacity and indecision which had distinguished all his activities, and ended in a complete fiasco. The credit for this result was mainly due to the redoubtable Yeprem Khan, and to Shuster’s financial reforms which supplied his resources. Meanwhile Shuster’s financial programme had brought him into conflict with Russian interests. Finally the confiscation of the estates of the ex-Shah’s brother, Shua-es-Saltaneh (who, it was claimed, was in debt to the Russian Bank) for the part he had played in his brother’s abortive exploit, was held to afford sufficient grounds for the presentation of an ultimatum to the Persian Government, in which were included a demand for an indemnity and the dismissal of Mr. Shuster, failing which, it was announced, there would be an advance of Russian troops on Tehran. Great Britain made diplomatic protests at Tehran

but they were of no avail and Russia persisted in her demands. Anti-Russian Feeling.—Anti-Russian feeling now ran high in the capital; Russian goods were boycotted, and the Majlis having refused to sanction compliance with the ultimatum, some 3 to 4 thousand Russian troops were despatched to Kazvin from

This period, extending over two decades was destined to prove an epoch-making one in the history and evolution of Persia, and may be said to have commenced with the accession of the boyKing, Sultan Ahmad Shah and the re-establishment of constitutional government. The first cabinet of the new government naturally included the two patrician heroes of the revolution, the Sipahdar (to be known later as Sipah Salar), as Premier, and the veteran Bakhti-

whence they were expected to march on Tehran at any moment.

found themselves mere figure-heads in the hands of the more extreme elements among the late revolutionaries, whose aim

Russian demands.

yari chief Sardar Asad, as Minister of the Interior; but they soon

The position seemed desperate, until finally, on December 24, Nasir-ul-Mulk, who had become Regent on the death of the aged

Kajar Azad-ul-Mulk, the year before, took charge of the situa-

tion and with the co-operation of the Cabinet and of Yeprem Khan dissolved the Majlis and then signified acceptance of the contracts

In pursuance thereof, on December 25, the

of Mr. Shuster and his colleagues were terminated

seemed to be to control the government without sharing its and they left the country forthwith. Meanwhile chaos reigned responsibilities. In these circumstances it was not long before in the provinces, the only bright spot in the picture ‘being the the two ministers resigned their portfolios and took their seats comparatively satisfactory progress of the Swedish military misin the Majlis as ordinary deputies, a new cabinet being formed sion in the direction of forming a gendarmerie.

CONVENTION WITH BRITAIN]

507

PERSIA

On the exit of Saiyid Zia (April 3, 1921) Riza Khan probest as on carried ceeded to set up a government of his own, with himself as financial administration of the country was of War and one of the old régime, Qavam-es-Sultaneh as ion minister Administrat Customs Belgian the of staf the they could by From that moment he practically ruled Persia. minister. prime of nd with no small measure of success, but in the direction importance of having some reliable troops at the to alive the Fully in effected be could little reform, constructive financial alike to his person and interests, he set himattached War, back, his World the adverse circumstances then prevailing. During From the time of the dismissal of the Shuster mission the

moreover, Persia, nominally neutral, became a mere field for the

val combatants

(see Persia, CAMPAIGNS

IN). On the con-

clusion of the war Persia was admitted as an original member of the League of Nations. Post-war Foreign Relations.—In the matter of her foreign

relations Persia found herself in a considerably altered position at the end of the war. The cabinet of Vossuq-ed-Dowleh conduded with Britain on Aug. 19, 1919 a Convention on the following basis: (i.) Categorical reiteration of undertaking repeatedly given by Creat Britain in the past to respect absolutely the integrity and independence of Persia. (i.) The lending of expert British advisers as necessary for

self at once to reorganise the armed forces of the country and

to make effective arrangements to ensure their regular pay. To

this end he insisted on certain branches of the ministry of Finance being transferred to the Ministry of War. Having by this means gradually converted the miscellaneous contingents existing into a disciplined force of some 40,000 men, he concentrated his efforts on the subjugation of the distant and semidependent tribes, and his phenomenal

success in this direction

was soon reflected in the increased measure of security prevailing in the provinces. In the autumn of the same year, as the result of negotiations

with the U. S. Government, which had been in progress throughout the summer, a strong financial mission arrived from America the leadership of A. C. Millspaugh, and embarked on the under military administration, the various departments of the Persian task of reforming Persian finances. and civil. In October 1923 the Shah fled to Europe, Riza Khan appointed (ii.) The provision of a substantial loan for the purpose of prime minister and summoned the Majlis. himself financing the above schemes. Late in 1924, Riza Khan reduced to submission Shaikh Khazaal (iv.) Co-operation on the part of the British Government in

the promotion of Persian enterprises for the improvement of communications. (v.) The appointment by the two Governments of a joint Committee for the revision of the existing customs tariff on lines conducive to the interests and prosperity of the country. This Convention though it was for a short while put into operation, lapsed on the fall of Vossuq-ed-Dowleh. His successor

Sipahdah-i-Azim concluded a treaty with the Soviet providing for: (i) Renunciation of the old Tsarist policy of force and a guarantee of non-intervention in the affairs of Persia. (ii.) Denunciation of treaties concluded in the past between the Tsarist régime and other Powers in regard to Persia (¢.g., the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907). (iii.) The writing off of outstanding Russian loans to Persia. (iv.) Cancellation of all concessions under which Russia had exercised control over Persian communications—with the clear proviso that they should not be passed on to the nationals of

Khan, G.C.LE., K.C.S.L, the semi-independent chief of Mohammerak, who had for years been in close contact with the British. Then on April 19, 1925, the Shaikh was arrested by Persian

troops on board his yacht and forthwith removed to Tehran where he has since been detained as a political prisoner. In February 1925 Riza Khan demanded from the Majlis the grant of definite and comprehensive military powers only withdrawable by a vote of that body. His request having been acceded to by the Majlis, he now became completely independent of the Shah’s authority, and six months later he formally sought elevation to the crown of Persia. The change of ruler and dynasty was effected with surprisingly little commotion, the deposition of the absent Sultan Ahmed Shah being executed by a simple declaration of the Majlis on Oct. 31, 1925. A Constituent As-

sembly was then convened, which proceeded to elect “Riza Khan Pahlavi” as Shah of Persia, with right of succession to his heirs.

flying the Russian flag. (vii.) The reciprocal right to appoint diplomatic and consular representatives where considered necessary. (viii.) Abolition of the ex-territorial rights of Soviet citizens.

On December 15 the new Shah took the oath to defend the Constitution, and on the 16th he was publicly proclaimed amidst much popular enthusiasm. A few weeks later his eldest son, Shapur Mohammed Riza, was appointed crown prince. On April 25, 1926, his majesty’s coronation took place. The contracts of the members of Mr. Millspaugh’s financial mission, to which reference has been previously made, having expired in August 1927, were not renewed. After a short interregnum, during which the financial administration was carried on by the Belgian customs staff, a German financial expert, Dr.

coup d’état organised by the nationalist newspaper editor, Saiyid Zia-ud-Din. This young patriot had secured the co-operation of

Following the example of the rulers of Turkey and Afghanistan, the Shah gave notice to the Powers concerned, in 1927, of

any other Power. (v.) Cancellation of all concessions granted by Persia to Russian subjects. (vi.) Abolition

of the clause in the treaty of Turkmanchai

under which no ships were allowed on the Caspian save those

But the ink was hardly dry on this document when the capital became the scene of a most dramatic episode, in the form of a

Lindenblatt, was appointed (April 1928) to succeed Mr. Millspaugh, but with much reduced powers.

a native officer of the Cossack division, Sartip Riza Khan, under

his intended denunciation of all treaties in which extra-territorial rights, commonly known as “capitulations,” were conferred, None

whose leadership a force of some 3,000 Cossacks from the Kazvin garrison marched on the capital. Meeting with no opposition they proceeded to arrest all prominent personages, and the establishment of a government under Saiyid Zia-ud-Din was then announced. Very soon after, Saiyid Zia-ud-Din found himself helpless before his colleague Sartip Riza Khan, who now, as minister of War, had sole control of all armed forces and was displaying great jealousy of foreign interference in any direction. Feeling that the situation was passing out of his hands Saiyid

Zia-ud-Din decided to leave the country and reached Baghdad at the end of May.

From this point the history of Persia is the story of the rising fortune of Riza Khan Pahlavi. A native of the Savad Kuh district of Mazanderan, he had entered the Cossack Division as a trooper when about 25 years of age and at the time of his sudden appear-

ance on the stage of Persian politics was a sartip in the division

hitherto quite unknown outside it.

of the said Powers having offered serious objections, the abolition was allowed to take effect from May 28, 1928. In the meantime negotiations had been opened for the conclusion of fresh treaties and under which Persia’s tariff autonomy was to be recognized the legal position of the nationals of the Power concerned, under the new conditions, duly regulated.

Satisfactory relations have not yet been established between Persia and Iraq, Persia having so far refrained from according formal recognition to the new State. Meanwhile trade between the

two countries pursues the even tenor of its ways.

After difficult negotiations extending over some months, an agreement has been reached (November 1928) for the establishment of bases in Persian territory for the air service to India. At the session of the League of Nations in September 1928 Persia was elected to the Council of the League, Progress in Persia.—The present position in Persia is dis-

PERSIA, CAMPAIGNS IN

598

tinctly better than under the Qajar dynasty. Like his great predecessors, Shah Riza realises the supreme importance of security. To ensure it, he has organised a well-trained force of all arms 40,000 strong and, using this instrument with courage and ability, he has disarmed the tribesmen, a feat that was entirely beyond the power of the previous dynasty. More than this, the Kashgais and Bakhtiaris are now ruled by military officers and their chiefs are either in prison or accept subordinate positions. The same policy is being pursued in the case of the smaller tribes and peace is assured. Total disarmament is really the crux of the whole matter as, once the tribesmen are rendered impotent for robbing, security of the roads is established, the sedentary population being most orderly. Persia is indeed under military Government. For example, the whole of the country south of Isfahan is controlled by the general officer commanding the southern army, whose headquarters are at Shiraz. The mullas, like the nomad chiefs, have lost their power for evil and so far have changes gone that civil offices have been opened for marriages. Here, as in many other reforms, the policy of Turkey has been followed. The Shah, once again like his great predecessors, has realised the importance of communications. Various routes were opened up and improved by the British during the World War, but were not kept up in the years that followed. A new policy has now been adopted, and steady progress is being effected under American engineers. The number of cars that use the routes is increasing at an amazing rate. Indeed, even the poor are beginning to travel, with the result that there is a wider outlook than in olden days. Nor must the marked improvement of the postal services be forgotten, both as regards the transport of mails and passengers. In this connection, In 1927, an agreement was concluded with a German air company for a weekly service between Tehran and Baku, to be followed by a similar service between the

capital and the Iraq frontier. Wireless stations have also been established and, to some extent, are available for public use. The construction of a railway line from the Caspian to the Persian gulf is the dearest wish of the progressive Shah, whose enthusiasm has infected the entire nation. American engineers have examined the various routes and, in the autumn of 1927, the Shah cut the first sod of this great undertaking. Thanks to the royalties paid by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, which constitute the anchor-sheet of Persian finance, and to a special tax on sugar and tea, it is possible that the money may be forthcoming for the construction, but, in view of the barren nature of Persia, the railway can hardly be worked at a profit. Among the reforms that are being accomplished, is that of the judiciary which is being remodelled on French lines. Capitulary privileges were renounced by the Soviet Government and this probably encouraged the Shah to issue a decree that the capitulations would be abolished in May 1928. It would seem that this action is premature and it is probably a ballon d’essai, but it is noteworthy that the French Government has already accepted the position. Possibly the fact that there are practically no French subjects resident in Persia may have influenced this decision. (P. Z. C.; A. T. W.)

PERSIA, CAMPAIGNS

IN.

For many years before the

World War Germany had been making strenuous efforts to increase her influence and interests in Persia. At Tehran a college was opened, staffed by German professors and subsidised by the, Persian Government. In the Persian Gulf the firm of Wonckhaus began to deal in mother-of-pearl at Lingeh in 1896; in 1897 a German vice-consulate was opened at Bushire. In 1900 Germany attempted to purchase a site for the terminus of the Baghdad railway at Al Kuwait, but Sheik Mubarak had previously concluded a secret treaty with Great Britain agreeing, in return for protection, not to sell or lease any of his territory without her consent. Other German efforts, made in collusion with Turkey, members of Mubarak’s family and the Wahabis, failed; but Turkey established and held posts on Mubarak’s territory in Hor

oxide deposits of Abu Musa and finally of a piece of land along the river bank at Mohammerah. These attempts were foiled b

Sir Percy Cox, the British Resident. In 1906 the HamburgAmerika Co. started a service to the Persian Gulf. At the outbreak

of war Great Britain was engaged in negotiations with German which would have given that Power a strong position at Basra the destined terminus of the Baghdad railway; and had acknowl-

edged Turkey’s suzerainty over Al Kuwait. I. THE

MENACE

TO INDIA

In July 1914 the regency terminated with the coronation of the young Shah, who had hardly taken up his duties when hos. tilities commenced. His Majesty summoned the Majlis, and duly proclaimed the neutrality of Persia. The position was, however a difficult one. The grandees were, in many cases, only anxious to receive money from one or both sides; the masses hated the Russians and mistrusted the British for being the friends of their enemies. There was sympathy in some quarters for the Turks, and “let the Christians devour one another” was frequently heard. But Persia was powerless. Her military forces included the Cossack brigade 8,000 strong, the Swedish gendarmerie 7,009 strong and the useless Persian Army. German Policy in Persia.—At first sight it would seem wnlikely that remote Persia should become a war theatre, but there is no doubt that Germany had prepared her plans for attacking the Indian Empire across Persia, using the Turkish Army as her instrument. Before Turkey declared war, the Government of India took the precaution of despatching a brigade of Indian troops to the Bahrein Islands. After the outbreak of hostilities

this force, increased to a division, defeated the Turks at Sahil, and occupied Basra on Nov. 21, thus effectually protecting the

oil refineries of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. To protect the pipeline, r5om. long, running through Ahwaz to the oilfields at Maidan-i-Naftin, which the tribesmen had breached and fired in several places, operations were undertaken, as a result of which Persian soil was cleared of a Turkish force that threatened Ahwaz; the local tribes then submitted to the Indian troops and the pipeline was repaired. Germany hoped to embarrass Russia, and still more, Great Britain, by forcing Persia and Afghanistan into the War on her own side and creating disturbances in India and on her frontiers. If Persia would come in, the claim that Islam was on the side of the Central Powers might have brought in Afghanistan. Germany was able to divert forces to Persia at a small cost; for India was weakly held, and the “Emden” was causing some uneasiness. The chief German agent was Wassmuss, formerly consul at Bushire, who organised an anti-British confederacy at Tangistan, Dashti and Dashtistan, bought over the Swedish officers of the gendarmerie at Shiraz and secured control of their fcrce. The British vice-consul was murdered, the consul and entire colony arrested and taken to the coast, Qawam el Mulk, the chief of the Arab tribes, who was acting Governor-General, was driven out, and Wassmuss reigned supreme in Fars. In Kermanshah, Turks and

Germans expelled the British in April 1915; at Isfahan the Germans were equally successful, and later at Yezd and Kerman. At the end of rors seven out of the 17 branches of the Imperial

Bank of Persia (a British company) were in enemy hands, and the British colonies had been expelled from central and southern Persia, except the Gulf ports. In the north the position was different. The Russians landed troops at Enzeli, which marched

on Tehran.

This action drove the enemy ministers to quit the

capital. One of the dangers to be guarded against was that of German missions to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Efforts were made to intercept such parties, but it took time to make the necessary arrangements, and it was not until 1916 that the Eastern Persian

cordon was in working order with the Russians patrolling the frontier as far south as Kain, from which centre the British,

with some regular troops and a number of locally raised levies, ‘Abdullah, an inlet running from behind Bubiyan Island to within were responsible to the borders of Baluchistan. Persia being 4 30m. of Basra. In 1902 the firm of Wonckhaus attempted to land of vast distances, it is not surprising that a German mission gain control of the pearl fisheries around Hulul, then of the red was able, by means of very long marches, to reach Herat m

PERSIA, CAMPAIGNS gfety. It was received with every honour, but displayed extraordinary lack of tact by openly decrying everything of Afghan

manufacture, the arms manufactured at the arsenal at the capital, for instance, being criticised contemptuously. At Kabul too, the same behaviour brought the mission into trouble. The Amir, who had received it courteously, played for time by summoning a

council representative of all the tribes and by lengthy meetings

with the mission and his own advisers. The Germans gradually realised that, without a Turkish force, their efforts were wasted. They were finally dismissed, the Amir pointing out that he could hardly break with the British until a large, well-equipped army reached Kabul from the west.

The mission broke up into small

parties, most of which successfully evaded the cordon.

In 1916 the ebb and flow of the struggle were very marked. At first the Turks, shortly after the retreat of the British from Ctesiphon, occupied Kermanshah and pushed forward towards Hamadan. The Russians in their turn, advanced and drove the enemy off the plateau, while a second force swept the hostile Bakhtiaris out of Isfahan and brought back the British and Russian communities. The capture of Kut again transformed

the military situation and, in the summer, the Turks, 16,000 strong with 54 guns, gradually drove back the Russians who could only oppose them with 12,000 men and 19 guns. Kermanshah was evacuated and then Hamadan, the retreat continuing as far as the Sultan Bulag range which covered Kazvin and threatened a force marching on Tehran. This situation remained unchanged until December.

The South Persia Rifles—In 1916 it was decided, in consultation with the Persian Government, to organise a force of Persian troops to restore order in Southern Persia and take the

place of the Swedish gendarmerie. This force was to be 11,000 strong, and the Cossack brigade was to be raised to a similar strength. Brig.-Gen. Sir Percy Sykes, who had spent many years in Southern Persia, was appointed to undertake this task, and landed at Bandar Abbas in March, with three other British oficers and a few Indian instructors. The state of affairs was most unfavourable

as, apart from

the defeat

of Qawam, the

British agent and his escort were assassinated at Lingeh, and two British officers were assassinated in Makran about the same time, and finally this terrible month of April saw the grave disaster of Kut al ‘Amara. Many experienced officials expected a wave of fanaticism to sweep across Persia and there was certainly cause for deep anxiety, especially in Makran, but British coolness undoubtedly saved the situation. Recruiting operations at Bandar Abbas were started immediately after landing and, in spite of a strong anti-British party, men were rapidly enlisted, and, before the end of a month, the Persian flag was hoisted with ceremony over a camp. The force, handled with much tact and patience by | its British and Indian instructors, never looked back, and was soon able to protect Bandar Abbas and an important section of the caravan route from the raiding tribesmen. Qawam was aided by the British with money and munitions, and an exaggerated report of the means placed at his disposal led to the rebel Arab headmen kissing his feet. With their aid he defeated the Swedish gendarmerie, and was marching in triumph to Shiraz when he was killed by a fall from his horse. His son, a man of 28, was, however, able to restore Persian authority in Fars. The success of Qawam and the landing of the mission at Bandar Abbas made the position of the German parties at Kerman decidedly insecure. They fled to two parties, and after suffering some losses from attacks on the road, they were ail captured by Qawam and imprisoned at Shiraz. The little band consisted of 60 Germans and Austrians, a dozen Turks and a few

Afghans, A small force of Indian troops, consisting of a section of mountain guns, a squadron of cavalry and 500 rifles, was sent to Bandar Abbas, and Sir Percy Sykes marched inland a distance of 280m. to Kerman, where he was received with much cordiality.

The various pro-German elements who had created a state of Insecurity fled, the bank and telegraph offices were reopened, and

the normal state of affairs was quickly re-established. The column then marched to Yezd, where the British colony had just returned.

IN

599

News being received of the Turkish advance and of a probable attack on Isfahan, the column made a forced march to that city where it joined the extreme left of the Russian Army, represented by 600 Cossacks. The Turks, hearing of the arrival of the British at Isfahan, stopped at a village some six miles distant, and then retired. When it became evident that the danger had passed, the column marched south to Shiraz, which it reached in November, thereby completing a march of 1,o00om. through the heart of Persia. At Shiraz the question of the gendarmerie had to be settled. The Persian Government had not actually given its consent to its being incorporated in the South Persia Rifles, but it was unable to pay or equip the force. Spread over the route fer a distance of 200m. from the borders of Fars in the north, to Kazerun in the south, and numbering some 3,000 men, the problem which confronted Sir Percy Sykes was one of extreme difficulty. He had no staff to administer or train such large numbers, and he was aware that it was this force which had seized the British consul only a year previously and that many of the officers were pro-German in sentiment. But he also realized that, if the gendarmerie broke up into well-armed bands of robbers and devastated the country, few supplies would reach Shiraz. He consequently decided to take over the entire body, and the force gradually developed and helped to restore order in South Persia. (See Wor~p War; Woritp War: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

Ii. THE BRITISH IN PERSIA During the winter, the position in Mesopotamia entirely changed. Instead of weak, ill-equipped columns, severely handicapped by unfavourable climate conditions, failing before Kut al ‘Amara, there was the pleasant picture of overwhelming forces under the inspiring leadership of Gen. Sir Stanley Maude recapturing Kut in February 1917 and following this up by the signal success of the capture of Baghdad. The position of the Turks in Persia became more and more difficult as the British advanced. On the day Baghdad was occupied they evacuated Kermanshah and, pursued by the Russians, reached the Persian frontier at Qasr-i-Shirin on March 31, worn out and hungry but not wholly demoralised. But during the succeeding winter, the Russian army disintegrated. Its collapse opened up to the enemy a completed line of northern advance across the Caucasus and the Caspian sea to ‘Ashqabad, Merv (the junction for Kushk, within striking distance of Herat), Bokhara, Samarcand and Tashkent, the administrative centre of Russian Turkistan. In Sept. 1917 Georgia and Armenia decided to claim their independence, and a third state came into being under the title of the republic of Azerbaijan, with Baku as its capital. In connection with the efforts made to ward off the danger to India involved in the Russian collapse, British troops entered Western Persia. The Dunsterville Mission.—It was out of the question to despatch large bodies of troops to support the Georgians or Armenians, as Baghdad was 800m. distant from Baku. The authorities therefore, decided to despatch a military mission to reorganise the sound elements of the country into a force that would prevent the Turks and their German masters from reaching Baku. It was hoped that these small States would fight for their homes, but the Armenians failed to do this. Maj.-Gen. L. C. Dunsterville was appointed to command this mission, and, in Feb. 1918, he started off from Baghdad with a party of officers in 40 cars to cross north-west Persia. Enzeli was his objective, and he hoped from that port to be able to proceed to Baku and Tiflis. He reached Enzeli only to find that the port and its shipping were in the hands of hostile Bolsheviks, while the neighbourhood was dominated by Mirza Kuchik Khan, an ambitious brigand who had recruited some 4,000 followers, nicknamed Jangalis or “Forest Dwellers,” to the cry of “Persia for the Persians,” and who robbed his countrymen if they refused to join him. Dunsterville quickly realised the situation, and, before his opponents had concerted their plans and had overcome their fear of the armoured motor-car, the mission had retired to Kazvin and Hamadan, which latter city became its headquarters.

During

this period,

Dunsterville

was

brought

into

close

PERSIAN

600

ART

relations with the Russian generals Baratov and Bicherakov. The former had commanded the Russian troops in Northern Persia and was now helplessly watching their disintegration. The latter, on the contrary, had kept his command of 1,200 men practically intact. By March the last of Baratov’s men had left, but Dunsterville had been able to keep Bicherakov’s command at his side. Without its aid, the Jangalis, elated by the retirement of the mission, which was magnified into a great victory over a British army, would have been able to march on the capital. There they would probably have introduced a reign of anarchy and have forced Persia into the War on the side of the Central Powers, with whom Kuchik Kham had close relations; he also had German, Austrian and Turkish instructors well supplied with machine-

new and out new

guns.

their effect solely by the heavy lapidary style of the archaic char-

stalled losses. ceived battery

When the Jangalis marched

on Kazvin,

Bicherakov

fore-

them, and drove them back to the forests with heavy He then embarked at Enzeli. Dunsterville, who had rereinforcements consisting of a regiment of cavalry, a and two regiments of infantry, followed behind Bichera-

kov and took over the road. The Jangalis, under their European

officers, attacked a detachment at Resht, but suffered heavy losses, and Kuchik Khan made terms and became a contractor for supplies. About this time the Bolshevik Government at Baku was overthrown and replaced by the Central-Caspian dictatorship, which asked for British assistance. Dunsterville took his force to Baku, held it for some weeks against overwhelming Turkish numbers, denying the use of the oil wells to the enemy, whom he also kept away from the Caspian Sea, and finally evacuated the town and returned to Enzeli, thus ending a very gallant episode of the War. Investment of Shiraz by the Kashgais.—In the spring of 1918 the Persian Government, in reply to a British note, denounced the South Persia Rifles as a foreign force and a threat to Persian independence and integrity. It also expressed the hope that the British Government would withdraw its troops and allow Persia to commence her cherished reforms. The cabinet was

under the impression that Germany was winning the World War or such a curt note would never have been penned. This reply was published all over Southern Persia; and the results were speedily shown in serious desertions from the South Persia Rifles and culminated in the formation of a confederacy under the Kashgai chief, Solat-u-Daulah, to annihilate the British in Southern Persia. He had at his disposal 4,500 Kashgais and 1,500 Kazerunis and this number was reinforced by contingents from Dashti, Dashtistan and elsewhere, and reached about 8,000 fighting men. The tribesmen were well armed with Mausers, had plenty of ammunition, and fought both bravely and cunningly. The British force at Shiraz was 2,200 strong, one-third being recruits. The South Persia Rifles slightly outnumbered the Indian troops

and, owing to propaganda and the proclaimed hostility of the Persian Government, were a danger to the British. The detachments in the outposts mutinied and surrendered or deserted. Qawam had collected in and about Shiraz 2,000 Arabs, who were ready to attack the beaten side. On May 24 the column marched out 1,600 strong and defeated the Kashgais in the hilly country to the west of the city. About xo days later the enemy returned in still larger numbers, and the Kazerunis occupied the garden quarter, which almost touched the fortified perimeter constructed by the British outside Shiraz. The inhabitants of Shiraz were

incited against the British by the mullahs, some of whom preached jihad or Holy War. Sir Percy Sykes learned that the Kashgais were preparing to unite with the townspeople in a combined attack on June 17, and he determined to forestall them. Accordingly, on June 16, the column sallied out and again inflicted considerable losses on the enemy. On the following day Shiraz rose, its inhabitants attacking everyone suspected of being friendly to the British. But the Kashgais did not come to the support of the townspeople, who were overawed by the seizure ‘at midnight of various keypositions by the British. The tide then turned. The governorgeneral appointed a new Jlkkani or “paramount chief” in place of Solat, whose followers began to break away, influenced by the heavy losses they had suffered. Qawam declared in favour of the

Ilkhani, and his example was followed by a brother of Solat by perhaps one-quarter of the tribe. The column marched again and Solat fled a broken man, pursued by Qawam. the Ilkhani, and most of the Kashgai tribe. The expedition is

described by L. C. Dunsterville, The Adventures of Dunsterforce 1920. (P. M.S.) ` PERSIAN ART, PAINTING

AND

CALLIGRAPHY.

The share of Persia in the development of the art of book-produc.

tion in the Islamic countries dates from even before the beginning of the Abbasid period. Towards the end of the 7th century, in the two oldest centres of culture in Iraq, Basra and Kufa, beautiful Koran mss. executed on broad parchment rolls were common

though at first they had no extraneous decoration, but produced acter.

In the 8th and ọth centuries this the most refined branch

of Mohammedan

art reached its first period of splendour under

the powerful stimulus imparted by the caliphs of Baghdad: and the masters of the Cufic who flourished at that time (c. 800) include not only a number of Arabs, but also the Persian Khoshnam of Basra. More important, however, was the part played by calligraphers of Iranian origin in the development of the various forms of the maskhi, the round character, which early began to take a high place beside the vertical script. The inventor of the decorative thuluth, which derived from this, is said to have been Ibrahim Segzi of Sijistan, and his pupil Ustad Ahwal Segzi has the reputation of having been the first, under the caliph Mamin, to elaborate and discuss rules of calligraphy. He in turn was the teacher of the celebrated Ibn Mogla, who brought the naskhi into general use in place of the Cufic and is regarded as the greatest authority on all the principles of the art. Ibn Mogla’s school produced, among other famous pupils Hasan es-Sirafi (d. 979), who was of Mazdaic origin, and the Buyid prince Fena Khosrau (d.

983), a descendant of the Sassanian kings. In painting the Persian element was stronger. Although no traces of frescoes or illuminations have come down to us from the Sassanian period, we know from other sources that in that gréat age of Iranian culture painting was another field of endeavour, and Herzfeld has traced to Sassanian models all the motifs (dancing-girls, huntresses, animal figures, floral decoration of various kinds) of the fragments of ornamental wall-paintings which came to light in the caliphs’ palace at Samarra in the course of the excavations. At about the same time (gth century) illumination must have come into favour at Baghdad, probably through the Manichees. We have gained some knowledge of this through the discoveries made by the German expeditions to Turfan and

by Sir A. Stein.

(Sle ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT.)

The Baghdad School.—The first extant works of the Baghdad school of painting date from the 12th century, when the Seljuk period had already begun, but in their content and their artistic tendencies they go back unmistakably to older traditions, and continue with little change until the middle of the 13th century. They include scientific treatises translated from the Greek or

based on ancient models, with explanatory illustrations; Arabic versions of the Bidpai fables which were imported from India; and the anecdotes of Hariri, then in great favour, in which the bold jests and witty conceits of Abt Said of Serrûj were illustrated. These three types of text were all equally well adapted to direct the artist to the study of nature and to emphasize the importance of problems of composition and colour, and the works

of this school are veritably astonishing in their wealth of colourshading and their forcible depiction of their subjects.

To what

extent Persian masters are represented we do not know; but the circumstance that the “minai” pottery of Raghes (c. 1200) borrowed the Baghdad style of painting suggests that the whole tendency had already spread from Mesopotamia to centres in Iran. As early as about the roth century, paper had supplanted parchment, not only in secular works but also in copies of the Koran

and other religious texts, its manufacture having gradually spread from Samarcand to all the countries of Islam. Various places competed to produce perfect and costly types of paper, and the

writing-material was often fetched from a distance, especially when commissioned by royal courts. Ornamental decoration of

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MINIATURES

1. Leaf of a Koran in ornamental Kufic, 11th century 2. Bahram Gur hunting. From a Persian anthology made for the Library of Balsonqur, dated 1420 3. Persian miniature 4, Title page of a Koran written in Tabriz, A.D. 1463 5. Humay and Humayan in the Imperial Garden at Peking. about 1450 6. Portrait of a young man, by Alf Riza Abbasi, Isfahan

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l. Persian plate of the second half of the 17th century, showing elements of Chinese influence in the free and lavish floral decoration, combined with purely Persian elements in the border. 2. Blue glass bottle of the 17th or 1Sth century; one of a class with narrow necks designed for holding perfumes, illustrating Persian skill in handling the material. 3. An early bronze mortar of the 12th or 13th century; a primitive type showing Sassanian and Scythian elements. 4. Amber glass vase of the 17th or 18th century; its shape probably due to the influence of Chinese porcelains. 5. So-called Sultanabad plate, 14th century, illustrating the combination of freedom and balance characteristic of the best Persian design. 6. Pottery vase of the 17th century, with the typical informality and crowded richness

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7. Wall tile of the 13th or 14th

century in underglaze blue and yellow lustre. The combination of Arabic letters with architectural motives and interlacing, conventionalized foliage is characteristic. &. Water pitcher of engraved and inlaid copper, bronze and silver of the 19th century; a comparison with figure 3 shows the refinement of the later Persian work. The shape is probably due to in-

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border and field deoorated with conventionalized floral motives. 10. Fourteenth century Sultanabad jar, like figure 5, characteristic of Persian pottery at its best. 11. Persian rug of the 16th century. See also Rugs and Carpets, Plates IV., V., VI.

PERSIAN

601

ART and the enthusiasm

with which

they

manuscripts, from which for religious reasons figures were ex-

the national literature,

ihe illuminators and gilders breaking away from that of the calligraphers and painters and developing on its own lines, Cufic was

to Persian painting of the Mongol period a romantic note which often chimes with the atmospheres we find in our own contemporary western Gothic. In the East, however, the purely decorative and impersonal character of the pictures continued, whereas in Europe they were gradually diverted from their original purpose by the influence of wall-painting and panel-painting. It was

duded, also made continual strides, and we soon find the craft of

now no longer used except in chapter-headings and title-pages; elsewhere the script employed was either one of the many variants graceful of noskhi, or a decorative script representing a more and stylistic development of the vertical character. THE MONGOL

PERIOD

steeped themselves in the magic of their native countryside, give

at this time that the harmony between picture and text reached

the highest imaginable degree of perfection, and in turning the are continually astonished The Mongol invasion in the 13th century proved unexpectedly leaves of the extant manuscripts we fitted their subjects into painters the which with skill Hulagu the at Asia. western in production fortunate for the art of book by the calligraphers. At and his successors not only took pains to promote it in every pos- spaces allotted to them quite arbitrarily the the backgrounds century beginning were still care14th the of highlythe with contact into it brought ible way, but also fully coloured red, but subsequently a rich blue became general, developed painting of the Far East, and directed it towards new subjects, with the important effect of immensely enlarging the and it was not until the end of the period that a gold background painters’ outlook. The main tendency was now tọ the pictorial came into favour; the other colours were predominantly bright representation of historic events and legendary episodes, in world and lively. The incidental landscape is generally of a steppe-like character; jagged rocks, isolated trees, and little brooks rippling histories conceived on a large scale, and the principal result of acquaintance with the works of the Chinese masters of the Sung among stones and bordered by growing flowers, are the essential period was to enhance the feeling for landscape. In manuscripts features of almost all open-air scenes, and only occasionally is the or the luxuriance of a flowerof the early r4th century we see the foreign stimuli combining mysterious atmosphere of the forest with older traditions, until in course of time there developed a new garden depicted. The highly effective motif of a tree in blossom, taken from Perso-Mongol style of painting which reached a high standard in which is often used in smaller pictures, is obviously particularly that, know We period. Ming the of models captions Chinese The the two capitals of the Ilkhans, Baghdad and Tabriz. became increasingly were now no longer in Arabic, but generally in Persian, and the under the Timurids, contact with the Far East whole art of miniature painting was soon persianized when the

great national epic of Firdtisi and other poems, such as those of Nizimi and Khwadju Kirmani, became increasingly common in illustrated copies. New and effective uses were here found for devices of. composition, and, moreover, the arrangement of the verses in vertical columns, which could be broken up wherever

desired, made possible a much more intimate and aesthetically

frequent. BehZad of Herat.—An undeniable weakness of Perso-Mongol painting lies in the diagrammatical conventionalizing of the figures,

the spiritless treatment of the heads, and the absence of expres-

sion in the movements. In this respect no progress is to be seen throughout the whole development of the art, which is in other directions so astonishing; and the appearance of a completely

revolutionary personality was needed before a change could be brought about and new paths indicated. This personality was themes from Khosrau and Shirin, Leila and Majnûn, etc., were found in the genius Behzid of Herat, who is rightly honoured as the greatest master of Persian painting. Behzad understood how, then for the first time expressed in characteristic forms. When Timur altered the whole political complexion of western even in his most populous compositions, to differentiate every sinAsia, there arose, beside the two centres already named, a third gle figure in countenance and bearing; his palette was extraordiand highly productive centre—his capital of Samarkand, where, in narily rich, especially in warm, full tones, and this enabled him addition to the miniature book-illustration in body-colour, the to individualize his portraits by the employment of numerous separate sheet bearing a light ink sketch, usually picked out in colour-nuances for costumes and even for flesh. He was also a gold, came again into favour through the stimulus of Far Eastern reformer in the treatment of landscape, which appears more realexample. Of Arabic texts there were at this period only the cos- istically in his pages than in those of his forerunners, and in mography of Qazwini and a few astrological treatises, which seem the choice of subject a markedly realistic note is likewise seen, to have been produced with loving care in Western Turkestan. Moreover, it was he who revolted against the dictation of the To the Baghdad school of calligraphy belongs the credit of having, calligraphers, and admitted no text at all, or only a few lines about 1300, developed the lapidary style of the Cufic Korans into of verse in one corner, in the pages he illustrated; we have even a a rounded form, and brought this to the ripest degree of orna- number of double-page miniatures by his masterly hand. Behzad, who was born before 1450 and died after 1520, repremental beauty in the majestic tumar variants. In the production of the magnificent Korans of the age of tLe Ilkhâns, with their sents the zenith of the Mongol and the opening of the Safawid large size and their few and incomparably imposing lines of period in Persian painting. He was head of the Herat Academy script, Persian masters were certainly concerned; and they carried until 1506, when Shah Ismail took him to Tabriz, made him his to Tabriz and Samarcand the new principles they had learnt in chief librarian, and covered him with honours. Only a few exthis school for the decoration of the holy book, especially the rich tant work: are indisputably by his hand. A characteristic early arabesque illumination. Timur’s chief secretary, Emir Moham- work is the History of Timur, illustrated in 1467, which was formed Bedr ed-Din of Tabriz, has an immense reputation as a mas- merly in the Schulz collection and afterwards went to America; ter of all forms of writing, and two of the great Mongol emperor’s an edition of Saadi’s bust@n in the Cairo library is dated 1487; grandsons, [brahim Mirza and Baisonqur Mirza, were very famous and the illustrations to Majnin and Leila at Leningrad are among calligraphers. The latter, who unfortunately met an early death in his last works. Both in Herat and in Tabriz he had many pupils, 1434, also earned much honour by founding the Academy of who carried his style far and wide in Persia, Western Turkestan, Artistic Book-Production at Herat in connection with his library; and India; and even in the 16th century his name was already so for years it employed 40 calligraphers, besides numerous illu- famous that his art was imitated on every side, while later on pages minators and painters. In this academy the Persian texts were no of the most various origins were furnished with his signature to longer written in naskhi, but in nastalig, an offshoot of the old enhance their value. The Tabriz School.—The next generation of painters in cursive character, invented by the celebrated Mir Ali of Tabriz. All the 40 masters of Herat were directly or indirectly his pupils, Tabriz is dominated by the highly-gifted Sultan Mohammed, who and towards the end of the century the style of calligraphy in- exercised a commanding influence in the whole field of art at the vented by him found its most splendid representative in Sultan court of Shah Tahmasp. In collaboration with other masters he Ali of Meshed (d. 1513), the protégé of the famous poet and illustrated éditions de luxe of the Persian epics, several of minister Mir Ali Shir Newdi and friend of the great poet, Jam’i. which have come down to us; but for the most part he preferred The preference that painters displayed for subjects drawn from genre subjects and portraits, which were produced as single

satisfying conjunction of picture and text than had ever till then been known. Heroic scenes from the Shahnamah, sentimental

602

PERSIAN

sheets and were designed to be bound up in volumes with specimens of the handwriting of famous calligraphers. He opened new fields of activity to the painters by bringing lacquer bindings into fashion, and also by inducing them to design patterns for stuffs and knotted carpets to be made at the royal factories. Some of

the studies for the celebrated hunting and animal tapestries of the 16th century were made in his studio, as were also a few velvets and silk brocades with figure subjects of the delicacy of miniatures.

Since the end of the 15th century an immense impetus had been given to Koran decoration at Tabriz. It was here that the picturesque division of the title-pages into star- or medallion-shaped fields and borders with a reciprocal pattern or a cartouche design was devised, and this, transferred to the knotting technique, brought about a revolution in the style of Persian carpet-making. The ornament grows richer and more complicated; to the arabesque are added slender floral twines in a bewildering profusion of lines, palmettes, rosettes and cloud patterns. In Behzad’s time Shah Mahmid of Nishapur came to eminence as a master of the talig script, while later Mir Alf of Herat, “the

royal scribe” (d. 1559), held the foremost place. Sultan Alf elKâtib and many other calligraphers and illuminators heard the call of the Ottoman rulers and founded a school of book-decoration at Constantinople, which adhered closely to the tradition of Tabriz. The Isfahan School.—Late in the 16th century, when all the artistic forces of Persia were once more being concentrated at the new capital, Isfahan, under the powerful impulse communicated by Shah Abbas the Great, there arose also in Isfahan a new and important centre for the art of book-production in all its various

forms.

Mir Imad el-Husni (d. 1618) and Ali Riz4 Abbasi com-

peted in calligraphy for the royal favour, while others sought to attract attention by animal figures ingeniously constructed out of pious mottos and similar subjects, or by a perfect mastery of the shtkeste, a complicated script so full of flourishes as to verge on illegibility. In painting there is a link with the schools of Herat and Tabriz in the person of Ustad Mohammedi, who was undoubtedly the first to put his observations of nature on to paper in the purest ink-wash technique without any reference to a text. His successor as head of the painters’ gild at Isfahan was RizA Abbasi, whose signature, genuine or doubtful, is frequently met with; it is still not established beyond dispute whether this artist is identical with the calligrapher mentioned above, and with Aga Riza, who is thought to be of an older generation. Be that as it may, it was he who filled the albums of Persian and Indian collectors with his gay, sure-handed colour sketches and drawings in red chalk on the most every day subjects, and with carefullyexecuted pages in rich colour; and he ultimately became so much admired as almost to overshadow, for a time, the fame of Behzéd. He likewise gave a new impulse to the illustration of manuscripts, and his elegant, fashionable style gained him a great influence in the other decorative arts also; painted tiles and lacquered doors in the garden-palaces of Isfahan clearly show the mark of his atelier. Riza’s best pupil, and his bosom friend, was Muin, one of whose extant works is a portrait of his master; the style created by the latter was still a living force at the end of the 17th century, in the works of Mohammed Qasim, Mir Mohammed Ali, Mohammed Yûsuf and numerous others. Later Persian painting is of little interest to the history of art. In the 18th century European paintings and engravings were slavishly copied, and Nadir Shah’s expeditions to India introduced transitory influences of the Mogul school. At the beginning of the roth century an enormous impetus was given to lacquerpainting, though only as an ordinary bazaar industry, which permeated the entire realm of writing materials and toilet accessories; decoration also took the form of large canvases, such wretched and barbarous productions as to demonstrate that Persian artistic taste, once so cultivated, had now become a thing of the past. Since the end of the roth century the growing interest displayed

by European and American museums and collectors in Persian

miniatures has called into existence a considerable number of workshops for the production of fakes, where single pages and even complete manuscripts are concocted in the style of any old

ART

master that may be desired. This somewhat questionable devel. opment has at least the advantage of preserving skilled craftsman.

ship from decay and maintaining some contact with the master.

pieces of the past.

BrstioGRaPHy.—C. Huart, Les calligraphes et miniaturistes de Porien; musulman (1908) ; F. R. Martin, The Miniature Painting ang Painters of Persia, India and Turkey (1912) ; E. Blochet, Les peintures des manuscrits orientaux de la Bibliothèque Nationale (1914-20) ; W. Ph Schulz, Die persisch-islamische Miniaturmalerei (Leipzig, 1914); G Marteau and H. Véver, Les miniatures persanes (1913); E. Kiihnel, Miniaturmalerez int islamischen Orient (2nd ed., 1922); K. A. Cres. well, A Provisional Bibliography of Painting in Muhammadan Ar (1924); E. Blochet, Les enluminures des manuscrits orientaux de la

Bibliothèque Nationale (1926); T. W. Arnold, Survivals of Sassanian and Manichaean Art in Persian Painting (Newcastle, 1924); E, Diez, Die Elemente der persischen Landschaftsmalerei und ihre Gestaltung (1922); F. Taeschner, “Zur Ikonographie der persischen Bilderhand.

schriften,” Jahrbuch der asiatischen Kunst (1925) ; A. Sakisian, L’école de miniature de Hérat au XVe siècle (1921) ; M. Muh. Qazwini and L

Bouvat, “Deux documents relatifs 4 Behzid,” Rev. du monde mus (1914); F. Sarre and E. Mittwoch, Zeichnungen von Riza Abbas (Munich, 1914); W. Ph. Schulz, “Die Wahrheit iiber Riza Abbasi,” Zeitschrift fiir bildliche Kunst (1917); T. W. Arnold, “The Riza

Abbasi Ms. in the British Museum,” Burlington Magazine (1921): J, v. Karabacek, Riza-i Abbasi (1911); T. W. Arnold, A History oy

Islamic Painting (1928).

(E. K.)

OTHER FORMS OF PERSIAN ART A strain of decorative skill dating from the Mohammedan conquest permeates all the expressions of Mohammedan art generally known as Persian, but pre-Mohammedan influences are

not absent.

Such Sassanian motives as twinned animals facing

each other appear constantly.

Architecture.—The progress of architecture from the Seljuk

domination continues to a rich climax in the 16th to 17th centuries. The love of barrel-vaulted porches can be traced directly to Sassanian palaces and were the chief motives of the great mosques where they were flanked by twin minarets in the design of which appears that emphasis on height which is universally Persian. A second characteristic was the use of a dome with two shells, the outer onion-shaped and supported on a high drum, and the swelling slight in early examples but more pronounced later, Daring ingenuity of construction prevailed in all of these vaults and domes. The stalactite (g.v.) corbels, elaborate intersections of curved surfaces, delicate groined lines and scalloped forms were handled with extraordinary skill and these types differed widely from similar buildings in the rest of the Muslim world. During the 18th century there developed rich and delicate wooden construction including slim columns, intricate cornices treated with lavish carving and inlays used frequently in the exquisite formal gardens so important to Persian life. The Mohammedan

love of surface ornament led to dominance of plane

surfaces covered with tiles so that walls, vaults, domes and minarets glowed with blue greens and turquoise, rose and yellow. In no other style has applied color become such an integral part of architectural design. (See MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE; Mosque; TILE.) Ceramics.—Springing from the most ancient Mesopotamian development of pottery Persian ceramics developed in about the 13th century into one of the most exquisite of all arts. The pottery body was coarse due to the available clay but the glazes

were developed to a high degree of perfection and the coloration, more especially the blues ranging from turquoise to cobalt, became world-famous. Sassanian, Parthian and Byzantine influences lent vigour and charm. By the r4th century floral ornament became more important and the designs were freer and less formal. Vases were decorated in low relief and covered with

monochrome blue glaze. During the 16th century the Chinese influence made itself felt and became strong in the 17th century

not only in design but in methods of manufacture and at the same time Persian influences were felt in China. Tiles were of course an important phase of the ceramic industry. (See POTTERY AND PorcELAIN: Near and Far East; Tire; Mosarc.) Textiles.—Church treasuries throughout Europe reserve textiles that are obviously of Asiatic origin showing the same Sassanian and Byzantine influences felt in Persian ceramics.

PERSIAN

BERRIES—PERSIAN

Lions, eagles and imaginary beasts enclosed in geometric patterns

form the decoration on a material of woven silk and sometimes gold and silver.

Prior to the 13th century these textiles came

from different parts of the Mohammedan world but later from

Turkey and Persia, the Turkish development appearing yentionalized ornament and the Persian from the 18th onward showing greater complexity in formality and and influenced eventually by Chinese elements due to the domination.

in concentury

GULF

603

the Karun had direct access to the sea via Khor Musa, and at a

much earlier date the Karkhah (which now disembogues into a marsh) joined the Karun below Ahwaz. The Shatt-el-Arab is now the main channel whereby all these rivers pour their waters into the Gulf and, with the exception of the Jarrahi and Hindiyan

rivers to the east, all the other streams are insignificant and their water so salt as to be undrinkable. The Persian Gulf does not Mongol lack fine harbours, e.g., Maskat, Elphinstone Inlet, Kuwait, Khor Musa and sheltered anchorages, e.g., Chahbar, Jashk and Gwadur, Rugs are the most important of Persian textiles, the best of but those principally used are mostly shallow and exposed. The Gulf is dotted with numerous islands varying in size from them, which date from the 16th and 17th centuries, displaying rocky pinnacles, such as the Quoins, to the extensive Qishm the design in skill decorative great and technique amazing delicacy in (close to the Persian coast and 7o m. in length), and Island (See with rich soft colours marvelously adapted to the texture. m. by 10o m. and coverTEXTILES AND EMBROIDERIES; Rucs AND CaRPETS; BROCADES. ) Bahrein Island (off the Arabian shore, 30 Metalwork.—The Persians were aesthetic craftsmen in metal ing an area of 210 sq. miles). Some of these islands, e.g., Kharag, geologically similar to the main and their delicate inlaying of silver and gold into copper and Qishm and Shaikh Shw’aib are a part: others, such as the formed once they which of land shows ornament naturalistic and steel of intricate geometric Larak are salt plugs which and Hormuz Halul, group, Daiyinah The facility. decorative genius and the greatest of technical bringing to the surface boulders motives in this work were similar to those used in ceramics and have been thrust up from below, on the shore at Henjam. textiles. A rinceau or branching scroll ornamented with sharp of the older rocks, such as may be seen Abadan and Bupointed spear-like leaves was widely used. Much of this artistry Two extensive islands at the head of the Gulf, of deltaic formation. are biyan Islands, armour and arms of decoration the in was employed of course The Persian Coast.—From the Indian Ocean the outer Gulf, and though there is a resemblance between the work of Turkey where Persian terriand Persia, the Persian far surpasses with its richness and or Gulf of Oman, is entered approximately long. 61° 20° Gwatar, of port small the at Makran in begins tory Oriental; Work: GOLDsMITHS’ delicacy. (See SILVERSMITHS’ AND of Ormuz, Strait the to first W. running coastline, the whence E., DAMASCENING.) next along the north shore of the inner Gulf and finally to the BIBLIOGRAPHY.—]. Marryat, History of Pottery and Porcelain (1857); P. Coste, Les Monuments Modernes de la Perse (1867); A. mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab (the Perso-Iraq frontier) is nominally Gayet, L’Art Persan (1875); M. Dieulafoy, L’Art Antique de la Perse under the exclusive control of the Persian Government, falling (1884-85); H. Wallace, Persian Ceramic Arts (1891) ; A. Cole, Ornain large part within the administrative district known as the ment in European Silks (1899) ; J. K. Mumford, Oriental Rugs (1901) ; “Gulf Port” of the province of Fars (g.v.). The sections of this (Miss) R. B. Holt, Rugs, Oriental and Occidental (1901) ; R. Cax, Le coast named in order, from the neighbourhood of Jashk are: Musée Historique des Tissus de la Chambre de Commerce de Lyon (1902); W. Bode, Altpersische Knupftoppiche (1904); H. Saladin, Biyaban, Minab, Shamil, Bastak, Lingeh, Shibkuh, Dashti, TanManuel d'Art Mussulman, Vol. I., Architecture (1907); F. R. Martin, gistan, Dashtistan, Angali, Rud-Hilleh, Hayat Davud and Liravi. A History of Oriental Carpets before 1800 (1906) ; G. Migeon, M anuel Then follows the coast of Khuzistan. The inhabitants of these ae @Art Mussulman, Vol. II., Les Aris Plastiques et ee coastal tracts are either Persians, or Arabs who by domicile and < F: and PERSIAN BERRIES are the seed-bearing fruit of species intermarriage with Persians have lost nearly all their racial Arabic of dialect a retain but characteristics, social their Italy, of most Spain, France, in cultivated were, of Rhamnus which are, or the Levant and Persia. The Persian berry proper is derived from as their mother tongue and are for the most part Sunnis and not Jashk, R. amygdalinus, R. saxatilis and R. oleoides. The berry, gathered Shitahs. The principal places along the coast are Chahbar, Dilam. Bandar and Rig Bandar Bushire, Lingeh, Abbas, Bandar is it older when when unripe, has a greenish-yellow colour, but The Arabian Coast.—The south coast of the Persian Gulf black and gives an inferior result in dyeing. Though their use has be regarded as commencing from Ras el Hadd, the most may for printers calico by employed still are declined, Persian Berries coast the production of “steam” orange, olive and green effects. In easterly point of Arabia. Extending to Ras Musandam, this of dyeing property they closely resemble quercitron bark and con- is part of the sultanate of Oman and is ruled by the sultan to east from naming towns, principal the and (q.v.), Muscat a CsHa202, in, tain, as their main constituent, xanthorhamn west, are Sur, Muscat, Matra, Khabura and Sohar. (A. G. P.) glucoside of rhamnetin, CigH1207. From Musandam, westward of the Muscat boundary at Tibat, PERSIAN GULF. The term Persian Gulf is, strictly speakOman, ing, restricted to the landlocked sea which extends in a south- the coastal tract now known collectively as the Trucial number of a by occupied is Coast,” “Pirate the as formerly but Tigris and Euphrates the of mouths the from direction easterly chiefs rivers some soo miles to the mountain mass of the promontory independent sheikhdoms. The headquarters of the Trucial al Qaiwain, of Oman, terminating in Ras Musandam; but for the purpose of run east to west as follows: Ras al Khaima, Umm a this article it will be considered to include the Gulf of Oman to Ajman, Sharja, Dibai and Abu Dhabi. Further west is Qatar, m. 120 some projecting hills barren low of consisting peninsula which it is joined by the Strait of Ormuz, 29 m. wide in its narrowest part; it thus extends roughly from lat. 22° to 30° N., and into the Gulf. Doha is the principal place and residence of the is not from long. 48° to 62° E. The Gulf within the Strait of Ormuz chief. The political position of Trucial Oman and Qatar by two agreehas a maximum width in its southern part of about 200 m. and easy to define briefly, but it is regulated in the main covers an area of about 97,000 sq.m. Its waters are compara- ments signed individually by the five chiefs in 1853 and_1892. cessation tively shallow: the deepest soundings range from 40-50 fathoms, The first provided for the suppression of piracy and while in the Strait just off Musandam the depth is about 80 of hostilities at sea among the signatories, and it imposed on the fathoms. The deep soundings lie much nearer the Persian than British Government the duty of enforcing peace; by the second no the Arabian shore, the 20 fathom line lying 100-105 m. off the agreement the Trucial chiefs bound themselves to enter into cede, to not and Britain Great than other power a with treaty Persian the on Lingeh off m. 1o only is it while coast of Bahrein, coast. The Gulf is tidal, spring tides rising about ọ ft. The sell or mortgage any part of their territories, save to the British salinity of the water, while somewhat higher than that of the Government. Subsequently a treaty was made with the chief Indian Ocean, is yet low for an inland sea subject to great evapo- of Qatar whereby his position was assimilated to that of the tation, Within the Gulf proper, currents are scarcely observable, Trucial chiefs; and the British Government undertook, in addirealism,

but at the Strait of Ormuz there is a distinct inward flow from the Indian Ocean during the south-west monsoon and a slight outward flow during the rest of the year. By far the most important waters received by the Persian Gulf

are those of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, though until 1766

tion, to afford their good offices to all in the event of unprovoked aggression from within or without.

North-west of Trucial Oman and Qatar lies the extensive maritime tract of Al Hasa and Hofuf, over which, up to 1913, the Turks exercised authority, and claimed it also in Qatar and the

PERSIAN

604.

GULF

adjacent territory of Kuwait on the North. The emir of Nejd, Abd-ul-Aziz ibn Sa‘ud, ejected them from the first-named district, and the World War put an end to Turkish claims elsewhere in

Qishm and Bandar Abbas in 1902 and 1905.

the Gulf. Al Hasa is now entirely absorbed in the dominion of Ibn Sa'ud. The chief places on the coast are Uqair and Qatif, and Hofuf in the oasis of the same name. Lying in a deep bay between Qatar and Al Hasa is Bahrein Island, with the smaller subsidiary island of Muharraq on the north. In 1892 the sheikh entered into an agreement with the British Government not to “cede, sell, or mortgage or otherwise give for occupation any part of his territory save to the British

Mesopotamia, together form a depressed zone lying between the stable tableland of Arabia and the folded ranges of south-western Persia, the so-called Zagros system. It is a shallow sea, nowhere with depths of more than 60 fathoms, and is in no sense a “rift valley” such as the Red sea. The rocks forming its shores are of recent or young Tertiary age and are mostly sandstones, marls limestones and gypsum. Locally Eocene and Upper Cretaceous

GEOLOGY

The Persian Gulf and its continuation, the alluvial plain of

limestones

are exposed,

and the

Hormuz series, in part CamGovernment.” North of Al Hasa, at the head of the Gulf, is brian, appears associated with intrusive salt bodies. Relics of situated the independent principality of Kuwait (g.v.) which has raised beaches up to 150 ft. above sea-level are locally preserved a low stretch of coastline some 200 m. in length. The chief town The strike of the folds throughout the length of the Persian is Kuwait on Kuwait Bay. Between Kuwait and Persia is the coast is parallel to the shore line. A number of anticlinal stryc. narrow corridor which gives access to Iraq (g.v.). tures form prominent ranges, such as Kuh-i-Bang, Kuh-i-Mund, Climate,—The prevalent winds in the Gulf follow the con-

figuration of the coast, #.¢e., north-west and south-east, and are

known respectively as the shamal and the gaus.

The former,

Shahin Kuh, etc. The greatest folding movement is of late Pliocene age. The marked swing of the strike between Lingeh, Bandar Abbas and Jashk shows the influence of Oman which projected as a buttress towards the advancing fold waves of the Zagros system. The headland of Oman, the Ruus el Jebel, consists of massive limestones of Permian to Lower Cretaceous age. These were strongly folded in middle Cretaceous time and the

often rising to a gale in a few hours and falling as suddenly, is foretold by no change in the barometer. With the qaus the reverse is the case, and this wind is much dreaded by native mariners, as it strikes nearly all the sheltered anchorages. Meteorological observations systematically taken over periods complex played a passive part during the later Pliocene folding ranging from eight to thirty-three years, give the following mean of Persia. The inlets in the Ruus el Jebel are drowned valleys annual rainfalls for places round the Gulf: Basra 6.23 inches, Bushire 11-07, Jashk 4.17, Muscat 3-94 and Bahrein 2.47. Thus indicating a relative depression of the land of about 1,500 ft. The Arabian coast of the Gulf is mostly very flat and feathe rainfall is considerably greater on the Persian than on the Arabian coast. The influence of the south-west monsoon, though tureless. Between Koweit and Qatif it is composed of an extended marked at Muscat, is scarcely noticeable in the Gulf proper, but sheet of horizontal or very gently folded calcareous sandstones upper-air investigations at Baghdad give some reason to think that and limestones probably of Pliocene to Pleistocene age. Bahrein

the effect of the monsoon can be observed even there. Mean temperature (Fahr.) varies as follows:— Basra and Mohammerah

52° in Jan. to or in Aug.

Bushire

š

3

:

g

‘

5

‘

50° ”

”

Jashk.

.

:

.

.

.

.

-

67 »

n»n»

89°

Muscat

.

.

.

.

.

.

:

69° 2

999

2

”

n

Bahrein

.

S

i

$

i

.

6I

nn»

OF

yy

2?

”

»

2 7)

2

9

Absolute shade temperatures are :— Basra and Mohammerah

24° in Jan. to 120° in Aug.

Bushire Jashk Muscat Bahrein

32 42° 58° 4r°

y 7 ” 29

» 9 2n» 2” 9

II5 y 112° n» 114° ”

”

108° ”

99

n 9 ” 3

Relative humidity is high throughout the Gulf proper, the maximum being experienced at Bahrein.

The Medical Conditions prevailing in the Gulf are largely

determined by the peculiar climatic influences to which the inhabitants are exposed, The hot season is from May to Oct., and the Gulf had in the early part of the last century and during the World War an unenviable reputation, but the experience of the

Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd., who employ over a thousand Europeans and 25,000 Persians all the year round, largely in the open air, indicates that with good housing, sanitation and water supply, and under careful medical supervision, it is possible to maintain a higher general standard of health in the Persian Gulf and

south-west Persia than in most parts of India and of the Far East. This has also been, in recent years, the experience of the British and Indian navies,

Earthquakes.—The latest movement to which the Gulf has been or is now being subjected is one of gradual elevation,

evidences af which are found in recent sea-beaches, some as much as 450 feet above present sea-level, and in the flat ledge which surrounds Muscat harbour. Earthquakes are frequent and sometimes severe in the Persian Gulf proper, especially on Qishm Island and on the neighbouring mainland. In 1865, an earthquake levelled the villages of Darveh Asuh near Mugam in the

Shibkuh section of the Persian coast; in 1880 an earthquake

caused 120 deaths in Basra; in 1883, severe shocks were felt from Bushire to Tahiri (long, 52° 15’ E.); in 1884 an earthquake caused 132 deaths on Qishm Island, which was deserted for a time in consequence; in 1897 another destroyed Qishm town and caused over 1,000 deaths; further shocks were experienced at

island and Qatar peninsula are elongated domes exposing Eocene limestones and marls. The water of the copious springs of Bahrein and of the wells of Qatar is artesian. The numerous islands of the eastern half of the Gulf are formed of intrusive salt plugs. Salt is only exposed in a few islands, Qishm, Henjam, Hormuz, etc., but its presence under the other islands may be assumed. On the Persian mainland there are a great number of these plugs, which in some cases build great salt mountains rising to nearly 4,000 ft. above the surrounding plain, as at Kuh-i-Namak in Dashtistan. The salt masses are 4 to 6 m. in diameter and appear as intrusions. Economic

Geology.—Red

oxide

of iron is obtained from

Hormuz island and smaller deposits are numerous elsewhere. The oxide is a concentrate from haematite-bearing rocks of the Hormuz series. Copper.—Old copper workings are known in Oman and in Persia, north-east of Minab. The serpentines of the Hormuz series carry locally traces of copper.

Salt occurs in great quantities but it is only quarried for local markets.

Oil seepages or bitumen occur at Qishm, Khamir, Bahrein, etc. A boring by the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. on Qishm island was unsuccessful and has been abandoned. BIBLIOocRAPHY.—G. E. Pilgrim, “The Geology of the Persian Gulf,” Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind., vol. 34. pt. 4 (1908); ibid., vol. 48 (1924); G. M. Lees, “Physical Geography of S.E. Arabia,” Geogr. Jour., vol. 72 (1928) ; H. de Böckh and others, Contribution to Discussion on the Tectonics of Asia, British Association (1928).

Minerals.—Though very careful search has been made for possible oil fields along the Persian littoral by the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd., and though seepages of oil, gas and asphalt are not uncommon, no potential field has yet been located near the coast. Experimental borings on Qishm failed to give results. Oil and asphalt shows occur likewise at Kuwait and Bahrein, but the prospects of oil being found in those territories in adequate quantities is slender.

Coal is found 30 m. inland from Sur, but apparently in pockets only, while, some seams of good coal occur elsewhere in newer

strata. Sulphur occurs in fairly pure state at Khamir and Bustaneh on the coast east of Lingeh, and on Qishm island. Copper, as copper glance and malachite, occurs in the interior of Oman,

and ancient copper workings are not infrequently met with on the Persian

coast.

Some thousands

of tons of red ochre have

PERSIAN peen mined on Hormuz and occasionally on Abu Musa and other islands. Salt from deposits is obtained in abundance on Qishm

md Hormuz, and by evaporation near Khor Musa, Fao and elsewhere on both sides of the Gulf. Iron, as haematite and pyrites, iswidely found through the Ormuz series of rocks, but not in commercial quantity.

Agriculture

and

Livestock.—Fertile

patches in the im-

mediate vicinity of the Persian Gulf are exceedingly sparse: the

oily cultivated tracts of considerable extent are at Minab, east of Bandar Abbas; in the valley of the Mund river in Laristan;

in the oasis of Hofuf in Hasa, and along the Batina coastal strip of Oman. Date plantations are extensive in the interior of Muscat at Minab, at Lingeh and along the banks of the Shatt-elArab. The Muscat date reaches maturity sooner than the Basra crop and forms a valuable article of export, being supplied chiefly to the United States markets. Camels are numerous on the Arabian side of the Gulf, but are much less common on the Persian coast. Horses are scarce in Oman, Bahrein and Al Hasa, but are in more common use in Qatar and Kuwait. Further details regarding agriculture are to found in the articles describing specific districts of the Gulf. Sailing Craft.—The Persian Gulf is by tradition a home of sailing craft—for iheir skill in handling which the Phoenicians afterwards became famous in the Mediterranean, and the Arabs in Indian waters. There are some 14 types of native craft which are more or less peculiar to the Persian Gulf proper. The same principle of construction applies to nearly all, and as a general tule these vessels are remarkable for the beauty of their lines. They sail well and fast and are weatherly craft. The principal boat-building centres are Kuwait, Sur and Lingeh. The craftsmen of the latter place are especially noted for their skill in building and repairing. Fisheries——Few seas are more prolific in ‘fish than the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; most of the known species are edible, and many have a commercial value for the isinglass or oil extracted from them. Fish are extensively used for manure, especially around Muscat, where they are also fed to cattle with satisfactory results. Sharks are caught in enormous numbers with hook and harpoon: the flesh is regarded by some as having aphrodisiacal properties and is freely exported to the interior in sundried strips; while the dried fins and tails are exported to China, and the oil is used for smearing boats. Turtles are numerous, the carapace being exported as tortoiseshell. The narwhal whale is often seen in the Gulf of Oman and sometimes in the Persian Gulf, and porpoises and swordfishes are common. Pearling Industry.—The temperature and shallowness of the Persian Gulf and its freedom from silt, except at the northwest end, appear to be favourable in a high degree to the growth of the pearl oyster, and the banks which are known and actually worked occupy a considerable area, chiefly upon the Arabian side. The pearling grounds of Bahrein lie in over six fathoms of water, mostly beyond the three-mile limit. The banks of the Persian side are found chiefly along the coast between Lingeh and Tahiri, and again in the, neighbourhood of Kharag island. The largest and most important banks on the Arabian side are fished annually, while those of the Persian coast, poor and small, are worked at infrequent intervals. The total value of pearls exported was declared at £220,000 in 1925 and £192,000 in 1926,

but the actual value is probably ten times as great, having regard to the large number of persons employed in and mainly dependent on the industry, not only in Bahrein but all along the Arab coast. The exports from Lingeh for the same years were £9,000 and £5,200. Mother-of-pearl was exported, before the World War, to the value of £20,000; after the war high freights and absence of demand from Hamburg, the principal market, killed the trade for the time being.

Some 4,500 boats employing

about 75,000 persons are engaged in the industry during the

season, of three to four months, its length depending ultimately on the temperature of the water from a diving standpoint. Commerce.—Commerce between East and West had from early times followed the Persian gulf route in preference to that of

the Red sea, and when during the 15th Century Genoa and Venice

GULF

605

successively lost their control of Oriental commerce, through the capture of Constantinople by the Turks and by the hostility of the Mamelukes of Egypt respectively, the country which most earnestly sought a new way to India was Portugal. Albuquerque in 1507 seized several towns on the coast of Oman, including Muscat, and soon afterwards established his authority on the island of Hormuz.

Towards

the end of the 16th century the Dutch

made their appearance in Indian waters as rivals of the Portuguese, and in 1616 the first English “factory” of the East India Company was established at Jask. In 1622 the Portuguese were expelled from Hormuz by joint efforts of the British by sea and the Persians by land; in 1650 they were driven out of Muscat. In 1664 the French appeared, but did little trade, though in 1698 they took a share in the policing of the Gulf against pirates. The Dutch who had played no part in expelling the Portuguese, now became increasingly predominant, and the wars waged in Europe between England and Holland had their counterpart in the Gulf. In 1674 hostilities between the two countries ceased, but the position was still unsatisfactory in Indian waters owing to the prevalence of piracy, from which other nations as well as England suffered. About 1700 improved affairs in India began to have good effect on the East India Company’s commercial position in the Gulf; by 1765 the Dutch trade there had ceased. Henceforward the bulk of the trade was in British hands, but piracy was rife, the slave trade flourished, and the coast towns had fallen from their ancient prosperity to a low level. To restore and maintain this prosperity has, for a century past, been the mission of Britain in this region, the British Resident in the Gulf acting as the representative of the Government of India, being the arbiter to whom by long custom all parties on the Arab coast have appealed and who has, under treaty, been entrusted with the duty of preserving peace. The following summary shows the import, export and total

values of trade (in thousands of pounds sterling) in the Persian Gulf (excluding Iraq and Basra, gq.v.), in 1926 as compared with the pre-war year 1913-14:—

I9I3-14

Arabian side

Muscat

i

ud

i

448

226

674

eo

ys

448}

247|

6095

Bahrein (Manama)

Kuwait

Total

. | 1,622 | 1,155

2,518 | 1,628 | 4,146

TN | ——— a da aR

Persian side Mohammerah Abadan Bushire Lingeh . Bandar Abbas

Total Grand total

. .

1,078 | 338| 1,IOI 36") 2,099 | 1,899 | 170 66| 1,024 | 338|

5,416 1,137 3,998; 236, 1,362]

Ga

| erent pet =e

er

Not available Not available 826| 602 | 1,428 3180} 126] 306 459] 267] 726

5,472 | 2,677| 8,149 7,990 | 4,305 [12,295

*Not including Anglo-Persian Oil Co.’s shipments of petroleum in 1926=£11,494,000 ({St.=47,34 krans}.

The total tonnage of shipping passing up the Gulf to the various Persian ports amounted to nearly 8 million tons, in 1925-26, including A.P.O.C. shipping. Of this total about 220,000 tons only represented tonnage by local sailing craft. 95% of the shipping was British, the bulk of the remainder being Persian, German and Japanese. Figures for the Arabian side of the Gulf are not available, but Manama is the principal distributing port on that side. The percentage of the total trade of each port, as shown in the above table, carried by sailing craft, in 1926, was as follows:— Muscat, 20%, Kuwait, 44%, Mohammerah, 38%, Bushire, 2%, Lingeh, 53%, Bandar Abbas, 7%. The principal local products exported from the various ports of the Gulf in 1926 were as follows (values within brackets in thousands of pounds) :-—

PERSIAN

606

From Muscat: Dates (138), Dry and Salted fish (60). From Bahrein (Manama): Pearls (192), Dates (20), Specie (270), Misc. re-exports (600). From Kuwait: Pearls (11), Dates (ro), Hides, skins and wool (6). From Mohammerah: Dates (114), Raw wool (104), Tobacco (14). From Abadan: Petroleum (11,574), Fresh and dried fruits (10). From Bushire: Opium (1,390); Carpets and rugs (160), Fresh and dried fruits (104), Gum (93), Tobacco (43).

From Bandar Abbas: Carpets (113), Dry and fresh fruits (65), Raw Cotton

(63).

The peculiar interests of Great Britain, strategic, political and commercial, in the Persian Gulf have never been denied and they are intimately connected with the welfare of India, the security of its communication with the outside world, and its internal tranquillity. The considered policy of the British Government was

embodied in 1903 in Lord Lansdowne’s declaration in the House of Lords that ‘we should regard the establishment of a naval base or of a fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other Power as a very grave menace to British interests, and we should certainly resist it by all the means at our disposal.” This declaration was formally reaffirmed in 1907 by Sir E. Grey, in a despatch to the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, which further stated that

“H. M. Government will observance of the status British trade; in doing legitimate trade of any

continue to direct all their efforts to the quo in the Gulf, and the maintenance of so they have no desire to exclude the other Power.” These declarations were never openly challenged, and in r1912~14 the British Government entered into far-reaching negotiations with the Turkish and German Governments with the object of regularizing the position in Mesopotamia. The resulting agreements had not, however, been ratified before the declaration of war, but in the result, the status quo ante bellum has been uniformly maintained through-

out this region, except in Iraq (q.v.) and Nejd (q.v.). Banks and Currency.—The Imperial Bank of Persia, in addition to others in Persia, has branches at Abadan, Bushire, Bandar Abbas and Mohammerah. The Eastern Bank has a branch at Bahrein. Persian currency alone is legal in Persia, but the rupee is current in Persian ports. On the Arabian coast the rupee is legal tender, and is almost exclusively used for commercial transactions, but the Maria Theresa dollar circulates freely and is preferred by the inhabitants of the interior.

Lights and Buoys.—In view of the difficulties attending navigation in the Gulf, and the impossibility of arranging with the various governments of the littoral for the provision of lights and buoys, except on terms which would have greatly hampered shipping; in view also of the great preponderance there of British shipping, the British Government has established since 1912 a very complete system of lights and buoys, at various ports and on certain islands. The cost is met (since Oct. 1925) by a levy on all vessels crossing the bar of the Shatt-el-Arab. There is a powerful lighthouse on one of the Quoins off Musandam and another on Tanb island farther west. There is a small shore light at Muscat harbour, but none on Ras el Hadd. Lightships are moored at Qais island and on the Shatt-el-Arab bar, the channel of which is very adequately buoyed and lighted throughout its length to Fao, where there is a fixed light. There is a beacon light at Ras al Arz (Kuwait bay); two lighted buoys at Manama (Bahrein); lighted buoys and a shore light at Bushire; and a shore light at Jask. The dredging of the bar of the Shatt-el-Arab to a maximum depth of 28 ft. along a channel r2 m. in length, was almost complete in 1928, the object being to maintain a good maritime approach to Iraq.

Mail Communications.—The Persian Gulf was at the end of the 18th century the most rapid route between Europe and India, and it was not until 1833 that the Red Sea route was adopted by the East India Company. From this date, until 1862, the Gulf fell into an extraordinary state of inaccessibility—letters from India being sent to Baghdad and Basra via Damascus, and correspondence from Bushire for Baghdad via Tehran. In 1862, the British India Steam Navigation company undertook their first mail contract for the Persian Gulf, and simultaneously the EuphratesTigris Steam Navigation company agreed to run a subsidized line of mail steamers from Basra to Baghdad. Since the World War the only steamship line running regular weekly services to the

GULF Gulf ports is still the British India Co. via Bombay and Karachi

Their direct mail steamers call only at Bushire and Mohammerah on their way to Basra, but there is a weekly subsidiary mail service which provides a service in each direction for every port in the Persian Gulf at least once a fortnight. The next line of importance is run by Messrs. F. C. Strick and Co. Ltd., who main-

tain a direct fortnightly service between the United Kingdom and the Persian Gulf (Basra). These steamers call at Bandar Abbas ` Bushire and Mohammerah and, occasion requiring, elsewhere, When merchandise has arrived at any port, the further trans.

port to the hinterland is mostly effected by pack animal, except at Basra which has railway communication into Iraq, and at Bushire where transport by motor lorry is coming into use. Goods

for the interior landed at Mohammerah are transhipped into barges which are taken by river steamers to Ahwaz and after further transhipment on to Shushtar. Posts.—The reopening in 1862 of direct communications þetween India and the Persian Gulf gave rise to a demand for pro-

perly organized post-offices, and the Indian Postal Department accordingly opened branches in 1864 at Muscat and Bushire and later on at every port of importance. The Indian post-offices on

Persian territory ceased to function in 1925 but those on the Arabian side are still maintained by the Government of India. Telegraphs.—The

inception of the Persian

Gulf telegraphs

which formed the first links in an inter-continental chain, was dictated not by local interests, but by broad considerations of

national advantage. The Crimean war brought home to the Porte the slowness of communication between the Persian Gulf and the outlying provinces of the Turkish Empire, while the Indian Mutiny taught the British Government a similar lesson in regard to India. In 1857, after some unfruitful negotiations, the Turkish ` Government agreed to the construction, on their behalf, of a telegraph line from Scutari to Baghdad; this was finished in 186r, and extended to Fao in 1864 when it was linked up with the cable from Karachi which had been laid meanwhile. The route of the

cables has been several times altered. They now run from Kar-

achi to Jask, whence a cable runs to Muscat; from Jask one cable runs to Hanjam, and thence to Bushire (Rishahr); another cable runs direct to Bushire. A double cable connects Bushire with Fao; and Hanjam is connected with Bandar Abbas. Jask is connected by land line to Karachi. Mohammerah is connected by land line with Abadan, and via Ahwaz with Bushire and with the inland Persian system. Kuwait is connected with Basra. The system is under the control of the Indo-European Telegraph Department, whose director-in-chief is responsible to the secretary of state for India. The Department, which also controls the principal international lines in Persia, is amply self-supporting. Bushire, Hanjam, Bahrein, Abadan, Basra and Jask are provided with wireless stations. Bushire and Bandar Abbas have their own telephone systems; and Abadan is connected by telephone with the Anglo-

Persian oil fields at Masjid-i-Sulaiman (150 m.). The Arms Traffic.—During the third Afghan War, the trade in modern arms and ammunition in the Persian Gulf attracted the attention of the British and Indian Governments for the first time. In 1880, the latter took preliminary steps to stop the traf-

fic within its own borders. In 1881 the importation of arms and ammunition into Persia was made illegal, but with little effect. In 1890 the General Act of the Brussels Conference struck a blow at the trade in Africa, and diverted it to the Persian Gulf, which was not subject to the Act. The stream of arms flowing from Zanzibar continued to increase in volume until, in 1892, no less than 11,500 firearms were landed at Muscat, of which more than

half were at once re-exported. The number was doubled by 1895 and trebled in 1897, and, in spite of prohibitions, imports into Persia continued on a large scale. Moved at last by the menace of the great quantity of military material that was being disseminated in the Gulf, the British Government urged the Persian Government to enforce the existing law, and to confiscate the large stores of arms which had accumulated at Bushire. Persia took strong action but with only temporary effect. Somewhat similar action was taken at Bahrein.

From

1898 to 1908 the attitude of the British Government

PERSIAN towards the question was one ower to intervene directly or ment of arms and ammunition with or without transhipment,

LAMB—PERSIAN

of constant attention without the effectively. In 1900, the consignto the Gulf, through Indian ports, was made illegal. This was rein-

forced by Act of Parliament declaring illegal the export of arms to countries or to places where they might be employed against

British troops or subjects. The trade, blocked at Persian and all Gulf ports except Muscat, continued, nevertheless, to flourish,

in spite of a naval blockade of the Makran coast by the British in rgto-11. At length, in 1912, the sultan of Muscat issued a proclamation requiring all arms imported into his territory to be placed in an “arms warehouse,” where they were registered and

from which they could not be removed except on production of an import permit from the competent authority at the place of destination. This killed the trade at Muscat. The French Govemment who first held that the proclamation was inconsistent with the sultan’s treaty engagements with them, accepted the accomplished fact after lengthy diplomatic negotiations. The trade was almost dead by 1913, except at the north end of the Gulf where it still persisted on a small scale. The traffic in arms

waters.

LITERATURE Hundreds

607

of slaves were rescued at sea and thousands

otherwise released. By 1920 the last remaining traces of the nefarious traffic by sea had virtually disappeared. Domestic slavery, however, as an institution, continues in Muscat and in Central Arabia: it is important to distinguish between this—an institution recognised by Koranic law, which imposes many obligations and restrictions on the owners

of slaves—and

the com-

mercialized slavery which disgraced Christendom in the 18th and the first half of the r9th Century, and was exposed with such courage and devotion by David Livingstone. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Lieut. C. R. Low, History of the Indian Navy (1877); Commander A. W. Stiffe, “Ancient Trading Centres of the Persian Gulf,” R.G.S. Journals, 1895-1901; Hon. G. N. Curzon, Persia (1892); D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East (1902); Lovat Fraser, India under Curzon and After (1911); S. B. Miles, Countries and Tribes of

the Persian Gulf (1919); Sir P. Sykes, A History of Persia (2nd ed.

1921); H. St. J. Philby, The Heart of Arabia (1922); Geographical Journal, Nov. 1923; R. E. Cheesman “From Oqair to the Ruins of Salwa”; Feb. 1925, “The deserts of Jafura and Jabrin”; March 1925, A. T. Wilson, “The Delta of the Shatt-el-Arab’; Sept. 1925, P. Z. Cox, “Some excursions in Oman”; A. T. Wilson, The Persian ee

PERSIAN

LAMB, the skin of the young of Persian sheep,

has from first to last been responsible for much unrest among the tribesmen of the Middle East and indeed of Arabia; but for this phenomenon the European Powers, signatories of the Brussels

known generally as asirachan, which produces a valuable fur for commercial purposes. See Fur.

Act of 1892, are largely to blame, from lack of foresight and to some extent of goodwill. The international conference on arms trafic held in 1925 under the auspices of the League of Nations

PERSIAN.

rejected the Persian claim that the Gulf was “private waters” of Persia, declaring it part of the high seas. Slave Trade.——On board the fleet which, in 1626, conveyed Sir Dodmore Cotton, British ambassador, with his staff from Surat

to Bandar Abbas, there were more than 300 slaves bought by Persians in India, and the only remark which this scandalous circumstance suggested to Sir Thomas Herbert, his chronicler, was that “ships, besides the transporting of riches and rarities from place to place, consociate the most remote Regions of the Earth by participation of commodities and other excellencies to each other.” In 1772 it was decided by the English courts that a slave as soon aS he set foot on the soil of the British Isles became free;

PERSIAN

LANGUAGES

PERSIAN LITERATURE.

see IRANIAN

LANGUAGES

AND

We possess scarcely any docu-

ments on the intermediary stages of the Persian language between middle Persian and modern Persian. More than this, the first specimens of modern Persian are in verse; therefore the beginnings of the Persian language, as known to us, practically coincide with those of Persian literature. The origin of Persian poetry is associated with the rule of the Persian dynasties, which sprang up in the east as soon as the grip of the caliphs became

less felt in the outlying parts of their empire. The earliest poets (oth and roth centuries) were mostly natives of such extreme north-eastern provinces as Merv, Bukhara and Samaruand, but we may simply be less informed of the developments in the west. According to Tabari, the amir of Maragha (in Azerbaijan) the slave trade, however, continued actively until 1807, when an Muhhammad bin Ba‘ith (d. a.p. 850) was the author of some Act was passed to prevent British subjects from dealing in slaves; poems in Persian. Earliest Poets.—The earliest name mentioned by the Persian in 1833 the status of slavery was abolished throughout the British Dominions. In defiance of her commercial interests and of her biographers is that of ‘Abbas of Marv, who in A.H. 193=A.D. 800 popularity with the Muslim population of the Gulf, Great Bri- composed an ode in honour of Hariin al-Rashid’s son Ma’min, tain set herself the arduous task of suppressing the traffic in slaves, noted for his strong pro-Persian feelings. Specimens of it, as quoted in the anthologies, are now regarded as spurious, bul a a task which involved great sacrifice of life and money. The trade in the early days was carried on mainly at Muscat and Persian verse by a certain Abi Taqi al-‘Abbas bin Tarkhan preSur, notably the latter, a sheltered port conveniently placed for served by the Arabic geographer Ibn Khurdadhbih (towards AD. such a purpose, just north-west of Ras el Hadd. The source of 846) has a more genuine appearance; this Abii Taqi al-‘Abbias supply was Zanzibar to which market the negroes captured in the may even be the same person as ‘Abbas of Marv. We know little more than the names of the poets who lived interior of Eastern Africa were brought for sale. Other places of export were Kilwa and Juba. The destination of the “harvest” under the Tahirids (A.D. 821-873) and the Saffarids (av. 878— cannot be so clearly defined, but we are told that “we find the goo), but the unification of the eastern provinces under the slave, after his final sale, as a pearl diver in the shallows of the Samanids (A.D. 875-999) was marked by the rise of a great many green waters of Oman, as the familiar dependent and domestic Persian poets. Some of them were patronised by the princes of of the Arab gentleman, or as the servant of the Persian merchant.” other contemporary Persian dynasties: the Buwaihids (932— In furtherance of her aims, Britain had to treat successively with 1055), the Ziyarids (A.D. 928-1042, in Tabaristan and Gurgan) several separate and largely independent political entities in the and the Farightinids (4.D. ọ80-roro in the region west of Balkh). Gulf, and this made progress slow. Her first definite efforts were Even the surviving fragments of these poems, some of whose auwith the sultan of Muscat with whom, as a first step, a treaty thors wrote also in Arabic, permit us to trace the principal literwas concluded in 1822, which prohibited the sale of slaves to ary forms developed later on,—such as the gasida, or panegyric, Christian nations by the sultan’s subjects, made the purchase of the ghazal, or ode (love-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the slaves a punishable offence, and empowered Britain to place an ruba@’t or quatrain (in a special metre unknown to the Arabs), and agent in the sultan’s dominions of Zanzibar to watch the traffic the mathnavi, or double-rhymed poem (used for epic and didactic and seize Omani vessels engaged in it. This agreement was ampli- poetry). Many of these earliest specimens of Persian verse, first fied by further treaties in 1838-9 and 1845 and, in 1873, by final discovered in Europe by Dr. H. Ethé, are real gems of spontatreaties with Muscat and Zanzibar separately. Treaties of a simi- neous poetic feeling not yet fettered by the later conventional lar character were also made with the Trucial Chiefs and with the forms of rhetoric. The Samanid Times.—The Samanid Nasr IT. (913-943) parSheikh of Bahrein. Persia agreed in 1851 to a Convention prohibiting the importation of negroes into Persia by sea, and this ticularly patronized arts and sciences. His court-poet was Ridagi, the first Persian classic. (See Rtpact.) In 963 Bal‘ami, was amplified by a further convention in 1882. _The enforcement of the treaties, however, called for constant vizir of Mansir I. (961-976), abridged and translated from vigilance and involved the patrolling of the Gulf and Indian Arabic into Persian the famous Annals of Tabari. The same

LITERATURE

PERSIAN

608

Mansiir employed the most learned theologists of Transoxiana for a translation of Tabari’s second great work, the Tafszr, or commentary on the Koran, and accepted the dedication of the first Persian book on medicine, a pharmacopoeia by the physician

Aba Mansir Muvaffaq b. ‘Ali of Herat (edited by Seligmann, Vienna 1859) which forms a kind of connecting link between Greek and Indian medicine. Perso-Arabian medical science was soon after developed by the great Abu ‘Ali b. Sina, or Avicenna (d. A.D. 1037), himself a Persian by birth and author of pretty wine-songs, moral maxims and a manual Danish-nima-i *Al@i, in his native tongue.

Daqiqī

and Firdousi—Mansir’s

of philosophy,

the

son Nih II. (976-997),

commanded from his court-poet Daqiqi a modern Persian version

of the “Book of Kings” (in Middle-Persian Khudtéiy-ndmak). Daqiqi, who openly professed in his ghazals his Zoroastrian sympathies, began the work but died in the prime of life. The great undertaking was carried on by Firdousi who in roro added the final touches to this work. (See Frrpovusi.) The Shah-ndma almost immediately found many imitators who chiefly exploited the minor episodes of the Seistan cycle (legends concerning Rustam’s family and not belonging to the original Khvdtdy-ndmak). ‘Ali b. Ahmed al-Asadi (the younger), author of the oldest Persian glos-

1157), viz., the “King of Poets” Amir Mu‘izzi, killed ip 1147 by a stray arrow from his master’s bow; Adib Sabir, drowned in the Oxus (in 1151) by the order of the Kharizm-shah Atsiz, whose designs against Sanjar he had discovered, and Auhad ad-din Anvari (d. about 1189), perhaps the most celebrated Persian qasidawriter. Among Anvari’s poems, the one entitled by the European translators “the Tears of Khorasan” (Browne, IL, p. 386} is especially famous; it is a sort of message to Sanjar, then a

captive of the Ghuz Turks, describing the sufferings of the people under the invader’s yoke.

Of the poets patronized by Sanjar’s rival Atsiz the best-known is Rashid Vatvat (the “Swallow,” so nicknamed for his smal stature), who died in 1182 and left besides a series of gastdas, a valuable treatise on poetry.

Another group of famous gastda-writers is that of Shirvan (in Transcaucasia) and Azerbaijan. The most serious of Anvari’s rivals was Khaqani (d. 1199), court-poet to the Shirvan-shah. Khaqani was well versed in many of the contemporary sciences and had a profound knowledge of Persian lexicology, which makes

it particularly difficult to comment on his gasidas.

Some other notable poets lived under the aegis of the noble Satidi family whose members held high offices in Isfahan. To this

sary Lughat-i Furs (ed. by Horn, Berlin 1897), completed in 1066, in upwards of 9,000 distichs, the Garshdsp-ndma (ed. by Huart, Paris 1927), a story of warlike feats and love adven-

group belonged Sharaf ad-din Shafarva (d. 1204) and Jamal ad:

tures of Garshasp, one of Rustam’s ancestors. Other poets followed with their lengthy Sdm-nama, Johangir-nama, Faramurz-

about 1237. Satirists—The first example of a bitter personal satire had

nama, Gushasp-ndma (story of Rustam’s Amazon daughter) etc. Later Epics.—Later epic poets turned their attention towards more recent historical events and produced rhymed chronicles interspersed with poetical pictures of battles and conquests. The historian

Hamdullah

Mustaufi

wrote

a Zafar-ndma

of 75,000

couplets narrating the events from the birth of the Prophet Mohammed down to the year 1331. Other poets sang the deeds of Timur, of the Safavi kings and of the later sovereigns. In India too this kind of poetry was very popular. One of the last productions in this style is the huge Jdrj-ndma, i.e., “George-nama,” which in 44,000 distichs gives a poetical history of India from its discovery by the Portuguese till the conquest of Poona by the British in 1817. Heroic fiction, pure and simple, drew its inspiration from various sources: the apocryphal exploits of Alexander the Great were sung in numerous Jskandar-ndmas, of which the earliest and the most original was completed by Nizdmi (g.v.) about 1202; the subjects of other poems were borrowed from the chivalrous times of the Bedouin Arabs; some were devoted to the heroic exploits of the saints-of Islam, especially of the Caliph Ali. Romantic Fiction.—Romantic fiction too was born in the

time of Firdousi. Love episodes in the Shdh-ndma, like that of

Zal and Ridaba, are characterized by occasional transitions from the epic to the romantic note. Firdousi’s second great mathnavi Yusuf-u-Zulaikha is entirely romantic. It represents the oldest poetical treatment of the Biblico-Moslem story of Joseph, which later on tempted many Persian poets, such as Jami. Some tales of the Sasanian times were likewise popular among the poets:

the Vis-u-Ramin, composed by Fakhr ad-din As‘ad Jurjani about

din (d. 1192). The latter’s son Kamal ad-din Isma‘il, who enjoyed a still higher reputation, perished at the hands of the Mongols been given by Firdousi in his famous invective against Sultan Mahmid. Anvari’s sarcasms were pungent but not so reviling. A curious figure is that of ‘Ubaid of Zakan, who lived under the Mongols and died in 1370. Many of his jokes are ribald and untranslatable, but his Akhléq al-ashraf or “Ethics of Aristocracy” is a clever social satire opposing the “adopted” morale to the old

“abrogated” idea of virtue. Satirists of a special kind are Bushag of Shiraz (beginning of the r5th century), a sort of comic Brillat-

Savarin singing exclusively of food, and his counterpart Mahmud Qari of Yazd, author of sartorial poems. Didactic and Mystical Poetry.—In didactic and mystical poetry too very high standards were reached in the 11th and 12th centuries. The origin of the former class can again be traced back to the times of Firdousi, as the Ska@h-ndma abounds in moral

reflections and wise maxims.

The first Persian who employed

poetry exclusively for the illustration of Safi doctrines (see SUFIISM) was Firdousi’s contemporary, the renowned Shaikh Abi Said b. Abu‘l-Khair of Maihana, of northern Khurasan (9671049). (See Nicholson, Studies in Islamic mysticism, 1921.) Abu Sa‘id initiated the form of quatrains (rubdi) well adapted to a concise expression of religious and philosophic aphorisms. This literary form was further developed by the great free-thinker ‘Omar-Khayyam (q.v.), who moulded in it his original sceptical and hedonistic ideas. The first Persian handbook of Sitftism was composed by ‘Ali b. ‘Uthm4n al-Jullabi al-Hujviri (d. probably after 1072); this Kashf-al-mahjub or “Revelation of Hidden Things” treats of various schools of Sufis, their teachings and observances (ed. by Zhukovsky, Leningrad, 1926; abridged transl. by Nicholson, 1911). A great saint of the same period, Shaikh

1048, is noteworthy for its resemblance to the legend of Tristan

“Abdullah Ansari of Herat (1006-1089) further encouraged the

and Iseult. The highest triumph in Persian romantic poetry was scored by Nizami (1241-1203). Encomiasts.—Panegyrics, which form an important department of Oriental literatures, are less apt to interest an average reader, but Persian gasidas merit the special attention of all Persian students, owing to a wonderful mastery of language and expression displayed by their best-known authors. This sort of literature could thrive only under the benevolent looks of the patrons (mamduh) and it will suffice to enumerate the courts which chiefly attracted and encouraged the poets. What was commenced by the poets of Sultan Mahmiid’s “Round table,” such as “Unsuri, Farrukhi, Minichihri (whose divén has been edited by Kazimirski, 1886) and others, reached its petfection in the celebrated group of court-poets who gathered in

mystical movement by his Mundjdt or “Invocations to God,” several prose tracts and an important collection of biographies

Marv

around

the throne of the Seljuk Sultan

Sanjar

(rrr8—

(Tabagat) of eminent Sufis, based on the Arabic Tabagat by (d. ro21), and in its turn serving as ground-work

Sulami

for Jami’s valuable Nafahdt-al-uns

Calcutta by Nassau-Lees,

1859).

(completed in 1478, ed. in

One of the earliest ethical

mathnavis, with a mystical tinge, is the Hadigat-ul-hagigat or

“Garden of Truth” composed in 1130 by Hakim Sandi of Ghazni to whom all the later Sufi poets refer.as their master. The greatest heights of the pantheistic teaching of “Union with God” were attained about the time of the Mongol invasion. The author of the Sifat al-ddab or “Rules of conduct,” Najm ad-din Kubra, was

slain in 1221 during the sack of Kharizm (Khiva) by the troops

of Jenghiz khan. The great Farid ad-din ‘Attar lost his life inhis native Nishapur in A.D. 1230 at the age of 114 lunar years. This

PERSIAN LITERATURE scetic shaikh composed very numerous Sufi works, partly in prose,

ys the Tadhkirat ul-awhya or “Memoirs of the Saints” (ed. by

Nicholson 1905-7), but mostly in verse.

Among his mathnavis

(ome 20 in number), the best known are the Pand-ndma or “Book of Counsel” (published several times) and the Mantiq ut-tair or

“Speech of the Birds” (ed. by Garcin de Tassy, Paris, 1857, 1863). In the latter, an allegoric poem, the final absorption of the Sufi in the Deity is illustrated by an ingenious parable. The greatest mystical poet of Persia Jalal ad-din Rimi (1207-1273) is a direct continuator of “Attar. (See RUMI.) Sadi—In strong contrast to the poetry of these pantheistic

teachers are the works of Shaikh Sa‘di of Shiraz (d. 1292, see

capt). His Bustan and especially Gulistdn, works of unsurpassed mastery, profess less lofty and more practical morals. Both

these masterpieces

have

found

comparatively

few imitations

(Jamis Boharistdn or “‘Spring-garden,” Qa‘ani’s Parishdn, etc.), whereas an innumerable host of purely siifi compositions followed iathe wake of the works of Sana’, ‘Attar and Jalal ad-din Rimi;

we the books of reference mentioned at the end of the present article. Lyric Poetry.—Lyric poetry has ever constituted one of the most conspicuous elements of Persian literature. One of the fullest anthologies, that compiled by ‘Ali Quli Valih in 1749, contains 2,594 biographical notices of Persian poets, mostly lyric. The first landmark on this field is Riidagi (g.v.) who died in a. goo, Later Persian poetry, with all its refinement, never regained the natural tone of the Samanid poets. (See above.) As a peculiar phenomenon may be mentioned the curious figure of the dialect-poet Baba

Tahir

of Hamadan,

who

was

still alive in

ap. 1055. His quatrains composed in a special metre are captivating by their freshness and sincere tone and still enjoy great popularity among all classes. (See Heron Allen, The Lament of Baba Tahir, 1902.) Hafiz and his Epigons.—Speaking roughly, the second and highest stage in the Persian lyrics, corresponding with the postMongol epoch, is marked by Hafiz (d. 1389). (See Hariz.) The influence of this Lisdn al-ghaib, or the “Tongue of the Invisible,” has been enormous. Hardly any Persian poet has escaped the spell of his sweet voice veiled by some placid yearning for things unearthly. But this predominant influence has been fatal for the

epigons. As time went on, mannerism and tradition more and more asserted their right in Persian poetry. More or less contemporary with Hafiz was Salman of Sava (1300-1378), the panegyrist of the Jalair Uvays, amusing in his irony, graceful and inventive in his conceits. To a still later Timurid epoch belongs the last Persian classic Jami, of Jam in Khurasan (1414~1492). Apart from his seven great mathnavis and numerous compositions in prose, he is the author of as many as three divans. His lyric poems, though mostly in a mystical vein, are written in a clear and direct style devoid of artificial subtleties, but there is no great personal note in them.

Later Persian Poets,—Curiously enough, under the Safavi

dynasty, which gave a powerful impulse to such arts as architecture and painting, one finds in Persia proper very few poets of matk. One of the exceptions is the poet-laureate of ‘Abbas II.,

Si'ib of Tabriz (d. 1677), whose ghazals are full of vivid similes and original maxims. In the 18th century, the scarce poetical productions of Hatif of Isfahan (d. about 1784) are pleasant and fresh: in his celebrated tarji'-band (a strophic poem) he ingeni-

ously conveys the idea that a Unique Truth permeates all the

Religions. Under the Qajar dynasty (19th century) lived Qa‘ani of Shiraz (d. 1853), perhaps the most brilliant and melodious among the poets that Persia has ever produced, though rather

Indifferent in the choice of his subjects. Petsian Poets in India.—Persian poets who lived in India need special notice. The highest fame was gained by two poets

of Delhi: Amir Hasan (d. 1327) and especially Amir Khusrau

(d. 1325), who lived at the court of the Khilji kings. Amir usrau composed no fewer than five dzvdns and nine large math-

navis, equally remarkable for the rich imagination and the graphic

609

many others. Most of the Persian poets of the 16th and ryth centuries spent their lives in India. Thanks chiefly to the Emperor Akbar’s (1556~1607) enlightened encouragement, many standard

works in Sanskrit, such as the Ramé@yana the Bhagavat-Gitd, the numerous Purdnas translated into Persian. Indian folk-lore Dimna, Sindbaéd-néma, Tuti-nama or the

and the Mahabharata, and Upanishads were and fables (Kalzla-va“Tales of a parrot’)

have ever been popular in Persia. History.—Persian prose literature presents manifold interest. The great importance of Persian historical works is now a recognised fact. Only a passing mention may be made of the Persians who wrote in Arabic, like ad-Dinawari (d. Av. 895), the famous Abii Ja‘far Muhammad Tabari (d. A.D. 923), Hamza Isbahani (d. about 961), Abu Mansir ath-Tha‘alibi of Nishapur (b. Av. 961), Abu Nasr ‘Utbi, the historian of the years A.D. 975-1011, etc. Among the histories written in Persian are Gardizi’s Zayn al-akhbar (about

A.D. 1050), with some important items on the Turks and India

(partly ed. Berlin, 1928); Tarikhi Baihagi by Abw’l-Fadl Mu1077), a vivid picture of the times

hammad Bayhaqi (d. av.

of the Ghaznavid Mas‘id; the anonymous Mujmal attavarikh (written av. 1126) valuable for the early history of Persia and the Turkish tribes; the Rédhat as-Sudir by Muhammad b. ‘Ali ar-Ravandi written about a.p. 1203, a history of the Seljuks (ed. by the Gibb Memorial). A particularly brilliant period of Persian historiography is that of the Mongol domination of Persia: ‘Ata Malik Juwaini’s Jahan-gushd, completed a.D. 1260 (ed. by the Gibb Memorial), is perfect both in style and in the accuracy of the author, who held a high office under the Mongols; Minhaj-i Siraj Jizjani was also a personal witness of the Mongol invasion, and his Tabagét-i Nasiri is especially interesting for the events which occurred in Afghanistan; the Tarzkh-i Wassaf completed in A.D. 1312 by ‘Abdullah of Shiraz continues the authentic record of an important period but its usefulness is somewhat marred by the tedious redundance of its style. The Jdmi‘-ut-tawdrikh (published in part by Quatremére, Berezin and Blochet) of the famous Rashid ad-din (d. a. 1318), is a vast historical encyclopaedia, such as no single people possessed in the Middle Ages. Rashid addin utilized the Mongolian archives and in the composition of special chapters was assisted by a Kashmiri hermit, by two learned Chinese and probably by some European monks. Hamdullah Mustaufi’s Tarikh-i Gugida (ed. Gibb Memorial), written in 1330, 1S a useful compendium, containing many valuable details of contemporary events. Among the historians of the Timirid epoch the best known (though largely dependent on their predecessors Nizim ad-din Shami and Hafiz-i Abri) are Sharaf ad-din ‘Ali Yazdi, author of the Zafar-néma or “Book of victories” (ap. 1424), and ‘Abd al-Razziq Samarqandi (d. A.D. 1482) whose Mailat as-satdain is very valuable for the history of Timur’s successors and contains interesting episodes, like the author’s journey to India. A younger contemporary of ‘Abd al-Razzaq was the well-known Mirkhond (g.v.). Khondamir, Mirkhond’s grandson, abridged his grandfather’s history and wrote his own Habzb as-Siyar, documentary for the time of Isma‘il I., the founder of the Safavi dynasty. Among the numerous historians of the latter,

Iskandar-munshi

enjoys

a merited

fame;

his ‘Alamdra

(his-

tory of ‘Abbas the Great) is full of authentic data on Persia and her neighbours at that memorable time. There exist special histories of Nadir-shah, Karim khan Zand and the Qajars. The Babi movement and the revolution of 1907 have also had their historians, several of whose works have been published by E. G. Browne. Of great value are special local histories of the provinces of Iran (Seistan, Herat, Tabaristan, Gilan, Kurdistan, Fars, Shushtar, etc.). Unique in their importance are numerous histories of India, most of which have been described and partly translated in the eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot’s History of India (18671878). Geography.—Many of the Arabian geographers of the oth and roth centuries were Persians but the oldest geography in Per-

sian seems to be the Huddd al-‘Alam (the so-called “ms. Tuman-

style of their author. Among the poets of the later Moghul times sky”), written by an anonymous author of the court of the Farisoon after Av. 998). Nasir-i were Faidi (d. 1590); ‘Urfi (d. 1590); Nauti (d. 1610), and ghinid, Abu’l Harith of Jurjan (d.

610

PERSIGNY

Khusrau left a curious account (Safar-nidma) of his journey (A.D. 1046-1052) from Merv across Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine to Egypt and back to Balkh. Of special importance is the geography of the Mongol epoch which forms a part of Hamdullah Mustaufi’s cosmographic work called Nuzhat al-Oultb (written in A.D. 1430). Towards a.p. 1420 Hafiz-i Abrii completed for Shahrokh his rare geography (nameless) in which the description of some Persian provinces is accompanied by an epitome of their history. Many valuable additions to Nuzhat al-Ouluib are found in Amin Ahmad R4zi’s important geographico-biographical encyclopaedia Haft Iglim (av. 1594). In the year 1831 Zain al-Abidin Shirvani wrote the final draft of his geographical dictionary Bustdn as-sitydhat which is based on personal observations. Towards the end of the nineteenth century Muhammad Hasan khan Sani‘ ad-daula started the publication of a historicogeographical dictionary Mir’dt al-buldan (4 volumes); more independent is the same author’s Matla* ash-shams, describing, with an archaeological commentary, his journey to Khurasan. Not devoid of importance are the diaries of Nasir ad-din Shah’s journeys, written under his name in a clear and simple style. Theological.—Very numerous are the religious and philosophical works in prose and verse of the celebrated preacher of the Isma‘ili (Assassin) doctrines, Nasir-i Khusrau (b. 1003, d. after 1065), g.v. They were imitated by the representatives of numerous other Persian sects (Hurifi, Ahl-i Haqq, Babi, etc.). In 1092 Abu’l-Ma‘ali Muhammad composed the Baydn al-adydn in which are explained the tenets of different religions and sects. To the end of the seventeenth century belongs a similar Dabistan al-

madhahib (transl. by Shea and Troyer) written in India by Shaikh Muhsin Fani whose identity is still dubious. The names of numerous works on theology, astronomy, politics, mathematics, ethics, medicine, lexicography, etc., will be found in the standard catalogues of the great European and Asiatic libraries. The Drama.—Persian drama is still at the spontaneous and popular stage of semi-religious performances during the month of Muharram, in the style of the mediaeval “mysteries,” or the present-day Oberammergau Passion-plays. These ta'ziya (see Drama: Persian) originated in the public lamentations in memory of the tragic fate of the house of the Caliph ‘Ali, such as were introduced in Baghdad as early as a.D. 963 by the Buwaihid Mutizz ad-Daula. The librettos of the fa‘ziyas belong to little known playwrights. Since the reign of Nasir ad-din Shah a few plays, mostly comedies, have been translated and written in Persian. Quite popular farces are the so-called shab-bdzi or “night plays.” The marionette-theatre is also known in Persia under the name of Kachal-Pahlavan or ‘“The Bald Hero.”

The Persian Press.—A very important réle in the Persian literary movement has been played by the press. The first Persian paper in Tehran appeared in the reign of Fath ‘Ali Shah. Some organs founded abroad enjoyed real political influence, such as: the Akhtar or the “Star,” Constantinople 1875-1895; the Qānün or the “Law,” started in London in 1890 by a former Persian Minister at the court of St. James, Malcom-khan, who advocated for Persia a constitutional form of government; the Habl al-Matin, which has been published in Calcutta since 1893; and the Kõva (in its first phase, 1916-1920) published in Berlin by the deputy of the first Majlis Taqizada. Great impetus was given to the Persian press by the revolution of 1905-08. Speaking from a merely literary point of view, the press has rendered the language more pliant, simple and popular. Daily papers have revealed such talents as ‘Ali Akbar Dakhau, good poet and excellent publicist imitating in his satirical feuilletons the

humorous bazar-speech; the poet Malik ash-shu ‘ara Bahar, and

Latest Persian Literature.—The possibility of seeing their work printed without the intervention of a rich patron has been a great encouragement to the Persian authors of recent times Among the poets of the older generation are: Adīb-i Pīishāvarī (b. 1844), a learned author, who during the war indulged in the composition of a Qaisar-ndma, meaning the “Book of the Kaiser.” written in the style of Firdausi; Adib al-Maméilik (d. 1917), a poet of civic tendencies; Īraj-mīrzā (d. 1926), a man of remarkable feeling and talent, who is also known as a champion of the Per-

sian woman’s

emancipation.

To a younger generation belong

Malik ash-shu ‘ara, already mentioned, and some others whose lyres are tuned on a vast scale, from the romantic admiration of

the great past (Pur-i Davud) to the modern revolutionary war. cries (Lahiti).

Promising attempts have been made to create the national novel.

In 1922 Jamal-zada published in Berlin a remarkable volume of

realistic tales Yaki bud, yak nabud, or “Some of it was, some of it was not”; other authors are transplanting on Persian soil the European genres of sentimental and didactic novel, as well as of “roman de boulevard.” Several able works have been written by the young Persian economists, literary critics and historians. A very conspicuous figure is that of Muhammad khan Qazvini (b. 1877, resident in

Europe since 1904), the learned editor of Juvaini’s history and

of other important works on history and philology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A scientific and systematic study of Persian literature in its general lines was made by Dr. H. Ethé, whose Neu-persische Literatur published in Geiger und Kuhn’s Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1906), II., p. 212—368, enumerates and resumes all the previous works of the same author and gives a complete bibliography of the subject. Of capital importance are also E. Q, Browne’s A Literary History of Persia from the Earliest Times until Firdawsi, first ed. I. (1902) ; idem, A Lit. Hist. of Persia from Firdawn to Sa'di, first ed. (1906) ; idem, A History of Persian Literature under Tartar Dominion (AD., 1265-1502) (1920); idem, A Hist. of Pers. Lit. in modern times (A.D., 1500-1924) (1924). See also J. Darmesteter, Les origines de la poésie persane (1887) ; P. Horn, Geschichte d. persschen Literatur (Leipzig, 1901) ; I. Pizzi, Litteratura persiana (Milan, 1887) (208 pages), Storia della poesia persiana (Turin, 1894), 2 vol. (3504+425 pages) with numerous translations; Krymski, Istoriya Persii, yeya literatury i dervisheskoi theosofii, 3 vols., single parts several times re-edited (Moscow, 1906—1917) (detailed bibliography); A. V. W. Jackson, Early Persian Poetry (1920); Shibli Nu ‘mani, Shr al-‘Ajam, 5 vols. (Lahore, 1907~1924) (in Urdu) contains an important account of the whole Persian poetry; C. A. Storey, Persian Literature, a bibliographical survey (1927) (Section I. Qur’anic literature); The Encyclopedia of Islam (published at Leyden from 1908) has special articles on the principal Persian writers. For the recent developments see E. G. Browne, The Press and Poets in Modern Persia (1914), and K. Chaykin, A short sketch of the most recent Persian Literature (in Russian) (Moscow, 1928). As only a few manuscript copies exist even of very important works in Persian, of extreme importance are the detailed descriptions of single collections of mss. A list of such catalogues will be found in C. A. Storey’s book (see above); the most valuable among them is the Catalogue of the Persian manuscripts in the British Museum by Rieu (4 vols., 1879, I881, 1883, 1895) ; see also A catalogue of the Persian printed books in the British Museum, by E. Edwards (1922), where most of the Oriental editions are mentioned. For European critical editions and

translations of Persian poets see the works of Ethé and Browne. | Many important prose works have appeared in the “E. J. W. Gibb Memorial” series (histories and geographies of Ibn-Balkhi, Ibn Isfandiyar, Ravandi, Nizdmi-i ‘Aridi, Juvaini, Rashid ad-din, Hamdullah Mustaufi, etc.) ; in the Persian Historical Texts, Leyden: ‘Aufi, ‘Attar, Daulat-shah; in the Recueil de textes relatifs a Phistoire

des Seldjoucides, Leyden; in the Publications de ? Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales, Paris, and in single publications of the Russian Academy (histories of the Caspian provinces, of the Kurdish

dynasties) ; etc. For Persian Languages see IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND

PERSIAN. PERSIGNY,

Duc pe

JEAN

GILBERT

(1808—1872), French

(V. F. M.) VICTOR FIALIN,

statesman, was born at Saint-

several others. To the class of magazines belong the Kava in German Lespinasse (Loire) on Jan. 11, 1808, the son of a recelver Its last phase (Berlin 1920-21); the Jrdnshahr, Berlin I922~25, of taxes. A strong Bonapartist, he planned the attempt on Straswhose editor was Kazim-zida, and three periodicals published in bourg in 1836 and that on Boulogne in 1840; he took a prominent Tehran after 1918: the Danish-kada or. the “Temple of Know- part in securing the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency. ledge” (ed. Malik ash-shu ‘ara), the Armaghén. or the “Gift,” the Persigny. plotted the restoration of the empire, and was 4 deAyande or the “Future.” These last have been the centres round ‘voted servant of Napoleon III. He succeeded Morny as minister which gathered the young Persian poets and writers, nationalists of the interior in January 1852, and later became senator. He reyet admirers of European culture. signed office in 1854, being appointed next year to the London t

PERSIMMON—PERSIS embassy, which he occupied with a short interval (1858-1859) yntil 1860, when he resumed the portfolio of the interior.

The

growing influence of Rouher provoked his resignation in 1863, when he received the title of duke. A more dangerous enemy than Rouher was the empress Eugenie, whose marriage he had opposed and whose presence in the council chamber he deprecated in a

memorandum which fell into the empress’s hands.

He sought in

vain to see Napoleon before he started to take over the command in 1870, and the breach was further widened when master and servant were in exile. Persigny returned to France in 1871, and died at Nice on Jan. II, 1872. See Mémoires du duc de Persigny (and ed., 1896), edited by H. de Laire d’Espagny, his former secretary; an eulogistic life, Le Duc de Persigny oer by Delaroa; and Emile Ollivier’s Empire libéral (1895, etc.).

PERSIMMON,

the name given in the United States to the

fruit of Diospyros virginiana, The tree which bears it belongs to the ebony family, Ebenaceae, and is usually from 30 to so ft. in height, with large oval entire leaves and greenish unisexual flowers. The fruit-stalk is very short, bearing a subglobose fruit x in. to 2 in. in diameter, of an orange-yellow colour, and with a sweetish astringent pulp and oblong, flattened seeds. The fruit is extensively eaten in the Southern

States where several varieties are

cultivated. The wood is heavy, strong and very close-grained and used in turnery. The tree is very common in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and attains its largest size in the basin of the

Mississippi. It was brought to England before 1629 and is cultivated, but rarely if ever ripens its fruit. The Chinese and Japanese cultivate another species, D. Kaki, which is now grown commercially in southern California. The fruits are larger than those of the native American kind, but have similar qualities; they are used as a sweetmeat when dried. D. Lotus is the date-plum.

PERSIS

(mod. Fars, g.v.), the south-western part of Iran

(Persia), named from the inhabitants, the Iranian people of the Parsa (Fars); their name was pronounced by the Ionians Persai, with change from a to e, and this form has become dominant in Greek and in the modern European languages. The natural features of Persis are described very exactly by Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great (preserved by Arrian Indic. 40 and Strabo xv. 727). The country is divided into three parts, of very different character and climate: the coast is sandy and very hot, without much vegetation except date palms; it has no good harbours, and the climate is very unwholesome; the population is scanty. About 50m. from the coast rise the chains of the mountains, through which some steep passes lead into the interior valleys (called xovAn ILepots, Strabo xv. 729), which lie about 5,000ft. above the sea. Here the climate is temperate, the country watered by many rivers and lakes, the soil fertile, the vegetation rich, the cattle numerous. These regions, which were thickly populated, form the real Persis of history. “This land Persis,” says Darius, in an inscription at Persepolis, “which Ahuramazda has given to me, which is beautiful and rich in horses and men, according to the will of Ahuramazda and myself it trembles before no enemy.” The third part is the north, which belongs to the central plateau, still much higher, and therefore rough and very cold in the winter. Towards the north-west it borders on the Median district of Paraetecene (about Isfahan); towards the north and north-east it soon passes into the great desert, of which

only the oasis of Yezd (Zsatichai in Ptolem. vi. 4, 2) is inhabitable. In the east, Persis proper is separated by a desert (Laristan) from the fertile province of Carmania (Kerman), a mountainous region inhabited by a Persian tribe. To Carmania belonged also the coast, with the islands and harbours of Hormuz and Bander Abbasi. In the west Persis borders on the mountains and plains of Elam or Susiana. For the ancient topography cf. Tomaschek, “Beiträge zur historischen Topographie von Persien,” in Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akademie, phil. CI. cìi. cviii. cxxi. The Persians are not mentioned in history before the time of Cyrus; the attempt to identify them with the Parsua, a district in the Zagros chains south of Lake Urmia, often mentioned by the Assyrians, is not tenable. Herodotus i. 125, gives a list of Persian tribes: the Pasargadae (at Murghab), Maraphii, Maspii, Pan-

611

thialaei (in western Carmania), Derusiaei, Germanii (ie. the Carmanians) are husbandmen, the Dahae (i.e. the “enemies,” a general name of the rapacious nomads, used also for the Turanian

tribes), Mardi, Dropici, Sagartii (called by Darius Asagarta, in the central desert; cf. Herod. vii. 85) are nomads. The kings of the Pasargadae, from the clan of the Achaemenidae, had become kings of the Elamitic district Anshan (probably in 5096, cf. Cyrus). When, in 553, Cyrus, king of Anshan, rebelled against Astyages, the Maraphians and Maspians joined with the Pasargadae; after his victory over Astyages all the Persian tribes acknowledged him, and he took the title of “king of Persia.” But from then only the inhabitants of Persia proper were considered as the rulers of the empire, and remained therefore in the organization of Darius free from taxes (Herod. iii. 97). Carmania, with the Sagartians, the Utians (called by Darius Yautiya), and other tribes, formed a satrapy and paid tribute (Herod. iii. 93); the later authors therefore always distinguished between Carmania and Persis. Names of other Persian tribes, partly of very doubtful authority, are given by Strabo xv. 727,! and Ptolem. vi. 4 and 8. The Persians of Cyrus (see Persia: Ancient History) were a vigorous race of husbandmen, living in a healthy climate, accustomed to hardship, brave and upright; many stories in Herodotus (especially ix. 122) point the contrast between their simple life and the effeminate nations of the civilized countries of Asia. They were firmly attached to the pure creed of Zoroaster (cf. Herod. i, 131 sqq. and the inscriptions of Darius).

When Darius had killed the usurper Smerdis and gained the crown, a new usurper, Vahyazdata, who likewise pretended to be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, rose in Yautiya, but was defeated in

two battles by Darius’s generals and put to death (Behistun inscription). Cyrus had built his capital with his palace and tomb, in Pasargadae (q.v.). Darius founded a new city about 30m. farther south on the left bank of the Pulwar, near its confluence with the Kur, with a large terrace, on which his magnificent palace and that of his son Xerxes were built. As Pasargadae was named after the tribe in whose district it lay, so the new capital is by the Persians and Greeks simply called “the Persians”; later authors call it Persepolis (q.v.), “the Persian city.” Both in Persepolis and Pasargadae large masses of gold and silver from the tribute of the subject nations were treasured, as in Susa and Ecbatana. But Persis lies too far off from the centre of the Asiatic world to be the seat of government. Like Arabia and similar countries, it could exercise a great momentary influence in history and produce a sudden change throughout the world; but afterwards it would sink into local insignificance. So the Persian kings fixed their residence at Susa, which is always considered as the capital of the empire (therefore Aeschylus wrongly considers it as a Persian town and places the tomb of Darius here). After the reign of Xerxes, Persis and Persepolis became utterly neglected in spite of occasional visits, and even the palaces of Persepolis remained in part unfinished. But the national feeling of the Persians remained strong. When Alexander had won the victory of Arbela, and occupied Babylon and Susa, he met (in the spring of 330) with strong resistance in Persia, where the satrap Ariobarzanes tried to stop his progress at the “Persian gates,” the pass leading up to Persepolis. Here Alexander set fire to the cedar roof of the palace of Xerxes as a symbol that the Greek war of revenge against the Persians had come to an end. Our best information tells us that he soon had the fire extinguished (Plut. Alex. 38); the story of Thais is a pure fiction, and we may well believe that he repented the damage he had

done (Arrian. vi. 30, 1).

Alexander had planned to amalgamate the former rulers of the world with his Macedonians; but his death was followed by a Macedonian reaction. Peucestas, the new satrap of Persis, followed the example of Alexander, and thus gained a strong hold on his subjects (Diod. xix. 48); nor did Seleucus, to whom. the 1To the Pateiskhoreis belongs the lance-bearer of Darius, “Gobryas (Gaubaruva) the P&atishuvari,” mentioned in his tomb-inscription; they occur also in an inscription of Esarhaddon as Patushara, eastwards of Media, in Choarene at the Caspian gates; the Kyrtii are the Kurds. :

612

PERSIUS

dominion of the east ultimately passed (from 311 onwards), disdain the aid of the Persians; he is the only one among the Diadochi who retained his Persian wife, Apame, daughter of Spitamenes. Seleucus and his son Antiochus I. Soter tried to introduce Hellenism into Persis. Of Greek towns which they founded bere we know Alexandria in Carmania (Plin. vi. 107; Ptol. vi. 8, 14;

gm. above Persepolis, now Hajjiabad, where already the predenes.

sors of Ardashir I. have Sassanids, of which some of its predecessor; when could no longer remain

quarters to Ctesiphon,

resided. It was a great city under the ruins are extant. But it shared the fate the empire was founded the Sassanids in Persis but transferred their head-

(ED. M.)

Ammian. Marc. 23, 6, 49), Laodiceia in the east of Persis (Plin. PERSIUS, in full Aurus Perstus Fraccus (ap. 34-62) 6, 115), Stasis, “a Persian town on a great rock, which Antiochus, Roman poet and satirist. According to the Life contained in ihe the son of Seleucus, possessed” (Steph. Byz. s.v.), Antiochia in mss., Persius was a native of Volaterrae, of good stock on both Persis, founded apparently by Seleucus I. and peopled by Anti- parents’ side. When six years old he lost his father, and his stepochus J. with immigrants called together from all Greece, as we father died in a few years. At the age of 12 Persius came to Rome learn from a psephisma passed by “boule and demos” of this town where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and the rhetor Ver. in 206 in honour of Magnesia on the Maeander. But at the same ginius Flavus. Four years later began a close intimacy with the

time we find in the centre of Persis in the district of Istakhr (the town which succeeded Persepolis) a local dynasty with Persian names (Bagdat, Vahuburz, Astakhshatr, Vatafradat), and the still unexplained title Fratadara. On their coins in Aramaean Pehlevi

which begin about 250 B.c., they have Persian features and wear the headdress of the satraps; on the reverse is the fire-altar with the image of Ahuramazda hovering above it and the standard of the empire, They must have been recognized as vassals by the Seleucids; but a story preserved by Polyaenus (vii. 30) narrates, how one of them, Oborzos (Vahuburz), allured 3,000 settlers

(evidently Greek settlers) into a fertile plain and annihilated them at night. Another story (Polyaenus vii. 39) relates, how in the same way a general of Seleucus (evidently Seleucus II. 247~ 225), destroyed 3,000 Persian rebels with his Macedonian and Thracian troops. Thus thẹ Seleucid supremacy was restored, but the dynasty of the Fratadaras was suffered to continue, When in 221 Molon, the satrap of Media, rebelled against Antiochus III., his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis, joined him, but they were defeated and killed by the king. Persis remained a part of the Seleucid empire down to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, who at the end of his reign restored once more the authority of the empire in Babylonia, Susiana and Persis; perhaps a battle, in which the

satrap Numenius of Mesene (southern Babylonia) defeated the Persians on the shore of Carmania on sea and land (Plin. vi. 152), belongs to this time. But after the death of Antiochus IV. (164) the Seleucid empire began to dissolve. While the central provinces, Media and northern Babylonia, were conquered by the Parthians, Mesene, Elymais and Persis made themselves independent.

Persis never became a part of the empire of the Arsacids, although her kings recognized their supremacy when they were strong (Strabo xv. 728, 736). From the periplus of the Erythraean sea 33-37 we learn that their authority extended over the shores of Carmania and the opposite coasts of Arabia. On their coins

they now wear Parthian dress and have the title of King (written malké, pronounced skéh). Among their names we find Darayav (Darius), probably the founder of a town, Darabjird, in eastern Persia, his son Artaxerxes (according to a fragment of Isidore of Charax in Lucian, Macrob. 15, murdered by his brother Yosithros at the age of 93 years), Narses, Manocihr and others. From the traditions about Ardashir I. we know that at his time there were different petty kingdoms and usurpers in Persis; the principal dynasty is by Tabari called Bazrangi. The coins demonstrate that Hellenism had become quite extinct in Persis, while the old historical and mythical traditions and the Zoroastrian religion were supreme. There can be no doubt that at this time the true

Stoic Cornutus. In this philosopher’s pupil Lucan, Persius found a generous admirer of all he wrote. Still in early youth he became the friend of the lyric poet Caesius Bassus, whilst with Thrasea

Paetus (whose wife Arria was a relative) he had a close friend. ship of ten years’ duration and shared some travels. Seneca he

met later, and was not attracted by his genius.

The perusal of

Lucilius revealed to Persius his vocation, and he set to work upon a book of satires. But he wrote seldom and slowly; a premature

death (vitio stomachi) prevented the completion of his task. He is described as possessed of a gentle disposition and girlish modesty

and personal beauty. To his mother and sister he left a considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed all his work except the book of satires in which he made some slight alterations and then handed it over to Bassus for editing. It proved an immediate success,

The scholia add a few details—on what authority is, as gener-

ally with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly cor-

rupt and disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The mss. say it came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, a contemporary scholar. The mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger evolved it from the works of Persius.

It requires indeed a thoughtful reading of the Life before we realize how distinct is the impression it gives of a “bookish” youth,

who has never strayed far, at least in spirit, from the domestic hearth and his women-folk. And of course this is notoriously the picture drawn by the Satires. So much better does Persius know his books than the world that he draws the names of his characters from Horace. The chief interest of Persius’s work lies in its relation to Roman satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of the Roman tongue. The infiuence of Horace on Persius can, in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him, The resemblance only emphasizes the difference between the caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher, Persius strikes the highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and moral purpose rising far superior to the political rancour or good natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical indignation of Juvenal, he seems a forerunner of the great Christian Apologists. Like Seneca, Persius

censures the style of the day, and imitates it. Indeed in some of its worst failings, straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not 700 lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to great depth of thought, compares very ill with the terse clearness of the Epistolae morales. Persius’s satires are composed in hexameters, except for the

form of Zoroastrianism and the sacred writings were preserved only in Persis, whereas everywhere else (in Parthia, in the IndoScythian kingdoms of the east and in the great propagandist movement in Armenia, Syria and Asia Minor, where it developed into Mithraism) it degenerated and was mixed with other cults and ideas. So the revival of Zoroastrianism came from Persis. When Ardashir I. the son of a king of Istakhr began to subdue the other Persian dynasts and in a.p. 224 defeated and slew the

scazons of the short prologue above referred to, in which he half ironically asserts that he writes to earn his bread, not because he

cal. The new Sassanid empire which he founded enforced the restored religion of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) on the whole of Iran. The new capital of Persis was Istakhr on the Pulwar, about

and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the

Parthian king, Artabanus, his aim was religious as well as politi-

is inspired. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme of Seneca’s 114th letter is similar. The description of the recitator and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification

dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining satires

PERSON— PERSONALITY

613

handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly ask of Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, examines the problem

the gods (cf. Plato’s second Alcibiades), (3) the importance of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge for public men (cf. Plato’s first Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doc-

irine of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus’

whether the self, which he regards as equivalent to Personality, can be known as an object. He concludes that the self can per-

ceive itself as an object of awareness. consciousness is not essential to selfhood.

He holds also that selfWith this James Ward

teaching), and (6) the proper use of money. The Life tells us that the Satires were not left complete; some lines were taken (pre-

(Realm of Ends) would clearly agree. For his Pan-psychism or doctrine that the nature of things consists, as in Leibniz’s Mo-

sumably by Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not completed, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor’s literary taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the mss. in Sat. i. 12r1,—“auriculas asini quis non [for Mida rex]

nadism, of psychical units, rather mental than physical in kind, supposes even the unconscious monads, or psychic atoms of nature to be “conative, that is feeling and striving subjects, or persons, in the widest sense.” This wide use of the term person is inadmissible, since it is required for a principle which is indispensable for the understanding of human experience in its most individual character. Ward admits the difficulty of conceiving a psychic being without memory. And without a realization of the part played by memory, actively bringing to the events of life the results of all experience of value, it seems impossible to understand the essence of personality, in its mcommunicable character. Here Leibniz’s theory that the world for each individual is “per-

habet!” Traces of lack of revision are, however, still visible. AUTHORITIES.—The mss. of Persius fall into two groups, the one represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Pithoeus,

so important for the text of Juvenal.

Since the publication of

J. Bieger’s de Persii cod. pith. recte aestimando (Berlin, 1890) tendency has been to prefer the tradition of the latter.

the

The important editions are: (1) with explanatory notes: Casaubon (Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Diibner, Leipzig, 1833); O. Jahn (with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843) ; Coning-

ton (with translation ; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893) ; B. L. Gildersleeve (New York, 1875); G. Némethy (Buda-Pesth, 1903); (2) with critical notes: Jahn-Biicheler (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893); S. G. Owen (with Juvenal, Oxford, 1902). Translations into English by Dryden (1693) ; Conington (Joc. cit.); Hemphill (Dublin, 1901); Ramsay (Loeb, 1918), etc., in Martha, Les Moralistes sous empire romain (sth ed.,

Paris, 1886); Nisard, Poétes latins de la décadence

(Paris,

1834);

Hirzel, Der Dialog (Leipzig, 1895); Saintsbury, History of Criticism,

i. 248; 1903); 88 382 bridge,

Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (London, and the histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz, sqq.). A Bibliography of Persius, by M. H. Morgan (CamU.S.A., 1893) ; Villeneuve, Essai sur Perse (Paris, 1918).

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE. This expression is used in English law to classify crimes involving some form of assault or personal violence or physical injury, ze., offences affecting the life, liberty or safety of an individual: but it is also extended to certain offences which cannot technically be described as assaults, such as criminal libel. The bulk of the offences thus classified, so far as their definition or punishment depends upon statute law, are included in the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, in the Criminal Law Amendment Acts, and in the Children Act 1908. The classification in these statutes is not scientific. The particular offences dealt with by the acts above named are discussed under their appropriate titles, e.g., abortion, assault, bigamy, homicide, rape, etc. In the Indian penal code most of the offences above referred to fall under the head “offences against the human body.” In his Digest of the Criminal Law Sir James Stephen includes most of these offences under the title “offences against the person, the conjugal and parental rights and the reputation of individuals.” United States.—In the United States, such crimes as fall under the classification of offences against the person in England, are crimes by common law or statutes in the different States, but

sometimes without any such general classification in the statutes.

PERSONAL ACCIDENT INSURANCE: see Accmpent INSURANCE, PERSONAL.

PERSONALITY.

What is new in the philosophical treat-

ment of Personality is the recognition of its supreme place in the interpretation of value. To meet the modern form of the ancient

subjective explanations of “good” (“Man is the measure of all things,” including good and evil), or the modern theory that the only account to be given of good or value, is that it is what is desired, a new form of idealism arises; viz., personal idealism.

If “There’s nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so,” what is the nerve or soul of the thinking which penetrates into the essence of life, giving it a character of value or disvalue? The philosophy of personality conceives value as correlative to person,

person being something unique in every human being, which he brings with him to experience, and which urges him in all activiWes to seek value. In earlier modern discussions, the question of knowledge was chiefly investigated. MacTaggart for instance, in his article in

spective” or known only from his unique point of view, in its further elaboration by modern thinkers, falls in with the new insight in regard to the creation by the individual mind of all the meaning through which his world is real for him. In Prof. Wildon Carr’s Theory of Monads the perspective view of knowledge is carried farthest, and the monad appears to do almost all the work of creating its own world. Some thinkers explain the significance of personality, by giving it the highest place in a philosophy of “emergence,” according to which there is a hierarchy of orders, or stages of evolution in the universe, gradually following upon one another. Thus Gen. Smuts (Holism and Evolution) conceives Personality as the culmination of a series, and, whilst holding with Bergson that all evolution is “creative,” finds in the personality of every human being a “unique creative novelty.” Dr. Wiliam Brown’s view (Mind and Personality) that consciousness is creative is based on psychology, especially psycho-analysis, whilst his philosophical standpoint is in harmony with this result. “So far as the mind is a conscious mind,” it is always producing something new. The individual has produced in himself a “final differentiation,” and “superimposed it on all he has inherited.” Such an interpretation seems confirmed, when we turn from the subtle and microscopic analyses of the individual consciousness, and sub-consciousness in which lies the genius of modern psychology, to the large-scale impressions of human nature presented in biography, history and literature. Thucydides’ dictum that human nature will remain the same, gives one side of the truth, but the original individuality of each person’s struggle to realize his own idea of good, even though it may take a poor form, is the more impressive side. This becomes more intelligible if we conceive the distinctive character of personal mind, as that which cannot survive, but will disappear in sinking to a lower level, unless it finds some minimum of worth in its experience. The conception that value is correlative to personality is presented impressively by Dr. Max Scheler (“Formalismus”—‘Formalism in Ethics, and a Material Ethic of Value”). Personality he conceives as a new type of being, emerging in humanity, at some stage of its development, together with a new type of values and acts. The philosophy of “‘Personalism” in its American form emphasizes the creativity of the person in the spheres of knowledge and of value. Borden P. Bowne (“Personalism, Common-Sense and Philosophy”) insists on the necessity for the understanding of knowledge, of recognizing that “we are in a personal world from the start.” The greatest problem which arises for this type of philosophy, is whether that principle which is found to be essential to the interpretation not of knowledge alone, but of human activity in all its reality and meaning, can be attributed to the whole of things. Is the Universe personal? That it is, is the conviction of Professor Clement Webb, who argues (God and Personality) that “The thought of the Universe as a whole,” primarily presents itself as a religious thought, and for the religious emotion, our relation to the universe must be conceived as “essentially of the same nature as our relation to a person.” Similarly Bowne (Theism) a

614.

PERSONAL

PROPERTY— PERSPECTIVE

in view of the fact of the incompleteness of personality in our experiences, finds it necessary to posit a complete personality, which he identifies with the Infinite. And Professor Flewellyn (Creative Personality) assumes that the source of personality must be the “Absolute Personality” which is the Whole. MacTaggart’s arguments, in the article cited above seem conclusive against the logical validity of this conception. It may be added that the notion that the Whole, within which all spiritual life falls, can be personal, is inconsistent with the idea of personality in the deepest sense. For this involves distinction and relations between persons, possessing each at least some degree of an independent quality to constitute him a term or subject of a spiritual relation. The mystical loss of personality in communion with the Supreme Being implies a distinct personality to be lost and to be found again. Neither the part nor the whole is personal where all is One. This is understood by the Neo-Hegelians, who consistently recognize that in holding nothing to be in the end real, except the Whole, they must give up personality. With other values it suffers a change or is “transcended” in the Absolute. This view, of which Bernard Bosanquet and F. H. Bradley were the most distinguished English exponents, would render unintelligible the profoundest experiences of personality, feeling itself to be in contact with reality. That this feeling corresponds with truth, is a conviction which seems confirmed when the problem is considered in the light not only of theory of knowledge and of logic, but of history and practical experience.

itor’s executors are excluded, are now moveables in the creditor’s

succession. See the Scots Act of 1661 cap. 32 and the Conveyancy (Scotland) Act 1924 s. 22 (1). The law in the United States agrees in most respects with that

of England. Chattels real include hold. Legislation in some States years and estates pur autre vie generally regarded as personalty

all estates in land less than free. has, however, made terms for real property. Title-deeds are inasmuch as their importance

is less than in England, due to the Land Registration Acts. Shares in some of the early American corporations were, like New River

shares in England, made real estate by statute, as in the case of

the Cape Sable Company in Maryland (Schouler, Law of Personal Property, i.). Otherwise, shares of stock, like other choses in action, are regarded as personalty. PERSONATION, in English and American law, a form of fraud consisting in a false representation by one person (by words or conduct) that he is another person living or dead. It is not an offence by the common law unless the representation is made on oath under circumstances constituting the offence of perjury, or unless the representation if not made on oath is made under circumstances amounting to a common law cheat. (See also FALSE

PRETENCES; ELECTORAL SYSTEMS.)

PERSPECTIVE, deals with the phenomena of appearance;

(1883-90);

usually applied to the construction of drawings intended to repre-

H. Sturt, Personal Idealism (1902); F. H. Bradley, Appearance and Reality (1909); H. Bergson, Matière et Mémoire (7th ed., r911), trans. Matter and Memory, N. M. Paul and W. Scott Palmer (r911); R. Eucken, Life’s Basis and Life’s Ideal, trans. A. G. Widgery (1912) ; B. Bosanquet, Value and Destiny of the Individual (1913); S. Pringle Pattison, The Idea of God (1917); E. Troeltsch, Der Historismus und seine Probleme, vol. iti. in his Gesammelte Schriften (Tübingen, 1922). (H. D. O.)

sent objects as seen from some definite point of view. In appear-

BrisiiocrapHY.—T.

H. Green, Prolegomena

to Ethics

PERSONAL PROPERTY, one branch of the main division of the common law of property, the other being “real property.” The division of property into real and personal represents in a great measure the division into immoveable and moveable, incidentally recognized in Roman law and generally adopted since. Personal estate is divided in English law into chattels real and chattels personal; the latter are again divided into choses in possession and choses in action (see CHATTEL; CHOSE). Interest in personal property may be either absolute or qualified. ~

gation to pay money was, after the term of payment, considered heritable in the person of the creditor as having a tract of future time. Bonds containing such obligations, except where the cred.

There are several cases in which, by statute or otherwise, property is taken out of the class of real or personal to which it seems

naturally to belong. By the operation of the equitable doctrine of conversion money directed to be employed in the purchase of land, or land directed to be turned into money, is in general regarded as that species of property into which it is directed to be converted. An example of property prima facie real which is treated as personal is an estate pur autre vie, which, since 14 Geo. II. c. 20, Ss. 9, 1740-41 (now replaced by the Wills Act 1837, s. 6) is distributable as personal property in the absence of a special occupant. Examples of property prima facie personal which is treated as real are fixtures, heirlooms, such as deeds and family portraits. (See further Succession.) The terms heritable and moveable of Scots law in a general sense correspond with the real and personal of English law. Moveable or personal property is, in Scots law, subdivided into corporeal and incorporeal moveables. Corporeal or physical things, not being land or attached to land, are moveable property. Incorporeal things, or rights, are said to form moveable property when they do not affect land, and are not similar to rights affecting land in having a tract of future time. By the Titles to Land Consolidation

(Scotland) Act 1868, s. 117, heritable securities are moveable as

far as regards the succession of the creditor, unless executors are expressly excluded. They still, however, remain heritable quoad fiscum, as between husband and wife, in computing legitim, and as far as regards the succession of the debtor. Annuities, as having tractum futuri temporis, are heritable, and an obligation to pay them falls upon the heir of the deceased. At common law an obli-

ance an object may seem very unlike what it is known to be in

reality. A railway track is of the same width throughout its length, yet in appearance the rails seem to approach one another as they recede, Plate I., fig. 2. A cube is known to have 12 edges

all equal in length and to have a perfect square for each face, but when viewed the edges do not appear to be equal, nor do the faces appear to be squares, Plate I., fig. 6. Isometric Drawing.—A method of representing objects is sometimes used in which dimensions in three directions are shown in their true size to the scale of the drawing. A cube constructed by this method is given in fig. 1. Every line in the direction of abd, of ac, or of ae, is drawn at its true scale. Thus all = the edges of the cube as shown are of equal

OL Isometric

length. Such a drawing is known as an isometric. It is useful in indicating the

FIG. 1.—AN ISOMETRIC Size of an object, as three dimensions at PRESENTATION OF Ai fight-angles to one another can be shown CUBE, ALL EDGES HAVING upon a single plane surface. It is a purely

a

AS arbitrary method of representation, how-

ever, gives a distorted picture of the object, makes no pretence of reproducing its appearance, and should never be confused with true perspective.

True Perspective.—In true perspective three lines at right-

angles to one another cannot all appear in their true lengths. Lines and forms seem to change in size and shape as they occupy different positions in the picture. Colours and lightings seem to change as well. In the foreground objects appear brilliant with distinct details, clear colours, dark shadows and strong contrasts. As one looks farther into the distance objects seem less brilliant, contrasts less marked, colours gradually lose their clearness and tend to merge into a purplish monotone. This is caused in part by

minute specks of dust or moisture held in the atmosphere which reflect a soft hazy light into the picture. These lighting effects are

outside the scope of the present article. The apparent changes in form, however, are dealt with as an exact science known as linear

perspective, by means of which it is possible to construct, from the actual dimensions of an object, its apparent shape and size at any point in space.

The camera is an instrument by means of which perspective views can be produced mechanically. On Plate I., figs. 2 and 6 are so produced. Rays of light reflected from any object, as ab, fig. 2, pass through the lens of the camera and fall upon the

PRINCIPLES]

PERSPECTIVE

sensitive plate forming an image which will represent the appearance of the object to one who views the photograph. The human eye, fig. 3, is, in effect, a little camera with a lens, o, and a sensitive surface, the retina, which receives the image, fe. If a transparent plane, PP,

FIG. 2.—-PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION PRODUCED PHOTOGRAPHICALLY

be placed between the object and the observer’s eye, the rays of light coming from the object will pass through the plane and project upon it an image, cd, of the

object. The image on the plane would be a perspective of the object and would represent to the observer its appearance.

Wherever one looks he sees a perspective view. An expert draftsman before a group of objects might record on paper exactly what he saw. The result would be a perspective drawing

reproducing the appearance of the objects and might conceivably be made without any understanding of the laws of perspective.

Some of the ancient peoples, the Chinese for example, developed an interesting technique in drawing, and their pictures often showed astrong sense of perspective. Whether they understood the under-

lying science or merely copied what they saw is open to argument. It was probably not until the early part of the rsth century that the governing principles of the science began to be understood by western civilization. The names of Brunelleschi, Alberti, Ucello, Leonardo da

Vinci, Piero della Francesca and Albrecht Diirer are all connected with its development.

To Fran-

cesca has been attributed the Fic. 3.—THE HUMAN EYE AS A conception of the vanishing CAMERA point which is the key to modern perspective construction. FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLES

Apparent Diminution in Size—The complete theory of perspective can be developed from a single basic phenomenon; viz., the apparent decrease in size of an object as it recedes from

the eye. A railway train moving over a straight track furnishes an example. As the train becomes more distant its dimensions apparently become smaller. Its speed also seems to diminish, for the space over which it travels in a given time appears to be shorter and shorter as it is taken farther and farther away. Plate I, fig. 8, is another example, showing posts of equal height and with equidistant spaces between. The reason for the apparent diminution in size is readily under-

stood from fig. 4. The size of any object is estimated by comparing it with some standard. As the observer looks along the line ba at the top of the first post, the top of the second post is invisible. It is apparently below the top of No. 1, and in order to see it he must lower his direction of sight until he looks along bd. He now sees the top of No. 2, but No. 3 is still invisible and in order to see No. 3 he must lower his gaze still further until he looks along bf. Considering the bottoms of the posts he finds the same apparent shrinkage. Compared with No. 1, No. 2 FIG. 4—CAUSE OF APPARENT seems to have a length only equal FORESHORTENING to km, No. 3 only equal to op,

and so on. The posts thus appear relatively smaller and smaller as

they are taken farther and farther from the eye. If the line of

posts could be extended an infinite distance, the last post would evidently appear incalculably small or of zero length. Similarly the two parallel lines, adf and ceg, running respectively along the tops and bottoms of the posts must, owing to the apparent decrease in the lengths of the posts, appear to approach

one another as they recede. Could they be of infinite length they would evidently appear to meet in a point at an infinite distance from the observer. This imaginary point which parallel lines seem

615

to approach is called a vanishing point. Plate I., fig. 3, shows a perspective of the interior of an aqueduct in which the parallel lines of the stone courses can easily be imagined to meet in a vanishing point. Systems of Lines.—If any object bounded by planes, e.g., a cube is examined, its edges can be grouped into several series or systems of parallel lines. Each system will have its particular vanishing point. In fig. 5 there are three such series, one apparently converging or vanishing toward the right, one toward the left, and a vertical system. It is important to be able to locate the imaginary vanishing point of any system of lines. This can always be done by looking along one of the lines or elements of the system. Whatever the position of the FIG. 5.—SYSTEMS OF observer, every element of a given system LINES appears to converge towards the vanishing point of that system and, if extended indefinitely, to meet the vanishing point. Hence if the observer looks along any element, he will be looking directly at the vanishing point of the system. The line along which he sights will be seen endwise, as a point, exactly covering the vanishing point toward which all other elements of the system will appear to converge. Thus, an observer might sight directly along one of the course lines in Plate I., fig. 3, and discover the vanishing point for the other course lines

directly in front of his eye. This principle is further illustrated by the model shown in Plate I., fig. 1, which consists of a series of rods representing straight lines and arranged in a parallel system. Let the observer look directly along any one of the rods, as the one at the lower left corner. This rod will appear as a dot, and apparently cover the imaginary infinitely distant vanishing point of the system. All the other rods or elements will appear to converge toward the vanishing point which the observer has located. Again if he sights along the centre rod, Plate I., fig. 4, he will see it as a dot covering the imaginary vanishing point towards which the other elements of the system appear to converge. Let him choose which rod he will the result will evidently be the same. The line along which the observer sights is called the visual element of .the system. Plate IL., fig. 9, shows the use of this method to locate the vanishing point of the horizontal lines in the view that are parallel to the curbing. The observer sights along the fence rail which being parallel to the curb leads his gaze to the desired vanishing point. All other horizontal lines in the view belonging to this system seem to converge towards the infinitely distant vanishing point covered by the fence rail. It is evident that the view of the scene as well as the apparent position of any vanishing point must change with every new position of the observer. Therefore a perspective drawing can only attempt to represent the view as it will appear from one point of view. This is a limitation inherent in every perspective drawing. Instead of sighting along an Ss FY tons: + actual element, the observer can FIG. 6.—LOCATING A VANISHING look in a direction parallel to an POINT element. The direction in which he looks may be considered as an imaginary element which will lead his eye to the desired vanishing point. In fig. 6, the observer is looking in a direction parallel to the two edges ab and cd of the roof plane. These two edges appear to him to converge towards a point infinitely distant from him in the direction of his gaze. Rule A-—From the method of locating a vanishing point it follows that if a system is horizontal its vanishing point must appear to be on a level with the eye. If a system vanishes upward its vanishing point will be located above the eye; if downward, below the eye; if toward the right, to the right of the eye; or if toward the left, to the left of the eye.

PERSPECTIVE

616

[APPLICATION

Theoretically every system of lines has two vanishing points, | Each point is projected upon the picture plane by its vis ual ray for, if the observer can locate one by looking along an element in | and the result is a perspective view. Rule C. The perspective of any point is where the visual ray one direction, he can also locate a second by looking along the same element in the opposite direction. For any given position of from the point intersects the picture plane. the observer one of these vanishing points will usually lie before A perspective is really a conical projection of the object on and the other behind him. The one lying in the direction of his the picture plane, the projecting cone being made up of visual gaze is the only one considered, except in certain special problems. rays. In order to locate the imaginary vanishing point of the roof Systems of Planes.—Plane surfaces which are parallel appear

to approach one another as they recede. This will be evident from fig. 7. Since the horizontal edges of the cube appear to converge, the top and bottom planes must appear nearer together at cd and gh than at abd and ef, and must seem to approach one another as they extend into space. Parallel planes extended an infinite distance appear to meet in a straight line known as the vanishing trace of the planes. Each system of planes will have its own vanishing trace which can be lo- FIG, 7.—-APPARENT CONcated by looking along any one of the VERGENCE OF PARALLEL planes. The plane will appear edgewise, PLANES as a line, and cover the vanishing trace which every plane of the system will appear to approach.

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The method of locating a vanishing trace is illustrated in Plate I., figs. 5 and 7. The plane along which the observer looks is known as the visual plane of the system. It appears as a straight line and the other planes of the system seem to approach it. The vanishing trace of the system of horizontal planes will evidently be a horizontal line on a level with the observer’s eye.

To this vanishing trace is given the special name of horizon. The visual plane of a horizontal system is called the horizon plane. If the observer while locating a vanishing trace should slowly turn completely around still looking along the visual plane, at every instant he would see the vanishing trace as a straight line directly in front of him. The vanishing trace therefore may be considered as a circle of infinite radius which is theoretically the same thing as a straight line. In practical work so small a field is usually visible that a vanishing trace is always treated as a straight line. Axioms.—The foregoing discussion may be summarized in five axioms and one rule, Axiom r. Parallel lines appear to converge as they vanish, and to meet at an infinite distance from the observer in an imaginary point called the vanishing point of the system. Axiom 2. Parallel planes appear to approach one another as they recede from the eye, and to meet at an infinite distance from the observer in an imaginary straight line known as a vanishing

FIG,

8

lines ab and a; by, the observer looks in a direction parallel to ab and a: 6; (Rule B). The direction in which he is looking becomes the visual ray passing between the imaginary vanishing point and his eye. The point in which this visual ray intersects the picture plane is the perspective of the vanishing point (Rule C), and to this perspective vanishing point the perspectives of the roof lines ab and a, bı actually converge. Rule D. To find the perspective of the vanishing point of any system of lines, pass a line parallel to the system through the

observer’s eye and find where the line pierces the picture plane. Planes of Projection.—In making a perspective drawing three planes are used: first, a vertical-plane, the picture plane, which receives perspective view; second, a horizontal plane, the horizon plane which must always contain the observer’s eye; third, a second horizontal plane called the ground plane on which the object always rests, fig. 9. Since the horizon plane always contains the observer’s eye, or station point, and the object always rests upon the ground plane, the relation between these two planes determines the kind of view to be produced. If the distance between them equals the height of a man (to the scale of the drawing) the view trace. | obtained will be as though seen by an observer standing on the Axiom 3. A line lying in a plane must have its vanishing point ground plane. Increasing this distance is equivalent to raisin the vanishing trace of the plane. This is evident from the man- ing the observer’s eye, and if the distance is great the result ner of locating the vanishing point of a line and the vanishing is a bird’s eye view. The ground plane may be taken above the trace of a plane. horizon plane and the resultAxiom 4. The vanishing trace of a plane must contain the vaning view will show the object ishing points of all lines which lie in the plane. This is the conas though the observer were verse of number 3. looking up at it. The picture Axiom 5. A line which forms the intersection of two planes, plane and the horizon plane are since it lies in both, must have its vanishing point at the interknown as the co-ordinate planes section of the vanishing traces of the two planes. of projection and on them is perRule B. To locate the vanishing point of a system of lines, formed all the work of constructlook along any real or imaginary line of the system. ing the perspective view. APPLICATION

TO PERSPECTIVE DRAWING The Picture Plane.—The five axioms just formulated apply to conditions which are apparent but which do not really exist.

In a perspective drawing these apparent conditions in space must be represented by actual conditions on paper. The perspectives of parallel lines are represented by converging lines which actually meet at a point which is the perspective of their vanishing point.

Fig. 8 illustrates this. An observer stands before an object. Between him and the object is a plane called the picture plane. The object becomes visible to him by rays of light known as visual rays reflected into his eye from each point on its surface.

FIG. 9

Orthographic Projection.—

As already stated the perspective view is a conical projection on the picture plane. This conical

projection is in practice not found from the actual object in space,

but from a plan and an elevation of the object. The plan is

essentially a top view and the elevation a front view or sometimes a side view. A plan is constructed by projecting each point in the object to a horizontal reference plane by lines or projectors which are perpendicular to the horizontal plane. An elevation is constructed

by projectors perpendicular to the vertical plane. Such views are

known as orthographic or right-line projections in contrast to the

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PERSPECTIVE

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ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Method of locating a vanishing point 2. Apparent convergence of parallel lines 3. Apparent vanishing point of parallel lines

4, Element at centre used to locate vanishing point 5. Method of locating vanishing trace

OF

PERSPECTIVE

6. Appearance of object contrasted with reality 7. Plane at centre used to locate vanishing trace 8. Apparent diminution in size with increasing distance

9. Location of vanishing point

Prate II

PERSPECTIVE

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ILLUSTRATIONS

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PERSPECTIVE

1. Example of apparent distortion

2. Example

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3. Effect of increased distance between object and picture plane

`

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION]

PERSPECTIVE

617

conical of perspective projection, and are the ordinary means of

on the horizon plane. To avoid the resulting confusion the two planes can be pulled apart as shown in fig. 17. After these move-

jo shows a conical and an orthographic projection.

ments of the planes the horizon plane will still contain all of the horizontal projections, which will remain undisturbed in all

representing objects on paper (see DRAWING, ENGINEERING). Fig. trates the construction of a plan and an elevation.

Fig. rr illusFig. 12 shows

the two views as they are represented on paper.

Each point in the object, has two

projections, both being necessary to locate accurately the relations of the point to the two planes. Thus the point a is above the horizontal reference plane, a distance equal to am as indicated in elevation, and in front of the vertical reference plane a distance equal to an as shown in plan. The elevaFIG. 10.—-COMPARISON tion shows vertical distances, the plan oF CONICAL AND ORTHO- shows horizontal distances. The object in GRAPHIC PROJECTIONS space may be above the horizontal plane as in figs. 1x and 12, or it may be below the horizontal plane as in fig.

13. It may be behind or in front of the vertical plane, or it may lie partly behind and partly in front of the vertical plane or partly above and partly below the horizontal plane. Any point in space may have three different but related projections, a plan or horizontal projection, an elevation or vertical

projection, and a conical or perspective projection. This is illustrated in fig. 14 where two points in space a and b are shown, each with its vertical, its horizontal and its conical projection. The horizontal projection is indicated by an index h, the vertical projection by an index v, and the perspec=: tive projection by an index p. FIG. 11.—CONSTRUCTION OF PLAN The point a is shown behind AND ELEVATION the picture plane and above the horizon plane. The point b is shown in front of the picture plane and below the horizon plane. The conical projection or

perspective is always on the vertical or picture plane. Fig. 15 shows the planes of projection with the ground plane indicated by its intersection (VH1) with the picture plane. The point a is shown in space behind the picture plane and below the

aspects of their relations to one another.

HPP is the horizontal projection of the picture plane and is the reference line for all horizontal projections. Similarly the picture plane will contain all of the vertical projections. VH is the vertical projection of the horizon plane, and is the reference line for

FIG. 13.—CONSTRUCTION OF PLAN

all vertical projections. V H, represents the intersection of the

AND ELEVATION

ground

plane with the picture

plane. The distance between VH and VH, shows the height of the observer’s eye above the plane on which the object rests. The two groups of projections are usually represented as in fig. 18. The only relation between the two groups is that the.two corresponding orthographic projections of any point as a’ and

a’, or SP* and SPY, must always be vertically in line with one another. Horizontal projections show distances back and front. Vertical projections show distances up and down. Distances are never measured between a horizontal and a vertical projection.

The relation of a to HPP shows the point a to be behind the picture plane. The reFIG. 14 lation of av to VH shows it to be below the plane of the horizon. The two projections of the visual ray through the point ¢ are shown (R* and RY). By Rule E, the point p can be determined. Measure Lines.—Fig. 19 shows a rectangular block resting upon the ground plane in plan and elevation. The perspective of each point has been found by Rule E. Connecting these points by straight lines, the perspective of the block is determined. Since the object lies some distance behind the picture plane, as seen by

comparing the plane with HPP, the perspective is smaller than the object. Any line which lies in the picture plane will show its true

horizon plane, with its horizontal projection (@*) and its ver-

tical projection (a”). The station point is represented by its two orthographic pro-

jections just as every point in space. Since it always lies in the horizon plane its horii zontal projection, SP”, must always coincide with the point itself. Its vertical projection will be directly in front of SP’, on the picture plane as SP?. SP” must always lie in the line VH which represents the vertical projection of the horizon plane. Just as a point in space has a horiJzontal projection and a vertical projection, so the visual ray which passes from the point a to the observer’s eye | oO a has two projections, one on each plane. is seen on the horizon FIG. 12.—PLAN AND ELE- Its projection : VATION, ORTHOGRAPHIC Plane passing through a” and SP*. Its PROJECTIONS vertical projection is seen on the picture plane passing through a” and SP’. The visual ray pierces the picture plane at a? which is the perspective of the point a (Rule C}. Rule E. The intersection of a visual ray with the picture plane must always lie upon the vertical projection of the visual ray, and must be directly in line with the point where the horizontal projection of the visual ray crosses the horizontal projection (HPP) of the picture plane. In practice both the picture plane and the horizon plane must

FIG.

15

length in the perspective view, and is called a measure line. It can be drawn at once to scale and used to determine the dimensions of other parts of the object which do not lie in the picture plane

in the direction indicated by the arrows s1 and sz, fig. 15, until the

and consequently appear larger or smaller than their real dimensions, according to whether they are in front of or behind it. Any vertical plane if extended will intersect the picture plane in a vertical line. The intersection will be a measure Hine on which true vertical dimensions may be scaled. Thus, in fig. r19, the left vertical face of the block can be extended forward until it intersects

two planes lie coincident as shown in fig. 16. In this position the group of projections on the picture plane will overlap the group

the picture plane in a measure line on which the distance avm will show the true height of the block. The right vertical face if

be represented on one sheet of paper. One can imagine the picture plane to be revolved about its intersection with the horizon plane

PERSPECTIVE

618

extended will also give a measure line, on which bvm shows the true height. The Construction of a Perspective Projection.—Fig. 20 illustrates the fundamental method of constructing a perspective from which all other methods are derived. A plan and elevation are given on the left, an end view on the right. HPP determines

[PERSPECTIVE

PROJ ECTION

de and h? vanishing at V2, establishing by their intersections

ch and g?.

To find the roof of the main house, extend the ridge (Ik) in the diagram until it intersects HPP in the point 12. Imagine a vertical plane to pass through the ridge. It will intersect the picture plane in a vertical line dropped from the point 12. This will be a measure line for the ridge and the true height of the ridge

FIG. 16

the picture plane in horizontal projection, VH determines the plane of the horizon in vertical projection. VH, determines the plane of the ground on which the object is to rest. The observer’s eye, SP, is given in vertical and horizontal projections. The resulting perspective is to show the house with the vertical corner ae lying in the picture plane, and with the face aefb making an angle of 45° with it. This position is indicated by the

above the ground, 2—1, taken from the elevation, can be laid off on it. A horizontal line through 1 vanishing at V2¢ must contain the ridge which will be located on this line at R?l? directly below the points in which visual rays through the extremities of the ridge in the diagram, intersect HPP. From k?, lines to e? and f? respectively, and from /?, lines to k? and g? respectively will complete the roof. The chimney can be located in a similar manner. Extend the front face through p in the diagram until it intersects HPP in 13. The plane of this face will intersect the picture plane in the vertical line dropped from 13, which

will be a measure line for this

FIG. 19.—MEASURE LINES

face. Lay off on this measure line the true height of the top of

the chimney 8-7, and the true height of the bottom line of the

front face, 8-9. Through 7 and 9 lines vanishing at V2¢ will con-

FIG. 17

diagram, which is a plan of the house revolved about a vertical axis until the side aefb makes the specified angle of 45° with HPP, and placed with the corner ae touching HPP in accordance with the specification. The point a will thus lie both in the picture plane and on the plane of the ground. Its perspective must be at a? on VH and directly under the point a in the diagram. As the front corner lies in the picture plane it will be a measure line and its true height taken from the elevation can be laid off directly from a, ‘determining e? as indicated. Next, by Rules D and E establish the vanishing point for the system of lines parallel to ab, as follows: the horizontal projection of the visual ray will pass through SP* parallel to ab in the diagram, and will cross HPP at the point ro. Since

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[PICTURE PLANE

order that the given vertical projection evk? may be used to distance.

establish its vanishing point. As the vanishing point must lie in

the vertical through 14, the vanishing point will not be disturbed

if the vertical line through 14 is used as the axis about which the revolution takes place. During the revolution, the horizontal projection of any point in the line, as SP*, will describe a circle with the point 14 as its centre. The vertical projection, SP”, of the same point in the line, will move in a horizontal path along VH, and at any instant during the revolution will be found directly under SP4, The revolution will be continued until the horizontal

projection of the line is parallel to e”k* in the given plane. The line will now be in its original direction, SP” will have moved to

As the perspectives of all vertical lines must tieet at the perspective of their vanishing point they cannot meet within

a finite distance and must be drawn parallel and vertical. The parallel vertical lines drawn in perspective are themselves, how-

ever, subject to the laws of appearance, as are all lines ip space

and, though actually drawn vertical, will appear to the observer

to converge in just the right degree as they recede in the picture

from his eye. This is true not only of vertical lines but of all lines which are parallel to the picture plane; 7.e., all lines Whose

projections in the diagram are parallel to HPP. From this try} three additional and very useful axioms may be deduced. Axiom 6. Lines in space which are parallel to the picture plane

SP", SPY will have moved to SP,¥, and the given elevation evk” can be drawn through SP,”, determining by its intersection with

will have their perspectives drawn parallel to one another and not

the vertical through 14, the desired vanishing point V¢*. Since the line e& slopes upward as it recedes, V¢* is found to be above VH

perspective drawn parallel to the vanishing trace of every plane

(Rule A). In a similar manner the vanishing point for Ig can be found. The line through SPF parallel to lg coincides with the one parallel to ek. This is swung back about a vertical axis through 14 until parallel to /4g*, in which position it will coincide with the line parallel to e#k*, and SP* will have revolved to SP,”, SP,” will be on VH directly below SP, and a line parallel to the given elevation gv, drawn through SP,” will, by its intersection with the vertical through 14, determine Vig. Since the line ¿g slopes downward as it recedes, its vanishing point is found below the horizon

(Rule A).

To find the vanishing point for rs draw a line parallel to rs, in the diagram, through SP”, crossing HPP at rr. Vrs will be found somewhere on a vertical through rr. Swing the line about a vertical axis through 11 until parallel with rs in the given plan. SPh will revolve to SP2* and SP2” will be found on VZ vertically in line Through SP,” draw a line parallel to rvs? in the given elevation which will determine by its intersection with the vertical through 11, the vanishing point rs. This will be found above VH as rs vanishes upward. A similar series of steps will determine the vanishing point for st at Vst below the horizon. Vanishing Traces.—With the vanishing points that have now

been determined it is possible to locate a vanishing trace for each plane in the object. The roof planes have been lettered on the diagram.

‘The vanishing trace for the plane M will be a line

lettered TM containing V2> and Ve* (Axiom 4). Similarly TO, the vanishing trace of the roof plane O, must contain V% and V's.

IN must contain V24 and V/s, TP must contain V2¢ and Ver, TS will pass through V2 and V’s, and TR will pass through V% and Vst, The vanishing trace of a vertical plane must always be a vertical line and can therefore be determined by a single vanishing point. JW will be a vertical line through Vab and TY a vertical line through V2¢, A vanishing trace is thus found for each plane in the object and, by virtue of Axiom 5, the vanishing points for the remaining oblique systems can now be located. Thus mn being the intersection of the planes S and P will have its vanishing point, V7", at the intersection of TS and TP. Similarly pk, the intersection of the right hand face of the chimney with the roof plane P will have its vanishing point at the intersection of TW and TP.

convergent.

Axiom 7. Any line parallel to the picture plane must have its

in which it lies.

Axiom 8. If the line in which two planes intersect is parallel to the picture plane, the vanishing traces of the two planes must be

parallel to one another. These axioms are exemplified in the vertical lines in the draw. ing and also in the lines kf and lk whose projections in the

diagram show them to be parallel to the picture plane. kf being

the intersection of M and N, TM and TN should be parallel to

Ai

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Vo must be situated at the intersection of TP and TR, but these two vanishing traces do not intersect within the limits of the paper. A line may be drawn through n? to meet TP and TR at their intersection in the following manner. Draw any triangle as ntvw with its apex at nt and its base, vw, stretching between TR and TP. Draw any other triangles as xyz with its sides respectively parallel to ntvw and its base vz stretching between TR and TP. A line from n? through x will meet TR and TP at their intersection. Lines Parallel to the Picture Plane.—It has been stated that the perspectives of vertical lines on a vertical plane are always vertical and not convergent. The reason for this follows directly from Rule D. If a vertical line is drawn through the observer’s eye it cannot pierce a vertical picture plane within finite limits. The perspective of the vanishing point of such a system will’ theoretically be vertically over SP’ at an infinite

ty

FIG, 21

one another (Axiom 8) as they are found to be, and f should be drawn parallel to TM and TN (Axiom 7). Similarly lh is drawn

parallel to TO and TP, and these two vanishing traces are parallel to one another.

Vanishing Point Diagram—The more or less geometrical

figure composed of the vanishing traces of the planes, the vanishing points of the lines, VH, HPP, and the projections of the

station point form the vanishing point diagram. This vanishing point diagram is quite independent of the particular location of the revolved plan, provided the directions of the lines in the

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34. | English Poets, however, he is represented by two of the simple aot a hie | and charming pieces addressed to the infant children of Lord

archbishopric, is situated on the right bank of the Maritsa, 96 m.

Carteret and Daniel Pulteney. These were scoffed at by Swift ete

s

E.S.E. of Sofia, and on the main Belgrade-Constantinople railway. | A Pop. (1926) 85,188, the majority being Bulgars, the remainder |

a

a a ee ks

chieflyi, Turks, , Armenians, 3; Jews and me gypsies. Philips’s (1700); works kc oe The former Greek Williams colony is now almost extinct. The city lies on and between seven | (1722), from the granite rocks which rise abruptly out of the flat and very fertile | Distrest Mother

plain of the Maritsa; the southern Balkans are distant about > 25 | AEA : ; HIS

m., the northern Rhodopes about twelve. The e Konak, another park, and the gymnasium are near the

brid

sgu

aa cts ou

a AN a ifs

)5 cs keee mm S

oe

a

Toh

Sone ’ RAG

PHILIPS, JOHN

(1676-1708/o09), English poet and man of

Philippopolis is a wealthy commercial city, centre of the a sopra ee ee ae trade in tobacco, wheat.silk nea etree ad beeen eet aed at Winchester and Christ Church “Oxford His

oe Garena

et

are abridgmentandof OneBishop of Jahn The anThousand Days; Hacket's Persian Life Tales... French of F. Pétis de la Croix; three plays: The (1712), an adaptation of Racine’s Andromaque;

an sh ' and Pindar, were published separately, and a collected edition appeared Maritsa. ' in 1748.

The “Gate of Hissara” in the old walls is noteworthy. The new | town spreads south and south-west of the old.

a

, Which

39

pesi

a EODARCO SECOUSS | The Shledid Shiling was called by Addicon in The Taller“the

History —Eumolpia a Thracian town, was captured by Philip |finest burlesque poem in the British language.”

Harley and St.

of and made his frontier posts; henceor its name |lJohn commissioned to write Cyder a Tory(1708), counterblast of Macedon Philippopolis. UnderonetheofRomans, Philippopolis, Trimonto Joseph Addison’s him Campaign. one of (Blenheim) the earliest

tium, was the capital of Thracia. It is a a 7Stn ae ee ee a eae ie a : : 7 was in ; san netled large , although printed without his name, may safely be ascribed to him. ee nies Se colonies of Armenian

Paulicians in and around it as frontier ' In all his poems except

guards. It recovered its prosperity under the later Roman Em- ' Philips died at Hereford on

ee he

oe a eulogy of tobacco.

Feb. 15, 1708/09.

pire, and excited the admiration of the crusaders. Frederick Bar- | See The Whole Works of ... John Philips .. . To which is prebarossa made it his headquarters (1189); in 1205 it was granted | fixed his life, by [G.] Sewell (3rd ed., 1720); The Poems of John

PHILIPS—PHILIP

734

Philips (1927), ed. M. G. Lloyd Thomas; and Johnson’s Lives of the Poets.

PHILIPS,

England, made

GOOD strenuous

efforts to put an end to the Great

Schism, visiting Pope Benedict XIII. at Avignon in 139s in the

KATHARINE

(1631-1664),

English

poet,

daughter of John Fowler, a merchant of Bucklersbury, London, was born on Jan. 1, 1631. In 1647 she married James Philips, a Welsh royalist. Her home at the Priory, Cardigan, became the centre of a “society of friendship,” the members of which were known to one another by fantastic names, Mrs. Philips being “Orinda,” her husband “Antenor,” Sir Charles Cotterel “Poliarchus.” The “matchless?” Orinda, as her admirers called her, posed as the apostle of female friendship. Jeremy Taylor dedicated to her his “Discourse on the Nature, Offices and Measures of Friendship,” and Cowley, Henry Vaughan, Roscommon and the earl of Cork and Orrery all celebrated her talent. She died of smallpox on June 22, 1664. The literary atmosphere of her circle is preserved in the excellent Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus, published by Bernard Lintot in 1705 and 1709. See E. W. Gosse, By the Incomparable an authentic edition ciation by Miss L. I. tion is in Saintsbury’s

PHILIP

THE

THE

Seventeenth Century Studies (1883). Poems, Mrs. K. P. appeared surreptitiously in 1664 and in 1667. Selected Poems, edited with an appreGuiney, appeared in 1904. The best modern ediMinor Poets of the Caroline Period (vol. i., 1905).

BOLD

(1342-1404),

duke

of Burgundy,

fourth son of John II. of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born on Jan. 15, 1342. He earned his surname by his bravery on the field of Poitiers. He accompanied King John into captivity in England. In 1360 he received the title of duke of Touraine, and in June 1363 was entrusted with the government of Burgundy, which John had united to the crown at the death of the last duke of the Capetian family, Philip of Rouvre, in 1361. In September 1363 John made Philip duke of Burgundy, and first peer of France. The donation was ratified at the accession of Charles V. of France; he took possession of the duchy at the end of 1364. Charles appointed him (in 1366) his lieutenant in Champagne and mar-

ried him in 1639 to Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis of Male, count of Flanders, and widow of Philip of Rouvre. Philip proved a faithful ally to Charles. He took part in the almost bloodless campaign against the duke of Lancaster, who had landed at Calais; in 1377 he took several towns in French Flan-

hope of obtaining a voluntary resignation from him. For the dis.

cords in the king’s council see Cartes VI. For abrief periog

Philip was dispossessed of authority, but he regained it in 140?

and kept it till his death (April 27, 1404). The cathedral of St, Bénigne at Dijon contains his remains, and his tomb (formerly

in the Chartreuse of Dijon) is in the Hotel-de-ville. Philip appears to have governed his territories with sagacity and acer. tain moderation. He granted numerous privileges to the inhahitants of Dijon, and created in 1386 two chambres des comptes, one at Dijon and the other at Lille. He was, in the phrase of a contemporary, “kindly and amiable to high and low and those of middle rank, liberal as an Alexander, noble and pontifical, in court and state magnificent.” (R. P.; X.)

PHILIP THE GOOD

(1396-1467), duke of Burgundy, son

of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria, was born at Dijon on June 13, 1396, and succeeded his father on

Sept. 10, 1419.

The assassination of John the Fearless (g.v.)

drove his successor to the English side.

In 1419 Philip signed

with Henry V. of England the treaty of Arras, by which he recognized Henry as regent and future heir of the kingdom of France, and in 1420 gave his adherence to the treaty of Troyes. Early in

December 1420 Philip entered Paris with the king of England, and subsequently took part in the defeat of the French at Mons-

en-Vimeu.

By a treaty concluded by Philip at Amiens in April

1423 with the dukes of Brittany and Bedford, John, duke of Bedford, married Philip’s sister Anne, and Arthur of Brittany, earl of Richmond, became the husband of Philip’s sister Margaret. A few years later discord arose among the allies. When the duke of Bedford besieged Orleans the inhabitants offered to surrender, but to the duke of Burgundy; whereupon Bedford

retorted that “he did not beat the bushes for others to take the birds.” When this speech reached Philip’s ears he withdrew

his troops in dudgeon, and concluded a truce with France (1429).

Bedford succeeded in conciliating him and in 1430 Philip took part in the campaign against Compiégne. But another conflict arose between the duke of Burgundy ders from the English; and in 1379 relieved Troyes, which had been and the English. Jacqueline, countess of Hainaut (see JACOBA) besieged by the English. On Charles’s death Philip found him- the divorced wife of the duke of Brabant and the heiress of Holself, with his brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Berry, in charge land and Zeeland, had married the duke of Gloucester, who of the government of France in the name of Charles VI., who attempted to take forcible possession of his wife’s territories. was a minor; and in the absence of the duke of Anjou, who left Philip claimed Brabant as a bequest from his cousin Philip, the France in 1382 to conquer the kingdom of Naples, Philip occu- late duke, with the result that the Burgundians repulsed the pied the most powerful position in the realm. He persuaded the troops of the duke of Gloucester, and Jacqueline was forced to young king to intervene in Flanders, where the citizens of Ghent, recognize the duke of Burgundy as her lieutenant and heir. Morewhose rebellious spirit had necessitated Philip’s intervention in over, the duchess of Bedford had died in 1433. Charles VILI., 1379, had again revolted under Philip van Artevelde and had ex- who in spite of the efforts of the cardinal of Ste-Croix had hitherto refused to return to France, finally decided to take part in the pelled Louis of Male. On Nov. 27, 1382, the Franco-Burgundian chivalry crushed the rebels at Rosebecke, and on his return the conferences which were opened at St. Vaast d’Arras on Aug. 6, 1435. Philip agreed to recognize the king of France as his legitduke of Burgundy took part in repressing the popular movements which had broken out in Paris and other French towns. In 1383 imate sovereign on condition that he should not be required to an insurrection in Flanders supported by England gave rise to pay him homage during his lifetime. Charles solemnly craved another French expedition; but in January 1384 the death of pardon for the murder of John the Fearless and handed over to Louis of Male made Philip master of the countships of Flanders, the duke the counties of Macon, Auxerre, Bar-sur-Seine and Artois, Rethel and Nevers; and in the following year the citizens Ponthieu, and the towns on and near the Somme (Roye, Montof Ghent decided to submit. At this period Philip sought to in- didier, Péronne), reserving the option of redeeming the Somme gratiate himself with the emperor by giving two of his daughters towns for 400,000 gold crowns. Philip faithfully served the king, In marriage to two princes of the house of Bavaria; he also took aiding him in re-entering Paris and preparing an expedition an important part in bringing about the marriage of a princess of against Calais, which, however, failed through the ill-will of his Flemish subjects (1436). In 1440 he paid the ransom of Charles the same family, Isabel, to King Charles VI. Hostilities, however, were renewed between France and Eng- of Orleans and married him to Mary of Cleves. In 1442 Philip land. A formidable expedition was prepared under the direction of conspired to give the duke of Orleans a larger share in the the duke of Burgundy, anda fleet of 1,400 sail assembled at Sluys; affairs of the kingdom. Philip was frequently disturbed by the insubordination of the but the enterprise failed owing to the dilatoriness of the duke of Berry. The fatiguing and inglorious expedition in the Nether- Flemish communes. He had to quell seditions at Liége (1430), lands weakened Philip’s credit with his nephew, who on his Ghent (1432 and 1448), Antwerp (1435) and Bruges (1438). return declared himself of age and confided the government to the Shortly after the final defeat of the citizens of Ghent at Gavre ancient councillors of his father, the “Marmousets.” The king’s (1453) Philip vowed that he would lead a crusade against the madness (1392) restored his uncles to power, and particularly Turks, who had seized Constantinople. The expedition, however, Philip, who after assuring peace by treating with the duke of did not take place, and was but a pretext for levying subsidies. In Brittany and by concluding a truce of twenty-eight years with 1459 Philip sent an embassy under the duke of Cleves into Italy to

PHILISTINES take part in the conferences preparatory to a fresh expedition

against the Turks, but this enterprise likewise fell to the ground. In 1456 the duke of Burgundy had given an asylum to the Dauphin

Louis (afterwards Louis XI.), who had quarrelled with his father and had been forced to leave France. Louis repaid his protector by attempting to sow discord in the ducal family of Burgundy, and then retired to the castle of Genappe in Brabant. At Charles VII.’s death, however, Philip was one of the first to recognize the new king, and accompanied him to Paris. During the journey Louis won over the seigneurs of Croy, the principal counsellors of the duke of Burgundy, and persuaded Philip to allow him to redeem the Somme towns for the sum stipulated in the treaty of Arras. This proceeding infuriated Philip's son Charles, count of Charolais, who prevailed upon his father to break his

grounds the Purasati were not Mycenaeans

735 from Crete, despite

tradition, but rather from Asia Minor (Lycia, Caria), though they may have passed some time in Crete.

Palestine and the West.—The Philistines appear in the Old Testament as a Semitic or at least a Semitized people. Both the language and the religion were Semitic. The male god Dagon has his partner Astarte (gg.v.), and Baal-zebub, a famous oracle of Ekron (2 Ki. i.) resembles the local “baals” of Palestine. Philistia seems to be completely Hellenized after the Persian age; but it is not certain that Greek culture pervaded all classes; foreign influence probably always made itself felt upon the coast-towns. The use of the term a&\Ad@uAoe in Maccabaean and later writings (cf. the contemptuous hatred of Ben Sira. Ecclesiasticus 1. 26, and

particularly in Flanders; and left his son a well-lined treasury.

the author of Jubilees xxiv. 30 sqq.) expresses the conditions of the Greek age and the Maccabaean wars. The Mediterranean coast-land was always exposed to incursions of aliens; Carians appear as royal and temple guards at Jerusalem (2 Ki. xi. 4), and old Greek traditions tell of a Carian sea-power and relations between Philistia and Greek lands. Even the presence of Carians and Ionians in the time of Psammetichus I. may be assumed, and as these are planted at Defneh it is noteworthy that this place is also closely associated with a Jewish colony (viz., Tahpanhes, Jer. xliii., seg.). In fact, Palestinian intercourse with the West is fairly continuous; and excavation at Beth-shan, Gezer, and other

and in 1429 to Isabel (d. 1472), daughter of John I., king of Portugal, when he founded the order of the Golden Fleece. He was succeeded by Charles, afterwards known as Charles the Bold, his only surviving son by Isabel. (R. P.; X.)

so that some authorities even recognize a “Philistine” pottery. History.—The Philistines form a confederation of five cities (Ashdod, Ascalon [Ashkelon], Ekron, Gath and Gaza), which remained unconquered by the Israelites (Josh. xiii. 2 seg., Judges iii. 3; contrast Josh. xv. 45-47, xix. 43). The institution of the

pledge and declare war on the king of France. On April 12, 146s, Philip handed over to his son the entire administration of his estates. The old duke died at Bruges on June 15, 1467. Philip was a great lover of pomp and luxury and a friend of letters, being the patron of Georges Chastelain, Olivier de la Marche and Antoine de la Salle, and the founder of the col-

lection of mss. known as the “Bibliothéque de Bourgogne” (now at Brussels), and also of the university of Déle (1421). He administered his estates wisely; promoted commerce and industry,

He was thrice married: in 1409 to Michelle (d. 1422), daughter of Charles VI. of France; in 1424 to Bonne of Artois (d. 1425);

PHILISTINES. “Philistine” was the general name for the people of Philistia (Ass. Palaštu, Pilištu; Eg. p-r-s-t), a district

sites, has shown many important indications of Western influence,

Hebrew monarchy (c. r025 B.C.) follows upon periods of Phi-

listine oppression (Judges iii. 31, x. 7, 11, xiii. 1, 5; see SAMSON; Ext; SAMUEL; SAuL; Davip). Their subjugation is ascribed to Samuel (r Sam. vii. 13), Saul (xiv. 47), and David (2 Sam. viii. Gaza. On the subsequent extension of the name in its Greek form, 1). They evidently recovered their independence, and twice within Palaestina, see PALESTINE. a short time the northern Israelites laid siege to the border According to biblical tradition the Philistines are the remnant fortress of Gibbethon (x Ki. xv. 27, xvi. 15). The interrelations of Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4, Amos ix. 7), and the Caphtōrīm drove of the south Palestinian peoples follows from the unchangeable out the aboriginal Avvim from Gaza and district, as the Horites geographical conditions, and Judah always depended upon its and Rephaim were displaced by Edom and Ammon (Deut. ii. relations with the Philistines on the west and with the Edomites 23). These Caphtōrīm, as well as Ludim (Lydians) and other and Arabian tribes on the south-east. “Philistia,” with Edom and petty peoples, apparently of the Delta, are once reckoned to Egypt Beth-Omri (z.e., the Israelite kingdom), paid tribute to the As(Gen. x. 14). By Caphtor the Septuagint has sometimes under- syrian king, Adad-Nirari III. (c. 802 3.c.). The omission of stood Cappadocia, which indeed may be valid for its age, but the Judah is noteworthy. In the later Assyrian period Philistia was name is to be’ identified with the Egyptian K(a)ptar, which in mixed up in pro- and anti-Assyrian intrigues, and suffered from later Ptolemaic times seems to mean Phoenicia, although the Tiglath-pileser (734), Sargon (720) and Sennacherib (700). In earlier Keftiu connoted Crete, and possibly “the south Anatolian the 7th century Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod and Ekron were Assyrian coast as far as Cilicia” (Hall). The Cherethites, associated with vassals, together with Judah, Moab and Edom—in all, 22 kings the Philistine district (1 Sam. xxx. 14, 16, Ezek. xxv. 16, Zeph. ii. of the “Hittites.” Herodotus mentions-the Scythian invasion and 5 seg.), are sometimes recognized by the Septuagint as Cretans, sack of the temple of Aphrodite Urania (Astarte) at Ascalon, also and, with the Pelethites, they form part of the royal bodyguard the prolonged siege of Ashdod by Psammetichus, and the occuof Judaean kings (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 7, 1 Ki. i. 38, 44; pation of Kadytis (? Gaza) by Necho. But the Babylonian empire followed upon traditional lines and thrust back Egypt, and in 2 Sam. xx. 23 the Hebrew text has Carites). The earliest occurrence of the name “Philistines” outside the Nabonidus (553 B.c.} claims his vassals as far as Gaza. The PerOld Testament is in Egypt, where the Purasati (Pulesati) are sians took over the realm of their predecessors, and Gaza grew in one of a great confederation from north Syria, Asia Minor and importance as a seat of international commerce. Nehemiah the Levant, which threatened Egypt in the 2oth dynasty. They speaks not of Philistines, but of Ashdodites (iv. 7), speaking an are not among the hordes enumerated earlier by Rameses II. or “Ashdodite” dialect (xiii. 24); just as Strabo regards the Jews, Merneptah, but in the eighth year of Rameses III. (c. 1194 B.C.); the Idumaeans, the Gazans and the Ashdodites as four cognate

embracing the rich lowlands on the Mediterranean coast from the neighbourhood of Jaffa (Joppa) to the Egyptian desert south of

the Purasati (Pulesati) take part in a widespread movement on land and sea. The Syrian States were overwhelmed and the advance upon Egypt seemed irresistible. Rameses, however, collected a large fleet and an army of native troops and mercenaries and claimed decisive victories. The Egyptian monuments depict the flight of the enemy. The sequel of the events is not known, though about a century later the Zakaray are found at Dor, and

treat with scant respect the suzerainty of Egypt. The Egyptian monuments represent the Purasati with a very distinctive feather head-dress resembling that of the Lycians and Mycenaeans. Their general physiognomy is hardly Cilician or

Hittite, but European, especially Greek. broad-sword

and

carried

a round

shield)

They fought with a On

archaeological

peoples having the common characteristic of combining agriculture with commerce. In southern Philistia, at least, Arabian immigration became more pronounced. In the time of Cambyses Arabs were settled at Jenysos south of Gaza (Herod, iti. 5), and when Alexander marched upon Egypt, Gaza with its army of Arabs and Persians offered a strenuous resistance. On the history of the district see further Gaza; Jews; MACCABEES; PALESTINE. Traditions of the Philistines.—The Philistines were prominent in popular tradition, and the story of Isaac and the Philistine Abimelech (Gen. xxvi., cf. xxi. 32) is of great interest for its unbiased picture of enmity, alliance and covenant. But a parallel story (xx.) is without this Philistine background. Similarly,

PHILISTUS—PHILLIPS

736 one account

of the Israelite invasion conceived

a conquest

of

earlier giant inhabitants (Anakim), who survived in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod

(Josh. xi. 21 seg., contrast xiii. 3), but were driven

out from Hebron by Caleb (Josh. xv. 14, cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28). The Philistines themselves are called the remnant of the Anakim

permanent Court of International Justice. He died on March 13 1929.

Lord Phillimore’s publications include

Three Centuries o

of Peace and Their Teaching (1917); he also revised J,

Book of Church Law and several of his father’s works.

i

J Treaties

H. Blunt’s

(Jer. xlvii. 5, so the Septuagint), or as Caphtérim replace the PHILLIPS, EDWARD (1630-71696), English author son earlier Avvim (Deut. il. 23, see Josh. xiii. 3). Samuel’s great de- of Edward Phillips of the crown office in chancery, and his wife feat of the Philistines leads to “peace between Israel and the Anne, only sister of John Milton, the poet, was born ip Aug Amorites” (1 Sam. vii. 14); and the migration of the Danites is 1630 in the Strand, London. His father died in 1631, ang Anne

placed after Samson’s conflicts with the Philistines (Judges xviii. seq.), or is due to the pressure of Amorites (i. 34). Even in David’s fights with the Philistines in Judah, Jerusalem is Jebusite, neighbouring non-Israelite cities are Hivite or Amorite (Josh. ix.

7, 2 Sam. xxi. 2), and his strange adversaries find a close parallel in the semi-mythical sons of Anak (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22). In another tradition, however, David is on intimate relations with a Philistine king, Achish (or Abimelech, Ps. xxxiv.), cf. Isaac, p. 735. Traditions agree that the Israelites had to fight for their

freedom, but antagonism between Philistines and Israelites was not persistent. See further H. R. Hall, Camb. Anc. Hist., iii. ch. xii. (with bibliography);

and the articles on “Philistines” in Reallexikon

schichte (illustr. by Gallin) and Ency. Bib. (G. F. Moore).

d. Vorge-

(S. A. C.)

PHILISTUS, Greek historian of Sicily, was born at Syracuse about the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (432 B.c.). He was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionysius, and commander of the citadel. In 386 he was banished for secretly marrying the tyrant’s niece. He commanded the fleet against Dion, but was defeated and put to death (356). He settled at Thurii, but afterwards removed to Adria, where he remained until the death of Dionysius (366). He was then recalled by the younger Dionysius, whom he persuaded to dismiss Plato and Dion. During his stay at Adria, Philistus occupied himself with the composition of his Zuekad, a history of Sicily in eleven books, down to 363, from

which point the work was carried on by Athanas. Cicero (ad. Q. Fr. ii. 13) calls him “the miniature Thucydides” (pusillus Thucy-

dides).

ick Sic. xiii. 103, xiv. 8, xv. 7, xvi. rr, 16; Plutarch, Dion. 11~36; Cicero, Brutus, 17, De oratore, ii. 13; Quintilian, Instit. x. 1, 74; fragments and life in C. W. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, vol. i. (1841); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895); E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (1891-94); A. Holm, Geschichte Siciliens im Altert. (1870-98).

PHILLIMORE, SIR ROBERT JOSEPH (1810-85), English judge, was born at Whitehall on Nov. 5, 1810. Educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford, where a lifelong friendship with W. E. Gladstone began, his first appointment was to a clerkship in the board of control, where he remained

from 1832 to 1835. Admitted as an advocate at Doctors’ Com-

mons in 1839, he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1841, and rose very rapidly. He was engaged as counsel in almost every case of importance that came before the admiralty, probate or divorce courts. He was appointed judge of the Cinque Ports in 1855, queen’s counsel in 1858, and advocate-general in admiralty in 1862, and succeeded Stephen Lushington as judge of the court of arches five years later. Here his care, patience and courtesy, combined with unusual lucidity of expression, won general respect. He was the last judge of the old court of the lord high admiral; after the Judicature act he continued to sit as judge for the new admiralty, probate and divorce division until 1883. He wrote Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England, a book which still holds its ground, Commentaries on International Law, and a translation of Lessing’s Laocoon. PHILLIMORE, WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHIL-

LIMORE,

Phillips eventually married her husband’s successor in the crown office, Thomas Agar. Edward Phillips and his younger brother

John, were educated by Milton. Edward entered Magdalen Hall’ Oxford, in November 1650, but left the university in 16 lips more rounded. clips more spread. , (e.g. n) syllabic consonant. Y consonantal vowel. j* variety of f resembling s, etc. Classification of Speech-sounds.—The above table of the International Phonetic symbols taken in conjunction with the chart of the organs of speech (fig. 1) shows the chief principles of sound classification. The meanings of most of the technical terms describing the various classes of sounds are self-evident. Attention may, however, be called to the following, which require some explanation. The “back” of the tongue is the part which lies normally opposite the soft palate (velum); the “front” is the part which lies normally opposite the “hard” palate; the “blade” is the part which lies normally opposite the teeth-ridge (upper gum, alveolars). “Palatal” consonants are those formed by the “front” of the tongue against the hard palate, such as

the English sound of y or the German ch in ich. ‘“Retroflex” consonants are those made by the tip of the tongue against the hard

palate such as the Hindi sounds of ¢ ©.

Classification of Vowels.—Vowels are classified (1) according to the position of the tongue, and (2) according to the position of the lips. In forming a vowel the opening between the lips and the distance of the tongue from the palate must be sufficient to ensure that there is no audible friction when voice is emitted. The lips may be spread (as for the English ee-sound) or they

marked by the large black dots in fig. 4. The eight primary

cardinal vowels are represented by the letters 1, e, €, a, a, 9, 0, U; these are numbered 1 to 8 respectively. Eight secondary cardinal vowels are represented by y, ø, Œ, —, D, A, 8, we (numbered 9 to 16 respectively). (No letter has been adopted for secondary cardinal vowel No. 12, as it has not been found to exist as a separate phoneme in any language.) They have the same tonguepositions as the primary cardinal vowels, but different lip-positions. Nos. 9 to 13 have lip-rounding, and Nos. 14, 15, 16 have lipspreading. The tongue-positions of any vowel may be represented by a dot at the appropriate place on the cardinal vowel chart. This marking, together with a description of the lip-position, shows the language learner exactly how the vowel is formed, and gives him a good idea of what it sounds like. Thus a foreign learner who has never heard English can learn to make the vowel of cat when he knows that it is half way between

cardinal vowels 3 and 4 (e and a). An Englishman learning Italian without a teacher can get a good idea of what the Italian vowels sound like from a diagram (fig. 5) which shows the relationship of the Italian vowels to the cardinal vowels. In transcribing particular languages, the cardinal vowel letters may have “close” rounding (as in the sound of u in rule) or are used to represent sounds in the vicinity of the cardinal vowel lying “open” rounding (as in the vowel in Jong). The classification of sounds. The letters, in fact, serve to represent vowels vowels according to tongue positions and the terminology em- within certain areas on the vowel figure as shown in fig. 2. In ployed in describing vowels is shown in figs. 2, 3 and 4. The the comparatively unusual cases when two vowel-sounds within relative tongue-positions of vowels may be indicated by dots the same cardinal area are used for the purpose of distinguishing words additional vowel-letters have to be introduced. Such are I placed on the vowel figure (fig. 4). Cardinal Vowels.—In order to give an intelligible description (used for the English vowel in sit), u (used for the English

in Glück). æ is of the vowels of any language, it has been found necessary to vowel in put), y (used for the German vowel in the left upper lies which cat, in vowel the for used commonly establish a system of cardinal vowels. These are the vowels

776

PHONOGRAPH

corner of the a-area, though there is no objection to using a for it except in comparative work. Symbols are also required for “central” vowels. The most important is 9 which represents the

“neutral” or “intermediate” sound of a in along. Others are į, #, which represent unrounded and rounded vowels with tonguepositions intermediate between those of į and u; łis the Russian brand u is heard in the Norwegian Aas and in a frequent Scottish pronunciation of book. The vowel in the London pronunciation of bird is represented by 3 or by ə with a length mark (ə:). Intonation.—An important branch of phonetics is that which deals with intonation or the rise and fall in the musical pitch of the voice. In the languages called “tone languages” (e.g., Chinese and most Sudanic and Bantu languages} intonation is used to distinguish one word from another. Thus in Cantonese the syllable fan said with a high falling tone means “divide”; said with five other ITALIAN 22 tones it means “powder,” “sleep,” CARDINAL O “burn,” “courageous” and “duty” ITALIAN O respectively. In the Sechuana CARDINAL 2 ITALIAN 2 language of South Africa metse CARDINAL Q, said with a mid level tone on ITALIAN a each syllable means “villages,” 5 but with a mid-level tone on the first syllable and a high FIG. 4.—THE VOWEL AREAS SERVED BY THE MOST IMPORTANT VOWELlevel tone on the second it means LETTERS “water.” o, FIG. 5.——THE ITALIAN VOWELS Such tones are best indicated COMPARED WITH THE CARDINAL in phonetic transcription by ac- VOWELS cent marks which by their shapes and positions give a certain graphic representation of the musical values of the tones, thus :—

high level tone a, low level tone a high falling tone a, low falling tone a, high rising tone a, low rising tone a, fall-rise 4, rise-fall

a. etc. It is sometimes convenient to place the tone-marks before the syllable. In languages which are not “tone languages” intonation affects the meaning of whole sentences, but it is not an integral part of any word. Intonation then gives “expression” to sentences; it conveys shades of meaning which cannot conveniently be expressed by other means. Thus in English the two meanings of i beg your pardon (“I am sorry” and “What did you say?”) are distinguished by intonation. It is not practicable to mark this

kind of intonation in orthography, though slight indications of it may be given by punctuation marks, the use of italics, etc.

BrstiocrapHy.—General. H. Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1906); G. N. Armfield, General Phonetics (1924); O. Jespersen, Fonetik (1899), Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1913); P. Passy, Petite Phonétique Comparee (1906) ; O. Bremer, Phonetik (1893); W. Vietor, Elemente der Phonetik (1914); W. Ripman, Elements of Phonetics (1903); Sievers, Grundzüge der Phonetik (1901); The Principles of International Phonetic Association (1912); Das System der Association Hieais Internationale (1928); Journal: Le Maître Phonétique

the French Language (1913); French Phonetic Reader (1914); Lectures Phonétiques Françaises (1918); P. Passy and A. Rambeay Chrestomathie Phonétique (1901); W. Vietor, Die Aussprache des Schriftdeutschen (1909), German Pronunciation (1903), Lesebuch in Lautschrift (1907); Deutsches Ausspracheworterbuch (t915); T Siebs, Deutsche Buhnenaussprache (Cologne, 1927); E. A Meyer Deutsche Gesprache (1912); A. Egan, German Phonetic Reader (x913). Phonetics of Other European Languages. A. Frinta, Noyo. česká Výslovnost (Prague, 1909); R. Dijkstra, Holländisch (1899):

A. R. G. Viana, Portugais (Leipzig, 1903); H. Forchhammer, You, to learn Danish

Phonetik

(Copenhagen,

1906, 1928);

O. Broch, Slavische

(Heidelberg, 1909); G. Panconcelli-Calzia, Italiano (1911):

T. Navarro Tomás, Pronunciacion Española

(Madrid, 1918): B. A

Peers, Spanish Phonetic Reader (1920); A. Camili, Italian Phonetic

Reader (1921); M. V. Trofimov and D. Jones, The Pronunciation of

Russian (1923); Z. Arend, Polish Phonetic Reader (1924); A, Frinta

Czech Phonetic Reader (1925); S. Jones, Welsh Phonetic Reade (1926).

Phonetics

of Asiatic Languages.

Phonétique sur la Langue Japonaise

E. R. Edwards, Etude

(1903); D, Jones and Kwing

Tong Woo, Cantonese Phonetic Reader (1913); T. G. Bailey, Panjabi

Phonetic Reader (1914); B. Karlgren, Étude sur la Phonologie Chinoise (1915), Mandarin Phonetic Reader (1918); D. Jones and H. S, Perera, Colloguial Sinhalese Reader (1919); Yuen Ren Chao, A Phonograph Course in the Chinese National Language (Shanghai, 1925); L. E. Armstrong and Pe Maung Tin, Burmese Phonetic Reader (1925); Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Bengali Phonetic Reader (1928), Phonetics of African Languages. C. Meinhof, Lautlehre der Bantusprachen (1910); D. Westermann, Sudansprachen (Hamburg, 1910): D. Jones and S. T. Plaatje, Sechuana Phonetic Reader (1916): W. H. T. Gairdner, Phonetics of Arabic (1925); C. M. Doke, The Phonetics of Zulu (1926); A. N. Tucker, The Comparative Phonetics of Suto-Chwana (1929); E. E. Elder, Arabic Phonetic Reader (1928). See also the publications of the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures. Intonation, D. Jones, Intonation Curves (1909); Hf. Klinghardt and G. Klemm, Ubungen im Englischen Tonfall (1920) : H. E. Palmer, English Intonation (1922) ; Klinghardt and de Fourmestraux, Exercises in French Intonation (1923) ; M. L. Barker, Handbook of German Intonation (1925); L. E. Armstrong and I. C. Ward,

Handbook of English Intonation (1926) ; H. Klinghardt, Ubungen in Deutschem Tonfall (1927).

PHONOGRAPH, an instrument for reproducing sound by transmitting to the air the mechanical vibrations of a stylus in

contact with a sinuous groove in a moving record. Less specifically the term designates any instrument for recording and reproducing speech. The first audible reproduction of recorded sound was accomplished by Thomas A. Edison in 1877. ‘The history of most of the technical arts shows that their development takes place irregularly. The introduction of fundamentally new ideas introduces periods of very rapid advance. These periods are followed by intervals during which the development appears much slower and is concerned mainly with the refinement of methods and the adaptation of the new results to commercial processes. The phonographic art is no exception. Since the last big advance which became commercially prominent in 1925, the improvements have been largely an adaptation of the tools provided, to the production of artistic and commercially valuable results.

The tools which were made available by

this last advance are completely described under the heading GRAMOPHONE. The major portion of the improvement introduced has dealt with the co-crdination of the results obtainable with the new equipment and the production of a proper artistic effect. As might be expected, this has dealt mainly with the study of the 1889, etc.). proper acoustic conditions in the space in which the sound is Experimental. E. W. Scripture, Elements of Experimental Phonetics (1902), Speech Curves (1906) ; P. Rousselot, Principes de Phonétique produced. Expérimentale (1897-1908) ; G. Panconcelli-Calzia, Einfithrung in die The early recording by the new process was done largely in Angewandte Phonetik (1914). Journals: Vox (x911, etc.); La Revue small rooms in which the acoustics were well controlled. It was de Phonétique (rorr, etc.) ; Archives Néerlandaises de Phonétique Exsoon found that the acoustic properties of small rooms were perimentale (1926, etc.). Phonetics of English, French and German, Ripman, Sounds of Spoken English with specimens (1914); H. totally unsuited to the proper artistic effect when dealing with Sweet, Primer of Spoken English (1900), Sounds of English (1908) ; those types of music which are usually produced in large audiD. J ones, The Pronunciation of English (1914), Phonetic Readings in toriums or theatres. A large amount of experimenting was, English (Heidelberg, 1921), English Pronouncing Dictionary (1926), therefore, done, which showed definitely that the best way to Outline of English Phonetics (1918); L. E. Armstrong, English Phonetic Reader (1923); W. Grant and E. H. A. Robson, Speech record symphony orchestras, choruses, opera selections, etc., was Training for Scottish Students (1925); H. E. Palmer, F. G. Blandford and J. V. Martin, Dictionary of English Pronunciation with

American Variants (1926); I. C. Ward, English Phonetics

(1929);

M. Montgomery, Types of Standard Spoken English (Strasbourg, 1910); G. P. Krapp, The Pronunciation of Standard English in America (1919); J. S. Kenyon, American Pronunciation (1924); H. Michaelis and P, Passy, Dictionnaire Phonétique Français (1897);

to place the artists in a small theatre or auditorium,

and to

arrange them in much the way that they would be arranged were an audience present.

The early experiments indicated two major difficulties with

this type of arrangement. First, there appeared to be excessive reverberation; and, secondly, it was difficult to find a situation G. G, Nicholson, French Phonetics (1909); P. Passy, The Sounds of for the microphone or pick-up device at which interference was

PHONOLITE—PHORMIUM not present in certain frequency regions.

777

(That is, at certain | Small rounded enclosures of glass are often numerous in them.

parts of the musical scale.) ' The pyroxenes may be pale green diopside, dark green aegirineIt was found by experiment that the time of reverberation, | augite, or blackish green aegirine (soda iron pyroxene), and in as in small studios, should be approximately -7 to -8 of that re- | many cases are complex, the outer portions being aegirine while quired for audience listening. Also, it was found that the portion | the centre is diopside. Fine needles of aegirine are often found in of the space in which the sound is produced should have surfaces | the ground-mass. of more reflecting ability than the average indicated for the audiThe chemical analyses of phonolites given herewith show thet torium, while the space in which the microphone or pick-up device | they are very rich in alkalis and alumina with only a moderate

is situated should be as dead or well damped as possible.

amount of silica, while lime, magnesia and iron oxides are present

In the field of phonograph reproduction, there have been no | only in small quantity.

They have a close resemblance in these

major developments within the last few years. The trend of the |respects to the nepheline-syenites of which they provide the improvements

introduced has been towards the use of electric | effusive types.

Most of these rocks are of Tertiary or Recent

methods rather than mechanical. The wide range of both fre- | age, but in Scotland Carboniferous phonolites occur in several quency and loudness, which can be obtained by the use of electric | localities, ¢.g., Traprain in Haddingtonshire. in the Eildon Hills

methods and the simplicity with which the loudness can be con- | and in Renfrewshire; in Brazil phonolites belonging to the same trolled, is probably mainly responsible for this trend. While for |epoch are also known and there are several districts in Europe small, low-priced instruments, it is still possible to obtain more | where Tertiary or Recent phonolites:occur in considerable numfaithful reproduction with the mechanical

machines,

the im- | bers, as in Auvergne (Mont Dore), the Eifel and Bohemia.

The

provements in the electric methods of reproduction have caused | Wolf Rock, off the S. of Cornwall and the site of a well-known this method

ee

to take precedence in the higher priced field.

oe Roe

a - A. ow

lighthouse, is the only mass

of phonolite in England;

it is sup-

le caper posed to be the remains of a Tertiary lava or intrusion. In the

H Fletcher, “High Quality Transmission and Reproduction of Speech United States phonolites occur in Colorado (at Cripple Creek) and Music,” Jour. AJ.E.E., vol. xliii. no. 3, March 1924; J. P. |and in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Leucite occurs in place of nepheline in a small group of phono-j on, agate ot a Quality erone ee sae and H. e ne Oe kn . m Re- | j; Telephone Based on Speech usic and Reproducing o and known principally from Rocca Mon (the leucite-phonolites), lites ppxlv., Journal A.I.E.E., vol. published inpaper Abridgment search.” of the foregoing was pub- fina and other places near Naples. When sanidine, nepheline and 43-253, March 1926. Complete lehed in The Bell System Technical Journal, vol v.. pp. 493-523, | leucite all occur together in a volcanic rock it is classed among July 1926. F. R. Watson, Acoustics of Auditoriums (1914), Absorption | the leucitophyres (see PetRoLocy). PHORMION, Athenian admiral in the sth century B.C., was (J. P. Ma.) of Sound by Materials (1927).

PHONOLITE, in petrology, a group of alkaline lavas contain- ! the son of Asopius, of the deme Paeania. He first appears in 440

ing much nepheline and sanidine felspar (Gr. dwvh, sound. and |B.c. when he was sent with reinforcements to the Athenian troops

I. Phonolite, Wolf Rock, Cornwall Il. Phonolite, Teplitzer Schlossberg, Bohemia III. Leucite-phonolite, Rocca Monfina, Italy .

Albos, stone). The term “‘clinkstone” was formerly given by geol- | before Samos. In 432 he took out reinforcements to the force ogists to many fine-grained compact lavas, which split into thin | blockading Potidaea, took over the command from Callias, and tough plates, and gave out a ringing sound when struck with the | completed the circumvallation of the city. He seems to have hammer. Some of these were phonolites in the modern sense, but | stayed in the north-east, as in 431 he was co-operating with Peras the name clinkstone was used for a large variety of rocks, many | diccas against the Chalcidians. In 430 he was sent with 30 ships of which have no close affinities with one another, it has been | to help the Acarnanians against the Ambraciots. That winter discarded and “phonolite” substituted. The group includes rocks | there followed the operations on which his fame is based. He was which are rich in alkalis with only a moderate percentage of| given 20 ships and stationed at Naupactus, to effect a blockade silica; hence they contain no free quartz but much alkali-felspar | of Corinth from that side. In the summer of 429 a superior (sanidine and anorthoclase) and nepheline. Large plates of sani- | Peloponnesian fleet arrived, and was decisively beaten by Phordine are often visible in the rocks: the nepheline is usually not | mion. In a second engagement he was forced to retreat, but turned obvious to the unaided eye. Most phonolites show fluxion struc- | and again routed his pursuers. He was probably dead by 428. Thuc. I. and II., passim; Diod. XII., 37, 47, 48; Schol. ad Arist. ture, both in the orientation of their phenocrysts and in the

smaller crystals which make up the ground-mass; and this determines to a large extent the platy jointing. Although vitreous and pumiceous forms are known they are rare, and in the great

Pac. 348. And see art. PELOPONNESIAN War. PHORMIUM or NEW ZEALAND FLAX (also called “New Zealand hemp”), a fibre obtained from the leaves of Phor-

New Zealand, the majority of cases these rocks are finely crystalline with a dull or mium tenax (family Liliaceae), a native of was discovered plant This island. Norfolk and islands Chatham shimmering lustre in the ground-mass. Captain Dominant Minerals.—These are sanidine, nepheline, pyrox- | by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, who accompanied in the luxuriantly grows It discovery. of voyage first his on Cook | saniThe oxides. iron and felspathoids ene, amphibole, various

1798. and also fourdine is usually in two generations, the first consisting of large | south of Ireland, where it was introduced in is generally cultivated as and Scotland, of coast west the on ishes repreis second the while shape, tabular and flattened of crystals parts of Europe and sented by small rectangular prisms arranged in parallel streams | an ornamental garden plant in the warmer purposes into

been introduced for economic in the ground-mass; these felspars are nearly always simply | North America. It has The name Phormium 1s from Gr. California. and Azores the soda much as often contain They plan. twinned on the Carlsbad one of the uses made of its leaves to allusion in basket, a doppos, takes the form of hexagonal prisms

as potash.

The nepheline

with flat ends, and may be completely replaced by fibrous zeolites, |by the New Zealanders.

so that it can only be recognized by the outlines of its pseudo-

morphs.

It has a fleshy rootstock, creeping be-

neath the surface of the soil and sending up luxuriant tufts of nar-

ft. long and from 2 to 4 in. In some phonolites it is exceedingly abundant in the | row, sword-shaped leaves, from 4 to 8

vertical, and arranged in two rows as ground-mass, and these rocks form transitions to the nephelinites | in diameter. The leaves are they are very thick, stiff and leathery, dark (nephelinitoid phonolites); in others it is scarce and the rocks | in the garden flag;

with the margin and nerve reddishresemble trachytes containing a little nepheline (trachytoid pho- | green above, paler below,of the tuft ultimately arises a tall Howercentre the From orange. | nosean, and haüyne nolites). The felspathoid minerals, sodalite, on its numerous branches which crystallize in isometric dodecabedra, are very frequent bearing stem, 5 to 15 ft. high, bearing

red or yellow, somewhat tubular components of the phonolites; their crystals are often corroded.1 a very large number of lurid

778

PHORONIS—PHOSGENE

flowers, recalling those of an aloe, and from 1 to 2 in. long. After flowering the plant dies down, but increases by new lateral growths from the rootstock. The plant will grow in almost any soil, but best on light rich soil, by the side of rivers and brooks, where sheltered from the wind. Phormium is a cream-coloured fibre with a fine silky gloss, capable of being spun and woven into many of the heavier textures for which flax is used, either alone or in combination with flax. It is, however, principally, a cordage fibre, and in tensile strength it is second only to manila hemp; but it does not bear so well the alternations of wet and dry to which ship-ropes are subject.

PHORONIS.

Phoronis is one of those limbless creatures pop-

ularly termed “worms.” It is, however, so peculiar in its structure that it is given a class to itself, Phoronidea. There are a good many species found all over the world, but they are so alike that they are placed in a single genus Pkoronis, although they vary from + in. to 6 in. in length. Phoronis is marine and lives in a leathery tube from which the fore-part of the body can be protruded. The front part carries a peculiar platform or “lophophore,” crowned with beautiful upright tentacles covered with cilia which are in perpetual motion. In P. hippocrepia the lophophore is shaped like a horse-shoe and the tentacles are arranged along its edge, those on the concavity of the shoe being somewhat the shorter. All species have lophophores more or less of this shape but the tips of the shoe are in some much more prolonged than in others and even inrolled. The cilia produce a current which sweeps small organisms into the mouth, situated between the outer and inner row of tentacles. It is elongated and slit-like and provided with a covering lip, the epistome, which projects from the concave side of the lophophore. Below the lophophore, on the side of the concavity of the horseshoe, the anus projects as a little papilla. At the sides of the anus two smaller papillae carry the openings of a pair of ciliated tubes which connect the bodycavity with the exterior. These tubes (coelomiducts) serve to get rid of the excreta in the body-cavity fluid and to let out the germcells when these are ripe. Since the mouth and anus are close together and the animal has a long worm-like body, it is obvious that the alimentary tube will be U-shaped. The long gullet leads into a globular stomach lying at the lower end of the body, from which the long, slender, ascending intestine leads to the anus. The first part of the intestine where it leaves the stomach is swollen, lined by ciliated epithelium and

devoid of glands.

The alimentary tube is enswathed by a true

secondary body-cavity or coelom, which is lined by an epithelium the outer layer of which is pressed against the body-wall whilst the inner layer lies against the gut cells. This cavity is divided into two by a horizontal platform just behind the mouth. The front portion communicates with the cavities of the tentacles and of the epistome. This is the lophophoral coelom: the hinder portion, in which the gullet and intestine lie, and into which the coelomiducts open, is the trunk-coelom and is traversed by a median septum or mesentery which ties the outer side of the oesophagus to the body wall: in addition, the oesophagus is anchored by two lateral mesenteries. These mesenteries, however, cease before the stomach is reached. The genital cells appear as thickenings of the inner wall of the coelom and both male and female are produced by the same individual in separate swellings, projecting from the wall of the stomach. The trunk coelom is thus divided into three chambers, a right and left lateral on the convex side of the lophophore and a large rectal chamber on the concave side. In this latter lies the intestine, which is tied to the body wall by its own

independent mesentery and is also fused by its side to one of the lateral mesenteries. Each “coelomiduct” opens into the body-cavity by two funnelshaped openings lined by cilia, a short one communicating with the lateral chamber and a long slit-like one opening into the rectal chamber. The nervous system is simple, consisting merely of an interlacing mass of extremely fine fibrils and small nerve-cells which thickens to form a horizontal band passing around the lophophore and giving off a special branch to each tentacle. There is also a thickening in the skin of the epistome,

The life of Pkoronis consists merely in expanding the front of

the body, erecting the tentacles and working the cilia vigorously:

the mouth being opened wide to catch whatever fortune brings.

On the approach of danger the whole body is withdrawn with

the tube. This is effected by bands of longitudinal muscles in the body-wall—the expansion being brought about by circular muscles,

which by compressing the body force fluid into the lophophore ang

engorge it. The interest of Phoronis lies in its strong resemblance to certain Polyzoa (g.v.). Lankester went so far as to call Phoronis the only solitary polyzoon. But Phoronis possesses, distinct alto.

gether from the body-cavity, a well-developed blood-system, containing a colourless serum in which float red blood corpuscles. No such organ is found in any polyzoon. This blood-system consists of an “artery” running on the anal side of the gullet to the level of the lophophore where it gives off right and left a vessel to each arm of the lophophore. From these a single vessel goes to each tentacle. This vessel at the base of the tentacle sends a fork to an outer or recipient vessel, which runs along the convex side of the lophophore on each side. The right and left recipient vessels pass downwards, pierce the lophophoral platform and unite on the

convex side of the oesophagus to form a single “vein” which below the stomach opens into the artery. The reproduction raises other questions. The eggs, after being shed, stick to the tentacles and are there fertilized by sperms from another individual. They complete the first stages of their development within the egg-membrane, from which they hatch out as peculiar free-swimming larvae known as Actinotrocha. This larva is provided with a ciliated forehead in which a large ganglion is embedded. There is an oblique wreath of ciliated tentacles behind the mouth by which it swims. There is a belt of cilia round the

hind end of the body in front of the anus. This larva after feeding

for a time and growing greatly in size, develops an intucking of skin on its under-surface, to which a fold of the intestine becomes attached. Suddenly (inside a quarter of an hour) this intucked area is everted, forming a finger-shaped process containing a loop of the intestine which gives rise to the body of the “worm.” The ciliated forehead is cast off, as are also the ciliated tentacles, but new tentacles which give rise to the lophophore of the adult are regenerated from their stumps. This larva with its extraordinary life-history has given rise to much speculation. We owe the clearing up of its real affinities to E. S. Goodrich and Shearer, who have shown that Actinotrocha is merely a modified trochophore, such as occurs in the life-history of the Gephyrea amongst the Annelida (g.v.). The typical trochophore has a broad preoral belt of cilia, the prototroch, and a slender postoral one, the metatroch, whilst a belt of cilia, the telotroch, encircles just in front of the anus. (E. W. MacB.)

PHORORHACOS,

a gigantic

extinct

Patagonian

bird,

allied to the Cranes and in some respects recalling the South American Cariama bird. About six species of the type genus have been discovered, the most complete being P. inflatus, with skull, mandible, pelvis, limbs and some of the vertebrae. The skull of P. longissimus is about 2ft. long and roin, high; that of P. inflatus is 13in. long, and this creature is supposed to have stood only 3ft. high at the middle of BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM The under jaw is THE SKULL OF PHORORHACOS the back. LONGISSIMUS, AN EXTINCT BIRD OF slightly curved upwards. The PREY

is high, and

laterally

strongly

compressed.

The

hooked vomer

upper

beak

is inconspicu-

ous. The quadrate has a double knob for articulation with the skull, and basipterygoid processes are absent. What .little is known of the shoulder-girdle points to a flightless bird, and so do the short wing bones, although these are stout. The pelvis has an ischiadic foramen. The hind limbs are distinctly slender, the tibia of P. inflatus being between 15 and 16in. in length. PHOSGENE or CARBONYL CHLORIDE, an ex

tremely poisonous, heavy gas, came into prominence during the

PHOSGENITE—PHOSPHORESCENCE World War

(1914-18), being used either alone or in mixtures

both for cloud-gas and shell-gas attacks.

779

precipitate of magnesium ammonium

phosphate, Mg(NH.)PO:

It has a nauseating, | 6H20, which is soluble in acids but highly insoluble in ammonia

choking smell, and, even in very small doses has very bad after- |solutions, and on heating to redness gives magnesium pyrophoseffects on the heart and lungs. Phosgene owes its name to the | phate, MegeoP:07. fact that it can be formed by exposing carbon monoxide and | Of the organic phosphates, triphenyl phosphate (CsHs)3PQOx, is chlorine to sunlight (CO+Cl=COCl), but it is now manufac- ! important, acting as a filler or “dope,” and as a substitute for tured by passing the two gases over specially prepared charcoal camphor. It is a colourless solid of m.p. 53° C and b.p. 245° C. catalyst (see CATALYsIs). Phosgene can be condensed to a liquid Pyrophosphoric acid, H,P.0,, is a tetrabasic acid which may which boils at 8° C under ordinary pressure; it is stored either in be regarded as derived by eliminating a molecule of water between steel cylinders under slight pressure or as a solution in toluene. ! two molecules of ordinary phosphoric acid; its constitution may It is very reactive chemically and is used in the dyestuff industry therefore be written (HO),OP-0-PO(OH)s. It may be obtained for the manufacture of intermediates. It also reacts rapidly with as a glassy mass, indistinguishable from metaphosphoric acid, by water to give carbon dioxide and hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric heating phosphoric acid to 215°. When boiled with water it forms acid): COCl.-+-H:02=CO2+HCl. (See also Carson.) the ortho-acid, and when heated to redness the meta-acid. After

PHOSGENITE, a rare mineral consisting of lead chlorocar-

bonate (PbCl).CO,. The tetragonal crystals are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooth, bright faces; they are usually colourless and transparent, and have a brilliant adamantine lustre. Sometimes the crystals have a curious helical twist about the tetrad or principal axis. The hardness is 3 and the spe-

cific gravity 6.3. The mineral is rather sectile, and consequently was early known as “corneous lead.” The fanciful name phosgenite is from phosgene, the old name of carbon oxychloride, be-

cause the mineral contains the elements carbon, oxygen and chlorine. At Cromford in Derbyshire it was long ago found in an old lead mine, being associated with anglesite and matlockite

(PbzOCl,) in cavities in decomposed galena; hence its synonym cromfordite.

PHOSPHATES, salts of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric oxide, POs or PsOio (Tilden and Barnett, v. inf.), combines with water in three proportions to form H;0-P.0; or HPO3, metaphosphoric acid; 2H2O-P.0; or H4P:07, pyrophosphoric acid; and 3H20-P.0; or H3PO.z, orthophosphoric or ordinary phosphoric acid. These acids each give origin to several series of salts, those of ordinary

phosphoric acid being the most important.

Orthophosphoric acid, H3PQ,, a tribasic acid, is obtained by boiling a solution of the pentoxide in water; by oxidizing red phosphorus with nitric acid, or white phosphorus under the surface of water by bromine or iodine; and also by decomposing a mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. It usually forms a thin syrup which on concentration in a vacuum over sulphuric acid deposits hard, transparent, rhombic prisms which melt at 41-7° C. After long heating the syrup is partially converted into pyrophosphoric and metaphosphoric acids, but on addition of water and boiling the ortho-acid is re-formed. It gives origin to three

classes of salts: M’H2PO,z or M”(H2PO.)2; M’2HPO, or M”HPOk;

and M’sPO4, M”3(PO.)2 or M’’”PO,, wherein M’, M”, M’” denote a uni-, bi-, and tri-valent metal. These correspond to HPO, in which one, two or three atoms of hydrogen, respectively, have been replaced by a metal. The three principal groups differ remarkably in their behaviour towards indicators. Those of the first type are strongly acid, the second are neutral or faintly alkaline, whilst the third are strongly alkaline and are decomposed by carbon dioxide: NasPO.-+CO2+H2:0=NaHCO3;-+-NasHPO;. The salts of the types NaH2PO, and CaH,P.03 may be obtained in crystal form, but those of the heavy metals are only stable when in solution. All soluble orthophosphates give with silver nitrate a characteristic yellow precipitate of silver phosphate, Ag3POx, soluble in ammonia and in nitric acid. Since the reaction with the acid salts is attended by liberation of nitric acid: NaH2PO.

neutralization, it gives a white precipitate with silver nitrate. Being a tetrabasic acid it can form four classes of salts; for example, the four sodium

salts NasP.07, Naz3HP.O7, NasHP.0;,

NaH3P207 are known. The most important is the normal salt, NasP20;7, which is readily obtained by heating disodium ortho-

phosphate, NasHPO,.

It forms monoclinic prisms (with roH20)

which are permanent in air. All soluble pyrophosphates when boiled with water are converted into orthophosphates. Metaphosphoric acid, HPOs, or more correctly HPO; as determined by vapour density (Tilden and Barnett), is a monobasic acid which may be regarded as derived from orthophosphoric acid by the abstraction of one molecule of water, thus HPO:—H:0 = HPO;; its constitution is therefore (HO)PQOs. The acid is formed by dissolving phosphorus pentoxide in cold water, or by strongly heating orthophosphoric acid. It forms a colourless vitreous mass, hence its name “glacial phosphoric acid.” It is readily soluble in water, the solution being gradually transformed into the ortho-acid, a reaction which proceeds much more rapidly on boiling. Although the acid is monobasic, salts of polymeric forms exist of the types (MPOs;)n, where 2 may be 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6. They may be obtained by heating a monometallic orthophosphate of a fixed base, or a dimetallic orthophosphate of one fixed and one volatile base, e.g., microcosmic salt: MH,»PO,=MPO;+H,0; (NH) NaHPO.= NaPO3;+NH;+H:0. The salts are usually noncrystalline and fusible. Their solutions on boiling yield orthophosphates, whilst those of heavy metals give a trimetallic orthophosphate and orthophosphoric acid: 3AgPO3-++-3H»O= AgsPOi.+ 2H3PO.4. Metaphosphoric acid can be distinguished from the other two acids by its power of coagulating albumen, and by not ‘being precipitated by magnesium and ammonium chlorides in the presence of ammonia. For perphosphoric acids, see PHOSPHORUS.

PHOSPHORESCENCE.

Physicists apply the word phos-

precipitants of phosphoric acid or its salts in

phorescence to the emission of light at low temperatures by certain substances (chiefly sulphides), after previous exposure to light or radiation of other kinds. However, common usage has made it applicable to the glow of phosphorus, or of the sea, or of dead fish or meat, or of wood, the “fox-fire” of forests. Phosphorescence of the sea or of flesh, wood, etc., is due to living organisms of various kinds and should more properly be called bioluminescence. Such light is the result of a slow oxidation of material manufactured by the organism. At least 40 different orders of animals contain luminous species, and also two groups of plants, the bacteria, responsible for the luminescence of flesh, and the fungi, responsible for the luminescence of wood. Either the fine strands of fungus mycelium, which penetrate the wood, or the fruiting body, the mushroom, or both, may be luminous. The luminous bacteria are so small that individuals cannot be seen by their own light, whereas natural colonies are easily visible. They may be cultured on artificial media and form excellent material for the experimental study of bioluminescence. They are not pathogenic to man but are known to infect living animals, giving rise to a natural luminescent disease of sand-fleas, shrimps

solution are: ammonium molybdate in nitric acid, which gives on

and possibly midges, which is eventually fatal. Luminous bac-

heating a canary-yellow precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate, r2[MoO3] (NHx)3POx, insoluble in acids but readily soluble in ammonia; magnesium chloride, ammonium chloride and ammonix, which give on standing in a warm place a white crystalline

teria may also live symbiotically in definite organs of fish, notably

+3AgNO3 = AgsPO, + NaNQO3-+ 2HNO;:,

Na,HPO.+3AgNO;=

AgsPOQ.+-2NaNO3-++-HNOs, it is necessary to neutralize the nitric

acid if the complete precipitation of the phosphoric acid be de-

sired. The three series also differ when heated: the trimetallic salts containing fixed bases are unaltered, whilst the mono- and di-metallic salts yield meta- and pyro-phosphates respectively.

Other common

Photoblepharon and Anomalops of the Banda islands. Some believe that the luminescence of all luminous animals, even the firefly, is due to symbiotic luminous bacteria, but this is far from

780

PHOSPHORIC

ACID—PHOSPHORUS

proven. The characteristic of the light of bacteria and fungi, which distinguishes them from all other luminous organisms, is its uniformity, shining night and day, independently of stimulation. Other animals light only when disturbed or stimulated. Phosphorescence of the sea is largely due to Protozoa, of which

the Radiolaria, Dinoflagellata and Cystoflagellata (including Noctiluca) are luminous. The latter two groups may develop in such enormous numbers that the sea is a pink or red by day and a vivid sheet of flame by night. Larger patches of light in the ocean are mainly due to coelenterates, jelly-fish, Siphonophora or Ctenophora (comb-jellies). The latter are often very abundant and show the interesting phenomenon of loss of luminescence in sunlight or on bright illumination by electric light. The luminescence again appears on stimulation after about one-half hour in the dark. The coelenterates contain more luminous species than any other group, the sea pens or pennatulids showing especially brilliant luminescence, which travels along nerves over the colony of polyps in the form of a wave.

Among the Crustacea, Copepoda and Ostracoda (Cypridina) contain many luminous forms while the schizopod and decapod shrimps possess members with true luminous organs or photophores, often consisting of lens, reflector and pigment screens, veritable lanterns on a microscopic scale, earlier mistaken for eyes. Among the worms, many marine forms and some earthworms are luminous. Among the echinoderms, only the brittle-stars (Ophiuroids) possess luminous members. Luminous molluscs are represented only by Pholas dactylus (a bivalve) and Phyilirrhoé bucephala (a nudibranch), together with the cephalopods, of which many members produce light. The cephalopods and deep-sea fish possess the most complex lanternlike luminous organs. Some centipedes are luminous, as well as the spring-tails, larvae of the fly, Bolitophila, which live in New Zealand caves, and beetles (fire-fly, glow-worm and Pyrophorus of the West Indies). All stages, including the egg, of some fire-flies are luminous. Balanoglossus and Pyrosoma, primitive chordates, are also luminous. The latter forms large colonies, floating near the surface of the sea, each individual possessing two luminous spots. Finally, mention should be made of the fish, both elasmobranchs and teleosts, containing luminous members. The deep-sea forms are often bizarre in appearance and sometimes contain the luminous organ on the end of a long process dangled before the animal as a lure for prey. The sponges, Alcyonaria, Bryozoa, mayflies, termites, spiders and Salpae contain reported luminous forms, whose light-production is, however, doubtful. The light of many phosphorescent animals is not produced by the animals themselves but by symdiotic micro-organisms. In general, luminous organs or regions are glandular and the luminous material may be ejected (extracellular luminescence) as a slime or a secretion, which in the squid, Heteroteuthis dispar, surrounds the animal in the sea water as does the black ink of other squids. Or the luminous material may be consumed within the photogenic cells (intracellular luminescence) as in the fire-fly and organisms possessing photophores. There is always a mechanism for supplying the organ with abundant oxygen, a fact which indicates that the light-production is an oxidation. Chemical Nature of Bioluminescence.—Knowledge of the chemical nature of bioluminescence has proceeded in four steps. (1) R. Boyle (1667) showed that fungi and bacteria required air (oxygen) for luminescence, becoming dark under an air pump and luminescing again when air was readmitted. (2) Réaumur (1733) and Spallanzani (1794) showed that water was necessary, that luminous cells could be dried and preserved, in some cases indefinitely, producing light whenever moistened. This fact proves also that bioluminescence is not a process in-

on boiling and behaves like an enzyme or catalyst; the former js

heat-resisting and the oxidizable body. These substances can te treated like any other chemical compound, precipitated by certain reagents and redissolved in appropriate solvents. They have been

partially purified but their chemical composition is still unknown,

Their isolation and synthesis is a matter of time and material (4) Harvey (1918) showed that luciferin, after oxidation to oxyluciferin,

could be reduced again, that the luminescent pro-

cess was reversible and of the nature of an oxidative dehydro. genation. It seems most probable that many organisms reduce the oxyluciferin formed during luminescence and thus re-utilize the material again and again, a principle that may in time be adopted in industry as the basis of an efficient method of illumination. Bioluminescence is often spoken of as “cold light.” This does not mean that no heat is produced, but only that very little appears as compared with the ordinary methods of illumination, which depend on the incandescence of carbon particle in flames or of wires through which a current is passing. The rise of temperature in some luminous animals is less than o-oor° C. The light is no different, physically, from any other kind of light—it will affect a photographic plate, can induce chemical reactions, and can be polarized.

There are no infra-red or ultra-violet radiations and

no penetrating radiations are produced. Hence the luminous eficiency, z.¢., the percentage of the radiant energy which is visible, is very high, nearly 100%. This does not tell, however, what the radiant efficiency is, ze., the percentage of the energy (chemical) of the oxidation process which appears as radiant energy; nor does it tell the overall efficiency, 7.e., the energy (chemical) in the food of the animal which appears as visible radiant energy. This is the efficiency in which an illuminating engineer is interested, and studies on luminous bacteria have shown that the overall efficiency of these forms is at least slightly and probably considerably greater than that of a nitrogen-filled incandescent lamp, when calculated from the energy of the coal necessary to run the dynamo that supplies current to the lamp. The Uses of Luminescence.—Regarding the use of luminescence to the animal, little can be said with certainty. In deepsea forms, living in perpétual darkness, it would seem that the organs must be lanterns for seeing or recognition, or for attracting prey. Many luminous forms live in light places, and it has been suggested that the luminescence may be a warning to scare away predacious animals which might molest the luminous forms, or a lure to attract creatures upon which the luminous animal feeds. These suggestions remain to be proven, but we do know that in the fire-fly the light acts as a signal or attraction to bring the sexes together. On the other hand, who can suggest the use of

light to a luminous bacterium, an organism gmin. in diameter with no nervous reactions of a higher form, or the use to a protozoan, living at the surface of the sea, blown hither and thither by the wind? One is forced to the conclusion that in their case the light is merely fortuitous, a chance phenomenon, accompanying some of the chemical changes in the organism.

It is well known tbat many substances produce light on slow oxidation (chemiluminescence) and the whole process of lightproduction by luminous organisms can be so perfectly imitated by such reactions in the laboratory that we may no longer consider it a mysterious or unusual phenomenon. BrsriocraPpHy.—H. Molisch, Leuchtende Pflanzen (Jena, 1904 and

1912); E. Mangold, “Die Produktion von Licht” in H. Winterstein’s

Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie, vol. iii., pt. ii, with bibl. (Jena, 1910); R. Dubois, La Vie et la Lumière (1914); U. Dahlgren, “The Production of Light by Animals” in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. clxxx. nos. 5 and 6 (Nov.—Dec. r9zs), and vol. clxxxi., nos. 1~6 (Jan—Dec. 1916); E. N. Harvey, The Nature of Animal

Light, with bibl. (1920); A. Pratje, Ergebnisse der Physiologie, vol. xxi. with bibl. (1923); Physiological Reviews (for 1924); Bull. Nat. Research Council, no. 39 (Washington, 1927). (E. N. H.)

PHOSPHORIC ACID (rN RELATION To Muscuzar CoNvolving definite structural peculiarities of the cell, as is the contraction of a muscle or the conduction of a nerve impulse, which TRACTION): see MUSCLE. will not occur after drying and moistening. PHOSPHORITE, in mineralogy, the name given to impure (3) Dubois, in 1887, found that the photogenic material could massive apatite (g.v.; see also PHOSPHATES). PHOSPHORUS, a non-metallic element, first known as be separated into two constituents, luciferin and luciferase, due to marked difference in chemical behaviour. The latter is destroyed | Phosphorus mirabilis or igneus. (Symbol P, atomic number 15,

PHOSPHORESCENCE

PLATE

oS

AER ANAS

at

Rete

BY COURTESY OF (5) E, NEWTON HARVEY, LIPPINCOTT CO.)

(1, 2) HANS MOLISCH FROM “LEUCHTENDE PFLANZEN”

LUMINOUS

(GUSTAV FISHER),

(4) E., N. HARVEY FROM “THE NATURE OF ANIMAL LIGHT"

ORGANISMS

1, 2. Colonies of luminous bacteria growing on culture media

4. A marine worm (Chaetopterus) 5. A sea-squirt (Pyrosoma)

3. “Comb” jellyfish or Ctenophore

6. A luminous squid (Watasenia)

(J. B.

PHOSPHORUS atomic weight 30-98.) It is never found free, but is widely and abundantly distributed in combination as phosphates (g.v.). It

is essential to animal and vegetable life, occurring in urine, blood

781 PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES

Allotropic Forms.—Many allotropic varieties of phosphorus

and tissues, and, as calcium phosphate, forming 58% of bones. The element was first obtained in 1669 by Brand of Hamburg, who kept his process secret. In England, however, Kunckel (1678)

have been described but it seems probable that the white and violet forms are the only definite allotropes (see ALLoTROPY), the Others being “solid solutions” (see CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL) of these two. The ordinary yellowish phosphorus is really white when

and Boyle (1680) attempted its preparation and happened to use

pure, and probably owes its slight colour to a trace of the violet

Brand’s method—urine was evaporated to dryness and the residue distilled with sand. In 1775 Scheele prepared it from bones, and

form. The so-called red phosphorus (used for matches) is produced by heating white phosphorus to about 230° C for 24 hours in an inert atmosphere, or to 300° C for a few minutes in closed vessels; a trace of iodine expedites the change. Commercially, the process is carried out in iron pots with air-tight lids which. however, have a long narrow tube open to the air; at first a little phosphorus burns, but this uses up all the oxygen, and the process

these still form one of the chief commercial sources of phosphorus. Degreased bones or mineral phosphates are treated with

sufficient sulphuric acid to combine with all the calcium, this sulphate is filtered off, and the filtrate is mixed with charcoal, coke or sawdust, dried in a furnace, and then distilled from Stourbridge-clay retorts at a white heat. The vapours are led

through malleable iron pipes into troughs containing water, where they condense.

white phosphorus by boiling with caustic soda, washed and dried.

The reactions are:

Ca3(POz)2 +3H:501=3 CaSO.+ 2H3PO, ; H3;PO,=HPO3+-H20 2HPO3;+56C

=H.+6CO-+

;

2P.

Modern Processes.—In more modern electrothermal processes, calcium phosphate is mixed with sand and carbon, and fed into a furnace heated by an alternating current. At the high temperature the silica of the sand displaces phosphoric oxide and forms calcium

silicate, and the oxide is reduced by the carbon so that the phosphorus vapour and carbon monoxide pass over into a condenser. The silicate remains as a liquid slag and is run off periodically. Other processes seek to produce calcium carbide simultaneously with phosphorus by using only calcium phosphate and carbon, thus

obtaining a more valuable by-product. In all cases the phosphorus is cast into sticks either under water or in water-cooled pipes. Properties.—Perfectly pure phosphorus is a white, transparent waxy solid, its usual yellowish appearance being due to traces of the allotropic “red phosphorus,” which is formed by exposure to light. At 25° to 30° C it is soft anc flexible, but when cooled it becomes brittle and shows a crystalline fracture. Crystallization from carbon disulphide or sublimation yields large crystals of regular dodecahedra or octahedra, but these fire spontaneously

unless protected from the air.

thereafter continues in an inert atmosphere with no risk of explosion. The product is ground under water, freed from unchanged

It is also soluble in sulphur

chloride, benzene, oil of turpentine, and liquefied ammonia or sulphur dioxide. It is a non-conductor of electricity, has density 1836 at o° C, melts at 44-3°, and boils at 287° giving a colourless vapour, the density of which corresponds to tetratomic molecules, P4; above 1,500° C the vapour density indicates dissociation to Ps. The elevation of boiling point of solutions of phosphorus in carbon, disulphide, and the depression of freezing point of solutions in benzene, both indicate Pu. The element is highly inflammable, taking fire in air at 34°, burning with a bright white flame and forming dense white clouds of phosphoric oxide; H. B. Baker has shown, however, that in perfectly dry air or oxygen it can be distilled unchanged. (See Dryness, CHEMICAL.) When exposed to air which has not been excessively dried, a stick of phosphorus undergoes slow combustion, as shown by the phosphorescence visible in the dark. In pure oxygen, however, this phosphorescence is not exhibited unless the gas pressure is reduced or the temperature raised; similarly, in compressed air the phosphorescence ceases when a certain pressure is reached. Moreover, the presence of certain

substances (e.g., Cl, Br, I, NHs, N20, NO, H2S, SOs, CHi, C:a)

The same form is also produced by submitting ordinary phospho-

rus to the silent electric discharge, to sunlight or to ultra-violet light. Red and white phosphorus difier greatly: the red does not inflame until heated above 350° C (hence its use in the match industry), is insoluble in all the solvents which dissolve the white, has a higher density (2-2), is stable to air and light, is much less chemically reactive (since its formation from white phosphorus is accompanied by liberation of much heat—3,700 cal. per 31 g.), and is non-poisonous. Hittori’s “metallic” or violet phosphorus is formed by heating phosphorus with lead to redness in a sealed tube, and removing the lead by boiling with nitric acid or by electrolytic means. It is also obtained by heating white or red phosphorus for long periods

at high temperatures, the proportion of violet phosphorus increasing with time and temperature. This fact, together with the circumstance that the density of red phosphorus continually increases with the duration and intensity of Its heating, suggests that the red form is only an intermediate stage in the production of the violet. (See above.) This variety forms lustrous, heavy, nearly black, minute rhombohedra, A scarlet form was obtained by R. Schenk in 1905, and in 1921r, P. W. Bridgman described a black graphitic variety which was obtained by heating ordinary phosphorus at 200° C under a pressure of 12,000 atmos,, and which was incombustible, very dense, and conducted electricity.

Bridgman obtained also another modification of white phosphorus, with a transition point at —76-9° C under atmospheric pressure. The relationships of these forms to white and violet phosphorus are indefinite. The various forms are probably polymerides, for the red phosphorus is at least as complex as Ps. whereas the white is Py. Smits postulates two forms Pa and Pg as the basis of all varieties, and, as many of the conversions are very slow, the equilibria involved are probably complex. Phosphine (phosphoretted hydrogen), PH3, a gas formed in the putrefaction of organic matter containing phosphorus,

was

first obtained (Gengembre, 1789) by the action of potash on phosphorus; this was spontaneously inflammable, whereas Davy obtained a hydride which was not spontaneously inflammable by heating phosphorous acid. In 1835 Le Verrier showed that the two gases were essentially identical, and that the inflammability was due to traces of another hydride, P.2Hy. When caustic alkalis are boiled with phosphorus, the impure gas is obtained, and it also

results from the action of water on calcium phosphide (unless

entirely inhibits the phosphorescence. During the process, oxygen is slightly ionized and traces of ozone are formed. Some of the phenomena accompanying phosphorescence have been ascribed to the oxidation of the trioxide. A very complete bibliography of investigations is given by W. E. Downey (J. Chem. Soc., 1924, 125, p. 349), and H. J. Emeléus (ibid., 1926, p. 1336; 1927, p.

this is very pure), but the pure PH; may be obtained by heating phosphonium iodide with caustic potash. It is a colourless, very poisonous gas, with an offensive odour like that of rotting fish; it can be liquefied at —86° C and solidified at —133°. It is only slightly soluble in water, burns with a luminous flame, fires spontaneously in air at about 100°, and combines violently with oxygen

bines directly with the halogens, sulphur and selenium, and most metals burn in its vapour forming phosphides. When very finely

hydrogen and forms the phosphide. It forms double compounds such as PH;,2BF; and 2PHy;,SiCk, gives phosphonium salts, PH,X, with the halogen acids, and decomposes to its elements

788; 1928, p. 628) gives a further discussion of the inhibition and of the ultra-violet spectrum of the glow. Phosphorus com-

divided it decomposes water, giving hydrogen phosphide, and when boiled with water it gives hypophosphorous acid in addition;

slow oxidation of wet phosphorus yields hypophosphoric acid,

and the halogens.

When passed over heated metals, it liberates

when heated out of contact with air, The hydride PHa can be condensed as a liquid if the impure gas (above) is passed through U-tubes in a freezing mixture. It boils at 57°-58° C, and above

PHOSPHORUS

782

this temperature it breaks down to P4H, which also results when it is exposed to light or left in contact with hydrochloric acid. The hydride PH; is a solid obtained by the action of phosphorus trichloride on PH3, or of water on phosphorus di-iodide. PHOSPHONIC

SALTS AND

OXIDES

Phosphonium Salts.—The chloride, PH,Cl, large transparent cubes can be obtained by direct combination of phosphine and hydrogen chloride at —30° C but decomposes on rise of temperature. The bromide may be prepared similarly or by heating phosphorus with hydrobromic acid at r1o° in sealed tubes; it is unstable in air and is decomposed by water. The iodide is readily obtained by mixing phosphorus and iodine in carbon disulphide in a retort, distilling off the solvent, adding the requisite quantity of water and subliming the iodide: 51+9P+16H,0 = 5PH.I+4HsPQ,. Caustic alkali or more water decomposes it to phosphine and iodide or hydriodic acid. Just as amines (g.v.) are derivatives of ammonia, so phosphine gives rise to primary, secondary and tertiary phosphines, and organic phosphonium bases correspond to phosphonium salts. The primary and secondary phosphines, RPH» and R2PH, are formed when alkyl iodides are heated with phosphonium iodide and zinc oxide to 150° C, the reaction mixture is treated with water, whereby the primary phosphine is obtained, and the secondary phosphine is liberated from its hydriodide by caustic soda. The tertiary phosphines and quaternary phosphonium salts are formed by the same reaction at higher temperatures (180° C) and without the use of zinc oxide. The primary and secondary phosphines are

phorus

vapour

are

probably

due

to this

oxide.

Phosphorus

tetroxide, PeOz or better (PO2), since its molecular complexity jg

not certain, is obtained

(see col. 1) as lustrous, deliquescent

crystals; it is mot the anhydride of hypophosphoric acid (see

below), for water decomposes it to phosphorus and phosphoric acids. Phosphoric oxide, phosphoric anhydride (loosely termed

“pentoxide”), is PsOio even at very high temperatures; it is ob.

tained by the burning of phosphorus in excess of air or oxygen

as a soft flocculent powder which sublimes to transparent mono.

clinic crystals. It reacts violently with water and can be reduced to the element by heating with carbon. Acids.—Hypophosphorous and hypophosphoric acids, H,PoQ, and H4P2O. (or H2PO3), have no known anhydrides; phosphorous

acid, H3PQO3, is derived from P,Og; meta-, pyro- and ortho. phosphoric acids are derived from PsOyo and are described under

PHOSPHATES; perphosphoric acids, HsPOs and H,P.Os are also known. Hypophosphorous acid, H2PO(OH), is prepared as its

barium salt by boiling phosphorus with baryta water, removing

excess of baryta by passing in carbon dioxide, and crystallizing the filtrate; if this salt is decomposed by the calculated amount

of dilute sulphuric acid, the pure acid can be obtained, by careful evaporation of the filtrate under reduced pressure, as white crystals melting at 26-5° C. It is a monobasic acid and is slowly oxidized in air; on heating it gives phosphine and phosphoric acid. It is usually sold as a solution of sp.gr. 1-137 (about 32%) which is fairly stable. When warmed with copper sulphate solution it produces a red precipitate of the hydride, Cu:H, thus demonstrating its exceptionally strong reducing properties: its salts are also effective reducing agents. Phosphorous acid,

H-PO(OH)2, is formed from its anhydride, P.O, or by passing chlorine into melted phosphorus covered with water, the phosphorus trichloride being decomposed in situ. The crystals melt at 70°, are very deliquescent, and oxidize in the air; on heating they give phosphine and phosphoric acid. It is an energetic reducing agent and, although normally dibasic, it gives rise to organic esters of the type R3PQs. Hypophosphoric acid, Hs4P20g or HzPQ;3, occurs among the products of oxidation of phosphorus in moist air or in water; the solution is neutralized by sodium carbonate, and the sparingly soluble lead salt is made, and then decomposed by hydrogen sulphide; sticks of phosphorus immersed in copper nitrate solution are also oxidized to this acid by means of nitric acid. The aqueous solution of the free acid is stable, but it decomposes on concentration unless this be done in a vacuum, in which case the hydrate (H.zP,0., 2H2O) separates and can be dried below 50° to give the acid; this melts at 70° and decomposes. The solution Oxides.—Three oxides are well defined, viz., PsOs, P2Ox, PsO.0; does not readily act as a reducing agent. Owing to uncertainty as others (e.g., PsO and P20) have been described and also disputed. to the constitution, formulae such as PO(OH)2-0-PHO(OH) and Phosphorus oxide, POs, is a product of the limited combustion PO(OH)2 have been proposed; an ester (CH3)2PQ;3 is known of phosphorus in air; if the element is burned in a hard glass tube (Rosenheim, 1910), so the salts are probably best regarded as and a rapid current of air is passed over it, the oxide may be derived from the polymerized acid. Permono- and perdi-phoscondensed in a metal condenser and removed later by warming phoric acids are obtained from phosphoric anhydride or meta- or it. It sublimes in feathery crystals and melts at 22° to a colourpyro-phosphoric acids and hydrogen peroxide at o° C, large less mobile liquid of sp.gr. 1-936 and boiling point 173°. Vapourexcess of peroxide favouring the production of the di-acid. The density determinations indicate the formula POs; above about salts are also obtained by electrolysis of dipotassium hydrogen 300° in a sealed tube it decomposes to phosphorus and the tetrphosphate, a high anode current density increasing the proportion oxide. It is slowly oxidized by air and rapidly by oxygen (with of the permono-salt; K4P-Os forms good crystals. The two acids infammation at 70°) to phosphoric oxide; with cold water it differ in their action or iodides, the permono-acid liberating slowly gives phosphorus acid, but with hot water it reacts violently, lodine at once, and the other slowly (compare persulphates, see forming phosphorus, phosphine, phosphoric acid, and other SULPHUR). products; hot alkalis decompose it similarly, but cold dilute Halogen Compounds.—Phosphorus trifluoride, PFs, obtained alkalis form phosphites. Chlorine or bromine converts it chiefly by direct union of its elements, is a colourless, non-fuming gas. to POCI; or POBrs, whereas iodine forms the di-iodide, P-L, and which liquefies at —ro° under 20 atmos., solidifies at —160°, P,Qio; hydrogen chloride and phosphorus pentachloride react with and boils at —95°. It is comparatively stable, is only slowly it as follows: decomposed by water, and does not attack glass when cold. P.Og+6HCl = 2PCl;+2HsPOs; PrOg-+6PCls = 4PCl3+6POCI. Phosphorus pentaftluoride, PFs, results from combustion of the It combines violently with sulphur to give P.O.S, which sublimes element or trifluoride in excess of fluorine, or from the interaction as highly lustrous plates (m.p. 102°; b.p. 295°) and which is of arsenic trifluoride and phosphorus pentachloride. It is a readily decomposed by water to sulphuretted hydrogen and phos- colourless fuming gas of b.p. —75° and m.p. —83°, and is disphoric acid. Ammonia reacts to give the diamide P(OH)(NH2)o sociated by large induction sparks but not by heat (compare

colourless liquids (except methylphosrhine which boils at —14°

C) of unpleasant odour; they react neutral but form salts with acids, and are often spontaneously inflammable; nitric acid oxidizes them to mono- and di-alkylphosphinic acids, respectively, RPO(OH): and R,PO(OH). The tertiary phosphines tend to give derivatives of quinquevalent phosphorus, and therefore readily form addition compounds and are oxidized to phosphine oxides, RPO. The quaternary phosphonium salts resemble the corresponding nitrogen compounds, being stable towards aqueous alkalis but converted by digestion with moist silver oxide to the very strongly alkaline phosphonium hydroxide; on heating, they decompose to the phosphine oxide and a hydrocarbon: R4P-OH=R3PO--R.-H. The alkylphosphinic acids are colourless crystalline compounds, readily soluble in water or alcohol, and dibasic, whereas the dialkylphosphinic acids are monobasic.

and its ammonium salt. Phosphorus oxide has a peculiar garliclike odour and is very poisonous; the odour and toxicity of phos-

PCls and PBrs); it is readily decomposed by water (PF;+4H.0 = sHF-+HsPO,)

PHOTIUS and combines with ammonia to give 2PF;,s5NH3. Phosphoryl fuoride, POFs, is best obtained by heating powdered cryolite with 14 times its weight of phosphoric anhydride; it is a colourless, fuming gas of m.p. —68° and b.p. —40°.

Phosphorus trichloride, PCls, obtained by of chlorine over heated red phosphorus or yellow phosphorus in carbon disulphide tilling the product, is a colourless, mobile

passing a slow stream through a solution of and fractionally disliquid of sp.gr. 1-613

783

(NH:) or by heat to “phospham,” NH:P:N, a white infusible, stable solid; when PO(NH)(NH:) is heated it gives “phosphoryl nitride,” O:P:N. When ammonia and phosphorus pentasulphide react at a red heat they give a nitride, P3Ns, whereas if the pentoxide is used (in the presence of a trace of water) a series of

amides of phosphoric acid result: PO(NH:).(OH), PO(NH2) (OH): and PO(OH)(NH). The interaction of phosphorus penta-

chloride and ammonium chloride in a sealed tube produces a series

(at o° C) and b.p. 76°, and freezes at — 112°, As prepared above, of chloronitrides, (PNCls),, where 2 may be 3, 4, 5,6 or 7. These it may be contaminated with PCl;, from which it is freed by dis- give rise to a great variety of complex polymerized compounds

tillation from excess of phosphorus. Cold water gives hydrochloric and phosphorous acids, and hot water gives red phosphorus

by reaction with water. Therapeutics and Toxicology.—Various preparations of and other products. When diluted with hydrogen and led into phosphorus are used in the British Pharmacopoeia. The element liquid ammonia, PCl; yields NH :P-NHpe, which gives P2(NH); on is essential for the growth of bones in young animals, and hence heating; a similarly diluted mixture, when submitted to the its compounds are used in rickets. It is also efficient as a nerve electric discharge, forms the dichloride, PCL, an unstable fuming tonic in paralysis agitans, locomotor ataxia, impotence and liquid, boiling and decomposing at 180°. Phosphorus penta- nervous exhaustion. In some skin diseases, such as psoriasis, chloride, PCls, obtained by the action of excess of chlorine on chronic eczema and acute indurata, phosphorus is useful. The the element or its trichloride, is a pale straw-coloured solid, hypophosphites are recommended in pulmonary affections and which sublimes and dissociates on heating, but may be melted at are used in tonics, and the glycero-phosphates stimulate meta148° under pressure; the dissociation is repressed by excess of bolism. Dilute phosphoric acid is used as a gastric stimulant. chlorine: PCls=*PCls+Cle. Water effects decomposition rapidly Phosphorus is readily accessible in poisonous forms, e.g., in in two stages: vermin pastes and some matches, and is often taken either inPCl,-+H20 = 2HC1+POCl; POCh+3H,0 =3HCl+H;POQ,,. tentionally or accidentally. Symptoms of acute poisoning are The pentachloride is extensively used in organic chemistry, e.g., usually shown after some delay, with nausea, vomiting, and burn. ing sensations in the oesophagus, stomach and abdomen. Emetics for replacing hydroxyl groups by chlorine: and purgatives should be given at once to prevent absorption of R-OH+ PCI; = RC1+POCI;+ MCL. the poison. Doses of 3~5 grains of copper sulphate in water at Phosphoryl chloride, or phosphorus oxychloride, POC, may be intervals of a few minutes form the harmless copper phosphide. produced as shown above, or by the interaction of phosphoric The stomach should be washed out with warm water and then with oxide on the pentachloride or on hydrogen chloride: a 2% solution of potassium permanganate, and this solution 3PCl;-+ P20; = sPOCI; ; 2P:05-4-3HC1 = POCI;+ 3HPOs. should also be given as an enema. Oils, which are effectual in It is a colourless liquid of b.p. 107° and mp. 1°; with water it other cases of irritant poisoning, should not be given, for they gives hydrochloric and phosphoric acids, with dilute alcohol tend to dissolve phosphorus and retain it in the system; the old ethylphosphoric acid, C:H;-H2PQ., and with absolute alcohol French oil of turpentine, however, acts as an antidote in allaying triethyl phosphate, PO(OC:Hs)3. Pyrophosphoryl chloride, the toxic effects. When yellow phosphorus was used in matches, P2O3Cl4, is also known. Thiophosphoryl chloride, PSCls, is formed those engaged in the manufacture used to suffer from a form of by direct combustion of sulphur and PCls, by the action of necrosis, called “‘phossy jaw” in England; the red form now emsulphuretted hydrogen, antimony trisulphide or phosphorus penta- ployed is, however, non-poisonous. (A. D. M.)

sulphide upon P.O,

or by dissolving phosphorus

in sulphur

chloride and distilling: 2P+352Cl=4S-+2PSCls. It is a colourless

liquid (b.p. 125°), is decomposed by water to acids corresponding to each of the three elements, and gives thiophosphates with alkalis, e.g., PS(OK)s. Phosphorus tribromide, PBr;, prepared by passing bromine vapour (diluted with carbon dioxide) over phosphorus, or by mixing solutions of the two in carbon disulphide and distilling, is @ liquid boiling at 173° and resembling the trichloride chemically.

The pentabromide, PBrs, resulting if an excess of bromine is used in the above preparations, is a yellow solid closely resembling the pentachloride. Phosphoryl bromide, POBrs (mp. 45°; b.p. 195°), and thiophosphoryl bromide, PSBr3 (m.p. 38°), both resemble the corresponding chloro-compounds. The action of iodine and phosphorus when dissolved in carbon disulphide (free from sulphur) gives rise to a di-todide, PI, or Pol, (m.p. 124°), a tri-

iodide, PI; (m.p. 61°), and possibly a sub-iodide, P.I. Sulphur

SULPHUR AND NITROGEN Compounds.—Phosphorus

COMPOUND and sulphur

combine

energetically to form a series of sulphides, three of which are well defined, viz., PsSs, PiS; and PSs (see A. Stock, Berichte, 1908 et seg.) ; the first is sometimes used as a substitute for phosphorus in matches, and the last finds application in organic chemistry for replacing oxygen by sulphur. There is also evidence for the existence of PS,, PsS3, and possibly P.S.

Thiophosphates

(e.g.,

NazPSO3 and Na;PS,02) result from the dissolution of PSs in alkalis, whereas by melting it with the sulphides or chlorides of heavy metals, salts analogous to NasPS, are obtained, which are somewhat unstable in water and still more so towards acids. Nitrogen Compounds.—Phosphorus pentachloride reacts readily with ammonia to give PCls, sNH3 and thence PCls(NH2)2,

PHOTIUS (c¢. 820-891), patriarch of Constantinople (8538867 and 878-886). The way to public life was probably opened for him by the marriage of his brother Sergius to the princess Irene, sister of Theodora, who, upon the death of her husband Theophilus in 842, had assumed the regency of the empire. Photius became captain of the guard and subsequently first imperial secretary. The dissensions between the patriarch Ignatius and Bardas, the uncle of the youthful Emperor Michael III.,

brought promotion to Photius. Ignatius was arrested and imprisoned (Nov. 858), and upon refusing to resign his office was illegally deposed, while Photius, although a layman, received all the necessary sacerdotal orders within six days, and was installed as patriarch in his place. Ignatius, continuing to refuse the abdication which could alone have given Photius’s elevation a semblance of legality, was treated with extreme severity. His cause was subsequently espoused by Pope Nicholas in a manner highly offensive to the independent feeling of the Eastern Church, Photius felt himself the champion of Eastern Christianity against Latin pretensions; and when in 863 Nicholas finally anathematized and deposed him, he replied by a counter-excommunication. Meanwhile, the situation was suddenly changed by the murder of Photius’s patron, Bardas, by order of the emperor Michael, who was himself assassinated by his colleague Basil in the following year (867). The fall of Photius immediately ensued; he was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, a few days after the accession of Basil, and Ignatius was reinstated on Nov. 23. About 876 Photius was suddenly recalled to Constantinople and entrusted with the education of Basil’s children. On the death of Ignatius, probably in October 878, Photius again became patriarch. In 879 the legates of Pope John VIII. attended a synod convened at Constantinople, prepared to acknowledge

chlorophosphamide, which is decomposed by water to PO(NH) | Photius as segitimate patriarch, a concession for which John was

784

PHOTOCHEMISTRY

much censured by Latin opinion. But Jobn stood firm on outstanding points of diference, disowned his legates, and again excommunicated Photius. Photius ignored John’s action, but a

palace revolution

caused his banishment

(886)

to Bordi in

Armenia. He is said to have died there on Feb. 6, Sgr. Photius shows to no little advantage as an ecclesiastical states-

man. His firmness was heroic, his sagacity profound and farseeing; he supported good and evil fortune with equal dignity; and his fall was on both occasions due to revolutions beyond his

control. In erudition, literary power, and force and versatility of intellect he far surpassed every contemporary. The most important of the works of Photius is his renowned Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon (ed. I. Bekker, 1824~1825), a collection of extracts from and abridgments of 280 volumes of classical

authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. To Photius we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias, Memnon, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the lost writings of Arrian. The Lexicon (Aéiewr Zuvayuyn), was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. The only ms. of the Lexicon is the Codex Galeanus, at Trinity College, Cambridge (ed. S. A. Naber, 1864, with introduction on the authorities, critical commentary and valuable indexes). The Am philochia is a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus (ed. Sophocles Oeconomus, Athens, 1858). Other similar works

are his treatise in four books against the Manichaeans and Paulicians,

and his controversy with the Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit. His Epistles were edited by J. Valettas, London (1864). A large number of his speeches and homilies have been edited by S. Aristarches (1900). The only complete edition is Bishop Malou’s in Migne’s Patrologia. graeca, ci-cv. R. Reifzenstein (Der Anfang des Lexikons des

Photius, 1907) has published a hitherto unedited ms. numerous fragments from various verse and prose authors.

See Cardinal

(1867-69).

containing

Hergenréther, Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel

7

PHOTOCHEMISTRY

is that division of physical chem-

istry which deals with the chemical action of radiant energy on matter, and with the direct production of radiation by chemical reactions. The field of photochemistry might be regarded as being equally as extensive as the range of electromagnetic vibrations; from the tiny ultra-X-rays to the huge waves of “wireless.” Actually, limitations exist and photochemical reactions are considered primarily as the transformations of matter associated with radiations between and including the trans-ultraviolet and infra-red radiations. This range includes the visible radiations, and a band on either side of approximately the same

width as that covered by the visible radiations. The wave-lengths included are those between 1oup and r,o0o0ouu. The micron, u, a measure of length, is ro cm. or 10 mm., and the millimicron, Mi, is 10°? cm. or 10 mm. The direct production of radiation by chemical reaction is termed chemiluminescence. It is differentiated from the radiation produced in such reactions as combustion, by the absence of thermal equilibrium between the matter

and the radiation concerned (see RADIATION). Principle

of Photochemical

Equivalence.—Previous

to

about 1910, photochemistry had but one accepted generalization, the absorption lew, according to which only the light energy absorbed by a body is active in promoting chemical change. This is a special case of the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy may be neither created nor destroyed. Nearly a century after the first expression of this law, a principle of photochemical equivalence was put forward, in 1922, by A. Einstein. It is founded on Planck’s quantum theory (see QuanTUM THEORY) of radiation, according to which all exchange of energy as radiation between atoms and molecules takes place discontinuously by quanta of finite magnitude e =hy, where r is the frequency of vibration, k a universal constant, equal to 6-55xX 107%! ergs/sec.; € varies continuously in magnitude with the multiplying frequency v, but Planck’s # is an invariable quantum of action. The photochemical equivalence principle of Einstein states that in a primary photochemical process, the decomposition of one molecule requires one quantum of energy Av, or that one gram-molecule requires Nkv, where N is Avogadro’s number of gas molecules per litre, 6-06 X 10%, In his original derivation he

postulates a reversible reaction of simple unimolecular decom. position

AB+hv=2A-+-B,

the bimolecular “dark” reverse reaction giving the chemilumines.

cent radiation xv; the reaction was supposed to occur in a gaseous or dilute system. In a later deduction, this primary photochemical event was supposed to be limited to the excitation of an atom or molecule C+Ww=C*

the atom or molecule C being raised to a higher energy level.

It may be stated at once that this generalization is not so com-

plete or sufficient that all photochemical phenomena can be jn. terpreted by its sole aid. It has, none the less, completely changed the outlook, beside leading to improvements in the technique, Experiment and Technique.—Modern investigation of a

photochemical reaction essentially involves determining its quan-

tum efficiency, in the sense of Einstein’s principle. This requires certain elements of technique:—(a) a light source of sufficient intensity adequately monochromatized; (b) exact measurement of the energy absorbed during a given reaction period; (c) distinction of the primary photochemical reaction, if possible, from secondary dark reactions; (d) determination of the molecular “order” of the reaction involved, and analytical measurement of

the product of the photochemical reaction proper.

As to the first, there are not many available reactions occurring in light of the visible spectrum range. As visibility coincides fairly closely with the spectral distribution of energy in sunlight —a matter of natural selection—it is obvious that on the whole only systems stable in such illumination will be readily found, Much more frequent are photochemical reactions in the ultraviolet; and artificial light sources rich in these rays are most used

in laboratory research, as well as for certain industrial applications, The ultra-violet radiation from electric glow lamps is rela-

tively feeble and does not extend far to the shorter waves. Recourse has to be made to spark and arc discharges. The latter are generally more convenient. The three chief types used may be described as carbon arcs, magnetite and high-melting metal arcs, as tungsten arcs, and metal vapour arcs; of these, the mercury vapour arc in fused quartz is the most important. The

spectrum is discontinuous, and it is not difficult to secure approximately monochromatic light at several different wavelengths by the use of colour screens or ray filters. Unfortunately when the far ultra-violet rays are in question (less than 200 pp) there are no very satisfactory filters available, the best requiring the use of chlorine and bromine gases. When a high degree of monochromatic purity is required, the light must be dispersed and quartz monochromators employed, with great reduction of intensity. With regard to the other requirements, the measurement of the energy absorbed in a reaction is determined with a radiometer (g.v., such as a thermopile, radiomicrometer or bolometer) as the difference between the energy incident upon and

transmitted through the reaction mixture; the latter is usually contained in a vessel with plane-parallel quartz walls, and maintained at constant temperature. The distinction of the primary photochemical reaction, the determination of the molecular order and of ‘the quantum efficiency are then matters of interpreting

the analytical results for different periods of the reaction. The fundamental researches on photochemical equivalence were those of E. Warburg. They occupy in the modern era of photochemistry somewhat the position of the classical photochemical investigations by Bunsen and Roscoe in preceding years. Warburg introduced a convenient term, the quantum efficiency: this is the ratio of the effective photochemical equivalent ¢ te the ideal photochemical equivalent P. Both # and P are expressed in terms of the number of gram-molecules absorbing and decom-

posed by one gram-calorie of radiation of frequency v. When Einstein’s law holds ¢/P=1. Tabulated results of several reactions show that relatively few reactions confirm the Einstein relation, among which are some for which the efficiency is actually less than unity, but which give this value when extrapolated back

: to the start of the reaction. This procedure is justifiable when 4

PHOTOCHEMISTRY strongly absorbing product is formed.

On the other hand there ' ture as related to the emission and absorption of light, named,

are many reactions whose efficiency (¢/P) is much greater than unity, even to hundreds and thousands of molecules per quantum. Mechanism of Photochemical Reactions.—Although it is true that certain substances are more obviously photosensitive than others, a useful classification of photochemical reactions is not possible in terms either of chemical structures or of types of chemical reaction. This is particularly evident in the field of organic chemistry. The great variety of substances and types of reaction is illustrated in the following table: Sulphur | Allotropic change | in elements

Light Rhomb. == Amorph.

! Intramolecular change and isomerization .

Polymerization and depoly-

|

merization

Infra-red Fumaric acid ee a

H—C—COOH CuHio

Acetone

.

|

Ferric oxalate

.

Decomposition .

Aceticacid

CH,

Methane

2AgCl = Ag + Ch Silver chloride Silver Chlorine

Fe(CO)s =

|

Water

PbS

2Fe(G0O)

+

Ferrous oxalate

+

20,2

=

2CO:

Carbon dioxide

£PbSO,

Lead sulphide Oxygen Lead sulphate 2HI = HH + IL Hydriodic acid Hydrogen Iodine O Ck = COCh

Carbon monoxide

molecule, however acquired (and understanding by a molecule a multinuclear structure) will consist of:

Energy of rotation -+ Energy of oscillation -+ Energy of electron displacements. The whole energy, and the distribution af this energy, is governed by quantum rules, i.e., it cannot vary continuously, but can only assume a series of finitely differing values, or quantum states. The gain of internal energy of an excited molecule consists primarily in the exaltation of the electron system to higher quantum states, when the oscillation and rotation energies are also altered by the coupling of their periods with those of the electron system. The rotational and oscillation energies are mainly responsible for absorption and emission of infra-red rays. At present there is but slender evidence for direct intervention of these in chemical reactions. A primary chemical decomposition, i.e., one not involving collision with chemically indifferent molecules, might occur by such increase of rotational energy that the centrifugal force exceeded the chemical affinity. Similarly for an excessive increase of oscillation of the parts. Apparently the constitution of molecules is such that this cannot be effected either by direct infra-red absorption or by absorption in the bands corresponding to electronic displacements, but only at frequencies beyond the band spectrum. (A typical molecular band spectrum is illustrated in the article Banp Spectra, g.v.) The theory of such spectra is not yet entirely adequate to complete prediction of the distribution of energy in all cases. But certain conclusions are definite. The change in rotational energy on excitation is small enough to be negligible, so that it is quantum-coupled increase of oscillation energy that is critical for dissociation.

ERE A: R A EE AD m a A R EDE EAA oR r E a e

=e E ae A pe en i eae RN

(CH;)2CO+ H,O =CH;COOH+

!

Synthesis

CasH20

302 = 20; Oxygen Ozone

|Hydrolysis .

Oxidation

H—C—COOH

Anthracene => Dianthracene

|

| Reduction |

Maleic acid H—C—CO0OH

=

after its principal founder, the Bohr theory (see Atom), these results are explained as follows. The total internal energy of a

mmnm e

Chlorine

Phosgene

oe

The Dissociation of the Molecule—In the gaseous or in-

dependent state, molecules may be classed as heteropolar and homopolar or non-polar (see ELECTROLYSIS), the former having

To obtain a classification it is therefore necessary to search large electrical moments. In the homopolar molecules no such more deeply into the fundamental mechanisms of photochemical electrical dissymmetry appears. However, not only are molecules reactions. Every advance in knowledge of these will displace a | of all sorts of intermediate type known, but the polarity of one previous classification or system but will supply a better working and the same molecule depends on its environment. If a heterohypothesis. Ejinstein’s proof of his principle implied that the polar molecule, such as HBr, absorb energy, the increase of primary photochemical process is a dissociation of a molecule, |oscillation energy is small. An electron of the positive ion is raised e.g., into atoms. Thus in the combination of hydrogen, H:, and i to a higher quantum state, thereby inducing stronger, not weaker chlorine, Cle, in light to form hydrogen chloride, HCl, it was binding, and no dissociation, e.g., into positive and negative ions, assumed that the primary reaction was Clh+Av=Cl1+Cl. Now can be expected from the absorption of light. It is not impossible, the photochemical efficiency of the H:,Cl, reaction is very however, that an electron should be removed from the anion by great—it can amount to thousands of molecules of HCl per radiation, although spectra corresponding to the reaction quantum absorbed. This was explained by the conception of Cl © E cl secondary reaction chains (see subsequent section). Primary Chlorine Electron Chloride decomposition of molecules also implies a Atom Ion wave-length limit to a given photochemical reaction; because if the quantum, Ay, termed electron afinity spectra are not yet known. In such case absorbed be of less energy than the heat we should have dissociation of the molecule into a positive ion, of formation of the molecule, it should a neutral atom. and an electron, thus: be impossible to decompose it directly, and therefore, according to Einstein’s principle, (HBr)— H + Br + O. Qo the relation of photochemical yield ¢ to In homopolar molecules Franck suggests two types of linkage. the wave-length would have the form ES 1 DIAGRAM SHOWshown in fig. r. ING HOW PHOTOCHEM- In one, electrons are shared in common (covalency), ¢.g., in Hs Now cases are certainly known where 1cAL YIELD SHOULD and Q2; “such molecules cannot separate from the normal state the wave-lengths active in photochemical INCREASE WITH WAVE- adiabatically into two atoms, and the electron jumps associated with the formation and dissociation of these molecules cannot change are below the value corresponding LENGTH to the heat of formation. In fact, the existence of definite photo- be produced by radiation processes but only through collision.” chemical spectrum thresholds has scarcely been demonstrated. In agreement with this no point of convergence of bands has been A difficulty of exactly the opposite kind for the primary de- observed in the molecular spectrum of hydrogen. A second type composition of the molecule developed from the investigations of homopolar linkage is, however, of much smaller strength— of physicists on the energy required to make gas molecules sometimes termed van der Waal’s forces, i.e., akin to the attracfluoresce. It was shown that at low pressures a molecule of gas | tion between gas molecules and the chemist’s residual affinity can take up many times its heat of formation without decom- operative in molecular association. Here the molecule may take ET

A

Pa ten he a aak app vaarna ni eea mennan

e meee i e e e

posing. For example, iodine, I:, can absorb and re-emit as resonance-radiation an amount of energy five times its heat of . formation. On the modern theory of atomic and molecular struc-

up so much oscillation energy through absorption that it will separate into a normal and an excited atom. There is evidence that the halogen molecules belong to this class. The absorption

7386

PHOTOCHEMISTRY

spectrum of iodine, which is approximately represented in fig. 2, indicates that the shorter the wave-length, the smaller the interval between the oscillation-quanta, until a real convergence limit appears at about 5,000 A.U. with a strong continuous spectrum beyond.

The Angstrom

unit, A.U..=10°

cm.=o-1uu.

Bromine

and chlorine also show continuous spectra, of known wave-length limits, 5,200 A.U. for Bre and 4,800 A.U. for Cle. This con-

SOOOK

60004

FIG. 2.—DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A PORTION OF THE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF IODINE vergence limit seems to be critical for dissociation of the molecule; and it may be assumed that absorption of light of wavelength equal to or shorter than these convergence limits of the

band spectra will dissociate the molecule into a normal and an excited atom. Recent work indicates that the absorption spectrum of oxygen, Os, is similar to that of iodine but the continuous spectrum lies at a much shorter wave-length. Furthermore, the ultra-violet absorption spectra of HBr and HI during photochemical decomposition were found to be continuous. Hence it is concluded that these molecules also are directly dissociated into

atoms by light absorbed in this region. Reaction.—On

the basis of com-

parison of the absorption spectrum with actual photochemical behaviour, we have then a very important division of photochemical reactions into two classes. (This division was clearly suggested by J. Franck, “Elementary Processes of Photochemical Reactions,” Faraday Soc. Symposium, but more explicitly developed by R. H. Gerke, J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1927, 49, p. 2671.) In one class, the molecule is merely converted by absorption of radiation into an “excited” molecule,

AB hy A*B.

5 o

oO

;

Reaction

=

2

5

S

TA FF

Acti Ci ve asera eUa

Ou [4° a | - 2

of reaction

SES

h: g

I1,970~1,756|

1:04-

NH;

2,260-1,515|

2-10

O:

He+1/2

o

3-4 | Endothermic;

ry)...

CO+1/2 Q2= CO;

.

2

, Q CH; CHO +1/2 O; CHr CH;

OOH

.

3

,700 and

u.-v. O2.=H20

molecules

or

atoms

In experiments on the excitation

by

electrons

of

known

Velocity

(voltage), it was found that for a certain velocity of the electron a bombarded atom became excited and emitted radiation of definite wave-length. The system of the atom plus electron lost kinetic energy just equal to the quantum radiated. But conversely, a slow moving electron colliding with an excited atom might gain kinetic energy, the atom becoming normal without radiating. Such collisions are termed “rayless collisions of the second kind.” The same kind of rayless transfer of quantized energy was also found to be possible between atoms and molecules in gases. Cario and Franck showed that mercury atoms, excited by the resonance line A 2537, could transfer their excess

energy to hydrogen molecules, with production of “active” hydrogen, very possibly atomic hydrogen, according to the reactions Hg-+hr—=Hg* Hg*-+-H.—H¢g-+-2H. A considerable number of such mercury sensitized reactions have now been investigated by H. S. Taylor and others. The intermediate “active” hydrogen has been caused to decompose ethylene, C:H4, carbon monoxide, CO, forming formaldehyde, solid polymers, and methane. Some of these excited sensitizer reactions are here tabulated: we N

g

oD

9©

E-

S

EE

Active

H

AU.

8

A

< E Hg | Line Hg * Hg 5i

tie

Ss g ci

BS | @.

H:=2H. . .]| 0:=3/2 0: . .| He-+1/2 O.=H20. | N20; = N:204+ 1/2 O;

a

f | radiation, | ° S

i o

a Dfe

omt

~

sSg

© 2,536 2,536 2,526

Endothermic Exothermic j |

NO: | Band |4,600-4,000

Negligible

In both these “excited molecule” reactions, the chemical yield on the photochemical equivalent basis will very probably not agree with the Einstein equivalence principle, because the excited molecule may lose energy either by fluorescence or by ineffective collisions. Yet the primary event, formation of an excited molecule, is itself regulated by the photochemical equivalence. If, however, the absorbed frequency is equal to or greater than the

Atom + k Ion -+ electron Molecule -+ Avy = Atom*-> atom (excited)

©

1/2 N:+-

3/2 H:

gas

tion takes place with primary decomposition: eat effect

+)

O:

O3=3/2 Oz

helped to clarify their nature.

convergence limit of the band spectrum of the substance, absorp-

Cajon

n

X107), and since 300 volts equal one electrostatic

surface of the metal and on the polarization of the light. In 1902

Lenard opened up a new method of investigation by directing | attention to the velocity of the ejected electrons. He was able : to show that the maximum velocity of the electrons was inde- |

unit of potential, we have finally

gt a

y

eee 300€

me

—

—1) = hy—w.

PHOTOELECTRICITY

739

The equation as written here is more explicit than that originally | The energy given to the atom is now measured in tens of thous-

given by Einstein, and considerable research was needed to estab- | ands of volts or even hundreds of thousands of volts. and not in lish it, but essentially it was all implied in the original paper. The | tens of volts as in the case of light. It is to be expected that

succeeding sections indicate the main steps by which this predic- | different methods of investigation must be used to meet the tion was shown to be true and how its details were elucidated. | changed conditions, but besides this .here is a shift of the point Proof of the Einstein Law for Light.—The law proposed ìàj of interest. The amount of energy transferred to the electron is by Einstein connecting the energy of the photoelectron with the so large that the energy lost in getting free of the body as a whole is negligible in comparison, but on the other hand the large energy of the quantum enables electrons to be removed from even the innermost orbits of the atom. Radiation of one frequency can thus give rise to a series of electron groups of differCs rai ent energies, according to whether they are ejected from the outer | or inner orbits of the atoms. The electrons from the innermost T] orbits will have used up the greater portion of their 4v, and will therefore emerge with the lowest velocities, whereas those from the outer levels will have energies close to that of the quantum. ~PTO ELECTROMETER It will be realized that there is here an admirable method of inmeroes:

Ce iG

vestigating the inner structure

of the atom.

By studying the

energies of the different groups of photoelectrons and finding how much less these energies are than that of the original quantum. FROM MILLIKAN, “THE ELECTRON” (UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS) FIG. 1.-——MILLIKAN'S APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING THE ENERGY OF we can ascertain the orbit from which each electron comes, and PHOTO-ELECTRONS LIBERATED BY LIGHT OF KNOWN WAVE-LENGTH the general character of its interaction with light under given conditions. frequency is noteworthy, not only for its simplicity but also beThe general type of apparatus which is used in these investigacause it introduced Planck’s constant # into a fresh domain. It was seven years after Einstein had shown his theory agreed in its tions is shown in fig. 2. The source of the photoelectrons may general lines with Lenard’s experiments before it was established be either a thin foil on to which X-ravs are fired from outside the box, or a wire coated with radioactive material, which, as will be definitely by O. W. Richardson, K. T. Compton and also A. L. described later, is a copious emitter of photoelectrons. Above the Hughes that the energy of the emitted electron did increase prosource is a slit which allows a beam of the electrons to pass. This portionately with the frequency, and that the constant of proporapparatus is placed in an evacuated box between the poles of a tionality was approximately equal to the value of Planck's conlarge electromagnet, and on application of the magnetic field the stant # obtained by other means. Subsequently Millikan carried beam of electrons is bent round into circular paths. By this out an extensive research which established the relation so accurately that it is now considered to give one of the most trust- process it will be analysed into its different velocities, since the worthy values for %. This method is typical of the best method fastest electrons will describe the largest circles, and the slowest of investigation of the photoelectric effect of light and will be de- electrons the smallest circles. A record of the velocity spectrum scribed in some detail. The apparatus is shown in fig. 1, and may of the photoelectrons is obtained by a strip of photographic plate. conveniently be considered in two parts, as divided by the dotted This is frequently referred to as the focussing method since, as line. Cast cylinders of the alkali metals (sodium, potassium, lith- can be seen from fig. 2, the rays leaving the source within quite ium) were mounted on an axle in a highly evacuated glass vessel. a large solid angle are concentrated in one spot on the photographic plate. A reproduction of a photograph was taken recently The actual experiment is carried out by the part of the apparatus to the right of the dotted line, light entering through the window, in this way by Prof. H. H. Robinson. This type of apparatus does not give lines sharp on both sides and falling on the metal surface. Previous work had shown that reliable results could be obtained only when the metal had a clean, but only on the high velocity side, and a series of such lines can be fresh surface prepared im vacuo, and the apparatus on the left of seen on the photograph. These show the various groups of electhe dotted line consisted of various devices by which the cylinder trons ejected from gold atoms by the characteristic K X-rays of of alkali metal could be brought opposite the knife, which was then operated by an electro-magnet outside the tube so as to shave off the outer layer of the alkali metal, leaving a fresh uncontaminated surface. Supposing this to be done the cylinder was then rotated to be opposite the window and the actual experiment could begin. A beam of monochromatic light from a spectrometer passed through the window and fell on the prepared surface, leading to the emission of electrons which were collected by the gauze cylinder, on the right side of the apparatus, connected to a quadrant electrometer. If a small positive potential SOURCE OF ELECTRONS were then applied to the metal block, the electrons would arrive at the gauze with lower energies, owing to the retarding action of the potential. The maximum energy of emission could thus be measured by finding that positive potential V which just sufficed to prevent any electrons arriving at the gauze and communicating FIG. 2.—FOCUSSING METHOD OF ANALYSING COMPLEX BEAM OF ELEC. their charge to the quadrant electrometer. The maximum energy OAA P AE AEE EE A A E E E SAE SC a n

of the electrons is then Ve, where e is the electronic charge. Millikan showed to an accuracy of one half of 1% that, with each metal, the energy of the emitted electrons varied linearly with the frequency of the light, and that in each case the constant of pro-

portionality was the same, and equal, within the experimental error, to the values obtained for Planck’s constant by other methods. Photoelectric Effect of X-rays or ~-Rays.—The essential distinction between the photoelectric effect of X-rays or y-rays

and that of light lies in the higher frequency of the former radiations and in the correspondingly greater energy of the quantum.

TRONS BY REFLECTION IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD copper (Cu Ka). On the original photograph it is possible to distinguish no less than 13 groups, some of which are partially superimposed. All of these are due to the absorption of the same frequency radiation, and the difference in the energies of the groups is due to the multiplicity of the electron levels in gold. This method was first tried by Robinson and Rawlinson in 1973, and owes its development largely to M. de Broglie, Since the frequency of the X-rays used is known from crystal measurements, and the energies of the electron groups can easily be ascertained from the geometry of the apparatus and the value of the

LCE NAA amaaa a a

199

PHOTOELECTRICITY

magnetic field, it has been possible to verify Einstein’s law with considerable accuracy. The accurate measurements carried out by Robinson have confirmed the truth of this equation to be at least one part in 300. It should, however, be emphasized that the importance of the method is that it provides an admirable means of investigating the electron levels in the atom, and from the intensity of the photographi traces it is possible to estimate the probability of absorption of the radiation by each of the separate levels. Instead of using X-rays generated in the usual way, it is possible to employ the natural X-rays or y-rays emitted by radioactive bodies during their disintegration. These are similar to X-rays, only in most cases the frequencies, and therefore the energy of the quantum, are much higher. It was by obtaining photographs by the use of these rays that it was first possible to demonstrate that the y-rays were sharply monochromatic, and constituted a true characteristic spectrum of the nucleus. This method is particularly interesting in this connection since it forms the only practicable way of measuring the wave-length of y-rays. The ordinary crystal methods of measuring the wave-length of X-rays are dificult to apply as the wave-length is so short, and before

the photoelectric effect was understood only estimates could be made. By investigating the photoelectrons ejected from various metals by the y-rays, Ellis was able to ascertain the particular portion of the atom from which the electrons were being emitted, and then a simple measurement of their energies, coupled with our X-ray knowledge of the atom, immediately yielded the Ay of the y -Tays. An entirely different method of investigation is rendered possible by C. T. R. Wilson’s cloud track apparatus in which, by a sudden expansion, moist air enclosed in a suitable chamber is put in a condition of supersaturation. The degree of supersaturation is so chosen that in the absence of any nuclei no condensation occurs. Immediately after the expansion a flash of X-rays is allowed to pass through the chamber, and condensation occurs on the ions that are formed. If suitably illuminated these water drops can be photographed. The X-ray beam was limited to a narrow pencil down the centre of the chamber and five separate photoelectrons were visible. Each of the tracks of these photoelectrons shows the history of a separate absorption of a quantum of energy Av by the atom located at the head of the track. The electrons are ejected with such a high velocity that they can penetrate a considerable distance through the gas. Their path is marked by the ions they form in their passage. In the case of electrons formed by X-rays of lower frequency the speed of ejection is less. This is shown in photographs which reveal the greater tortuosity of the paths and the greater density of the water drops

along a track. The Compound Photoelectric Effect.—This is differentiated from the ordinary photoelectric effect of X-rays by che fact that the absorption of the radiation by an atom leads to the ejection of two electrons, and not one as in the other case. Its existence, although previously suspected, was first clearly demonstrated by P. Auger using the Wilson cloud track chamber method. The gas in the chamber through which the X-rays passed consisted of a small percentage of a heavy gas, such as argon, mixed with hydro-

gen. The argon is found to be responsible for almost the entire X-ray absorption and the small stopping power of hydrogen allowed the ejected electrons to traverse reasonably large distances and give good tracks. It might be thought that the double tracks of the photograph only show a normal photoelectric effect by two atoms so close together that the tracks appear to start from the same point, but these double tracks occur far more frequently than would be expected on a probability basis, and it is simplest to consider them to come from one atom by some slight modification of the usual process. It will be seen that the further facts support this hypothesis. If a series of such photographs are taken under ex-

actly the same conditions, with the one exception that the voltage on the X-rays (z.¢., the frequency of the X-rays) is increased, it is then found that, while one member of a pair of tracks increases

in length as predicted by Einstein’s equation, the other shows no

change. This must not be taken to show an exception to Einstein’; equation but rather that this second track is due to some process in the atom, admittedly excited by the primary radiation, but yet not directly depending on its frequency. The first action of the radiation is to eject an electron from the atom in the normal pho. toelectric way, and the second track occurs because the atom js

left in what is called an “excited state” that is capable of further changes.

In the article Atom it is explained how for numerous pur. poses we can picture the electrons in the atom arranged ina series of shells or groups, each characterized by a definite energy. The

process of radiation is held to be due to the removal of an elec. tron from an inner group and the subsequent filling up of the gap by one of the electrons previously in an outer group. Now in the compound photoelectric effect the primary effect of the X-ravs is to remove an electron from one of the groups of an argon atom, and in the majority of cases this will be from the innermost or K group. The argon atom is now said to be excited in the K

group, and a subsequent transition of one of the outer electrons into this vacant place will lead to the emission of one quantum

of the argon K radiation. Sometimes this radiation escapes from the atom, but it may be internally absorbed and never escape at all. In this case the argon atom will emit a second photoelectron whose energy, and therefore length of track in the gas, is determined by the frequency of the argon K radiation and not by that of the incident X-radiation. It will, therefore, not change when the frequency of the incident X-rays is changed. It is possible to secure a second and even a third repetition of this interesting

process thereby giving rise to the emission of three or four photo-

electrons from one atom. This phenomenon has been described as if an excited atom always emitted its surplus energy first in the form of radiation, but that, on occasion, this could be subsequently reabsorbed in the same atom. It is held by many authorities that it is rather artificial to imagine radiation to be emitted, apparently to exist independently of the atom, and then to be reabsorbed all inside the minute volume of the atom. It is maintained that it is simpler to state at once that an excited atom, that is an atom with greater energy than the normal, has at its disposal two distinct methods of getting rid of its extra energy, either by emitting a quantum of radiation, or by emitting an electron. There is no doubt that this is a difficult point, but a somewhat similar phenomenon occurs among the radioactive bodies, when, in the opinion of the writer, the evidence is strongly in favour of a true internal absorption of radiation. The phenomenon of radioactivity is due to a disintegration of the central positively charged nucleus around which are the electrons forming the rest of the atom. Frequently accompanying the actual disintegration, which involves the emission of a material particle from the nucleus, either the a-or {-particle, there is also an emission from the nucleus of very high frequency radiation called the y-rays. These are of the same type as X-rays, but of higher frequency. These y-rays are quite frequently absorbed in the parent atom in their passage out from the nucleus through the electronic system, and give rise to high speed photoelectrons. As some radioactive bodies emit a considerable number of different frequencies, each of which can be converted in either the K, L, M, N, etc. levels, it will be seen that a great number of photoelectric groups are possible. These may be investigated by the magnetic spectrum method, previously described in the case of X-rays, and illustrated by fig. 2. In this case, however, since the radioactive body is at one and the same time both the source of radiation and of the photoelectrons, it is merely necessary to place a wire coated with the radioactive material underneath the slit to obtain results.

The radioactive body used was Radium B, and the radiations have an average frequency corresponding to about 300,000 volts. The great complexity of the spectrum may be seen from this reproduction which only shows a part of the spectrum; to obtain all of it different magnetic fields would have to be used. The | sharpness and narrowness of the lines is noteworthy. The reason | fọr this is that, in this y-ray case, all the photoelectrons are due

PHOTOELECTRICITY

19A

to this internal absorption in the parent radioactive atom, and, | absorbed, and communicating all its energy to the electron. This since the radioactive material only forms the thinnest imaginable | quantum is not oniy characterized by its energy. it will also have layer on the surface of the wire, all the electrons emerge with their | momentum of amount Av, c. If we assume that the other causes full velocity. In the X-ray case, when there is external absorp- responsible for the distribution would only produce a symmetrical tion, photoelectrons are emitted throughout the body of the spread about the direction of the electric vector, we can say that source, and, while those coming from the surface will have the owing to the momentum of the quantum there should finally be an greatest energy and will form the sharp edge of the line. those average forward momentum of amount kv/c. This does shift

| | |

liberated inside the material can also get out, but will lose a portion the maximum forward by about the right amount; but according of their energy in the process They thus hit the photographic to some new measurements by Williams there is not exact agreeplate nearer the source and produce a long tail to the line. ment—the predicted shift is not large enough. Either some other This case of internal absorption is to some extent analogous to cause is at work or the electrons in the atom, which are moving the compound photoelectric effect with X-rays, and here there is forward at the instant the wave passes over them, have a preferevidence that we may regard the y-ray in all cases to be emitted ential chance of absorbing. This is an interesting point and seems but sometimes to be reabsorbed. On the one hand is the entire likely to shed fresh light on the details of the interaction of radialack of any evidence of any other form of interaction between the tion and matter. nucleus and the electronic structures, which makes it doubtful .o Another type of asymmetry has also been investigated. By assume it in this case. On the other hand it has been shown by Suitable arrangements a beam of polarized X-rays can be obEllis and Wooster that this internal absorption appears to obey tained. Suppose this is travelling along the direction of x, and the exactly the same relations as those found for normal external ab- electric vector in the polarized beam is parallel to the y axis. By sorption. If this view be substantiated by future work, we have taking Wilson cloud photographs close to the direction of the here an extremely interesting example of a photoelectric effect x-axis we can now find how the photoelectrons are distributed all occurring within the minute volume of an atom. in the yz plane. As before a distribution is found, but this time. The Direction of Emission of the Photoelectron.—A mat- as would be expected, it is symmetrical. The maximum number ter of great interest is to ascertain how the initial direction of occurs parallel to the electric vector and there appear to be very emission of the electron is associated with the direction of the few indeed which come off at right angles to this. electric force in the radiation. It is well established that radiation Number of Photoelectrons Ejected.—The discussion so far is some type of electro-magnetic disturbance propagated through given has centred round the elementary process of the conversion space in which electric and magnetic forces at right-angles are of a quantum and liberation of a photoelectron, and this process associated, both also being at right-angles to the direction of has been shown to be described completely by Einstein’s equation. propagation. (See ELEcTRIciTy.) It is to be anticipated that it Thus, having treated what happens when a quantum is absorbed, is the electric force which acts directly on the electron and wrests the question now arises how often quanta are absorbed. It is the it from the atom, so that we should expect the electrons to have essential peculiarity of the photoelectric effect that these two at least a large component of this motion in the direction of the points can be separated so completely, the energy of the ejected electric force. The effect of the magnetic force on the electron, electron depending only on the frequency and being entirely indewhen once it is in motion, will be to throw it slightly forward. pendent of the intensity of the radiation, whereas the number of However, it is scarcely to be anticipated that all the electrons will electrons ejected is directly proportional to the intensity. come out at exactly the same angle to the electric force, since In considering the number of photoelectrons set free it is simthere are many subsidiary effects which will tend to introduce plest to go at once to the conception of an absorption coefficient. variations and produce a distribution over a range of angles Suppose J ergs per sec. are incident upon each square centimetre instead of one unique direction. of a very thin slab of matter, of thickness dx, then the number This phenomenon is most easily studied in the case of the photo- ôn of photoelectrons set free per second will be electrons liberated by X-rays and y-rays, when the velocities are I considerable and the electrons have sufficient energy to penetrate OX, Heeg hv several centimetres of a gas. The most fruitful method of investigation is by the Wilson cloud track method, which has already where yu is called the absorption coefficient and is a characteristic been referred to. If a thin pencil of unpolarized X-rays is sent constant of the material and of the frequency of the radiation. If through a Wilson chamber and the tracks photographed, we can this is applied to a gas it will give exactly the number of tracks determine at once what is called the longitudinal distribution. The that would be observed by a Wilson cloud apparatus. In the case exact direction of the electric vector is always changing, but of of a solid it is usually rather tomplicated to deduce the actual necessity it must be always at right-angles to the direction of number of electrons that emerge, since the scattering and absorppropagation. If the cloud tracks are photographed with a stereo- tion of the electrons liberated inside the solid are difficult to follow scope camera we can count the fraction of electrons which are in detail. It is simplest to consider first the case of the X-rays and emitted with their directions initially within say 5° of the direction of propagation, between 5° and 10°, and so on, obtaining in y-rays, and afterwards the absorption effect of one particular this way a distribution curve. The general results are as would set of electrons in the atom, say the K or L electrons. The total

|

|

ET EE en ne

be anticipated.

Very few electrons travel near the direction of

propagation either forward or backwards, the greater number tending to go off more at right-angles in the direction of the electric vector. The distribution curve therefore shows a marked maximum for directions at right-angles to the direction of propagation. However this is not all, there is a small subsidiary effect which

seems to be of great importance. This maximum of the distribution curve is not exactly at right-angles to the direction of propagation, it is shifted a few degrees forward, so that rather more electrons go forward than go back. This becomes more prohounced as the wave-length gets shorter. While for light and soft X-rays it is not to be detected, it may amount to 10°, 20° or 30° for hard X-rays or y-rays. The primary cause of this asymmetry is to be found in the magnetic forces in the wave-front, but a simple description can also be given on the light-quantum picture. Imagine a quantum of energy kv impinging on an electron, being

absorption of the material is then obtained by adding together

the absorption of all the different sets of electrons in the atom. The first point to notice is that absorption, for example by the

K electrons of tin, does not start until the frequency is increased to a certain limit. This limit which is characteristic for tin is determined by the condition that the Av of the radiation shall be

just equal to the work necessary to remove a K electron to the surface of the atom; że., absorption commences with the production of photoelectrons of zero energy. From this point onwards, when the absorption is a maximum, it decreases steadily at first about as v3, and later, in the y-ray region, rather less rapidly. The attempt to extend these results towards the region of visible light meets with considerable experimental difficulties, but recently approximate values for the absorption by potassium vapour in the near ultra-violet have been obtained, which may

be considered as the extension of the preceding results. The number of electrons ejected by light engaged the attention

PHOTOELECTRICITY The , describing atomic processes in language and concepts used for

of the early experimenters from rather a different aspect.

experiments were usually carried out with reflecting surfaces _ large-scale phenomena, then inevitably a duality will appear of the alkali metals, and an interesting dependence of the number | Radiation must sometimes be pictured as waves, sometimes as of photoelectrons on the state of polarization of the light was | particles. How far-reaching is this duality may be seen in the fact

observed. If the light was incident obliquely and was so polarized | that electrons, and other material particles also, behave somethat the electric vector had a component perpendicular to the | times in a manner only explicable on a wave basis. Photoelectric Cells.—The practical application of photoelecsurface, the number of electrons ejected was found to be greater tricity to measuring light intensities is made by means of the photoelectric cell. In its simplest form this consists of a glass LIGHT SENSITIVE METAL DEPOSITED ON INSIDE OF bulb silvered internally, and on this inner coating is deposited a BULB AND TERMINAL FOR CONNECTION OF BATTERY very thin layer of some metal such as potassium. In the centre

of the bulb is arranged a collecting electrode supported on a wire

GUARD

RING

COLLECTING ELECTRODE CONNECTED TO MEASURING INSTRUMENT

BY COURTESY OF THE CAMBRIDGE INSTRUMENT CO FIG. 3.—PHOTOELECTRIC

CELL

than if the electric vector lay wholly in the surface. This phenomenon was investigated in great detail by Pohl and Pringsheim, who found the variation of the emission with change of wave-length of the light when compared on the basis of equal amounts of incident energy. When the electric vector had a component perpendicular to the surface they found a maximum occurred at a certain wave-length, which was not present with the other type of polarization. This led them to effect a division of the whole effect into a normal and a selective effect, the latter showing the maximum. The important bearing of this subject on the nature of light depends entirely on the surprising fact, expressed by Einstein’s

equation, that the velocity of the ejected electron is determined only by the frequency of the radiation, and is independent of the intensity of the radiation. This is entirely contrary to what we should expect from a wave motion, yet the phenomena of interference, and in fact the whole of ordinary optics, appear to show indubitably that radiation is a wave motion. This will be apparent if we imagine first a metal plate placed so close to an X-ray tube that the radiation is pouring on to it, and then removed so far away that the radiation is even difficult to detect. On the wave picture one would say that, in the second case, the electric vector in the radiation hitting the plate was very much weaker than in the first, and we would expect that not only would the number of electrons be less but also that the electric vector would be able to transfer much less energy to the electrons, and they would come out with much lower energies. Whilst the number of electrons is certainly less in strict proportionality to the intensity, the energy of the individual electrons will be the same in both cases. Weak or intense radiation, as long as the frequency remains constant, always gives the same energy to the electrons. This result is quite incompatible with our ordinary ideas of a wave motion, and the simplest way of expressing this is to notice how the alternative picture of light quanta explains the dilemma. If, instead of imagining the radiation to spread out from the source in waves, we imagine the energy to be emitted in bundles or quanta of magnitude ky then with intense radiation there will admittedly be more quanta traversing a body, but even witb weak radiation the few quanta which do arrive are still the same. They will naturally lead to the ejection

of fewer electrons, but when a quantum is absorbed it always volves the transference of the same amount of energy, and photoelectron will have the same energy as if the density quanta were far greater. Great difficulties are raised by any

inthe of at-

tempt to explain interference by a light-quantum picture and the

problem of reconciling these two different views has at present not been solved. A fuller discussion will be found in the articles

Quantum THEORY and Atom, where it is pointed out that prob-

sealed directly through the glass, and metallic connection is made to the potassium in the same way. A diagram of such a cell is shown in fig. 3. The cell is sometimes suitably mounted in a light-tight wooden box. The silver is removed from a certain area of the glass so as to allow light to enter into the cell. The collecting electrode is seen at the bottom of fig. 3. The whole apparatus can truly be described as a photoelectric cell, since, when light enters the bulb, electrons will be ejected from the potassium, which will charge up positively, and will be collected by the central electrode rendering the latter negative. To measure light intensities precautions must be taken to collect the whole of the electron stream liberated, since it is the number of electrons which is directly proportional to the intensity of the light. The method of doing this is to apply a negative potential to the potassium surface as shown in fig. 4, the collecting electrode being practically at the potential of the other end of the battery by connection through the measuring instrument. For

considerable intensities of light this may be a sensitive galvanome-

ter, but in most cases some type of electrometer, such as an or-

dinary quadrant electrometer or the special quick period quadrant designed by Prof. Lindemann, is preferable. The most sensitive arrangement is to measure the rate at which the electrometer charges up, 7.é., the rate at which the needle moves, but when it is possible the constant deflection method is far more convenient. It will be noted that while one terminal of the electrometer is connected directly to the collecting electrode, the other is connected to earth, and the constant deflection method consists in connecting a very high resistance, of the order of ro to 10,000 megohms, across the electrometer. The latter then measures the potential drop across this resistance due to the current through the photoelectric cell. An important precaution is to have a guard ring (see fig. 3), consisting of a ring of metal or silvering, in the position shown, and to connect this to earth. This prevents charge creeping over the surface of the glass from the high potential electrode to the measuring instrument. The general working of the cell is rendered far more regular by taking precautions

[he

x

FIG. 4.—METHOD

OF USING

ELECTROMETER OR SENSITIVE GALVANOMETER FOR INTENSE ILLUMINATIONS

A PHOTOELECTRIC

CELL

to keep it in a dry atmosphere, as a film of moisture on the surface of the glass renders it virtually a conductor. While a photoelectric cell constructed in this way gives a qualitative measure of the light entering it, it is certainly somewhat insensitive, and great improvements have been effected by attention to two points. The first is the correct preparation of the

light-sensitive surface—potassium in the case already described. It appears that the sensitivity can be greatly improved by the

following process. The potassium is carefully purified by disably both views are correct. The point is that, if we insist on | tillation, and is finally deposited by the same process inside the

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PHOTO-ENGRAVING

PHOTOGRAPHS,

“A POEM

IN SAND”

EXAMPLES

BY

JOHN

KABEL,

BY

OF A SUBJECT

1. 60 cross-line screen, used when

COURTESY

OF

THE

STERLING

REPRODUCED

ENGRAVING

BY

printing on the cheaper grades of paper,

HALFTONE

SCREENS

OF

DIFFERENT

3. 133 cross-line screen, used on super-calendared

TEXTURES and dull-coated papers

4. 175 cross-line screen, used when reproducing subjects containing fine

such as newspapers and posters 2. 100 cross-line screen, used on machine-finished

COMPANY

book paper

detail printed on coated paper

PHOTO-ENGRAVING cell. A little oxygen is then admitted, and a glow discharge passed

795

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f

well as the making of blocks for printing by typographic methods. It is a strange coincidence that the history of the printing art— potassium is left in a very sensitive colloidal state. The second | the art which secures records of the past and future progress and improvement is to admit a small amount of helium into the cell! d evelopment of other arts and crafts—cannot record with any instead of leaving it completely evacuated. The electrons leaving degree of accuracy its own inception, which fact also applies to the potassium surface and accelerated by the applied potential photo-engraving, the most recent addition to the crafts included now cause ionization by collision, and a greatly increased current in the printing industry. The first etched line blocks were made is obtained. The one objection is that the current now depends by Gillot, a Parisian lithographer, in 1859, when he took impreson the applied potential, as can be seen from fig. s. It is usually sions in a special ink from designs drawn on lithographic stones. safe to apply a potential of 200 These he transferred to a zinc plate, and, with an acid resisting volts, and at this point a change ink, rolled up the design, placing the plate in a mordant which of Iıvolt produces a change of etched away the bare metal, leaving the parts protected by the & = 2 about 1% in the current. Ys ink standing in relief, and to him is ascribed the development of v= A matter of great practical imz2 line blocks. By the same method, transfers from designs engraved og v= portance in the use of photoor etched into plates (intaglio), wood-cuts, type or drawings made w z electric cells is that they are not on transfer paper or drawn direct on to a zinc plate, may also be £ equally sensitive to all wavemade into printing blocks, At the Paris Exhibition in 1867 Gillot lengths. This can be seen from received an award for his work, but it was not until photography fig. 6, which shows in arbitrary BY COURTESY OF THE CAMBRIDGE INSTRU. was applied to the reproduction of illustrations that the fullest MENT CO. units the photoelectric effects in FIG. 5.—CURVE SHOWING HOW THE benefits of this speedy method of making printing blocks was potassium, rubidium and caesium CURRENT GIVEN BY A GAS-FILLED reached. By photography an artist’s drawing can be reduced or cells for equal amounts of inci- PHOTOELECTRIC CELL DEPENDS ON enlarged in proportion, a negative from the original drawing being dent energy of different wave- APPLIED VOLTAGE made to the size required, and photographically printed on to the lengths. The vertical scale is arbitrary in each case, and the zinc plate, previously coated with a light sensitive solution. The curves do not show the relative sensitivities of the three types of photographic method was first employed in 1872 by the son of cell. The ratio of the total sensitivities of potassium, rubidium Gillot, and the development of this direct method of reproducing and caesium cells as here constructed is about as 4:2:1, but the the original drawing soon caused the demise of the wood-cut. The invention of the half-tone process has given rise to long relative sensitivity for any particular colour depends on the wavelength; e.g, for light of 6,000 A.U., the order would be reversed, and heated controversy between present-day authorities as to who the caesium cell being most sensitive. A sodium cell can often be first reproduced photographs and paintings by this method. The used with advantage for light of a shorter wave-length since its difference of opinion, however, is largely due to a technical definimaximum occurs at about 3,400 A.U. For ultra-violet work the en- tion of the word, “half-tone,” and the particular method whereby velope is usually of quartz, as glass begins to absorb strongly. It the tones of an original picture were “broken up” in order that will be realized from these examples that a photoelectric cell can- it may be printed. In early experiments various methods were employed to achieve the end desired. Sometimes a negative was not be used for comparing dimade by photographing through a piece of gauze, or, photographic UT eA rectly the intensities of two beams prints of lines were made on a negative. It is not known who of light unless they are of the first employed the cross-line screen. The method now used is same colour, or, more accurately, probably the outcome of experiments conducted by a number of the same spectral distribution. of people. The uses of photoelectric cells Fox Talbot, of England, in 1852 suggested the “breaking up” are so manifold that a catalogue of the tones of a photograph by means of a screen of ruled opaque of them would be monotonous. lines, muslin, crépe or gauze, and from that date experimenters Briefly they replace the human in various parts of the world have been working on these lines, eye whenever quantitative measapplying their own particular methods. The successful working urements are needed; e.g., they of the process depends upon the use of a screen by which the tones are frequently used to measure or g of the original are represented on the photographic plate by means (ARBITRARY CURRENT -ELECTRIC compare the light arriving at the UNITS) I of “grain” or “dots” of varying sizes. In New York in 1875 W. AN earth from stars; also, many A. Leggo and his brother, Canadian lithographers, ruled lines on A E A photometers (see PHOTOMETRY) Ras a piece of glass through blackened collodion films, sealing two of depend on their use. The density | Neer eG ebb these (face together) with Canada Balsam; George Meisenbach, of a photographic plate may be of Munich, patented a process in 1882, and to him is generally found either by measuring the credited the invention of the half-tone process, he being the first COURTESY OF THE CAMBRIDGE INSTRUdiminution in intensity of a beam BY MENT CO. to put the process to practical use; while Frederick Ives, an of light passing through it, or al- FIG. 6.—CURVES SHOWING HOW ternatively may be put equal to THE PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT, IN American, was producing satisfactory work in 1886 by the use of the density of some standard POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM AND CAES- a sealed cross-line screen; and he, probably, is the “father” of the method which is now in common use. The Leggos’ method, of plate when each produce the same IUM CELLS VARIES WITH THE WAVEweakening of the beam. In either LENGTH OF THE LIGHT (THE 3 making ruled screen, was improved upon by Louis Edward Levy CURVES ARE INDEPENDENT) in 1891. In this instance the lines were etched into glass and filled case the essential is to have a quantitative measure of the intensity of a light beam, and for with a thick black pigment. Louis Levy and his brother Max were endeavouring to make cross-line screens in 1883. this purpose photoelectric cells are usually used. The invention and development of this process, however, can BIBLIOCRAPEY.—A., H. Compton, X-rays and Electrons, “Report on Photo-electricity,” Bulletin of National Research Council, Washington probably be summed up by stating that Fox Talbot in England (1921); H. S. Allen, Photo-electricity (1925); H. Robinson, “Photo- anticipated the half-tone process in 1852, although workers in electric Effect with X-rays,” Proc. Roy. Soc. A (1923); C. D. Ellis, other countries were working on similar lines, but it was not until “Photo-electric Effect with y-rays,” Proc. Roy. Soc. A (1922); P. the Meisenbach method was used that the pracess left its experiAuger, “Compound Photoelectric Effect,” Jour. de Physique et le mental stage. The characteristic of the latter method was to reet Radium (1928) ; P. Auger, “Direction of Emission,” J ee ét le Radium (1927). produce a picture represented by “dots,” to achieve this Meisenfor a few moments.

The oxygen is then pumped out and the

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PHOTO-ENGRAVING.

A photo-mechanical process of bach used a single line screen which was turned round during the

making relief printing blocks in line and half-tone. The term “process engraving” is frequently used in Great Britain and covers

exposure. His process was introduced into England in 1882, and the printing plates made were commonly known as “Meisenbach

Rnee a

the preparation of planographic and intaglio printing surfaces as Process Blocks,”

PHOTO-ENGRAVING

FIF THE MAKING

OF BLOCKS

In making any type of block, if the reproduction of an original drawing is to be successful, attention must be given to every stage of the work; the character of the drawing should be considered in relation to the special method by which it is to be reproduced. Originals in line, where light and shade are obtained by varying thicknesses of the line, are reproduced by a line block. For this purpose the drawing is made in pen and ink, each line of which must be solid and opaque, ż.e., the effect must not be obtained by grey lines or “washes” but each line must be solidly drawn in black ink. Photographs, wash drawings and paintings are reproduced by half-tone, ż.e., the tones of the original are reproduced by reticulating the subject by means of a screen which may be either grain or cross-lined. When photographs, especially of a technical character, are to be reproduced, it is essential that “retouching” of the

original be resorted to; this is of a highly specialized character, necessitating the emphasising of the parts which are to be specially brought out, throwing back the details which are not of such importance, and, not infrequently, eliminating the surroundings. This is done by artists who use pencil, ink, and frequently, aerograph Spraying in the preparation of an original for reproduction by photo-engraving. The Camera.—A specially constructed camera is used, its main features being its rigidity and long bellows to allow for enlargement or reduction. The front frame of the camera is firmly secured whilst the back frame containing the focussing ground glass moves in slots which keep it parallel with the front. The camera is supported on a frame on one end of which an upright board is fixed. On this is placed the original to be reproduced; it works in grooves so that it can be moved sideways to obtain the correct position. On the front frame of the camera is a section to which the lens is attached; this slides up and down to allow for the centring of the copy. It is necessary that the copyboard and the camera move in perfect unison during exposure, and precautions have to be taken to obviate movements in opposite directions through vibration. Special lenses, too, are required, and those known as anastigmatic are found best for photo-engraving. On the lens is a slot into which stops or diaphragms of peculiar shapes are inserted and which act In the same way as the iris or circular apertures used in ordinary photography. The stops used by photo-engravers have an important function to perfom, since they determine the shape of the “dots” and influence the final results. For all methods of direct printing the negative has to be reversed, 2.¢., left to right. This is done by passing the rays of light through a glass prism or mirror so that the image is first reflected on to the prism and from thence through the lens. Another method, frequently used in America, is to make the negative without the use of a prism and, after developing, strip the film and obtain a reverse. This method is not possible, however, when making negatives for colour printing. The reversing is necessary to allow for a positive impression of the design to be printed upon the paper. When reproducing colour work there is an attachment whereby “colour filters” are fixed to the lens. On the back frame of the camera are slots for carrying the dark slide which contains the photographic plate. When half-tone plates are to be made the screen is placed in the camera in front of the dark slide. Uiumination.—In photo-engraving, great attention has to be given to lighting to ensure that the copy is evenly and sufficiently illuminated. Whilst daylight is most effective, it is not always ‘possible to use it, therefore artificial lighting has to be resorted to; the usual procedure is to suspend two arc lamps from supports, one on each side of the copy-board, these being adjustable to meet the special requirements of the work to be reproduced. Photographic Plates.—Either wet (collodion) or dry (emulsion) plates are used, in certain classes of work the wet plate being preferred by some photo-engravers. LINE BLOCKS

When a negative of a line drawing which has to be made

into a printing block has been obtained a photographic print from it is placed on to a piece of metal, usually zinc, which is first thoroughly cleaned by polishing with water and powdered pumice, a felt pad being used for the purpose. The plate is

treated with a solution of alum and nitric acid and then coated with a solution, sensitive to light, made up of water, albumen ammonium bichromate and liquid ammonia. The solution js carefully poured over the zinc plate and placed in a whirler which

spreads the solution evenly over the surface. This is dried by

heat. The negative is then placed film side to the coated zinc plate and put into a printing frame with a plate glass front, a close contact being essential. This is obtained by means of screws or by using a vacuum frame. The negative and coated plate

(which are firmly secured in the frame) are then exposed to light

(usually electric), the time of exposure varying from two or three minutes to ten minutes according to the quality of the negative

and the intensity of the light. The negative and plate are then

removed from the frame, and the metal plate, after being slightly

warmed, is placed on a flat surface and rolled over with a special ink until it is evenly covered. It is then placed in a tray of clean water and the surface gently rubbed over with cotton wool. The albumen coating, where it has not been hardened by the action of light, is washed away leaving those parts which have become hard and insoluble by exposure to light adhering to the plate. When the clean parts of the zinc are thoroughly cleared, the plate

is dried by heat and any defective line retouched, after which the plate is dusted over with a fine powdered resin which sticks to the ink providing a great resistance to the acid with which the plate is to be etched. It is then dusted with a soft hair brush to remove the surplus resin, and subjected to heat which melts the resin, or, as it is commonly called, “dragon’s blood,” so that it runs slightly down the sides of the lines. When the plate is cool it is ready for etching, ż.e., it is placed in a bath made up of two oz. of nitric acid and 60 oz. of water for the first etch; but before doing so the margins and back of the plate have to be coated with a varnish which prevents the acid etching away those parts to be left unetched. Whilst the etching is taking place the mordant is kept in motion. When this is done by hand the baths are rocked so that the solution flows to and fro over the face of the plate, which is brushed during the process to keep the metal clear of oxide; machines, however, are now generally used for this purpose, and the acid is sprayed by means of air on to the surface of the plate. When the plate has been a short time in the bath it is removed, washed and cleaned and lightly wiped over with a sponge containing a weak solution of gum arabic, after which it is rolled up with ink, dried by heat, and another dusting of resin applied in four directions so that each of the four sides of the lines will be protected from the acid which is apt to “underbite” the lines. The plate is again heated, causing the resin in the ink to melt and run down the sides of the etched lines, and the operation has to be repeated several times before the necessary depth is obtained. The line process is occasionally used for colour work. The colours are generally made up of a number of “solid tints” or “stipple,” the usual method being to take “setoffs” from the etched “key plate” and place them on to another piece of zinc, “stopping” out or painting those parts required for the particular colour in which it has to be printed. Where stipple is to be introduced, shading mediums are usually employed. These consist of a sheet of gelatine, with the design of the particular grain, dot, line or stipple, standing in relief. This is rolled over with transfer ink, and placed face downwards on the plate, which has been gummed over on those parts where the “work” is not required, pressure being applied by a roller or squeegee to those parts of the “setoff” from the key plate which have to be printed in the particular ink. Each colour requires a separate plate which is then rolled up, powdered and etched in the usual way. Half-tone Blocks.—The half-tone engraving is the process by which full-tone subjects in monochrome and colour are reproduced. The negative is made in the usual way, but to provide the necessary reticulated surface the exposure is made through a

screen. This may be composed of regular grains (mezzograph),

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yellow plate. In the above, from left to right, the large area is an impression from the

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PHOTO-ENGRAVING or, what is most general, a series of lines running across each

other at right angles. The cross-line screen consists of two sheets of thin plate glass, ruled with diagonal lines of mechanical exactitude. These are engraved into the glass, each piece of glass being ruled at right angles to the other. The lines are filled with

a black pigment, leaving transparent spaces between.

The two

sheets of glass are placed face to face and sealed, the black lines

crossing each other and leaving square transparent openings through which the light passes before it reaches the photographic plate. If a cross-line screen is held up to the light it presents a “lattice work” appearance.

Walf-tone screens are made in various “gratings” of rulings. These vary from 60 to 400 lines to the inch, though for half-tone blocks it rarely exceeds 200 lines. The different rulings are used to suit the grade of work to be reproduced and the class of paper on which the illustration is to be printed. When printing on

cheap, coarse paper, such as “news,” a 60-line screen is usually used. The more open the screen, the more brilliant and great a contrast there is in the reproduction,

the easier it is to print.

The closer the screen, the greater the detail in reproduction. Blocks made with fine screens require to be printed on a highly finished or coated paper.

For ordinary “black and white” com-

mercial work, screens from 120 to 150 are used, and for fine colour reproductions, screens from 150 to 200. The screen is secured in a holder and placed immediately in front of the dark slide holding the photographic plate. The screen distance—an important factor—can be adjusted to suit the particular work in hand. When the exposure is made and the negative developed, it will be found upon examination that the tones in the original are represented by a large number of dots varying in size according to the tones contained in the original. The next operation is to place photographically a print from the negative on to a metal plate which, for half-tone work, is usually copper. The solution for coating plates for half-tones is different from that used for line work. It is composed of fishglue, ammonium bichromate and liquid ammonia, albumen occasionally being added. The copper plate has to be prepared by removing all grease and foreign matter. It is usual to heat the plate and rub it back and front with caustic potash, finishing off by polishing it with charcoal. The sensitive solution is then poured on the plate and placed in a whirler to distribute the coating evenly. The fishglue solution, or as it is usually termed, “enamel,” forms an acid resist. After “printing down,” the copper plate is placed in water coloured with an aniline dye, the enamel absorbing the dye. The plate is washed in water, after which the design becomes visible. It is then dried and subjected to heat, or, as it is called, “burnt in,” the effect being to increase the resistance of the enamel to the etching fluid. The margins and back of the plate have to be painted with asphalt or shellac varnish to protect those parts from the acid whilst etching. The plate is then ready to be placed in the etching bath, which is made up of a solution of iron perchloride at a strength of about 40° Beaume. The plate is left in the solution for a few minutes and then examined to see if the etching is proceeding evenly over the whole surface. The etching of the plate is continued until the fine dots in the higher lights are as small as it is possible to etch them, great care being taken that the acid does not underbite the “dots.” When the etching of certain parts has reached the stage when it would be dangerous to proceed further, they are “staged,” or stopped out with asphalt and varnish and the plate again immersed in the bath. A series of fine etching has then to be un-

dertaken, z.¢., stopping out with an acid-resisting varnish those parts which have been etched to their fullest extent, and applying a series of local etchings for the purpose of putting “life” into the plate. This is done by saturating a fine brush with the

etch and placing it on the area requiring such treatment.

A

proof is then pulled from the plate, compared with the original copy, and any necessary alterations made. When passed, the plate is “finished” and mounted on wood ready for the printer. When a vignetted block is required, the design and close sur-

rounds are protected with varnish and the extreme edges are

795

treated with acid so that the “dots” on the latter are reduced to the smallest point, gradually increasing in size towards the design. In this way, graduated results are obtained until the dots merge into the white paper without showing a sharp edge. When pencil drawings are to be reproduced, it is usual to make a “high light” negative, j.e., the high lights in the drawing and the paper on which it is made do not show “screen.” This is done in the making of the negative, one of two methods being usually followed:—(a) direct, when an over-exposed negative is made and certain stops used during the exposure which tends to make the “dots” in the high lights overlap and become solid, the other tones being brought back to their correct relation by manip-

ulative development; and (5) the indirect method, entailing the use of three photographic plates: first, a continuous tone negative is made of the original, which can be retouched; from this a positive is made through a screen; and from the positive a negative is obtained with the “dots” eliminated from the highest lights, which include the paper on which the drawing has been made. Combined line and half-tone blocks are frequently made for commercial purposes. This can be done either by making two blocks, one in line and the other in half-tone, cutting out the spaces in the line block and inserting half-tone plates which must be made to fit the space; or by making two negatives, one in line and the other in half-tone, stripping the films from the photographic plates and placing them in their respective positions on a piece of glass which constitutes the negative used for printing down on to metal. In this way the combined design is etched on one plate and at one operation. Colour Work.—When reproducing colour subjects by the half-tone process the blocks are made in the same way as halftones but the photographic plates must be colour-sensitive (panchromatic); and when making the exposure the light not only passes through the prism, lens and screen but also goes through what are known as “colour filters.” These are optically flat coloured pieces of glass held in a frame attached to the lens and as the light passes through the particular filter, only certain rays of light reach the photographic plate. A special colour filter is used for each colour negative. Thus, a negative only records the colour and its component tints of one of the fundamental colours of the spectrum. To make a negative for the yellow printing plate, a blue filter is used; for the red printing plate, a green filter, and for the blue printing plate, a red filter. The light, passing through the respective filters prevents the colours and tints not complementary to the inks in which the printing blocks are printed being recorded on the special photographic plate. As in the productiori of the half-tone plate, the ruled screen is placed in front of the photographic plate, but for colour work, a circular screen, which can be set to different angles, is used for each of the colour negatives. The angles of the screen must be different for each colour to prevent a “pattern” or “moire” effect taking place when the three colours are superimposed in printing. One of the colours has the screen angle at 45° from the vertical, and the others 75° and 15° respectively. The negatives are developed, printed down on to metal and etched in the same way as when making a monochrome half-tone plate, but much fine etching, demanding great skill, has to be done in the production of colour subjects. The “fine etcher” must possess a good knowledge of colour and its analysis so that the final results approximate to the original painting. He has to endeavour to rectify the short-

comings of the means taken to dissect the colours of the original and the inability te obtain photographically a true rendering of the colour values on the negative. This he does by a series of fine etchings, stopping out certain parts and continuing the etching by local application. This operation may have to be repeated a number of times, and many proofs from the plates puiled before the desired results are obtained. It is now usual to include a fourth colour when reproducing coloured subjects. This is usually printed in a grey or black; the “colour,” however, is not dissected in the ordinary sense of the term, although an amber filter is used. The fourth plate repre-

sents the whole of the tones in the original in their proper relation

796

PHOTOGRAPHIC

to each other, and becomes the key plate. The fourth printing allows for cleaner and more rapid working on the printing machine and at the same time provides a depth of colour and “quality” which, owing to the scientific shortcomings of the process, it Is not always possible to obtain. The plates are finished off in the usual way, mounted on wood and sent to the printer along with a series of colour sheets which show the shades of colour used in the proving. Hali-tone colour negatives are made either by the direct or the indirect method. In the first instance, each colour negative is made in the same way as an ordinary half-tone negative but the exposure is made through a colour filter in addition to the screen, thus recording on the panchromatic plate one of the fundamental colours and its tints and constituting, when developed, one of the half-tone negatives from which a block will be made to print in a certain coloured ink. The indirect method entails the use of three photographic plates for each colour. The first exposure provides a continuous tone colour separation negative. This is obtained by making the exposure through the colour filter. This full tone nega-

tive can be retouched to assist in rectifying colour values. From this a positive is made through the screen and the printing down negative made by contact with the positive. The half-tone process is applied to the preparation of printing surfaces for various methods of reproduction, including plates and cylinders for machine printed photogravure and photo-lithography. The preparation of the negative for the latter is similar to that followed when making half-tone blocks, with the exception that a negative which is to be used for printing by “offset” is not reversed. This is achieved by removing the prism from the lens. Extreme care has to be taken, when making a negative for intaglio and planographic printing, to see that the full range of tones are contained in the negative. It is not possible in these

processes to re-etch the plates in the same way as the photo-

engraver does when making relief printing blocks. The chief advantage of these methods of printing is that a rough surface paper may be used, and attempts are being made to produce relief printing blocks which will answer the same purpose. The printing of these special plates may be briefly described as follows: A filler of chromium is electrolytically deposited on a sheet of copper. The chromium-coated plate is floated with a

solution of albumen sensitized with ammonium bichromate. A high-light negative (the form of negative usually employed) is placed in contact with the sensitized plate in a pneumatic printing frame and exposed to light. After rolling up with litho ink, the plate is developed by washing in water and then dusted with finely ground bitumen, the ink and the bitumen combining during the subsequent process of burning-in to form an acid resist, The plate is then placed in a dissolving bath, the mordant being hydrochloric acid and glycerine kept at a temperature of 75° F, The action of the bath removes the chromium coating from between the “dots” or lines representing the design, and is continued until the bare copper plate appears, when it is transferred to a saturated solution of potassium cyanide. After a further washing in water, it is placed in a bath wherein silver is electrolytically deposited on the copper portions between the “dots.” A sponge saturated with benzol is then used to apply a powder composed of mercury and chalk to the plate; this latter amalgamating with the silver produces ink-rejecting areas, whilst the benzol removes the bitumen. resist. The printing plate therefore consists of a chromium-covered surface which accepts the ink, whilst the spaces between the “dots” or lines comprising the amalgam of silver and mercury repel the ink as the inking rollers pass over the plate. The ink and rollers used for this process contain a small percentage of mercury. It is claimed that Pantone makes possible the printing of half-tone illustrations on any grade or finish of paper, the plates themselves being practically indestructible, Another method of producing colour work from relief printing blocks to print on a rough surface paper is known as the “Blackmore Tintex Process.” The plates for this process are “deep etched” in a special way. It is probably along these lines that half-tone blocks for ty-

ART

pographic printers will be developed. Since most people have a decided objection to a glossy paper, which reflects the light ang strains the eyes, this will provide letterpress printers with a means

of competing with rotogravure and offset printers in produci

prints on a dull and uncoated paper in place of the highly finished coated paper which must be used if the best results are to he obtained from a half-tone block.

(See COLOUR; COLOUR PRINTING; COLLOTYPE; PHOTOGRAPHY:

PHOTOGRAVURE;

PRINTING.)

Brrocrarny.—C. G. Zander, Photo-Trichkromatic Printing (1896),

dealing with the theory of colour and the making of colour printing

plates; A. F. von Hubl, Three-colour Photography

(Messrs. A, W.

Penrose & Co., trans. by H. O. Klein, 1904) ; N. S. Amstutz, Handbook of Photo Engraving (1907); W. Gamble, Line Photo Engraving (1909), a practical handbook; J. Verfasser, The Half-tone Process (1910), with chapter on three-colour work; C. W. Hackleman, Com. mercial Engraving and Printing (Indianapolis, 1921) deals with all aspects of photo engraving and its allied branches: S, H. Horgan, Photo Engraving Primer (1921) ; contains concise working instructions

in line and half tone engraving; E. S. Pilsworth, Process Engraving

(1922) ; gives formulae, etc.; H. A. Groesbeck, Process & Practice of

Photo Engraving (1924) ; L. P. Clerc, diford Manual of Process Work (1926).

(J. R. R3)

PHOTOGRAPHIC ART. The modern tendency in photog-

raphy in the hands of both amateur and professional exponents is to employ the camera as a means of artistic expression. No

consideration is being taken here of the widespread applications

of photography PHOTOGRAPHY.)

in scientific and technical directions. (See It is more in reference to its position in the

realms of art that this article is written. The appeal to the eye is greater than the appeal to the emotions through any other

sense, and in this respect photography occupies a unique position to-day as a maker of pictures. Many thousands of individuals in all parts of the world are producing photographs, with the ulterior object of their appeal to the eye as pictorial representations of incidents of interest, Unfortunately, a very large majority of those who use the camera are not artists; in this way the prestige of photography as an art is apt to suffer. Photography can be regarded as an art in precisely the same way that any other graphic process can be regarded as an art when it is dealt with and conducted by an artist. The process is really a medium of expression, and the camera, lens and sensitive material merely the tools employed. The true artist who seeks to express himself can, within the limitations of his tools and material, do so in any medium that appeals to him for the purpose, and the measure of success that attends the result of a work of art is entirely the measure of the ability and inspiration of the artist. It is recognised that photography has limitations that are imposed by the apparatus employed. When these are recognised, the camera becomes a most facile instrument as a means of expression, and the main idea of picture making in photography is precisely the same as that which is put forward by the artist with any other medium. It is, in brief, that the individual with something to say is never inarticulate. He may find paint, or music, or the pen most responsive for his expression. Photography, with its remarkable ease of production, has solved the difficulty for many.

In 1840-1853, Daguerreotype and Calotype were very popular, and a Scottish artist, D. O. Hill, made a series of portraits in Calotype in 1844-1845, which are still regarded as remarkable examples of pictorial portraiture.

(See Puotocrapuy:

History.)

From that time onwards, a great variety of investigations and experiments were conducted in photography, and the work steadily progressed towards the simplification of methods. An outstanding development was the introduction of the gelatine process; dry plates were regularly used and the foundations of modern. photog-

raphy were laid. From this time onward the progress in both commercial and amateur photography became very rapid, as both the materials and the apparatus were being steadily improved year by year. Printing processes increased and cameras were simplified.

Colour Photography in Art.—The photography of coloured

objects received attention in the early stages of the history of

photography, when it was observed that the tones rendered in

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4. Silver-bromide

grains, before and after development

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RADIOGRAPHY]

X-rays. A considerable advance in the technique was made when double-coated film was introduced, a special X-ray emulsion being

coated on both sides of the film, so that the image was formed half on the front and half on the back.

It is customary to use

such films in combination with one or more, generally two, socalled intensifying screens. These intensifying screens consist of a layer containing calcium tungstate coated on a suitable support. The calcium tungstate fluoresces under the influence of

the X-rays, transforming a portion of the X-rays into light which is active photographically. The general method of working, therefore, is to expose the film in a cassette; that is, a holder in

which the film is pressed into contact with an intensifying screen on each side.

One of the great difficulties in obtaining radiographs of good quality, especially when photographing through portions of the body of considerable thickness, is

the presence of scattered radiation or secondary X-rays produced by the scattering of the primary X-rays in the tissues. Measurements have shown that the scattered radiation generally accounts for as much as threefourths of the entire density of a radiograph taken through the body, and since this scattered radiation does not contribute to the formation of the image, it naturally produces a great lowering of contrast and general loss of detail and quality. The best method of eliminating this is the use of what is known as the “PotterBucky” diaphragm, which consists of a grid formed of strips of lead foil pointing toward the source of the X-rays. This dia5.—DIAGRAM SHOWING USE phragm is placed between the FIG. OF POTTER-BUCKY DIAPHRAGM subject photographed and the film. In order to prevent its forming shadows, the diaphragm is moved during exposure, and under these conditions the strips of lead cut out much of the scattered radiation, which is not proceeding from the source of X-rays but is scattered in all directions, and thus enable the image to be formed to a much greater extent by

the direct X-rays coming from the focal point. (See fig. 5.)

For dental work the film is supplied in special packages to be held inside the mouth, usually with a backing of lead foil to stop secondary radiation and to enable the package to be moulded to the shape of the mouth. Dental radiography has been extended very rapidly, and radiographs of the teeth are among the most valuable guides to the operations of the dental surgeon. (C. E. K. M.) THEORY

OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The Sensitive Material.—If a photographic negative be examined under a microscope, it will be seen to consist not of a continuous homogeneous surface but of discrete, small silver grains occurring chiefly in clumps. (See Plate V., fig. 4.) These silver grains are derived from the structure of the original sensitive emulsion. This is shown in Plate V., fig. 3, where we see that the developed grains correspond in general form and position to the undeveloped silver bromide grains from which they were produced. If the emulsion is removed from a sensitive film and spread out under a microscope in a thin layer, it will be seen that the silver bromide is in the form of crystals, these being usually flat crystals,

807

to one of bromide in the absence of gelatine, the silver bromide formed will settle out in coarse flocks, but if a small quantity of gelatine be added to the solution, the silver bromide will be precipitated in a much finer form and will remain in suspension. In making an emulsion, therefore, gelatine is added to the bromide solution, and the mixture is brought to the proper temperature, then the silver nitrate solution is added, and the whole is heated. When first mixed, the emulsion by transmitted light appears of a deep ruby colour. As heating is continued, the colour changes, becoming finally a bluish gray. Examination of the precipitate by means of X-rays has shown that the silver halide is crystalline from the beginning, the changes in colour and absorption being due merely to an increase in the size of the crystals. As this increase in size proceeds, the emulsion gains in sensitivity, but the chief increase in sensitivity occurs after the bulk of the gelatine has been added. After the emulsion is set it is cut up by squeezing it through a sieve and then washed to remove the soluble salts. It is then further ripened to obtain the sensitiveness required. The sensitiveness obtained depends to a very large extent upon the particular kind of gelatine used, some gelatine giving high sensitiveness, while other samples, apparently of the same chemical and physical properties, will not give good sensitiveness however long the heating is continued. As will be shown later, this has been found to be due to a small impurity carried in the gelatine. The crystals in an emulsion vary very greatly in size, their size and distribution being controlled by the conditions under which the emulsion was precipitated and digested. The sizes of grains which occur in an emulsion are directly connected with photographic properties of that emulsion. When the grains cover a wide range of sizes, the emulsion is suitable for making negatives; it usually has a high degree of sensitiveness and a low degree of contrast. When, on the other hand, the grains are small and uniform, the emulsion has a high degree of contrast and a lower sensitiveness, such emulsions being used for positive film or lantern slide making. If we suppose that the same amount of photo-chemical product (latent image) makes either a large or a small grain developable, then, other things being equal, the larger grain contributes a larger amount of silver to the image and thus gives more density for the same amount of light action than a smaller grain. For this reason alone, emulsions containing large grains would be more sensitive than those containing small grains, but experiment has shown that this is not the only factor and that larger grains require less light action to become developable than small grains. Further, it has been shown that the seat of this sensitiveness is concentrated in specks in the grains, and the sensitiveness of the grain depends upon the presence and the number of these sensitive specks. Being different in nature from the silver bromide itself, it was suspected that the specks were derived from the gelatine, since some gelatines give emulsions which are much more sensitive than others. A material was extracted from gelatine which was identified by Dr. S. E. Sheppard with allyl mustard oil, which in ammoniacal solution becomes allyl thiocarbamide. Allyl thiocarbamide reacts with silver bromide, and the compound of the two in alkaline solution produces silver sulphide, so that the sensitizing specks may be ascribed to the presence of minute traces of silver sulphide on the surface of the silver bromide grain. The ripening process characteristic of the preparation of gelatine bromide emulsions may therefore be ascribed partly to the development

of grains of larger sizes from those of small dimensions and partly to the production of the sensitizing specks of silver sulphide on the surface of the grain. The exact action of light upon the silver halide and the nature the product which renders the grains developable is not well of 5). fig. V., Plate (See generally hexagonal or triangular in shape. w in. or less across; there are understood, although recent work is tending to define the issue These crystals are very small, complete solution great numbers of them in a film, several thousand million in a and to suggest that we are not far from the changes to silver square inch, and their size depends upon the way in which the of the problem. The exposed silver halide, which the “latent image,” as photography in known is development, in emulsion was made. the latent image has been a If an emulsion is made by adding a solution of silver nitrate and the problem of the nature of

808

PHOTOGRAPHY

subject of speculation from the earliest days of the science. The theories put forward as to the nature of the latent image may be roughly divided into chemical and physical: The physical theories include theories of disintegration and of depolymerization as well as theories of the formation of the image without involving any assumption as to its actual nature, such as the theories of molecular strain and of photo-electric emission of electrons. The latent image has certain definite chemical properties. It is normally stable, since it has been known to persist for many years. Its fundamental property is that of facilitating the deposition of silver in a reducing agent, such as a developer. It can be destroyed by powerful oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid or acid permanganate. These properties seem to call for the existence of some definite chemical individual, and it would appear, therefore, that the latent image must consist of some reduction product of silver bromide. Those which have been suggested are silver sub-bromide and metallic silver. The existence of silver sub-bromide is doubtful; the formula AgBr, has been proposed but it has never been prepared in a pure state. All attempts to prepare it have resulted in mixtures or solid solutions of silver bromide with metallic silver. While the theory that silver sub-bromide was the material of the latent image was accepted for many years, it is now generally agreed that the image consists of metallic silver in very small amounts formed by the reduction of silver bromide. When light falls upon a crystal of silver bromide, therefore, it produces a small quantity (perhaps a few hundred or a few thousand atoms) of silver, and provided this speck of silver is of sufficient size it will act as a nucleus and will render the crystal developable. The production of the silver appears to be greatly facilitated by the existence on the crystal of small specks of foreign material, presumably, from Sheppard’s work, silver sulphide. The mechanism of this action is still under discussion. Dr. Sheppard and his colleagues have developed a theory which they term the “concentration speck theory,” according to which the action of the sensitizing speck is to concentrate the energy falling upon the silver bromide and enable silver to be liberated at the boundary of the speck. F. C. Toy and A. P. H. Trivelli have suggested independently that the chief action of light is to increase the conductivity of the silver bromide, and Trivelli suggests that an electrolytic action then ensues as a result of which metallic silver is deposited in contact with the silver sulphide speck. K. C. D. Hickman and others have postulated that a sensitizing speck must be an acceptor for the halogen set free, and many mechanisms have been suggested for the reaction.

Development.—In the process of development, the bromine is removed from the crystals of silver bromide, which are transformed into coke-like masses of metallic silver. With some developers, the silver takes the form of the silver bromide grains, while with others the grain is entirely broken up and distorted and is merely replaced by an equivalent amount of metallic silver. (See Plate V., figs. 6, 7, 8.) There are many chemicals which will reduce silver bromide to silver, but in order to act as a developer it is necessary that the solution should have the power of turning exposed silver bromide into metallic silver and should not be able to act on unexposed silver bromide, since if the solution acted on the unexposed as well as the exposed grains, the whole film would darken, and we*should not get an image at all, Only a very limited number of substances have the power of distinguishing between exposed and unexposed grains of silver bromide, and there are therefore only a few substances which are suitable for use as developers. With the exception of ferrous oxalate and one or two other inorganic compounds which have fallen into disuse, all the developing agents used are phenolic or amino compounds derived from benzene or naphthalene. The chief developing substances are pyrogallol, or pyro as the photographer calls it; hydroquinone; and methylparaminophenol, which is known under trade names such as “metol” and “elon.” All of these developing substances are chemically related

[DEVELOPMENT

to benzene. It was shown by that in order to be at least two hydroxyl and one amino group

Lumiére and Seyewetz and by Andresen practically useful developers must contain groups or two amino groups or one hydroxyl attached to the benzene nucleus in the para

or ortho position; meta compounds have no developing power.

The three developing agents chiefly used are thus hydroquinone, OH

Q OH which is para-dihydroxybenzene and is made by the oxidation of aniline and the reduction of the quinone formed; metol or methylparaminophenol, OH

C)

CH3sNH

which can be produced by the methylation of paraminophenol or by various other less direct reactions; and pyrogallol, trihydroxybenzene,

OH /N oH

\ Jou which is produced by the distillation of gallic acid. In addition to these three, there are a large number of similar compounds which can be used as developing agents and for which advantages are sometimes claimed. In all probability, however, the three compounds given above will supply all the needs of the photographer. Two compounds which have some wide use, however, are

paraminophenol,

OH

Q

2

which is intermediate in its properties between methylparaminophenol and hydroquinone; and diaminophenol, or amidol, which is used for the development of papers. OH cu NH:

With the exception of diaminophenol, these compounds are unable to reduce silver bromide in neutral or acid solution, and in order to make a developing solution, alkali must be added to the solution of the developing agent. In the case of the aminophenols the developing agents are used in the form of salts of the bases; thus, metol is the sulphate of paraminophenol, and it is usual to employ the chloride of paraminophenol and of diaminophenol.

Enough alkali must thereforė be added initially

to liberate the base itself, which is usually insoluble in water, and to redissolve it as the alkaline phenolate. The most convenient alkali is sodium carbonate, and a typical developer would thus consist of pyrogallol with sodium carbonate added to it. As is well known, however, alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from the air very rapidly and would soon darken and lose its developing power.

In order to make the developer keep, a small

quantity of sodium sulphite is added to the solution. The sulphite protects the developer from oxidation and thereby enables it to retain its full developing power, although the sulphite, when used alone, possesses no developing power whatever. The essential constituents of a developer, therefore, are the developing agent—pyro or hydroquinone or metol; the alkali, which is generally sodium carbonate; and the preservative, which is sodium sulphite. In addition, it is usual to add a small amount of alkaline bromide, which will act as a restrainer and prevent

the development

809

PHOTOGRAPHY

DEVELOPMENT]

of unexposed

silver bromide, giving rise to

what is known as “fog.” The various developing agents behave somewhat differently. Suppose, for instance, that we make up two developers, one with

hydroquinone and the other with metol, and start to develop a film in each at the same time. In the metol developer the image will appear very quickly, and will appear all over the film at the same time, the less exposed portions which, of course, were

being developed with metol and hydroquinone. When a film is developed, it is only the grains of silver bromide which have been changed by the action of light that are affected by the developer. The grains that have not been changed are not affected. At the beginning of development, there are a great many exposed grains ready to be developed, and then as development

the shadows in the picture, appearing at the same time as the highlights. On the other hand, with the hydroquinone the image will appear more slowly, and the most exposed portions, or the highlights, will appear first, so that by the time the shadows have appeared on the surface of the film the high-

EXPOSED GRAINS

BU

lights will have acquired considerable density. If development is stopped as soon as the whole image is out, the negative developed in metol will be very thin and grey all over, while that developed in hydroquinone will have a good deal of density in the highlights. Thus, of these two developers we may say that metol gives detail first and then slowly builds up density, while with hydroquinone the detail comes only after considerable density has been acquired. It is for this reason that these two developing agents are used in combination; the hydroquinone gives the density and the metol the detail, and together they make a satisfactory developer. These differences in the behaviour of developing agents are | due to a property of the developer which is commonly known in photography as the reduction potential. The reaction of development may be represented by the following general equation :— NaR+AgBre2Ag+NaBr+R’ The sodium salt of the reducing agent symbolized by R reacts with silver bromide and forms metallic silver, the oxidation product of the developing agent, which is symbolized by R’, and sodium bromide. The reaction will go in either direction according to the driving force available, and, in practice, quinone, the oxidation product of hydroquinone, together with sodium bromide, will bleach a silver negative, transforming the metallic silver into silver bromide. Now, the driving force in the direction from left to right depends upon the reduction potential of the developer. This is opposed by the reaction in the opposite direction, which is dependent on the concentration of soluble bromide and of developer oxidation product in the solution, so that if the bromide be increased, the rate of the reaction will be lowered. It is thus possible to. measure the reduction potential of a developer by the effect of potassium bromide on development, as was originally suggested by S. E. Sheppard. A careful study of this was carried out by A. H. Nietz, who gives what are probably the most reliable data for the developers as follows :— Developer Ferrous oxalate

.

f

Relative energy :

p-phenylene diamine hydrochloride p-phenylene diamine hydrochloride . Hydroquinone (standard) . a e p-phenylglycine Hydroxylamine ; . Toluhydroquinone p-aminophenol (hydrochloride) . Chlorhydroquinone . . .

(no alkali) (alkali) . . 2

. -: Dimethyl p-aminophenol (sulphate)...

Monomethyl-p-aminophenol . . Diaminophenol .

(sulphate) . . .

0'3

o3 o4 I'O 1°6 2'0 2°2 6-0 7'0

Lo-o

20°0 30-40

The most widely used developer for negative making is pyrogallol. Owing to the fact that the pyro is changed during development into a substance having a yellow colour, some of which remains associated with the silver in the image, pyro tends to give a slightly yellowish or brownish image, which has very much greater printing power than the plain silver image. The yellowish stain is prevented from forming by sulphite, so that the more sulphite there is in a developer, the less colour the deposit will show. Pyro is, therefore, used only for the development of negatives, prints on paper or positive films in motion picture work

DEVELOPED GRAINS

FiG. 6.—DEVELOPMENT OF EXPOSED GRAINS IN A FILM WHICH IS HALF DEVELOPED IN ONE MINUTE lst column, at beginning; 2nd, after 1 minute; 3rd, after 2 minutes; 4th,

after 3 minutes; 5th, after 4 minutes; 6th, after 5 minutes

proceeds, these exposed grains are turned into grains of black silver, so that the number of developable grains decreases during development until at last there are no developable grains left, all those which can be developed have been acted upon, and the development of the image ceases. The rate at which the grains develop depends upon the number of exposed but undeveloped grains left, and as the grains are developed and the number of undeveloped grains remaining becomes less, fewer and fewer grains develop in each minute, until finally it is not worth while to prolong a development in order to get any more density. (See fig. 6. The growth of the image during development is referred to as a growth of density; that is to say, the density is a measure of

the number of grains of silver which are produced at any given point because these grains of silver, after the film has been cleared by the fixing bath, obstruct the passage of light through the film. The density of an image is measured in units which are based on the amount of silver which will let through 54 of the light, so that if only +4, of the light falling on the negative gets through a certain part of it, that portion of the negative is said

to have a density of 1. Similarly, when only zy}, of the light incident is transmitted, that part of the negative is said to have

a density of 2. The blackest part of a negative may have a density of perhaps 2, the middle tones I or less, and the shadows, perhaps y. (See fig. 7.) The difference of density between the darkest portion and the lightest portion of the negative is called its contrast.

| FIG. 7.—DENSITIES OF VARIOUS PARTS OF A NEGATIVE Ist division, shadows; 2nd, halftones; 3rd, highlights

Since the

contrast

depends

chiefly upon the density of the highlights, it grows during development just as the density does (See fig. 8.) It grows rapidly at first, when there are many grains to be developed, and then more slowly until, finally, when the exposed grains are all developed, the negative will not give any more contrast however long development may be prolonged,

and a continuation of development will result only in the production of fog. The final contrast which can be obtained depends upon the kind of emulsion used. The fast emulsions, such as the negative emulsions, give moderate contrast, but the slow emulsions,

PHOTOGRAPHY

SIO

such as those used for copying purposes or for making lantern slides, are especially made to give great contrast when develop-

ment is prolonged. (See fig. 9.) The temperature coefficient of development is about

2 for 15° F, although it varies somewhat with the developer. Thus, if the development time at 65° be 4 min., it will be about 2 min. at 80° F, and about 8 min. at 50° F. Tables and curves showing

[FIXING

crease of the swelling of the gelatine and consequent difficulty

of penetration.

A very important operation in photography is the washing of the negatives and prints in order to remove from them the chemicals of the fixing bath. If an exhausted fixing bath has been used, silver compounds will be present during washing, and it is

most important that they should be removed by complete fixation. The rate of washing depends largely upon the rate of diffusion

of hypo out of the film into the water, provided the water in contact with the material is continuously removed. In washing,

AFTER 2 MINUTES

AFTER 1 MINUTE

FIG.

8.—THE

GROWTH

OF

CONTRAST

AFTER 3 MINUTES

DURING

DEVELOPMENT

the relation between the time of development and the temperature are in common use in photography (fig. 10), which shows a curve supplied for use of X-ray workers giving the time of development for a standard developer at various temperatures.

After Processes.—After development, the undeveloped silver bromide is removed by immersion of the negative or print in what is called the “fixing” bath. There are only a few substances which will dissolve silver bromide, and the one which is universally used in modern photography is sodium thiosulphate, Na2S203, which is known to photographers as hyposulphite of soda, or more usually as “hypo”—the name hyposulphite of soda being used by chemists for another substance. Wet collodion plates were fixed by means of cyanide, which is a very active solvent for silver halides, but its poisonous nature and its tendency to attack the image has led to its disuse with gelatine plates. Sodium thiosulphate dissolves silver iodide only very slowly, and cyanide is therefore still used by photo-engravers who use the wet collodion process. If free acid is added to a solution of thiosulphate, it is decomposed and sulphur is precipitated. This can, however, be prevented by the addition of sulphite. An acid fixing bath, therefore, is preserved, from decomposition, by sulphite which also serves to prevent the oxidation of developer carried over into it. The developer which is carried over into the fixing bath is, however, alkaline, and consequently a considerable amount of acid is required in a fixing bath which is used for any length of time, since if only a small amount is present, it will soon be neutralized by the developer carried over. For this reason the acids used in a

60° 65° 70° TEMPERATURE

FIG. 10.—GRAPH SHOWING VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

at oll FIG, 9.—THE

GREATEST

MEDIUM SPEED PLATE

CONTRAST

WITH

SLOW CANTERN PLATE

DIFFERENT

EMULSIONS

OF

DEVELOPMENT

FOR

X-RAY

FILM

AT

the amount of hypo remaining in the gelatine is continually halved in the same period of time as the washing proceeds. An average negative, for instance, will give up half its hypo in two minutes, so that at the end of 2 min., half the hypo will be remaining in it; after 4 min., one-quarter; after 6 min., one-eighth; after 8 min., one-sixteenth; 10 min., one-thirty-second, etc. It will be seen that in a short time the amount of hypo remaining will be infinitesimal. This, however, assumes that the negative is continually exposed to fresh water, which is the most important matter in arranging the washing of either negatives or prints.

Reduction.—When

HIGHLY SENSITIVE FILM

TIME

75°

a negative is too dense, it is sometimes

reduced. By reduction in photography is meant the removal of some silver from the image so as to produce a less intense image. Thus, in the case of an over-developed plate there will be too much density and contrast, and the negative may be reduced to lessen this. In the case of an overexposed negative there may not be an excess of contrast but the negative will be too dense all over, and in this case what is required is the removal of the excess density. All the photographic reducers are oxidizing agents, and almost any strong oxidizing agent will act as a photographic reducer and will remove silver, but various oxidizing agents behave differently in respect to the highlights and shadows of the image. Reducing solutions can be placed in three classes:— A. Cutting reducers

fixing bath are those which are “weak,” so that a large amount of acid can be added without raising the acidity of the bath to a level at which sulphur is precipitated; the best acid for the B. True scale reducers purpose is acetic acid. The commonest hardening agent is potash C. Flattening reducers. A. The cutting reducers remove an equal amount of silver from alum, and a typical fixing bath therefore contains 20% to 30% of its weight of hypo, about 1% of anhydrous sodium sulphite all parts of the image and consequently remove a larger proportion of the image from the shadows than from the highlights of and of potassium alum, and 3% of 28% acetic acid. The rate of fixing depends upon the concentration of the hypo : the negative. The typical cutting reducer is that known as and on the temperature. It increases to a maximum with about | “Farmer’s” reducer. This consists of a mixture of potassium 40% hypo and decreases with stronger solutions owing to a de- ferricyanide and hypo, the potassium ferricyanide oxidizing the

REDUCTION AND

INTENSIFICATION]

PHOTOGRAPHY

silver to silver ferrocyanide and the hypo dissolving the latter compound. Another cutting reducer is permanganate. The permanganates are very Strong oxidizing agents, and if a solution of permanganate containing sulphuric acid is applied to a negative, it will oxidize the silver to silver sulphate, which is sufficiently soluble in water to be dissolved. B. Proportional reducers are those which act on all parts of the

negative in proportion to the amount of silver present; hence they exactly undo the action of development, since during development

SII

which the transparency of the developed image could be measured, and by means of this he demonstrated that within limits the transparency of the deposit varied inversely as the logarithm of the exposure.

In 1890, F. Hurter and V. C. Driffield (Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry, vol ix., p. 455, May 7, 1890) published a classic paper entitled “Photo-Chemical Investigations and a New Method of Determination of the Sensitiveness of Photographic Plates,” in which they studied systematically the relation between exposure, development, and the deposit of silver produced in the photo-

the density of all parts of the negative increases proportionally. graphic process. They first defined the photographic density D A correctly exposed but over-developed negative should be re- as being the logarithm of 1/transparency, or the logarithm of the duced with a proportional reducer. Unfortunately, there are no opacity, which was defined as the inverse of the transparency. single substances which form exactly proportional reducers, but Thus, if we have a light of intensity 7 incident upon a photoby mixing permanganate, which is a slightly cutting reducer, with graphic deposit, and J’ is transmitted, persulphate, which is a flattening reducer, a proportional reducer T (the transparency) =1'/T, may be obtained. O (the ope =I/I'=1/T, C. In order to have a flattening reducer, we require one which an acts very much more on the heavy deposits than on the light deD=density= logarithm of I/I' or —log I'/T. posits of the negative and which will consequently reduce the Hurter and Driffield showed experimentally that the density highlights without affecting the detail in the shadows. Only one D of a given silver deposit was proportional to the mass of silver such reducer is known, and this is ammonium persulphate. Am- per unit area contained in the deposit. This result was confirmed monium persulphate is a powerful oxidizing agent and attacks the by J. M. Eder and by Sheppard and Mees, but it has recently silver of the negative, transforming it into silver sulphate, which been shown by Sheppard and Ballard that the relation is only dissolves in the solution. It must be used in an acid solution and approximate and that there may be considerable departures from is somewhat uncertain in its behaviour, occasionally refusing to true proportionality with variations of exposure and development. act, and always acting more rapidly in measure as the reduction A deposit transmitting approximately one-tenth of the incident progresses. light, that is, having a density of 1, is given by about 1/10 mg. Intensification.—Intensification is photographically the oppoof silver per square centimetre of the film. The following table site of reduction, the object being to increase contrast. This is of relations between density and transmission will be convenient: done by the deposition of some other material on the silver image. A silver image, for instance, can be very much intensified by Transmission Density Transmission toning it with uranium, the reddish-brown uranium ferrocyanide 1/10 having very great printing strength and converting a weak nega1/20 tive into one having a great effective contrast for printing pur1/100 poses. Usually, however, intensification is performed by deposit1/1000 ing a silver, mercury, or chromium compound upon the image, Basing their studies on their definition of density, Hurter and and many photographic intensifiers depend upon the use of mercury. Experience has shown that mercury intensified images are Driffield exposed photographic plates for definite times to a not usually as stable as images produced by chromium intensifi- standard candle by means of a rotating wheel with cut-out sectors of various angles. The plates were developed in a non-bromided cation. The mercuric intensifier consists of a solution of mercuric developer, fixed, washed, dried, and the densities plotted on a chloride, a few drops of ammonium chloride or hydrochloric acid being added to the solution. When the silver image is placed in this, it reacts with the mercuric chloride and forms a mixture of silver chloride and mercurous chloride. The bleached | image, which appears white, can then be treated in various ways. || If it is developed, for instance, both the silver chloride and the !| mercurous chloride will be reduced to the metal and to every | part of silver there will be added an equal part of mercury. | i Instead of using a developer, the image may be blackened with ! i i ammonia, which forms a black mercury-ammonium complex | l | and produces a high degree of intensification. | DENSITY | { A very powerful method of intensification, used chiefly for | l l negatives made by photo-engravers, is obtained by bleaching with| l I mercuric chloride and blackening with silver dissolved in potas-

sium cyanide.

The use of the cyanide cuts the shadows very |

| I J

slightly at the same time that the highlights are intensified, so ' ete ene ened ere OCiee et that a great increase in the contrast of the negative is obtained. This is usually known as the Monckhoven intensifer. In the case of the chromium intensifier the silver image is | FIG. 11.—CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF AN EMULSION bleached with a solution of bichromate containing a very little | chart with the logarithms of the exposure time as abscissae and hydrochloric acid, bichromate being an oxidizer of the same type as permanganate or ferricyanide. The image is then re-developed densities as ordinates, as is shown in the accompanying diagram. and will be found to be intensified by the deposition of a (See fig. 11.) This shows what is known as the characteristic curve of an chromium compound. This intensifier has found increasing favour owing to the ease and certainty of its operation and the per- emulsion. There are three fairly well defined regions of the curve. Thus, from A to B we have the initial part convex to the manency of the intensified image. Sensitometry.—The first quantitative measurements of the log & axis, which may be termed the region of “underexposure”; result of the action of light on photographic materials were made between B and C, known as the period of “correct exposure,” the by Sir W. de W. (then Captain) Abney in 1874. (Abney, Phil. increase of density is practically constant for each increase of Mag., 48, pp. 161-165, 1874.) He constructed an instrument by exposure, . being arithmetical for each geometric increase of

PHOTOGRAPHY

812

exposure; in the third region, from C to D, this arithmetical increase fails until the density becomes constant; this is the region of overexposure. By prolongation of the straight-line portion of the curve, the log # axis is cut at a point which Hurter and Driffield termed the “mertia,” which, when divided into a factor, gives the “speed” of the plate. Hurter and Driffield adopted the factor 34 and provided that the “inertia” should be expressed in “‘candle-metre-seconds”; that

[SENSITOMETRY

of the reciprocity law in sensitometric work.

appear

desirable

that

exposures

It would therefore

in sensitometric

to be used in practice. The original photometer with two light sources used by Hurter and Driffield has been superseded by polarization instruments for measuring the densities, and these in turn appear likely to be superseded by physical photometers, such as those employing

is, seconds of exposure at one metre distance to one British standard spermaceti candle. The speeds so obtained were appli-

T= a

Te

cable to an exposure meter called the “Actinograph,” which they

designed. It is common in England to publish so-called “H.’ and D.” speeds for photographic materials. Such speeds are not,

Ts

however, always determined in accordance with the specifications

of Hurter and Driffield, and the standardization of sensitometric matters has been much discussed, especially at the International Congresses of Photography held in Paris in 1925 and in London in 1928. The spermaceti candle being quite obsolete as a standard light source, the character of the source to be adopted is of great importance, since its photographic effect will depend upon its colour. One candle power of daylight has more than ten times the photographic effect of one candle power of light from a spermaceti candle. As most plates are exposed to daylight, it might be assumed that this should be the standard adopted; but the practical difficulties of ensuring a constant illumination of constant spectral composition are insuperable. The standard candle is notably poor in ultra-violet, violet, and blue radiations, being distinctly yellow in colour. The same objection applies to the HefnerAlteneck amyl acetate lamp, which is used in Germany as standard. It is impossible to examine in detail all light sources suggested, but it is probable that eventually a lamp standardized to work at a colour temperature of 2,360° K with colour filters to reduce its spectral composition to sunlight will be taken as the standard. The spectral composition of the Hight is all important in view of the ever-increasing employment of colour-sensitive materials. As was shown originally by Abney, an intermittent exposure does not give the same effect as a continuous exposure for the same total time. The use of the rotating sector is, therefore, undesirable, and instruments giving continuous exposures should be used. Another important factor is the failure of the reciprocity law, E=It. As was first shown by Abney (Proc. Royal Soc., 54, pp. DEN SITY

LOG FIG. 12.—GRAPH SHOWING It BEING CONSTANT

INTENSITY

RELATION

BETWEEN

DENSITY AND

INTENSITY,

143-147, 1894), the effect of an exposure is not independent of the intensity. Recent work has shown that the curve showing the relation between density and intensity, Zz being constant, has a maximum, this point being referred to as the “optimum” intensity. (See fig. 12.) The shape of the curve as well as its absolute values seems to vary with the type of the emulsion and also with the wave-length of the light that is used. The work of L. A. Jones and V. C. Hall has shown the great importance

instruments

should not only be continuous but of the intensity level likely

D? D

Ta

|

Ts

BS

Wa 0

-3

6

9

12

15

OF DENSITY AND

f

2

——

LOG. FiG. 13.—CHANGE

T2

18

21

24

27

30

E

GAMMA

WITH

TIME OF DEVELOPMENT

photo-electric cells. The density obtained depends on whether it is read in contact with a diffusing screen, such as opal glass, or whether it is observed by parallel light from a collimator. With

the latter, as was pointed out by Abney, Chapman Jones, and A, Callier, much of the incident light is scattered, so that the

density has a higher value than when measured by completely : . : density of parallel light diffused light. Th t t mMm nanaiaaae ee on eae eee density of diffused light termed Q by Callier; it varied in amount from approximately unity to values as high as 1-6. The value of Q for average nega-

tives is about 1-4. Recently graduated wedges of neutral tint have been used very largely in sensitometry both for exposing and for the measurement of densities. A point of considerable importance in speed determination is that of the fog inherent in the emulsion and developed without light action. Hurter and Driffield assumed that this was constant throughout all densities, or, in other words, through all exposure periods; but such is not the case, there being actually more fog in the underexposure period than in the more exposed parts, because there is less silver bromide available and also more bromide set free here than in the less exposed parts. Returning to fig. 11, it will be observed that the tangent of the angle at which the straight line meets the exposure axis is marked a. This angle is of great importance in photography, since it defines the contrast of the image. The tangent of the angle, that is, the slope of the straight line, was termed y by Hurter and Driffield and was called the “development” factor, since its value depends upon the time of development. During development, the value of y increases, the increase tending to

reach a limiting term, gamma infinity (yoo), which measures the extreme contrast of which a plate is capable. Thus, if we develop for different times plates which have been given a series of exposures increasing in geometrical proportion, measure the

densities, and plot the resulting curves, we shall get the result shown in fig. 13, in which are shown curves corresponding to development times of 1 min., 2 min., 4 min., 5 min., and 6 min, while To corresponds to the maximum development that can be given before the contrast diminishes owing to fog. If now we plot + or density as a function of time, we get a curve of the type shown in fig. 14. It will be seen that the value of 7 increases rapidly at first and then more slowly, finally reaching a limit yoo. This is an exponential curve, the rate of development

PHOTOGRAPHY

TONE REPRODUCTION]

being proportional to the amount of exposed halide remaining to be developed, so that the reaction is identical in form with that

of a chemical reaction of the first order.

reproduced, and this question, generally known as the theory of tone reproduction, is fundamental to every photographic application. Psychologically, it is the apparent brightness which is of importance, but this can conveniently be treated as the physical brightness modified and interpreted by the eye and brain, and since it can be shown that the apparent brightness is proportional

The velocity of the

reaction of development depends therefore upon the value of ya which is a property chiefly of the sensitive material although also, to a minor extent, of the developing solution, and of K, the velocity constant of development, which is dependent upon the composition and temperature of the developer. When bromide is present in a developer, the straight-line portions of the characteristic curve when produced do not meet upon

a

JlÅ n

RATE OF DEVELOPMENT

ES N zZ Li

AQ

813

jtè o

TAN. a=

—> LOG. E 0

20

TIME

40

60

IN MINS.

FIG. 14.—YT CURVE, DEVELOPMENT

CURVE

SHOWING

CALC.

GROWTH

80

OF Y WITH

FIG. 15.—BROMIDE DEPRESSION CURVE. BROMIDE CAUSES A DEPRESSION OF THE CONVERGENCE POINT

INCREASING

TIME OF

the exposure axis but at a point somewhat below it, the effect of bromide being equivalent to a constant depression of density in

the straight line portion of the curve.

(See fig. 15.)

The photographic characteristics of printing papers can be measured by a procedure similar to that used for negative materials, but in this case it is not the mass of reduced silver which is of chief importance but its relative reflecting power. The reflection density is thus the logarithm of the reciprocal of the reflecting power (D=logy 1/R), the reflecting power being measured with illumination at 45° to the plane of the paper. The characteristic curves obtained with different times of development are shown in fig. 16, and it will be seen that the effect of increase in time of development is to produce a regression of the inertia without change in y except in the very earliest stages, where the curves are usually of a distorted form. The following constants may be derived :— Constant (a) Maximum

Symbol

(reflection

density)

(b) Contrast element (reflec| tion density) | | (c) Gamma element (reflection density)

L

Range of intensities repro-

(e) Rendering power (reflection density)

R

zok

(f) Total

scale

density)

(g) Standard

(reflection

exposure

go

flection density) .

y

(re-

AV TTZ PAA eT | AV IE Tere eee oser sa

dlog.f | Differential.

(re-

element

to the physical brightness throughout a wide range, it is generally sufficient for tone reproduction in photography to deal with the physical tones in the original and the reproduction. The differences in brightness which occur in nature may be produced by differences either in the reflecting power of the different portions of the subject or by differences in the illumination. Since in natural scenes both the reflecting power and the illumination vary, some parts of a landscape consisting of clouds in sunlight and others of dark rocks in the shade, the range of contrast is often very considerable. For photographic purposes a scale or contrast of rt to 4, in which the brightest thing is only four times as bright as the darkest, is very low, and such a subject would be called flat; a contrast of x to ro is a medium soft contrast; r to

Dmax | Highest attainable density.

Value of (b) for straight-line portion, or at inflexionpoint.

flection density) .

duced on straight-line por-

FIG. 16.—CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF PAPERS WITH INCREASING TIMES OF DEVELOPMENT. INCREASING TIME OF DEVELOPMENT PRODUCES REGRESSION OF INERTIA WITHOUT AFFECTING Y EXCEPT DURING INDUCTION PERIOD

tion.

5 Es

DEVELOPER

Significance

yr

(d) Latitude

IN THE

Range of intensities repro-

ducible by density diferences.

The exposure in m.c.s. neces-

sary to print through negative density of 2-0.

a

Tone Reproduction.—When a photograph of a natural object is made, the form can be represented only by differences in brightness. The accuracy with which the form is represented depends upon the precision with which the tones of the original subject are

20, a strong contrast; z to 40, very strong; and 1 to 100, an ex-

|

treme degree of contrast. All these degrees of contrast occur in subjects such as landscapes, street, and seashore scenes. When a photograph is made, the operation is done in two separate steps. A negative is first made, in which all the tones of the original are inverted, the brightest part of the subject being represented by the deposit of silver in the negative which lets through the least amount of light, and the darker parts represented by the transparent areas; this negative is then printed upon a sensitive

|

paper to form a print in which the scale of tones is again reversed.

8 I4

PHOTOGRAPHY

In order to study the relation of the tones of the print to those of the original subject, the changes of those tones must be followed through both steps. In the making of the negative, the reproduction of tone will depend upon the characteristic curve of the photographic material shown in fig. rr. If the exposure is so arranged that all the tones of the original

subject fall on the straight-line portion of this curve, the inverse reproduction in the negative will be proportional, and if, in addition to this, development is so arranged that the negative has a'y, that is, slope of the straight line, of unity, then the reproduction will be correct. In the print it is necessary that y should also be unity or, if the y of the printing material is not unity, it is necessary that the y of the negative should be modified suitably, so that

[COLOURED OBJECTS

which different colours are reproduced in photography is of con-

siderable importance. The earlier photographic materials were sensitive only to violet and ultra-violet light, and if an object containing blues, greens, and reds was photographed, the greens and reds were rendered dark while the blues were rendered much lighter than they appeared to the eye. Following Vogel’s discovery of the sensitizing power of dyes, this inaccuracy in rendering was to some extent mitigated by the introduction of so-called “orthochromatic” materials which, however, were sensitive only to the yellow-green in addition to their normal blue-violet and ultra-violet sensitiveness and were therefore unable to render the full scale of colours as seen by the eye, After the production of the isocyanine and carbocyanine sensi-

Yneg multiplied by Ypos =I.

tizers, panchromatic plates were introduced, sensitive to the whole

As is seen by reference to fig. 16, the straight-line portion of a paper curve is usually short, and it is necessary, moreover, in printing to utilize at least the underexposed portion of the paper curve. In making a paper print, therefore, the tone values are always distorted to some extent, especially those in the highlights corresponding to the underexposed portion of the paper curve, only the portion of the picture falling on the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve of the paper being correctly rendered. The computation of the tone reproduction given in any photographic operation is of great importance, especially in the applications of photography, such as processes of colour photography or of the reproduction of sound; and for the methods which are used, the papers by F. F. Renwick and L. A. Jones should be consulted. Resolving Power.—The resolving power of photographic materials may be defined as the closeness of two adjacent images which can be just distinguished. It is limited primarily by what is termed the irradiation or spreading of the image due to diffusion

visible spectrum.

of the light in the film. This spreading of the image has been investigated by astronomers and used as a basis for a method of stellar photometry. (See PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL and PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL.) In addition to the irradiation factor, the resolving power depends upon the development factor attainable in the material. The sharpness of an image, in fact, is theoretically equal to the development factor divided by the turbidity factor. Both of these factors are functions of the wavelength of the light used in exposure, so that the resolving power is naturally dependent upon the colour of the light. In addition to these two factors, a psychological factor enters into the resolution of the image. The practical resolving power of photographic materials can be measured by photographing (see fig. 17) and measuring the extent to which the lines are resolved. Photographic images on development show with low power magnification, as used in projection and enlarging, a granulation which is objectionable in such op- FIG. 17.—FAN TEST OBJECT, USED erations. L. A. Jones and N. FOR MEASURING THE RESOLVING Deisch have shown that it may POWER OF PHOTOGRAPHIC MATEbe measured and numerically RIALS expressed on the assumption that the graininess is directly proportional to the distance at which it becomes just visually imperceptible, this being compared with the distance at which a structure of known period, e.g., a fine cross-line screen, just disappears. Suppose a screen of 2,000 lines to the inch to be equivalent in this way to a given granularity of the developed image; the latter may be said to have a graininess of 2,000. The Photography of Coloured Objects.—Since photography makes a black and white reproduction of the tones of natural objects, all of which are to some extent coloured, the way in

These plates still retain the high sensitiveness

to blue, violet, and ultra-violet characteristic of photographic materials generally, but by the use of light filters (q.v.) with them, it is possible to obtain an orthochromatic rendering; that is, one in which the reproduction of the different colours follows very closely their relative brightness as they appear to the eye. This

is accomplished by the use of a yellow filter which absorbs all of the ultra-violet and most of the blue-violet, reducing the effective sensitivity of the material approximately to that of the eye. By the use of yellow filters, therefore, and panchromatic plates and films, approximately correct colour rendering is now used very largely in practical photography. Sometimes, however, subjects have to be photographed which are visible to the eye by virtue of their colour contrast. Suppose we have two objects, one contiguous to the other and separated purely by their colour contrast, such as, for instance, a yellow straw stack against a deep blue sky. In this case, orthochromatic rendering would produce a photograph in which both would have the same intensity, and they would be

indistinguishable. It is necessary in this case to use a colour filter which will introduce a certain amount of incorrect rendering in order to reproduce the colour contrast. This filter may, for instance, be a red filter, in which case the straw stack will appear brighter than the sky or, it may be a blue filter, in which the sky will appear brighter than the stack. The choice of such filters is an important task for the skilled photographer. Contrast filters are used very largely in photography for special purposes. They are of great value in photomicrography and are used in commercial photography to a large extent. The deepest possible filter is also used in aerial photography in order to take advantage of the power

of the longer wave-lengths to penetrate haze. PHOTOGRAPHIC

(C. E. K. M.)

MANUFACTURE

The manufacture of photographic sensitive materials is a very specialised industry. Approximately 40,000 people are employed in the whole photographic industry throughout the world, about 20,000 being engaged in the manufacture of materials sensitive to light, with which this section deals, and the remainder in the manufacture of cameras and in the wholesale distribution of the products to the retailer. With the introduction of the gelatine dry plate, the preparation of materials by photographers for themselves diminished very rapidly, and the manufacture of ready-prepared material took its place. The first dry plates appear to have been placed upon the English market in 1877. In 1880 the manufacture of gelatine dry plates was general in England and was commencing in Belgium, Germany, France, and the United States. Until r900 the photographic industry was usually carried on in small factories under the direct personal control of the founder. At the present time, however, photographic manufacture is organised chiefly in modern factories manufacturing on a large scale, and using specially designed machinery at every step of the process. In the largest of these factories, the output of motionpicture film alone exceeds 150,000 miles yearly. Over 5,000,000 Ib. of cotton are used each year for the manufacture of film, and over three tons of pure silver bullion are used each week. The total power required exceeds 20,000 h.p., and the consumption of coal is over 500 tons a day. The process of manufacture may be divided into three distinct

PHOTOGRAPHIC

MANUFACTURE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

815

sections: (1) The preparation of the base; (2) the preparation of lyst. Acetate film burns with about as much difficulty as thick the emulsion; (3) the coating of the emulsion on the base and the cutting and packing of the material so prepared.

Preparation of the Base. Glass Plates—Photographic glass is the specially selected, best quality of thin sheet glass made in a

factory which prepares sheet glass for all purposes.

Even under

the best conditions only about a quarter of the sheets made are

fit for photographic use, the remainder being used for glazing. Photographic glass is made very largely in Belgium in the factories near Charleroi, and in England at St. Helens. A con-

siderable amount is also made in the United States. The glass iş supplied cut to sizes which are multiples of those used by photographers. The glass arrives packed in straw in boxes holding usually about two gross sheets, and after unpacking and preliminary inspection, is cleaned by an automatic machine into which it is fed. The glass plate is received between rollers and passes through a strong solution of soda between revolving brushes which remove the dirt from the surface, and at the end of the machine is coated with a substratum, usually a weak solution of gelatine containing chrome alum, by means of which the emulsion is made to adhere to the glass. The glass is then dried in a heated oven, examined for defects, and if passed is packed in a tray and transferred to the coating room. Film Base.—In the manufacture of film base the first step is the preparation of cotton linters for nitrating, the treatment consisting of cleansing the linters very thoroughly and drying them. They are then nitrated in centrifugal machines, and when they

have absorbed the necessary amount of nitrogen, 12 to 13%, the

paper, and should it catch fire it is very easy to extinguish.

This

acetate base is used under all conditions where proper precautions against fire cannot be taken, as where films are used in homes or schools.

Sixteen millimetre film for amateur cinematography is

made only on acetate base. Photographic paper base is generally made by mills which specialise in its manufacture, but in the United States the bulk of the photographic paper base is made in the factory where the rest of the production of photographic paper is carried on. The paper is prepared very largely from rag stock, although refined cellulose from wood is sometimes added. After inspection the raw rag stock is washed and digested and is then treated in the beater until it will make a homogeneous, strong sheet. Great care is necessary to exclude traces of impurities and especially of metals such as copper and iron from the paper stock. The composition differs with the purpose for which the paper is used. The finest kinds are prepared from linen rags, which are bleached with gaseous chlorine or hypochlorites, any excess being removed by treatment with sulphites or thiosulphates which are then washed out. Any residual trace of colour is neutralized by the careful addition of a complementary colour, such as indanthrene blue, or if a chamois or toned base is desired the bleaching may be omitted or indanthrene yellow added. A resinous soap is usually incorporated with the fibres and precipitated with alum, and the paper may be later subjected to a sizing with gelatine. Throughout all its treatment great care must be exercised to avoid the occurrence of metallic particles, which would act prejudicially on the sensitive emulsion. The paper is generally cast about 4x in. in width and from 500 to 1,000 yd. in length. It is calendered either to give it a closer texture or higher surface or to impart some special linen or fabric-simulating finish. The paper is usually given a coating of baryta before it receives the photographic emulsion. In this process a suspension of baryta (barium sulphate) in gelatine is coated over the surface of the paper, several coatings being sometimes applied, and not infrequently the paper is calendered after baryta coating in order to get a perfectly smooth glossy surface. Baryta-coated paper is transferred to the emulsion coating-room in rolls of about 2,000 feet. Emulsions.—Emulsions are of two general types: washed and unwashed. Emulsions to be coated on glass or film are always washed. In the first case the precipitation of the silver salts is effected by adding a solution (about 10% in strength) of silver nitrate to a small quantity of gelatine dissolved in a solution of the halide salts which, in the case of negative emulsions, are usually potassium bromide containing a small proportion of potassium iodide. When precipitation is complete, the emulsion is digested in order to produce an increase of sensitiveness, and the bulk of the gelatine is added so that when cooled it will set to a jelly. Instead of increasing the sensitiveness of the emulsion by holding it at a high temperature for some time, it may be digested at a lower temperature in the presence of ammonia, and not infrequently the silver nitrate is precipitated with ammonia and then re-dissolved in excess before the precipitation of the halide is commenced. The set emulsion is cut up into small portions and is washed in running water in order to remove any excess of halide salts and also the soluble nitrate produced in the reaction. After washing it is given a final digestion and is ready for coating upon the base. The emulsions used for printing papers are of three general types: bromide papers, which are made with a washed emulsion essentially identical with that used for coating upon glass and film for use in making lantern slides and positive motion pic-

resulting nitro-cotton is soused in water and the washing commenced. This washing is a long process, and is continued until the material is entirely free from absorbed acid, after which it is dehydrated, the water being then displaced by alcohol. The dehydrated nitro-cotton is then dissolved in tumbling barrels or mixers in suitable solvents, those commonly employed being acetone and methyl alcohol, and at the same time the so-called softeners, such as camphor, are added, these resulting in a flexible film. The viscous nitro-cotton solution, which appears rather like honey, is known in the United States as dope. This is now spread out into a thin film by coating it on a travelling surface. In the United States the coating is generally done on large wheels about four feet across and about fifteen feet in diameter which rotate slowly about their axes so that by the time one rotation is completed the solvents have been evaporated suffciently to set the flm, which can be stripped off the wheel, and dried further by passing over drums. The operation is thus continuous, the film base, as it is called, being prepared in rolls of about 2,000 feet. In Europe it is customary to coat a film about 24 inches wide upon a metallic belt from which after one rotation the film can be stripped in the same way as from a drum. The surfaces of these belts and drums must necessarily be prepared very carefully, the wheels being usually made with a highly polished nickel surface, while the makers of the belt machines recommend that they be coated with gelatine. The film has a high polish on both surfaces and may be used at once or stored or seasoned until required. Before coating with emulsion, one side is treated with a substratum, which is really an etching solution that slightly roughens it, and gives a tooth that holds the emulsion firmly. For camera film, the back is coated with a noncurling coat of hardened gelatine, which, imposing an expansion strain on this side, equalizes that of the emulsion on the other. Camera or roll film base is about 34 thousandths of an inch thick; motion picture film, about 54 thousandths; and cut film, such as portrait and X-ray, which are used flat, about 74 thousandths. Still thicker cut films are sometimes used, about ro thousandths, which the emulsion is but the celluloid for these is cast into blocks and then sliced, tures; unwashed chloride emulsions in coated on the paper in the form in which it is mixed without any the knife marks being removed by heat polishing. washing; and emulsions also Since cellulose nitrate is highly inflammable, itself supplying removal of the soluble salts by salts are a mixture the greater part of the oxygen which it requires for combustion, made without washing but in which the silver free silver nitrate is there which in and citrate, and chloride of not is which film of preparation the much work has been done on to light and exposed when visibly darken papers These present. inflammable. The most promising substance for this purpose is and fixed. toned then is which image printed-out a give thus acewith cellulose hydrated treating by prepared acetate, cellulose Coating and Packing.—Dry plates are coated by passing the tic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of a suitable cata-

816

PHOTOGRAPHY

prepared glass sheets on a travelling belt under some device through which the emulsion is allowed to spread out over the surface of the glass. This may take the form, for instance, of a trough with a slit in the bottom or of a stepped weir down which the emulsion flows, reaching the plate by means of a flap which rests lightly on the surface of the plate. The coated glass travels

forward on to a belt or rollers which are kept wet with ice-cold water, and there the emulsion sets. At the other end of the machine the plates are taken off, placed on the racks, and dried slowly and evenly. They are then cut to the requisite sizes by means of machines using diamonds and are packed in boxes of one dozen for supply to the market.

The most usual size of plates are 24” X34”, 47X5”, 5”X7”, 8’x 10", 11” X14”, and 14”%X17”, in the United States; 41” 34” (“quarter plate’), 64”*42” (“half plate’), 847x634” (“whole plate”), 12” 10”, and 15” x12”, in Great Britain (where the larger dimension is given first for inch sizes, the contrary practice being used in the United States); and 6X9 cm., 9X12 cm., IOX15 cm., 13X18 cm., 18X24 cm., 24X30 cm., and 30X40

cm., in countries using the metric system. For coating both film and paper the same type of machine may be used. (See Plate Il., fig. 1.) The stock roll of the base is carried on a mandrel, freely revolving, and is led over and under rollers that keep it taut, to the coating trough into which the fluid emulsion is fed continuously and automatically at the rate at which the base takes it up. The base passes under a roller, dipping into the emulsion, and it hugs this so tightly that no emulsion finds its way on to the back. The temperature and viscosity of the emulsion are kept constant, and the thickness of the coat is determined by the rate of travel of the base through the emulsion—the faster the travel, the thicker the coat, and vice versa. The coated base then passes up a vertical run-up, which allows the film of emulsion to even itself out, or it passes over a chill roll and then through a refrigerating chamber, where cold air is blown on to the emulsion surface and thoroughly sets it. Leaving this chamber, the film is automatically looped into festoons varying from five to twenty feet in length and travels slowly through the drying tunnels. To these is supplied heated air which has been thoroughly washed with water sprays to remove all dust and deleterious gases. The humidity and temperature of the air used for drying is adjusted very carefully and it is usually recirculated through the system, being driven in at one end of the drying room and exhausted at the other, and then reconditioned before entering the drying chamber again. Frequently the festooning apparatus makes a right-angled turn so that the prepared material is reeled up side by side with the coating machine; the operations of coating, drying, and reeling are continuous and automatic. Motion picture film is slit from the original roll to the exact width required, 35 mm. (13 in.) in the case of standard film, and before packing is perforated on the edges in accordance with the standard gauge used for the cameras and projection machines. The maker’s name and private mark are light impressed on the margins, becoming visible only on subsequent development, while on negative film every foot is numbered in order to aid in the identification of the scenes. Negative film is supplied not only coated with ordinary emulsion, but also panchromatized, which gives far better rendering of all colours and permits considerable shortening of exposures, especially under the artificial illuminants, such as the mazda and other lighting systems now so much in vogue in the studios. The speed of the emulsion is very high and a special hypersensitised film is obtainable, which places in the hands of an operator the possibility of photographing poorly lighted subjects. Positive film is supplied either on nitrate base, that used most generally, or on acetate safety base, which is slowburning. For amateur motion picture photography film is supplied 16 mm. in width on slow-burning acetate base only and is supplied in lengths of 100 ft. packed with paper leaders at the ends and on a special protective spool so that the cameras can be loaded in daylight. This film is made to be reversed directly to a positive so that the same film that is used in the camera is employed for projection. The camera or cartridge film is slit to the required widths, cut

[COLOUR

to the desired lengths, and spooled on wooden

cores with light-

excluding metal flanges. A light-protecting apron of black paper is wound with the film, so that the cartridge may be inserted in the

camera in daylight; or red paper with an inset of carbon paper is used instead of the black, so that records may be made on the film after exposure. Film is also cut into sheets, to each sheet being attached a numbered tab, and the sheets are assembled into a film-pack, which is usable in any ordinary plate camera. After

each exposure, the tab is pulled, which draws the exposed film to the back of the pack, and the tab is torn off and thrown away. For X-ray work, the film is coated on both sides with emulsion; this gives greater contrast and better rendering of shadow detail, for the rays can penetrate both emulsion layers with but little

loss of action.

The film is used in holders like those for plates,

except for dental work.

Films for this purpose are packed in

special flexible, light-tight holders ready for use.

Paper is cut from the roll into sheets, and the sheets stacked on the top of each other are cut by means of guillotines to the size required for the market, each sheet being inspected for defects

before packing.

(G. Ea.)

COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY

In 1810 J. T. Seebeck obtained a coloured effect by exposing to the spectrum silver chloride which had been darkened by exposure to light. This experiment has often been repeated, but as the colours obtained cannot be fixed, it has no practical value. In 1891 G. Lippmann of Paris produced the first picture by interference heliochromy, although the possibility of doing so had been pointed out by W. Zenker in 1868, Lord Rayleigh in 1887, and O. Wiener in 1890. In this method a perfectly transparent, grainless emulsion is coated on plate glass and exposed through the back with the sensitive surface in contact with a reflecting

surface, such as mercury. The incident light is reflected back on itself, giving rise to interference, thus setting up stationary or standing waves in the emulsion with their crests or loops exactly half a wave-length apart. These standing waves produce exposure effects so that on development, the silver is deposited in laminae half a wave-length apart and reflects light of double the separation, giving bright colours. Unfortunately the plates are very insensitive, and as the results can be viewed only in the hand or by projection with a special outfit, the method is not in general use. Tricolour Photography.—The methods which are used at the present time for reproducing objects in colours by photography are dependent upon the suggestion made by Clerk Maxwell in 186r. Any colour may be reproduced by a mixture of the three primary colours, red, green, and violet. In order to reproduce any colour, therefore, we may analyze the different proportions of these three primary colours in it and then synthesize the colour by superimposing the three primaries upon a screen in projection. To illustrate this, Maxwell took three photographs of a coloured ribbon: one through a red solution, one through a green solution, and a third through a blue solution. From these three negatives, three transparencies were made, each of which was projected by means of the coloured light by which it was taken, Maxwell adding a fourth picture taken and projected by yellow light. In 1869 Ducos du Hauron published a small book on colour photography, in which he laid down the principles of three-colour photography, on which all later work has been based, and at approximately the same time Charles Cros published an article in which he had independently come to much the same results. Du Hauron’s book is astonishingly complete and contains a very clear account of the two fundamental processes of colour photography including their application by different methods. ‘These processes

are known as the “additive” (that employed by Maxwell) and the

“subtractive” processes. The practical development of colour photography was, however, delayed for many years by the difficulty that the photographic materials available were sensitive only to the blue and

violet of the spectrum; it was with the greatest difficulty that materials sensitive to the whole visible spectrum could be obtained, and with such materials very long exposures were required.

PHOTOGRAPHY

COLOUR]

The introduction of colour sensitizing by Vogel in 1873 first made colour photography possible, and the introduction of the isocyanine and carbocyanine sensitizers at the beginning of the

soth century made it practical.

The Additive Process.—Clerk Maxwell’s picture was projected on to a screen by means of optical lanterns and was thus the so-called ‘‘additive’” process; that is to say, the colours were formed by adding light to light. This method was also used by du Hauron and Cros in a special instrument called a chromoscope, in which the three pictures were viewed in superposition; a plan later used and developed by F. E. Ives also. F. E. Ives developed the additive process in practice. He took photographs through three dyed gelatine filters upon materials sensitised with the best dyes available at that time and projected the transparencies by means of triple lanterns devised for the purpose, these synthetic colour pictures giving extremely good colour reproduction upon the screen. The production of the negatives can be accomplished by three different methods. For stationary objects where an interval between the exposures is of small importance, it is convenient to fit the filters and sensitive plates into a sliding back attached to an ordinary camera. Exposures are then made through the three filters in succession either upon a single panchromatic plate or on three separate plates. For the photography of moving objects, it is, of course, impossible to use successive exposures, and a great number of cameras embodying beam splitting methods either by means of prisms or by reflectors have been designed. The chromoscope already referred to as a “viewing” instrument can be converted into a camera in which mirrors are used for separating the three beams. Other cameras use elaborate combinations of prisms for the same purpose. In such cameras it is often convenient to use separate plates, since it is rather difficult to arrange for the three images to fall upon a single surface. A system invented originally by du Hauron is to have the sensitive surfaces superposed on each other and to build up a plate or film pack; thus, in front, there may be placed a slow, very transparent yellow-dyed, blue-sensitive film; behind this, a moderately transparent film sensitive to green and dyed red or with a red filter attached to it; behind this again, a red-sensitive film. In this way, the blue record is made on the first film, the

green record on the second, and the red on the third. A considerable number

of patents have been taken out for variants

of this method. The Subtractive

Process.—The

subtractive process, which

was described originally by du Hauron, depends upon the production of colours by subtractive absorption instead of by the addition of the colours to each other in projection. Suppose that over a Sheet of yellow gelatine, which will absorb the blue light, is put a sheet of magenta gelatine, which will absorb the green light; then, since the yellow absorbs the blue light, and the magenta the green light, only the red light is transmitted; a red image can thus be obtained either by projecting it through a red filter or by putting a magenta image on the top of a yellow one. In the same way a green image can be obtained by putting a blue-green one orl the top of a yellow one, when the yellow will cut the blue out of the blue-green and leave only green. In working the subtractive process, the three negatives are printed in coloured dyes, the picture taken through the red filter being printed on gelatine dyed blue-green, the one taken through the green filter on gelatine dyed magenta, and the one taken through the blue filter on gelatine that was dyed yellow. Now, if the three are cemented together in register, the resulting transparent colour picture will reproduce the colours of the original

subject and will be a transparency which can be viewed in the hand, or examined in front of an artificial light, or projected in a lantern. Printing Methods.—Subtractive methods have naturally attracted the most attention as alone giving prints on paper. The carbon process was used by du Hauron, the negatives being printed upon carbon tissue containing a pigment of colour complementary to that of the filter. After development, the three

817

images are transferred to a temporary support, and then retransferred to a permanent support in accurate register. This method gives excellent results but requires considerable skill. Very good results have also been obteined by the use of a process in which gelatine containing transparent dye was coated on thin film base. After sensitising with bichromate, this can be printed through the back and developed with hot water, so that a coloured relief image is obtained on the film. The three images can then be transferred in superposition on to a paper support without the use of double transfer. A modification of the carbon process, suggested by T. Manly under the name of ““Ozobrome” and later revived by H. F. Farmer as the “‘Carbro” process, is also used for colour work. In this a silver image is squeegeed into contact with pigmented gelatine saturated with bleaching solutions whose reduction products harden gelatine. These chemicals migrate into the silver image film, and the reduction products return to the tissue, rendering it insoluble in ratio to the amount of metallic silver present in the image. The tissue is then treated exactly as in the carbon process. Bromoil transfers are also used by some artistic workers. In addition to these processes, colour images have been made by using for dyes the mordanting power of chemical compounds and especially the ferrocyanides of the metals. The ferrocyanides of uranium, copper, vanadium, and silver, and the iodide or sulphocyanide of silver mordant basic dyes very strongly. From the negatives silver images are therefore prepared and transformed into these compounds. The blue image is commonly composed of iron ferrocyanide itself, this being a very suitable shade of blue for colour work. Yellow and red images are obtained by mordanting basic dyes, such as auramine and safranine, on to transparent deposits of metallic compounds. The three images are then superposed as usual. In one group of processes the dye images themselves are transferred from the printing plates, which are formed of colourless reliefs, these being stained up and then placed in contact with gelatine so that the dye migrates and forms an image in the gelatine. Such processes are known as “imbibition” processes. The transfer plates may be made in several ways: thus, bichromated gelatine on film may be exposed through the back and developed with hot water, or a silver image produced by exposure through the back of an ordinary emulsion coated film may be caused to harden the gelatine either during development, since some developers harden the gelatine contiguous to the image, or by treatment with a bath similar to that used in the ozobrome process already referred to. After treatment, a relief can be obtained by washing off the unhardened gelatine with hot water, and after removal of the silver a colourless relief is obtained. In a process known as the “Pinatype” process, bichromated gelatine is exposed under a positive and is then treated with dye which penetrates only the soft gelatine, the hard gelatine remaining uncoloured. This dye can then be transferred by imbibition to a layer of soft gelatine coated on paper, and the three images can be transferred in turn to produce a colour picture. In a modification of this, used in motion picture colour photography, the local hardening is produced not by the light exposure of a bichromated surface but by the formation of a silver image and its treatment with a bleach bath which hardens the gelatine in contact with the developed silver. There are numerous modifications of these printing processes all of which can be employed with more or less success but all of which require a considerable amount of skill if really good results are to be obtained.

The largest field for the subtractive process of colour photography is in connection with the use of the printing press. The three negatives are used for the production of printing plates, usually by the half-tone process, and prints from the three plates, frequently with a fourth black plate added, are superimposed, the plates being printed in red, blue, and yellow inks which are approximately complementary to the colour of the taking filters. This three or four colour half-tone process is very widely used for the preparation of illustrations and is by far the greatest application of colour photography. (See PHOTO-ENGRAVING)

818

PHOTOGRAPHY

Screen Plate Processes.—In his book, Ducos du Hauron suggested a modification of the additive process which has since become of practical importance and is known as the “screen plate” process. He suggested that the surface of the glass plate or film might be covered with tiny filters—red, green, and blue— the sensitive emulsion being coated on top of these and photographed through the filters. A modification of this method was suggested by J. Joly of Dublin and by J. W. MacDonough of Chicago in 1892; the colour elements were on a glass plate which was pressed during exposure into close contact with a separate panchromatic plate after development of the negative; a positive in silver was made in the usual way and viewed in contact with a special viewing screen, in which the colours approximate those required by theory. The advantage of this method is that should any error be made in exposure of manipulation, the negative plate alone is lost, the taking screen being still available for further work, whereas with

the combined methods the screen-plate is ruined. The disadvantage is that it is applicable only to regular, geometrical patterned elements, the fineness of which is therefore limited to some extent.

In 1907 Messrs. Lumiére and Co., of Lyons, brought out their “Autochrome” plates in which they utilized an irregular screen composed of coloured grains. Glass plates are coated with an adhesive medium over which there is spread a mixture of starch grains, of microscopic fineness, stained violet, green, and orange, the interstices being filled in with fine carbon powder to form a tri-colour screen, dark by reflected, and of a pinkish, pearly appearance by transmitted, light. This is varnished and coated with a thin panchromatic emulsion of gelatino-silver bromide. The plates are exposed in the camera from the back, through the tricolour films, a special compensating orange-yellow screen being used also before or behind the lens. They are then developed as usual, producing a negative coloured image in the complementary colours, which is then reversed so as to produce a positive coloured image showing the picture in its proper colours. The results thus obtained are remarkably good and practically solve the problem of direct colour photography in a simple and fairly inexpensive manner, the results being of course confined to transparencies. Other screen plates which have been introduced include the Agfa plate, invented by Christensen, in which the elements are slightly larger than those of the Autochrome, and the Lignose colour film with still larger elements. In both these the colour

units are stained resins, which like the starch grains are applied either by a dusting-on or sedimentation process. The Duplex, originally known as the Paget, belongs to the separate system, and taking and viewing screens are used, the former with a panchromatic plate. This screen is produced by printing the units on bichromated gelatine in contiguous squares. Screen plates are conveniently studied under the following heads :— I. IL. IIL. IV. V.

Method of production of the screen. Examination of the screen as a whole. Examination of the filter units. Examination of the emulsion. Adjustment of the compensator and emulsion to the filters.

I. The screen may be either regular or irregular. The methods of production may be classified as follows: (x). Ruled lines. Method used by Joly and MacDonough. (2). Dusting-on methods. Employed to produce irregular screens in the Autochrome, Agfa, and Lignose processes. (3). Printing by means of bichromated colloids. These are used in the Warner-Powrie and Duplex processes. (4). Various methods of section cutting. The best known example is the Krayn screen introduced in Germany in 1907 and taken off the market shortly afterwards. (5). The use of mechanical printing or a combination of mechanical printing and dyeing. Experimental screens made in this way were the Omnicolore and the Lumiére regular screens, neither of which was marketed commercially.

(6). Other processes. A variety of patents have been taken out

[COLOUR

for experimental screens which must be classed under this heading. II. The screen as a whole when examined should appear to be of a neutral shade. This is known as the “first black condition.” The adjustment is obtained by alteration of the area of the units as far as possible rather than by adjustment

of the depth of

colour. The total visual absorption should be as low as possible. III. The separate filter units should have the purest possible colours, preferably without overlap in the spectrum. The best possible compromise is for a red filter transmitting from 590 upwards; a green filter from A5go—490; anda blue filter from \ 500 down to the violet. The size of the screen units is determined by their invisibility. In order to get bright colours, however, it js necessary that they should not be too small, since otherwise the emulsion will not have sufficient resolving power, and the images behind the units will overlap. For regular screens the units should

not be larger than 34, nor smaller than g4> of an inch. For irregular screens it is necessary that the units should not be larger than one-third the dimension of regular screens, since the average unit will tend to be a clump of about ro grains; that is,

having approximately three times the diameter of the single unit.

IV. The emulsion should be sensitive to the whole visible spec-

trum and of a resolving power depending on the size of the units. In the case of the small units of irregular grains, its resolving power must necessarily be high, so that the emulsion must be slow and fine grained. It must also be coated in very close contact with the screen, since otherwise the scattering of the light in the intervening space will affect the colour.

V. The emulsion should be so sensitized that the effects produced under the red and green filters are equal if possible. The compensating filter used on the lens can then be adjusted to the emulsion and to the filter units, so that the “second black condition” is fulfilled; that is, a scale of greys is rendered as grey after exposure, development, and reversal. The effective speed of a screen plate is governed by three

factors: (1) The sensitiveness of the emulsion; (2) the multiplying factor of the screen; (3) the multiplying factor of the compensator. The effective speed of the screen plates on the market is very low—from 1 to 2 H and D. Owing to the very thin emulsion necessary to give sufficient resolving power, the latitude of the process is small, and in subjects with wide contrasts the shadows may be underexposed, while the highlights lose colour owing to overexposure and the consequent irradiation. Except with very flat subjects, there is practically no latitude in the exposure given in the camera, the results depending entirely upon the accuracy with which the exposure is determined. A process which is in some respects analogous to the screen plate process is one invented by R. Berthon in which film is embossed on the back with minute lenses. A tricolour diaphragm is then placed at the lens of the camera and the film is exposed through the back so that the lenses form images of the coloured filters on the emulsion. After exposure and processing by reversal, the film is projected with a multi-colour diaphragm attached to the lens of the projector, and the colours of the original object are thus reconstituted on the screen. This process is used entirely in motion picture work. Bleach-out Processes.—Since many dyes are destroyed by the action of light, and since Grotthus and Draper showed that dyes are bleached by light of the colour which they absorb, it is clear that a printing process can be produced by mixing three colour dyes which are sensitive to light. Thus, if we make a mixture of

auramine—which is bleached by blue light; erythrosine—which is bleached by green light; and methylene blue—which is bleached by red light; and coat this mixture in a layer of paper, we shall get a black surface. Now, if this be printed under a coloured Original, the dyes which absorb the colours will bleach, and a coloured reproduction will be obtained, the accuracy of which will depend upon the correct adjustment of the conditions. The most important of these conditions is the relative sensitiveness of the different dyes and the choice of dyes which have the correct ab-

PHOTOGRAPHY

COLOUR]

SIO

sorption. Since dyes such as those mentioned have little sensitiveness to light, it is necessary to increase it by sensitisers, and

For closer study of these the reader is referred to the works particularized in the short bibliography appended to this Section. a great deal of work has been done in this field in the development Incidentally, the consideration of photographic apparatus is of suitable sensitisers, of which the best known are Anethol and complicated at the time of writing by certain prospective developcompounds of a similar nature. ments. Camera construction, and to some extent the manufacture A commercial bleach-out paper was placed on the market under of lenses and other gear, has hitherto been influenced mainly by the name of “Utocolour” paper and was employed particularly for three factors, the introduction of dry pilates, enabling developthe printing of screen plate originals. The results obtained were ment of the latent image to be postponed indefinitely, the substinot very satisfactory, however, and great difficulties have been tution of gelatine film for glass, and the perfection of methods of experienced in achieving any improvement in the process. It is enlargement. Two factors are being added—the improvement difficult to adjust the three dyes to equality of bleaching. It is very of existing processes of colour photography and the swift expandificult to remove the sensitiser and the bleached dye, and it is sion of cinematography—the precise effect of which cannot as particularly difficult to stabilize the unbleached dye so as to pro- yet be estimated. Already the production of amateur cineduce a permanent picture. These various difficulties have pre- cameras is enormous and, although “still” photography can never vented the process from coming into any general use. (For colour be completely ousted by motion picture production, the design and photography as applied to motion picture work, see Motion supply of apparatus for the former may conceivably be as seriously affected by the latter as the popularity of the old “stand” PICTURES.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Elementary and general: J. M. Eder, Ausfiihrliches camera was by the appearance of the revolutionary Kodak. Handbuch (3rd ed., 1927); E. J. Wall, Photographic Facts and Formulas (Boston, 1924), and Dictionary of Photography (11th ed., 1926); Cassels Cyclopaedia of Photography, ed. by B. Jones (New York, 1911); M. Thompson, The Camera Book (London, 1926), elementary introduction to the theory and practice; O. Wheeler, A Primer of Photography (London, 1910), elementary introduction to practice; R. Child Bayley, The Complete Photographer (goth ed., London, 1927); John R. Roebuck, The Science and Practice of Photography (New York, 1918), adapted for the use of university students wishing to know something of the practice of photography; Chapman-Jones, Photography of To-day (London, 1913), on photography as practised 15 years ago; W. de W. Abney, Instruction in Photography (11th ed., London, 1903), attention devoted to the early processes of photography; A. Miethe, Lehrbuch der praktischen Photographie (Halle, 1902) ; L. P, Clerc, La Technique Photographique (Paris, 1926-27), very complete and modern review of the whole subject. Photographic theory: C. E. Kenneth Mees, The Fundamentals of Photography (Rochester, N.Y.), elementary introduction to photographic theory; C. Neblette, Photography, Its Principles and Practice (New York, 1927), the most complete book available at the present time; Photography as a Scientific Implement (London, 1923) contains a long chapter by Dr. S. E. Sheppard giving an excellent introduction to photographic theory; Photographic Researches of Hurter and Driffield, ed. by W. B. Ferguson (London, 1920), collected papers by the pioneer workers on the quantitative theory of photography; S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees, Investigations on the Theory of the Photographic Process (London, 1907); H. W. Vogel, Photochemie (Berlin, 1906), general book on photo-chemistry containing many references to photographic problems; G. Mayer, Chimica Fotografica (Milan, 1912), a very excellent book on chemical photographic theory. Photographic

optics:

H. Hartwig,

Photographische

Optik

CAMERAS

AND

ENLARGERS

The original aim of the pioneers in Photography was to fix the image in the camera obscura (g.v), and Wedgwood and other early workers chiefly employed that cumbrous apparatus in their experiments. Historical.—Between 1816 and 1839 Nicéphore Niepce, Fox Talbot and Daguerre used smaller box cameras, and it is on record that the expanding bellows-body principle was applied to some of the first cameras made in France for the production of Daguerreotypes. In England this construction was not adopted until much later, the usual practice being to make the camera in the form of two open bozes, one sliding within the other in order to provide the adjustment necessary for focussing. The two parts were supported on a rigid baseboard, the adjustment being fixed by a screw. A portable stereoscopic camera with parallel bellows

(Berlin,

1924) ; Photographic Optics, Eng. trans. of Lummer by S. Thompson (New York, 1900) ; H. Dennis Taylor, System of Applied Optics (New York, 1906), the most complete text-book on the subject; C. F. LanDavis, Telephotography (New York, 1912). Phototopography: A. L. Higgins, Phototopography (Cambridge, 1926); B. M. Jones and J. C. Griffiths, Aerial Surveying by Rapid Methods (Cambridge, 1925) ; J. A. Flemer, Phototopographic Methods and Instruments (New York, 1906) ; H. E. Ives, Airplane Photography (Philadelphia, 1920). Special branches: D. Charles, Commercial Photography (London, 1927); W. H. Towles, Portrait Lighting (Philadelphia) ; A. W. Judge, Stereoscopic Photography (London, 1926) ; Eastman Kodak Co., Tke Photography of Colored Objects (Rochester, N.Y., 9th ed., 1927) ; H. L. Hind and W. B. Randles, Handbook of Photomicrography (New York, 2nd ed., 1927); J. E. Barnard, Practical Photomicrography (London, 2nd ed., 1925); Wolf-Czapek, Angewandte Photographie in Wissen-

schaft und Technik (Berlin, 1911).

(C. E. K. M.)

APPARATUS Photographic apparatus may conveniently be discussed under the following heads:—(1) Cameras and Enlargers, (2) Stands,

FIG,

18.—FOLDING

**KODAK"*

designed by J. Atkinson in 1857 was followed in 1858 by C. T. H. Kinnear’s lighter pattern with conical bellows for general work. Thenceforward the manufacture of British cameras progressed rapidly in the hands of P. Meagher, G. Hare, W. Watson and other competent makers, one of the later models of the last-named, known. as the “Premier,” having survived to the present day as a typical “square-form” pattern for technical work. Information on early cameras will be found in the photographic features of construction, in relation, more particularly, to modern types. Even here severe compression has rendered unavoidable | Journals, in C. Fabre’s Traité encyclopédique de photographie, the omission of many details of mechanical and optical interest. | Vol. 1, and in J. M. Eder’s Ausfithrliches Handbuch der Photo-

(3) Lenses, (4) Light Filters, (5) Instantaneous Shutters, (6) Exposure Meters, (7) Prepared sensitive plates, films and papers, (8) Developing and Printing gear, and (9) Studio and Darkroom appliances. In the case of (1) and (3) further subdivisions will be needed. Owing to the multiplicity of models it will be necessary to curtail greatly the space devoted in former editions to historical development in order to deal at all adequately with

820

PHOTOGRAPHY

[CAMERA CONSTRUCTION

graphie, znd ed., Vol q, pt. ii. With the advent of dry plates the demand for more portable

“Dark slides” to hold sensitive plates or cut films in sheaths are made to interchange with the focussing screen, the sensitive surface of the plate or film being in accurate register with the

when, the limit of compactness having probably been reached, attention is being concentrated on the provision of various movements, and of accessories such as shutters and finders, with no loss of rigidity and no increase of weight or bulk. Up to 1888, when the roll-flm camera known as the “Kodak” was introduced by the Eastman Co. of Rochester, U.S.A., the early portable cameras were for the most part on the lines of the present “‘handor-stand” type. Roll-film quickly produced a succession of Kodaks, box-form and collapsible, the latter culminating in a folding design which has been widely imitated in this country and on the Continent. To-day the output of roll-film cameras greatly exceeds that of any other type, but several other forms continue in request. Cut films, either put together in film-packs (g.v.) or exposed in sheaths, have increased the popularity of the extremely portable ‘“hand-or-stand” cameras, such as the “Sybils” of Newman and Guardia and the more substantial “Una” of James Sinclair and Co. Stereoscopic cameras of exquisite workmanship and extreme precision such as those of J. Richard, Voigtlander and Leitz have many users, The Reflex, both ordinary and folding, is a favourite for Nature study and other special work, and collapsible cameras, based on the original Goerz-Anschiitz pattern, are very freely employed for Press photography. The outstanding feature of latterday camera manufacture is the preponderance of instruments to take plates and films of the smaller sizes. Thanks to the “fine grain” of modern emulsion

ground surface of the screen. Slides are commonly made to hold two plates or films back to back, with a metal partition to prevent the passage of light. There are two patterns, “book-form,” hinged to open like a book, and solid, the latter generally known as plate-holders. With some hand cameras single metal slides are

cameras increased and has continued steadily to the present day

even negatives made with “vest-pocket” cameras will yield excel-

supplied. In all slides light is temporarily excluded from the front of the plate or film by a sliding or roller shutter which is removed or opened, of course, for exposure, and replaced or

closed when the latter is completed. In the case of studio cameras (q.v.) a “repeating slide” enables two plates to be quickly exposed in succession without removing the slide itself. In field cameras other methods are adopted, both to facilitate speedy consecutive exposures and to permit the carriage of a number of plates or cut films in less space than is possible with separate slides or plate-holders. Some patterns of changing-box are very compact and convenient. The usual con-

struction is in the form of a box with a sliding door at the back, to the open top of which a small bag of light-tight material is

affixed. The sliding door at the back having been removed the plates or cut films in sheaths are packed into the box, and a spring at the back ensures constant and even pressure upon all the sheaths in the pack, with the result that the front plate or film is always in register with the focussing screen. In the front of the box there is, as in the case of the ordinary dark slide, a shutter which is withdrawn for, and replaced after, exposure.

The front plate after exposure is either lifted or levered up into the light-tight bag at the top of the box, and transferred with the

lent half-plate enlargements. Naturally this facility appeals to finger and thumb to the back. Slides, plate-holders and changing-boxes have largely been the average amateur and also, in a measure, to professionals. In fact to-day the enlarger is complementary to the camera to such superseded for amateur use by roll-film cameras based on the an extent that in any modern photographic exhibition the pro- Eastman Kodak system. In the earlier applications of the latter portion of contact prints from negatives taken directly in cameras the roll of film was carried on a spool in a separate holder with removable back and shuttered front, which thus became a sort of is conspicuously small.

Construction.—In some portable cameras the application of the “fixed focus” principle renders any focussing adjustment superfluous, but otherwise the latter is a primary constructional requirement. In the earlier field cameras the extension—almost invariably by means of leather bellows pleated accordion-wise— was regulated by an endless screw operated from the back. The method is still employed in big copying apparatus, but has been largely supplanted by a rack-and-pinion action, on the back of the camera if the bellows are parallel and racked out from the front, and on the front where conical bellows are racked out from the back. The front, sometimes the back also, is kept rigid by struts or other supports affixed to the baseboard, and the lens, usually mounted on a sliding panel, can be lowered or raised to modify the amount of foreground included. Convergence of

changing-box.

But the roll-holder is now incorporated in the

camera itself, with appreciable increase of portability and convenience and no loss of efficiency. The film itself in a long strip sufficient for several exposures is backed by a longer strip of black paper on which at suitable intervals the number of the exposure is boldly stamped. The excess of black paper at either end of the film, provides a safety covering during the process of loading the spool into the camera, and thus enables the latter operation to be performed in daylight. In practice, the lens being normally capped by a central shutter, the back of the camera is removed, and

the spool inserted at one side of the roll-holding arrangement. At the other side an empty slotted spool should be in position. The seal of the full spool having been broken a portion of the safety covering is unwound and threaded into the slot of the empty spool.

vertical lines caused by tilting the camera can be corrected by a The back, which is provided with a small red “window,” is now swinging back or front, which enables the base of the sensitive replaced. By means of a winder more of the black paper is plate to be kept horizontal, and its sides vertical, irrespectively wound off until the number (1) appears in the little red window. of the tilt. A “swing-back” or a “side-swing” is also occasionally The section of film for the first picture is now in position, and useful for bringing into focus a foreground, or a near object exposure by operating the shutter follows. An alternative method of daylight loading is provided by the on one side or the other of the subject, without “stopping down.” Focussing is ordinarily carried out with stand cameras by view- film-pack system, originally introduced in connection with a ing the image formed by the lens on the piece of finely ground special camera called the “Premo,” but now adapted to nearly all glass constituting the focussing screen, a cloth being thrown over classes of portable camera. The pack itself consists of a num-

ber of cut films with attached and interleaved pieces of black paper provided with numbered tags, the whole pack being backed focussing cloth to be dispensed with, and in most hand cameras by a sheet of metal provided with springs. By pulling out one the focussing screen is replaced by the finder (g.v.). For certain of the tags a sensitive film is brought into position for exposure, scientific purposes it is preferable to focus on a piece of plain the preceding film having been simultaneously transferred to the glass with a focussing magnifier which thus virtually becomes the back of the pack. With all hand cameras some form of finder is required. The eyepiece of a telescopic system; but “aerial focussing,” as it is called, is unsuited to ordinary photography in which composition earliest finder was a second camera, and this idea survives in twin-lens and binocular cameras. But the more usual finder is of the subject as a whole must be studied.

the camera to exclude extraneous light. In some cameras, notably those of the reflex type, a focussing chamber enables the

The focussing screen, and, later, the dark slide or other receptacle for the sensitive plate or film is now usually held at the back of stand cameras in a frame which is reversible for pictures taken with the plate lengthwise or upright.

an attachment either of the “direct-vision” kind, with or without a lens or lenses, or in the form of an angled reflector in which

an image produced by a miniature lens, and representing on a

small scale that transmitted by the lens in actual use, is viewed,

CAMERA TYPES]

PHOTOGRAPHY

either on the mirror itself, or on a tiny ground glass screen. The simplest form of direct-vision finder is a wire frame which, held

at a correct distance, represents the proportions of the plate, the view included being identical with that photographed. In other direct-vision finders the subject is collected in a small rectangular

negative lens, and this miniature image, accurately proportioned to the size of the plate, is viewed through an eye-hole or eye lens. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC

CAMERA

There are two principal kinds of photographic camera, studio and field, the former type a comparatively small category almost exclusively used by professional portraitists. The studio camera forms as a rule part of a combina-

tion (fg. 19), in which a substantially built stand, capable of adjustment as to height and inclination, is included. Such a combination should be movable to any part of the studio, preferably on casters. The camera is fitted with square bellows and focussing is by a double rack and pinion movement, sometimes supplemented by a draw-out extension for quickly obtaining a coarse focus. Extra rigidity is given to the fully extended instrument by a wooden centre frame. The front has a rising and falling movement and is very solidly built to carry largeand heavy portrait lenses. In many cameras of FIG. 19.—*‘ENSIGN'' STUDIO this type there is an internal flap CAMERA AND STAND shutter which can be worked noiselessly by a bulb held in the operator’s hand. Apart from portability the main difference between a studio and a field camera lies in the arrangement of the back. Field cameras are of many sorts and sizes and include several classes to which separate attention is being given. But the description “field” may be said to belong properly to the kind of camera used in the open, and on a stand, for general work which is not ordinarily attempted in the studio, such as large groups ahd genre studies in natural surroundings, as well as architecture and landscapes. Such a camera must be reasonably portable if plates of a fair size have to be exposed, and it should possess, in addition to a swing back (or front) and a rising and falling front, an extension sufficiently variable to enable lenses of relatively long or short focus to be used. Thus a half-plate camera, the lens normally employed with which would probably have a focal length of 8 in., should have a full extension of not less than 16 in. and it should be possible to rack it in to take wide-angle lenses with a focal length of not more than 4 in. As it is essential that a field camera should be quite rigid when fully extended the design of

an instrument possessing this qualification, in addition to that of portability, presents some difficulties. The “square-form” camera equipped with parallel bellows remains a favourite with many for field work, owing to its rigidity and adaptability to all classes of subjects and all types of lens. Only moderate portability, however, is possible with this model, and a rather substantial tripod is needed to support it at all satisfactorily. For sizes above half-plate, accordingly, a lighter form of camera with conical bellows is frequently preferred, and, provided that the design is good, and the material and workmanship all they should be, a field camera on these lines will meet all requirements. Only a well made conical bellows camera will carry a variable telephoto lens without risk of vibration, and for that particular branch of photography the “square form” is distinctly preferable. Some conical bellows models have baseboards in which a circle has been cut out and a metal ring inserted, thus constituting a tripod head to which ordinary tripod legs can be attached.

821

Owing to improved facilities for enlargement field cameras in the larger sizes are not now so freely used as formerly, and the convenience of roll film has rendered diminutive Kodaks, Carbines and other “pocket” instruments increasingly popular. But there is an intermediate type which, as an efficient compromise, is perhaps the most useful form of camera in existence. This is commonly known as the “hand or stand” variety, of which the Watson “Alpha” was the best early model. The later productions of Newman and Guardia, which owe their perfection chiefly to the mechanical genius of A. S. Newman, and those of Adams, the FHoughton-Butcher Co., Ernemann and other makers, are modern examples of “hand or stand” design in which every conceivable requirement in the way of moveBY COURTESY OF NEWMAN & GUARDIA

FIG. 20.—NEWMAN AND GUARDIA

PART SIOR- STEI

ment

and

extension

is

met

in

extremely portable instruments.

In the “Sybils” (fg. 20) of the

first named firm extra rigidity is secured by a neat and effective “lazy-tongs” method of extension. Another representative model of this type is the Sinclair “Una” which, while less compact than the “Sybil,” is sufficiently portable and only a trifle less efficient than the “square form.” The“Sanderson” of the Houghton-Butcher Co. is remarkable for the length of its extension, the latitude of its rising, falling, and swinging front movements, and the ingenious provision made for the use of very short focus lenses.

Collapsible hand cameras are largely used for Press photography. They form a type apart of which the Goerz-Anschiitz was the pioneer model. A typical modern camera of this class is the Ross “‘Panros” (fig. 21) which is not only extremely convenient for hand work but can be so effectively used on a stand that it

was adopted by the Royal Engineers for the field equipment of their Printing Companies, by whom it was extensively employed in the World War. Cameras of this kind are fitted with focalplane shutters (see p. 828) and very rapid lenses, f/4.5 being a usual aperture. In the “Ermanox” made by the Zeiss Ikon Co. an Ernostar anastigmat working at f.1.8 has been fitted with which instantaneous photographs can be secured in a theatre with ordinary stage lighting. Magazine cameras in which a number of plates or films are packed and brought forward successively for exposure, somewhat on the principle of the changing-box, are now comparatively seldom used. Unless of the simplest construction, in which

BY COURTESY OF ROSS F1G. 21.—ROSS

‘‘PANROS’’ CAMERA

case they are bulky, the changing mechanism is apt to give trouble. Binocular and twin-lens cameras represent an endeavour to provide the operator with a view of the object up to and including the moment of exposure. They are literally, as their name implies, combinations of two separate cameras and two separate lenses, the focussing adjustments

being correlated so that one half of the combination can be used for focussing, the other for exposing the plate. In the form of an inverted field glass, the focussing screen and the plate taking the place of the two eyepieces, binocular hand cameras are still to be met with, but the twin-lens, which in its later forms was an early “reflex,” has been practically superseded by the single-lens reflex. Modern reflex cameras form a class apart in connection with which much ingenuity of invention has been displayed and many patents have been taken out. The principle is explained in the accompanying diagram (fig. 22) but, as in practice the reflex is

usually held in the hand, it is now fitted with a collapsible vertical hood which enables the operator to look down through it on to

the focussing screen. A second mirror can, if desired, be fitted in

PHOTOGRAPHY

822

the hood for horizontal viewing, and focussing can be assisted by the use of a binocular focussing magnifier. Constructionally the reflex camera is a box containing a movable mirror interposed between the plate and the lens, and facing the latter at an angle of 45°. This throws up the image on to the horizontal focussing screen, on which it is viewed through the hood. The outstanding mechanical feature of the reSUPPLEMENTARY flex is the co-ordination of the movement of the mirror with the shutter release. The removal of the former to enable the image transmitted by the lens to reach the plate, and the instantaneous exposure of the latter by means of the shutter, are effected simultaneously. The shutter almost invariably fitted to these cameras is of the focal plane type, and more than a dozen models of re-

flexes by first-class makers are FIG. 22.—REFLEX CAMERA available. A typical pattern of the reflex camera, with movable mirror, horizontal focussing screen and viewing hood is the “Soho” designed by Kershaw and made by the Amalgamated Photographic Manufacturers Ltd. (fig. 23). Reflex Camera and design and construction are considered by A. S. Newman in the Photographic Journal for 1921, p. 219.

The basic idea of the Roll-flm camera has already been dis-

cussed. The folding Kodak (fig. 18) remains the most popular instrument of the type, and the latest models of it embody practically every improvement that ingenuity has devised or experience suggested. Substantially the form has not altered. The metal door which closes the front of the camera falls down and forms a baseboard along which the panel carrying the lens, shutter and finder are drawn out until the required focussing adjustment has been made. In some models the fixed focus principle is applied; in others the focus can be altered, according to an affixed scale, to suit all distances from a few feet to infinity. Great cleverness has been displayed in ensuring the rigidity of both baseboard and lens panel. In the better models a fair rise of front is allowed. Focussing roll-film cameras, more or less closely resembling Kodaks, but containing various structural modifications, are now made by a number of British and foreign firms. For panoramic photography various special types of camera have from time to time been introduced in order to satisfy the scientific requirement that, in covering the abnormally wide angles usually embraced in this kind of work, the lens should rotate on its nodal point of emergence. But practically all the earlier panoramic cameras, an account of which was given in the B.J.A. of 1892, have disappeared, and even the interesting and eff-

cient little Panoram Kodak (fig. 24), Which takes pictures on BY COURTESY OF THE AMALGAMATED PHOTOa section of roll flm 34 in.X 10$ GRAPHIC MANUFACTURERS FIG. 23.—'‘SOHO’* REFLEX CAMERA in. with a lens swinging on its own axis through the arc of a circle, has comparatively few users. A few professional panoramic cameras, such as the “Cirkut” and

[CAMERA TYPES

(g.v.) various particular forms of camera and dark slide have been devised, more particularly in connection with the taking of

the three negatives required for trichrome work on paper. The

simplest method of obtaining the latter is separate exposure of three panchromatic plates in ordinary slides, the lens being

screened successively by green, red and blue-violet filters. Greater speed is obtained by use of the Sanger-Shepherd repeating slide in which the three filters are placed immediately in front of sections of a long plate, the sections with their respective filters being exposed in quick succession by passing the slide along a frame fitted to the back of an ordinary camera. A modification of this repeating slide has recently (1928) been introduced by F. Newens. A more elaborate system consists in obtaining the three

negatives at a single exposure by means of a specially constructed camera in which the image transmitted by the lens is trebled by

the addition of prisms, one image reaching its plate directly, the other two reaching theirs by reflection. In some colour cameras the prisms are replaced by a mirror system, a recent example of the latter type being the special camera issued in connection with the Jos-Pe process. Numerous cameras of both types have been proposed, and are discussed in Vol. XLV. of the Photographic Journal, p. 150 (1905) by W. Gamble. However, at the time of writing it seems very highly probable that the various specialized forms of the one-exposure camera for all of the varied applications of colour-photography will within a brief period of time be rendered obsolete. This important change in the technical practice of colour-photography will be inevitably brought about by the notable improvements in the application of the tripack method. In this new technique a single simultaneous exposure is given to three films packed together. One of these films is green-sensitive, another is redsensitive, while the third film is blue-sensitive. By this ingenious combination, which greatly simplifies the problem of taking colour-pictures, noteworthy practical advances may be confidently expected throughout the entire field of colour-photography. The construction of cameras for stereoscopic photography (g.v.) has reached a high degree of perfection in models such as the “‘Verascope” of J. Richard, the Leitz “Heidoscope” and the Voigtlander “Stereoflectoscope,” the two last having a reflex finder a which a full size image is shown by the use of a third lens fig. 26). In the practice of Photo-micrography likewise, a large choice of apparatus is available, ranging from cameras of very long

bea

arenere ane s=

FIG.

24.—PANORAM

eoma veone

‘‘KODAK’’

extension with elaborate arrangements for securing correct alignment to simple attachments for use with ordinary cameras for Optical Co. of Rochester, U.S.A—are available. But in modern low power work. In addition to horizontal apparatus some fine practice panoramic photographs are commonly made by exposing cameras have been designed by Zeiss and others to work vertically, several plates to cover sections of the complete picture. while others, again, can be used in conjunction with the microSpecial cameras for map reproduction—often of huge dimen- scope in either position. sions—and for copying in connection with “process” work need Since Cinematography, Aerial and X-ray photography are dealt not be specifically described as to all intents and purposes they with separately, the apparatus connected with them does not are elaborations of the studio form. For Colour Photography come within the scope of this Section. the “Korona’—the

latter made

by the

Gundlach-Manhattan

INLARGERS;

PHOTOGRAPHY

STANDS]

LAMP HOUSE Oo

o

CAMERA BODY

PLATE HOLDER COUNTER-BALANCE WEIGHT

ANTI-FRICTION ROLLERS

ENLARGING CAM PLATE a

” CAMERA HANDLE

VERTICAL COLUMNS PROJECTION PRINTER CAM PLATE

MASKING

PROJECTION PRINTER

SN UA

CENTERING

SCREW MOTION

ORANGE GLASS

CAMERA BELLOWS

EXPOSING LEVER ENLARGING BOARD

i

!

SPRING TO FOOT TREADLE FOOT TREADLE

BY COURTESY

OF

HOUGHTON-BUTCHER,

GREAT

~

f

3

at

| ||

IL

BRITAIN

FIG. 25.—ALDIS

Cinematography

aly

=

Te

Albse

m

is dealt with under Motion

Pictures

ENSIGN

ENLARGER

(see' and since greatly developed, is a combined camera and stand with

especially Motion Picture TECHNoLocy by C. E. K. Mees).| semi-automatic mechanism for the reproduction of various kinds Aerial photography is treated under Arronautics

also under SURVEYING.

and AVIATION,

X-ray photography is discussed under

X-RAY; X-RAYS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE and related subjects.

Enlargers.—The old method of enlarging by direct photography with a short focus lens and an ordinary camera of long extension has for a number of years been largely discarded in favour of the employment of apparatus resembling the ordinary

optical lantern.

In the modern enlarger (fig. 25) a negative or

a transparency takes the place of the lantern slide, the screen

being represented by an easel to which a piece of bromide paper or a sensitive plate is, after focussing, affixed. A powerful beam of artificial light 1s passed, with the help of a condenser, through the negative or transparency and the enlarging lens with the result that an image is projected varying in enlargement according to the distances between the negative and the lens and between the lens and the sensitive surface of the paper or plate. The illuminant may be either electric light or gas, but the former is now generally preferred, partly because it facilitates the construction of vertical enlargers which have some advantages over the horizontal form. A number of vertical enlargers have been designed. Enlarging can also be carried out without condensers by collecting the rays of an illuminant in a reflector of ellipsoid form from which a parallel beam of sufficient size is passed through

the negative. The latter may be held in the dark slide of an ordinary camera which, with its lens, is thus made to take the place of the front portion of an ordinary enlarging lantern. The Photostat, an American invention introduced about 1907

of official and commercial documents by unskilled operators in any ordinary well-lighted office. Any scale of enlargement or reduction can be adopted, and copies can be developed and fixed in not many seconds A very rapid colour-sensitive paper is used, rendering the system extremely valuable for copying engineers’ and architects’ plans, etc. See B.J.A. for 1928, p. 180. Stands.—For studio cameras (q.v.) as previously noted, stands of substantial “pillar” construction are usually provided With copying and otber large cameras the stand is more often in the form of a table, but also provided with raising, lowering and tilting movements. For enlarging purposes the stand and easel are sometimes combined, runners enabling the conjugate distances to be readily varied. But for all general photographic purposes the tripod form of stand is the most practical, and almost innumerable patterns in wood and metal have been evolved. For very small cameras tripods with telescoping legs of an aluminium alloy and a top of harder metal meet the demand for extreme portability, but for serious work a substantial wooden pattern is greatly to be preferred. The legs should telescope to make them not only more portable but also adjustable to uneven ground. For special work a revolving or tilting head may be desirable, and in some patterns provision is made for increasing the height of the camera from the ground by means of a second head raised on an adjustable rod above the normal level of the stand. For steadying cameras for incidental snapshot work a “uni-

pod” may be convenient. A unipod arrangement can also be em-

ployed to supplement the ordinary tripod as a support for 4 tele-

824

PHOTOGRAPHY

[LENSES

photo or other heavy lens affixed to a camera which is of frail | convex composed of a biconvex crown cemented to a plano-conconstruction. cave flint, while the back element was a double convex composed PHOTOGRAPHIC

of a bi-convex crown separated by an air-space from a concaye-

LENSES

Historical. The — earliest form of photographic objective was an adaptation of W. H. Woolaston’s single periscopic meniscus lens as applied by him to the camera obscura in 1812. This was achromatised by C. Chevalier for use about 1839 by Daguerre,

convex flint. The form was notably improved by J. H. Dalmeyer who in 1866 reconstructed the back combination by substituting a meniscus crown for the bi-convex element, and a shallow

concave-convex positive meniscus for the negative meniscus, reversing the positions, and introducing an air space. In 1861 J. H. Dallmeyer produced a triplet very fully achromatised, non-distorting, and giving excellent definition, but since obsolete on account of its bulk and slowness. Between

AS

N SH

|TTT LDDP

FIG, 28.—PETZVAL

1841 and 1866 a number

PORTRAIT LENS

of doublets were brought

forward by British and Continental opticians with the object of increasing rapidity and eliminating distortion, and towards the end of this period a simple and efficient type of “rectilinears,” “symmetricals” and “aplanats” had become established. In the manufacture of these a high degree of excellence was attained particularly by Dallmeyer and Ross in England and by Steinheil in Germany (fig. 29). Wide-angle symmetrical doublets with greatly

deepened curves appeared about the same time, some exhibiting remarkable qualities of definition combined with covering power. — Dallmeyer’s “Rapid Rectilinear,” SS {/8 (1867) set what remained as the standard for photographic Fic. 29.—RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS lenses for ordinary purposes until the perfection of the anastigmat. Among slower combinations the “Portable Symmetrical” of Ross was remarkable for its flatness of field and a compactness which enabled a number of lenses of widely different foci to be fitted into the same flange. The issue in 1886 by Schott and Genossen of the “Jena glasses” formulated by Professor Abbe placed in the hands of photographic opticians a means of eliminating astigmatism by setting high refractivity with low dispersion against low refractivity with high dispersion. Some of the early Jena glasses were unstable and progress in construction was at first slow. In 1888 Dr. Shroeder worked out for Ross an anastigmat afterwards known as the “Concentric Lens” but the first thoroughly successful objective made with Jena glasses was that designed in 1889 by Dr. Paul Rudolph of the Zeiss firm, and classed as Series II. £/6-3. The details of construction eS See

BY COURTESY OF OGILVY & CO, FIG. 26.—‘*HEIDOSCOPE’'

STEREO-REFLEX

CAMERA

but was not corrected for chemical focus. The first photographic lens corrected for chromatic aberration (see later under Construction), was a doublet made about 1840 by Andrew Ross for H. Collen, and consisting of two achromatic compounds, one at

each end of a tube (fig. 27).1 Many single lenses of good performance were produced by the early photographic opticians, T. Grubb’s “Aplanatic” (1857) and J. H. Dallmeyer’s “Wide Angle Landscape” (1865), ‘‘Rapid Landscape” (1884), and “Rec-

tilinear Landscape” (1888) being notable examples. In 184r a remarkable advance was achieved by Voigtlander’s introduction of a rapid portrait lens designed by Pro-

WASSER SSE

fessor Petzval of Vienna (fig. 28), to whom is due the his- Fic. 27.—Finst ENGLISH PORTRAIT toric condition that the sum LENS of the focal powers of the individual lenses in a photographic combination, multiplied by the reciprocals of their respective refractive indices, should be equal to zero, or =

o.

This pioneer portrait lens consisted of two dissimilar achromatic combinations widely separated, the front element being a planon the diagrams of lenses which follow, a uniform system of indicating the nature of the glass employed by means of the shading has been adopted.

Flint glass is indicated thus:— Crown glass of low refractive power thus:— Crown glass of high refractive power thus:— (These two are used indiscriminately in lenses made before the introduction of the new Jena glass.) Extra light flint glass thus:— In most cases the front of the lens is on the right.

are to be found in the Eder for 1891 and 1893. This excellent lens was followed

DS SST'| Jahrbücher

f

a

WH) OQ

E

Mi

ou

= I ~~] aa J Dd d — end eel ed = el — "e "s — a sam = a

by several other anastigmatic singles and doublets, a new line Mo AAN being struck out by the symmetrical cemented doublet of C. P. FIG. 30.—‘‘COOKE'’ LENS, SERIES

Goerz known as the “Dagor,

™

which has since been widely imitated. Almost simultaneously the single “Protars” of C. Zeiss came to be combined in doublet form. These improvements soon showed themselves to be as excellent in practice as they were in theory. In 1895 Taylor, Taylor and Hobson produced a remarkable and entirely novel anastigmat designed by H. D. Taylor and known as the “Cooke” lens (fig. 30). It consists of three single lenses, a biconvex crown in front, and a very flat biconvex crown behind, with a biconcave of light flint in between, and close behind the front crown. Also in 1895 H. L. Aldis calculated for Dallmeyer a new convertible anastigmat consisting of two dissimilar compounds, thus giving a choice of three foci. The “Stigmatic,” as it is called, is. still issued but in a non-convertible form. In 1902 H. L. Aldis produced at the new works of Aldis Brothers at Birmingham a much simpler anastigmat composed of a

PHOTOGRAPHY

LENSES]

cemented meniscus in front and a single double convex back lens (fig. 31). Several series have been issued and very widely dis-

tributed.

In 1902, again, Ross

and E. Busch of Rathenow

simultaneously produced anastigmats arate lenses, the Ross combination,

consisting of four sepknown as the ‘“Homo-

centric,” being of Jena glasses, while in the Busch “Omnars” as originally constructed normal glasses were employed. In 1907 H. C. and C. Beck made another

new

departure

in

ss

the

ing the Petzval condition, the inventor’s theory being that the condition does not apply to lenses the individual elements of which are separated by large intervals (fig. 32). In 1913 J. W. Hasselkus worked out for Messrs. Ross a singularly fine anastigmat

D> F2LP HD

Uy

Isostigmar, remarkable as violat-

SQ ;

i

Yy SS

LiL

Aa

A Q“hy, p AN

LLI

FIG. 31.—ASTIGMATIC LENS, SERIES 1!

which has since become famous under the name “Xpres.” Itis a

non-convertible doublet, the conspicuous feature of which is a cemented back combination consisting of three lenses, the first a bi-

concave or plano-concave of low refraction, the second a meniscus of medium refraction, and the third a biconvex of high refraction.

From 1808 in addition to the above-named, and in partial supersession of the doublets of Zeiss, Goerz, Steinheil and Voigtlander, there has been a steady stream of new lenses, mostly

825

near the margin of the field. It is partially cured by the use of a small diaphragm, and can be wholly eliminated by the selection of special glasses and the precise calculation of curves. Curvature of field is due to the failure of rays passed by a lens with a spherical surface to come to a focus on the same plane, the defect increasing, like astigmatism, with the obliquity of the rays. Here, too, the diaphragm can be of great service. Distortion is of two kinds, “barrel” and “cushion,” a square appearing in the former shape if photographed with a single meniscus lens with the concave side outwards and the diaphragm placed in the front of the

lens, and as a “cushion”—i.e., with concave sides—if photographed with a single lens convex side outwards and with the diaphragm behind. It is corrected naturally in symmetrical doublets, since the barrel distortion of one component compensates the cushion distortion of the other.

Chromatic aberration is caused by the

dispersion of the white light passing through the lens, and is due to the fact that the different coloured rays come to a focus at different distances from the visual focus, according to their wavelengths. It is corrected by compensating lenses of different refractive powers. (See Optics.) In the general construction of photographic lenses the defects which were enumerated above, together with a number of others, are neutralized by regulating the curves of the different positive and negative component lenses, the refractive and dispersive indices of the glasses used, and the distances of the refracting surface, in this manner making the objective truly stigmatic or focussing to a point. The performance

of an adequately corrected lens depends chiefly upon its effective aperture or the diameter of the clear VN. ray actually used in impressing the image on the plate. This and others—chiefly remarkable | diameter is not necessarily that of the diaphragm employed, but but for increase of aperture SSS the latter is used for the purpose of mechanical regulation of also of brilliant all-round per} aperture, j.e., reduction from “full” to the smallest possible, the At 33). formance (fig. In early lenses the diaphragms or “stops” were of the Watertime of writing a high-water BRL iai house pattern, with thin pieces of metal with circular openings of g SOOM ANa, a mark of rapidity seems to have different sizes which could be inserted in a slot in the lens mount. been reached in a lens made This pattern is still employed in portrait and other large lenses. by Ross for a special purpose sy courtesy oF R. & J. BECK A variation is the rotating stop, a circular plate containing 2 to work at f/1-3, but there Fic. 32.—BECKS’ ‘‘ISOSTIGMAR" series of apertures which can be brought into position as desired. is also a prospect of reaction LENS which Messrs. from such extremes and of a return to practical apertures, such as Most modern lenses are fitted with iris diaphragms to photoapply to first the been have small to of claim made Beck be J. can and R. lenses {/6-3, at which beautifully corrected graphic lenses in 1880. These consist of thin leaves of metal dimensions and at moderate cost. In 1891 T. R. Dallmeyer in London, A. Miethe in Berlin and or ebonite so arranged that by operating a ring to which they can be formed at A. Dubosc in Paris simultaneously worked out telephotographic are affixed apertures of different diameters are in combinations consisting of positive and negative elements, varia- will. Several systems of numbering diaphragm apertures the which in method number F the being common most the use, which of tions in the separation aperture marked is the focal length of the lens divided by the produced magnification according effective diameter of the stop. Thus an effective diaphragm opento the camera extension eming of 4 in. in the case of a lens of 8 in. focus would be {/16. In ployed. other words the aperture marked is a definite proportion of the CONSTRUCTION OF PHOTOfocal length. Another system is the U.S., or Uniform Standard, GRAPHIC LENSES proposed by the Royal Photographic Society in 1881 and adopted in the Kodaks. This takes f/4 as the standard, the markings The construction of technically corresponding to the F. numbers being as follows: f. values, £/4, good photographic lenses, of f/s.6, £/8, £/11-3, £/16, £/22-6, £/32, £/45-2. U.S. Nos., 1, 2, 4) been has ion which some indicat 16, 32, 64, 128. 8, given in the preceding historical the Continent the sequence of F. numbers is usually 3-16, On upon largely s depend y, summar 9, 12:5, 18, 25-3, 36, the exposure in each of the last 6-3, 4-8, dethe elimination of certain BY COURTESY OF CARL ZEISS being, as in the two preceding systems, double that cases seven fects of which the principal are FIG. 33.—ZEISS'S ‘‘TESSAR” necessary in the case of the preceding numfound is which (2) ion, (1) Spherical aberrat tion Distor (5) field, ber. of Coma, (3) Astigmatism, (4) Curvature PROBLEMS OF FOCUS and (6) Chromatic aberratiion. Spherical aberration is due to to the fact that a spherical surface does not bend or focus light The fact that depth of focus is conditioned not only by aperone exact point, in other words the rays passing through the edge ture but also by focal length has an important bearing upon the passof such a surface do not focus to the same point as those construction of very large aperture lenses, It is obviously of ing through the centre. It can be partly corrected in a single lens length the small use to build a cumbrous and costly lens with a focal by the use of a diaphragm, and in combinations by varying say f/3 for ordinary work, in of, aperture an and in. 12 say, of, funcare tism astigma curves of the component lenses. Coma and the lens would almost invariably need to be stopped at any tions of spherical aberration, the first being a blur due to lateral which rate to £/8 to secure reasonable “depth,” But, with the extended spherical aberration of oblique rays. It is partly eliminated by of diminutive cameras carrying very short focus lenses, the use focus the diaphragm. Astigmatism manifests itself in inability to wide apertures has grown enormously, and time both vertical and horizontal lines demand for very

triplets—‘“Tessars,” ‘“‘Pentacs,” “Serracs,” “Heliars,” “Aviars”

EL

|

UUL

accurately at the same

826

PHOTOGRAPHY

lenses working at £/3-5 are now comparatively common. An important consideration in the construction of a photographic lens is the angle of view it embraces. If over 50° it is usually described as wide, if under 35° as narrow. The angle depends on the focal length of the lens in relation to the size of the plate, and in practice the focal length should not be less than the diagonal of the plate. In the case of a half-plate this diagonal is 8 in., in that of a quarter-plate 5-3 in. Tables of view angles are published in the B.J.A. showing the number of degrees embraced according to the quotient arrived at by dividing the diagonal of the plate by the equivalent focus of the lens. In the case of an 8 in. lens used on a half-plate, the quotient arrived at being 1, the angle according to the table is 53°.

The term focus is explained in the general article on LENs (g.v.), but it may be pointed out here that the equivalent focus of a photographic lens must be measured from the nodal point of emergence which is sometimes, as in the case of the Aldis and in that of Telephoto lenses, in front of the front component. The historical genesis of the principal forms of photographic lenses having already been discussed, their actual construction, apart from the optical considerations dealt with in the general

article on Lens (g.v.), may now be glanced at. The single lens is seldom produced commercially to-day except as a component of a doublet or triplet, or in connection with the cheaper amateur

outfits. In the latter case it is a simple achromatic meniscus composed of a biconvex crown cemented to a biconcave flint.

single components

The

of the better types of “Rapid Rectilinear”

are constructed in a somewhat different manner. Anastigmat singles, such as those used to make up the combinations of the Zeiss “Protar,’”’ the Ross “Combinable,” the Steinheil ‘“Orthostigmat,” the Watson “Holostigmat” and the Voigtlander ‘“Collinear,” are usually triple compounds of special Jena or Chance glasses. In addition to the symmetrical doublets formed by the

combination of two simple singles there are a number of variously composed asymmetrical doublets, some with cemented, others with air-spaced components, are also notable combinations which, although assembled in two cells, are more or less frankly triplets. The Zeiss Tessars, which are entirely asymmetrical, consist of three separate components, that in front being a cemented lens, the other two uncemented, the intermediate one being a double concave. In the construction of most modem doublets and triplets air-spaces play an important part. (See Lens.) Multiple combinations, such as the Beck Isostigmar, in some forms of which five separate lenses are used, are not in common use, although in the case mentioned a high degree of correction is attained. Apart from, or in connection with, their standard models some lens-makers have designed supplementary lenses to lengthen or shorten the foci of ordinary objectives. In their simplest form such lenses are either long focus negative or positive singles

which can be attached to the front of an ordinary objective with,

necessarily, some disturbance of the original corrections. As far back as 1894 an advance in this direction was made by Taylor, Taylor and Hobson in connection with their “Cooke” lens by producing a suitably corrected rear extension lens for increasing the focal length. More recently the same principle has been applied by the Zeiss firm to its Tessars in a series of “Distars’’ and “Proxars,” the former lengthening, the latter shortening the focal lengths of the original objectives. The construction of telephoto combinations is altogether distinct from that of ordinary photographic lenses. It is based on the fact that, if a negative lens is placed behind a positive lens at a separation not less than the difference between their focal lengths (which constitutes the Galilean telescopic condition), and not more than the focal length of the positive element, a photographic combination is formed, the focal length of which increases as the separation is decreased. The “back focus,” or distance from the back lens of the combination to the plate, is not, however, correspondingly increased, being dependent wholly on the focal length of the negative element, a very important consideration as it enables considerable magnification of the image transmitted by an ordinary lens to be obtained with the same or less camera

extension.

In 1907

[LENSES Capt. Owen

Wheeler

introduced

a System

of combining tele-negatives to produce compounds of extremely

short focal lengths, with which magnification up to X 30 is possi-

ble with a camera extension of only about 13 inches. A good feature of this system is that by making the rear lens of the combination one of relatively large diameter the covering power is

greatly increased. Advantage was taken of this fact in a special complete tele-lens freely used by the Royal Engineers in the World War, which had a focal length of 30 in. and covered a

5X4 plate with a camera extension of 6 in. only. Originally telephoto lenses were “variable power” ones—i.¢.,

the separation of the elements could be altered at will to pro-

duce different magnifications with the same or with different telenegatives. Also an ordinary photographic lens was generally used as the positive element. These arrangements were defective owing, firstly, to the disturbance of the corrections of the positive by a shifting negative element, and, secondly, to the comparative slow-

ness of the combination due to the fact that the aperture of any

telephoto lens is the aperture of the positive multiplied by the

magnification. Thus, in the case of a variable power combination in which, in order to obtain good definition, the positive is stopped to, say, f/11, the aperture at only 5 magnifications would be 1/33; Another drawback in the case of variable power combinations is their liability to internal reflections owing to the relativel y long separation of the two elements. This is partially overcome by lining the lens tube with some non-reflecting substance or material, but a more effective plan is fit a hood on the lens to cut out the extraneous light—a method often adopted with advantage in the case of ordinary objectives. With high-power telephoto combinations hoods several inches long may be needed, and may be made with telescoping tubes. Variable power telephoto lenses are still used by specialists and extraordinary results are attainable with them. But in modern practice single-focus combinations are much more common. In these the positive element is a cemented single lens of extremely wide aperture, the defects of which are corrected in the negative element. The earliest examples of this form were the f/9 Busch Bis-Telar (1905) and the f/14 Zeiss “Magnar” (1906), both since improved, but these have been put into the shade by recent productions of Ross, Dallmeyer, Taylor, Taylor and Hobson, Zeiss and others. The principles and construction of the Telephoto Lens are discussed at length by H. W. Lee in the Photographic Journal for 1925, p. 392. TYPES OF LENSES Little need be added here to the note in the historical summary above on the subject of Portrait Lenses. It is a remarkable tribute to the genius of Petzval that the lines which he laid down

in 1841 should be generally followed to-day in the lenses commonly used for portraiture, although naturally modifications and improvements have since been introduced by leading opticians. Ross, Dallmeyer, Taylor, Taylor and Hobson in Great Britain, and Voigtländer, particularly, on the Continent, have produced many portrait lenses of great excellence and, occasionally, of gargantuan proportions. In some modern studios, however, the portrait lens of old days is yielding place to the anastigmat, the wide aperture of which places it on a level with the Petzval construction in point of speed, while its more perfect corrections and covering power render it specially serviceable in the matter of studio groups. In simple portraiture, on the other hand, extreme flatness of field is not always desirable, a round-fielded lens giving better “modelling.” Since good portraiture has little use for “needle?” sharpness of definition artist photographers since the days of Mrs. Julia Cameron have sought in various ways to modify the critical rendering of objects in the same plane by a well-corrected lens. One method of producing “soft” effects is by means of the diffusion created by partly unscrewing one lens of a combination. Latterly soft focus lenses have been produced by several opticians in which diffusion is secured by speciai computation, the objective being duly corrected for flatness of field, distortion and colour, but yielding an attractively soft image of marked pictorial quality. A third soft focus method is the

LENSES: ACCESSORIES]

PHOTOGRAPHY

employment of uncorrected lenses, as suggested by Bergheim, and

carried out in the Dallmeyer-Bergheim lens (1895).

Between

1903 and 1906 C. Puyo and L. de Puligny constructed several anachromatic systems for portrait and landscape work. More recently A. C. Banfield has experimented in the same direction with a view to keeping the aberrations in this form of lens within reasonable limits, the result being embodied in the Dallmeyer-

Banfield Portrait Astigmat of focal lengths varying from 18 to 30 in. and working with a maximum intensity of £/6. The variety of lenses in use for field work is so great that only a brief mention of a few leading models is possible. In these the

reputation of the makers for design and workmanship is fully maintained, but it is fair to say that in many less well-known productions the requirements of all but specialists are adequately met, some important earlier patents having run out, and the supply of optical glass of high quality having been considerably ex-

panded by the entry of Messrs. Chance of Birmingham into this field of manufacture. For all-round outdoor work the convertible cemented anastigmat is the most useful form, the performance of the single components in the case of doublets like the Zeiss “Protar,” the Ross “Combinable,” and the Watson “Holostigmat” being all that could be desired. With all these lenses asymmetrical as well as symmetrical combinations are practicable, thus giving a choice of three foci. In one series of the “Holostigmats” the single components can be used at the remarkably high aperture —for a single—of f/8-5. At the same time, the critical definition and increased rapidity possible with triple combinations like the “Tessars’? makes them extremely popular, their usefulness being enhanced, where desired, by supplementary lenses such as those mentioned above. Of triplets and asymmetrical doublets, with components one or other of which is uncemented or a single glass, a wide choice is available from the lists of stoss, Dallmeyer, Taylor, Taylor and Hobson, Wray and Aldis Brothers in Great Britain, and of Zeiss, Goerz, Voigtlander and others on the Continent, the apertures ranging from f{/2-2 to £/6-3 and the focal

lengths from two to three inches up to as many feet. In field work, more especially in connection with architectural studies in confined spaces, wide-angle lenses are often necessary, and much attention has been paid to this branch of lens construction both before and since the advent of the anastigmat. Of late years wide-angle lenses with comparatively large full apertures —very useful for focussing in dark interiors—have been made by Taylor, Taylor and Hobson, whose VII. B series, superseding

their previous ‘‘Primoplanes,” open to f/6-5 and at f/32 give sharp definition throughout a field of 100°. The Wide-Angle Aristostigmat of H. Meyer, the 4 in. model of which covers a half-plate at £/9, is another successful lens of this type. For the particular purpose of Aerial surveying, but also very useful for

827

required by the latter. The most advanced lens of this type is the Ross Three Power “Teleros” which gives an image almost three times as large as that given by an ordinary lens from the same standpoint, and works at {/6-3. In the Two Power Teleros the aperture has been widened to f/5-5. There is also a Teleros of 40 in. focus, working at f/8, which is specially constructed for photographing cricket and other sports. Messrs. Dallmeyer, in addition to their ““Grandac” and other variable power telephoto lenses, make a number of fixed-focus objectives giving magnification from X2 to 24 and working at apertures from [/3-5 to {/7-7. The “Ultra-Speed Dallons” are only made in focal lengths up to 12 in. for covering quarter and 5x4 plates, but there is a very useful series working at {/5-6, the 24 in. model of which requires an extension of only 12 in. from the back cell to the focussing screen, and covers a whole-plate. Messrs. Taylor, Taylor and Hobson’s “Cooke” Telephoto Anastigmats, Messrs. Wray’s “Plustrar,” the Zeiss ““Tele-Tessar” and the Voigtlander “TeleDynar” are other fine examples of fixed-separation telephoto lenses. The “Cooke,” like the “Dallon,” is made with apertures of both f/3-5 and f/5-6, but with the former in two focal lengths, 8 in. and ro} in., only. In colour photography a high order of colour correction is necessary and for three-colour “process” and other colour work in which very great accuracy is essential it is desirable that the correction should be carried to the furthest practicable limit. This is done by means of special computations and glasses in apochromatic lenses made by Ross, Taylor, Taylor and Hobson, Zeiss and others. With a view to complete correction for colour

a few quartz lenses have been made by British, French and American opticians, and further progress along that line may be looked for. Lenses for cinematography receive mention in the article on Motion Pictures, but passing allusion may be made to them here since those employed in cine-cameras are photographic objectives pure and simple, made in most cases to standard formulae. Some extraordinary results have been attained in these tiny lenses, the Dallmeyer “Dalmac” having been adapted to cinematography in the 16 mm. sub-standard size in a variety of models, one of which

has a focal length of r in. only, with an aperture of f/1-5. A number of tele-cine-lenses are also available. Very short focus photographic lenses are also used in photomicrography, but are not so suitable for work at high powers as microscope objectives in conjunction with suitable eye-pieces. ACCESSORIES

Light Filters.—The principles on which orthochromatism and panchromatism are based having already been explained (page 814), the discussion of light filters for cutting out some rays and many other classes of work, a new wide-angle Ross Xpres, em- emphasizing others need not occupy much space, although the bracing.an angle of 80° and covering sharply from centre to mar- subject, when closely considered, is of great scientific and gin at the very high aperture of f/4, is a remarkable achievement, technical interest. For the production of such filters various the report of the National Physical Laboratory on this objective expedients have been tried, including small glass tanks filled showing extraordinarily good corrections. Where an abnormally with suitably coloured solutions, but in modern practice either wide-angle lens is needed the Goerz “Hypergon,” which consists specially coloured glasses or dyed gelatine strips cemented beof two hemispherical lenses, and has a frontal star diaphragm tween glass squares or discs—preferably “optical flats’—are commonly employed. The making of gelatine “strip” for such to equalize the light, may be used to cover an angle of 135°. filters demands some skill and patience, a perfectly levelled glass Modern Telephoto lenses are, as previously indicated, very different from the early variable power type, and much better plate being required on which to spread the dyed gelatine soluadapted to latterday requirements. The magnification is small, tion. The latter must, of course, be as clear as possible, and at the most X3, but this is compensated by critical definition stained a spectroscopically correct colour. A number of suitable enabling enlargement to be carried out to the same extent as with dyes are available for making yellow and green filters, for use negatives made with ordinary objectives. For the modern tele- with orthochromatic plates, and blue (or violet), green and red photo lens is corrected throughout as carefully as the best or- filters, for panchromatic plates when the latter are employed in dinary anastigmat, being in fact itself an anastigmat, fully achro- three-colour photography. Yellow filters are usually graded acmatised, free from curvature, spherical aberration and coma, and, cording to the extent to which they increase exposure. In addition within its limits, non-distorting. Also, as now made by half-a- to giving correct rendering of yellows and greens they are fredozen leading opticians, it is rapid enough for all practical pur- quently of the greatest value in cutting out haze and enabling poses, even putting aside the latest “ultra-speed” models in which clouds and distant hills to be effectively reproduced. Certain commercial filters, such as the Ilford “Gamma” and an aperture of £/3-5 has been reached. The only drawbacks are bulk and somewhat restricted covering power, but these do not the Imperial “Impan,” give accurate rendering of all colours constitute a high price to pay for a lens which will do very nearly when used with panchromatic plates from the same source of all that the best ordinary lens will do at half the camera extension supply. The “Impan,” by attaining this result, when used with

8 28

PHOTOGRAPHY

Imperial “Special B” panchromatic plates, with an exposure only 24 times that required without a filter, has set a new standard in this respect and greatly widened the application of panchromatism to hand camera work. For the special filters used with Autochrome and mosaic screen plates see under Colour Photography.

Instantaneous Shutters.—The spread of the modern emulsions necessitates some means of opening and closing a lens in a fraction of a second. To this end a large variety of “instantaneous shutters” has been evolved. The earliest shutters were of the drop or flap pattern, the former merely an oblong strip of wood or metal, with an opening cut in it, and working in a frame fitted to the front of the lens. The dropping of the shutter through the frame effected the exposure by opening and closing the lens. The flap shutter, which is still used in the studio either on the lens or inside the camera, consists of one or two hinged flaps made to open

outwards or inwards by either a pinion or a pneumatic ball and

An alternative

[ACCESSORIES to the pneumatic

shutter release is the “An.

tinous” or “cable”? release consisting

of a steel wire passing

through a long chain of small steel beads. Pressure on a stud actu. ates a spiral spring, which, by its resultant action, produces either

a “pull” or “push” movement in the shutter to which the release

is affixed. Exposure Meters.—There are now two main types of ex. posure

meters, actinometric and

visual observation, the latter commonly known as “extinc. tion’ meters. In the former sensitised paper is exposed to the light falling on the object, and the exposure is based

on the time which

takes

to

darken

the paper

to a

certain tube movement. Later, shutters were made to work between the tint. A narrow strip of spelenses of a combination on either the rotary or iris diaphragm BY COURTESY OF FRIEDR, DECKEL cially prepared silver bromide principle. In the former case a metal disc with an opening in it was FIG. 35.—'‘COMPUR” BETWEEN paper which darkens rapidly on revolved by means of a spring, in the latter leaves of metal or LENSES SHUTTER exposure to light is usually emebonite were made to open or close completely. The Goerz “‘Sec- ployed, a fresh section of it being expos ed in juxtaposition with a tor” and the “Georgen Central” were early shutters of this type. fixed standard tint. The number of seconds, or minutes, counted Modern shutters are either of the roller blind or improved sec- before the standard tint is reached is called the actin ometer tor kind. Roller blind shutters are of two separate types, one in time. This is correlated with the known speed of the plate and the which the blind as a whole opens or closes the lens, difference in stop in use, and the result read off on a dial. The leading British speed being obtained by tightening or relaxing the spring of the patterns of exposure meters are the Watkins and Wynne, both actuating mechanism; the other in which a slit in the blind passes available in watch form. In the Watkins method plate-speeds behind the lens, the speed of exposure being governed partly by are distinguished by numbe rs, in the Wynne meter by an F numthe tension and partly by the width of the slit. The ordinary ber, both designatio ns being roughly comparable with the more roller blind shutters, of which the Thornton-Pickard (fig. 34) precise H and D measu rements. In “extinction” meters the visual is the standard model, are, within their limits, very effective and intensity of the light reflec ted from dependable. Speeds from about qty to about ły sec. can be direct observation. In many patter the shadows is measured by ns, of which the “Heyde” is given by adjusting the spring, and a separate attachment to the typical, the instrument is adjus ted until the subject viewed in bulb enables time exposures up to 3 sec. to be made automatically. the meter appears to lose its shado w detail. In the more recent The theory of such shutters is explained by Abney in his Znstan- “Justophot” of E. Meyer (1924 ) the setting of the instrument is taneous Photography (1895) and by W. B. Coventry in The controlled by the mome nt of appearance of a small numeral as a Technics of the Hand Camera (1901). Of the focal-plane shutter, bright figure in the centre of a dark field. (O. Wx.) as the slit blind variety is called, there are numerous patterns Developing and Printing Apparatus.—The apparatus geared and with adjustable slits to work at speeds from +5 to over used for producing finished prints from exposed sensitive materials roysec. The theory is explained by Coventry (see above) and by differs according to the conditions under which the work is to be C. Fabre in Traité encyclopédique de photographie, Vol. x, Suppl. done. An amateur photographer who develops and prints his own C, 1902. This shutter works immediately photographs uses relatively simple apparatus. A portrait or comin front of the plate and is normally built mercial photographer is equipped to deal with larger sizes and to into the camera. The Goerz-Anschütz patproduce a larger output, while a trade finisher who develops and tern is very typical of the entire group of prints large numbers of films exposed by amateurs uses quite focal-plane shutters. However, the focalelaborate apparatus. plane shutters embodied in several styles Plates and flat films are generally developed by amateur workCURTAIN of cameras produced by British makers ers in flat trays, roll films in a special developing tank in which have special advantages in the matter of APERTURE the film is held in the convolutions of a roll of celluloid which can ease of adjustment and smoothness of be immersed in the developing solution. Sometimes plates are operation. placed vertically in the grooves of a tank or of a rack which can The central lens shutter is now generally be placed in a tank. made with only two or three leaves or In connection with his factorial system of development (g.v.), blades so constructed that practically the A. Watkins produced in 1894 a factorial calculator and a dark opening of all parts of the lens for exporoom clock. With the later extension of “time and temperature” sure is simultaneous. Such shutters are and tank developing methods, a number of dark room clocks and made entirely of metal, and in the best tanks of various patterns been introduced, some of the patterns the mechanism is of the same pre- prekanp GpSY OF THORNTON- former being provided with have alarms which can be set to ring on cision as that of a watch. The exposure is FIG. 34.—MECHANISM OF the expiration of a given number of minutes, while others merely effected by means of springs supplemented THORNTON-PICKARD mark the progress of time on a dial with large hands. sometimes by an air-brake. A shutter ROLLER-BLIND SHUTTER For printing, the simplest method is to place the negative in a known as the “Multi-speed” has been made to work between “printing frame” used to the lenses of a combination at speeds up to an alleged gyro SEC., with it during exposure hold the sensitive paper in close contact to light. Pressure is usually by means of but in the best ordinary models a reputed soo sec. is the highest springs acting on the back, which is hinged to enable the progress speed attainable. The speeds marked on central lens shutters are of the printing to be watched in case printing-out paper is seldom to be depended upon, an exception being the “Newman- used. Even for Sinclair Patent,” which does not work at less than Top sec., but printing materialsamateur use, however, the replacement of other by developing papers has involved the general which will also give exposures as long as 4 sec., the figures employmen t of simple printing boxes containing an electric light marked being absolutely trustworthy, See also Photographic for which the current is controlled by a switch which is actuated Shutters: Methods of Construction and M easuring their Speeds, when a platen is brought down on the negative and sensitive paper by A. S. Newman. placed in contact with it.

ACCESSORIES]

PHOTOGRAPHY

829

Professional photographers

develop their plates very largely | which they are carried while wet by traveling belts. The finished prints may be trimmed at the edges in order to give them a smooth finish and are usually delivered unmounted. which are placed in tanks and transferred from the developer to (C. E. K. M.) the fixing bath and then to the washing tank and finally to a dryStudio and Dark Room Appliances.—Studio Lighting. ing cabinet. In this way a large number of negatives can be —Aside from furniture and blinds for adjustment of lighting by handled together and the day’s work can be developed and made day a feature of most modern studios is the provision made for ready for printing very expeditiously. exposure by artificial light. Of the numerous effective systems in Almost all of the printers used in professional work are of the use some employ arc, others half-watt lamps in combination with printing box type, exposure being made to electric light operated suitable reflectors. Very serviceable special types of studio lightwhen the platen is closed over the negative and printing paper. Ing apparatus have been evolved. A recently introduced studio Professional printers are provided with attachments for masking lighting accessory is the “spot-light,’’ borrowed from the stage. the negatives and for the insertion of special masks of ground Although seldom used in important studios the flash-lamp may glass or celluloid on which local work can be done, so that parts of be briefly mentioned under this heading. It consists of a pan in a negative can be printed to a lesser extent than other portions. which a powder, usually composed largely of magnesium, can be Prints are usually developed in large dishes and after fixing ignited to produce a large flame of highly actinic quality. Derk Room Fittings—-Mention has already been made of and washing may be dried either on racks covered with muslin or, if the output is very large, on one of the various belt driers. dark room clocks and of developing and bromide printing apCommercial photographs are often made with a glossy surface paratus. In addition to these every year sees the introduction of produced by squeegeeing the print on to a lacquered metal plate new designs of lamps and other dark room equipment of sorts known as a “‘ferrotype plate’ and are usually mounted in contact and sizes adapted to the nature and importance of the work in question. Of dark room lamps and lanterns in particular there with backing cloth or paper in order to stiffen the print. For mounting prints, a method of dry mounting by means of is an endless variety, the most practical being those in which either tissues which have been saturated with shellac is frequently white light or light which, while relatively bright, is “safe” for adopted. Tissue and print are laid on the mount in the dry mount- the plates in use, can be turned on at will. The incandescent ing press, in which heat is applied, which causes the shellac to electric lamp is naturally that chiefly used for such dual arrangements. To the making of different “safelights”’ suitable for all melt, with the result that the print is cemented to the mount. The business of “‘photo-finishing,” as it is termed in the United kinds of plates and bromide papers careful attention has been States or “developing and printing” (D. & P.). as it is generally given, and, in order to cope with the extreme sensitiveness of modknown in England, is now a very considerable portion of the ern emulsions, lanterns have been devised by Wratten and others photographic industry, many firms developing several million in which only reflected light is proved through the safelight. This spools of amateurs’ cartridge film every year. In the case of the precaution, however. is being rendered superfluous by the new large photo-finishers, the finishing plant collects film through the methods of desensitizing. While these methods are not suffiagency of a number of photographic dealers and returns the fin- ciently effective to enable very rapid panchromatic plates to be ished pictures to the dealers for distribution to the retail customer. developed by naked candlelight, illumination is permissible after Two important factors in the business are the short time in which desensitizing which would formerly have been out of the quesit is necessary to get the work done, often 24 hours or less, and tion. In the autumn of 1928 the Ilford Co. introduced a new the great variation in the amount of business throughout the year. safelight for use with desensitized panchromatic plates, giving a the output in England, for instance, being ten times as much pleasant green light by which development can be watched in at the maximum in August as at the minimum in January. This comfort as well as in security, variation in the amount of business is causing great attention to be AUTHORITIES —In addition to the books and papers quoted in the paid to the provision of automatic machines in order to diminish text the following are useful sources of information. Apparatus in General: Sir W. de W. Abney, Instruction in Photo a minimum the amount of skilled labor required. When the rolls of film come in, they are unwrapped in the dark room and tography (11th ed., 1905); R. C. Bayley, The Complete Photographer (oth ed., 1927); A. Watkins, Photography, its Principles and Practice numbered, the number being either punched into the film or (3rd ed., 1927); Chapman Jones, An Introduction to the Science and light-printed on it. They are then held in clips which can be Practice of Photography (4th ed.. 1904); C. B. Neblette, Photography, slipped over rods, so that the films with a weighted clip at the its Principles and Practice (1927); British Journal Photographic Almaend are immersed in deep tanks of developer. After a fixed time nacs to 1928 (B, J. A.); Patent Office, Abridgements of Specifications, in tanks, and the flat films, which to a considerable extent have replaced plates in professional work, are developed in holders

of development, they are transferred to a rinse tank, fixed, washed,

and again transferred to a drying cabinet. Several forms of continuous machines have now been devised for developing the rolls of film. In these, the rods carrying the films held in clips are moved continuously by a conveyor system through a system of tanks and finally through a drying cupboard. The dried negatives go forward to a printing room, where they are printed by contact upon developing paper, the printers being adapted for rapid operation, frequently by foot treadles, and equipped with numbering devices. Automatic power driven printers have been designed but have not yet come into general use. From the printers, the paper goes to the developers, and at

this stage also there is a tendency towards the use of machines of the conveyor type which carry the print through the necessary solutions and finally deliver them to a washer. Most prints, however, are developed in flat trays, fixed, and then washed in a rotating cage immersed in flowing water or in a series of flat trays through which water flows, this being used particularly in England, where it is known as a “cascade washer.” The washed prints are dried by being placed between two fabric belts which travel over a heated drum, these machines being known as “belt driers,” which deliver the prints dry within a few minutes. Glossy prints are dried upon ferrotype plates in cupboards or, with the most recent machines, upon polished metal drums to

class 98. “Photography”; Photographic Journal ta 1928; Dr. J. M. Eder, Jahrbucher fur Photographie und Reproductions Technik (from 1887); Dr. C. Fabre, Traité encyclopédique de photographie (vol. 1. 1889, supplements A, 1892, B, 1897, C, 1902. D, 1906). Lenses and Optics: H. D. Taylor, A System of Applied Optics (1906) ; T. Bolas and G. E. Brown, The Lens; Hallut, L’Optique Photographique (Brussels, 1928); C. Beck and H. Andrews, Photographic Lenses (6th ed.); W. K. Burton, Optics for Photographers (1891); R.

S. Cole, A Treatise on Photographic Optics (1899); G. L. Johnsen, Photographic Optics and Colour Photography (1909); J. T. Taylor, The Optics of Photography and Photographic Lenses (3rd ed., 1904) ; Lieut. Col. Moessard, L’Optique photographique (1898), L’Objectif photographigue (1899); Dr, M, von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs (1899); J. H. Dallmeyer, On the Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses (1872); A. Lockett, Camera Lenses (1928). Telephotography: C. F. Lan-Davis, Telephotography (3rd ed. 1924); T. R. Dallmeyer, Telephotography (1899); E. Marriage, Elementary Telephotography (901) ; Capt. Owen Wheeler, Modern Telephotography (1910) ; Schmidt, Das Fernobjectiv und die Vorsatzlinsen (2nd ed., Berlin, 1925).

Light Filters, Shutters, Exposure Meters, etc.: Ilford, Ltd., Panchromatism (1928); E, J. Wall, Practical Color Photography (1922) ;

Sir W. de W. Abney, Instantaneous Photography (1895); W. B. Coventry, The Technics of the Hand Camera (1901); L. David, Die Moment-Photographie (1898) ; A. Abrahams, Photography of Moving Objects and Hand Camera Work for Advanced Workers (1911) ; The

Photo-Miniature Series, No. 107, Hand Camera Work; A. Watkins, Manual of Exposure and Development.

(O. WH.)

830

PHOTOGRAPHY

[PICTORIAL

PICTORIAL PHOTOGRAPHY scene. It involved the inclusion of some hundreds of figures. To By pictorial photography we mean photography applied to the get sittings and draw all these portraits would have meant a year production of pictures in the accepted artistic tradition, but or two of labour and many might be dead before he could secure whether such pictures are to be admitted as art is a matter their likenesses. His friend, Sir David Brewster, an eminent upon which the critics are still at variance. The subjects with scientist of the day, told him of the newly invented photography which photography can deal most successfully are those in which and at the same time introduced a young student of science, Robert realistic representation is permissible and not such as demand | Adamson of St. Andrews, to attend to the technical manipulations. For three years he worked at it and produced that series of poran imaginative treatment. The Nude.—For that reason photography of the nude, which traits of Scottish notabilities that are amongst the greatest, as has always been a tempting subject, fails for the most part, not they are the earliest, masterpieces of the photographic art. An because it presents any greater technical difficulties but because album containing fifty of the original prints of these was issued the realism inseparable from photography makes it almost im- in 1848 and is now in the possession of the R.P.S.} In 1846 Hill returned to his painting, became secretary of the possible to combine it with an idealistic conception, whilst it is equally difficult to use it convincingly in subjects drawn from Scottish Academy of Arts and died in 1870 so completely unknown ordinary life. To present the nude by photography simply as a to fame as a photographer that not a single photographic paper study of the beauty of the human form involves firstly the finding chronicled the event. Although references to his pictures occur of a model of perfect proportions and secondly extreme delicacy earlier (Photographic Journal, 1854, vol. I., p. 177, also 1864, vol. of artistic treatment to prevent degeneration into the recording of -IX., p. 63), it was not until James Craig Annan began to interest mere nakedness. In modern times this class of work is mostly himself in Hill’s work in the early nineties and published aseries done in the studios of the professional photographers who have of photogravure plates from the original paper negatives, that he greater facilities than the amateurs, but however excellent their really became known. It was Hill’s artistry and not his photography that achieved work may be technically, it is usually quite meaningless from the artistic point of view. The finest use of the nude is to be found in greatness and it is well to bear this in mind when pictorial phothe work of the Americans, especially those living in California tography is twitted with not having done anything finer than where conditions are exceptionally favourable, and particularly Hill did so many years ago. Such a reproach is no more just than would be a similar one to the artists of today for not exin that of Annie Brigman, Arthur Kales and Walter Collinge. Still Life.—In other directions photography has more scope. celling Titian and Raphael and Michelangelo. The “Girl in a Landscape, portraiture, domestic genre and still life all offer ample Flowered Gown” is an example of the work of Hill. opportunities to the camera worker with artistic education and Little is known of any of Hill’s contemporaries. Dr. White of a trained eye. Still life, in particular, offers endless possibilities Aberdeen used photography for pictorial purposes and a collection for imaginative treatment by photography and some very beauti- of his landscapes was shown at the R.P.S. in December 1922 ful work of the kind has been done in the past by Baron de Meyer, (Photo. Journal, vol. LXIII., p. 5) but the process was as yet J. M. Whitehead and E. Seymour. It.is a branch of photography so imperfect that the long exposures and lack of colour sensitivewhich the Japanese of the American Pacific coast have developed ness of the negative material made photography chiefly a recordupon lines of their own in recent times, grafting the American love ing medium for the scientist, whence arose the tradition of sharp of startling eccentricities upon their own inborn sense of design. uniform definition that distinguished its practice until the advent In their aptitude for seeing a pattern or decorative effect in chance of Mrs. Cameron in 1864. combinations of the most commonplace kind they are unequalled. Albumen Paper and Collodion.—The introduction of The exploitation of effects of pattern of an eccentric or sensa- albumen paper in 1848 and of the collodion process of Scott tional nature, if it did not actually originate in America, certainly Archer in 1850 marked the next progression. Picture making was reached its greatest development there some twenty years ago as a serious business in those days when the negatives were made a method of self advertisement. Such it still remains. the full size of the finished print and had to be sensitized and deThe sounder development of modern pictorial photography veloped in the field and when enlarging was as yet unknown. shows itself in a feeling for broader and simpler effects, in a Already in the winter of 1851 there was a small group in London stronger sense of pattern and in more attention to the form than meeting regularly and by 1852 this had grown to such an extent to the content of the picture, in other words the picture is no that it was felt the time was ripe for a photographic society. longer expected to tell a story. As a graphic art, photography has ROYAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY certain disabilities, for it cannot suppress facts and cannot omit unwanted details at will. It can modify the presentation of the The First Exhibition.—The holding of the first recorded exfacts but any suppression or alteration has to be done by sub- hibition of photographers at the Gallery of the Society of Arts sequent manipulations, usually involving handwork upon the nega- in December of that year gave an additional impetus and in tive or print, the legitimacy of which has been questioned. January 1853 the Photographic Society of London came into being. Other societies quickly followed and photographers multiIMPROVED PRACTICE ; plied. At the first meeting of the London Society, one of the Fox Talbot.—The story of pictorial photography is largely Vice Presidents, Sir William Newton R.A., a distinguished artist, bound up with the progressive improvements in the materials with read a paper in which he put forward several ideas that countered which the photographer had to work. Fox Talbot’s Calotype pro- the false standard of pictorialism accepted as the result of its vided the first method of making pictures by the agency of light practice by those whose only qualifications were scientific. and so added photography to the graphic arts. In the year 1833 The most admired features of a picture at that time, we read, he was at Lake Como endeavouring to make sketches with the aid were sharp definition all over and a blank expanse of pure white of the Camera Lucida but, lacking the necessary skill of hand, for the sky. Sir William made two suggestions that were a sought to devise a means of recording automatically the view as direct attack upon the existing position. One was that the picseen on the paper. After five or six years of experiment he was able torialist should aim at a broad and general effect for which end it to demonstrate his discovery of the process which is the basis of was not necessary that the whole of the picture should be in sharp modern photography and two years later patented an improve- focus. The other was that artificial means should be adopted to ment of this under the name of Calotype. He himself was a obtain some suggestion of a sky, either by local reduction or by scientist rather than artist and it cannot be said that any of his dabbing pigment on the back of the negative to simulate clouds. surviving photographs show an artistic impulse. These rather ruffled the photographers but the leaven worked D. O. Hill.—The first to put the new invention to a pictorial and by 1862 there was general agreement on the desirability of use was a Scottish artist, David Octavius Hill, who, having been adding skies to pictures since it was then impossible to secure present at the meeting at which the disruption of the Scottish them on the same plate as the landscape. Already in 1856 a print Churches occurred, conceived the idea of painting the historic 1Royal Photographic Society of Gt. Britain. `

PICTORIAL]

PHOTOGRAPHY

of a marine subject by a Frenchman named Le Gray exhibited at the Photographic Society's soirée at King’s College had created a sensation and helped to break down the blank-sky convention. Composites.—The next phase that developed naturally from

831

of discernment. As she was on intimate terms with many of the most eminent people of her day, her pictures have an interest beyond that of their artistic merits.

The best of her work must

certainly rank amongst the photographic masterpieces of all time. the prevailing conditions was the production of composite pic- “The Guardian Angel” is one of her best known works. She was tures built up from two or more negatives. A method of doing apt to be careless in her methods. Most of her original silverthis had been suggested as early as 1848 but the earliest exhibited albumen prints have now faded and were it not that her principal example known was by Berwick and Annan in 1855 in which a works were issued in autotype carbon, we could now hardly form a figure had been introduced into a landscape. The first and most Just estimate of her achievement. Platinotype.—Willis brought out his Platinotype process famous picture of this kind, of which we to-day have any knowledge, was “The Two Ways of Life” (R.P.S. collection). This in- in 1873 but it made little headway at first as a license was reteresting picture is a large print measuring 31x16 inches and built quired to work it. Yet it fulfils the chief desideratum of the picup from more than thirty separate negatives, by O. G. Rejlander, torialist in that it gives an image in permanent pigment on pure a Swede practising as a photographer at Wolverhampton. This paper without the interposition of a gelatine or other film. The remains the most ambitious attempt of its kind. Rejlander sent it Oil Transfer process is the only other one that meets the same to the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857 where the requirement. The next few years were occupied in the transition original was bought for Queen Victoria. A second copy was pur- from the wet collodion to the dry gelatino-bromide plate and chased by Sir David’Brewster who writes that he paid ten guineas from albumen to the gelatino-bromide printing papers. Pictorialfor it, and a third copy, now at the R.P.S., was retained by ism shows no very marked movement during this period and it Rejlander himself until 1870. There is no record of his making was not until 1888 and onwards that a new move was discernible. further use of the composite method although he worked for The dry plate and the invention of the hand camera were vastly another twenty years, and all his other pictorial work is mainly in enlarging the numbers who were being attracted to photography the class of domestic genre in which only one or two figures are as a hobby and this very largely contributed to the advancement of pictorial work. The leading names at this time were used. His example, however, stimulated Henry Peach Robinson (born Col. Joseph Gale, Frederick Hollyer, Frank Sutcliffe of Whitby, at Ludlow in 1830), a young professional photographer at Leam- Payne Jennings, B. Gay Wilkinson and J. B. B. Wellingington, to employ his leisure time in attempting similar methods ton. of picture making. He had had some artistic training; he had THE NEW PICTORIAL MOVEMENT carved one of the statues of the reredos of Ludlow church and one Dr. Emerson’s “Naturalistic Photography” (1887).—-The of his paintings was accepted by the Royal Academy before he was twenty-one. He started life in the bookselling business at expansion of a lecture by Dr. P. H. Emerson, “Naturalistic PhoLudlow, Bromsgrove and London and whilst at Bromsgrove tography,” to the Camera Club in 1886, was the beginning of the in 1850 learnt the daguerreotype process and subsequently Calo- new movement. Unquestionably this book struck a powerful blow type and Collodion in preparation for a photographic career. His at the many conventionalities which had attached themselves to earliest pictorial attempts are unknown with the exception of the the practice of photography and had a powerful influence upon the small “Juliet with the poison bottle’ (R.P.S. collection) but in younger pictorialists. In it he lays down that, “naturalism is an 1858 he produced a picture, entitled “Fading away,” from five impersonal method of expression, a more or less correct reflecnegatives which was first shown at the Crystal Palace and after- tion of nature wherein (1) truth of sentiment, (2) illusion of

wards at Leeds. It excited a violent controversy on the permissibility of exhibiting so painful a subject (a girl dying from consumption) to the public gaze. Robinson's fame was thenceforward established and for the next thirty years he was the leader of British photography. His style was essentially Victorian, artistically sound but anecdotic. The principal idea was to make the picture tell a story. His three finest works “The Day’s work

done” (1877) “Dawn and Sunset” (1885) and “Carolling” (1887) are now preserved in the R.P.S. collection. The two former are magnificent examples of albumen printing, measuring 30x21 inches.

Further Inventions.—In the late ‘fifties Pouncy’s Gum Bichromate process and Poitevin’s Carbon process were added to the existing printing media. The former received little attention but Carbon was developed commercially by Swan and the

truth of appearance (so far as is possible), and (3) are of first and supreme importance.” He further the differentiation of focus to secure separation of closer attention to the rendering of “tone,” greater to truth through the study of nature and generally a

decoration advocated the planes, adherence higher and

more intellectual standard. To what extent Dr. Emerson's book contributed to the new pictorial movement that made itself evident in the late eighties is doubtful. The movement originated no doubt from the ferment in the artistic world due to the influence of the French Impressionist school which was becoming known and appreciated. The leaders of the new pictorialism were George Davison, Alexander Keighley, James Craig Annan, A. Horsley Hinton and Alfred Stieglitz, and the consensus of opinion is that the first visible sign of the break with the older Victorian tradition is to be found

in Davison’s picture “An old farmhouse” or, as it was called later. Autotype Co. and was taken up slowly by photographers. A Notable Amateur.—The advent of Mrs. Julia Margaret “The Onion field.” This famous picture received the Photographic consisted Cameron in 1864 marks the next stage in pictorial development. Society’s medal in 1890. The council of the society The casual gift of a camera and lens by her daughter led her to mainly of scientists who, beyond holding the annual Exhibition, take up photography at the age of fifty with all the volcanic did little to encourage pictorial work, and as a result the new energy of her temperament. She was one ofa highly gifted family body of pictorialists soon came into conflict with them. There was a secession and many whose interests were purely and had been closely associated with Watts and the painters of left the parent society to band themselves together pictorial the Pre-Raphaelite school so that she brought an unconventional Ring” with definitely pictorial aims and interests, Linked “The as unan of was lens Her art. new the of exercise the mind to the holding of a separate exhibition to be known was which of one corrected type and without waiting to learn the correct adjustneglect of pictorial interests ments, she proceeded to use it in the manner that suited herself. as The Salon. Although the society's the schism originated in a reason, the as time the at advanced was heads of series a She broke through all conventions and produced and the assistant secreDavison Robinson, P. H. which in distinguished by great breadth of modelling; indeed, in the case quarrel involved. The estabwere Society Photographic the of tary that treatment of violence a by of the Carlyle and Herschell, brought about a organisation new energetic this of lishment rather horrified the photographers of her time. The reviews of a further stimulus by the received which renaissance veritable methods her on comments caustic some made the exhibitions ate process in a workable form (Photo. Journal, 1864. Vol. 9, p. 87. 1865. Vol. 10, p. 117) revival of Pouncy’s Gum-Bichrom by Alfred Maskell and others and which were perhaps not altogether unjustified. She received, how- by Ladeveze, a Frenchman, pictorialists had a really controllable ever, praise and encouragement from G. F. Watts and other men in England. At last the

PHOTOGRAPHY

832

printing process. Demachy, Le Begue, Puyo and others in France co-operated and our pictorialism took on a new orientation. Two

of the finest pictures of this period are Horsley Hinton’s ‘Melton Meadows” and Alex. Keighley’s ““The White Sail.” American Influence.—By the end of the century the first

impetus of the movement was largely spent but a new era began in 1900 when F. Holland Day of Boston, U.S.A., exhibited at the

R.P-S. house a collection of some 360 prints by members of the new American School. The exhibition proved a sensation and had

a tremendous influence upon British photography, with the result that during the next six years pictorial photography reached a high level that it has never quite touched again. The influence that was behind this wonderful American development was that strange genius Alfred Stieglitz, who after studying photography in Berlin, returned to New York about 1890 to begin his great task of building up an American School of pictorial photography upon foundations that were practically non-existent. The inspired achievements of the Americans from 1900 to 1908 are eloquent testimony to the success of his great work, for which in 1924 the Royal Photographic Society awarded him its Progress Medal, a unique distinction for a pictorial photographer. It is necessary to name only F. Holland Day, Yarnall Abbott, Gertrude Kdsebier, Eduard Steichen, Frank Eugene, Clarence White, Alvin Langdon Coburn, Mrs. Annie Brigman and George H. Seeley to realise the number of photographers of real vision and genius who responded to the inspiration of Stieglitz. Although the brilliance of the Americans overshadowed to some extent the work of the British school, that too reached a high level of excellence during the same period whilst its effort has been more sustained, so that in the subsequent twenty years British pictorial photography has taken more and more the leading position in the world’s work, rather, perhaps, by reason of its sanity and sober pictorial excellence than by any quality of brilliance or progressive novelty of outlook. The development of the colour sensitive plate, culminating in the Panchromatic plate in 31906, affected pictorial photography but little and even twenty years later, although most photographers use negative material that is orthochromatic to some extent, they are somewhat conservative in their attitude to panchromatics, principally because they are apt to give harsh results unless developed with more discretion than the average photographer possesses. The introduction of the soft gradation Panchromatic plate by the Ilford Co. in 1928 may serve to break down this prejudice

and get rid of the bugbear of “over-correction” which in most

cases would be described more correctly as over-development. The Oil Process.—A new method of printing, the Oil process, was introduced by G. E. H. Rawlins in 1904 and worked out by himself, Demachy in Paris and C. F. Inston in Liverpool. Based upon the action of light upon chromated gelatine, it consists in applying an oil pigment, such as lithographic or printing ink, to the damp gelatine surface by means of special brushes and so building up an image whose development can be controlled and modified according to the skill of the worker. A very useful modification of this, known as Bromoil, was worked out by C. Welborne Piper in 1907. In this a Bromide print or enlargement is bleached in a special solution and can then be inked up in the manner described. The latest modification consists in transferring the inked image by means of pressure to a sheet of plain paper. This is the transfer process and bids fair to be the chief pictorial printing medium of the future, for the image then consists of a permanent pigment on pure paper, the whole process is under the photographer’s control, and as many printings can be superimposed as may be necessary to secure the desired result. PROGRESS

OF PICTORIAL MOVEMENT

Great Britain—In xr909 internal dissensions brought about the disruption of “The Linked Ring” and the exhibition of that

[PICTORIAL

Mortimer and established in 1911 the London Salon which still continues.

Amidst all these changes the R.P.S. Exhibition con-

tinued its even way. For a year or two after the secession in 1892, the seceders held aloof but gradually they came back and most of the prominent pictorialists exhibited at both shows, so that there was little to choose between the two.

During the World War, and especially towards the end, pictorial photography was carried on under great difficulties and the Exhibitions fell almost to the vanishing point. Since then a gradual revival has set in but it has taken nearly ten years to return to normal. The feature of late years is the levelling up that has taken place in the work of the general body of photographers as well as

the great increase in its practice. To the R.P.S. Exhibition of 1928, 460 workers sent in more than two thousand prints. The position of British photography to-day is largely the result

of the highly organized nature of its pictorial efforts, the very large number of photographic societies all over the Kingdom, their grouping into Federations and unions which cater for their needs and stimulate their activities, the scheme by which a large number of the societies are affiliated to the Royal Photographic Society for the same ends, and lastly the R.P.S. itself which has become not only the parent society of the British empire but, to an ever increasing extent, of the American and continental pictorial groups

and associations as well. The numerous photographic exhibitions held in Great Britain, of which the most important are the R.P.S. Annual Exhibition, the London Salon, the exhibition of the Professional Photographers Association, the Salon of the Scottish Federation, the Northern Exhibition and the Midland Salon, have done much to foster the growth and™appreciation of pictorial photography and afford the British public greater facilities to see good pictorial work than can be found in any other country.

America has several notable Salons held annually at Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle. The work there is inclined to be decidedly experimental and novelty is perhaps more sought after than beauty though this may be merely a stage in the development and the prelude to the evolution of a style and school such as was possessed in the great days before 1908. France, under the inspiration of Robert Demachy in 1900, was the leader in photographic pictorialism but since the great men of that period retired from active participation in the foreign exhibitions, the French school is less known outside that country than formerly; although an exhibition of work by members of the French Photographic Society at the R.P.S. in 1926 revealed several new pictorialists of eminence.

Germany and Austria have, during the past thirty years, al-

ways held a prominent place in the pictorial movement with individual characteristics of their own. Before the World War the pictures of Duhrkoop, Perscheid, Kuhn and the large gum prints in colours by the brothers Hofmeister were notable features of the leading exhibitions. Since the World War the Germans have not participated to any great extent in foreign exhibitions, but the work of Otto Vogelsang of Pomerania, Dr. Koppitz of Vienna and Franz Drtikol of Prague has shown that there are pictorialists of the front rank. Other Countries.—lItaly has progressed rapidly in recent years under the inspiration of the Gruppo Piemontese of Turin and the work of the new school is virile whilst based on the best traditions. Spain possesses one pictorialist of eminence in J. Ortiz Echague but no national school, whilst in the Scandinavian countries the pictorial work appears to be done entirely by the professional photographers of whom Aage Remfeldt of Oslo and Ferdinand Flodin and Dr. H. B. Goodwin of Stockholm are the best known. In Holland and Belgium there are several active workers and Borrenbergen and Berssenbrugge in the former and Leonard Misonne in the latter are well known at the exhibitions in this country.

COLLECTION

OF PICTORIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

The organized collection of pictorial photographs generally seems to have presented few attractions to any public institutions or to individuals, and it is a regrettable fact that no complete record exists of the achievements of the past. The importance to possupporters of the Salon came together under the lead of F. J. terity of such a record was not realised in the early days and, in

year was the last of the original Salon. A few of the members formed themselves into a Secession which held a small but notable exhibition in rgro which, however, was not repeated, and the other

PICTORIAL: SUBMARINE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

any case, the housing and exhibition of such a collection would have presented insuperable difficulties to any body other than a

municipal or government institution. Small individual collections have been made no doubt at all times but in only one or two cases could they claim any importance. The Duchess of Sermoneta is known to have possessed a fine collection but it is reported to have been dispersed at her death. Mr. Harold Holcroft of Wolverhampton has made a fairly representative collection of contemporary work during the past thirty years and this will be preserved intact as he has presented it to the Royal Photographic

833

we owe to Alfred Stieglitz who, in fifty-four volumes of Camera Work issued between 1903 and 1917, gave us the finest pictorial work of the principal masters in photogravure reproduction that are a joy to the connoisseur. This was the most perfect thing of its kind that has ever been attempted and involved Stieglitz in heavy financial loss in return for the devotedly unselfish labours of nearly twenty years.

In conclusion, pictorial photography would appear to have reached a point where no marked progress can be expected along the present lines and we await the coming of the genius who will

Society. In the early days, the Prince Consort, who was keenly interested in photography, apparently formed a collection for in 1859 he

give a new orientation to its aims. Perhaps the development may be in the nature of a direct colour process for with the addition of colour the scope of photography would be vastly widened.

offered fifty prints to the Photographic Society of London to form the nucleus of a permanent collection. The Society appointed a committee to consider the Prince’s suggestion as it then possessed no permanent abode, and that apparently is as far as the matter ever went. If the prints were ever received there is no trace of them now. It was not until after 1890 that the idea of forming a permanent collection was revived and the line taken was to acquire annually the pictures which received medals at the exhibition but even that small effort soon expired and the collection grew in desultory fashion by casual gifts. In 1923, however, the President, who for once was a pictorialist, organised an effort to make the collection worthy of the society. A ready response was received, many pictures of great historical and pictorial importance were secured, gaps were filled, a curator appointed and the Society’s Permanent Collection, although by no means complete, is by far the largest and most representative in the world. The addition of the Holcroft collection adds greatly to its value and importance. Collections of photography have been made by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., and by the State Museum in Berlin and in recent times Mrs. Milson, a former Lady Mayoress of Sydney, N.S.W. formed a collection of pictorial photographs to become the basis for a permanent collection in Australia, but none of these can compare in size and importance with the R.P.S. collection which contains examples of the work of all the most notable photographers from D. O. Hill to the present day. The further expansion of this collection is assured by the recent gift by Mr. Stephen H. Tyng of New York of a fund for the purchase annually of outstanding examples of photographic art. The administration of this fund is placed in the hands of the Pictorial Group of the R.P.S., an organization within the Society specially designed to encourage and foster pictorial interests in every possible manner.

(J. D. J.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. P. Robinson, Picture Making by Photography (ad. rev. ed., 1889); P. H. Emerson, Naturalistic Photography (2d. rev. ed., 1890); H. P. Robinson, Pictorial Effect in Photography (4th ed. 1893); A. H. Hinton, Practical Pictorial Photography (2 vol. 1898~ 1900); C. H. Caffin, Photography as a Fine Art (x901) ; F. MatthiesMasuren, Die Bildmdssige Photographie (Halle, 1905); C. Holme (ed.), Art in Photography (1905); A. Guest, Ari and the Camera (1907); A. J. Anderson, The Artistic Side of Photography in Theory and Practice (1911) ; Photo Pictorialists of Buffalo, Pictorial Landscape (Boston, 1921) ; P. L. Anderson, Pictorial Photography (2d. ed. Phila., 1923); R. C. Bayley, Tke Complete Photographer (oth ed., 1926).

Photographic

Press, Weekly

and Monthly.—This,

while

dealing with pictorial matters, has catered chiefly for the general reader and the publications dealing exclusively with pictorial interests have been comparatively few. The first of this nature in Great Britain was a series of monographs on the work of the leading pictorialists of the day, each volume being devoted to the work of one man and illustrated in photogravure by four of his pictures. The whole was issued in 1890 under the title of “Sun Artists.” In 1895 the proprietors of The Photogram, a monthly magazine, issued a special volume devoted to an account of the photographic activities of the year in this and other countries, with oo illustrations of selected pictures. This has grown to be a feature of annual interest and, under the editorship of F. J. Mortimer, F.R.P.S., is now the principal record of the photographic pictorialism of the world. A volume of somewhat similar aim but limited to the pictorial work exhibited at the R.P.S. has since 1926 been issued under the auspices of the Society by F. C. Tilney, F.R.P.S., who supplies a critical commentary on the pictures reproduced. In addition the Society issues in the October number of its Journal an account of the year’s work both pictorial and scientific, with abundant illustrations. Of late years the Société Française de Photographie and the Gruppo Piemontese have issued sumptuously illustrated records of the Salons held by them annually, which constitute valuable records of the work done in their respective countries, and now Japan is doing the same on

a slightly less ambitious scale in the Japan Photographic: Annual. The most beautiful of all these records of photography, however,

See also: R. Demachy and Pyyo, Les Procédés d’art en photographie;

E. Jol, Kamera

Kunst; F. C. Tilney, Tracts for Pictorial Photog-

raphers.

SUBMARINE PHOTOGRAPHY Water is often so calm and clear that it might seem easily possible for one above its surface to photograph fishes or other objects beneath it. This may, indeed, sometimes be done, but usually the attempt results in complete failure. The explanation is simple. At the moment of exposure the rays from the near submerged object are sharply focussed upon the plate. But at the same time more intense light from distant objects, out of focus, after being reflected from the water’s surface reaches the plate also, which, when developed, consequently shows nothing. To set up an opaque screen shading the water’s surface above the subject overcomes the diffculty. Through the shaded area, as through a window, one may photograph what lies below. However, the method is limited in its application. When the water exceeds 3ft. in depth it is usually better to use a submerged camera. Dr. L. Boutan of Paris—pioneer in this feld—between the years 1893 and 1898 attempted submarine photography at the. Roscoff laboratory in Brittany with cameras of several sorts and appropriate and ingenious subsidiary apparatus. One of his cameras, made of metal, was directly submersible. Sea-water reached its interior, bathing both lens and plates. Although the result obtained was unsatisfactory because no thoroughly suitable lens was avail-

able, the principle seemed good to him. Other trials in which the

camera was enclosed in and protected from the water by a metal box, through a glass window in which it looked out, were by comparison highly successful. This sort of apparatus, variously modified, has been used in all later work. Boutan’s cameras were of the simple detective type. Reighard, ten years after, at Tortugas, Fla., first used a reflecting camera protected in a water-tight box weighted down with lead till the window through which the camera looked was submerged, although the focussing hood remained above water and permitted him at all

times to see what might be in the field. Excellent pictures were

obtained within wading depth, beyond which he did not go. Williamson Brothers, commercial motion photographers, probably as an independent invention, enclosed not only the camera, but the photographer as well, in a chamber suspended by a noncollapsible open tube from a floating scow. Perfect pictures of the

sea bottom and animals in shallow water were obtained in the clear water of the Bahamas, as the scow stood still or was towed slowly along. These writers must be credited with the first attempt to secure a photographic record in colour of submarine life in its natural setting. By using selective filters they secured films which when projected upon the screen gave an idea of the variety of colour upon a tropical reef, but since the yellows registered as reds the attempt can scarcely be considered entirely successful.

834

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL

Longley, with Reighard’s apparatus reduced to manageable size and improved, having recourse again to diving equipment as Boutan had done, gave the submarine camera greater mobility and a wider range of usefulness. It now lends itself to instantaneous or timed exposures of any ordinary subject at moderate depths. In the tropics, where sunlight is intense, snapshots, it is interesting to note, may be taken as readily as upon land, but with somewhat longer exposure. Dr. Paul Bartsch, at Tortugas, and S. C. William Beebe, in Florida and the West Indies, have succeeded in obtaining pictures with a motion-picture camera similarly employed. Finally, Longley and Martin, working together and employing pound charges of flashlight powder set off electrically above water under a white cotton refiecting screen supported on pontoons by the same motion by which the submerged photographer exposed his plate, demonstrated the feasibility of submarine colour photography. The flash was so bright that even the slowly acting autochrome plate could be used for instantaneous exposures. Some results are shown in one of the plates under MARINE Brorocy. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-L, Boutan, La photographie sous-marine et les progrés de la photographie (Paris, 1900); J. Reighard, “The Photography of Aquatic Animals in the Natural Environment,” Bull. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxvii. (Wash., 1908) ; Anon., “The First Autochromes from the Ocean Bottom,” Nat. Geog. Mag. vol. li. eo o

PHOTOGRAPHY

IN

MEDICINE

There are three principal applications of photography in medical work, namely: (a) Radiography; (b) Photomicrography, and (c) Record photography, z.e., the photographing of patients, specimens, apparatus, etc.

The last named section is a particular branch of technical photography and often the results obtained are unsatisfactory or even useless. This is usually because the camera is regarded as an automatic recording apparatus which can only give one impression of a subject. Hence when it is found that the original is reproduced in an unfamiliar form, with essential details unaccented and irrelevant ones exaggerated, it is naturally thought that the process is inefficient. The truth is that the camera will not discriminate between those details which are required and those that are not; but it is possible to accentuate the former by lighting, etc. Neglecting for a moment the question of colour, a photograph reproduces in a series of tones the light reflected from the corresponding areas of the subject. If the exposure has been sufficient and the development adjusted to the printing paper used, this representation is correct over a considerable range. The conditions specified are not by any means always fulfilled and much of the failure of photographic recording is due to faulty technique at this stage. The range of tones is limited by the white of the printing paper itself and the black of the deepest deposit, which is about 20 to 1 and, if the intensities of the original subject cover a greater range, accurate reproduction is impossible in a print. The compressing of an extended scale of tones into a shorter range is not very apparent but, on the other hand, there is a typical photographic distortion of the perspective which is often very noticeable. The perspective as reproduced by the lens of a camera is always mathematically correct but may yet appear unnatural to the eye. The explanation lies in the fact that to see the subject as the lens saw it, it is essential to look at the print from a distance equal to that which separated lens and plate when the exposure was made. The photograph which shows abrupt perspective was taken with a lens of short focal length and, if the print is moved up to that distance from the eye, the perspective will be seen to have become normal in appearance. To avoid this distortion, it is clearly of importance to use a long focus lens. It is impossible to specify the exact length as that depends on the size of plate used. Such a lens is large and expensive and requires a camera with a long extension and plenty of room in the studio. An alternative method is to use a shorter focus lens on a small plate and make an enlarged print provided the loss in detail is not too great. Another reason for the failure at times of the photograph lies

in the difference between the eye and the plate in their response

to light of different colours. An untreated plate is sensitive to the blue and violet end of the spectrum.

By treating the plate with

certain dyes, it has been found possible to extend the sensitivity first to the green and yellow (orthochromatic plates) and finally to the whole spectrum (panchromatic plates). The latter stil] retain their excessive sensitivity to the blue end of the spectrum and, in order to obtain a true rendering of the relative intensities of different colours, they must be used with their appropriate light filter. This consists of a piece of dyed gelatine usually yellow

in colour placed over the lens. In some cases, e.g., faint reddish markings on the skin, a correct rendering would be unsatisfactory and here it is necessary to

exaggerate the degree of contrast. An ordinary untreated plate, to which red is the same as black is to the eye, will give a more

valuable if less correct photograph. Another case where increased contrast is desirable is when the print is to be reproduced by some

half-tone process in a publication. The tones of the photograph are broken up into dots and the consequent reduction in contrast implies a somewhat harsher print. THE PHOTOGRAPHING

OF PATIENTS

In the photographing of patients, the most difficult problem lies in obtaining sufficient light. It is frequently necessary to stop down the lens considerably as parts of the subject will be at different distances and the aim of the photographer is a large scale photograph with good detail in every part. Again the slight movement due to breathing, etc., will be sufficient to spoil the finest detail if the exposure is at all prolonged. Hence on both counts, the light must be powerful. Daylight is variable and often not available. In cases where the patient can be moved into a studio, the most serviceable source of artificial light is a battery of large gas-filled electric lamps. The light is under control, any special lighting can be repeated and the volume of light is virtually constant.

Record work in the wards of a hospital is often of extreme difficulty owing to the weakness of the light. Here a magnesium flash lamp enclosed in a fabric bag can often be used. The exposure is practically instantaneous and the bag is afterwards removed and the smoke released outside the room. Care, however, should be taken not to use the apparatus when the slight explosion of the powder might cause distress. When it is probable that a series of photographs will be required of a subject taken at certain intervals of time, it is most important that the conditions of lighting, position, etc., should not vary, so that the series may be comparable. Especially important is it that each photograph should be taken on the same scale. This is most readily ensured by measuring the distance from the front of the lens to the principal plane of the object and repeating this for the subsequent exposures. To estimate the value of the degree of reduction, a clearly marked scale divided in feet or inches should be placed at the same distance from the lens as the principal plane of the object and in such a position that it is included in the photograph. The photograph of the scale is measured and the degree of reduction readily calculated. With the object of making the records more comparative, it is of advantage to work with a series of standard reduction ratios, €.g.,+, 4, 4, etc. The distance lens-to-object is found for each ratio and then the camera placed at that distance and focussed. The lens for record medical work should be a long focus anastigmat, capable of rendering the finest detail. Very big aperture

lenses are seldom of much use in this work owing to their lack of depth of focus. The camera and stand should be rigid with a big range of adjustment. (B. D. H. W.) PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL. The invention of photography by Daguerre in 1839 led to a great step in astronomical progress. The first application of the daguerreotype to the science was made by John William Draper of New York who photographed the moon on March 23, 1840, the exposure being 20 minutes. Experiments in the new method were made under the direction of W. C. and G. P. Bond at the Harvard college observatory, with the assistance of Messrs. Whipple and Black,

PHOTOGRAPHY, photographers of Boston, as operators, and the first photograph of the moon was taken there on Dec. 18, 1849, with the 15 in. object glass. A daguerreotype picture of the moon shown in London by George Bond at the Great Exhibition of 1851 attracted much attention. Historical—In England, Warren De la Rue, having seen the Harvard pictures, took up the subject and presented to the Royal Astronomical Society, in 1857, positive copies from a negative picture of the moon made by a collodion process that he had found practicable five years earlier. In 1864, Dr. Lewis Rutherford, of New York, made a telescope with object-glass of r14 in. aperture so corrected as to bring the photographic rays to focus. About the same time Dr. Henry Draper excelled his father’s efforts by taking photographs of the moon with a 15 in. reflector, and early experiments in lunar photography, among them those by Hartnup of Liverpool, should not pass unnoticed. It is said that the first photograph of a star was a daguerreotype of Vega taken at Harvard observatory on July 17, 1850, but want of sensitiveness made this process rather impracticable, and there was little success in stellar photography until the invention of the collodion plate that was used in America and England in 1852. In November 1857 a photograph of ¢ Ursae Majoris with its companion Alcor taken at Harvard was sent for exhibition at the Royal Astronomical Society by W. C. Bond, an exposure of 80 sec. having been given to photograph the 6th magnitude star with the 15 in. refractor. De la Rue at this time was making experiments on the actinic power of Jupiter and Saturn compared with that of the moon, but his photographs did not show any details of the planetary surfaces. Under his direction also, and to his design a photoheliograph was made and set up at Kew observatory for the Royal Society, and the work of taking daily photographs of the sun, that has since been carried on successfully, at Greenwich and elsewhere, began at Kew in March 1858. In an attempt to photograph Donati’s comet of that year, De la Rue was not successful though it was photographed by Usherwood, of Walton Common, in 7 sec. with a portrait lens of short focus. Daguerreotypes of the sun taken by Foucault and Fizeau in 1845, and photographs of the solar eclipses of 1851 and 1854 were interesting as experiments, but the photographs taken by De la Rue and by Secchi of the total solar eclipse in 1860 were the first of this kind of real scientific importance, since they established beyond doubt that the solar protuberances were really appendages of the sun and not of the moon. Ten years later, at the eclipse of Dec. 12, 1870, excellent photographs taken by A. Brothers at Syracuse supplied evidence that the corona was also of solar origin; and from that time a photographic picture of the sun’s surroundings has always been an item in the programme of eclipse observation. A series from 1896 to 1922 is published in the Phil. Trans. vol. 226 A, and as Appendix to vol. lxiv. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. In the years after 1870 research and experiment in photography generally were made by many, among these being the researches of Capt. W. de W. Abney, R.E., made specially for their application to astronomy. It was decided, mainly at the instigation of De la Rue, that photegraphy should be used by the British expeditions in addition to visual observation for the Transit of Venus in 1874, and a considerable sum was granted for the expense of the work, which, so far as the process was concerned, was put in Abney’s charge. He realized that the circumstances of the occasion would make a wet-plate process inapplicable and, after experiments conducted at Chatham, recommended the adoption of an albumen dry process, using a highly bromized collodion and strong alkaline development. Without attempting to give any complete account of Abney’s researches mention of the titles of two papers by him—On Dry Plate Processes for Solar Photography and On the Photographic Method of Mapping the Least Refrangible End of the Solar Spectrum—will indicate their bearing on astronomy. These papers represent a remarkable achievement in that Abney succeeded in producing a special photographic emulsion, sensitive to red light, which he used to map the solar spectrum far into the infra-red. The limit of Abney’s measures at 9867A apparently was not

CELESTIAL

835

reached by any other investigator until the introduction of neocyanin as a sensitizer in 1926. It was pointed out by the younger Bond that photography might be successfully used to measure the relative positions of stars, of a group, or of double stars and in a letter to the Hon. William Mitchell, dated July 6, 1857, predicted, in effect, the application of photography to stellar astronomy on the magnificent scale that actually exists to-day. Rutherfurd, in 1864, began to make a long series of photographs of star clusters and of the bright double stars; but measures of these appear not to have been completed. In 1870-84 Dr. B. A. Gould in an expedition to the Southern Hemisphere accumulated negatives of the principal double stars and clusters; but in taking these series the wet plate process was used, and with this it was not possible to give an exposure long enough for faint stars to imprint themselves. With the invention of the gelatine dry plate, which had been used by Huggins for spectrum photography in 1876 and came into general use about 1880, this difficulty did not exist and modern astronomical photography became possible. Circumstances connected with the comet of 1882, which was specially magnificent as seen from the Southern Hemisphere, led to developments. A photograph, taken with a camera strapped for the purpose to the great equatorial of the Royal observatory of the Cape of Goou Hope, showed not only the comet but great numbers of faint stars around it, and this at once gave David Gill, H.M. Astronomer at the Cape, the idea of the possibility of making star charts by photography. Effects of various kinds followed. At Paris the brothers Henry of the National observatory were engaged in the laborious task of plotting the positions of stars found by eye observation to make charts of the stars near the Ecliptic; but this work was abandoned and their efforts were devoted to making a telescopic object-glass suitable for photography. Ainslie Common in England turned to the art and with a three foot silver-onglass mirror took a photograph of the Orion Nebula on Jan. 30th, 1883, with an exposure of 37 min., a feat that earned for him the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1884, and was referred to as “epoch-marking” by Abney when presenting the medal to another non-professional astronomer for similar work eleven years later. A photograph of this object taken by Dr. Henry Draper of New York on Sept. 30, 1880 is said to be the first of a nebula obtained, but it is agreed that this was not a satisfactory representation. The later recipient of the medal above mentioned was Isaac Roberts, a business man of Liverpool, who in 188s, had made a 20 in. silver-on-glass reflector of nearly a 100 in. focal length for the purpose originally of making starcharts by photography, but altered his plans and devoted the instrument to photographing star-clusters and nebulae. The excellent pictures produced at his observatory at Crowborough, Sussex, are in two volumes published during his lifetime, supplemented by a third prepared and issued by his widow in 1928. Common’s photograph of the Orion nebuia led, through Holden, to the acquisition by the Lick Observatory of a 3-foot reflector in 1895. Two mirrors made by Calver, formerly owned by Common, were presented to that institution by Mr. Crossley of Halifax, England, and one of these, refigured by Grubb, forms the essential part of the instrument known by his name. In Keeler’s hands it yielded a superb series of photographs of nebulae which for the first time demonstrated the great advantages of the reflecting telescope for certain classes of astronomical photography and led to the construction of the great modern reflectors. Charts of the Heavens.—The advantage that photographs of clusters and nebulae have over visual observation is obvious. A

glance at a photograph shows the whole of the object in all its beauty. The field of view of a telescope is small, and a complete conception of the nebula has to be built up from successive elements. It has already been mentioned that Gill foresaw the possibility of recording the positions of stars from a single plate; the next step was to connect individual plates to make a complete survey of the heavens, as had been, and is, the final aim and purpose of transit-observing. The first effort in this direction was made by Gill, who (1885-89), took photographs covering the sky from the South Pole to declination 18° S. which, measured by

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL

836

Kapteyn of Groningen, gave approximate co-ordinates and magnitudes of nearly half a million stars that form the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung. In a more ambitious scheme initiated in 1887 by Admiral Mouchez, director of the Paris observatory,

18 observatories of the world combined to make the Astrographic Chart, or a picture of the whole sky, which should show all stars down to the 14th magnitude, to which was added later the making of a catalogue of all stars to magnitude rz, now considered the

more important part of the work. Space does not permit description of its details and methods. It must suffice to say that a great portion of the catalogue is already published and that, though

some sections of the Chart are completed, the end is not yet in

sight.

In this connection mention is to be made or a series of plates that came later, taken by Franklin Adams, a man well known in business circles in the City of London, in 1903, 1904, at the Cape of Good Hope and afterwards at Godalming, Surrey, with a photovisual objective (v. p. 837) of 10 in. diameter, devised for the work by the firm of Cooke and Sons. These plates each cover an area of 15° 15°.

The extreme delicacy of the gelatine film, especially during development and fixation, led in the beginning to a certain distrust of measurements made on photographic plates. Experience has shown these fears to be groundless and that photographic methods are well suited to measurements of the most exacting kind. With properly designed instruments, the economic factors are also favourable. A recent undertaking, proposed by Schlesinger, which effectively utilizes these advantages, is the photographic reobservation of the zones of the great Astronomische Gesellschaft catalogue, originally measured with meridian circles at many different observatories. As an early example of astronomical work effected

by the measurement of photographs mention may be made of the determination of stellar parallaxes by Pritchard at the Oxford University Observatory in the year 1887, and the remark made at that time that this initiated a new method of finding the distances of stars is amply justified, for to-day many observatories are pursuing that plan. Most researches that depend on the measurement of small distances are now made by means of the photographic plate, close double star observing being an exception.

Hertzsprung has devised methods involving the use of a grating and colour filters to ensure freedom from error in finding the distance between the components of double stars and their position angles, but it is considered that the photographic method is unsuited for pairs whose separation is less than about a second of arc. Photographing stars through a grating of parallel wires placed before the objective, which produces a pair, or perhaps a series of pairs of diffraction images of each star, is a scheme practised in other branches of modern astronomy and astrophysics. Besides the advantages already mentioned, others that pertain to the sensitive plate are that its receptivity is cumulative; by continued application it can see where the eye is blind. The impressions are permanent and constitute evidence that can be referred to at pleasure. Faint comets are discovered by photographing the region in which the object is believed to lie and searching the developed plate. A similar method for finding minor planets has been very fruitful and examination of the series of celestial photographs of the Harvard College Observatory has brought to light many Novae that have appeared in past years but have escaped detection. This collection of photographs which has been accumulated systematically over many years constitutes a record of the state of the sky at approximately regular intervals. It has been especially fruitful in the discovery of variable stars.

Modern

Applicatians.—Besides

lending its aid to these

branches of astronomy of the older kind, photography is now an asset in the newer astrophysics. It was recognized early that the brighter the star the larger the image it imprints on the plate, and hence that it is possible to use photography for purposes of photometry. The relation between the size of the image and the intensity of the star’s light is complicated. So many factors difficult of control are involved that an empirical method of calibration is usually employed, though some progress has been made with methods based on ihe laws of photographic action. Usually a star

is not of the same magnitude photographically and visually because the ordinary plate is sensitive only to the blue and violet

rays of the spectrum, whereas it is the yellow light that mainly affects the eye. Since the relative amount of blue and yellow light depends on the colour of the star, the difference between photographic and visual magnitude varies with colour. This difference— colour index—affords a useful measure of this physical characteristic, and, through this, of the star’s temperature. Visual magnitudes may be closely reproduced by photographing stars on colour. sensitive plates, through a filter which cuts out the blue and violet light and transmits the green and yellow. The whole field of stellar photometry is thus brought within the reach of photographic methods, with a great gain in precision and homogeneity of results.

The equivalent of visual magnitude determined photographically is called photo-visual, and by comparing this with the ordinary photographic personal eye its spectrum, in relation to

magnitude colour index is determined free from any effects. The colour index of a star correlates with and takes its place as a quality that can be discussed others such as temperature, mass and motion.

A slight extension of the method has led to interesting and important results in connection with nebulae. A comparison by Hale of ordinary photographs of the Orion nebula with exposures on panchromatic plates through a red filter shows conspicuous differences in colour in different parts of the nebula which indicate a variation in the mixture and radiation of its gaseous constituents. Again, similar photographs of spiral

nebulae by Seares show that the central nuclei of these objects are yellow, in agreement with spectroscopic results, but that the knots and condensations on the spiral arms are blue. These results indicate a characteristic difference in physical conditions in different parts of these nebulae.

Photography through coloured screens or filters of various kinds has been applied recently to the planets. Photographs of Mars and of Jupiter, by Wright of the Lick Observatory, taken with rays of the infra-red portion of the spectrum, with yellowy light, and with ultra-violet rays, show distinct differences, consideration of which appears to lead to knowledge of peculiarities of the surfaces and atmospheres of these bodies. Similar photographs of Venus by Ross give important information bearing on the physical characteristics of this planet. Colour photographs of the kind described represent a crude kind of spectrum analysis, in which attention is directed to the total radiation over a considerable range in wave-length rather than to the number, position and intensity of the spectral lines. The method is important and useful for objects too faint for detailed spectroscopic examination. The astronomical applications of photography would be seriously restricted were there no means of extending the normal blueviolet sensitivity of the ordinary photographic emulsion. Vogel in 1873 discovered that various dye substances, notably naphtalinrot, conferred sensitiveness to other spectral regions. His results were confirmed and extended by Becquerel; by Waterhouse, who discovered the efficiency of eosin; by Eder, who introduced erythrosin; and by many others. To Vogel is due the discovery of the effectiveness of cyanin as a red sensitizer, and

Miethe, E. König and Homolka, 1898-1905, made extensive studies of a great number of others, which led shortly to the production of panchromatic plates. Dicyanin and, more recently, kryptocyanin and neocyanin have played a great part in extending the sensitivity far into the infra-red. All modern research in colour sensitization has been concerned with the study of dye substances. Abney’s

special red-sensitive emulsion seems never to have been repro-

duced. The first great astronomical achievement resulting from the preparation of colour-sensitive plates was Abney’s map of the infra-red region of the solar spectrum to which reference has already been made; the next, Rowland’s photographic map of the solar spectrum and the Table of Wave-Lengths of Spectrum Lines, extending from 2975A to 7331A, from measurement of photographs.

Rowland himself made the photographic plates that he used; the method of colour sensitization he employed is unknown. A recent application of colour photography to astronomy led to Hale’s

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL discovery of magnetic fields in sun-spots. Using Wallace’s 3-dye sensitizer consisting of pinacyanol, pinaverdol, and homocol, Hale photographed with the spectroheliograph the distribution of hydrogen (Ha) over the solar disc. The presence of vortex structure centered about sun-spots suggested the possible existence of magnetic fields, which special observations soon fully confirmed. Spectroscopic observation itself is now almost entirely photographic. In 1863 Huggins obtained photographic images of the spectra of Sirius and Capella but no clearly defined lines were shown, and attempts of this kind were suspended for some years. It is said that the first photograph showing spectral lines of a star was taken by Henry Draper in 1872, and in the years immediately succeeding both these astronomers were successful in this way with the brightest stars. In 1882 each of them obtained a satisfactory photograph of the spectrum of the Great Nebula in Orion. In 1886 a new spectrographic method was initiated at the Harvard College Observatory in connection with a scheme known as the Draper Memorial, a prism being placed before the objectglass by which the spectra of all the stars in the field are formed and photographed simultaneously on the plate. The instrument then used was a photographic lens of 8 in. aperture with a prism 8 in. square fastened before it. ‘The refracting angle of the prism was 13°, and the refracting edge was placed parallel to the equator, so that breadth could be given to the spectrum by altering the rate of the driving clock. Stars to about the 7th magnitude were thus shown, In 1887 Vogel introduced the R method at the Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam for the determination of stellar radial velocity, and from that time, which| is generally said to mark the beginning of accurate work of the kind, all important spectroscopic work has been done in this way. Improvements and refinements in design of the spectrograph, especially the introduction of a temperature control for use during observations, were made by Campbell at the Lick Observatory. These afforded a new standard of precision in spectroscopic measurements, and led to an extended programme involving the systematic observation, at Mt. Hamilton and at Santiago, of 6,182 stars mostly brighter than visual magnitude 5-51. The resulting catalogue of radial velocities, issued in 1928, could not have been prepared without the aid of photography. Photographic methods have proved themselves equally indispensable in every other field of spectroscopic observation. The measurement of the distance of a star from observations of its spectrum, by a method discovered by Adams and Kohischiitter and developed by Adams at Mount Wilson, essentially requires the determination of the relative intensity of certain pairs of spectral lines. Star light, in general, is far below the limiting intensity which would permit even the crudest visual observation of these intensities, and this is often true of laboratory sources of light which must be studied as a means of interpreting the

observations of celestial bodies. Even for the sun, which gives an

837

plate. An objective of two lenses may be made to do this, but necessity has led to the making of photo-visual objectives of three lenses that are perfectly or nearly achromatic, and focus all the rays (v. p. 836, Franklin-Adams). It is possible to use a visual telescope for photography by adding a correcting lens, or another scheme for the purpose, adopted for the 4o in. refractor of the Yerkes observatory about 1900, is to take photographs through a yellow

colour screen

or filter placed almost in contact

with a

yellow-sensitive (Cramer instantaneous achromatic) photographic plate. The yellow screen transmits freely to the plate the sharp yellow image produced by the visual objective and excludes the blue and other wave-lengths which would otherwise destroy the sharpness of the photographed images. Numerous experiments have since been made to find the most suitable filters and plates for special purposes. Since the mirror brings all rays to the same focus the reflector has an advantage over the refractor. The field of view of the reflector, however, is relatively small.

For a focal ratio of 1 to 5

the aberrations of the reflector are disturbing at distances from the optical axis exceeding 12’ to 15’, and there is considerable loss in limiting magnitude for even smaller distances, whereas a properly designed refractor affords excellent definition over a field several degrees in diameter. Measures with reflectors are therefore limited to double stars or satellftes of planets, or to the determination of proper motions and parallaxes. etc., while the refractor finds advantageous application to general charting and cataloguing purposes. That the optical possibilities are by no means exhausted is indicated by the quadruplet lens recently designed by F. E. Ross which, with an aperture of 3 inches and a focal ratio of r to 7,

gives excellent definition over a field of 25°, and in two hours exposure reaches a limiting magnitude of 15-4. The choice of aperture and focal ratio for a photographic telescope depends on the purpose for which the instrument is to be

used and is determined by the same principles that apply in ordinary photographic practice. Increased focal length means increased scale or magnification in the photograph. For a given focal length, increased aperture means greater brightness in the optical image, and hence greater photographic efficiency, which may be utilized either to reduce the exposure time or to photograph fainter objects than would otherwise be possible. For extended objects like planets or nebulae, the brightness of the image is proportional to a?/f?. The photographic efficiency is independent of the lineat dimensions, and the chief advantage of a large instrument is that of magnification. At the same time, the instrument must not be too small, otherwise the power of resolution or minimum separation which varies inversely as the aperture, will suffer. For point sources, such as stars, the diameter of the central diffraction disc of the image decreases as the aperture increases. This introduces

an additional factor a?, whence the brightness is proportional to a*/f*, For a given focal ratio there is in this case an important gain in efficiency with increasing aperture, although it is less than the elementary theory would indicate. Aberrations and absorption and reflection losses in the objective, imperfections in the optical

abundance of light, measures are most advantageously made on photographs. In the infra-red and ultra-violet regions, outside the limits of visual perception, photographic methods alone are possible. The novel instrument known as the spectroheliograph con- surfaces, and tremor of the diffraction disc, caused by atmospheric ceived independently by Prof. Hale and M. Deslandres, director of disturbances, all operate in diminishing the theoretical gain. The application of these principles to different classes of obserthe National Observatory, Paris, is an ingenious adjunct to spectral photography. On a plate moving behind a second slit at the rear of vational problems is well illustrated by some of the instruments of a spectroscope at the same rate as the image crosses the primary the Mount Wilson Observatory. For observations of the sun, both slit, or by an equivalent device, the sun is photographed by the direct and spectroscopic, high magnification is desirable. Since light of a particular wave-length and pictures result which show there is an abundance of light, the focal ratio need not be large: the calcium or the hydrogen alone, in the successive envelopes of and, further, since a moderate aperture affords adequate resolution the sun, and so add vastly to our knowledge of its structure. The for photographic purposes, the dimensions chosen for the larger help that photography brings to eclipse observation by making Tower telescope are a=1 foot, f=150 feet, with a ratio of 1 to a complete record of the spectrum of the chromosphere or of the 150. For the efficient photography of very faint stars, both the corona in the very short time available on such occasions, that focal ratio and the linear dimensions should be as large as possible. Hence in the Hooker reflector we find a=100 inches, f = 500 inches, may be studied at leisure, need not be dwelt on. Photographic Telescopes.—In the ordinary telescopic objec- with a ratio of r to 5. Under favourable atmospheric conditions, tive the lenses are so shaped that the rays of the spectrum about the theoretical gain over the 60-inch reflector, of the same focal the yellow are brought as nearly as possible to pass through the ratio, in photographing stars is very nearly attained. Aside from same point as focus, for these are the rays to which the eye Is differences of scale, these two instruments are of equal efficiency in sensitive; but for photography it is the blue and violet rays that photographing nebulae. For planets, however, the too-in. is (enlargmust be brought to a focus, for it is these that most affect the practically the more effective. For the same magnification

838

PHOTOGRAPHY,

SPARK—-PHOTOGRAVURE interested in reproductive processes had no authentic information as to how the printing plates were produced. In time, however, prints by similar processes were published, but these, at the time, were not equal to those printed by the Rembrandt process.

ing lenses are commonly used in planetary photography) this instrument gives a brighter image than the 60-inch reflector. This permits the use of shorter exposures, which avoids in part the blurring produced by atmospheric disturbances. The useful field, the same for both reflectors, is necessarily small (v. p. 837). For photographs covering a large field, a triplet refractor is available (a=10 inches, f=45 inches, a/f=1/4-5). Because of the focal length, the scale is small. Otherwise, this instrument is of about the same efficiency for nebulae as the large reflectors, and because of the large field, is very advantageous for photographing widely extended masses of nebulosity. Its large focal ratio makes it an efficient instrument for stars, although the limiting magnitude attainable falls far short of that reached by the reflectors. The limiting stellar magnitude attainable with a given instrument, as shown by F. E. Ross, does not increase indefinitely as the exposure time is extended. In order that a perceptible image of a star may be recorded, the contrast between sky illumination, which is always present in some degree, and sky illumination plus brightness of the central diffraction disc of the star image, must not drop below a certain minimum value. The effect of sky illumination is determined by the ratio a?/f*; with the reservations expressed above the brightness of the optical star image varies as a‘/f?. Increase in the linear dimensions increases the latter, but not the former ratio. These ratios, together with certain photometric constants, determine the limiting magnitude attainable by prolonged exposure with any instrument. To photograph still fainter stars an instrument of larger aperture must be used. The plate may be placed in the principal focus of the objective, and the image enlarged afterwards if desired; but the amount of the subsequent enlargement is limited by the grain of the original negative, which is equally enlarged by the copying process. On the other hand, a lens or combination of lenses may be interposed between the objective and the plate to give an enlarged image on the latter. In the Greenwich photoheliograph the image of the sun is enlarged on the plate in this way and the method is often used in planetary photography. For bright objects it is advantageous; but for fainter ones the exposures required may be impracticably long. The contrast also suffers, but this may be corrected by subsequent copying on plates of strong contrast. In the early days of astronomical photography the inferior performance of the driving-clock of the equatorial was found to be a drawback, but this has been remedied, first by the introduction of electrical control and later by improved forms of driving mechanism of which the electro-motor controlled by a pendulum designed by W. P. Gerrish of Harvard is an example. The slight residual irregularities are eliminated by the use of the twin instrument consisting of two parallel telescopes of nearly equal size in the same frame, one of which is used visually by the observer to guide; or otherwise by the double-slide plateholder and duplicate guiding microscopes, to be used on two guiding stars on

opposite sides of the field to detect the small rotation which may occur during exposures. (H. P. H.; F. H. S.)

PHOTOGRAPHY, SPARK: see SPARK PHOTOGRAPHY. PHOTOGRAVURE (MACHINE). Photogravure (ma-

chine printed) is a photo-mechanical intaglio printing process. By this method prints are obtained from a plate or cylinder upon which the design is etched below the surface. The subject to be reproduced is photographed and “reticulated” by means of a ruled screen, the “cavities” varying in depth according to the tones of the original; thus the solids are deeper and contain more ink than the middle tones, while the high lights are represented by the paper. The characteristic of this sari of printing is revealed by its velvety depths and satin-like

The principle of producing photogravure prints by machine is similar to that of printing calico and wallpaper, where engraved

copper cylinders are used and printed on a rotary machine. After the etching of the photogravure plate or cylinder has been completed the printing is of a mechanical character. The

etched cylinder turns in a trough of printing ink of volatile qualities (sometimes a “water ink” is used), and as the cylinder rotates A fine steel knife, known as the “doctor,” scrapes the surplus ink from the surface, leaving it clean. The cells or cavities, however, representing the tones of the design, retain the ink, which is transferred to a sheet of paper as It passes between the printing and impression cylinders. Preparing the Printing Surface.—From the photographs of the subjects to be reproduced negatives are obtained. These are carefully retouched and reversed positives are made from them and, when necessary, again retouched. The positives— usually called transparencies—have then to be “planned” or laid out, z.e., fixed by means of gummed tape upon a sheet of plate glass in the positions in which they will be printed. A carbon print is next obtained on what is known as “carbon

ee

tissue” (a sheet of paper coated with a gelatine solution to which has been added a pigment—usually red—and sensitised by immersion in potassium bichromate, squeezed on to a sheet of glass, and dried). A piece of carbon tissue is cut slightly larger than the positives and placed along with the positives in a special pneumatic printing frame from which the air is extracted, thus bringing the positive and tissue into close contact. These are exposed to light, the positives are removed, and another exposure is given to the tissue through a specially ruled screen. The screen “breaks up” the tones of the photograph and provides the reticulation which is necessary for all printing processes. The usual ruling of the screen is 150 or 175 lines to the inch. The carbon tissue is next soaked in water and placed on the copper plate or cylinder which has previously been made chemically clean and free from grease. The tissue is then “squeegeed’’in order to remove all moisture and air from between the tissue and the printing surface, which is then dried. Developing.—The next operation is known as developing, and is done by placing the cylinder or plate, on which the carbon tissue has been fixed, in a tank of water heated to about 104° F and kept agitated until the paper is soaked off and the soluble parts of the gelatine film washed away. The parts where the light passes right through the positive become hard and are insoluble, whilst those parts where the light is retarded by the tones in their various gradations are more or less soluble. When the development is completed the cylinder, with all that is left of the gelatine film, is removed from the water bath and thoroughly dried. This film acts as a resist to the mordant. All parts of the printing surface which are not required to be etched are protected by an acid-resisting preparation. This is painted on by hand, or, as it is termed, “Jacked out.”

Etching.—The printing surface has then to be etched, which

is done by placing the cylinder in baths of varying concentrations of ferric chloride ranging from 45° to 37° Beaume. The thinner parts of the hardened gelatine acid resist are attacked first by the mordant, the thicker parts requiring further etching by the weaker solutions. It is possible to use the copper cylinders over and over again, the old work being removed by grinding and polishing. In this

nish. way cylinders are prepared to receive the new work. In time, Machine photogravure was invented by Karl Klietsch, who, however, the grinding wears the cylinder, but this may be brought In conjunction with a firm of calico printers in Lancaster, pro- back to its original circumference by electrolytic deposition. duced prints by this method in 1895, although previous to this Machines.—Sometimes flat plates are used. In this instance an employee of the firm, Samuel Fawcett, had been working an the machine is of an ordinary flat-bed type upon which a plate is intaglio photo-engraving process of his own. The latter assisted mounted on a bed and covered over with ink, the “doctor” Klietsch in perfecting the process now known as “Rembrandt” | scraping the surplus ink from the face of the plate back into the photogravure. The method of producing prints by the R em- | trough; the general method, however, is to employ cylinders. brandt process was kept a close secret, and for many years those Recently, a method has been invented whereby a thin sheet

PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY—PHOTOMETRY of copper is stretched round a cylinder. There is reason to believe that this will supersede the cumbersome cylinders now in use.

The paper is fed into the machines either one sheet at a time or from a reel. The sheet-fed machine is generally used for small editions of art reproductions, whilst those that are reel-fed are

used for long runs of magazines and newspaper supplements and other commercial requirements. In a rotary press the cylinder revolves in a trough of ink, and

a few inches above the trough is a “‘doctor”—a steel plate with a fine edge which has a slight reciprocating movement that scrapes the surplus ink off the surface, the ink dropping back into the trough. The paper, which is on a reel, passes between the etched cylinder and an impression cylinder. In this way an impression of the etched design is transferred to the paper. The paper then passes over a drying drum, and if the sheet is to be “perfected,” ie., printed on the reverse side, it goes through another pair of

cylinders before reaching the delivery end of the machine, where the paper is cut up into sheets or delivered folded according to requirements. It is possible by the photogravure method to print type matter at the same time as illustrations, and successful results are now being obtained when printing colour supplements by machine photogravure. Machine printed photogravure is known under various names, usually containing a prefix, such as rotogravure, indicating that it is printed on a rotary machine. See PHOTO-ENGRAVING; COLOUR PRINTING. BrBLIOGRAPHY.—Thos. Huson, Photo-Aqguatint and Photogravure (1897), a practical treatise on the preparing and printing of intaglio plates; Colin N. Bennett, Elements of Photogravure (1926), a publication useful to photographers, etchers and printers. (J. R. R.)

PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY: see LITHOGRAPHY. PHOTOMETRY is, as its name signifies, the measurement of light (Gr. pôs, pwrós, light, werpov, a measure). Just as metrology includes the measurement of various related quantities, e.g., length, volume and density, so photometry includes the measurement of luminous intensity (candle-power), luminous flux, illumination and brightness. It will be convenient first of all to consider the relationships between these four fundamental quantities and the units in terms of which they are expressed, so that the methods of measurement adopted for each may be more readily understood. Every object which can be seen emits or reflects radiant energy in the form of aether waves which are ca-

839

nosity curve (sometimes the visibility curve) of radiant energy. It is naturally slightly different for each individual, but the curve shown is that now adopted internationally as representing the effect on the “average eye.” The scale of ordinates at the left is an arbitrary one so arranged that the ordinate of the curve is unity at the wave-length of maximum luminosity. On this scale the ordinate corresponding to any wave-length is termed the “luminosity factor” of radiant energy at that wave-length. Luminous Flux.—tThe light given by every source in common use Is composite in character, 7.e., the energy is conveyed by waves of various lengths, the distribution of energy among these wave-lengths (or the spectral energy-distribution) depending on the source. It is clear that the total effect produced on the eye by a given rate of emission of energy of known spectral distribu-

tion can be determined by weighting the energy content at each wave-length in accordance with the luminosity factor for that wave-length. The quantity obtained in this way represents, in fact, the efficacy of the energy for producing the sensation of light, and this quantity is termed luminous flux. The formal definition of this term is: The rate of passage of radiant energy evaluated according to the luminous sensation produced by it. The unit in which luminous flux is expressed can be more simply defined later. It is sufficient here to state that it is called the lumen and that it has been found that for the average eye, one watt of radiant power at the wave-length of maximum luminosity (555 mu) is equivalent to about 600 lumens. The scale of ordinates at the right of fig. r gives the lumen equivalent of 1 watt of power at each wave-length. The watt equivalent of 1 lumen of flux at the wave-length of maximum visibility, viz., 0-oo016 watt per lumen, is often termed the mechanical equivalent of light. Luminous Intensity.—The luminous flux emitted from any practical source of light is not distributed uniformly in all directions. In the case of an electric lamp of the vacuum type, for instance, the flux emitted within a cone of given solid angle is greater when the axis of the cone is horizontal than when it is vertical. It follows that some quantity is needed to express the light-giving power of a source in a specified direction. The natural quantity to use for this purpose is the angular flux density in the direction considered. This will be clear from fig. 2. If BLC be a cone of very small solid angle w, having its apex at L, the position of a source of light, then the angular flux density in any direction such as LA is equal to the flux emitted by L within the cone BLC, divided by the solid angle w, the ratio being taken in the limit when w becomes vanishingly small. This ratio is termed the luminous intensity of the source L in the direction LA. It will be seen that the definition of luminous intensity is analogous to that of pressure at a point, viz., the ratio of the force exerted on a given surface containing the point to the area of that surface, the ratio being taken in the limit when the area is vanishingly small. The formal definition of luminous intensity is as follows:—The luminous intensity of a point-source in any direc-

pable of affecting the retina of the human eye so as to produce the sensation of light. In the case of a self-luminous body (or source of light) such as the sun, a candle or an electric lamp, the light emitted is obtained by the transformation of some other form of energy, generally chemical or electrical. In the case of a body which is not self-luminous the light which it sends to the eye S 5 is derived originally from some x tion is the luminous flux, per unit solid angle, emitted by that self-luminous body, and is reÈ source in that direction. (The flux emanating from a source whose 8z flected by it in a manner dedimensions are negligible in comparison with the distance from pending on the character of its 35 which it is observed may be considered as surfaces. | coming from a point.) The effect produced on the eye The relation between luminous flux and by the reception of a given FIG. 1.—LUMINOSITY CURVE OF RADIANT ENERGY FOR THE AVERAGE luminous intensity being thus defined. it is amount of energy per second de- EYE possible to choose units for these two quanpends on the wave-length (A) of tities such that their magnitudes are related only fact the aether waves by which that energy is conveyed; in rationally to each other. It so happens those waves for which X lies between about 400 and 750 millionths FIG. 2 that, for historical reasons, the primary As all. at light of of a millimetre mp can produce the sensation intensity. This unit is the the wave-length changes from the shorter of these limits to the photometric unit is that of luminous which was originally deof magnitude the candle, international In respects. two in alters eye the on longer, the effect produced direction, of a horizontal the in intensity, luminous the as fned the first place the colour of the light changes from violet, through at a specified rate. Many burning dimensions specified of candle the place second the In red. to orange and yellow blue, green, to be unsatisfactory, mtensity of the sensation produced by a given rate of influx of years ago this form of standard was found and it was replaced by flame lamps of various kinds, viz., the energy starts from zero at 400 mu, rises to a maximum at A= Hefner in Germany, the pentane in this country and in America, sgg mu, and then gradually falls away again to zero at 750muy. standards have been genThe curve of fig. 1 shows the relative magnitudes of the visual and the Carcel lamp in France. These of the unit is premagnitude the and however, abandoned, erally pet energy of amounts equal of effect produced by the reception lamps deposited electric d constructe specially of means by served second at different wave-lengths. This curve is called the lumit- |

84.0

PHOTOMETRY

at the various national laboratories Laboratoire Central d’Electricité, Laboratory, Teddington, England; Washington. The formal definition

throughout the world, viz., the Paris; the National Physical and the Bureau of Standards, of the “candle” is as follows:

The unit of luminous intensity is the international candle, such as resulted from agreement effected between the three national standardising laboratories of France, Great Britain and the United States in 1909. The unit of luminous flux is now very simply obtained from that of luminous in-

tensity by considering an ideal source of light which has a uniform luminous intensity of one candle in all directions. The lumen is the amount of flux emitted by such a source within a cone of unit solid angle.

The relationship is shown pictorlally in fig. 3 where the ideal

point source is imagined at the FIS- Ah

UNIT AREA SUBTENDED BY UNIT SOLID ANGLE AND CONTAINING UNIT FLUX OF LIGHT

UNIT SOLID ANGLE

ONE CANDLE

SPHERE OF UNIT RADIUS

Pie

THE

centre of a sphere of unit radius, °" OTOMETRIC Since the solid angle of any cone with its apex at the centre of such a sphere is numerically equal to the area of the spherical surface cut off by the edge of the cone, it follows that the cone shown shaded in the diagram embraces unit solid angle, so that the flux emitted by the source within this cone is 1 lumen. Since the area of the whole sphere is 4 a times the square on the radius, it follows a uniform point source of 1 candle emits altogether 4 7 lumens. Since the total flux emitted by a source is independent of the way in which that flux is distributed, the total number of lumens given by a source is equal to the average value of its luminous intensity, measured in all directions in space, multiplied by the factor 47. The luminous intensity of a source, when expressed in international candles, is termed the candle-power of the source. The average value of the candle-power measured in all directions perpendicular to the geometrical axis of the source is termed the mean horizontal candle-power (M.H.C.P.), while the average candle-power measured in all directions in space is termed the mean spherical candle-power (M.S.C.P.). It will be

seen that, lumens).

for any

source,

M.S.C.P.X4r= (flux output

in

Illumination: The Inverse Square and Cosine Laws.— Illumination is measured by the amount of luminous flux which reaches unit area of an illuminated surface. From this definition and’the fact of the rectilinear propagation of light there follow at once the two basic laws of photometry, viz., the inverse square and the cosine laws. They will be most clearly understood by reference to fig. 2. If BLC be an elementary cone of light emitted from a source L, the area intercepted by this cone on any plane such as XY varies (i.) as the square of the distance (d) of L from the plane, and (ii.) as the secant of the angle (0) which the normal to XY makes with the axis LA of the cone. Since the illumination produced by a given amount of flux varies inversely as the area over which that flux is distributed, it will be seen at once that the illumination of a surface varies (i.) inversely as the square of its distance from the source illuminating it (this is the inverse square law), and (ii.) directly as the cosine of the angle between the normal to the surface and the light rays (this is the cosine law). Now let the average luminous intensity of the source L in all directions lying within the cone BLC be J candles, and let the area intercepted by this cone on the plane XY be s. Then the solid angle of the cone is equal to (s cos @)/d?, and the flux F emitted within the cone is Z (s cos 6)/d* lumens. Since, by the

[UNITS

is the metre-candle or the lux, and one lux is equivalent to an illumination of one lumen per square metre. r ft.-candle = 10-76 lux.

It will be seen that

Brightness.—The last of the four fundamental photometric quantities is brightness, which is thus defined: The brightness in

a given direction of a surface emitting light is the quotient of the luminous intensity measured in that direction, by the area of this surface projected on a plane perpendicular to the direction considered. The unit of brightness is the candle per unit area of surface. Thus if a flame of uniform brightness has an apparent area of one square inch when viewed in a given direction, and if the luminous intensity in that direction be ro candles, the brightness is 10 candles per square inch. Similarly, if a surface has an area of two square metres and if its brightness when viewed nor-

mally is one candle per square metre, it has a luminous intensity of 2 candles in the direction of the normal.

The surfaces of bodies may be divided broadly into two classes,

polished and diffusing, according as they reflect specularly the light they receive, after the manner of a mirror, or scatter it in al] directions. A surface which scatters the light which it reflects or emits in such a way that it appears equally bright in all directions

is called a “perfect diffuser.” No such surface exists in perfection,

but good white blotting-paper, or ground opal glass approximation. It is sometimes convenient to use brightness of an ideal perfect diffuser emitting or lumen per unit area. It can readily be shown that

provide a fair as a unit the reflecting one such a surface

has a brightness of 1/m candles per unit area. Thus the following relationships are derived:

t lambert=1/7 candle per sq.cm. r millilambert=(0-001)/m candle per sq.cm. ==10/mcandles per sq.metre. « foot-lambert=1/7 candle per sq.ft. =1-076 millilamberts. Absorption, Reflection and Transmission.—It has been said already that bodies which are not self-luminous are visible by reason of the light which their surfaces reflect to the eye. It will be clear that, since a surface which has an illumination of one

foot-candle receives one lumen per square foot, its brightness would be one foot-lambert if it were a perfect diffuser and if it reflected all the light it received. Actually, all surfaces absorb

some fraction (a) of the light which reaches them and reflect

or transmit the remainder. œ is termed the absorption factor, while the fractions reflected and transmitted are termed respectively the reflection factor (p) and the transmission factor (r). For opaque bodies it is clear that a@+-p=1, while for all surfaces a-+p+r=1. In general the values of these three quantities depend on (a) the direction of incidence of the light on the sur-

face, and (b) its colour. Only in the case of white or grey surfaces is the colour of the light immaterial. The brightness of a surface due to reflected light is clearly equal to Ep/r candles per square

foot or Ep foot-lamberts, E being the illumination in foot-candles and p the reflection factor for the particular conditions of illumination and the direction of view. considered. Every photometric measurement depends, ultimately, upon a measurement of the illumination produced at a surface. In the case of candle-power determination, the source to be measured and a standard of known candle-power respectively illuminate two white diffusing surfaces in a photometer head which is, in essence, a device for enabling the eye to compare the brightness of these surfaces as accurately as possible. The chief conditions for accuracy are (a) that the surfaces shall be presented to the eye side

by side with the finest possible dividing line, and (b) that the

definition, the illumination, EZ, of the surface is equal to F/S, it illumination of one or other of the surfaces may be varied follows that

E= (I cos 6)/d* It will be seen that the magnitude of the unit in which Æ is meas-

according to a known law, so that the two may be adjusted to equal brightness. This is necessary because the eye cannot measure accurately, but can only judge of a condition of equality. The Lummer-Brodhun Photometer Head.—The form of photometer head generally used to-day for accurate work is the Lummer-Brodhun contrast-head, the construction of which is shown in fig. 4(A). S is a matt white screen, the two sides of which

ured must depend on the unit used for d, t.e., on the unit of length. If d be expressed in feet, the unit in which Æ is measured is termed the foot-candle and, clearly, one foot-candle is the illumination produced when an area of one square foot receives one are respectively illuminated by the two sources to be compared. lumen of flux. Similarly, if d be expressed in metres, the unit of E | Light from each side of S is reflected by the mirrors (or total

LUMMER-BRODHUN

PHOTOMETRY

HEAD]

841

scale attached to the bench framework. By this means the disene between the centres of any two carriages may readily be ound, The most obvious method of comparing the candle-powers of

reflection prisms) Mı and M; to the compound glass cube P. An

enlarged view of P is shown in fig. 4(B), from which it will be seen that the cube really consists of two right-angled prisms. One of

these, P;, is plain, while the other, Pz has its principal face etched

or sand-blasted with the pattern shown shaded in fig. 4(C). The

two sources on the bench would be to place them one on each side

two prisms are pressed together so that the unetched parts of the of the photometer head, and adjust their positions until a balance surface of Pz make optical contact with the surface of Pi. The | was obtained. On the assumption that equality of brightness of the two surfaces in the photometer head implied a similar equality of \ i illumination, the candle-powers of the sources, J, and J. and their i t

respective distances d and d’ from the photometer would then be related thus:—J1/d°’=/./d”". This assumption, although plausible, is never safe in practice and in all accurate photometry at the present time the substitution method is employed.

The Substitution Method.—A “comparison” lamp of constant, but not necessarily known, candle-power is placed in the carriage at one end of the bench, and this carriage is rigidly attached, by means of a rod, to the carriage holding the photometer head so that the two carriages move on the bench as one

unit. Thus one side of the photometer field has a constant brightness. Other lamps can now be placed in turn at the other end of the bench, and the distances can be found at which the illuminations they produce at the photometer will give a balance with this constant brightness. These illuminations must, then, be equal to

FIG. 4.—THE

LUMMER-BRODHUN

HEAD

light from M;, therefore, is transmitted through these portions just as if there were no discontinuity. The light from Me is also transmitted through these portions of the face of Pi, but over the remainder, the portion shown shaded in fig. 4(C), it is totally reflected and emerges side by side with the light transmitted from Mı. It will now be seen that if the eyepiece E is focussed on the

interface of P, the appearance of the field is that illustrated in fig. 4(C), the portion shown shaded being occupied by an out-of-focus image of the right-hand side of S, while the portion shown clear is filled by the left-hand side of S. Assuming complete symmetry of the instrument, it follows that when both sides of S are equally illuminated, the field of view will appear uniformly bright, and the lines of demarcation of the various parts will almost vanish if P has been skilfully constructed. It has been found, however, that this is not the criterion of equality which the eye can appreciate with a maximum of precision, and the accuracy of its judgment can be materially improved if the criterion is changed from equality of brightness to equality of contrast. This is easily arranged by placing two thin glass plates G, and G; (see fig. 4[B]) so that they are respectively in the paths of the light beams occupying the patches R; and R: of the feld of view (fig. 4[B]). Owing to reflection losses at the surfaces of these plates, their interposition causes the brightness of R; to be about 9% less than that of the background to Ra, while Re is the same amount darker than the background to Ri. It will be seen at once that, with this arrangement, if the two sides of S differ in brightness by 1%, the contrast between patch and background, instead of being 9% in both halves of the field, is 8% in one half and 10% in the other, a difference which is much easier to detect than a simple 1% difference of brightness.

The Photometer Bench.—The simplest method of varying the illumination of one of the comparison surfaces in a photometer head is to move one of the sources towards or away from the head. The law of variation of illumination is then the law of the inverse square. The operation may be carried out most conveniently on some type of photometer bench. This may consist of two parallel steel bars, supported at a suitable distance apart by a rigid iron framework. Upon the bars run three carriages which respectively bear the light sources and the photometer head. These carriages run on spool-shaped wheels so that they move easily on the bars. They are provided with means for raising or lowering the sources,

and for enabling them carriage also bears a situated in the vertical of the carriage pillar.

to be turned about a vertical axis. Each framework on which is engraved a line plane which is at right angles to the axis This framework moves over a graduated

each other so that, if the candle-powers of the lamps be J, I, etc., and their respective distances from the photometer head at the position of balance, dı, dz, etc., it follows that L/d=Ie/de= ... . Thusif one of the lamps be a sub-standard of known candle-power, the candle-powers of the other lamps are found at once. In all photometry it is most important that only the light directly emitted by the sources to be compared shall reach the photometer head, and stray light from external sources, or that reflected from objects in the room, must be shut off by

means of suitably placed black screens. Although, owing to its convenience, the inverse square law is that most commonly used as the law governing the illumination of one of the comparison surfaces of a photometer head, there are other laws which are adopted, for special reasons in certain types of instruments. The cosine law is seldom employed, but the proportionality between luminous intensity and area in the case of a surface of uniform brightness is SUBSTANDARD sometimes used to provide what or Test LAMP is, in effect a comparison source of variable candle-power. The reduction of intensity of a polarCOMPARISON LAMP ized beam by the rotation of a FIG. 5.—PRINCIPLE OF THE SUB- nicol prism placed in its path STITUTION METHOD ON THE PHO- (see LicuT) is a favourite device TOMETER BENCH in spectrophotometry (see p. 844), while a transparent plate of graduated transmission factor (e.g., a small-angle wedge of neutral glass), is also useful for

special purposes. The Sector Disc.—A very accurate method of controlling the illumination of a surface is to interrupt the light reaching it at regular and frequent intervals. It has been found that the apparent brightness of a surface intermittently illuminated bears to the actual brightness when steadily illuminated, the ratio of the time of exposure to the total time, provided the intermittency is sufficiently rapid to avoid any appearance of flicker. This law is known as Talbot’s law and, though it has no theoretical foundation, it has been proved experimentally that it holds with great accuracy for all ratios down to 3% or less. The law may be applied by placing in the path of the light to be reduced an opaque disc having a radial slot cut in it, so that the light only reaches the photometer as the slot passes between it and the lamp. If, for instance, there are three slots in the disc, each 6° in breadth, the

ratio of reduction is 1/20. Such discs are exceedingly valuable as

auxiliaries to other photometric apparatus, but it will be clear that, as their reduction ratio is fixed, they cannot themselves be used to produce the variation of illumination needed in a photometer. For this purpose some form of disc with variable sectors is needed, and many attempts have been made to produce satisfactory apparatus of this kind.

PHOTOMETRY

842

The mechanical difficulties are, however, very great and probably the most satisfactory type of variable sector disc is that in which the disc remains stationary while the beam of light rotates. Fig. 6 shows the principle of the apparatus. The light from the lamp is reflected twice, as shown by the fine line, traverses the slot in the disc S and is again reflected so that it resumes its original direction. The reflecting surfaces may be mirrors or, preferably, the 45° surfaces of rhomboidal prisms as illustrated. In any case the four surfaces are rigidly fixed

to one another in the relative positions

>

shown, and the combination is rotated about its horizontal axis. It will be seen

that the effect at the photometer surface P is precisely equivalent to that which would be produced by lowering the disc and spin-

è |

ning it in the usual way. As, however, the F16. 6.—BRODHUN SECdisc remains stationary, there is no diffi- '® >'S¢ culty whatever in making it easily adjustable by the observer,

[FLUX MEASUREMENT

mean spherical candle-power with satisfactory accuracy. Such a lamp, then, may be used as a sub-standard of luminous flux, and all

that is now required is a method for measuring the flux output from more irregular sources by comparison with this sub-standard.

The Sphere.—The method which is almost universally adopted to-day is based on the demonstrable fact that, if a source of light be placed inside a hollow sphere covered internally with some perfectly diffusing coating, the same amount of light is received

at all parts of the sphere surface by reflection from all the other parts. The light received directly from the source naturally differs according to the candle-power distribution of the source, but the light which has been reflected once or more often from the walls of the sphere is distributed perfectly uniformly, no matter how

while a setting can be at once read off by having a scale on one unsymmetrical the original disMIRROR tribution from the source itself disc and an index line on the other. Sub-standard Lamps.—The sub-standards used for candle- may be. It will now be clear that, in power measurement are usually tungsten filament lamps of special construction such as that shown in fig. 7. Great care has to order to compare the total flux be taken in the manufacture of these lamps so as to avoid fluctua- from two sources of light, it is ROTATOR FOR LAMP tions of candle-power due to loose contacts between the filament only necessary to place them in NOT SHOWN turn within a sphere of the kind and its supporting hooks; the bulb, too, has to be specially selected so that there are no striations in the glass to cause slight altera- described, to screen a small por- Fic. 8.—MEASUREMENT OF MEAN tions of candle-power as the lamp is rotated through a very small tion of the sphere surface from SPHERICAL CANDLE-POWER (POINTangle on either side of the position adopted for the standardiza- direct light, and to measure the TO-POINT METHOD) tion measurement. The candle-power of such a lamp is determined illumination of this screened area in the two cases. The ratio of at a standardizing laboratory by comparison with the fundamental the illuminations will then be strictly equal to the ratio of the standards. The value of candle-power measured is that in the flux outputs of the sources. There are, of course, certain precaudirection normal to the plane of the filament, when a given voltage tions which must be observed in the practical application of the is applied to the lamp contacts or when a given current is passing method, owing to the unavoidable departures from the ideal conthrough the filament. These quantities have to be very accurately ditions assumed in the theory. The chief of these departures are controlled since, in the case of a tungsten filament, a 1% change (i.) lack of perfect diffusion by the internal coating of the sphere, of voltage, or a o-5% change of current, produces a change of and (ii.) the interference with the reflected flux brought about by the presence not only of the lamp and its accessories but also about 3-7% in candle-power. Flux Measurement.—Owing to the fact that most light of the screen necessary to shield the measured part of the sphere sources are now rated in lumens instead of in candles (see the surface from the direct light of the lamp. The illumination of the screened area of the sphere surface may British Standard Specification for Electric Lamps, issued by the Brit. Engineering Stds. Assn.), the measurement of luminous flux be measured by any convenient method. It is clearly unneceshas now become an even more important operation in every-day sary that this measurement should be absolute, since onlya ratio photometry than the measurement of luminous intensity. The is involved. One method is to have a small opening in the sphere fundamental method of finding the flux output of a source is to and to cover this with a window of opal glass or some other translucent material. The luminous intensity of the outer surface measure its candle-power in a very large of this window in the normal direction is then measured by means number of directions uniformly distributed of a photometer head and comparison lamp moving on a bench in space, and thus to obtain the mean attached to the sphere. Alternatively the sphere opening is left spherical candle-power which, when multiuncovered and the luminous intensity of that portion of the plied by 47 gives the flux in lumens (see sphere opposite the opening is measured. p. 840). This long and tedious process may The difficulty of constructing a sphere has led to the frequent be avoided in the case of certain sources, adoption of a cube as a sufficiently near approximation for work such as a tungsten filament vacuum lamp SLOT FOR of moderate accuracy. When a cube is used, the light source of ordinary filament form, when the light REGISTERING should be placed in the centre, with its axis of symmetry perpenis distributed fairly symmetrically about dicular to the line joining it to the window, the latter being in the axis. Such a lamp can be spun while the centre of one face of the cube. It is clear a priori tbat, if the photometric measurements are being the light distributions from the sources to be compared are exactly made, so that the figure of candle-power the same, the form of the enclosure employed is immaterial. So obtained at any given angle with the axis is, long, therefore, as the distributions do not differ too much, a cube in reality, the mean value in all directions making this angle with the axis. It is there- Eie. 7 —TUNGSTEN FILA. gives quite satisfactory results. fore only necessary to make measurements MENT STANDARD OR SUB-

Iilumination Photometers.—The third photometric meas-

urement of importance is that of illumination. This is now so in a limited number of directions, say 20, STANDARD LAMP which lie in a single plane passing through the axis of the lamp. universal in illuminating engineering that many different types of Apparatus suitable for this purpose is shown in fig. 8 which is portable photometer have been designed as illuminometers. Alalmost self-explanatory. The lamp is mounted in a holder which though these differ in design, each consists of three essential parts, can be rotated mechanically at a speed of, say, 150 revolutions viz., (i.) a test plate or standard surface placed at the spot at per minute. The mirror system can be turned by hand about the which the illumination is to be measured and generally, but not horizontal line passing through the centre of the lamp, the photom- always, detached from the remainder of the instrument; (ii.) a eter head and the comparison lamp. It can be shown that, if the surface inside the instrument, which is illuminated by a small directions in which the measurements are made be suitably chosen, battery lamp in such a way that its brightness can be varied at will the arithmetic mean of the 20 individual candle-powers gives the |by the observer, and (iii.) some form of comparison device for

PHOTOMETRY

ILLUMINATION PHOTOMETERS]

comparing the brightness of the internal surface with that of the external test plate.

The most natural form of instrument is one in which the inverse square law is used to obtain the necessary variable bright-

843

obtained at the mark Æ on the instrument scale, the brightness of this surface must be Æp/r candles per square foot. Thus to convert the scale of illumination on the instrument to a scale of brightness it is only necessary to multiply by the constant factor

ness. Such an instrument consists, generally, of a long tube black-

p/w.

ened internally and containing a lamp in a small diaphragmed en-

nated, their brightnesses are proportional to their reflection factors. If, therefore, a surface of reflection factor p’ be substituted for the test surface of an illumination photometer, the reading obtained will bear to the actual illumination the ratio

closure. This enclosure is attached to a rod moved by a rack and NEUTRAL FILTERS

Similarly, it is clear that, if two surfaces be equally illumi-

p'/p where p is the reflection factor of the test surface.

It will be seen that for the measurement of either brightness or reflection factor a knowledge of p, the reflection factor of the photometer test surface, is necessary. This may be obtained by setting up the surface at one end of a photometer bench, illumiCYLINORICAL SHUTTER

FIG.

9.—HOLOPHANE

‘‘LUMETER’’

nating it with a lamp of known high candle-power at a known distance, and measuring the candle-power J of the surface by means of a photometer head and comparison lamp in the ordinary

pinion so that the lamp may be brought towards or away from a way. If £ be the illumination of the test surface in foot-candles piece of opal glass placed near the end of the tube. The brightness and sits area in square feet, /=pEs/z, so that p is found. Heterochromatic Photometry.—No mention has so far been of the opal glass is compared with that of an external test surface by means of a small Lummer-Brodhun cube viewed through made of what is, perhaps, the greatest difficulty in all photometric an eyepiece attached to the side of the tube. An inverse square measurement, viz., a difference of colour between the lights to be scale is attached to the rod and the constant of this scale is compared. The modern electric lamp gives light which is much adjusted to unity by previous calibration. “whiter,” z.e., contains a larger proportion of blue, than that given An instrument in which the inverse square law is not employed by the carbon filament lamp. is the Holophane lumeter, shown in fig. 9. The lamp L is enSince the primary photometric standards are carbon filament closed in a whitened box of shallow cylindrical form. This box is electric lamps, operating at an efficiency of about 4-8 watts per provided with a window of diffusing glass W, the light from which candle, it is clear that, at some stage or another in the measureilluminates the opaque outer parts of the comparison screen S. ment of modern light sources, large colour differences have to The eye views the test surface T through the central transparent be bridged with as little loss of accuracy as possible. There are part of S, and the two parts of the field are adjusted to equality three generally recognized methods of doing this, viz., Ci.) tbe casby altering the exposed area of W. This is achieved by means of cade method; (ii.) the flicker method, and (iii.) the colour filter a cylindrical shutter which can be rotated about the lamp enclos- method based on spectrophotometry. Each of these methods will ure by means of the handle H. The shutter is provided with an be described briefly in turn, but mention must first be made of a opening of the form shown in the figure. It will be clear that if peculiarity of the eye which complicates the problem. The curve W is uniformly bright, the scale of the instrument will consist of shown in fig. r gives the relative response of the eye to equal two parts, one corresponding to each of the breadths of opening, amounts of energy at different parts of the spectrum. This curve, the scale being even within each part. however, only applies when the brightness of the field of view is In most illumination photometers the scale of the instrument o-15 candle per square foot or over. Below this limit the curve may be extended by the provision of neutral glass screens with shifts gradually to the left so that at low brightnesses the maxitransmission factors of one-tenth. If these are inserted between mum is at a wave-length of about 505 mp. It follows that, if two the test surface and the eye, the scale is extended upwards, the fields are illuminated, one by red and one by green light, it may instrument reading having to be multiplied by 10 or roo according quite well happen that, when the brightness of both fields is high, as one or both of these screens is inserted. If the screens are the red may appear the brighter of the two, while, if both be inserted between the internal lamp and the comparison surface, reduced in brightness in the same ratio, the balance may appear to the instrument reading must be divided by the appropriate factor. shift over so that the green may appear brighter than the red. The lamp is supplied from some form of portable battery, pref- This effect is known as the Purkinje effect, and it has to be guarded erably, an “‘accumulator.” A rheostat and a voltmeter or am- against by ensuring that the brightness of the field of view is well meter are provided for adjusting the current through the lamp to in excess of the limiting value mentioned above. In the cascade method of heterochromatic photometry, the the value at which the instrument was calibrated. This adjustment has to be made with the greatest possible care since, owing colour difference between the two lights to be compared is divided to the characteristics of the small battery lamps which have to into a number of small steps by the interposition of other sources be used, an error of 1% in the current setting may result in an giving lights of intermediate colour. The method, however, is not entirely satisfactory since, clearly, an observer who weights the error of as much as 10% in the readings. The calibration of every portable photometer should be checked “whiter” light, will do so throughout the series of comparisons, at frequent intervals. This may be done by setting up the test and so his errors at each step will add up in the final result. The Flicker Photometer.—The flicker method depends on surface at the zero point,of a photometer bench and placing a sub-standard of known candle-power at convenient distances from the fact that, when the field of view is illuminated alternately by it so as to give even values of illumination at the surface. The lights which differ in colour and in intensity, flicker due to colour test surface should approximate as closely as possible to a perfect difference vanishes at a lower speed than flicker due to brightdiffuser. Ground opal glass or sandblasted opaque white celluloid ness , difference. A photometer head constructed on the flicker principle is designed so that the two surfaces which make up are frequently used.

the comparison field are presented to the eye, not side by side, but one after the other in rapid alternation. At low speeds the field is observed to flicker whatever the position of the photometer head, but as the speed is raised the flicker gradually decreases until finally it can be made to disappear at one position of the head only. If the speed be maintained at this critical value, a slight movement of the head from the position of balance causes of this surface be p, its brightness under these conditions is a flicker to appear. The critical speed depends on the colour difEp/mcandles per square foot, or Ep foot-lamberts. Hence if, ference between the lights, being naturally higher the larger the when the photometer is sighted on any other surface, a balance is difference. Any increase in speed beyond that just necessary to

Measurement of Brightness and Reflection Factor.—Any

illumination photometer which employs a detached test surface may be used for measuring the brightness of a surface, or its reflection factor if it is not self-luminous. This will be made clear by means of an example. When the instrument is set to a reading of, say, £ foot-candles, a balance is obtained when the illumination of the test surface has this value. If, now, the reflection factor

PHOTOMETRY

844

remove flicker at the point of balance results in a decrease of sensitivity. It is therefore a first essential of any flicker photometer that it should be provided with an easy and rapid speed adjustment. It is by no means self-evident that the results obtained by this method will agree with those obtained either by the cascade method or by a direct comparison involving the whole colour

TO MOTOR

To DRIVING MECHANISM

FiG. 10.—FLICKER

PHOTOMETER

difference and carried out by a large number say, the Lummer-Brodhun photometer. Much has been done on this subject and it has been methods are in agreement when the following

of observers using, experimental work found that the two conditions are com-

plied with in the flicker measurement: (a) a flicker field of about 2° diameter, and (0) a field brightness of about 8 candles per sq.

metre, Since a 2° field is very small, and is most tiring for continuous work, the flicker field should be surrounded with a steady extended field of the same or slightly lower brightness. Many different types of flicker photometer have been developed. Of the more accurate, the one shown in fig. ro is, perhaps, the simplest in principle, and will serve to illustrate the method. S is a white surface illuminated, by way of the total reflection prism P, by the light from one of the sources to be compared. W is a sector disc, which can be rotated at any desired speed about a horizontal axis. Its surface is white and is illuminated by the other source of light so that, when viewed by the eye at E, the field of view seen through the small aperture A is alternately occupied by W and by 8. A is of such a size as to subtend an angle of 2° at E. It is cut with a sharp (back-bevelled) edge in a concave surface F, which is evenly illuminated by the small lamp L. L is adjusted to give F a brightness of about 8 candles per square metre, and the distances of the sources to be compared are then arranged so that the brightness of the field at A has approximately

the same value, The test lamp and photometer are then fixed and measurements

are made by moving the comparison lamp,

the speed of rotation of W being reduced until flicker can be made almost to disappear. Settings of the comparison lamp are then made to the point of minimum flicker. It will be noticed that the criterion of equality used in this instrument is not dis-

[SPECTROPHOTOMETER

factor of this medium be known for the light given by the source with which it is used, the problem is solved. The only method of obtaining this information is to determine (a) the spectral energy distribution of the source, and (b) the transmission factor of the medium at each wave-length.

The overall transmission factor 7

is then given by fr,K,£)/fKyE, where Ey is the energy

emitted by the source in a given wave-length interval at wave. length A and Ka is the corresponding luminosity factor. The instrument used for determining both the above sets of data is called a spectrophotometer, since it is essentially a device for enabling the intensities of two lights to be compared at any given part of the spectrum instead of as a whole. Every spectrophotometer, therefore, consists of two parts, (i.) a spectrometer (see SpecTRoscopy) for enabling any given wave-length interval of the lights to be isolated, and (ii.) some device for causing the portions of the lights so selected to illuminate the two parts of a comparison field, and a means for altering the brightness of one

part of this field. The principle will be made clearer by means of an example. Fig, 1x shows diagrammatically the Lummer-Brodhun instrument which consists of an ordinary spectrometer with the addition of a second collimator Cz and a Lummer-Brodhun cube. The latter is constructed similarly to the cube used in the ordinary photometer head (see p. 841) but the form of the field is that shown in fig. II. The two sources to be compared respectively illuminate the slits of Cı and C2 which may be covered with diffusing glass. For the adjustment to a photometric balance various devices may be used, e.g., a variable slit in one collimator, alteration of the distance of one source from its slit, a sector disc or neutral wedge in one beam, or a pair of nicol prisms (one capable of rotation through a measureable angle) mounted in one of the collimators. The lastmentioned device is used in the Brace-Lemon instrument which is a modification of the Lummer-Brodhun spectrophotometer, the dispersing prism being used also to form the comparison field. This prism is shown in fig. rr. As in ordinary photometry the substitution method is generally employed. The source used as a standard of spectral distribution is frequently a tungsten filament vacuum lamp, since the spectral distribution of this type of lamp = FROM SOURCE A is very closely determined by its efficiency. Alternatively any suitable lamp may be used, the spectral distribution of which has been determined at a standardizing laboratory. One of the most important uses of spectrophotometry is to determine at each part of the spectrum the transmission factor of a coloured medium, a chemical solution, etc. This may be done quite readily by first obtaining a balance for two sources of light at any one wave-length, and then inserting the coloured medium between one of these sources and the photometer. The amount by which the intensity of the other beam has to be altered to restore the balance enables the transmission factor of the medium at the particular part of the specFIGS.

11,

11A.—-LUMMER-BRODHUN

SPECTROPHOTOMETER

FIG. 11B.—BRACE-LEMON PRISM

trum isolated to be reduced. Physical Photometers.—

Many attempts have been made

appearance of flicker but minimum flicker, as it has been found that in practice this gives a rather more sensitive test of the balance point. The Spectrophotometer,—The third method for overcoming a colour difference in photometry is to place between the photom-

at various times to develop some physical instrument which can be used instead of the eye for making photometric measurements. The instruments proposed may be divided, roughly, into three classes. The first of these includes the vast number of chemical

eter head and one of the sources of light a sheet of some transparent medium of such a colour that it produces a colour-match with the light from the other source. If, then, the transmission

photometers in which the illumination is measured by the rate of change it produces in the constitution of some chemical mixture. This form of photometer survives in the photographic

PHOTOELECTRIC]

PHOTOMETRY

method used in some branches of spectrophotometry and in stellar photometry (see below). The chief disadvantage of the method is, as in all physical photometry, that the response of the sensitive

substance to equal rates of energy reception in the form of light

845

employed. Such a combination will, in conjunction with a suitable galvanometer and chronograph, enable records of a varying illumination (e.g., daylight) to be obtained. See also J. W. T. Walsh, Photomeiry

(1926); Dobson, Griffith and

of different wave-lengths is quite different from that of the eye. In other words, the luminosity curve of the physical photometer is not even approximately the same as the curve of fig. r. This,

Harrison, Photographic Photometry (1926); “The Measurement of Mean Spherical Candle-Power,” Illumination Research Technical Paper No 5 (H.M. Stationery Office, 1927). (J. W. T. W.)

clearly, is of no importance in spectrophotometry where the comparison is made separately at each part of the spectrum. The

CELESTIAL The earliest records we possess as to the positions of the stars have always been accompanied by estimations of their relative brightness; the stars being arranged in “magnitudes” according to their apparent luminosities. Thus, in the catalogue of stars published by Ptolemy (c. AD. 150) but which had probably been formed 300 years previously by Hipparchus, the stars visible to the unaided eye were divided into six classes or magnitudes, the brightest stars being designated “first magnitude stars” and those just visible to the naked eye forming the “sixth magnitude.” Each class was further sub-divided into three sub-groups. This process of arranging the stars by eye estimates (with the unaided eye at first and subsequently with the aid of telescopes) was further developed by Flamsteed and the Herschels, and culminated in the work of Argelander, Schönfeld and Krüger, who published three

principal difficulty associated with photographic spectrophotometry is the lack of proportionality between exposure (illumination xX time) and blackening. Schwartzchild’s law that, for equal photographic densities, Hz? is a constant (p has a value between

o-75 and x depending on the plate) holds for short ranges of E and ż. The second class of physical photometer is that depending on the change (usually increase) of electrical conductivity of the element selenium when illuminated. A sensitive selenium bridge

(frequently termed selenium cell) may be made by winding four strands of fine nickel or platinum wire round a sheet of some

good insulator which has been covered on one side with a thin

layer of purified amorphous selenium. If two alternate strands of wire are then removed, the remaining strands are separated catalogues (1859-62) of celestial co-ordinates and magnitudes by a long strip of selenium of the same breadth as the diameter known as the Bonn Durchmusterung. This catalogue included the of the wire. By heating the bridge to a temperature of about enormous number of 324,188 stars. An additional volume con180° C for five minutes or longer the selenium is changed to the taining 133,659 stars south of the equator was published in 1886 metallic form and the conductivity of the path between the wire and the work was further extended in the southern hemisphere by then varies with the illumination of the bridge. Many other forms B. A. Gould, J. M. Thorne and others. In the Bonn Durchmusterof cell have been developed for various purposes. This type of ung, or “B.D.,” each magnitude is sub-divided into ten divisions, physical photometer is not only subject to the disadvantage that a decimal notation being used. its luminosity curve is different from that of the eye and is, moreSo far no attempt was made to define the quantitative relationover, not the same at all intensities of illumination, but it has ship between different magnitudes. In modern times a definition the additional defect of a lag both in response to stimulation and due to Pogson has arisen, and we define a difference of one magniin recovery after the illumination has been cut off. tude between two stars as meaning that the light that reaches us Photoelectric Photometry.—The most promising form of from the first star is & times the light which reaches us from the physical photometer is the photoelectric cell described elsewhere second. The constant & is chosen so as to make a difference of five (see PHOTOELECTRICITY). Although the luminosity curve of any magnitudes correspond to a light ratio of roo and this means that such cell is very markedly different from that of the eye and is, we must have logik=o-4. We cannot observe all the radiation moreover, slightly different even for two cells made similarly emitted by a star. If the instrument used for registering the light with the same photoelectric metal, it has been found that a com- be the human eye, it will not respond to radiation either in the bination of a potassium cell with a suitable yellow filter (Wratten extreme ultra-violet end of the spectrum or in the extreme infra K3) gives a curve which approximates to that of fig. 1 sufficiently red. Now if two stars are of different colours, the proportion of closely for a device of this nature to be used as a physical the whole radiation represented by the light which affects the eye will be different for the two stars, and the adoption of the photometer. Various methods may be employed for carrying out a measure- above definition as it stands would lead to difficulties. We can ment with such a cell-filter combination. The simplest is to have retain it, however, for stars of the same colour and then, as the combination illuminated in succession by the sub-standard far as visual magnitudes are concerned, we define two stars of and the lamps to be measured, and to balance the photoelectric different colour as being of the same visual magnitude when they current in each case by that from a simple photoelectric cell appear equally bright to the eye. With the introduction of photoilluminated by a comparison lamp mounted on a bench (see fig. graphic methods, a photographic scale has arisen defined in the 12). The two cells, with their batteries, are connected in a same way; two stars being of equal photographic magnitude when Wheatstone bridge arrangement with a sensitive electrometer, they produce equal photographic effects. Reference will be made below to certain difficulties arising out of these definitions. With and the distance of the compariregard to the zeros or starting points of these visual and photoson lamp from the cell it illumgraphic scales, the zero of the measured scale of visual magniinates can be altered until the tudes has been fixed so that the magnitudes agree approximately electrometer ceases to show a with those in the “B.D.” for the mean of stars down to the sixth deflection. The illumination of magnitude, whilst the zero of the photographic scale 1s defined so the cell-filter combination is that for the white stars (of spectral type Ao) of the sixth magnithen proportional to I/d? pro- Fig. 12.—PHOTO-ELECTRIC PHOTOtude (between visual magnitudes 5-5 and 6-5) the visual and photovided both cells follow the METER same law connecting photoelectric current and illumination. It is graphic magnitudes are equal. The actual methods of procedure, both visual and photographic, unsafe to assume that this is the case over a very extended range of illumination, so that the sub-standard and the test lamps must will be given in outline later in this article. In recent years an by the be arranged to give illuminations of the same order at the cell- enormous stimulus has been given to stellar photometry distances the of estimates good to us lead can it that realization filter combination. In the case of a measurement of luminous intensity this can be done quite easily, but when the cell is being of remote objects. It was pointed out by Hertzsprung (see Star), to their absoused in combination with a sphere or cube for the measurement of that the period of certain variable stars was related they would appear to luminous flux, some auxiliary means must be adopted for adjusting lute magnitude, i.e., to the magnitude that standard distance. the value of the illumination. A sector disc may be used since have when viewed by an observer at a certain can be deduced, magnitude absolute the period the observing By reTalbot’s law is rigorously obeyed by a photoelectric cell, its magnitude has been measured. apparent the provided then, and the increasing For instantaneous. practically being light to sponse The discovery and elaposensitivity of a photoelectric cell, a three-electrode valve is often the distance of the star can be inferred.

846

PHOTOMETRY

ration of methods such as these has led to the extension of the photometric scale down to the zoth magnitude. The scale of magnitudes defined numerically can of course be extended on the negative side, and, in point of fact, the visual magnitude of Sirius is —1-4 whilst that of the sun is —26.7. MODERN

WORK

ON VISUAL

MAGNITUDES

The bulk of observational work on visual magnitudes has been carried out at Harvard, and at the Harvard station in the southern hemisphere (but a considerable amount has been accomplished at Potsdam), and the standard catalogue of visual magnitudes for the brighter stars is the “Revised Harvard Photometry” (Harvard Annals, vol. 50). This catalogue contains the computed magnitudes of 9,110 stars, of magnitude 6-5 and brighter, distributed over the whole sky. A further catalogue (Harvard Annals, vol. 54) gives the magnitudes of 36,682 stars fainter than 6-5. The instrument used at Harvard was the meridian photometer designed by the late Prof. Pickering. The principle underlying the instrument is the presentation of two stars in the field of view, the light from one being varied by a Nicol prism until the two stars appear of equal brightness. The ratio in which the incident light has been varied is read off from the angle through which the Nicol has been rotated, and the difference of magnitudes of the two stars thus obtained. The stars were all compared with a standard star, which was the Pole star in the case of the brighter stars and N Ursae Minoris for the fainter ones. The photometer (Harvard Annals, vols. 14 and 23) consists of two telescopes placed side by side pointing due east, the light from the stars on the meridian being reflected into them by two mirrors inclined at an angle of 45° to this direction. If there were a star exactly at the Pole, one of these mirrors would be absolutely fixed and would constantly reflect the light of this star down the axis of its telescope; in practice a slight motion can be given to the mirror so as to keep in view the polar star selected as the standard of comparison. The second mirror (which projects a little beyond the first so as to obtain an unobstructed view of the meridian) can be rotated round the axis of the telescope by means of a toothed-wheel gearing, and can thus be made to reflect any star on the meridian down the second telescope; it is also provided with a small motion in the perpendicular direction, so as to command a degree or two on each side of the meridian. Near the common eyepiece of the telescopes there is a double image prism which separates the light received from each into two pencils; the pencil of ordinary rays from one object-glass is made to coincide with that of extraordinary rays from the other, and the two remaining pencils are excluded by a stop. The two coincident pencils then pass through a Nicol prism to the eye of the observer, who by rotating the prism round its axis can equalize them at a definite reading depending on their relative intensities. This reading gives in fact the difference of magnitude between the two stars selected for comparison. It may be remarked that the position of the double image prism is important. It should be just within, not at, the common focus; this position prevents any noticeable colour in the images, and gives the ordinary and extraordinary pencils a sufficient separation at the eyestop to permit the entire exclusion of one without the loss of any part of the other. If the prism were exactly at the focus, and any part of the superfluous images were admitted, the resulting secondary images would coincide with the others and thus lead to errors In observing. As it is, owing to the construction of the instrument, if the secondary images appeared at all they would do so only as additional stars, near those under observation and too faint to produce any inconvenience. Each observation consists of four comparisons; after the first two the observer reverses the position of the star images in the field, and also reverses the double-image prism. The former precaution is necessary to eliminate a curious error depending on the relative position of the images, which may amount to several tenths of a magnitude. Errors of this kind affect all estimates of the relative brightness of two stars in the same field, as has been repeatedly shown; a striking instance is given by A. W. Roberts of Lovedale, South Africa (Mon. Not. R.A.S., 1897), who found

[PHOTOGRAPHIC

that his eye-estimations of the brightness of variable stars re. quired a correction depending on the position-angle of the comparison star and ranging over nearly two magnitudes. In the Harvard work on the brighter stars, the magnitude of the pole star was provisionally assumed to be 2-0 at the pole. Each observation had to be corrected for the effect of atmospheric absorption, the coefficient for which was obtained from observations of circum-polars at upper and lower culminations. The provisional magnitudes thus obtained were finally corrected by a constant

chosen so as to make the mean magnitude of the circum-polars equal to the mean magnitude of the same stars as given in the “B.D.” Other types of photometer are Zollner’s (Photometrische Un-

tersuchungen, h. 81), in which an artificial star is taken as the standard of comparison, and Pritchard’s, in which the images of stars are viewed through a wedge and the wedge-reading at which

the star is extinguished noted.

The comparison of different catalogues of visual magnitudes reveals small systematic differences which arise out of the diff-

culties of estimating when two stars of different colour are equal

in apparent intensity.

The observation is complicated by what

is known as the “Purkinje phenomenon.” If a blue source of light and a red source appear equally bright to the eye, and if the intensity of each be diminished in the same ratio, they will no longer seem equally bright, the blue appearing the brighter. From

this cause, magnitudes observed with meridian photometers of different aperture will differ slightly. It becomes obvious that visual magnitudes ought to be referred to some standard instrument, and possibly to some standard observer, and it is difficulties such as these which are at the present time leading to the replacement of visual magnitudes by what are known as photo-visual magnitudes. PHOTOGRAPHIC

PHOTOMETRY

Here, we are dealing with a problem which differs considerably in detail from the visual procedure. We can no longer vary the light of a star by some device such as a Nicol prism until it is equal in brightness to a standard. But on a plate which has been exposed to a field of stars we can at any rate arrange the stars in order of brightness by measuring the diameters of the images, or by estimating their degrees of blackness, and we are then faced with the task of finding a means of relating our measures of blackness or of diameter to the true photometric scale defined as above. Two principal methods have been employed, the in-focus method and the out-of-focus method. In the in-focus method a field of stars is photographed twice on the same plate, the intensity of the light being reduced in some known ratio for the second exposure. This can be effected by stopping down the aperture of the telescope by a given amount. The plate is placed in the usual position, that is, in the focal plane of the object glass or mirror. For each star we then have two images on the plate whose difference in magnitude is known. Now suppose we measure the photographic effect of each image in some way and denote the measure by D. A simple measure of photographic effect is the diameter of the image, in which case D is the measured diameter. Suppose Dı and D: be the measures on the two images of the same star. The difference of magnitude between these two images depends only on the ratio in which the aperture has been stopped down and is consequently known. We thus get the magnitude difference corresponding to the difference of the measures D; and Ds. In other words, we are relating the scale of our measures of photographic effect to the magnitude scale, and we thus have a means of converting the measures into magnitudes and of obtaining the relative magnitudes of all the stars on the plate. The principle of the method is as follows. Select a sequence of stars on the plate such that the diameter (or any other measure of photographic effect that may be adopted) of the fainter image of any member of the sequence is equal to the diameter of the brighter image of the next succeeding member. We then have a sequence of stars each member of which differs in magnitude from the following member by a known amount. In other words,

PHOTOGRAPHIC]

PHOTOMETRY

the magnitudes of the stars of the sequence are known, but with

an arbitrary zero point. If then, the measured diameters of these stars be plotted against their magnitudes obtained in this way, a

curve would be obtained from which the magnitude of any star on the plate can be read off from its measured diameter. In actual practice a mathematical process is used instead of a graphical one. Furthermore, the equality between the fainter and brighter images of two consecutive members of the sequence will not be exact and this must be allowed for. So far this method only gives a means of determining the relative magnitudes of stars in the same region of the sky and which can therefore be photographed on the same plate, but if we expose every plate a second time on some standard area, the time of

exposure being the same, we can determine the magnitudes rela-

tively to some star or stars in the standard area (which may conveniently be the area of the Polar sequence); and it only remains to define the zero. This has been fixed, as already explained, so as to make the photographic magnitudes of the white stars of the 6th magnitude agree with their visual magnitudes on the Harvard

scale. Instead of using a stop to reduce the light in a given ratio for a second exposure, it is preferable to use a coarse wire diffraction grating placed over the aperture of the telescope. Each image is then flanked by fainter lateral images differing in magnitude from the main image by a known amount depending on the

thickness and spacing of the wires. The subsequent procedure is unchanged, but only one exposure is necessary. In order to give some idea of the appearance of such gratings, it may be mentioned that one of the gratings used at Greenwich in conjunction with the 26-inch refractor consisted of wires o-69 mm. in diameter and spaced at intervals of 5 mm. (Monthly Notices R.A.S., 1913). At Harvard the out-of-focus method has been used. In this case a series of exposures are made and for each exposure the plate is placed at a certain distance from the focus. Each star is now represented by a blackened patch on the plate, instead of

by the usual image, and the density of the silver deposited in each patch is measured by comparison with a graduated wedge. In the case of the different exposures to the same star at different

distances from the focus, the relative quantities of light falling upon unit area of the plate are determined from straightforward geometry, and the relation between the measured densities and the magnitude scale thus determined (Harvard Annals, vol. 59). It may be remarked that the out-of-focus method lends itself readily to the determination of the magnitudes of planets. For the purpose of determining the magnitudes of the sun and moon, a pin-hole camera was used by the Harvard observers, and they obtained —25-83 m. for the photographic magnitude of the sun and —1z-20 m. for that of the full moon (Harvard Annals, vol.

59).

In recent years a great deal of care has been lavished upon the determination of the magnitudes of a sequence of stars extending down to the zoth magnitude and situated at the North Pole of the sky. This having been done the magnitudes of stars in any other part of the northern sky can be obtained by photographing the field and the pole on the same plate and with the same exposure. In order to eliminate atmospheric absorption the exposures should be made at the same altitude. Measures (say of diameter) can then be made of all the stars in each field, and the measures calibrated from the determined magnitudes of the Polar sequence. Several secondary sequences have been determined in this way in various parts of the sky and the work is being pushed into the southern hemisphere. Colour-indices and Standardization.—The visual and photographic magnitudes are not necessarily the same. A red star, for example, may affect the eye strongly, but its effect on an ordinary photographic plate, which is chiefly sensitive to blue light, may be small. The difference between the photographic

and visual magnitudes of amount to 14 magnitude), minus visual, is called its sideration will show that With different instruments

a star (which in extreme cases may reckoned in the sense photographic colour-index. However, a little conphotographic magnitudes determined (or different plates) will differ from

84.7

each other. For example, in a refractor a large portion of the ultra-violet light is absorbed by the lens, and in a reflector this light is let through to a much greater extent. Clearly the photographic magnitudes as determined with these types of instruments will be different. It is necessary to adopt some standard, and the International Astronomical Union, in defining the magnitudes of the standard polar sequence, has adopted the scale of the 60-inch reflector at Mt. Wilson. The magnitudes m of stars in any catalogue can be connected with the standard magnitudes m’, which

are referred to the scale of the 60-inch by an equation of the form m=m +atbc where C is the colour index and a and b are constants. At Mt. Wilson Dr. Seares has devised a method of measuring colour-index directly. He photographs stars on colour-sensitive plates through blue and yellow filters and he defines the “exposure ratio” as the logarithmic ratio of the exposure times which produce blue and yellow images of the same size. The results have to be calibrated by comparison with colour-indices, but, this having been done, the method has the advantage of determining the colour directly instead of by differencing two separate magnitude determinations. A further direct measure of colour is provided by the “efective photographic wave-length” of a star. This may be defined as the wave-length of the light from the star which produces the maximum effect on a photographic plate. It is greater for the red stars than for the blue, and may be determined by placing a coarse diffraction grating over the aperture and then measuring the distance on the plate between the central image of a star and the most intense part of the lateral image produced by diffraction (Monthly Notices R.A.S., 82, 1921). Effective wave-lengths having been determined, they can be calibrated by comparison with colour-indices. Photovisual Magnitudes.—Just as different photographic determinations differ, so will visual observers using different instruments obtain different results. There is also the complication arising from the Purkinje effect. For this reason attempts have been made of recent years to replace visual determinations by photographic ones made on colour-sensitive plates through yellow screens. The resulting magnitudes are called photovisual magnitudes. They are roughly the same as the visual ones, at any rate for the brighter stars, and lend themselves readily to standardization. Photovisual magnitudes have been determined at Mt. Wilson for the stars of the polar sequence. When compared with the Harvard visual results they show differences depending on colour, which become more pronounced for the fainter stars, and may amount to as much as three-tenths of a magnitude for red stars of the 12th magnitude. Spectro-photometry.—It has been long recognized that the colour-index of a star bears a relation to its surface temperature— the bluest stars being the hottest—and it is immediately suggested that the temperatures of the stars might be calculated from colourindex data. This would be possible if the visual and photographic magnitudes referred to definite wave-lengths, instead, as is actually the case, of being results integrated over a certain range of spectrum. Consequently the satisfactory determination of what are known as effective temperatures can only be obtained by spreading out the light into spectra and confining the photometric measurements to certain definite wave-lengths. The effective temperature of a star may be defined, for the present purpose, as the temperature of a full radiator or “black

body” for which the distribution of the energy in the spectrum most closely fits the observed distribution in the stellar spectrum. It is assumed that if, as is usual, measurements are confined to those spectral regions which are free from absorption lines, the stellar distribution of energy is very nearly that of a black body, and this is probably the case. The principle of the method may be stated thus. If for two stars the ratio of the light reaching us be measured for two separate wave-lengths, and if the effective temperature of one of them, which is thus regarded as a standard star, be known, then the effective temperature of the other can

be calculated.

The problem is thus reduced to determining this

ratio for two separate wave-lengths, or, which comes to the same

thing, the difference of magnitude for the two wave-lengths in

84.8

PHOTON—PHRAATES

question. Actually it is not necessary to determine each of these conditions, according as they are normally long-day, short-day, differences, the difference of the differences is all that is required. or indeterminate types of plants, Poinsettia is an example of a The object of spectro-photometric measurement is thus to deter- typical short-day plant, because the initiation of reproduction rine what is in reality a colour-index, determined with respect to does not take place until the seasonal day-length has fallen two definite wave-lengths, say in the blue and the red regions of below 12 hours. Buckwheat is an indeterminate type of plant, the spectrum. Then, if the effective temperature of the standard and Oswego tea or bee balm (Monarda didyma), a garden orna. star be known, the effective temperatures of any others can be mental, demands the long midsummer days for flowering. derived. The standard star need not be an actual star, but an The distinctive response of the different species of plants apartificial source of light whose effective temperature can be de- pears to have much to do with their normal ranges in many instances, at least it is one of the factors in the environmental termined in the laboratory. It is on these lines that research has been pursued at Pots- complex, which must also be considered in any study of natural dam, Edinburgh, Victoria, Greenwich and at other observatories. distribution. Likewise the geographical limits of some of our The work is still in its infancy and it is impossible to go into cultivated crops probably depend to a greater or less extent upon details here. With the exception of Potsdam, photographic methods are employed, and one method is to measure the densities of the silver deposited in the spectra with some form of microphotometer. It then remains to relate the measures of density to the absolute photometric scale just as in the case of ordinary

this factor. Biloxi soy beans, for instance, a crop fruiting success-

fully in the Gulf States, cannot be grown for seed in the Wash. ington region (latitude 39°), because they do not flower until the September length of day is reached. As a result, unfavourable temperatures with frost ensue and kill the plants while the pods are still immature. As originally defined, photoperiodism refers to the normal 24.

photometry. A graded series of images in light of the requisite wave-lengths must be imposed on the plate and the measures of density thus calibrated. In the case of the visual work carried out hour period of time, a constant condition which holds everywhere at Potsdam, the spectra were compared at each wave-length with on the earth except at the poles. Breaking the normal daily a Nicol prism photometer in a manner analogous to the Harvard duration of light during the long days of summer with a periad visual photometry. The results that have been so far obtained are of darkness of one to several hours in the middle of the day does not altogether accordant, and are subject to revision. The avail- not appear to produce any fundamental effect upon the norma)

able observational data have been summarized by A. Brill (Astronomische Nachrichten 5,539, 1928), who has given a table connecting spectral types and effective temperatures. According to this table, the mean effective temperatures of stars of type Bo is 20,800° Absolute. For type Ao the effective temperature is 1,300° A and for type Go (the solar type) it is 6,050° A for the “giants” and 6,240° A for the “dwarfs.” For the very red stars of type Mo Brill gives 3,200° A and 3,420° A for the giants and dwarfs, respectively. A very recent development is the determination, by photometric methods, of the integrated intensities of absorption lines, z.e., the ratio of the total amount of light absorbed in a line to the amount of light per unit of wave-length in the neighbouring continuous spectrum. Some very promising work on these lines has been carried out at Harvard and it is probable that it will be developed rapidly in the immediate future. (W. M. H. G.)

PHOTON: see Comrron ErrecT. PHOTOPERIODISM, the term employed to designate the

response of organisms to length of day, with special reference to plants. Its possible application to animal life has not yet been adequately investigated, though there is some evidence of its connection with bird migration. So far as known at present, sunhight may affect plant growth in three ways, in virtue of its composition, including visible and invisible radiation, in virtue of its intensity and its daily durations. It has been found that, for the sake of convenience, plants may be considered to fall into three great groups, depending upon the

initiation of sexual reproductive expression and flowering in response to different day-lengths. In one group, termed the shortday plants, day-lengths of 12 hours or less are most favourable to the initiation of sexual reproduction. In a second group, the long-day plants, lengths of day in excess of 12 hours, amounting in some instances to continuous illumination are most favourable for reproduction and flowering. A third group includes plants which attain sexual expression independently of any particular length of day. Such plants have been called indeterminate types, because they show no distinctive flowering response to either long

or short days. By the use of appropriate dark, ventilated chambers, or houses

in which plants may be placed, cutting off the early morning and later afternoon light of the long days of summer, it has been . found practical to study the behaviour of plants as affected by daylight exposures much shorter than the normal. During the short days of winter, greenhouses suitably heated have been used, with electric illumination afforded the plants at sunset to increase the daily illumination periods to the desired degree. The behaviour of responsive plants has been consistent under the two

reproductive development of typical long- or short-day plants. In addition to its effects upon sexual reproduction day-length is known to modify composition, growth and development of plants in various ways, including tuberization, branching habit, root and rhizome development, stature, dormancy, leaf fall, senescence, re» juvenescence and cleistogamy. In any analysis of plant behaviour, either in the field or in the laboratory, the factor of photoperiodism must be considered as operative in the environmental-complex. Just as plants are known to have their specific requirements with respect to temperature, moisture, light-intensity, etc., it is known that they have definite length-of-day requirement for promoting the different phases of vegetative expression of flowering and fruiting. The character and extent of these expressions, the seasonal behaviour, stature, longevity, etc., may be more a matter of response to length of day than anything else. This principle has probably been uncon-

sciously applied in the agricultural operations of man with his various economic and ornamental plants, just as the requirements of temperature, light-intensity, soil, moisture, etc., have been met. Definite recognition of the principle will unquestionably aid greatly in a more intelligent interpretation of plant behaviour, and

prove a factor of no small importance in the successful introduction of plants from one region into another. The phenomena of photoperiodism were brought to the attention of the scientific world in 1920 by workers in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

See K. F. Kellerman, Quarterly Review of Biolegy (1926). (W. W. G.; H. A. A.)

PHOTOSPHERE

of the sun, the layer from which most of

the sun’s light is emitted which reaches us directly; z.e¢., without absorption and re-emission. The sun is a globe of gas with no sharply defined surface, and we look down into it through absorbing layers of very low density; the photosphere may be regarded as the layer which is the limit to which we can see into the

interior. (See Sun.) PHRAATES (p-hrah-ah‘tés) (PuHRanates), the name of five Parthian kings. 1. Puraates I., son of Priapatius, reigned c. 175-170 3.c. He subdued the Mardi, a mountainous tribe. in the Elburz (Justin

xli. 5; Isid. Charac. 7). He died young, and appointed as his successor not one of his sons, but his brother Mithradates I.

(Justin xli. 5). 2. Puraates TI., son of Mithradates I., the conqueror of Babylonia, reigned 138-127. He was attacked in 130 by Antiochus VIT. Sidetes, who, however, in 129 was defeated and killed in a great battle in Media, which ended the Seleucid rule east of the Euphrates. (See Sereucry Dynasty.) Meanwhile the

PHRANTZA—PHRENOLOGY

849

kingdom was invaded by the Scythians (the Tochari of Bactria),

PHRAORTES, the Greek form of Fravartish, king of Media.

who had helped Antiochus. Phraates marched against them, but is defeated and killed (Justin xlii, 1; Johannes Antioch, fr. 66). 3, PHRAATES Il., “the God? (Phlegon, fr. 12 af. Photius

According to Herodotus (i. 102) he was the son of Deioces, and

cod. 97 and on some of his coins), succeeded his father, Sana-

a reign of 22 years (about 646-625 B.c.; but perhaps, as G. Rawlinson supposes, the 53 years of Deioces ought in reality to be transferred to him). From other sources we obtain no information whatever about Phraortes; but the data of the Assyrian in-

truces, in 70 B.C., at the time when Lucullus was preparing to attack Tigranes of Armenia, who was supreme in western Asia and had wrested Mesopotamia and several vassal states from the

began the Median conquests.

tacked the Assyrians, but was defeated and killed in a battle, after

Parthian kingdom. Naturally, Phraates declined to assist Mithra-

dates of Pontus and Tigranes against the Romans.

He first subjugated the Persians,

and then a great many other peoples of Asia, till at last he at-

(See Ti-

CRANES.) He supported his son-in-law, the younger Tigranes, when he rebelled against his father, and invaded Armenia (65 B.C.) in alliance with Pompey, who abandoned Mesopotamia to

the Parthians (Dio. Cass. xxxvi. 45, 51; Appian, Mitkr. 104; Liv. Epit. 100). But Pompey soon overrode the treaty; he acknowledged the elder Tigranes, took his son prisoner, occupied the vassal states Gordyene and Osroéne for the Romans, and denied the title of “king of kings,” which Phraates had adopted again,

scriptions prove that Assur-bani-pal (see BABYLONIA AND AsSYRIA), at least during the greater part of his reign, maintained the Assyrian supremacy in Western Asia, and that in 645 he conquered Susa. The Medians too were subject to him as far as the Elburz and the central Iranian desert. When after the assassination of Smerdis all the Iranian tribes,

the Babylonians and the Armenians rebelled against Darius and the Persian rule, “a man of the name of Fravartish (ze., Phraortes), a Mede, rebelled in Media and spoke to the people thus: I am Khshathrita, of the family of Uvakhshatra (Cyaxares).” to the Parthian king (Plut. Pomp. 33, 38; Dio. Cass. xxxvii. 5 He reigned for a short time, but was defeated by Hydarnes, and seg.). About 57 Phraates was murdered by his two sons, Orodes afterwards by Darius himself, taken prisoner in Rhagae (Rai), and executed in Ecbatana (520 B.c.; see inscription of Darius at I. and Mithradates III. (Ep. M.) 4. PHRAATES IV., son of Orodes I., by whom he was appointed Behistun). PHRENOLOGY, the name given to the empirical system of successor in 37 B.C., after the death of Pacorus. He soon murdered his father and all his thirty brothers (Justin xlii. 5; Plut. Crass. psychology formulated by F. J. Gall, about the year 1800 and 33; Dio Cass. xlix. 23). He was attacked in 36 by Antonius (Mark developed by his followers, especially by J. K. Spurzheim and Antony), who marched through Armenia into Media Atropatene, G. Combe. The principles upon which it is based are ñve: (zx) and was. defeated and lost the greater part of his army. Believing the brain is the organ of the mind; (2) the mental powers of man himself betrayed by Artavasdes, king of Armenia, he invaded his can be analysed into a definite number of independent faculties; kingdom in 34, took him prisoner, and concluded a treaty with (3) these faculties are innate, and each has its seat in a definite another Artavasdes, king of Atropatene. But when the war with region of the surface of the brain; (4) the size of each such Octavianus Augustus broke out, he could not maintain his con- region is the measure of the degree to which the faculty seated quests; Phraates recovered Atropatene and drove Artaxes, the in it forms a constituent element in the character of the indison of Artavasdes, back into Armenia (Dio. Cass. xlix. 24 seg., vidual; (5) the correspondence between the outer surface of the 39 seg., 443 cf. li. 16; Plut. Antonius, 37 seq.). But by his many skull and the contour of the brain-surface beneath is sufficiently cruelties Phraates had roused the indignation of his subjects, who close to enable the observer to recognize the relative sizes of these raised Tiridates IÏ. to the throne in 32. Phraates was restored by several organs by the examination of the outer surface of the head. It professes primarily to be a system of psychology, but its secthe Scythians, and Tiridates fled into Syria. The Romans hoped that Augustus would avenge the defeat of ond and more popular claim is that it affords a method whereby Crassus on the Parthians, but he contented himself with a treaty, the disposition and character of the subject may be ascertained. The Faculties and Their Localities—The system of Gall by which Phraates gave back the prisoners and the conquered eagles (20 B.C., Mon. Anc. 5, 40 seg.; Justin xlii. 5); the king- was constructed by a method of pure empiricism, and his so-called dom of Armenia also was recognized as a Roman dependency. organs were for the most part identified on slender grounds. Soon afterwards Phraates, whose greatest enemies were his own Having selected the place of a faculty, he examined the heads of family, sent five of his sons as hostages to Augustus, thus acknowl- his friends and casts of persons with that peculiarity in common, edging his dependence on Rome. This plan he adopted on the and in them he sought for the distinctive feature of their charadvice of an Italian concubine whom he made his legitimate wife acteristic trait. Some of his earlier studies were made among under the name of “the goddess Musa”; her son Phraates, com- low associates, in gaols and in lunatic asylums, and some of the monly called Phraataces (a diminutive form), he appointed suc- qualities located by him were such as tend to become perverted cessor. About 4 B.C. he was murdered by Musa and her son to crime. These he named after their excessive manifestations, mapping out organs of murder, theft, etc.; but as this cast some (Joseph. Ant. xvii. 2, 4). s, PHRAATES V., or PHRAATACES, the younger son of Phraates discredit on the system the names were changed by Spurzheim, IV. and “the goddess Musa,” with whom he is associated on his who claimed as his the moral and religious considerations assocoins. Under him a war threatened to break out with Rome about ciated with it. Gall marked out on his model of the head the the supremacy in Armenia and Media. But when Augustus sent places of twenty-six organs as round enclosures with vacant interhis adopted son Gaius Caesar into the east in order to invade spaces. Spurzheim and Combe divided the whole scalp into oblong Parthia, the Parthians preferred to conclude a treaty (A.D. 1) by and conterminous patches (see the accompanying figures) and which once again Armenia was recognized as in the Roman sphere separated the component faculties of the human mind into two (Dio. Cass. lv. 10; Velleius ii. ror). Soon after Phraataces and his great groups, subdivided as fallows:— mother were slain by the Parthians, about av. 5 (Joseph. Avi. I. Feelings, divided inte—

xviii. 2, 4).

(Ep. M.)

PHRANTZA, GEORGE [Georctos Paranizes] (1401~-c.

1477), the last Byzantine historian, was born in Constantinople. At an early age he became secretary to Manuel TI. Palaeologus,

and rose to the position of great logothete (chancellor). At the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) he fell into their hands, but managed to escape to Peloponnesus. After the downfall of the Peloponnesian princes (1460) Phrantza retired to the monastery of Tarchaniotes in Corfu. Here he wrote his Chronicle, with an account of the house of the Palaeologi from 1258—1476. Editions by I. Bekker (1838) in the Corpus scriptorum hist. byz., and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, clvi.; see also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897).

I1. Propensities,

internal

impulses

mviting

only

to

certain

actions.

2. Sentiments, impulses which prompt to emotion as well as to action.

A. Lower—those common to man and the lower animals. B. Higher—those proper tp man. TI. Intellectual faculties. z. Perceptive faculties. 2. Reflective faculties.

In the following list the localities are appended to the names, which are mostly the inventions of Spurzheim. Gall’s names are placed in brackets. For topography, Broca’s names are adopted.

Propensities—-x.

Amativeness

(Jnstinct de la génération).

ee

PHRENOLOGY

850

median, below the inion. 2. Philoprogenitiveness (Amour de la progéniture), median, on the squama occipitis. 3. Concentrativeness, below the obelion and over the lambda. 4. Adhesiveness (Amitié), over the lateral area of the lambdoidal suture. 5. Combativeness (Instinct de la défense), above the asterion. 6. Destructiveness (/mstinct carnassier), above the ear meatus. 6a. Alimentiveness, over the temporal muscle and above the

ear.

seat of belief in ghosts and in the supernatural. 19. Ideality (Poésie), noted by Gall from its prominence in the busts of poets; said to be the part touched by the hand when composing poetry. 20. Wit (Esprit caustique), the frontal eminence. 21. Imitation (Faculté d’imiter), disposition to mimicry, placed between Benevolence and Wonder. Perceptive Faculties.—22. Individuality, over the frontal sinus in the middle line.

23. Form (Mémoire des personnes), capacity of recognizing faces; gives a wide interval between the eyes. 24. Size, over the trochlea at the orbital edge.

25. Weight, outside the last on the orbital edge and, like it,

it! owe

10

~~. on eniseunsat”

341 +

*

over the frontal sinus. 26. Colour, also on the orbital edge external to the last. 27. Locality (Sens de localité), placed above Individuality on each side, and corresponding to the upper part of the frontal sinus and to the region immediately above it. 28. Number, on the external angular process of the frontal bone. 29. Order, internal to the last. 30. Eventuality (Mémoire des choses), the median projection above the glabella. 31. Time, below the frontal eminence andalittle in front of the temporal crest. 32. Tune (Sens des rapports des tons), on the foremost part of the temporal muscle. 33. Language (Sens des mots), behind the eye. Reflective Faculties—34. Comparison (Sagacité comparative), median, at the top of the bare region of the forehead.

35- Causality (Esprit métaphysique), the eminence on each side

of Comparison. Anatomical and Physiological Considerations.—The teaching of anatomy with regard to phrenology may be summar-

ized thus: (1) the rate of growth of brain is concurrent with the rate of development of mental faculty; (2) there is some degree

of structural differentiation as there are ment of different parts of the cerebral accordance between the regions of Gall nite areas of cerebral surface. That the brain is the organ of the

7. Secretiveness Squamous

(Ruse, Finesse), the posterior part of the

suture.

8. Acquisitiveness (Sentiment de la propriété), on the upper

edge of the front half of the squamous suture. g. Constructiveness (Sens de méchanique), on the stephanion. The organ of Vitativeness, or love of life, is supposed by Combe to be seated at the base of the skull.

Lower Sentiments.—ro. Self-esteem (Orgueil, fierté), at and

immediately over the obelion. II. Love of Approbation (Vanité), outside the obelion. 12. Cautiousness (Circonspection), on the parietal eminence. Superior Sentiments.—13. Benevolence (Bonté), on the middle of the frontal bone in front of the coronal suture. 14. Veneration (Sentiment réligieux), median at the bregma. 15. Conscientiousness, Believingness (Forster), unknown to Gall; recognized by Spurzheim usually from its deficiency, and placed between the last and the parietal eminence. 16. Firmness (Fermeté), median, on the sagittal suture from behind the bregma to the front of the obelion. 17. Hope, not regarded as primary by Gall, who believed hope to be akin to desire and a function of every faculty which desires and left this territory unallocated. 18. Wonder, said to be large in vision-seers and many psychic researchers. A second similar organ placed between this and the next is called Mysterizingness by Forster, and is said to be the

varying rates of developsurface; (3) there is no and Spurzheim and defi-

mind is now universally received. While it is probable that certain molecular changes in the grey matter are antecedents or concomitants of mental phenomena, the precise nature of these processes, to what extent they take place, or how they vary among themselves have not as yet been determined experimentally; the occurrence of the change can only be demonstrated by some such coarse method as the altered pulsation of the carotid arteries, the increase of the temperature of the head, the abstraction, during brain-action, of blood from other organs as shown by the plethysmograph, or the formation of lecithin and other products of metabolism in brain-substance.

Psychological Aspect.—There is a large weight of evidence in favour of the existence of some form of localization of function. So little is known of the physical changes which underlie psychical phenomena, or indeed of the succession of the psychical processes themselves, that we cannot as yet judge as to the nature of the mechanism of these centres. So much of the psychic work of the individual life consists in the interpretation of sensations and the translation of these into motions that there are strong a priori grounds for expecting to find that much of the material of the nerve-centres is occupied with this kind of work, but in the present conflict of experimental evidence it is safer to suspend Judgment. That these local areas are not centres in the sense of being indispensable parts of their respective motor apparatus is clear, as the function abolished by ablation of a part returns, though tardily, so that whatever superintendence the removed region exercised apparently becomes assumed by another part of the brain. Experimental physiology and pathology, by suggesting other functions for parts of the brain-surface, are thus subversive of many details of the phrenology of Gall and Spurzheim. The fundamental hypothesis which underlies phrenology as 4

PHRYGIA system of mental science is that mental phenomena are resolvable into the manifestations of a group of separate faculties. The

assumption is contained in the definition that the exercise of a faculty is the physical outcome of the activity of the organ, and in several of the standard works this is illustrated by misleading analogies between these and other organs; thus the organs of

benevolence and of firmness are said to be as distinct as the liver

and pancreas. Adverse Conclusions.—“Die Schadellehre ist allerdings nicht so sehr Irrthum in der Idee als Charlatanerie in der Ausfuhrung,”

says one of its most acute critics. Even though no fault could be found with the physiology and psychology of phrenology, it would not necessarily follow that the theory could be utilized as a practical method of reading character; for, although the inner surface of the skull is moulded on the brain, and the outer surface approximates to parallelism thereto, yet the correspondence is sufficiently variable to render conclusions therefrom uncertain. The spongy layer or diploe which separates the two compact tables may vary conspicuously in amount in different parts of the same skull, as in the cases described by Professor Humphry

(Journ. of Anat., viii. 137). The frontal sinus, that opprobrium phrenologicum, is a reality, not unfrequently of large size, and may wholly occupy the regions of five organs. The centres of ossification of the frontal and parietal bones, the muscular crests of these and of the occipital bones also, differ in their prominence in different skulls. Premature synostoses of sutures mould the brain without doing much injury to its parts. In such cases there are compensatory dilatations in other directions modifying sometimes to an extreme degree the relation of brain-surface to skullsurface. The writer has found such displacements in extremely scaphocephalic skulls; the same is true of accidental deformations due to pressure on the infantile skull before it consolidates.

All these and other cogent reasons of a like kind, whose force can be estimated by those accustomed to deal with the component soft parts of the head, should lead phrenologists to be careful in predicating relative brain-development from skull-shape. Psychology, physiology and experience alike contribute to discredit the practical working of the system and to show how worthless the so-called diagnoses of character really are. Its application by those who are its votaries is seldom worse than amusing, but it is capable of doing positive social harm, as in its proposed

application to the discrimination or selection of servants and other subordinate officials. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Prochaska,

Functions

of the Nervous

System

(tr.

by Laycock, in Sydenham Society’s series, 1851); Gall, Recherches sur le systéme nerveux, etc. (Paris, 1809), Anatomie et phystologie du système nerveux, etc. (Paris, 1810-19), Traité des dispositions innées de âme et de l'esprit (Paris, 1811) and Sur les fonctions du cerveau (1825) ; Spurzheim, The Physiognomical System of Gall and Spurzheim (London, 1815), Phrenology, or the Doctrine of the Mind (1825), and The Anatomy of the Human Brain (1826); Gordon, Observations on the Structure of the Brain, comprising an estimate of the Claims of Gall and Spurzheim, etc. (1817); Mariano Cubi y Solar, Leçons de ‘phrénologie (Paris, 1857); Morgan, Phrenology; Donovan, Phrenol-

851

sula, and had sea fronts on the Black sea and the Aegean. But most ancient authors confined the name to an inland district stretching roughly from long. 29° to 32° or 33°, and from lat. 38° to 40°; and the real core of Phrygia at all times lay in the comparatively small plateau between the river Sangarius and the upper course of the Maeander. Phrygia in its narrower sense is a table-land 3,000-5,000 ft., dotted with isolated mountains that rise to 8,oooft., and intersected by several river-systems, in particular that of the Sangarius in the north-east, of the upper Hermus in the west, and of the upper Maeander in the south.

Its deep-cut valleys are well suited

to the cultivation of cereals and of the vine, but in general the rainfall of the country is too scanty and irregular for the growth of crops or of forest, and the dry, bare uplands are best adapted to rough grazing. The mineral wealth of Phrygia is inconsiderable. Iron was formerly worked in the district of Cibyra, mercury, cinnabar and copper in the neighbourhood of Iconium; but the most notable product was the marble of Docimium, a white stone streaked with veins of violet. The principal line of communications across Phrygia was a route which rose steeply out of the Hermus valley and traversed the entire length of the plateau in a somewhat irregular line, proceeding at first in a north-easterly direction to Dorylaeum, thence eastward past Gordium and Ancyra to the old Hittite capital at Boghaz-Keui. This road eventually formed part of the “Royal road,” by which the Achaemenid kings of Persia connected Sardes and the Aegean seaboard with their capital at Susa. It appears at all times to have served a military and administrative rather than a commercial purpose. The southern edge of Phrygia was crossed by another trunk road which ascended the valley of the Lycus (a tributary of the Maeander) to ApameiaCelaenae, and thence led to Iconium and across Mt. Taurus into syria. This route was much used by the Seleucid kings of Syria and by the Romans, and was probably at every period the chief line for commercial traffic to the Aegean sea. The scenery of Phrygia is generally monotonous. Even the mountainous districts rarely show striking features or boldness of character. The Phrygian Immigration.—It may be taken for granted that the population of Phrygia always contained a large element of that indigenous “Asianic” stock, whose survival to the present day has been noted by modern travellers. The persistence of this element in ancient times is indicated by the continued prevalence of native Asianic cults in Phrygia. (See p. 853.) But the Phrygians properly so-called were an immigrant folk. According to Greek tradition they entered Asia Minor from Thrace or Macedonia; and this tradition is confirmed by the tact that their language was certainly Indo-European. For the date of the Phrygian immigration the best evidence is found in Homer, who represents the Phrygians as rendering aid to King Priam at the siege of Troy, in return for assistance which

he had given to them in their wars against the Amazons (=the Hittites?) on the banks of the Sangarius. This story indicates that ogy; Struve and Hirschfeld, Zeitschrift fiir Phrenologie (Heidelberg, the Phrygians had entered Asia Minor some time before 1200 1843-45); Phrenological Journal (20 vols. 1823-47); Lelut, B.C. A date not later than 1500 3.c. has been inferred from the Quest ce que la phrénologie? (1836), and Rejet de Vorganologie furniture of certain burial-mounds in north-western Asia Minor, phrénologique (1843); Scheve, Katechismus der Phrenologie (Leipzig, 1896) ; Tupper, Enguiry into Dr. Gall’s System (1819) ; Wayte, Anti- which resemble the contents of Macedonian tumuli of the early second or late third millennium. phrenology (1829) ; Stone, Observations on the Phrenological Development of Murderers (Edinburgh, 1829); Epps, Horae Phrenologicae It would appear from Homer that the incoming Phrygians (1829); Crock, Compendium of Phrenology (1878); Aken, Phreno- made their principal settlement in the Sangarius valley. Their logical Bijou (1839); Hall, Phreno-Magnet (1843); Hollander, The Mental Functions of the Brain (1901), Scientific Phrenology (1902); chief surviving monuments are also found in this valley (at Gordium), and on the adjacent plateau to the south-west of the C. H. Olin, Phrenology (Philadelphia, 1910); H. H. Balkin, The New Sangarius. But it is probable that about rooo B.c. all the northern Science of Analyzing Character (Rochester, N.Y., 1919) ; J. C. Warren, “The Collection of the Boston Phrenological Society: A Retrospect,” and central parts of Asia Minor had come under Phrygian occuAnn. of Med. Hist., vol. iii, pp. 1-11 (1921); J. T. Miller, Applied pation. The extension of Phrygian power to the western seaboard Character Analysis in Human Conservation (Boston, 1922); G. E. of Asia Minor may be inferred from a somewhat enigmatic Greek Smith, The Old and the New Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1924). tradition, that in the oth century B.c. they exercised a “thalas(A. Mac.; X.) socracy” or “lordship of the seas” in Aegean waters, and from PHRYGIA, the name of a large district of Asia Minor in the abundance of Phrygian remains on Mt. Sipylus in the lower ancient times, derived from a people whom the Greeks called Hermus valley. The description of Sinope as a “Phrygian” town Pol-yes; i.e., “freemen.” Taken at its widest extent, Phrygia indicates a Phrygian settlement along the Black sea. Another comprised the whole north-west and centre of Asia Minor as far Greek tradition, that the Armenians were an offshoot of the as the river Halys and the southern mountain-edge of the penin- | Phrygian stock, is supported by the resemblance between the

852

PHRYGIA

Phrygian and the Armenian tongues. The expansion of the Phrygians into eastern Asia Minor is proved by the discovery of an inscription in the Phrygian language at Tyana in Cappadocia. This text, it is true, does not appear to be of earlier date than the 8th century B.c. But the presence of Phrygians on the borders of the Euphrates may perhaps be inferred from Assyrian records which relate victories

by Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1120 B.c.) and by Sargon (717-709 B.C.)

over a tribe named the Mushki. The fact that in one of Sargon’s inscriptions the chief of the Mushki bears the name “Mita” sug-

shaft of an archaic farm-wagon, had been tied by Gordius, the founder of the Phrygian dynasty, and that whosoever might unravel it should become lord of Asia. After Alexander’s death Phrygia became a battle-ground for the contending forces of his

former marshals. At first it formed the nucleus of the territory

of Antigonus, who set up his capital at Celaenae; but after the

decisive action at the neighbouring site of Ipsus (301 B.c.) it was transferred to Seleucus as an annex to the kingdom of Syria.

About 275 B.C. all the Phrygian lands east of the Sangariys came into the possession of a horde of Celtic invaders from the Danube lands and was renamed Galatia. The western portion of

gests that the Mushki were Phrygian, or at least had Phrygian rulers, for “Mita” or “Midas” was a common name among the Phrygia at the same time was taken from the kings of Syria by kings of Phrygia proper. the newly-founded monarchy of Pergamum. For nearly a cenThe relation between the Phrygians and the Hittites, who were tury the Phrygian territory remained a bone of contention bethe predominant people in Asia Minor c. 1500 B.c., is not yet tween the kings of Pergamum and Syria and the Galatian Celts, quite clear. The existence of a group of rock-carvings in Hittite until in 189 B.c. the Romans expelled the Syrian kings from Asia style, extending from Ancyra to Sardes and Smyrna, suggests Minor, confined the Celts to Galatia, and left the western half that Phrygia proper may at one time have been under Hittite of the peninsula under the undisputed control of the Pergamene government, but the character of Hittite influence in north- rulers. After the annexation of the Pergamene kingdom by Rome western Asia Minor still remains uncertain. On the other hand in 133 B.C., Phrygia west of the Sangarius became part of the there is little doubt that the decline of Hittite culture and the province of Asia, and remained in this condition until c. A.D. 300, disappearance of Hittite power from Asia Minor after 1000 B.C. when the emperor Diocletian constituted it into two independent was in large measure due to the expansion of the Phrygians over provinces, Phrygia Prima and Secunda. Under the Byzantine the peninsula. empire the name Phrygia disappeared altogether. Decline of Phrygia—About rooo 3.c. the Phrygians had ECONOMIC LIFE AND CULTURE penetrated southward in Asia Minor as far as the Hermus and the Maeander, and eastward to the Halys, if not to the Euphrates. Economic Conditions.—Phrygia was at all times an agriculBut over the greater part of this territory they were unable to tural and, still more, a pastoral land. The only industrial products consolidate their power, or to extend their culture. East of the of greater importance were the marble of Docimium, which was Halys they disappear from history about 700 B.c. Their frontage exported in large quantities to Rome under the empire, and the on the Black sea was taken from them by the Bithynians, who dark-coloured woollens of Laodiceia and Colossae (in South probably entered Asia Minor from Europe soon after 1000 B.C. Phrygia, on the River Lycus). The southern border of Phrygia, Their access to the Aegean was shut off at some unknown date as we have seen, was traversed by a trade route which, in the by the Greek colonists of the coastland and by the Lydians of days of Greek and Roman rule, attained considerable importance. the Hermus valley. After 800 B.c. the only districts which re- On the other hand the Royal road, which ran through the heart of mained in Phrygian occupation were the tableland between the Phrygia, played no great part as a highway of commerce, and Sangarius and the Hermus, and the borderland of the Dardanelles there is no evidence of any notable quantity of traffic having and the Sea of Marmora, known later as “Hellespontine Phrygia.” been carried along the valley of the Sangarius. Phrygia’s chief In the 8th century B.c. Phrygia proper achieved a consider- source of wealth lay in its grasslands, which produced fine able measure of prosperity under a line of kings who had their breeds of horses and of sheep. The horses were exported as far capital at Gordium and were called alternately “Gordius” and as Rome for use in the circus. The sheep provided a clip of “Midas.” The last and greatest of this dynasty was a king Midas wool which supplied the looms, not only of Phrygia itself, but who reigned, according to Greek chronologers, from 738 to 695 also of Miletus, Pergamum and other Greek centres of the textile B.C. This ruler cultivated close relations with the Greeks. He was industry. the first foreign ruler to dedicate offerings to Apollo at Delphi, Under economic conditions such as these, Phrygia was always and he took to wife the daughter of Agamemnon, king of the a land of villages rather than of cities. In the days of the native Aeolic Greek city of Cyme. His name may still be read on his monarchy Gordium and the “Midas city” grew to be considertomb in the “Midas city,” one of the most notable remains of able towns, and Celaenae (subsequently renamed Apameia) was Phrygian art. probably at all times a trading centre of some importance. Under Soon after 700 B.C. the reign of Midas was brought to a sudden the rule of the Syrian and Pergamene dynasties a number of new end by the incursion of a Thracian people named the Cimmerians, cities with a predominantly Greek population were founded, but of which Greeks, Lydians and Assyrians felt the force, but the most of these were little more than garrison towns or settlements Phrygians took the full brunt. By the second half of the 7th of veterans: the only places that require mention here are the century the Cimmerians disappeared from Asia Minor without industrial cities of Laodiceia and Colossae (noticed above). The leaving a trace, but Phrygia was now so far enfeebled that it fell villages were usually built on the slopes of the lower hills, near under the dominion of the neighbouring kingdom of Lydia. the site of a temple or of a great landowner’s manor-house. The Phrygia under Foreign Rule—Under the Lydian rule soil for the most part belonged to the successive kings or overPhrygia seems to have recovered some of its former prosperity. lords of the country, to their principal vassals, and to the priestIf the dates usually assigned to Phrygian monuments are correct, hoods of the more important temples. The actual cultivators Phrygian art reached its highest development about 600 B.c. A lived mostly in a condition of serfdom. resumption of commerce with the Greeks at this period is indiCulture.—The history of Phrygian art is not easy to trace, cated by finds of Corinthian pottery at Gordium. But after the because the chronological order of the surviving monuments is conquest of Lydia by the Persians (546 3B.c.) Phrygia shared in not yet certain. Its most typical products are rock-cut tombs the general decline which now befell western Asia Minor; nothing and houses, and ornamented rock-facades. The entrances to the more is heard of its trade with the Greeks, except that it was a tombs are often decorated with a gable like that of a Greek favourite hunting-ground for Greek slaves. It formed one large temple, supported on pillars in a primitive Dorian or Ionic style. Persian province, but about 400 B.c. it was divided into two por- The subjects most commonly represented in the sculptured reliefs tions, “Great Phrygia” and Hellespontine Phrygia. are the native goddess Cybele, and pairs of rampant lions, heAfter two centuries of uneventful history under Persian rule raldically opposed. Another characteristic ornament consists of Phrygia passed into the hands of Alexander of Macedon, who a maeander pattern carved in flat relief. The native pottery is visited Gordium (333 B.C.) and there cut the “Gordian knot”; ornamented with geometric patterns in matt paint. In the relalegend declared that this knot, which secured the yoke to the tions of Phrygian art to that of other peoples the one clear point

PHRYNE—PHRYNICHUS

853

is that its technique of rock-carving bears close resemblance to that of the Hittites, as exhibited at Bognaz-Keui and in eastern Asia Minor, and was probably borrowed from this people. The

Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia. (Engl. transl, 1892). (c) Language.—Most of the surviving texts in Phrygian have been col-

maeander patterns, which are no doubt in imitation of tapestry

work, also appear to have been derived from Hittite models, and it was perhaps through a Hittite medium that the heraldic lions

ics, ix., p. 9oo-g1r. (€) History—No comprehensive book on the subject has been written. Much useful information will be found in D. G. Hogarth’s chapters in the Cambridge Ancient History, vols. ii. and ili.

potamia. The gables and the Doric columns of the Phrygian

PHRYNE, Greek courtesan, lived in the 4th century B.c. Her

lected by W. M. Calder in Journ. Hell, Stud, (1911 and 1913).

(d)

Religion.—Ramsay, in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Eth-

and the Ionic pillars were introduced into Phrygia from Meso-

(1924-25).

(M.C

rock-tombs are strongly reminiscent of archaic Greek art, and it real name was Mnesarete, but owing to her complexion she was is not unlikely that they are Greek in origin. In general, the called Phryne (toad). She was born at Thespiae in Boeotia, but Phrygian artists were not inventive, but they knew how to adapt seems to have lived at Athens. She acquired so much wealth that to their own uses whatever they borrowed from their neighbours. she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, on condition that the Phrygian music is only known to us from the descriptions of words “Destroyed by Alexander, restored by Phryne the courtGreek critics, who considered it too florid and exciting. Its esan,” were inscribed upon them. On the occasion of a festival favourite instrument was a double flute, which the Greeks re- of Poseidon at Eleusis she laid aside her garments, let down her garded as the prototype of their own aulos. But the double flute hair, and stepped into the sea in the sight of the people, thus was also known in prehistoric Crete, and can therefore not be suggesting to the painter Apelles his great picture of Aphrodite Anadyomene, for which Phryne sat as model. She was also regarded as a Phrygian invention, The alphabetic script of the Phrygians bears a closer re- (according to some) the model for the statue of the Cnidian semblance to archaic Greek than to Phoenician; but its exact Aphrodite by Praxiteles. When accused of profaning the Eleusinrelation to either of these has not yet been determined. It is lan mysteries, she was defended by the orator Hypereides. When only represented by a few texts: all the later inscriptions from it seemed as if the verdict would be unfavourable, he rent her Phrygia are in Greek or Latin characters, The Phrygian tongue, robe and displayed her bosom, which so moved her judges that which may best be studied in the fairly numerous texts (mostly they acquitted her. A statue of Phryne, the work of Praxiteles, epitaphs) of the early centuries a.p., is akin to Armenian. In the was placed in a temple at Thespiae by the side of a statue of period of Greek and Roman rule it gave way to Greek in the Aphrodite by the same artist.

towns, but on the countryside it remained in use until the 5th or 6th century AD. (See Astanic LANGUAGES.) Religion.—The religion of Phrygia was plainly a composite

product, The Phrygian immigrants of ¢, 1200 B.c. brought with them several typical Indo-European gods, such as Papas, the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and Men, a male moon-deity. The

god Sabazius, who was usually equated by ancient writers with the Thracian Dionysus, may be referred to the same group, But the gods of the Phrygian invaders were never able to displace

_ See Athenaeus, pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590, 591; Aelian, Var. Hist. ix, 32; Pliny, Nat, Hist. xxxiv. 71.

PHRYNICHUS.

1. Son of Polyphradmon

Thespis, one of the earliest of the Greek ancients, indeed, regarded him as the real gained his first poetical victory in 511 play was the Capture of Miletus. The

and pupil of

tragedians. Some of the founder of tragedy. He B.c. His most famous audience was moved to

tears, the poet was fined for reminding the Athenians of their misfortunes, and it was decreed that no play on the subject the original Asianic deities, of whom the foremost were Cybele, should be produced again. In 476 Phrynichus was successful the “Great Mother,” and Attis, a youth who died untimely but in with the Phoenissae, celebrating the victory of Salamis and death retained his beauty of figure. This couple, which had sev- especially the deeds of Themistocles, who was choragus. Phryeral parallels in the religions of the Near East, evidently repre- nichus is said to have died in Sicily. He introduced a separate sented the generative force of nature and the vegetation that actor as distinct from the leader of the chorus, and thus laid the withers and blooms with each new season, The worship of these foundation of dialogue, But in his plays, as in the early tragedies deities was highly orgiastic, and their priests, the so-called “galli,” generally, the dramatic element was subordinate to the chorus. carried their devotion to the point of self-mutilation. The princi- According to Suidas, Phrynichus first introduced female charpal sanctuary of Cybele stood at Pessinus, by Mt. Dindymus in acters on the stage (played by men in masks), and made special central Phrygia, where a hierarchy of priests exercised theocratic use of the trochaic tetrameter. Fragments in A. Nauck, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta (1887). rule over the inhabitants of the extensive temple estates. Not 2. A poet of the Old Attic comedy and a contemporary of only did the cult of Cybele and Attis maintain itself against the religion of the Phrygian newcomers, but it partially absorbed Aristophanes. His first comedy was exhibited in 429 B.c. He them, Nay more, it more than held its own against the religions composed ten plays, of which the Solitary (Movérporos) was of Greece and Rome, and it competed against these on European exhibited in 414 along with the Birds of Aristophanes, and gained soil. The worship of Cybele spread to Greece in the sth century the third prize. The Muses carried off the second prize in 405, B.¢.; in 204 B.C. it was officially established at Rome; in the days Aristophanes being first with the Frogs, in which he accuses of the Roman empire it was carried on the tide of oriental immi- Phrynichus of employing vulgar tricks to raise a laugh, of plagiargration into every part of Italy and penetrated the western ism and bad versification. Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta (1880). provinces as far as the Rhineland and Britain. Thus the religion of Phrygia was its most distinctive contribution to ancient Medi3. Prrynicuus ARABIUS, a grammarian of Bithynia, lived in terranean civilization. The influence of the native Asianic re- the 2nd century a. According to Suidas he was the author of ligion may also be traced in the various heresies, and especially (x) an Afticist, in two books; (2) Tilepévwv guvaywyy, a colthe heresy of Montanus (himself a Phrygian), that arose in lection of subjects for discussion; (3) Zogicrun mapaskevh Phrygia after the spread of Christianity. Nevertheless the con- or Sophistical Equipment. The work was learned, but prolix and version of Phrygia to Christianity was remarkably early and garrulous. A fragment contained in a Paris ms. was published complete. Christian inscriptions begin there in the 2nd century by B. de Montfaucon, and by I. Bekker in his Anecdota graeca and are abundant in the third. In all probability the mass of the (1814). Another work of Phrynichus, not mentioned by Photius,

people had been converted by 300, and Eusebius is no doubt correct in saying that in one Phrygian city at that time every soul was a Christian.

BrBLioGRAPHY.~~(a) Topography and Monuments.—Recent records of exploration will be found in the numerous books and articles of Sir William Ramsay, especially in his Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia

(1895-97), and in the Journal of Hellenic Studies (1882 ff.). The re-

sults of the German excavations at Gordium are set forth in Korte,

Gordion (1904).

(b) Art—Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art

of the Eastern Provinces (1906); Korte, op. cit.; Perrot, History of

but perhaps identical with the Afticist mentioned by Suïdas, the Selection (’Exdoyh) of Attic Words and Phrases, is extant, It is a collection of current words and forms which deviated from the

Old Attic standard, and is interesting as illustrating the changes through which the Greek language had passed between the 4th century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. Editions of the 'Exħoyh, with valuable notes, have been published

by C. A. Lobeck (1820) and W. G. Rutherfortl (1881) ; Lobeck devotes his attention chiefly to the later, Rutherford to the earlier usages

PHTHALIC

854 a

by Phrynichus.

ACIDS—PHYLLITE

See also J. Brenous, De Phrynicho Atticista

1895).

4. An Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War. He took a leading part in establishing the oligarchy of the Four Hundred at Athens in 411 B.c., and was assassinated in the same year (Thucydides viii.).

PHTHALIC ACIDS, the name given to the three isomeric

the day itself was a reminder and the schools and markets were closed. The idea of such an outward sign is common. The modern habit of wearing a cross on a watchchain may be compared. Romans had tablets for memoranda hanging from the wrists. Isaiah xlix. 16 evidently denotes this custom. Possibly the origin is io

be sought in tattooing. Tefillin are worn on the hand and head, the verses being enclosed in leather boxes fixed in position by

benzene-dicarboxylic acids, CeH.(CO.H)e2: (1) ortho, or phthalic leather thongs. The hand phylactery has one compartment, in acid; (2) meta, or isophthalic acid; (3) para, or terephthalic acid. which the texts figure on one parchment, the head phylactery The most important is the first, as it forms the starting material having four such compartments, each with one text. The extracts in the production of many synthetic dyes and of the synthetic resin, glyptal, glyceryl phthalate.

Phthalic acid was obtained by Laurent in 1836 by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride, and, believing it to be a naphthalene derivative, he named it naphthalenic acid; Marignac showed Laurent’s supposition to be incorrect, upon which Laurent gave it its present name. It was formerly manufactured by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride (prepared from naphthalene, potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid) with nitric acid, or by oxidizing the hydrocarbon with fuming sulphuric acid, using mercury or mercuric sulphate as a catalyst (German pat. 91,202). These methods have been superseded by a catalytic process in which air and naphthalene vapour are passed over heated vanadium pentoxide; the yield is upwards of 80% of phthalic anhydride, which is readily separated by fractional sublimation from unchanged naphthalene. Phthalic acid forms white crystals, melting at 213° with decomposition into water and phthalic anhydride; the latter forms long white needles, melting at 128° and boiling at 284°. Heated with an excess of lime it gives benzene; calcium benzoate results when calcium phthalate is heated with one molecular proportion of lime to 330°-350°. The acid (and anhydride) are

largely used in the colour industry. (See FLUORESCEIN; PHENOLPHTHALEIN ; DYES, SYNTHETIC.) Phthalyl chloride, CsHi(COC1)2 or CeELCCCH)(CO)O, formed by heating the anhydride with phosphorus pentachloride, is an oil solidifying at 0° and boiling at 275°. In some reactions it behaves as having the first formula, in others as having the second. Phthalyl chloride with phosphorus pentachloride gives two phthalylene tetrachlorides, one melting at 88° and the other at 47°. They cannot be changed into one another, and have been given the formulae CsHu(CCls)(COCl) and C,.H,(CCl,).0. Phthalimide, CsHi(CO).2NH, is formed by heating phthalic anhydride or chloride in ammonia gas or by molecular rearrangement of ortho-cyanobenzoic acid. It forms N-metallic and alkyl salts. Bromine and potash or alkaline hypochlorite give anthranilic acid, CHa (NH2) (CO:H). (See Innico.) Isophihalic acid is obtained by oxidizing meta-xylene with chromic acid, or by fusing potassium meta-sulphobenzoate, or meta-bromobenzoate with potassium formate (terephthalic acid is also formed in the last case). It melts above 300°, and dissolves in 7,800 parts of cold water and in 460 of boiling. The barium salt (-+-6H20) is very soluble (unlike the barium salts of phthalic and terephthalic acids). Terephthalic acid, formed by oxidizing para-diderivatives of benzene, or best by oxidizing caraway oil, a mixture of cymene and cuminol, with chromic acid, is almost insoluble in water, alcoho] and ether; it sublimes without melting when heated.

PHTHISIS

(ti’sis), a name formerly given (like “Consump-

tion”) to the disease of the lung now known as Tuberculosis (g.v.) from the wasting often observed. This wasting, however, depends mainly upon secondary infection of tuberculous areas by pyogenetic micrococci and is accompanied by much fever and profuse sweating. The modern tendency is to use the term “phthisis” only when implying the existence of this double infection.

PHYLACTERY,

a term applied in Matt. xxiii. s to the

tefillin of the Jews on the assumption that these were amulets (puAaxryjpea), against physical evil. Tefillin, either from ben, to attach, or bba, whence op, prayer, are certain Pentateuchal texts which, in accordance with Exod. xii. 16 and Deut. vi. s—9, were to

be worn as constant reminders of God during the daily avocations. Hence they were not used on Sabbaths and festivals, as

are Ex. xiii. r-10:11-16; Deut. vl. 4-9, Xi. 13—21. BrBLioGRAPHY.—For

further details, illustrations and historical and

critical views, see Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. For the prayers and meditations, see S. Singer’s Authorized Daily Prayer Book, pp. 19 sqq. For certain Jewish objections see A. Asher’s Collected Writings, pp.

80-89 (1916, privately printed). Linked with Tefillin are the Mezazah (door text) and Cicith (fringes). The former is a text containing Deut. vi. 4-9 rolled in a glass or metal tube on the right-hand of each door, so that everyone who enters or leaves shall think of God (see Jew. Enc. s.v. Singer, op. cit., p. 292). The latter (see Jew. Enc. s.v. Fringes) is based on Numbers xv. 37-41, which ordains the knotted tassel as a mnemonic.

PHYLE, a mountain fortress, on a pass leading from Athens into Boeotia on the south-west end of Mt. Parnes; famous for its occupation by Thrasybulus at the head of the Athenian exiles during the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in 404 B.c. Defending

himself with the help of a snowstorm, he succeeded by a night march in seizing Munychia.

PHYLLITE, in petrology, a group of rocks which are in practically all cases metamorphosed argillaceous sediments, consisting essentially of quartz, chlorite and muscovite, and possessing a wellmarked parallel arrangement or schistosity, so called from Gr. guhdov, a leaf, probably because they yield leaf-like plates, owing to their fissility. They form an intermediate term in the series of altered clays or shaly deposits between clay-slates and micaschists. The clay-slates have a very similar mineral constitution to the phyllites, but are finer grained and are distinguished also by a very much better cleavage; in the phyllites also white mica (muscovite or sericite) is more abundant as a rule than in slate, and its crystalline plates are larger; the abundance of mica gives these rocks a glossy sheen on the smooth planes of fissility. A microscopical section of a typical phyllite shows green chlorite and colourless mica, both in irregular plates disposed in parallel order, with a greater or smaller amount of quartz which forms small lenticular grains elongated parallel to the foliation. Grains or iron oxide (magnetite and haematite) and black graphitic dust are very commonly present. Felspar is absent or scarce, but some phyllites are characterized by the development of small rounded grains of albite, often in considerable numbers. The minute needles of rutile, so often seen in clay-slates, are not often met with in phyllites, but this mineral forms small prisms which may be intergrown with black magnetite; at other times it occurs as networks of sagenite. Other phyllites contain carbonates (usually calcite but sometimes dolomite) in flat or spindle-shaped crystals, which often give evidence of crushing. Very tiny blue needles of tourmaline are by no means rare in phyllites, though readily overlooked. Garnet occurs sometimes, a good example of the garnetiferous phyllite being furnished by the whetstones of the Ardennes, in which there are many small isotropic crystals of manganesian garnet. Hornblende, often in branching feathery crystals, is a less frequent accessory. In some phyllites a mineral of the chloritoid group makes its appearance; this may be ottrelite, sismondine or other varieties of chloritoid, and occurs in large sub-hexagonal plates showing complex twinning, and lying across the foliation planes of the rock. The structural variations presented are comparatively few. The most finely crystalline specimens have generally the most perfect parallel arrangement of their constituents. The foliation is generally flat or linear, but in some rocks is undulose or crumpled. From the imperfection of their cleavage phyllites are rarely suitable for roofing materials; their softness renders them valueless as road stones, but they are not uncommonly employed as

inferior building materials. They are exceedingly common in al] parts of the world where metamorphic rocks occur; as in the

PHYLLOXERA Scottish Highlands, Cornwall, Anglesey, north-west Ireland, the Ardennes, the Harz Mountains, Saxony, the Alps, Norway, the Appalachians, the Great Lakes district in America, etc. (J. S. F.

PHYLLOXERA, a genus of insects belonging to the Xa

Phylloxerinae of the family Aphididae which comprises the aphides (g.v.) or plant lice. The Phylloxerinae are sometimes placed in a separate family of their own, since they differ from true aphides

in characters exhibited in the wing-veins, and also in the fact that the parthenogenetic forms lay eggs instead of producing living young. The genus Phylloxera includes over 30 species, the best known being the grape Phylloxera (P. vastatrix), which is native to the United States. It was imported into Europe between 1858 and 1863, when American vines were brought INHABITING FORM FIG. 1.—ROOT OF THE PHYLLOXERA, WITH ITS over for grafting purposes, and PROBOSCIS INSERTED OF ROOT OF VINE

INTO

TISSUE

855

eggs. The true sexual forms derived from these eggs (fig. 3) are small wingless individuals with vestigial mouth-parts and an aborted alimentary canal. Fertilization takes place and each fertilized female deposits a single over-wintering egg which hatches into a fundatrix as already described. All the rest of the o s of the species is by means of parthenogenesis g.v.). It is noteworthy that in Europe and California the fundatrices WINGLESS LARGE

MALE FROM EGG

vine-growing country in the The first definite European record was in England in

colour and fleshy, they finally assume

AND

FEMALE

FROM

EGGS

LAID

BY

WINGED

FEMALE

PRODUCED SMALL LAID

BY

FEMALE

MIGRANT

The female dies after laying a single egg which hatches out in the spring as a female

insect known

as a fundatrix.

This form

hatched gallicolae. Some of these remain to the roots as radicolae

produces

eggs from which

in the buds while others

are

descend

usually fail to develop in the absence of certain American vines and the gallicolae generations are consequently rare. Reproduction and spread are brought about by the radicolae, many of which hibernate and continue multiplying in spring. According to the German authority Boerner, there is a race of Phylloxera found in Lorraine which produces galls on European vines, but not on most American varieties, and he has given this Lorraine race the distinctive name of pervastatrix. Scheme of the complete life-cycle of Phylloxera Winter egg Fundatrix 9

a

brown or black colour and become rotten. At the same time the grapes themselves are arrested in their growth and their skins become wrinkled. The damage wrought by the Phylloxera is occasioned by the extrac-

Gallicolae 9

LY

Gallicolae 9 “ Radicolae 9

tion of the sap by means of the piercing

suctorial mouth-parts of this insect, and the subsequent deformation of the plant that is brought about. Millions of acres of vineyards have been destroyed by this pest, and, when at its worst in France, it is stated to have ruined 2,500,000 acres which represented an annual loss in wineproducts of £50,000,000. The complete life-history of Phylloxera is briefly as follows: A single egg is laid by the fertilized female on the bark of the vine where it passes the winter. Ithatches aie 2.—WINGED Pounce FIG.

etc.

TZ etc.

Mi-

in spring into a wingless female or fundatrix watched from the egg of which, creeping into an opening bud of the the root Phylloxera, this

vine, forms a gall on the young leaf and

WINGED

FIG. 3.—MALE FEMALE

FROM

EGG LAID

BY WINGED

has since reached almost every

world. 1863; soon afterwards it was identified in France where it rapidly spread through the vineyards of that country. By 1885 it had extended to most other European grape-producing countries and had reached Algeria, Australia, and the Cape. It was first discovered in California in 1880, but there is evidence that it was present in that State from about 1858, being introduced along with American vines from east of the Rocky Mountains. It was the advent of the highly susceptible European grape that led to the Phylloxera becoming a pest in the Californian vineyards. The presence of this insect is manifested by the vines being stunted and bearing smaller and fewer leaves. When the disease is advanced the leaves are discoloured and galls are present on their under surface. These galls are wrinkled and hairy and their cavity communicates by means of an opening upon the upper surface of the leaf. If the roots be examined, numerous knotty swellings are found upon the smaller rootlets; at first yellowish in

FEMALE

PRODUCED

ce Tete ae

oe

‘ays therein a number of eggs. The latter etically, eggs of two kinds,

develop-into further wingless forms or male and female gallicolae which multiply rapidly and produce new generations of gall-formers on the leaves. Among their progeny there appear, later in the season, wingless females of different behaviour, the radicolae (fig. 1), which pass to the roots. The radicolae continue reproducing generations of their own kind, but among them winged migrants (fig. 2) eventually appear. These occur from July until October and fly to other vines where they lay two kinds of eggs—small male-producing eggs and large female-producing

Wingless 2 Wingless ô

Winter egg

Many control measures have been suggested against the Phylloxera but few have been generally adopted in practice. The enforcement of quarantine regulations precluding the distribution of rooted vines from infested areas is important. The utilization of vine-stocks less susceptible to the root-feeding form of the insect is generally recognized. Varieties of American grapes, such as Vitis riparia, V. rupestris, V. berlandieri and their hybrids, are not seriously injured by the radicolae, and by growing these varieties, or using them as stocks upon which the susceptible European varieties have been grafted, injuries by the pest have been greatly reduced. In certain cases the injection of carbon bisulphide into the soil to kill the root form of the insect has been profitable. The flooding of infested vineyards has been a recog-

PHYSHARMONICA-—PHYSICAL

856

CULTURE

exercising the muscles without exhaustion. Attention.—Start the exercises from the position of attention Valéry Mayet, Les Insectes de la Vigne (1890); B. Grassi, “The Bi- heels together and on the same line, toes turned out equally a ology of the Vine Phylloxera” (Monthly Bulletin of Agric. Intelligence and Plant Diseases, vol. vi., 1915); W. M. Davidson and R. L. about 45°, weight resting on the balls of the feet, legs Straight Nougaret, “The Grape Phylloxera in California” (Bulletin 903, U.S. but not stiff, hips level, stomach drawn in, chest raised, back Dept. of Agriculture, 1921), are among the less technical writings. For straight, shoulders back and sloping equally, neck and head a full bibliography see B. Grassi, Contributo alla Conoscenza delle Fil- vertical, chin raised, body and mind alert. In moving the shoul.

nized procedure where conditions are favourable. BisliocRaPHY.—The

literature on the Phylloxera

is voluminous.

losserine (1912).

PHYSHARMONICA,

(A. D. I.)

a keyboard instrument fitted with

ders back keep the stomach drawn in; otherwise a swayed back

position will result.

Standing with the back to a flat wall and

free-reeds, a kind of harmonium much used in Germany. It resembles a small harmonium, but differs from it in having no stops. The physharmonica was invented in 1818 by Anton Hiackel, of

attempting to make the back touch it from head to heel wil]

Vienna.

parentheses, below, indicate parts of the body that will be bene-

exercise to promote and maintain good health or to correct defects or weaknesses of the body. Benefit to the body is the main object

Exercises. Arms Sideward—horizontal, palms down, fingers extended and joined, arms stretched; (1) Close fists; (2) spread fingers to fullest extent. Repeat ten times. Variations: Move wrists up and down, or right and left, or with a rotary motion. (Fingers, wrists, biceps.)

indicate how the stomach must be drawn in to make the back

straight.

Repeat each exercise from 5 to 1§ times.

Words in

PHYSICAL CULTURE is the development of the body by fited.

and recreation derived therefrom is incidental. Physical culture in its simplest form is taking exercises such as setting-up exercises

or calisthenics. The use of equipment—-dumb-bells, wands or weight machines—though not necessary, adds interest and variety to the exercises. Development.—The value of exercise to promote health and physical strength has probably always been recognized by mankind. In ancient and mediaeval times building up of the body was principally for purposes of war, or, as in ancient Greece, preliminary training for sports. Systematic physical culture first appeared during the last part of the 18th century in Germany. In 1774, Basedow founded at Dessau a school in which running, wrestling, riding and manual labour were prescribed as exercise for the students. In 1785, Guts Muth started a system of gymnastics in a school near Gotha, and in 1793 published a book,

Arms to Thrust—forearms

horizontal and parallel at waist,

elbows back, fists closed, back of hands down; (1) Thrust arms to front horizontal, palms down; (2) swing sideward, palms up, forcing shoulders back and chest out; (3) return to front position;

(4) return to thrust.

(Chest, shoulders.)

Variation: At 2 swing

arms upward.

Arms Sideward Upward—vertical, parallel, palms facing; (1) Bend trunk to right side; (2) recover starting position; (3) bend trunk to left; (4) recover. (Trunk, side and back muscles.) Variations: Bend trunk 30° forward and backward on 1 and 3. Bend trunk forward and circle right, back, left and forward. Hands on Hips—thumbs to rear, tips of fingers on point of hip;

Gymnastics for the Young. At about the same time Nachtigall

(x) Quarter bend knees, spreading them and lowering trunk in

in Denmark,

introducing physical

its erect position as far as possible without raising heels; (2) recover. (Leg muscles and joints, balance.) Variations: Half bend——heels off floor; or full bend—sitting on heels, in all cases

greatest credit for organizing physical training on a broad scale for the benefit of all the people of the country. Under the direction of Jahn, boys, youths and men of all classes of society took part in exercises for physical development throughout Germany (about 1810). Even with Jahn the idea was physical culture with the ultimate object of physically strengthening the manpower of Germany for war. Physical culture first appeared in the

body erect. Hands on Shoulders—tips of fingers touching shoulder, elbows to sides and pressed back, upper arm horizontal; (1) Rise on toes, stretching body upward; at same time extend arms to side hori-

and Ling in Sweden,

were

training in those countries. To Professor Ludwig Jahn of Germany should probably go the

zontal, palms up; (2) recover. (Toes, calves, arms.) Variations: Extend arms forward, or upward, or to the three positions in rotation. Hands on Hips—(1) Bend neck forward, chin in, stretching back United States and England about 1825, and probably in other European countries at about the same time. It developed slowly of neck; (2) recover; (3) bend neck backward; (4) recover. between 1825 and 1875. Since 1875, due to the rapid growth of Variations: Bend neck to sides or bend forward and circle head the machine, mechanical transportation and labour-saving de- tight, back, left, forward. vices, the occupations of millions of adults have changed from Arms Sideward Upward—lock thumbs, palms to front; (1) Full manual labour to office work; the play of children has been re- bend trunk forward, touching floor, knees straight; (2) recover; stricted in large densely populated cities, thus the necessity for (3) bend trunk backward; (4) recover. (Stomach and back and practice of physical culture has grown rapidly. muscles.) Variations: Spread feet about 18 in. and swing hands General Rules—From 10 to 15 minutes daily is sufficient for down and back between legs, or twist trunk as it bends forward physical culture exercises; preferably in the middle of the morning and swing arms to side of legs and backward. or in the afternoon. Exercise immediately before or after a meal Hop to Side Siraddle—feet spread about 24 in., landing on toes should be avoided. Children should be given exercises under the and raising arms sideward upward; (2) recover attention on toes. supervision of teachers or parents. If the exercise must be taken Execute in fast cadence, loosening up all muscles of body. before breakfast it should be immediately after rising and be Lunge forward with right foot 30 to 40 in., right knee bent, followed by a warm bath and dressing leisurely; if the daily bath raising arms to side horizontal, palms up, upper body erect; (2) is taken at night the exercises should precede the bath. The air bend trunk forward, clasping right knee with both arms; (3) in the room should be fresh but not chillingly cold. Clothing recover first position; (4) recover attention. Repeat lunging with should be light and loose. All parts of the body should be exercised left foot. (General exercise, arms, trunk and legs.) Variations: during each period even when the object is to strengthen a par- Lunge to sides and on 2 twist as well as ‘bend the trunk so as to ticular part, but no part should be given more than two exercises clasp the knee. in succession. For example, take an arm exercise, a trunk exercise, Bend to squatting position, hands on floor between the feet, a leg exercise, etc., following some system of rotation. After an knees spread; (2) extend legs backward, feet together, toes on exercise that causes muscular strain, take one that loosens the floor, body straight, supported only on toes and straight arms; muscles. Take the breathing exercise at the middle and end of the (3) recover squatting position; (4) recover attention. (General period. The exercises may be made harder by going to full exercise, arms, shoulders, trunk, back, legs.} Variations: Extend positions, increasing the cadence or number of repetitions and one leg back at a time, alternating; or both legs back and at (3) by the use of equipment. They may be made easier by going to spread feet 30 to 4o in., at (4) bring feet together; (5) recover quarter positions and executing slowly. For those who are old or squatting position; (6) recover attention. weak the milder exercises should be selected, and regulated to Lie on Back—hands at sides, palms on floor; (zr) Raise right leg result in good circulation of the blood and loosening up and to vertical, knee straight, toes pointed upward; (2) lower; (3) e

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

raise left leg; (4) lower; (5) raise both legs; (6) lower. (Trunk. )

Sitting Position—arms to thrust, knees straight. Rowing exercise: (1) Bend trunk forward, extending arms to touch toes; (2) recover erect sitting position bringing arms to thrust with

(Trunk and chest.) Leap in air 8 or 10 in. (1) toes point down and back, knees straight, legs together, throwing arms upward, sideward and back,

force.

head back, looking at ceiling and arching back in midair, all in one count; (2) return to position of attention on toes. (General exercise all parts.) Hands on Hips—(1) Swing right leg to front horizontal, bending trunk forward and extending left hand to touch right toe, rising on left toe; (2) recover; (3) same with left leg and right arm;

(4) recover.

from sunlight, and evidence strongly indicat S

natural gas are decomposition products

ultimately derived

R that petroleum and

erived from organic content is derir material. Be Their ease energy Water is, similarly, another of the ived from the same source. it is an essential to the life of bo xi Sayplant natural resources, since s amount of it present in the atmosD ere deterand animals. The mines, to a large degree, the character of the vegeta e and

(Loosening exercise, leg and trunk.)

Breathing Exercise—(1) Inhale slowly, rising on toes, raising arms forward upward, filling the lungs, raising chest and stretching the whole body upward; (2) exhale rapidly, bringing arms down and back to sides and resume attention. Repeat 5 to 10 times. BIBLIOGRArHY.—C. Beck, Treatise on Gymnastics, taken from the in

animal life in a given area, while in the descent over the lang urfac e it may be utilized as a perpetual source of power. :

The atmosphere is almost never thought of as a natural reso urce, A

because it is everywhere present ang

its oxygen content is essential to al anim freely al available life and to all. Yet

to the combustion by which power is deriveg its rather small content of carbon Pla hydrocarbons, and loxide the forms, with water and

German of F. L. Jahn (1828); E. M. Hartwell, Physical Training Colleges (circular of information of Bureau of Education No. 5, 1885), Lt. Col. H. J. Koehler, Koehler’s West Point Manual (1919).

(È. L. K)

PHYSICAL RESOURCES.

857

grown on an acre in a season amoy nts to less than that in half a ton of coal. The energy content o coal is ulti i

Though the term “physical” or

sunlight, the basic components of ve : : the mechanism by which water js stable It also furnishes aoled life. to maintain its cycle of distribution. Its vital importa ce as a cooling agent to the human body, considered as a mach ‘ne, and upon human health, has only become fully recognized within t he present century. Soil, as the rather complex Superficial layer which covers the earth’s surface is termed, is also an ; :

“natural” resources has no precise definition, it may be taken to designate those things, inert substances, living organisms and effective combinations or products of natural forces, which men

utilize to promote their material well-being. An analytical classification of natural resources might rest on any one of several bases. The historical method might be followed, since it is known that primitive men first made use of vegetable materials, later domesticated animals and finally arrived, at a relatively recent time, at a state of civilization in which the

h im : natural resource. It furnishes not only the mince for plant growth but also the physj Cal conditions wtuents necessary that are equally essential. The nature of the soil of a eae affects, to a considerable degree, the civilization wh; = maygionthere develop. The character of the soil, in turn, is pro Oundly

Vegetation,

affected by climate. forests and animal life are in +

affected by soil and climate, so that these natural re sources urn are complexly interrelated.

extensive use of minerals is the most important characteristic.

As this coincides with fundamental distinctions as to the nature

of the resources themselves, it will, in general, be followed here. Another basis of classification might be the human needs which they serve, but such a classification would be confusing, since both vegetable and animal products are used for such diverse purposes as food and clothing, while mineral products as well as the other might two are used for shelter. Still another basis of classification be a division into those resources which men use as a source of energy, and those which are used in connection with its application or production. This classification is also partly followed. Underlying these considerations is the more fundamental view in of natural resources as the principal things that are utilized these the satisfaction of human wants. The most fundamental of

The inert natural resources, which

be thought of as static rather than kinetic, may be subdivide dmay into those that are sources of energy, and those which are utili zed in other ways. One significant difference is that the first proy

p are destroyed in use, aaae to a +: varying degree. Most of been produced is ihe coal that has been produced heEE er most of

while the others the gold that has

destroyed. The lead in storage batteries, on the other ry: etely a is almost completely salvaged and re-used, while that used in paint is almost completely lost. The steadily grow ing use of natural resources such as these and the fact that the q Uantity of each now available by the present methods of produc tion has, in every case, some limit and in many cases on consumption, is near enough

ar, a t the present rate of increa sing in th

source of real concern, make it appropriate to anna to be a

possible substi n an article on natural resources a discussion AR s of below stitutes. is given discussion The group; (2) metallic. and A di i as follows: è (1) energy are air, water, food and sunlight. Shelter, clothing and a variety the kinetic Ic group; (3) precious metals of simple tools are more complex wants and illustrate anj- group; (4) rare metals group: S) substitutes for natural aspect of human needs. The horses, cattle, dogs and other resources. do not (broadly speaking) want anything beyond mals of to-day wants of what the same animals wanted in 5000 B.C., while the

This classification here includes An; ieee Soils, Fisheries, Forests, Natural oe Water, Much of the material ed : icat A prun the in given is l spiritua supply food and of ion mental discuss ness to the way in which it satisfies ntion of |A asdeseri is there Sun article pass therefore THE WORLD. Under the rather than purely physical needs. Raw materials is p modifications before they form of energy considered as a natural aia

men have greatly increased and diversified during the same period.

that is utilized to-day owes lts useful-

through repeated transformations and

serve their final end. A symphony concert, heard over the radio,

and is related in a remote and complex way to the lumps of ore fragments of wood which are the basic components of the musical

ed instruments. Though natural resources will be heremostdiscuss impora in their material aspects they are also involved, in life of men. tant and essential way, in the mental and spiritual

basal origin Most of the energy-imparting resources have their s which men in the radiant energy from the sun. The animal product ble life, and utilize, have been derived by metabolism from vegeta inert this is in turn the product of the action of living cells upon

E. E. substance, resulting from the energy input of the sunlight.on from has estimated that the heat received by radiati

Slosson D.C., the sun in a growing season in the latitude of Washington, g burnin by ed produc be would amounts per acre to more than of the corn (maize) value heat the while coal, of tons 200 over

s ; The ability of animal life to perpetuate itself e iti ate e : of his 2 ion proport large a with man supply s ae of dne Deri Besides s. progres has materially aided human . the

g most interesting and valuabl e of the world’ geSe

have impressed a record of their own Ancient inscriptions portray the hunt the feedi milking scenes and the slaughter of ia

ae

:

ps p

Man’s migrations over the globe and his ability to sustain himself under diverse and adverse conditions have depended largel pe se l rgely on animal i life. With the camel or ho n a irri hin: ish sheep he can establ

desert. With

elevation or sparse vegetation.

With the presene oi Pild 1n

and a few dogs he can inhabit the frigid zones, Under the more

858

PHYSICAL

favourable conditions prevailing in temperate climates, man has built up extensive industries, producing meats, hides, wool, milk and other animal products in commercial quantities. For such purposes he has developed breeds and types especially adapted for his own use or for the demands of his markets. It is clear, therefore, that the greatest usefulness of animal life to man depends on his wisdom and ability in regulating the number and kind of animals under his control so that they may best serve his needs. With the steady increase in human population, there has been a progressive tendency toward the raising of animals for definite human needs rather than depending on wild life. In recent years this trend has also included the breeding and raising of fur-bearing animals. Live-Stock Production.—In the age-old struggle for the survival of the fittest, certain types of animal life have proved to be especially well adapted to man’s requirements. These he has preserved, improved and protected until their production has become a major part of the world’s agriculture. It is important to bear in mind that crop production and stock raising are closely allied enterprises, inasmuch as animals consume most crops that are not utilized by man directly. Moreover, land that is too rough for cultivation may support vast herds of cattle, sheep and goats. (See Vegetation below.) Thus live stock serves as a useful balance wheel in the mechanism of human nutrition. Famine rarely occurs in countries where live stock is abundant. As in the production of other commodities, however, a great number of economic factors are involved. These influence the extent of animal breeding and feeding operations, thus determining the number of animals produced and their age and condition when marketed. As a consequence, animal life as a natural resource is the basis for an industry which, though of great magnitude, varies in extent from year to year, depending on supply and demand. Animal life is an elastic resource, responding closely to the demands made upon it. In most countries the principal domestic animals are counted or estimated periodically and this information serves as a guide for breeding and feeding operations.

Extent of Live-Stock Industry.—As a world resource, cattle exceed all other domestic animals in number and value, aggregating about

629,000,000 head, according

to current

estimates.

This

term includes all bovine animals, whether kept for beef production, dairy purposes or as draft animals or beasts of burden. In some countries, notably India, buffaloes are included in cattle estimates. Of the world total, Asia possesses about two-fifths, Europe about one-fifth, with South America, North America, Africa and Oceania following in the order given. Oceania includes Australia and New Zealand. Sheep are the next most numerous domestic animals of economic importance. The world’s supply is estimated at about 593,000,000. Of this number Europe has nearly a third, Asia about a fifth and Oceania slightly less than a fifth. South America, North America and Africa follow. Swine, though much fewer in number than either cattle or sheep, are noteworthy as a food resource owing to their fecundity and early maturity. The adaptability of pork for curing is also worthy of mention as it permits storage and long shipments without refrigeration. Throughout the world, swine are estimated to number about 255,000,000, of which Asia, Europe and North America, respectively, have the largest supply. On the other continents, the swine industry is relatively undeveloped. Though the world’s animal resources include a great variety of other stock utilized for food, work and sundry purposes there is a dearth of dependable information regarding their numbers. Even in the case of cattle, sheep and swine, which have just been mentioned as of outstanding prominence, numbers alone give scarcely a true picture of their value to the populations of the various countries. The improved bovine animal, as found in North and South America and in the British Isles, where much attention has been given to breeding for beef production, is vastly different from the beast of burden types in India or Mongolia. Types of sheep vary greatly, depending on the relative demand for their wool and meat. Similarly, man’s influence on animal life has resulted in swine that excel in bacon production or a high

yield of lard, depending on the breed selected.

Differences in

RESOURCES

[ANIMAL LIFE

types of animals extend to horses, goats, poultry and pet stock These differences have been brought about through systematic breeding for a long term of years, giving rise to the establish.

ment of recognized breeds embodying the conformation and other

qualities sought. Record associations for the various breeds have served to maintain uniform

standards

development and improvement.

and otherwise

to aid in

Live-stock shows and expositions

at which prizes are offered for animals of superior merit likewise

have been influential in stimulating breeders to their best efforts. In the case of food animals especially man’s skill in the selection of breeding stock has greatly increased the utility value of his

herds and flocks. Whereas the dressed carcass of an ordinary hog weighs, usually, between 65 and 75% of its live weight, the pro-

portion is more than 80% in the case of well-bred, well-managed swine. Moreover, good breeding tends to result in earlier maturity so that animals may be marketed profitably at younger ages, with a resulting saving in feed, labour and other expenses. So highly has this feature of stock raising developed that it is not unusual for a litter of pigs from one sow to weigh a ton or more at six months of age. Improved breeding has numerous practical benefits in the raising of other kinds of live stock. Consequently there is keen competition among progressive stock owners throughout the world in obtaining choice breeding animals.

Inasmuch as the population of the world is increasing steadily, much study has been given the conservation of animal life in order that it may yield more meat and live stock products per unit of area. In regions where land values have increased there is need also for economic reasons to reduce losses and to seek greater economy in production. As a consequence public officials and stockmen have engaged in co-operative endeavours to combat animal diseases and parasites and to stop the ravages of predatory animals. Improved housing and equipment likewise have reduced losses from exposure and the mortality among young animals. Veterinary Medicine and Surgery.—Beginning originally in France as a means of saving horses injured in war, there has developed in the more important live-stock countries a system of medical service for animals. The science of veterinary medicine and surgery, though designed chiefly to conserve animal life, has made many direct contributions to human welfare. Knowledge of animal anatomy is the basis for the official inspection of meat and meat food products, and the veterinary inspection of dairy cows safeguards the milk supplies of progressive municipalities. With veterinary medicine there has developed also research into problems affecting the health and well-being of man and animals alike. The discovery, by veterinarians, of means to eradicate tick fever from cattle led shortly afterwards to success in combating malaria and yellow fever in man. Knowledge concerning tuberculosis among animals is leading similarly to a reduced incidence of this scourge in the human population, especially among children. In the light of such information, any statistical measure of the world’s animal resources and their usefulness to man in the form of food and clothing must necessarily be incomplete. There can be no accurate appraisement of the service rendered by man’s noble friend, the horse, nor by his faithful companion and guarding sentry, the dog. And in the frozen wastes of the globe the oily flesh of animals constitutes the very home fires which maintain human existence. The lower animals are resources which adapt themselves to man’s changing needs, and if wisely managed give promise of abundance for many generations to come.

(J. R. Mr.) II. VEGETATION

If the great physiographic divisions are exempted, the earth’s surface is marked more distinctly by vegetation cover than by any other feature. This fact early attracted man to the study of vegetation as distinguished from the study of the individual plant. Primitive man recognized the plant cover not only as a source of sustenance and protection, but also as a guide in his hunting and planting his food crops. Studies in vegetation and its relation to the factors of the environment began very early. In the recognition of a plant community (a term used in a general sense to include all groups, large and small) the following criteria may be employed: Physiognomy, or the general appear-

VEGETATION]

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

ance, historically stands in first place, followed closely by floristic composition which has formed the basis of the science of floristic plant geography. Succession seeks to determine whether

the vegetation has reached its final stage, complete adjustment to environment. The study of Habitat (see Prants: Distribution and Ecology) seeks to evaluate climate, soil and biotic factors. The terrestrial vegetation of the world may be classified into the following great plant types: Forest, Grassland and Desert. The forests of the world may be divided into seven great formation

groups covering a world area of about 22,000,000 square miles. Most of this area is valuable timber land, and about 14,000,000 sq.m. are capable of being converted into crop-producing land, of which about 6,000,000 are suitable for warm-weather crops, and 8,000,000 suitable for cool-weather crops. About 3,000,000 sq.m. of forest land are suitable for grazing only. The grasslands of the world are divided into seven great formation groups covering 13,000,000 sq.m. of valuable grazing land. Of this area 3,500,000 sq.m. are suitable for the production of cool-weather crops such as wheat, rye and oats; while 6,800,000 sq.m. are suitable for warmweather crops such as sorghum and cotton; and 2,700,000 sq.m. are suitable for grazing only. The deserts may be divided into five great formation groups covering a world area of 17,000,000 sq.m., valuable chiefly as grazing land of low carrying capacity and, where water is available, for irrigation farming. The world contains about 26,000,000 sq.m. of land suitable for grazing; about 12,800,000 sq.m. of land capable of producing warm-weather crops, and about 11,500,000 sq.m. capable of producing coolweather crops. Allowing no waste land it would limit the production area of the world to less than 25,000,000 square miles. Forests.—Tropical Rain Forest is a luxuriant, evergreen forest with trees of unequal size and height and of varying age forming a dense canopy of thick, leathery leaves, and composed chiefly of Leguminosae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae and Dipterocarpaceae—a true climax forest with trees of all ages and a mixture of many species. Temperature is uniformly high, air damp, and rainfall 60 to 200 in. per year. Soil is greyish or reddish-brown,

poor in humus and containing a large amount of hydrolyzed iron and alumina. Animal life is abundant but chiefly arboreal. Primitive man has lived for the most part at the edge of this forest, and civilized man has utilized natural products such as rubber, gum, wood and bark. Cultivated crops are chiefly tropical such as rubber, sugar cane, cacao and tropical fruits, vegetables and fibre plants, though temperate ones can be grown. This forest covers 3,800,000 sq.m., in Africa, South America and the East Indies. Temperate Rain Forest is even more luxuriant and varied than the tropical rain forest. It is a many-storied forest, rich in mosses, tree ferns and vines. It consists of the southern conifers such as Podocarpus and Araucaria, as well as Ficus, Olea, Juniperus and Nothofagus. The temperature is moderate and the rainfall 40 to 80 inches per year. Under cultivation it will produce temperate cereals and fruits. This forest occupies about 550,000 sq.m., chiefly in the highlands of Central Africa, South America, southeastern Asia, East Indies and Oceania.

Deciduous Forest is characterized by a dense foliage of thin, grass-green leaves which fall and leave bare branches with heavy bark and scale-covered buds during a long, cold rest period. Oak,

birch, beech, maple and ash dominate this forest. There are two distinct climatic seasons: a warm, moist season or growth period, and a cold, moist season, or rest period. Precipitation varies from 30 to yo in. The soils are either light coloured podsols or grey forest soils. Under natural conditions this forest supports a fauna and fruits and nuts for primitive man. It produced much of the wood and hardwood lumber, and has given way to fields of temperate crops and deciduous fruits. There are three great areas of this forest: Eastern United States, western Europe, and eastern Asia. The total area is about 6,500,000 square miles. Coniferous Forest presents a uniform stand of similar evergreen trees, and consists chiefly of pine, spruce and fir. The winter climate is rigorous; rainfall varies from 15 to oo in. annually; the soil is young but the land is of little agricultural value. This forest is the source of much of the lumber used in commerce. It extends across America and Eurasia south of the tundra and

859

pushes down over the highland as far as north Africa and Mexico. It covers about 7.600,000 sq.m. of which 5,500,000 are true forest, and 2,100,000 are woodlands. About 1,000,000 sq.m. are suitable Íor grazing, 40,000 sq.m. suitable for cool-weather crops and 30,000 sq.m. suitable for warm-weather crops. Dry Forests are deciduous forests in the tropics and are often called monsoon forests. Leafless during the dry period, they have no cold rest period as does the deciduous forest of the temperate regions. These forests are usually composed of leguminous trees. The temperature is high and rainfall 30 to 40 in. during the growth period. Teak and quebracho are valuable forests of this type. The soil produces good crops of warm-weather cereals, vegetables and fruits. This forest is chiefly in Africa, South America, Australia, south-eastern Asia and Oceania, and occupies about 2,000,000 square miles. Thorn Forest is composed of small thorn trees, vines and succulents. The trees are leafless during the long drought periods and are found in tropical or sub-tropical regions where the annual rainfall is from ro to 20 in. Legumes, cacti, euphorbias and lilies are important. This area is unfavourable to primitive man and to animals, but produces gums, fruits, rubber and tanbark. It has no value agriculturally without irrigation, and covers about 330,000 sq.m. in Africa, South America, Mexico, Australia and the dryer portions of Asia. Sclerophyll Brushland is a forest of small trees or a brushland with evergreen sclerophylls ranging from minute ericas to tree-like proteas, oaks and cherries. Botanically it is extremely variable. The temperature seldom falls below 26° F; rainfall is from 20 to 35 in. annually, and there is a drought period of three to five months. It is an unfavourable habitat for man and animals under natural conditions, but under cultivation it is most favourable for the production of citrus and deciduous fruits and cereals, alfalfa and vegetables. This forest covers about 1,100,000 sq.m. chiefly in the Mediterranean region, Cape Province, south-western Australia, central Chile and California.

Grasslands.—In the High Grass Savanna the luxuriant grasses

range from 5 to 12 ft. high and consist chiefly of species of Andropogon and Pennisetum. The luxuriant growth period is followed by a drought during which the grasses are burned. Annual rainfall ranges from 25 to 75 in. The area varies each year from a grassy swamp to a dry desert. The natural production is not great, although the larger animals live here, and rubber, oils and ivory are produced. Under cultivation warm-weather crops of great variety can be produced. This savanna covers about 2,800,000 sq.m. in Africa, south Asia and South America. The Tall Grass Savanna, known as Low Veld or Tree Steppe. consists of grasses from three to five ft. high with trees ro to 30 ft. high scattered through. The grasses are chiefly andropogons and the trees legumes. The temperature is tropical or subtropical with rainfall of 30 to 80 in. It is excellent grazing land. It is a favourable home for primitive man and for civilized man, with rich agricultural lands producing cattle and cool or warmweather cereals and vegetables. It covers a world area of about 3,900,000 sq.m. in South America, Africa, India and Australia. Tail Grass, the prairie of North America, the pampas of South America, and the high veld of South Africa, are luxuriant, pure grasslands of blue-stems (Andropogon), spear-grass (Stipa) and wheat-grass (Agropyron). The climate is temperate; rainfall is from 20 to 40 in. annually, and the soil is unusually deep and rich,

forming a true chernozydém. in the dryer portion. There is a short

drought rest period, followed by a long, cold rest period, It is excellent grazing land; it supported great herds of wild game, and later

cattle and horses, which have given way to its utilization as the richest grain fields of the world. It occupies about 1,580,000 sq.m. in the United States (chiefly east of the rooth meridian), Uruguay and the Argentine, south Russia and Siberia, Rumania and Hungary, South Africa and Australia.

Short Grass is only a few inches high, occurring in a temperate region with rainfall of 15 to 30 in., with a long drought and a cold rest period. The grama, buffalo-grass, spear-grass and needle-grass are valuable for grazing. The better portion of this land is used for dry farming. The soil is dark brown with an accumulation of

860

PHYSICAL

carbonate at a depth of 8 in. to 3 ft. below the surface. The world area of this grassland is about 1,200,000 sq.m., chiefly in North America, South America, Africa and Russia. Desert Grass Savanna, sometimes called Orchard or Thornbush Steppe, consists of a carpet of short or low bushy grasses, including grama-grass, buffalo-grass, wire-grasses, and scattered small trees, with leguminous and other shrubs. Rainfall is from ro to 20 in., and there is a long, hot drought period. About 2,300,000 sq.m. are occupied by this type of grassland; it is valuable as grazing land of low-carrying capacity. About 140,000 sq.m. are valuable agriculturally, producing cotton, sorghums and peanuts. Mountain Grassland occurs on the high mountains in the tropics. The climate is temperate with 40 to 60 in. of rain. The

grasses are chiefly species of blue-stem (Andropogon) (Eragrostis) and dropseed-grass (Sporobolus). It is generally valuable grazing land, and under cultivation produces temperate crops as

RESOURCES

(SOIL

Table Showing the Approximate Areas of Ploughed and Forest Lands

of Some of the Important Countries of the World Ploughed lands Forest lands

Country

Acres in millions

Argentine Republic

52°74"

Commonwealth of Australia ; Dominion of Canada . : France

Germany.

.

British India .

Italy . . . Japan (mainland) . Sweden . Great Britain. United States. Soviet Russia (U.S. S.R.) .

% of land

Acres | Acres per | in milperson} lions

% of land

Acres

t7°77T

56-13 56-49 51°39

427'I0

39°64 14°27

44°2

63°9 51-7 ISI 9-4 23:8 20'I

H m 9°53 13°56 well as bananas and coffee and is similar to the Temperate Rain >.e8èo.>ù w 391°46 Forest. The world area is about 790,000 square miles. Marsh Grass occurs in the great swamp areas and consists of 107'17$ | 23 | rer {1,984°55 coarse grasses. It supports a fauna valuable for meat, furs and *Possible agricultural area estimated at 250 million acres. ivory, but without drainage is of no agricultural value. The world tCropped area will ultimately be much greater. {Possible agricultural area estimated at 300 million acres. area is about 100,000 square miles. §Possible agricultural area estimated at 700 million acres. Desert Shrub and Desert Grass consists of a sparse cover of low, woody or fleshy plants with desert grasses between. BotaniWith our rapidly increasing world population two major soil cal composition varies greatly, but legumes, composites, cacti and problems present themselves, first, the possibility of increasing the euphorbias are prominent. Rainfall varies from 5 to 20 in. annu- area of lands growing crops other than forests, and second, methods ally. About 10,000,000 sq.m. of this type are valuable as grazing of preventing soil depletion and consequent crop decrease. The land of low-carrying capacity, but valueless for crop production utilization of virgin and well watered grass lands and the reduction without irrigation. of our forest areas have met the first problem in times past. Salt Desert Shrub occupies the low, undrained saline basins in Unfortunately soils have often been deforested and put under culall desert regions. It is valuable for grazing land, but for agricul- tivation when they should have been left with their forest cover. ture it must be leached of salt. The world area is about 30,000 The reclamation of swamps and the better drainage of cropsquare miles. bearing lands have increased the area and effectiveness of the culDesert in the true sense is seldom found, but at least during tivable soils. (See DRAINAGE; RECLAMATION OF LAND.) much of the year many areas seem lifeless. The flora is abundant The utilization of arid and semi-arid lands is particularly promin species if not in individual, and the plants are adapted to the ising in certain countries. Such soils, developed under low rainfall, extremes of drought and uncertain moisture supply. The world are potentially fertile. Thousands of acres of arable and very area in Africa, Asia, South America and Australia is about highly productive lands will ultimately be added to that now avail2,400,000 sq.m. and is of little value. able for crop production through irrigation (q.v.). Tundra (including Alpine Meadow) shows mixed botanical Another important means of utilizing semi-arid soils is by drycomposition. The growth period is short with a long, cold rest land farming. (See AGRICULTURE.) By proper methods of cultiperiod. In summer the temperature rises gradually to 60° or 65° vation, moisture is conserved in the soil and carried from one F, and during the continuously dark winters the temperature falls season to the next. Farming operations thus become possible in to 40° F below zero. This area is valuable for grazing land, though areas where the annual rainfall is as low as 20 inches. not especially productive. The circumpolar world area is about The second major soil problem relates to the maintenance of 4,400,000 square miles. (H. L. Su.) soil fertility. Land can not be cropped without certain losses taking place. These losses are four in number: first, erosion or IN. SOIL the removal of the surface soil, the most fertile portion, by water In an inventory of the world’s resources it is as important to or wind; second, the loss of constituents by the drainage of water consider the soil in its crop-producing capacity as it is to estimate through the soil, called leaching; third, the removal of nutrients the reserves of coal, copper and oil, substances more commonly by plants; and fourth, the loss of organic matter as a result of thought of in this connection. All of our food, our clothing and bio-chemical oxidation and the liberation of carbon dioxide. many of our utensils, implements and ornaments come either Water erosion may be controlled by small dams, by terraces, directly or indirectly from the land. (See Foob SUPPLY OF THE and by the use of sod crops. In spite of such possibilities, howWORLD.) ever, thousands of tons of fertile soil are swept annually into our The crop producing capacity of the soil is, however, a natural rivers. In many cases this is the major cause of soil depletion resource in a somewhat different way from that represented by and is closely correlated with deforestation and flood devastations. coal or oil. These substances have a definite entity and can be The losses through drainage, crop removal and organic oxidation estimated in tons and gallons. Once depleted they are manifestly are susceptible of but little control. Farming operations, even the gone. The soil, on the other hand, is a resource because of its most careful, encourage rather than check such depletions. ability to produce crop-plants. This capacity varies, it may be The major features of soil fertility maintenance may be very much reduced and then be definitely rebuilt. simply set forth if it is taken for granted that the soil drainage is While an accurate and complete tabulation of the soil resources good, that tillage is adequate, that erosion is under control, and of the world is impossible, the table in the next column gives some that a suitable crop rotation, if possible, is utilized. Under such idea of the situation. (See Sort; AGRICULTURE.) conditions the problem is to add certain constituents in such Besides indicating the magnitude of the soil resources in acres, amounts and proportions as at least partially to off-set the inevitthe table shows the proportion of the landed area available for able losses. At the same time the physiological balance of the crop-plants. This in connection with the population has an im- plant nutrients should be maintained as nearly as possible. ` portant bearing on the possible agricultural and silvicultural While plants require ten nutrient elements for their normal independence of each country. Such countries as Argentina, Can- growth and probably several more besides, ordinarily only four ada, Australia and Russia can support much larger populations. are likely to become especially critical, namely nitrogen, potasTheir forest resources in terms of population are also great. sium, calcium and phosphorus. Sulphur also may be a limiting

WATER]

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

factor particularly for such crops as alfalfa and sweet clover. The nitrogen losses may be met by applying farm manure, turning under crop-residues and by utilizing, either as a crop in the rotation or as a green manure, certain legumes. Commercial nitrogen may be resorted to, although it is generally used to stimulate the crop directly rather than to reduce the drain on the soil nitrogen. Obviously the methods utilized in maintaining the soil nitrogen automatically add organic matter as well. As this material decays and humus is formed a definite ratio is established between the organic matter and the nitrogen. The nitrogen is always in the minimum and apparently controls the amount of humus that finally is present in the soil. The advantage of legumes as greén manures over non-legumes is quite apparent. since they obtain nitrogen from the air and are especially rich in this constituent. The soil organic matter besides carrying nitro-

gen is a source of energy for various bio-chemical transformations

and encourages a suitable physical condition of the soil. The presence of this decaying organic matter tends to make available to plants certain soil constituents, especially potassium. Therefore it is often unnecessary to add a potassium fertilizer to

a soil rich in this element if the organic matter is properly main-

86I

Great Lakes of North America and the lakes at the head of the White Nile in equatorial Africa.

The utility of any stream for power, irrigation or municipal

supply, depends in large measure upon the adaptability of its run-off to the demand. Storage must ordinarily be provided to

assist in this adaptation. Natural sites available for use as storage

reservoirs may contribute largely to the value of the water resources of a drainage basin. Areas that were covered during the glacial period by continental ice sheets or by extensive alpine glaciers generally abound in lakes, which in their natural condition regulate run-off in some degree, and some of these lakes may be converted into reservoirs of large capacity. High rates of run-off and attendant possibilities of power and irrigation development are generally associated with mountainous areas, such as the Sierra

Nevada and Cascade Range, in western North America, the central Andes of South America, the Alps and Caucasus in Europe and the Himalayas in Asia.

Ground Water.—Practically all vegetable life depends for sustenance upon underground water. It has been estimated that 50% of the population of the United States depends directly upon wells for its water supply and the proportion for the world is no doubt nearly, or quite as great. A large part of the water used for irrigation is drawn from the ground, which contains water in immense quantities. The practicable use of this water is measured not by its total volume but rather by the extent to which it

tained and is actively decomposing. Many soils are low in active calcium and as a consequence become acid. This deficiency also develops other conditions that may be detrimental to some plants but by no means to all. Liming, therefore, must be resorted to for certain crops and is may be replaced by precipitation. In many areas the water table thus an important feature in the maintenance of soil fertility the has been progressively lowered by excessive pumping. In some world over. (See FERTILIZERS.) The lime not only reduces the places the rate of recharge of the underground water from surface soil acidity but also adjusts other physiological soil conditions. streams may be increased to offset the lowering of the water table. Phosphorus exists in the soil in small amounts and is often but large drafts on the supply inevitably reduce it. Seepage due very slowly available to plants. In fact it is so slightly soluble to the excessive use of water for irrigation generally finds its way as to be lost but sparingly, if at all, in the drainage water. The into the ground and in many places may be re-used after it is disonly way of dealing with this element is by direct addition of charged from springs or recovered by pumping. Water-power.—The developed water-power of the world, acphosphorus fertilizers (q.v.). As the losses of soil constituents increase, the necessity becomes cording to estimates made by the U.S. Geological Survey, was about 23,000,000 h.p. in 1920, 29,000,000 hp. at the end of greater for commercial fertilizers. BIBLIOGRAPHY —See reports and bulletins of the Internat. Inst. of 1923 and 33,000,000 hp. at the end of 1926, an increase of 43% Agri. at Rome, Statesman’s Year Book and census reports for various

countries. Also A. D. Hall, Fertilizers and Manure (1909) and the Book of the Rothamsted Experiments (1919) ; E. J. Russell, Soi Con-

ditions and Plant Growth (1927), Manuring for Higher Crop Production (1917) and Farm Soil and Its Improvement (1923); C. E. Thorne, Farm Manures; T. L. Lyon and H. O. Buckman, Nature and Properties of Soils (1922). (H. O. B.)

IV. WATER Water is probably the natural resource that is most essential to

man’s existence on the earth. It furnishes him food and drink, means of sanitation and transportation and in large measure the power necessary for his use of other natural resources. Surface Water.—-Run-off is directly the result of precipitation, but the rapidity with which run-off follows precipitation depends upon various conditions, most conspicuously the snow storage. In tropical and subtropical lands the sequence is rapid, but in

in Six years.

Summary of Developed W'ater-power of the World in 1926, and Potential Water-power at Ordinary Low Water in Horse-power Developed | Potential North America . South America . Europe Asia Africa . Oceania

17,635,000 65.500,000 751,200 | 54,100,000 | 13,100,000 58,100,000 2,068,000 | 69,200,000 13,680 | 190,950,000 242,500 16,650,000 |

Total .

33,310,000 | 454,800,000 !

The estimates given above are based on data of widely varying completeness and accuracy, but they afford a general idea of the water-power resources of the world. For Asia, Africa and South extreme northern and southern areas it may be delayed several America, where great areas are practically unexplored, it has been months. The areas from which run-off is supplied mainly by necessary to rely largely on studies of precipitation and topogramelting snow embrace in general all lands north of the Arctic phy. It appears that the potential water-powers of four of the Circle and all areas that rise above an élevation of about 5,000 ft. continents are approximately equal, that Africa’s quota is equal in the latitude of the northern United States and central Europe, to that of any other three, and that Oceania, including Australia. and above 12,000 to 14,000 ft. in the tropics. In other areas run- possesses a negligible quantity. Africa is essentially a great plateau off occurs most frequently during the rainy season. If the rain- on which the streams are large and from which they fall rather fall is fairly uniform throughout the year as it is in the eastern abruptly to the sea. Tropical Africa, particularly the Congo, comUnited States and most of western Europe, the distribution of prises the largest land area within the belt of the equatorial rains, run-off is also nearly uniform, but there is a considerable reduc- and this fact taken in connection with the characteristic topogration during the summer, due to heavier evaporation. Areas in phy of the continent, gives it by far the greatest concentration subtropical and warm temperate lands receive precipitation during of potential water-power on the globe. Asia comprises vast elea definite rainy season, which may not exceed half the year, and vated areas, including the highest mountains and plateaux, but in the run-off from such areas is, therefore, likely to be variable. northern, western and central Asia the precipitation is low, and On the other hand, streams that rise in areas having a permeable in its southern and eastern parts the rainfall is irregularly dissoil and subsoil or are underlain by cavernous rocks are likely tributed through the year. The water power resources of Asia are to have relatively well maintained run-off. Lakes which cover a therefore hardly greater than those of North America.

considerable part of a drainage basin tend to regularize run-off. Streams draining areas in which there are two or more of these type conditions have a composite run-off. Good examples are the

Irrigation.—Nearly one-third of the earth’s surface receives

only ro in. of rain or less annually, and for another third the annual rainfall is between ro and 20 inches. On the area receiving

PHYSICAL

862

less than ro in. and on much of that receiving up to 20 in., irrigation is generally essential to the production of a profitable crop. The earliest civilization of which we have any knowledge was developed by means of irrigated agriculture. Not until near the Christian era did the world dominion and leadership in art and culture pass to nations inhabiting other than great irrigated lowlands such as Egypt and Mesopotamia. With the general decay of civilization during the dark ages, irrigation systems were neglected and some were entirely destroyed by invading armies. Egypt, protected by the sea and the desert, suffered relatively little. Mesopotamia, exposed to the full fury of successive surges of Mongolian nomads, received blows from which it has never recovered. With the advent of the Renaissance and the gradual growth of modern

civilization, the centre of civilization gradu-

ally shifted to the more humid parts of northern Europe and eastern North America, and artificial moisture became a less important factor in the growing of the world food supply. After 1875 new influences in world affairs gave a decided im-

petus to irrigation development. Railroad construction has opened up vast areas of arid and semi-arid lands requiring irrigation to bring them to a high degree of crop production. Construction equipment and methods have been greatly improved. Projects are now feasible which, a half century ago, would have been entirely impracticable. Dams are projected and under construction of a height and size undreamed of a few decades ago. Improved standards of living have increased the demand for certain products of irrigated lands such as citrus and deciduous fruits, and increased transportation facilities have made possible their widespread distribution. As a result, the irrigated areas in the newly developed countries of the Western Hemisphere have been increasing rapidly. The population of India, China and other lands of ancient civilization has been very largely limited by the area of tillable land, and this in turn by the supply of water available for irrigation. The very considerable growth during recent years in the population of India has been due in large measure to the effectiveness of the irrigation works constructed by the Government. Probably one-fourth of the population of the globe is now primarily dependent for food on the products of irrigated land. The irrigated area of the world by countries in 1926 has been estimated by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation as practically 200,000,000 ac., made up by continents as follows: North America, 26,834,000 ac.; South America, 6,613,000 ac.; Europe, 14,798,000 ac.; Asia, 140,760,000 ac.; Africa, 10,310,000 ac.; Oceania, 1,270,000 ac.; grand total 200,585,000 acres. (E. F. H.) V. FISHERIES

The important fisheries of the world are found for the most part within the north temperate zone, chiefly between the 4oth and 60th parallels of north latitude. In this region conditions are especially favourable to fish life, including large continental shelves with relatively shallow water and extensive coastal indentations, richly supplied with materials from the massed land areas of the region to support an abundant aquatic flora and fauna. The herrings, of which there are some 150 species, represent the

most important family of fishes. The species are widely distributed in fresh and salt water and contribute a greater yield than any other family of fishes. They supply the raw materials for the highly important sardine industries of Norway, France,

RESOURCES

[FORESTS

lake herring and the trouts. The most important members are the five species of salmons native to the North Pacific, entering the tributary rivers in North America and Asia to spawn. The annual catch amounts to about 1,000,000,000 Ib. a year and is the basis for the important salmon canning and curing industry.

The mackerels, of which there are about 60 species, are widely distributed and highly prized for food in the areas where they are found in abundance. Included in this family are the highly prized tunas, the true mackerels of the north Atlantic, Spanish mackerel and the bonito. The shell-fish fisheries are also of considerable importance, including some of the choicest products of the sea and valued as food because of their distinctive flavour and their richness in iodine and minerals, essential elements of our diet. The oyster fisheries are of importance in the United States, France and Japan. Lobsters, crabs, clams and shrimp are widely sought after, The fisheries are a most important source of food. In addition

they supply many articles of importance in the arts and industries. Fish meal is gradually winning a place for itself as one of the most valuable protein feeds for hogs, cattle and poultry. Fish

fertilizer is generally recognized and widely used as a plant food. The demand for and use of fish oils for soap making, for hydrogenation, including use in lard substitutes, and for many other purposes is increasing. About 60,000,000 gal. of whale oil alone is now produced annually. Shells of molluscs are an important source of raw materials of buttons and various artistic articles. From the shells of the fresh water mussels taken in the Mississippi valley region are produced about 3,000,000,000 buttons per year. From shark hides are made fancy leathers for artistic articles; from fish scales is derived fish scale essence used in the manufacture of imitation pearls; from Japanese pearl farms are derived artificial pearls and from numerous waters of the globe are taken genuine pearls. From the sea-weed industries are derived many products and from the sea itself the indispensable solar salt. The annual world harvest of fish and fishery products amounts to not less than 30,000,000,000 lb. with a first value of about $1,250,000,000. In addition there is a very considerable draft on water areas by angler and fisherman for home consumption for which no satisfactory estimate can be made. Among the leading nations of the world in the prosecution of fisheries arranged in the relative order of the magnitude of their fisheries are: Japan with a catch of about 5,700,000,000 lb.; United States with 3,000,000,000 Ib.; England, 1,700,000,000 lb.; Norway, 1,450,000,000 Ib.; Russia, 1,200,000,000 Ib.; Canada, 17,190,000,000 Ib.; and Spain, 900,000,000 pounds. These seven countries produce about one-half of the world’s fishery harvest. Among the other nations producing in excess of 500,000,000 Ib. annually are: Scotland, Newfoundland, Germany, France and Portugal. (L. Ra.) VI. FORESTS

The world production and consumption of wood amounts to approximately 56,000,000,000 cu.ft., which is an average of 32 cu.ft. per caput. About 26,000,000,000 ft. is saw-timber, and 30,000,000,000 ft. is firewood. Increase of Consumption.—As populations grow and as living standards rise and human wants become more complex, timber consumption increases, in spite of the extensive and growing use of substitute materials, and in spite of the tendency to utilize

wood more economically. Railroad ties, newsprint and other Spain, Portugal and the United States, the extensive herring cur- products of wood pulp, automobiles, phonographs, radio cabinets ing industries of northern Europe and North America, extensive and many other articles requiring large quantities of wood, all fish meal, fertilizer and oil industries of Norway, United States, have come into extensive use within recent times. In Great Britain timber consumption has increased much more Canada and Japan, as well as being widely used for food in the fresh state wherever they are found. As they feed on microscopic rapidly than has the population. Even in France with a practiplant and animal forms, they are especially important as con- cally stationary population, timber consumption was slowly increasing until r914; that of Germany more than doubled within verters of plankton organisms at one step into food for man. The gadoid fishes which include the cod, haddock, hake and pol- the century; in the United States at least seven times as much lock also rank high in their contribution to man’s needs. The lumber is (1929) used as in 1850. Judging from the rates of inannual catch of cod along the Atlantic coast of North America crease in these and other important consuming countries, the exceeds 1,000,000,00c0 pounds. These are white-meated fishes, world’s timber needs may be expected to double within approxiand the fat is stored in the livers, the basis for the cod-liver oil mately 50 years. The per caput consumption in North America industry. Next in importance are the salmons, noted for their of saw-timber (188 cu.ft.) is five times as great as that of Europe, exceptional food properties, size, beautyand gameness. The family and if the tropical countries south of the United States be disincludes not only the salmons but the white fishes, the ciscoes or regarded, it Is six and one-half times that of Europe. Europe,

FORESTS]

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

862

South America and Australia use about equal amounts of wood | large timber used annually and more than three-fourths of the per caput (39 cu.ft.). The proportion of saw-timber to total sawed lumber. Of the paper consumed in the United States, nineamount of wood used, however, is quite different, being only one- tenths is made of softwoods. To meet its 1929 requirements, the ninth in South America, two-fifths in Australia and over one-half United States cut about four times as much as grows each year. in Europe. Asia and Africa use comparatively small amounts of Alaska has great reserves of virgin timber in her coast forests and wood (9 and 5 cu.ft. respectively). will contribute largely to the world trade. Mexico has about 20,The total quantity of wood grown in the world each year is 500,000,000 cu.ft. of pine in mountainous forests at an elevation roughly estimated at about 38,000,000,000 cubic feet. If this between 7,000 and 10,000 feet. increment were spread evenly over the whole forest area, it would Europe is barely capable of meeting its softwood timber needs. amount to only 5-1 cu.ft. per acre. It is apparent that the pres- Just before the World War Great Britain imported 97% of the ent annual growth of 38,000,000,000 cu.ft. is not replacing the timber she consumed; France, Germany, Italy, Belgium and the present annual cut of 56,000,000,000 cubic feet. The amount of Netherlands imported approximately 30, 47, 65, 77 and 82% growth each year represents the growth of only a small part of the respectively. The only European countries that have any prospect forest. Vast areas of virgin forests must be left out of the calcu- of increasing their output of softwood timber for any considerable lation, because in their present condition there is no net growth period or even of continuing to export at the present rate are in them. If all the forests of the world were placed in a growing o Finland, Russia and possibly Czechoslovakia and Yugocondition, with a moderate amount of management and protec- slavia. tion against devastation, they could produce annually at least In Asia the only country exporting on a large scale at present 355,000,000,000 cu.ft. of wood, or nearly 50 cu.ft. per acre. is Japan. In Asia only western and eastern Siberia are reputed to The World’s Timber Supply.—With about 5,500,000,000 ac. have enormous supplies of virgin softwood timber. Siberian of productive forest area in the world, bearing heavy stands of forests, however, are largely unexplored, and little is known of virgin timber, having possible growth many times the world’s their actual condition. Of the vast forest area of South Americe present timber requirements, it would seem that there is enough only 5% is composed of conifers. The bulk is in southern Brazil timber to last for centuries. This would be true if all kinds of and adjacent portions of Argentina and Paraguay. The entire wood were equally capable of satisfying human wants. There are region produces only from one-third to one-half as much softabout 2,645,000,000 ac. of softwoods or conifer forests in the wood timber as Argentina alone buys from the United States and world; some 1,204,000,000 ac. of temperate hardwoods or broad- Canada. The other South American countries depend upon the leaf forests, and 3,638,000,000 ac. of tropical hardwoods. Although Northern Hemisphere for much of their construction timber. the softwoods and temperate hardwood forests together form only Africa, although it possesses extensive equatorial forests, does one-half of the total forest area of the world, 91% of all not contain enough softwood timber to furnish even the small the timber cut and used comes from the softwood and tem- amounts required locally for construction purposes. In Australia, perate hardwood forests of the Northern Hemisphere, and only the softwood supply is inadequate for local needs. Much pine, fir 9% from the tropical hardwoods. The softwood forests are and spruce lumber is imported from North America, Europe and furnishing three-fourths and the temperate hardwoods one-fifth north-eastern Asia. The small area of softwood forest in New

of the construction timber of the world. The temperate hardwoods, in addition, supply three-fourths of all the firewood. The amount of standing timber in the tropics is far greater than the amount remaining in the temperate regions, yet until recently, the tropical forests have played a minor part in supplying the world’s timber. There has been prevalent an idea that the tropical forests are composed chiefly of cabinet woods, dyewoods and similar kinds of hard, heavy, deeply coloured wood, suitable for furniture and special uses, but not for construction. Recent explorations have shown that there are many excellent construction woods, equal if not superior to the woods of conifers for use In the tropics because more resistant to decay and termites. Before the tropical forests are able to supply a large part of the world’s requirements there must be developed adequate systems of cheap transportation and adequate supplies of efficient labour. Another difficulty is that the tropical forests are mostly composed of a variety of species, intermingled in the greatest confusion, and can be exploited economically only if practically all the important species can be utilized. The crux of the world’s timber supply problem, during the next two or three generations at least, lies in the available supplies of softwood and temperate hardwood. Softwood Supplies.—The softwood forests are very largely confined to the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, although some conifers occur in the Southern Hemisphere. The present growth of conifer timber is about 80% of the present cut. The forest capital is being depleted. The principal conifer regions are: (1) North America, including Canada, the United States, and the Sierras of Mexico; (2) northern Europe and cen-

tral Europe; (3) Asiatic Russia, Manchuria and part of Japan. In Canada the total amount of accessible merchantable sawtimber is estimated at approximately 61,500,000,000 cu.ft. and of pulpwood 52,000,000,000 cubic feet. The forests are being destroyed from two to two and one-half times faster than they are grown. At a total annual drain upon the forests of 5,000,-

Guinea and the other islands of the Pacific is insignificant. Lord Lovat, after a survey of the softwood forests of the world, arrives at the conclusion that, except in Russia, the main softwood virgin timber reserves will be exhausted before very long, and Europe will have to depend more and more on timber raised by the agency of man; that the United States shortage is likely to come more quickly than that in Europe; that the more the American supply becomes centred in the Pacific coast States, the greater is the probability of the industrial States of north-eastern America coming into the European markets for saw-timber in the same way that they do now for pulpwood; and, finally, that as the United States consumes

over 13,000,000,000 cu.ft. of soft-

woods, as opposed to a total European consumption of 9,000,000,000 cu.ft., the United States advent into European markets will have an important bearing upon European prices. Temperate Hardwoods Supplies.—Like the conifers the temperate hardwoods are confined chiefly to the Northern Hemisphere and are located fairly close to consuming centres. They as a rule occupy the better soils of the more favourably situated lands and, therefore, have been progressively destroyed to make room for cultivation. The large old timber has been depleted even to a greater extent than that of the softwoods. Europe has still extensive areas of hardwood forests and even exports special kinds, such as the oak of Poland and Yugoslavia. On the whole, however, the consumption of hardwoods in Europe greatly exceeds the production. In Asie, Japan exports small quantities of oak. Walnut and other hardwoods are exported from Asiatic Turkey and the Caspian region. Siberia has about 30% by area of the temperate broad-leaved forests of the world. Except in the Far East, however, they consist of fairly light stands of aspen and birch, much of it valuable chiefly for firewood or pulp and not to be compared with the hardwoods of the United States and Europe. In North America the United States now has the largest supply of temperate hardwoods. The other North Ameri-

can regions have no surplus over their own needs. The original stand of approximately 250,000,000,000 cu.ft. of merchantable hardwoods has dwindled to about one-fourth of that amount and Softwoods comprise two-thirds of the 13,000,000,000 cu.ft. of is being further depleted at the rate of over 2,000,000,000 cu.ft.

000,000 cu.ft., the accessible stands of virgin forests would be

exhausted in about 25 years. In the United States roughly only 385,000,000,000 cu.ft. of softwoods of saw-timber size remain.

PHYSICAL

864

a year. The United States uses nearly 4,000,000,000 cu.ft. of hardwood timber a year, exclusive of firewood, or almost twothirds of the entire world consumption of temperate hardwood timber. In the temperate region of the Southern Hemisphere including southern Chile and Argentina, portions of New Zealand and Tasmania and the high mountains of South America and Africa, there are relatively small quantities of valuable hardwood timber, and little or none for export. The outlook for future

supplies of hardwoods, however, is probably better than for softwoods, because woods adapted to the same uses can be got from

the tropical forests, though they may cost much more. Vil. NATURAL

(R. Z.)

GAS

The occurrence of natural gas is widespread, both geographically and geologically. Geographically, natural gas is produced in (r) United States: Alaska, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, West Virginia and Wyoming; and (2) Canada: Alberta, New Brunswick, Ontario and Saskatchewan. It is found beneath the earth’s surface, compressed in small cavities or in porous rock strata. The ‘gas sand” is a porous rock formation containing millions of small cavities which gas, oil, water or all three together may occupy. There is a considerable difference of opinion among geologists and chemists as to the origin of natural gas. There are two theories—the organic and the inorganic. In the former, natural gas is considered as having been formed as the result of a tre-

mendous distillation process of decayed vegetable and animal matter millions of years ago. The inorganic theory places the origin of natural gas at a still greater age back into the beginnings

of the world, and regards it as a product of heat and volcanic action on carbon possibly deposited when the first crust of the

earth was formed. The organic theory is the one more generally accepted. It is a well-established belief, however, that regardless of the process by which natural gas came into existence, the new gas now being generated underground is negligible, so that when the present supplies are exhausted, natural gas will fail. The by-products of natural gas are natural gasolene, helium, chloroform, formaldehyde, formic and other acids. An important use of natural gas is in the manufacture of carbon black, produced for the manufacture of printer’s ink and automobile tyres.

More than 1,000,000,000 gal. of gasolene were (1929) being recovered as a by-product, thus adding to the total supply of motor fuel. Also many millions of cubic feet of liquefied petroleum gases were produced and marketed as raw materials; many thousand pounds of medicinal synthetic and pharmaceutical preparations were made. It has been estimated that 100,000,000 cu.ft. of helium could be produced annually. The natural gas industry is of most importance in the United States where its magnitude is indicated by the fact that between 15 and r6 million persons living in some 2,500 cities and towns in 24 States represent the domestic consumers of natural gas. In addition possibly 17,000 industrial concerns utilize this fuel. The supply of gas is drawn from more than 45,000 wells covering an area of over 15,000,000 acres. The expansion of natural gas service by means of long high pressure transmission lines to distant towns is one of the outstanding features of the public utility situation in many parts of the United States, natural gas replacing manufactured gas at many important centres. As in the petroleum industry, pessimistic opinions prevalent a few years ago regarding dwindling supplies of natural gas have been forgotten as a result of the enormous developments of 19209. Drilling for gas, even with the moder and improved methods, is

generally quite uncertain. Expensive drilling is the only means of definitely determining whether gas exists in paying quantities. Thus out of a total area of 3,000,000 sq.m. in the United States, less than 12,000 sq.m. have been productive of natural gas. Geglogists are able to indicate probable productive or non-productive lands with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but not with sufficient accuracy to establish a safe estimate of the probable reserve.

In recent years much attention has been given to the conservation of this fuel. Since natural gas is so often incidental

RESOURCES

[COAL AND PETROLEUM

to the recovery of oil, it is in many cases largely wasted—acting

merely as the vehicle which propels the oil out of the oil sand. (F. W. Pa.) VIII. COAL

Since the estimate of the coal resources of the world was made in 1913 by the r2th International Geological Congress, the World

War and the Versailles treaty have changed many boundaries and consequently the resources of many nations.

The best revision of

these figures for Europe is that by Sir Richard Redmayne, and it is used for European figures in the accompanying table. It does not show the quantities of various kinds of coal in European

countries, a task that must be left to some future congress. Neither Sir Richard Redmayne nor the International Geological Survey gives consideration to the exhausted minerals, except that the United States figures are corrected to Igro. Because of the impossibility of correcting all the figures, owing to the changes in boundaries and to inadequate data as to kinds of coal extracted and even as to total extraction in somè countries, no attempt has

been made, as it should have been, to correct for consumption and waste in mining. The figures for Ireland have been energetically debated.

Those given by the congréss may be too low,

especially in view of some recent discoveries.

Nevertheless, the

figures of the congress have been taken without change, including those of England, though, there also, extensions of fields have been indicated without definite estimates of their importance. Some changes were made in the figures for Panarna, Pennsylvania, Rhodesia, Victoria and British Columbia, the last because the report of J. D. MacKenzie has shown the resources of Vancouver island to be probably overestimated.

Using the figures in the table on p. 865 and the figures for pro. duction of coal in the 1925 publication of the Bureau of Mines (Department of Commerce, United States) Mineral Resources of the United States, it is found that the 1925 production of coal in the United States was about 582 million tons while the coal reserve in the United States is estimated at 4,231,076 million tons. This shows a supply of over 7,000 years on the basis of the 1925 production. Similarly for the world, with a coal reserve esti-

mated at 7,867,600 million tons and a 1925 production of about 1,498 million tons, a supply of over 5,000 years is shown based on the 1925 production. These figures indicate that, even with large increases in coal consumption it will take many years to exhaust the known world resources, as estimated in 1925. In the table, A represents anthracite; B is coal with volatile matter between 12 and 35%; C is coal lying between B and a coal D, the moisture in which exceeds 20%. (R. D. H.) IX. PETROLEUM In discussing the petroleum resources of the world the best that can be offered is a scientific guess carefully formulated on the basis of the data now available. Probably the best available study is that by Eugene Stebinger, chief of the Foreign Mineral Section, in the U.S. Geological Survey (made in 1919) on a map upon which he indicated by circles the relative importance of the estimated oil reserves of the different regions. Stebinger’s estimates follow, the table on p, 866 expressing first, the relative values of these groups as compared with unit value for the United States, and second, the corresponding quantities when unit value for the United States is 7,000,000,000 barrels. since the Stebinger estimates, there have been several careful investigations and reports on the oil reserves of the United States. Petroleum recovered by present methods of flowing and pumping

from existing wells and acreage thus proven in the United States amounts to 5,300,000,000 bbl., according to an estimate made by

the Committee of Eleven of the American Petroleum Institute in 1925. The report estimates “that after pumping and flow-

ing there will remain in the area now producing and proved 26,000,000,000

barrels of crude oil, a considerable portion of

which can be recovered by improved and known processes such as flooding with water, the introduction of air and gas pressure and mining, when price justifies. Improved methods of deep drilling below oil sands now producing will disclose in many areas deposits not hitherto available, which will be tantamount to the discovery of new fields.”

COAL AND PETROLEUM]

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

865

The Federal Oil Conservation Board in its report issued in variation in estimates of the amount of oil left underground in Sept. 1926, said “from the most recent estimates it would appear the sands after production ceases with ordinary methods of flowing that the reserves of oil available by flowing and pumping wells | and pumping which have been hitherto employed. from present production and proven fields amount to about Dr. David White, of the U.S. Geological Survey, commenting 4,500,000,000 barrels.” The board points out that there is a wide | on the Stebinger estimates pointed out that oil indications are Estimate of Coal Reserves of the World.

Tons of 2,000 lb.

Actual reserve Millions of tons Class of coal

B and C NORTE AND CENTRAL AMERICA United States

Honduras

Panama .

Se

D

as

Canada .

A

Be

30,905 a

kw

Probable reserve Millions of tons Class of coal

424,354 ka

B and C

D

21,380

2,155,592

2,054,104

300

350

1,034 2

ot

2755743I

621,1324

4,231,076

1,354,5125 650

Total estimate for North and Central

eres

coh

SOUTE AMERICA Colombia . Venezuela Peru y Argentina Chile . =

ee

30,905

424,354

23,314 | B2,431,686 | 2,675,240

. p «=

i

a «

«

6 2,295

4

Total estimate for South America EUROPE United Kingdom Germany Poland

B

a

. ‘

y

2,301

-

143,471 sg

n ee

772

20,762 6 1,476 B 1,065

29,762 6 2,248 6 3,360

32,309

35:382

|B

35,017 i

B

m 9,645 fe

182,308 163,415 75,871 61,3512 26,999 20,4 12,125 9,045 6,204 4,905 2,IQI 1887

B

C

772 14

a

5,586,243

Ukraine... Czechoslovakia

France . . . . . Belgium. Norway including Spitzbergen .

Spain. Yugoslavia Russia . Netherlands Rumania

a.

oe

S

. .

:

Hungary.

À

Austria . Bulgaria . Ital

Snede

C

Denmark Greece .

GMs . .

ye.” .

s

Total estimate for Europe .

.

.

ASIA Korea China

Japan

si 117

B

;

, .

.

te 3

te Di

I 10,784

987

34 417 se T 244

B C

Siberia Indo-China India Persia

Total estimate for Asia

pi

12,467

AFRICA Belgian Congo

6

pi

74

a

Netherlands India

Philippines

Total estimate for Oceania . . Total estimate for world.

63 75

248

328

439,537

a

B C

B

$ C

=

12,853 378

Total estimate for Africa

British North Borneo .

428 pi

126 55 44

i C

2,173

29

400

6

44

170

o aS

ios

n

o9

4

89 1,007,446

246 560 72,790 a 83,972 2,048

: 118,878 Ha 2,620

Ss 1,332 191,669 22,04% 87,084 2,048

825,397

122,967

1,410,504

o

6,872

99

784

i

: ae ae

i

49:097

2

992

8,785

st

. 7,632

61,959 70,761

56366 tana a 42,536

se

Hi

F

166

2,053 ;

3373 a

.

a

ae

one

143,608

617

241

675

24 661

14 658,895

36 417,314

I 22,048 pi

3

De

:

X

9 55 33

South Africa .

New Zealand.

395

II

ei 37

Southern Nigeria . Rhodesia

eran

:

673

a

33

570,195

C

.

Manchuria

B

:

:

si

a

B

6

144146

63

3

PHYSICAL

866

: Estimated Oil Reserves United States and Alaska Canada . . oe, ae o oA Mexico E na a a a A Northern South America, including Peru Southern South America, including BoUva. ofS e e ee. Algeria and Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia. . . . . . . S.E. Russia, S.W. Siberia and the region of the Caucasus . . . . . Rumania, Galicia and western Europe Northern Russia and Saghalien Japan and Formosa . . ... s China . ck oe ge, g India . ; East Indies.

Total.

Total Total Total Total

.

.

Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere north of Equator . south of Equator .

p

5

Mion irae

I*00 "14 65 -82

7,000 995 4,525 5,739

‘SI

3,550

-83

5,820

-83 -16 “13 -18 *20 “14 “43

5,830 1,135 925 1,235 1,375 995 3,015

6°35

43,055

3°03 3°12 5°20 95

RESOURCES

21,255 21,800 36,400 6,655

known in regions not indicated on the Stebinger map although in most such instances the geological conditions seem to preclude reserves of great importance, and that there are in other countries many untested regions in which the geological conditions appear to be favourable for the occurrence of oil fields though surface indications of oil have not yet been reported, possibly due in part to insufficient exploration. It is highly probable, he said, that oil in considerable amounts will eventually be discovered in areas of north-west Canada. Other regions outside of the United States in North America which seem likely to make contributions, possibly of minor importance, include Central America, Santo Domingo and lower California. In South America, important new centres of production seem probable along a very extensive strip of territory bordering the east surface of the Andes, and in addition areas of north-eastern Brazil are possibly oil bearing. Madagascar offers much promise, and conditions favourable for developing oil fields appear to be present not only in Angola and other regions of west Africa but possibly in east Africa also. Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand may yet disclose producing areas of value and it seems reasonable to expect new discoveries of importance in parts of India not on the Stebinger map. Arabia, Palestine, Armenia and Anatolia all offer thoroughly circumstantial indications. Also it seems rather probable that oil will be produced in portions of Spain, Austria and other countries of western Europe. Considerable extension of the known Russian oil areas may be expected, and Siberia, about which geological information is so greatly desired, and which is said to carry indications of oil deposits in Transcaspia, Turkistan, Kamchatka and notably in northern Saghalien, may reasonably be expected to contain oilbearing areas. China has oil indications in at least four of her provinces. It appears probable that oil is present, scattered from Persia and Transcaspia, eastward as far at least as Gobi. There are possibilities of oil in the Philippine Islands. “Evidence as to the probable presence of additional oil reserves in the areas just reviewed,” leads White to conclude “that there are probably 20,000,000,000 barrels of oil available in the world in addition to the 43,000,000,000 barrels contained in the regions covered by Stebinger’s estimates quoted above, or as much, in round numbers as 60,000,000,000 barrels in all.” Petroleum Substitutes——The chief substitutes for petroleum now available is oil obtained by distillation from oil shale and from coal. Though oil shale is now utilized in only a few countries, it is widely distributed throughout the world, and the oil shale resources of the United States are so extensive as to furnish a guarantee for the future. In North America oil shale occurs in both Canada and the United States but is commercially undeveloped. Large areas in the eastern United States and eastern Canada are underlain ‘by dark shales of the Primary or Palaeozoic age that are in many places as rich in organic matter from which oil can be distilled as those mined commercially in Scotland and France.

[METALS

Comparatively little is known about oil shale in South Amer. ica, though it is said to occur in Argentina, at several localities in Brazil, and in Chile. Unprofitable attempts have been made to distill oil from oil shale in eastern Brazil. In Africa thin beds of unmined shale capable of yielding oil when distilled are reported

from Angola, the Belgian Congo, Natal and the Transvaal. Per. haps the largest area of oil shale is in the Belgian Congo. In Europe the commercial development of the oil-shale industry began early in the rgth century, before the rise of the modern petroleum industry. About 9r% of the world’s oil shale output is produced in Scotland, 8% in the Autan and Aumance districts in Estonia and France and the remainder in Australia, Germany

and Italy.

In Scotland the oil-shale industry has been able to

compete successfully with the petroleum industry because of the output of valuable by-products made in connection with the oil

and because of the remoteness of Scotland from the principal sources

of petroleum—southern

Russia

and the United States,

Large deposits of oil shale are reported to occur in northern Russia. Oil shale in Asia is not mentioned in any report that has been seen, but valuable deposits may nevertheless exist there. Formerly oil shale was mined and distilled in Oceania, at

several places in Australia (most of them in New South Wales) and in New Zealand.

But the total shale oil produced in all these

places Las amounted to less than 1% of the world’s output. The U.S. Federal Conservation Board estimates a supply which can be recovered from domestic oil shale, if and when the price warrants its extraction, of 92,000,000,000 bbl., nearly ten times the total quantity of oil that has been produced in the United States from 1859 to 1929. At the present rate of production from wells, this quantity would suffice for roundly 100 years. The estimate is made that the two and one-half trillion tons of bituminous, sub-bituminous and semi-bituminous coal in the United States, within 3,000 ft. of the surface, is capable of yielding about 92,000,000,000 bbl. of motor fuel, more than 300 times the motor fuel production in 1927. It is also estimated that another 12,000,900,000 bbl. of motor fuel may be obtained from the 940,000,000,ooo tons of lignite deposits in this country. This would make available an estimated total quantity of 104,000,000,000 bbl. or 4,264,000,000,000 gal. of fuel for motors in addition to the numerous billion barrels of crude oil from wells and oil shales. (L. M. F.)

METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC GROUPS Under this heading are discussed the most important metallic and non-metallic substances including Iron, Lead and Zinc, Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Manganese, Tin, Tungsten, Vanadium,

Sulphur, Mercury, Silicon and Mica. I. IRON

Broad allowances for incomplete information must be made when considering iron ore resources. While no new immense iron ore fields remain to be discovered in either Europe or North America the remaining four continents are still largely unsurveyed. Of known iron ore reserves 15,000,000,000 tons occur in North America, 12,000,000,000 in Europe and 7,000,000,000 in South America. If it be assumed that the remaining three continents are proportionately as well supplied—and against this assumption there is no geological argument—the conclusion is reached that the world iron ore reserve is a total of 90,000,000,000 tons. The world was in 1929 using annually some 150 million tons of iron ore. This was supplied by many mines, but a few great ore fields were responsible for the bulk of the tonnage. The Lake Superior iron ore region in the United States ships some 60 million tons annually, and the Lorraine field of France and Luxembourg about 40 millions. The fields of Great Britain rank third with around 13 million tons, and the Alabama region of the United States fourth with some 6 millions. After that, ranging from 5 million down to rı million annually, come Spain, Sweden, Manchuria, western France, Newfoundland, Cuba and North Africa. The localization of demand may cause more concern than excessive total consumption, for a few ore fields are being drawn upon in exceptional tonnages while other large fields are practi-

cally unused.

For example, if the present-day drafts continue,

LEAD AND ZINC] |

PHYSICAL

our current estimates of known ore reserves in the different great fields suggest that ore of present day grade will be exhausted in the Lake Superior region within 50 years, in Spain and Great

Britain within the century, and in Lorraine in less than 150 years.

As against this far-off threat, it may be seen that on the basis of present drafts the Alabama fields should last 300 years or more, while the vast reserves of Brazil, Cuba and Newfoundland have not yet been drawn upon seriously. It is safe to say that the United States can retain its present leadership in iron and steel manufacture for several decades more.

It is probable, however,

that soon the old primacy of Great Britain and the present American leadership will, in these heavy manufacturing lines, be challenged by a new European competition based on the Lorraine and Norman ore fields, and upon west European coals and cokes. With regard to the four continents which are less well known and less developed industrially, existing knowledge of relative ore and fuel supplies permits certain deductions of considerable validity. It may be safely assumed, for example, that the known coal supplies of Asia, particularly in China and India, will justify and encourage a large iron and steel industry as local consumption increases; and that under certain conditions the excess product may be exported so as to become a serious factor in European and North American trade and industry. With regard to South America, Africa and Australia, present knowledge of raw material resources suggests that while Australia may. easily become selfsupporting in the way of steel and iron products, the other two are likely to become important as exporters of iron ore to coalrich areas, but not as serious producers of iron and its products. Older conclusions as to iron ore exhaustion have been modified seriously by the fact that, within the past two decades, their bases of deduction have been strikingly changed. For 150 years the world iron industry had increased at the rate of 50% each decade; and most earlier estimates prolonged this past rate of increase into the indefinite future. Now, for the first time in the history of modern industrialism, there has been experienced a period of 15 years in which the world iron industry has not progressed; and there is no reason to assume that, whenever this dead point is finally passed over, the old rate of increase will be resumed. It is indeed far more likely that in the future the iron industry of the world will increase at a far slower rate, possibly not above that of the rate of increase of world population. If so the known ore reserves will last for very many generations. (E. C. E.)

RESOURCES

867

great lead-producing districts of the past were exploited for lead alone, such as Eureka, Nev., and Leadville, Colo., and exhausted. Lead-producing districts have waxed and waned more generally and more rapidly than either copper or zinc. Because of this and the failure to make any new important discoveries since 1900,

together with the greatly increased demand for lead, experts have taken a pessimistic view and predict a steadily rising price in order to develop poorer ores and remoter mines. About 1925 the new process of selective flotation enabled the profitable mining of large supplies of previously unworkable zinc-lead ores. Lead and zinc production became increasingly interlocked. In 1929 the mines that produce straight lead or zinc ore are few. What will be said hereinafter under “zinc” will therefore apply equally to lead. Zinc.—The world's greatest resources of zinc ore, mentioned substantially in the chronological order of their exploitation, have heretofore been the mines of Upper Silesia; Franklin, N.J.; the Tri-State district of Missouri, Kansas and Oklahoma; Iglesias in Sardinia; Broken Hill in New South Wales; Butte, Mont.; Kimberley in British Columbia; and Bingham and Park City, Utah. In 1926 these districts produced about 70% of the world’s total of 1,250,000 tons of spelter. The remainder was mined in Bolivia, Algeria, Burma, China, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Indo-China, Japan, Mexico, Peru, Spain, Scandinavia, Tunis and the United States. Some great mining districts have lived and died, the most noteworthy of these having been Vieille Montagne (now of Belgium) and Leadville, Colo., but many new districts are being exploited. A maintenance of the output of the present large producing districts—Broken Hill, Franklin and Kimberley—at the current rate for another 20 years at least may reasonably be forecast. Upper Silesia, Tri-State, Iglesias and Butte can not be expected so to do, except as to the Blei Scharley mine in Upper Silesia, and the Orphan Girl at Butte.

On the other hand new sources of production are being developed as the results of exploration of new territory, the extension of transportation and improvement of metallurgic processes, which not only make it possible to use profitably ores that formerly were considered refractory but also to give an increased yield from all ores. Among the new districts that are making or are promising a yield are Flin Flon, Sudbury, Buchan (N.F.), Broken Hill (N. Rhod.), Roseberry (Tas.), Mount Isa, Cerro de Pasco (Peru). By 1932 most of these will be producing. A general upward trend of price was expected in 1925 as a consequence of the increasing scarcity of zinc ore, but the advent of selective flotation changed I. LEAD AND ZINC that outlook almost immediately. Portions of the world, as yet Lead.—No quantitative estimate of the copper, lead and zinc unexplored scientifically, may have great zinc ore possibilities resources of the world has been made and it is doubtful whether as, northern Canada, wherein important deposits are now being a reasonable approximation can be made. Looking backward opened; Labrador, Newfoundland, the Andes; Siberia, where there through 50 years there have been periods when it was thought that are some great known deposits; Africa, especially in the north and the supply of these ores was superabundant and other periods in the Congo region and in Rhodesia; the interior of Australia, when they have seemed to be scarce and opinion has swung from and in New Guinea. one extreme to another. Especially has this been true in the inThe production of ores up to the present time has been from stance of zinc. However, as to each of these metals, new dis- deposits whereof there have been surface indications. Much of the coveries, both geographical añd technological, may develop world’s surface is covered by alluvial material which probably valuable resources out of what was previously unknown or worth- hides mineral deposits. We are on the eve of advances in geoless. The only conditions under which the world’s resources of physical science and methods that are opening the way to the minerals can be reasonably forecast are when we may say that discovery of such hidden deposits. On the side of requirements, at least we have so much, as in the instances of coal and iron. the need for all of these metals steadily increases. Immediately Between these extremes it is always a matter of the equilibrium previous to the World War the annual per caput consumption of among production, consumption and price. So far as we can see the United States was about 8 Ib. of copper, 9 of lead and 6-5 of ahead we shall have a sufficient supply of these metals, but we can zinc. In the principal countries of Europe the average was a little not see clearly what price we shall have to pay for them, even less, especially of copper. In 1929 the American per caput consumption was about 15 Ib. of copper, 12 of lead and 10 of zinc. through the next ro years. The production of lead comes principally from the fol- European consumption was, however, still below the pre-war rate. lowing districts, their percentages being given. South-eastern A continuing increase may be expected in America, and in Europe Missouri, 11-7; Utah, 8-6; Coeur d’Alene (Idaho), 7-5; Tri-State, a regaining of pre-war rate and then advances. These prospects as covering the contiguous parts of Oklahoma, Kansas and Missouri, to requirements follow from the intimate association of copper 5-9; Mexico, 12-6; Spain, 9-2; Broken Hill, N.S.W., 9-5; Sullivan and lead with electrification and with storage batteries. For lead mine, Kimberley, B.C., 7-5; Bawdwin mine, Burma, 3-5. These there is no general substitute, although aluminium is employed places account for about 76% of the world’s production. Except occasionally for electrical transmission. Though hardly to be in south-eastern Missouri, the mines produce a mixed ore which is rated with copper and lead, zinc is used to an important extent in milled so as to give an enriched galena product for the lead brass, and in paints it replaces lead when the latter becomes (X.) smelter and a blende product for the zinc smelter. Many of the scarce.

868

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES a

IIL COPPER The recent history of the copper industry is closely related to the tremendous development of the electrical industries in the past 30 years. In 1929 nearly 70% of the total annual output of the metal was consumed by those industries. World production for the ten years ending Dec. 31, 1900, was 4,158,513 tons; for the ten years ending Dec. 31, 1927, approximately 13,157,500 tons. In the earlier period the United States furnished 52-3% and in the later 53-90%. South America’s proportion rose from 8-4% to 16-2% and Africa’s from about 2% to about 54%. The total recorded output of the world since 1800 has been about 39,600,000 tons, one-half of which has been supplied by the mines of the United States. Indications are that South America, Africa and Canada will increase their proportion in the next ten years. Prior to the exploitation of the large bodies of the “porphyry” or low grade copper ore, it was not customary for the copper producing companies to publish statements of reserves of ore in the ground. The porphyry companies report reserves because in general the exploration of such deposits can be done very cheaply by drilling many years in advance of mining operations. The so-called “deer level” or “vein”? mines still adhere to the practice of not publishing reserves because of the large amounts of money required to explore such deposits much in advance of actual mining, and the probability that if such a policy were pursued, the work would largely have to be done over again when mining operations overtook exploration. The general practice of these companies is to keep exploration four or five years ahead of mining, gauging against past performances the amount to be done by the relative rate of discovery per foot of development. Published estimates of reserves in porphyry mines have included only such material as could be treated profitably at the time of the estimate. Lower cost per ton of ore, increased recovery of metal per ton of ore and higher price of metal all tend to lower the minimum grade of ore that can be treated profitably. Several important companies are now making money by the extraction of ores which do not contain over rs Ib. of the metal to the ton, while 25 years ago the minimum grade which could be profitably handled was more than double this amount. The Rio Tinto district in Spain has been producing copper since the days of Caesar and in 1924 had an output in the neighbourhood of 70,000,000 pounds. ‘The last official statement of ore reserves by the principal company in this district was made in 1905, at which time the reserves were estimated at 60 years’ supply. Since then, highly important discoveries have been made. The Mansfeld Copper Company mines in Germany have been exploited for several centuries and are now producing between 30,000,000 and 40,000,000 lb. annually. The first recorded pro-

duction from this district was about A.D. 1200. Attention has been

recently attracted to developments in Chile and Peru. One hundred years ago Chile was one of the chief copper producers of the world, and the copper deposits of Peru with associated high-grade silver ores were known to Pizarro. With cheaper sources of supply in the United States, importance waned in these deposits, only to be revived in the present century with the recognition of the availability of large deposits of copper ore containing 40 to ṣọ Ib. per ton, which could be profitably exploited on a large scale. The latest official estimate of the reserves of the Chile Copper Company shows about 700,000,000 tons of 2-12% copper, from which about 24,000,000,000 lb. of the metal are recoverable by present known methods. This is equal to roo years’ life at the present rate of output—with, possibilities of additional hundreds of millions, if not billions of tons, which may become available, if costs can be reduced to the present level of those of the Utah Copper Company now operating profitably on 1% ore. This ore body, together with certain others, constitutes a very large reserve of copper. These occurrences do not include all the deposits of copper amenable to even the present methods of exploitation, to say nothing of the known deposits certain to be developed through future economies. Similar considerations apply to the still more recent developments in Africa, where one company already estimates its reserves at approximately 85,000,000 tons of ore averaging 6-87% copper. The existence of ore of this

[COPPER

grade in this area is the best evidence of the presence of greater amounts

of copper contained in ore carrying only 2% or lesg

which, upon the development of adequate transportation and labour supply, will eventually become commercially available. To summarize the situation as to the world reserves of copper in the so-called “porphyry” deposits, which, although known, were unavailable at the beginning of this century, these deposits are

now supplying one-half the world’s needs and have resources suffcient to last 50 years at the present rate of production with present methods.

The “vein” mines in the United States have in the past

supplied over 65% of the output and may long maintain this proportion. At least we might estimate that their present resources are as great as those of the porphyry group. The American Bureay of Metal Statistics has published consumption figures showing

clearly the relatively slow recovery of the European industry since the World War compared to the marked progress in the United States. At the same time the figures point definitely to an increas.

ing European demand for the metal. Great Britain, France and Germany have an aggregate population of 150,000,000 people. If their per caput requirements eventually reach the present level of those in the United States (15-54 for 1926) they will require

an additional one and one-quarter billion pounds of the metal per annum. On the other hand, the existing facilities for production, plus those in process of development and projected, are sufficient

to meet these requirements within the next ten years if they are needed. There is nothing to indicate any present failure of the supply of copper. Copper is practically indestructible and as the total supply of metal above ground increases, the amount of second-hand metal or scrap available for consumption increases and the need for virgin copper from the ground decreases. (A. Nor.) IV, ALUMINIUM The aluminium content of the earth appears to be concentrated

near the earth’s surface.

F. W. Clarke and H. S. Washington

estimate that the earth as a whole contains only 1-79% of aluminium, but that the outer crust, to a depth of ro m., contains 805%. This is equivalent to an aluminium oxide content of 15 to 16%. The ores of aluminium are employed for the production of aluminium, alumina, aluminous abrasives, cement, aluminium chloride, alum, etc, From economic considerations those ores are employed which yield the maximum number of units of alumina per unit of cost. For this reason the pre-eminent ore is bauxite,

which contains 50 to 60% of alumina.

The bulk of the world’s

aluminium is produced from alumina extracted from bauxite by digestion with caustic soda—the well known Bayer process. In 1929 about four tons of bauxite would produce a ton of aluminium. Bauxite of commercial grade is available in extensive deposits in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Africa, but the bulk of the production comes from the first three of these continents. E. C. Eckel, upon the assumption that the available bauxite per square mile of area is the same in other continents as in Europe, has estimated the world’s bauxite reserves as about 2,500 millions of tons. In 1928 the world’s consumption of bauxite was only about 1,500,000 tons. Allowing for substantial annual increases in consumption, therefore, the world’s supply will last a long time. The aluminium industry was in 1928 using the purest bauxite, particularly with respect to silica, and much of the world’s supply of bauxite is less desirable for the Bayer process. However, there are other processes being developed which can handle lower grades. Among these are the electric furnace process of C. M. Hall as recently developed by Aluminum Company of America, as well

as the processes of Pedersen and Haglund.

Other ores of alumin-

lum, particularly certain of the silicates, are proving susceptible

to treatment by processes now under development, so that when they become economically important they can be utilized. This will still further extend the available supplies of aluminium ores. The consumption index of aluminium is increasing more rapidly than some of the older, commonly used metals. Up to 1929 aluminium has competed principally with copper.and other non-ferrous metals on a price per volume basis. With the greater realization, however, of the economic value of the lightness and strength of aluminium and the development of strong, light alloys, aluminium

PHYSICAL

NICKEL]

competition with steel will increase in the future.

This will be

accompanied by improved production and fabrication methods. Uses of the compounds of aluminium, as in the abrasive, cement and chemical industries should expand rapidly. For all these demands, the supply of aluminium appears ample for hundreds of years. (J. D. E.) :

V. NICKEL

While nickel is one of the elements of most common occurrence in the earth’s crust, the commercially important ore deposits are confined to two localities, Canada and New Caledonia. Of these Canada is by far the more important, producing (1929) approx-

imately 90% of the world’s nickel. While there are numerous other known nickel deposits, it is improbable that this percentage will be much affected for many years. The ore deposits are of two kinds: sulphide deposits, where the nickel occurs in conjunction with copper and sulphur; and silicate deposits, where the ore occurs as nickel silicate (generally as a double silicate of nickel and

magnesium). The Canadian deposits are typical of the first type, those of New Caledonia of the second type. The known Canadian nickel deposits are located in Sudbury district, Ont., within an area 40 m. long by 30 m. wide. While some 35 deposits of varying size and richness have been located since the original discovery in 1883, only a few of these mines are worked. Thus in 1929 The International Nickel Company was operating only the Creighton mine, and was at work developing the Frood mine for future production. The Mond Nickel Company was developing the Frood extension and operating the Garson and Levack mines. On the basis of diamond drilling and other exploratory work it is estimated that there is proven ore in sight of approximately 175,000,000 tons, containing between three and four million tons of nickel. With a world consumption of approximately 40,000 tons of nickel per annum, this is equivalent to too years of proven ore.

The New Caledonia deposits, originally discovered in 186s, rapidly assumed primary importance, and from 1875 to 1880 were the chief producers of the world’s nickel. In rg05 the New Caledonia deposits were surpassed in production by the Canadian mines, which since that time have maintained their pre-eminence. The peak of New Caledonia production was reached in rgrr. It is now a steady producer of about 10% of the world supply. Owing to the character of the New Caledonia deposits it is impossible to give any figures on ore resources, or potential production. It is known that there is still a large amount of ore on the island,

and it is believed that New Caledonia will continue to produce nickel for many years.

Besides these two localities deposits of

nickel ore are known to exist at a number of places. In general these conform in type to one of the two classes mentioned above, but the size and character of the deposits render them noncommercial under present economic conditions. The best known of these are deposits of the sulphide type ores, in Norway, Finland, Sweden, Germany and South Africa, and the silicate type ores in Madagascar, Germany and Greece. Nickel ores in the United States are comparatively unimportant. (J. F. Tu.) VI. MANGANESE

World resources of manganese may be divided into two classes: manganese ore containing more than 35% manganese; and manganiferous ores containing less than 35% manganese. In countries where manganese ore production is large and consumption small the second class is of small interest, whereas if the opposite

RESOURCES

869

casus). This has been estimated to contain from 40,000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. The Nikopol deposit in south-eastern Russia has been estimated to contain upwards of 10,000,000 tons. The deposits in India are numerous and it has been estimated that an annual production of 600,000 tons could be maintained for at least 40 years. The main deposits are in the Central Provinces. The Gold Coast resources are estimated at 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 tons and the Brazilian resources at 15,000,000 tons. Large deposits of high-grade ore are also known to exist in Dutch East Indies, Chile, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Spain and Bechuanaland Protectorate of South Africa. The reserves of manganese ore in the United States of America are estimated at about 1,500,000 tons. Of manganiferous ores there are some 40,000,000 tons. The world’s present demands have been estimated at 2.500.000 tons. (C. H. He.) VIL TIN

Tin resources of the world are generally—and probably correctly—considered to be smaller than those of any of the other major industrial metals and nearer exhaustion. Necessarily in making this statement price is a factor to be considered. If the market price soars, deposits of progressively lower grade will become profitable. Likewise, economies to be effected in mining, and higher recoveries resulting from improved methods of ore dressing and smelting will tend to expand the resources of the world. Still another factor is the possibility of discovering new fields of substantial importance, the most likely area being interior Africa, with French Indo-China, Siam and China offering excellent opportunity. In 1926 some authorities forecast a fairly uniform rate of production for ten years to be followed by a gradual decline, because of the exhaustion of the producing fields. To-day even the more apprehensive foresee supplies to assure any reasonable demand for a substantially longer period.

For a number of years the Federated Malay States have contributed about one-third of the world’s output of about 150,000 tons almost entirely from placer operations. In 1928 as a consequence of the putting into operation a large number of new modern dredges the percentage was increased to about 40, the world total at the same time passing 170,000 tons. Still further increases in the Malay States are to be expected, and with the introduction of bigger and better dredges, the reserves of exploitable grade are steadily éxpanding. Bolivia was the next largest producer in 1928 with 25% of the world’s total compared with about 229 in recent years. Production comes from lode mimes mostly in one district. The largest individual producer is planning a substantial expansion in production. Placers are being developed that may augment the output. Improvements in ore dressing and metallurgy are likely to make practicable the winning of lower grade lode ores, of which there are good supplies. The Dutch East Indies, third largest contributor, account for about a quarter of the world’s supply. The mines are placers and, being controlled by the Government, no expansion in output took place in 1928. Nigeria, Siam and China, each with about 5% of the world’s total output, have fields possessing possibilities of expansion and a reasonably long life. (A. B. P.) VIN. TUNGSTEN

The metal tungsten has played a very important part within the last quarter of a century in the progress of the electrical and mechanical arts. Recent developments indicate that its importance

will be still greater in the coming years. It is a chief comconditions prevail manganiferous ores may be of considerable ponent of tool steels and enters into the manufacture of heatimportance. In modern steel-making practice the trend is toward resisting and non-corrosive steels. Recently tools have been ina greater use of high manganese pig iron (see MANGANESE STEEL) vented consisting of pure tungsten carbide imbedded in a metallic and manganiferous ores are extensively used in blast furnaces. matrix which promise to revolutionize the art of cutting and shapThis practice is particularly useful where the production of ferro- ing not only metals but also such unworkable materials as porcemanganese grade ores is small, as the high manganese in the pig lain, glass, bakelite, etc. In 1929 tungsten formed the light filairon results in a higher manganese content of the steel during ments, contact points and X-ray targets of the electrical industry refining and thus in a saving of expensive ferro-manganese. The besides entering as a component into magnet steels. With the use of high-manganese iron is common in Germany and is becom- rapid strides made in radio and television its expansion into the 5 electric industry may grow to huge proportions. ing so in the United States. Nature has fortunately provided a very wide-spread mineralogiThe largest resources of manganese ore are in Russia, India, Brazil and the Gold Coast of Africa. The largest developed de- cal occurrence of tungsten, both in the primary and secondary posit is the Tchiaturi deposit in the Republic of Georgia (Cau- formations of the earth. The primary deposits are invariably

PHYSICAL

870

RESOURCES

associated with granitoid rocks and are most important. The secondary deposits form the lesser resources of tungsten minerals. Oceania and the Continents of Asia, Australia, North and South America, Europe and Africa have all, one time or another, been commercial producers of tungsten minerals. Tungsten has been a comparatively cheap metal and it has been the endeavour of producers to obtain their ore supplies as cheap as possible. The supremacy of tungsten production has floated from country to country as the surface ore was exhausted and more expensive deeper mining made necessary. Burma and the Federated Malay States held the bulk of the tungsten market until the World War. Then North and South America began to produce ores. China in 1917 produced only about 5% of the total output of the world, whereas in 1927 it produced over 68%. From indications in 1929 the United States bid fair to become a large factor in tungsten mining, as they are the largest consumer. Owing to its great importance in warfare it is the endeavour of the principal Governments of the world to keep their indigenous tungsten resources under development in spite of the lower cost of foreign minerals. The important commercial minerals of tungsten fall under two main groups, the first group being tungstates of the metals iron and manganese, and the second group being the tungstate of calcium. The pure iron tungstate mineral is known as ferberite, and the manganese tungstate as hubnerite. The mixed iron manganese tungstates are called wolframite. The only important mineral in the second group is the calcium tungstate, known as scheelite. Until recently scheelite was the more coveted mineral for metallurgical purposes owing to its greater purity, but progress in smelting and reduction practice has offset this advantage. IX. VANADIUM

The tremendous advances made within the last few years in the transportation industry, be it railroad, automobile or aeroplane, have very markedly brought forth the importance of the metal vanadium. It is always used in the metallurgical industry as an alloy. It is added to metals in very small quantities, yet produces in the finished metal very marked changes in physical properties. The present day mass production in the automotive industry or the developments in the aeroplane motor would not have been possible had it not been for the development of vanadium metallurgy. Vanadium has also played an important part in armaments.

Vanadium is one of the most widely distributed elements in the earth’s crust, being present in almost all igneous rocks. However, occurrences of the metal in concentrated mineral deposits are scarce. The one dominating occurrence of vanadium is at Minas Ragra in Peru, South America, being the source of 85% to 90% of the total vanadium produced in the world. The other workable deposits of vanadium have up to now also been confined to the Western Hemisphere, in Mexico and the western parts of the United States, especially the States of Colorado and Utah. Very recently, however, deposits containing vanadium have been developed on the African continent, in Rhodesia and in the territory formerly known as German South-west Africa and now under British mandate. There are other less important occurrences of vanadium known on the European continent, in the iron ores of Sweden and Norway, and also in those of Luxembourg. However, these have no commercial significance. The mineral found in the most important deposit in Peru is patronite, a vanadium sulphide. In Colorado and Utah the occurring minerals are roscoelite, a vanadium silicate, and carnotite, a radium-bearing uranium vanadate. The ores of Mexico and Africa are descloizite and mottramite, complex vanadates of lead, zinc and copper. The already known resources of vanadium minerals in the world fully assure an adequate supply for approximately the next 35 years. At the same time considerable effort is directed towards

finding new deposits or further exploiting the known ones. The consumption of vanadium is augmenting yearly. Vanadium is an essential constituent of high-speed tool steel, the demand for which

has increased tremendously with the expansion of mechanical

production. It is also used in heat-resisting and non-corrosive steels. Very recently developments in the chemical industry will

[VARIOUS METALS

tend to make large demands on vanadium resources. Vanadium js beginning to be used in the textile, varnish, linoleum and rubber industries, and a particularly important application seems to be the use of its oxide as a catalyzer in the manufacture of sulphuric acid replacing platinum. Vanadium may also be applied in the

agricultural and pharmaceutical industries.

Marked strides have

been made in the metallurgical treatment of vanadium minerals so that materials previously considered low grade or useless have been made available to the industry, thus augmenting the sources

of raw materials and thus adding to vanadium reserves. (B. D. S.) X. SULPHUR

Native sulphur, or brimstone, occurs in many places throughout the world, generally either in beds of gypsum, limestone and associated rocks or in the vicinity of active and extinct volcanoes.

The principal extensive deposits are found along the Gulf coastal plain of the United States, in two places in Sicily, at several points on the mainland of Italy, in Japan, Spain, Austria, in the Aleu-

tian islands, Alaska, in the Chilean Andes, South America, in China, India, Russia and in several of the South Sea islands. Until 1905, Sicily controlled the sulphur industry, approximately 85% of the total world’s supply being produced in Sicily and Italy. It was discovered many years ago when drilling for oil that sulphur existed in large quantities in the saline dome formations of the Gulf coastal plain of the U.S. No successful method was devised for winning this sulphur until the development of the Frasch process about 1900. (See SULPHUR.) With sulphur obtained at low cost by this process, the deposits of Louisiana and Texas became the principal sources for the world, the Sicilian production taking second place. Since 1923 about 85% of the world’s supply has been from the Texas field, 12% from Sicily and 3% from Japan, Spain and other countries. It is estimated that the Texas known reserves are at least 50,000,000 tons. That more discoveries will be made is almost assured. The world’s consumption of native sulphur since 1923 has averaged yearly about 2,300,000 metric tons. No recent data have been published regarding the reserves in Sicily. It is therefore to be seen that the supply will apparently be adequate for many years. Other deposits in the United States are of considerable extent, but are not of present day commercial value. Pyrite ores, gypsum and waste smelter gases may be considered sources

of sulphur, competing with native sulphur. The chief use for native sulphur is to burn it to sulphur dioxide gas for the manufacture of sulphuric acid or for the production of sulphite liquors for paper pulp manufacture. For certain chemical purposes, especially for the production of agricultural insecticide sprays, and in the manufacture of rubber and sulphuretted prod-

ucts, native sulphur has a distinct field of use.

(A. E. W.)

AI. MERCURY

Although free mercury is found in the form of amalgams, and approximately 25 ores containing mercury are known, cinnabar is the only ore found in sufficient quantity to be of commercial importance. It is rarely found in a high degree of purity, but is always mixed with large quantities of rock. Italy and Spain (1929) furnish over 80% of the world’s mercury. Nearly all of Italy’s production comes from the Idria and Monte Amiata districts. In Idria, the ore is rapidly approaching exhaustion, but in Monte Amiata the quantity of reserves now under development is estimated at 20,000 metric tons, indicating a life of ten years at the 1929 rate of production, and is supplemented by large undeveloped areas in the same region, which insure a supply for 2 much longer time. In the Almaden district, which furnishes the bulk of the Spanish supply, the reserve is estimated at 40,000 metric tons or more, assuring a supply for 25 years. The United States holds third place in production, but the richest fields are fully or nearly exhausted, and a thorough survey has revealed no

important possibilities. Production in Czechoslovakia and Russia has increased, each reaching 2% of the total. Mexico supplies about 1% of the total, and the rest of the world less than 1%. Production in the principal fields of Italy and Spain is regulated by agreement. The principal uses for mercury are: (1)

PHYSICAL

SILICON AND MICA]

RESOURCES

drugs and chemicals; (2) fulminates in explosives; (3) pigments for paints, including marine anti-fouling points; (4) electrical apparatus,

including

radio

supplies;

(5)

treatment

of

felt for hats; (6) mercury vapour engines. In the mirror industry, the use of mercury has been almost entirely replaced by deposition of silver, and the amalgamation process for the extraction of gold and silver, once important, has been largely supplanted by the

cyanide and flotation processes. engines is increasing.

The use of mercury vapour (F. F. R.)

XIL SILICON

While the element silicon does not occur free in nature, its

$71

The micas of economic importance are of two varieties: muscotite, found in many localities; and phlogopite found in Madagascar and Canada. India, the United States, Canada and Madagascar produce over 90% of the world’s mica. In none of these countries is there any immediate indication of exhaustion of the deposits. Production at the 1928 level may be maintained for an indefinite period. Continued search for new deposits may be depended upon to add to known resources. Mica of good quality is produced in minor quantities in Central and South America, Africa, Australia and Siberia. (W. M. My.)

compounds make up approximately 88% of the earth’s crust. Silicon is found in the form of silicon dioxide, either as quartz or as silicates, generally in combination with alumina (clay, shale,

PRECIOUS METALS GROUP This classification includes the Platinum group of metals (Platinum, Palladium, Iridium and others) and Gold and Silver.

feldspar, etc.). Industrially useful and commercially important,

PLATINUM METALS Prior to the World War 95% of the world’s supply of platinum metals came from placer mines in the Ural mountains, Russia. The platinum-producing placers of the San Juan river in the Choco district of Colombia, South America, became the largest source of supply during the World War and have continued important. Nickel-copper ores became an important source of platinum metals when electrolytic refining was started on a large scale in 1907 by the International Nickel Company and the Mond Nickel Company, both of which operated mines in the Sudbury district of Ontario, Canada. The platinum metals have been produced in various provinces of Australia, and Tasmania was for many years the largest producer of osmiridium. In 1921 Osmiridium was first recovered as a by-product from the treatment of gold ore and tailings in South Africa, still the only reliable source. Various other countries have yielded small quantities of the platinum metals, but are not important sources of supply. In 1925 a discovery of platinum group metals was made in certain

silicious

resources

are

consequently

generally

available

in all

countries. Of primary importance are hydrous aluminium silicates, broadly termed clays, varying in purity of chemical composition and in physical properties from kaolin, which approaches the pure aluminium silicate, kaolinite, to the shales which contain enough kaolinite to render them workable in ceramic processes. The uses which clays find in industry may be summarized as follows: kaolins (white burning clays of high purity) for making paper, porcelain and chinaware, electrical porcelain, wall tile and rubber; fire clays (high fusing clays generally with some free silica and I or 2% of iron, lime and alkalies) for fire-brick and other metallurgical refractories, glass-house refractories, gas retorts and retorts for zinc smelting and in general for use to withstand high temperatures, sewer pipes, chimney tiles, clay and graphite crucibles and in the manufacture of aluminium sulphate: common clays and skales (miscellaneous rocks which become plastic on grinding in water) for common brick, sewer pipes, building tiles, portland cement, electrical conduit tiles, chemical stoneware. . Silica (silicon dioxide) occurs chiefly as quartz, in the form of sand, sandstone, quartzite rock, vein quartz and rock crystal and also as infusorial earth. Quartz sand and crushed quartzite rocks find uses in abrasives, glass, glazes and enamels, silica refractories, electric furnace products (silicon carbide and many metalsilicon alloys), porcelains, sand lime brick and other ceramic products. Vein quartz or rock crystal is necessary for the production of transparent fused silica, but the translucent material may be made from quartz sand. Rock crystal in large sizes is important asa gem. Gannister, a form of quartzite, is employed in manufacturing silica refractories. Jnfusorial earth, or diatomaceous earth, is employed for thermal insulation and for filtering and clarifying in chemical manufacture, and “fullers’ earth” which is

properly a “clay,” is similarly used for bleaching and clarifying oils and fats. Among the useful silicate minerals is feldspar, of primary importance in porcelain, whiteware and other ceramic products, glazes, enamels and glass. The minerals sillimanite, andalusite and kyanite are important raw materials for electrical insulators and also for greatly improved metallurgical refractories. Asbestos, a hydrous magnesium silicate (chrysotile) is woven into fire-resisting fabrics and for brake linings, and the shorter fibres are used in shingles and roofing sheets, coverings for the insulation of steam pipes and for parts of electrical equipment. Talc and mica are also important. (E. W. T.) SIT. MICA

The commercial importance of mica is due to its highly developed cleavage, which permits the manufacture

of dimensioned

parts with great accuracy; its transparency; flexibility; stability at high temperatures; and insulating qualities. No satisfactory substitute is known nor has any medium developed which can replace mica in modern electrical equipment. Mica is an essential constituent in the ignition system of the internal combustion motor and therefore of great importance in the automobile and aeroplane industries. The rapid development of wireless communication has also been dependent upon abundant supply of high grade mica. Mica production is restricted to the ancient, stable, land masses such as the peninsula of India, central and southern Africa, Madagascar, the Appalachian area in North America and the eastern areas in South America.

basic igneous rocks in the Rand district of South Africa. Development of these deposits over the last two years has demonstrated the importance of this field. A small production of the metal was made during experimental work on the complex metallurgical problem, which must yet be satisfactorily solved if these relatively low-grade platinum metals-bearing copper-nickel ores are to compete successfully with the placer fields of Russia and Colombia. Remelted or refined scrap platinum metals form a very important part of the yearly supply of the noble metals; the total recovered in 1927 in the United States alone was 53,072 troy ounces. Africa.—So long as the mines of the Transyaal continue their system of treating the “banket” gold ores on corduroy or similar tables, there should continue to be produced at least 5,000 oz. of osmiridium a year. In 1924, there was discovered in the Transvaal what appears to be one of the largest and most important sources of platinum metals in the world. The deposits are in lodes and pipe form. The development so far accomplished has shown very large reserves of ore carrying 4 to 6 dwt. of platinum metals aton. The metallurgy is complex and, up to 1928, had not been satisfactorily solved. There is an immense reserve of

platinum metals in the South African deposits, which will eventually be available for consumption. It is reported that platinum has been discovered in alluvial deposits covering an area of at

least 40 sq.m. in Sierra Leone, north of the Gulf of Guinea. Australasia.—Platinum occurs with gold, tin and monazite in beach sands on the north-eastern coast of New South Wales, at the mouths of Clarence and Richmond rivers. Apparently the production from this source has been small. Platinum has also been found in some masses of ironstone at Darling creek and Mulga springs, near Broken Hill. Most of the platmum produced

in New South Wales has come from alluvial washings at Fifeld and Platina. Of late years the production from this district has been greatly diminished. Some quantities of platinum are known to occur with tin, monazite and gold in the beach sands at the south-eastern border of Queensland. So far as can be learned, little platinum has been saved from these deposits. There are osmiridjum fields, 20 m. west of Waratah, Tasmania, on Nineteen Mile creek, a tributary of Savage river. The Adams River field in westcentral Tasmania was discovered in 1925, but was largely worked out by 1927. Papua, the south-eastern part of New Guinea, has

872

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

produced a little osmiridium from placer deposits in the Waria, Gira and Arkora rivers on the south side of the Stanley range. Japan.—Osmiridium and platinum associated with magnetite, chromite and cinnabar occur in the placers of Yubari-gawa, Pechan and Usotannai rivers, in the central and northern parts of Hokushu island. A small yearly production has been made. Europe.—About 95% of the platinum in the world has come from five districts on the European and on the Asiatic side of the Ural mountains of Russia. The platinum is washed from creek and river gravels from localities eroded from masses of peridotite and pyroxenite. To a considerable extent the production is still obtained from small hand-workings, but recently large electric dredges have been installed, which are able to handle poorer grades of materials. The average yield is said to be about 0-07 oz. of platinum per metric ton of gravel. Professor Lipovsky estimates that there are reserves of 7,000,000 oz. of platinum in Russia,

North America.—Several creeks, including Dime creek on Seward peninsula, and some tributaries of Copper river in southcentral Alaska, have yielded a little placer platinum, but cannot be considered as sources of regular supplies. The chief source of platinum metals in Canada is in the nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury district of Ontario. These deposits are extremely large, are in strong hands and should continue as regular producers of platinum metals for many years to come. The Tulameen river in southern British Columbia has been the source of a small yearly

production of crude placer platinum. Most of the gravels have been worked several times and the district holds little promise for the future. In the United States the principal production of crude platinum has come as a by-product of gold dredging on the

east side of the Sacramento and San Joaquin river valleys in California, though a minor quantity of metal has been saved on Cottonwood creek, in Shasta county, Hayfork creek, in Trinity county, Calif., the Illinois river, in Josephine county, Ore., and from the beach sands at various places from Eureka, Calif., north

to the mouth of the Columbia river, Ore, The production in recent years has been declining, and, with the exhaustion of known dredging ground by about 1938, the output will be very small. A small

quantity of palladium-nickel-copper ore has been produced from mines on Prince of Wales island, south-east Alaska, near Goodsprings, Nevada, and Albany, Wyoming. South America.—Platinum was first discovered and described in material from Colombia, and in 1788 the metal was being largely used in jewellery and in the manufacture of crucibles. At the end of 1788 there had been collected from Chaco 3,820 Spanish pounds of the metal. In 1824 the annual production from Choco is said to have amounted to about 1,000 pounds. The goldplatinum alluvial deposits of Colombia cover an area of more than 5,000 sq.m., which lies west of the central ridge of the Colombian Andes, in the Atratro and San Juan drainage basins, and extends south of the mouth of San Juan river along the coast to Mira river. The richest deposits and those mast worked are near the headwater of San Juan river, principally on Condoto river. In the

gravels of the San Juan drainage there are about equal quantities of gold and platinum, but in the Atrato basin platinum constitutes approximately 15% of the value, the remainder being gold. The most productive

area is held by American companies.

not done away with the need for platinum in the industry. The principal use of platinum-iridium alloys in electrical work is in contact points, and the proportion of iridium necessary in the

alloys is directly dependent on the intensity of the current passing through the contacts and the speed at which the contacts move.

The chemical industry in the United States since 1918 has used between 5 and 7% of the platinum metals consumed and it uses

relatively little except platinum. The dental industry uses approximately 14% of the yearly consumption of platinum metals and uses nearly equal quantities of platinum and palladium with relatively little iridium. Its use of platinum has decreased and of palladium has increased since 1925. The electrical industry nor.

mally consumes from 13 to 19% of the United States total of platinum metals, using 12 times as much platinum as palladium and eight to ten times as much platinum as iridium. There is an increasing demand for iridium with the development of aeronautic internal combustion engines. The jewellery industry is the largest market for platinum group metals, absorbing from 57 to 65% of the yearly turnover. It normally uses about 40 oz. of platinum to one oz. of iridium, but since 1925 has been consuming more palladium and the minor metals of the platinum group, including rho- . dium and osmium, The miscellaneous uses of platinum include the photographic-chemical industry as the largest consumer, and the gold pen industry, which uses either the natural osmiridium or in recent years a synthetic osmium-iridium alloy, which is said to be a satisfactory substitute for the native “point metal.” The metals of the platinum group are essential to three important industries, yet these three take only about one-third of the yearly total. The jewellers take approximately the remaining twothirds and are the stable market for the noble metals. Stated in another way, the platinum metals are essentially “luxury metals” and their continued demand on a large scale depends more on style in jewellery than on any other factor. Platinum jewellery can be made in more intricate design with equal strength than in other metals, according to the makers, and sets off gems and the costume as no other metal can. It would appear that the known reserves of platinum-group metals in Russia, Colombia and South Africa are sufficiently large to supply world demand for many years to come, with the possible exception of a supply of iridium. Iridium is an essential constituent of all “hard platinum.” Its

chief source is from the natural alloy osmiridium and this alloy is extremely rare. Had it not been for a change in practice in South Africa for the treatment of the gold ores of the Rand in 1921 there would have been a serious world shortage of iridium. (J. M. Hr.) GOLD Since the rise of the Spanish empire in the New World, £4,245,000,000 of gold has been produced. Only 15% of this amount was produced between 1493 and the Californian alluvial discoveries of 1848, and over half in the first 27 years of the present century.

Of the total gold produced since 1493 the Transvaal has contributed 22%, the United States 214% and Australasia 17%. The following table shows the value of the production in different areas :—~

What

Locality

appears to he a conservative estimate gives a total of 336,000,000 cu.yd. of gravel that can be considered as reserves, with 68,000,qQ0

cu.yd. as proved ground capable of producing at a profit under present working conditions. This estimate of reserves may be increased in the light of future work.

Uses of Platinum Metals.—The essential] uses of these metals are in the chemical, electrical and dental industries. Pure platinum is required in the chemical industry for catalyzers in the manu-

facture of sulphuric acid by the contact process and in the manufacture of nitric acid from ammonia. Pure platinum utensils of various kinds, including crucibles, dishes, tongs and triangles, are

required In every chemical laboratory. Platinum-iridium containing from 15 to 50% iridium have been used very sively by the electrical industry, but several satisfactory tutes have been developed. Tungsten, molybdenum and

alloys extensubstinickel-

chromium alloys are the principal substitutes, but their use has

[PLATINUM

United States (practically since 1849) . . . Transvaal (since 1884) Australasia (since 185r) Russia and Siberia (since 18r4 a a Mexico (since 1522) . Canada (since 1858) India (since 1880) . . Rhodesia (since 1898) .

West Africa (since 1880

South America, etc. (since

1493)

Total 435 years

;

Total amount.

Amount produced

£

£

QI 1,000,000 020,000,000 715,000,000

604,000,000

378,000,000 14.6,Q00,090 13 2,000,000 70,000,000 66,000,000 28,000,000

48,000,000 46,000,009 74,000,000 32,000,000 46,000,000 19,000,000

3,7 50,000,000

I,187,000,000

869,000,000

128,000,000

4,245,000,000

I,3I 5,000,000

in 1912-27.

220,000,000 98,000,000

GOLD]

|

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

Eduard Suess has calculated that during the period 1848-75 the annual yield of £22,000,000 was obtained as to £19,300,000 or 88% from alluvial and as to £2,700,000 or 12% from lodes. By 1890 the output of £24,500,000 was derived as to £11,000,000 or 459% from alluvial, as to £11,500,000 or 47% from lodes, and as to £2,000,000 or 8% from the stratified banket of the Trans-

vaal. So productive has the last source of the metal become, that of the world’s gold production of £82,000,000 in 1927, £43,000,000 or 52% came from banket, while lode mining yielded £34,000,000 or 42%, and alluvial had probably fallen to £5,000,-

|

873

1893 to 1901, experts like Hamilton Smith, Bergrath Schmeisser, Messrs. Hatch & Chalmers, Dr. George F. Becker and John Hays Hammond estimated that the total production of the field down to a vertical depth of 3,000 to 6,000 feet would be from £325,000,o00 to £$00,000,000 (the estimates growing with time), while to the end of 1927 the production had already reached £895,000,000 and the Rand had not passed its zenith. The further yield to be obtained from the existing mines was in 1925 put by Sir Robert N. Kotze (until lately the Government mining engineer of the

Union of South Africa) as at least 310,000,000 tons from the end of 1924, which would be equal if one takes the yield at 28s. per

ooo or 6%.

Though production has advanced so rapidly in the course of ton to £430,000,000. In 1927 Dr. H. Pirow, the present Governthe present generation, there are indications that, apart from any ment mining engineer, with £81,000,000 more taken out of the new discoveries which may yet be made, the output reached its ground, put it at 327,000,000 tons (say £450,000,000) or more. zenith in 1915. Thereafter, partly as a result of restriction of Unofficial estimates which allow for three new producers would production due to the increased costs resulting from the World put it much higher at £600,000,000 from the end of 1926, and this War, but partly also as a result of exhaustion of mines, the annual figure would give a total Rand output from the commencement total fell from £96,400,000 to £65,500,600 in 1922 (a year excep- of £1,450,000,000. Needless to say the actual output depends not tionally affected by a white miners’ strike in the Transvaal), re- merely on extensions of areas at present known to be payably auriferous, but upon conditions of work as depth is attained and covering to £82,000,000 In 1926 and 1927. The commanding position of the British empire regarding gold especially upon working costs. It is more important to attempt to forecast the annual rate of production is indicated by the fact that it was responsible in 1927 for 71% of the total production. The Transvaal alone yields gold production and this is especially difficult. As regards the three-fourths of the empire’s and over half of the world’s total. Rand the average yield for the seven years to 1917 was 27s. 5d. Such countries as Australia and the United States are declining. per ton and for the nine years following (omitting the exceptional The destination of the gold taken out of the earth since 1493 year 1922) it averaged 28s. 3d., varying no more than between has been estimated as follows: industrial arts (Europe and 27s. 10d. and 28s. gd. annually, taking gold at its standard value. America), 31%; India, 14%; China and Egypt, 3%; available Most estimates of the future rate of production refer to tonnage only, but this may be taken to yield 28s. per ton, the figure interas money, 52%. polated above. Sir Robert N. Kotze as far back as 1914 expected Gold Consumption.—The industrial arts and India have the first call on gold production. They largely increased their demands that for the then existing producers the yield would be £25,800,after the outpourings of gold by California and Australia after ooo per annum at the end of 1924 (while it was actually £39,1848 and 1851, thereby serving to moderate the great increase of 700,000 including some new producers), £17,600,000 at end—1929, prices of commodities which took place, and largely maintained £15,300,000 at end—1934, £11,700,000 at end—1939 and £7,900,their rate of absorption for some time after the gold output had ooo at end—1944. Writing on Sept. 30, 1925, he expected the yield commenced to decline. Again, after production in the ‘nineties from the then existing producers to be (if we take the yield at 28s, per ton) £31,000,000 in 1931, £21,000,000 in 1936 and £7,000,000 started its great climb to the height of 1915, they increased their writing on May 27, 1927, expected the yield demands exceptionally until for the 20 years to 1924 industry in r941. Dr. Pirow, tons at 28s. apiece) to be £36,000,000 per his translating (again absorbed £20,000,000 and India £15,000,000 per annum. On the whole they have taken 45% of the aggregate gold production, and all of this has been effectively withdrawn from the amount available as money, for India’s imports and its own production have been wholly turned into jewellery, possessions and hoards. The distribution and redistrihution of the aggregate output

between the end of 1913 and the end of 1926 is as follows:—

DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD'S AGGREGATE GOLD PRODUCTION IN I9I13 AND 1926

Dec. 31, 1913.

Bloc

banks

Other eae

'

In circulation.

£

and

Dec. 31, 1926.

"| 044,000,000 | 33} | 3,918,000,000 | 46

.

59,000,000 |

2

Not traceable (in- | 483,000,000 | 153 | cluding private

rao World’s

stock

gold money .

present be assessed. Sufficient has been said to indicate that as time

7 || goes on the estimates increase, and this may be repeated. It is,

£

M

annum at the end of 1934 and £20,000,000 at the end of 1939. A probable estimate, allowing for three probable new producers, would put it at £40,000,000 in 1930, £35,000,000 in 1935, £25,000,000 in 1940 and £15,000,000 in 1945. Most of these estimates are based on the mines existing at the time they were made, and contain no allowance for additional areas taken up by those mines or for any increase in their rate of crushing—apart altogether from ignoring new producers. There are considerable areas on the Rand which may in course of time be worked, but except for the possible three new mines just mentioned they cannot at

13,000,000

107,000,000

however, clear that the West, Central and Middle-East Rand

reached its zenith in 1912 with £32,700,000, while it at present

24 || contributes £20,500,000 and will probably continue to decline. On the other hand the Far East Rand—which is a vigorous growth of

| _T47,000,000|_33_| | more recent date, taking its rise about 1904—has steadily advanced until it has reached over £21,000,000 and is likely to maintain this

of

reach its _. | 1,586,000,000 | 51 | 2,185,000,000 | 524 || rate for many years to come. The Rand may shortly zenith, though until quite recent years it seemed to have attained

Absorbed by industrial arts (Europe and America) . | 1,042,000,000 Absorbed by India Absorbed by China and Egypt . .

392,000,000

33% | 1,274,000,000 | 304

12} | 597,000,000 | 14%

that point in 1916, when the world’s output also was at its height. It is not easy to assess the possibilities of the rest of the world,

but on the whole its output is likely to decline. There are no out3 107,000,000 standing goldfields outside the Rand. The production of the 100,000,000 United States, Australia and India is declining and that of RhoWorld’s gold output desia and West Africa is stationary, while most hope of an in3,120,000,000 | 100 | 4,163,000,000 | I00 (from 1493) crease is to be looked for especially in Canada, and possibly in Russia and Mexico. The world’s output apart from that of the guesswork The figures set down for money in circulation are in 1910, £59,100,000 in 1915, £35,200,000 and may be too high, but the table serves to show that while Rand was £63,000,000 1925, and £39,500,000 in 1927, the chief in £41,300,000 1920, in pubthe of pockets the of about £400,000,000 has been taken out being Australia and the United States, decline the to lic, through monetary changes produced by the World War, about contributors £33,200,000 and in 1927 only £12,yielded 1910 in together which banks. central in stocks the twice that amount has been added to that the world’s total may reach is outlook present The 000,000. że., from p

E

ct ASS

World’s Resources.—In the early days of the Rand,

PHYSICAL

874

£85,000,000 in 1930 and then decline to about £75,000,000 by 1940, unless some outstanding discovery is made. (J. Kı.) SILVER

Any attempt to evaluate the world’s resources in silver is complicated by the fact that so much of it is produced in connection with other metals, notably lead, copper and gold; almost every gold mine produces some silver and every silver mine some gold. The three largest silver-producing States of the United States are

Utah, Montana and Idaho; in the first two silver is produced chiefly in connection with copper, and in the latter in connection with lead ores. About one-third of the silver in the United States is derived from what are primarily copper ores, one-third from lead ores and the remainder from all other kinds, including those which are simply silver ores. The silver content of many of these ores is so low that they could not possibly be worked for silver

RESOURCES

[RARER ELEMENTS

largest additions to the reserves of that metal which have recently

been developed, contain no important silver reserves. RARER ELEMENTS

(T. T. R. )

Cobalt, molybdenum, titanium, tantalum, uranium and radium are treated here as representative of important classes of rare minerals, and nickel, vanadium and tungsten, properly termed rare

minerals, are discussed separately above.

Cobalt.—Cobalt is found in small quantities in many places, and in large quantities in few. Its chief ores are smaltite (CoAs,), and cobaltite (CoAsS). It is closely associated with nickel in occurrence, and has been found in meteorites and in a number of

rare minerals, but these sources naturally play no very important role. The chief supply (1924-26) has been as follows: Queens-

land, Australia, furnishing about roo tons of cobalt content in cobaltite concentrates; the Belgian Congo, about 825 tons of cobalt content in copper-iron-cobalt alloy; and Ontario, Canada, about 750 tons of cobalt content in alloys and chemicals. Arsenosulphide ore from Chili, and cobalt-bismuth-nickel ores from

alone, so that an evaluation of silver resources becomes an estimation of the resources of copper, lead, zinc or other deposits which are important producers of silver. Silver occurs in rocks of all geologic ages from the oldest to the most recent. It also occurs in nearly all countries of the world, so that nearly all of them are able to produce at least some part of their requirements. China, however, which is one of the principal silver-consuming countries of the world, produces very little silver, and it is not understood where its silver supply was obtained during

making a total of about 1,600-1,700 tons. During 1927 prospecting failed to reveal any new commercially important supplies, though some few prospects were located in Queensland, at Pola de Lena (Asturias), and in the Province of Leon. Shipments of ore from Cobalt, Ontario, in that year were reported as 7,309 tons, and of

its long isolation from the rest of the world.

The available evi-

oxide metal and salts from the Union Miniére du Haut Katanga

dence as to the silver production of the countries with which it maintained contact does not indicate probable sources of supply. The Comstock lode in Nevada was discovered in 1858; by 1877 its annual production had reached $22,000,000 in silver, and for a long period this deposit furnished half the silver output of the United States, its total output of silver to 1900 being estimated at $220,000,000. Its output since 1886, when most of the deep

as 350 tons. During the first nine months of 1928 the production from Ontario amounted to 460,995 lbs. of oxides, salts and un-

mines in the lode were abandoned, has been relatively small. With the decline of the Comstock district the Leadville district in Colorado took its place as the greatest silver district of the world. Silver production there reached its peak (over $11,000,000) in 1881, followed by a gradual decline until 1907, since when it has remained at about $2,000,000 annually. The silver production of Canada was about 5,000,000 oz. per year until 1905, when the Cobalt district was discovered; in 1910-13 the output was over 32,000,000 oz. per year. Eight years later it was about 13,000,000 oz.; now it is over 20,000,000 annually. The average yearly production of the world for the period rgor~22 was 188,000,000 OZ., ranging from 163,000,000 to 226,000,000.

Mexico produces about

one-third of the total; the United States about one-fourth, and Canada and South America each contribute about one-tenth of the total production. The principal use of silver is in coinage, and the industrial arts. Photographic and chemical uses (which are the only ones in which silver may be said to be consumed) require an annual amount estimated at from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 ounces. It is evident therefore that there are two reserves of silver, unmined ore and the accumulated stock of metal. It seems certain that the world can produce for a long period enough silver for the uses by which it is actually consumed. How long it can produce enough to supply needs for coinage and industrial arts depends not only on the discovery of new silver-producing districts, and the production of metals with which it is associated, but also to the extent to which silver coins may be replaced with token coins made of other more abundant metals. It is quite possible also that other metals may be substituted for silver in its uses in the industrial arts, since recent developments in the art of chromium plating and in the production of non-corrosive alloy steels make it possible to produce at a reasonable price metal articles that will not tarnish. It is possibly safe to imply that a silver-producing district like Cobalt will not be discovered anywhere except perhaps in northern Canada or parts of Africa and Siberia that have not been sufficiently explored. Consequently the principal additional supplies of silver for future use are likely to be copper, lead, zinc and other metal deposits where the large tonnage involved may yield considerable quantities even though the amount per ton is small. However, the copper deposits of Africa, which constitute the

Saxony, Germany, have added a few tons more of cobalt content,

separated oxides.

The principal source in Ontario is high-grade

silver ores and concentrates, averaging 5%—-10%

cobalt.

These

deposits and those of Africa seem to give an assurance of adequate supply. Some cobalt ores have been found in Norway, Sweden, the Caucasus, New Caledonia and at Lancaster Gap, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. During the last few years no cobalt has been produced in the United States. Other minerals containing cobalt are the sulphides linnaeite and jaipurite, the arsenides safflorite and skutterudite and the cobalt-copper sulphide carrollite. Molybdenum.—tThe chief sources of molybdenum are molybdenite (MoS:) and wulfenite (PbMoQ.). Molybdite (Fe.033Mo03-73H:20) and pateraite (CoMoQ,) are important sources. Molybdenum is rather widely distributed, having been found in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Saxony, France, Italy, Belgium, Spain, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Peru, but in recent years Canada and the United States have led in production. Early supplies, up to 1910, came chiefly from Queensland.

By 1917 Canada was the largest producer, but of late the United States has been well in the lead.

The ore at Climax, Colorado,

carrying molybdenite and molybdite was said, in 1923, to be capable of producing 1,000 tons per day for 30 years, and this ore contains rr Ibs. of molybdenite per ton. In 1927 the United States was practically the only producer of molybdenum. Concentrates averaging 75%-88% MoS: amounted approximately to 2,150,000 Ibs. This came principally from Climax, Colorado, and Sulphur Gulch, New Mexico: Although the consumption of molybdenum is increasing, the supply keeps well ahead of the demand, and a very recent statement shows that the area developed at Climax contains over 4,000,000 tons of ore. The present (1929) production is 3,000,000 Ibs. of metallic molybdenum per annum. The recent considerable increase in the use of molybdenum has been due to its growing employment in machine and other steels, where great toughness is desired. Tantalum.—Tantalum is closely associated with columbium or niobium and is found widely distributed in many rare-earth minerals, of which samarskite and euxenite are perhaps best known. The chief sources, however, are the minerals columbite and tantalite, two minerals which are identical except for the relative amounts of tantalum and columbium present. The general symbol representing their composition is Fe,Mn(Cb,Ta)20g, and in various samples the ratio between the iron and manganese and the tantalum and columbium differs. In general, tantalite is high in tantalum and columbite in columbium. Some ores from Australia run as high as 50% to 70% Ta,Os. In the Black Hills of South Dakota and in Connecticut, U.S.A., ores have been

URANIUM AND RADIUM]

PHYSICAL

RESOURCES

found ranging from 10% to 40% Ta,Q;. Tantalum ores have also been reported from Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, Colorado and California in the United States, and from Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Ba-

varia, Italy and the Malay States. Between the years 1918 and

1926, about 17,500 Ibs. of columbite were mined in the United States. Comparatively new uses of tantalum are in the manufacture of pen points and of radio tubes.

Titanium.—Titanium

is very widely distributed.

Its most

important mineral sources are ilmenite (FeTiO;) and rutile (TiO2). F. W. Clarke, of the U.S. Geological Survey, stated some

875

monazite sands. Baddeleyite, brazilite, zirkelice and zircite (the partially purified ore) come chiefly from Ceylon and Brazil. Exports from Brazil reached 1,119 tons in 1913, but fell off later. Recent information with regard to the amount of zirconium minerals used is lacking; in 1927, however, 4,488 lbs. of zirconium

was imported into the United States to supplement its supply. Brazil is the world’s main producer of zirconium ores. Zirconium ores are playing an important rôle in the manufacture of

ceramics and refractories. SUBSTITUTES

(P. E. B.) FOR NATURAL

RESOURCES

years ago that 784 out of 800 igneous rocks analyzed in the Survey laboratory contained titanium. During the years 1925-6 the production of ilmenite in metric tons was as follows: United States, 9,400; Norway, 4,150; Brazil, 3,000; Canada, 3,800; and India, 330; and the production of rutile from Norway and the United States was about 120 metric tons. The deposits of ilmenite ore at Lake Sanford, New York, and Iron Mountain, Wyoming, are estimated to contain many millions of tons, averaging 35% ilmenite. The Titan Co. of Norway owns one of the richest and largest known deposits of ilmenite. The Norwegian deposits of titanium in the islands of Lofoten and Vesterael, and near Rodsand and Solnordal, are very extensive. They are estimated still to contain about 500,000 tons, varying from 4%-40% TiOz. Norway is estimated to have a total of 20-25 million tons of titanium minerals. In recent years the use of titanium oxide in pigments has been greatly developed and is now the chief use of titanium products. Its high covering-power and its nonpoisonous and chemically inert properties are much in its favor. Uranium and Radium.—It is best to discuss these elements together because of their close association. Practically all uranium minerals carry radium, and the world’s supply of radium is produced from uranium minerals. Uraninite or pitchblende, the chief uranium mineral, contains from 79% to 90% of the oxide U;Os. The composition of the mineral is very complex. Carnotite is next in importance. It is essentially a potassium-uranium vanadate (K20-2U03-V20;-3H2O) carrying about 60% UO;. There are many other uranium minerals, such as autunite, a calciumuranyl phosphate; gummite, a lead-calcium-uranium silicate; tyuyamunite, a lime carmotite; uranocircite, a barium carnotite; betafite, a complex titano-columbo-tantalate of uranium, thorium and the rare earths; samarskite and euxenite, etc. These uraniumradium ores are quite widely distributed, and the following figures, giving the world’s estimated total production of radium up to and including the year 1926, in grams, give also an indication of the sources and production of uranium, since large quantities of its salts result as by-products of radium extraction: United States, 250; Belgian Congo, 180; Czechoslovakia, 42; Portugal, 15; Madagascar, 8; Russia (Ferghana), 6; Cornwall, 4; and South Africa, r. In all, about 500 grams, valued at $70,000 per gram, have been produced. The Belgian Congo in 1929 dominated the world market for radium. The Union Miniére du Haut Katanga sold 26 grams during the year ending June, 1928. The production obtained by the Soviet Government during the year was 6 grams, extracted from a Ferghana radium ore. The Czechoslovakian Government is working ores mined at Jachymov, Joachimstal. No radium was isolated in the United States during 1928, and only a small amount of radium ore was mined. Katanga also furnishes the greater part of the uranium salts for the market. In general, it may be stated that the deposits in the Belgian Congo, together with those in Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, U.S.A., will furnish an adequate supply of radium and

Any discussion of substitutes for natural resources must be prefaced by a discussion of the meaning of the term substitute. When whale oil was an important illuminant there was much concern as to its future supply and some search was made for possible substitutes. The development of the petroleum industry arose principally from a desire to find a use, in order to provide a market, for an available material and not in response to a search for a whale oil substitute. The electric light, which has so largely displaced the oil lamp, was developed as a demand for something better, not as a demand for a petroleum substitute, for the market has been almost continuously over-supplied with petroleum during the whole period of electric lighting development. It is therefore possible to think of chinaware and porcelain as substitutes for the vessels of wood, horn and metal that preceded them; of glass as a substitute for the oiled paper with which window openings were once closed; of wooden houses as a substitute for skin tents; and of brick houses as a substitute for wooden ones. It is evident that these things are substitutes only in the sense that they replaced something that preceded them, and this because they better served some human need. The term substitute has come to have a derived sense of something inferior used because that for which it is substituted either is not available in sufficient supply or, because of scarcity, is unduly high in price. The idea of the inferiority of the substitute is one that would be cultivated by those engaged in the production and marketing of the original. In the case of butter substitutes, for example, their production and sale are hampered by legislation which, it is alleged, represents the relative political strength of the interests involved rather than the scientific aspect of the matter. The converse of this situation is presented by various devices which are sold to provide an artificial substitute for the therapeutic effect of sunlight; the producers of devices which give out infra-red rays are not required to furnish any evidence that the devices will produce the effects claimed for them. It will therefore be clear that the economic and social problems involved in the use of substitutes are many and varied. How difficult some of them are of solution can be illustrated by some examples. Suppose a necklace of artificial pearls so skilfully made that only a few of the most expert persons in the world would be able to detect that they were not real pearls, which would cost 10 or roo times as much as the substitutes. Has the belief in the inferiority of the substitute any other than a sentimental basis? With inert natural resources the question is more easily determined because the purposes which natural resources serve can usually þe set forth in exact chemical and physical specifications. There can be no doubt whether one metal will conduct electricity as well as another, or whether one substance produces the same chemical effect as another for the kind and degree of difference can be measured, the cost can be ascertained, and the relation between the difference in the cost and the service studied. But even in the case of these substances it is sometimes difficult to uranium for years to come. At present about 28,000 lbs. of make a just evaluation. A single substance may be used for a great many purposes, and thus is developed a tendency to carry uranium pigments for glass are made annually. Zirconium.—The chief mineral sources of zirconium are over its known superiority for one use into another field where it

zircon (ZrSiO,4), baddeleyite and brazilite, both essentially ZrOs.

may or may not be also superior. The general considerations inZircite is a commercial name given to the oxide or to a mixture volved in this tendency are illustrated with specific examples. of the silicate and the oxide. Zircon is found chiefly in Ceylon, Tin is mostly produced in south-eastern Asia and Bolivia, where the Ural Mountains, Greenland and Australia; and in the United there is little local use for it, while the United States, which uses States, in commercial quantities, in western North Carolina, at over half the world’s total output, produces none. About oneAshland in Virginia and at Pablo Beach in Florida. It occurs in third of the metal imported into the United States is used for small quantities associated with many minerals, notably with making tin-plate, and about two-thirds of the tin-plate is used for

876

PHYSICAL

making tin cans for packing various commodities.

RESOURCES

The principal

use of tin cans is for preserved foods. It is easily possible to pre-

serve food in ceramic ware jars, and many foods are sold in glass jars, but these jars are heavier and can easily be broken. For most purposes the glass jar is not, therefore, a satisfactory sub-

stitute for the tin can, but for specially selected fruits, which are to be sold at a high price, the glass jar is better, because the more attractive appearance of the jar is part of the consideration which enables it to be sold at a higher price. Thus glass is or is not a satisfactory substitute for tin in connection with food preservation, according to the special conditions attending its use. Tin-plate, in addition to being used for cans, is utilized for roofing purposes; obviously glass could not be so used. Terne plate (an alloy of lead and tin) is, however, used for roofing, but could not be used for food containers as the lead in the alloy produces toxic effects. Collapsible tubes made of tin are extensively used as containers for tooth-paste, shaving cream and various other commodities of a creamy consistence; no satisfactory substitute for tin has beer! devised for this purpose. Tin foil is used as a wrapping for candy and chewing gum, as a lining for boxes and cartons of cigarettes and for a variety of other purposes. Aluminium foil and lead foil are, to a growing extent, substitutes for this use, but neither has the bright lustre of tin foil. Except for appearance, paraffined paper would serve this use equally well. A variety of attractive transparent, moisture-proof and dust-proof wrapping materials have been placed on the market recently and, for sone purposes, they are much better than tin foil, while for other uses they are inferior. Tin when alloyed with copper produces bronze, which has a variety of uses that it best serves. For some of these uses silicon or manganese can be used as the addition agent to the copper, but for others they are not satisfactory. When manufactured for transmission wire, cadmium can be used, with better results than other substances from the transmission standpoint, although not from other considerations. Tin is also used in the alloys employed for bearings in machinery. These alloys are of great variety, depending on the service required of them, and a discussion of possible substitutes would be exceedingly complex. Tin has a variety of chemical uses, two of the most important being for making enamels and weighting silk. In both cases the use of substitutes is possible. For tin, therefore, various things may be used as substitutes in its various uses, with variable degrees of effectiveness, according to the circumstances of each case. No one can safely prophesy that research will not reveal some substitute that will give equally good service at equal or even less cost and, on the other hand, no one can safely prophesy that it will, The whole subject of substitutes is charged with uncertainty from its very nature. In the search for substitutes several general considerations must be maintained as objectives. The first is that the substitute should be more abundant than that which it replaces; little advantage is gained if a sufficient supply of the substitute material is not available. A second is that the substitution should be real, not fictitious; large quantities of power or of other materials should not be generally involved in making the substitution. Substitutes should, if possible, be locally available, to avoid the burden of transportation cost, and also to avoid the possibility of being dependent on foreign countries for a source of supply. Finally, the substitute should not impose too heavy a task in changing the

habits of consumers, or the usual processes of plant operations. The principal use of manganese is in connection with steel manufacture and for this purpose an alloy containing 80% manganese is usually employed. In America manganese ore of the desired quality has to be imported; domestic ores cam be used to make a 20% alloy but less conveniently, as the 20% alloy has to be added while molten, although solid lumps of the 80% alloy that can be employed are commonly used. Substitution of the lower grade alloy is made difficult by this consideration. Substitutes for gasolene have been much discussed and alcohol is one of the various materials that have been proposed. It has the great advantage that it can be made from vegetable materials that are reproducible. Alcohol cannot, however, be used effectively in an engine built to use gasolene; it needs one specially

[SUBSTITUTES

designed for it. Its general use as a substitute would therefore involve not only the organizing of industry to produce and dis. tribute the alcohol, but also the replacement of over 20,000,000 gasolene engines. Another possible substitute is gasolene made from oil shale. To mine the shale required to produce any considerable part of the gasolene now used would require the setting up of a mining industry of approximately the same size as our present coal-mining industry, and this industry would have to be in regions that are now very sparsely inhabited because they are arid. Thus not only a shifting of population would be required, but also the provision for water and food supply, housing and other facilities. The task is thus much more complex than the working out of a process whereby gasolene can be made from oil shale. Substitution of one product for another not only involves the various

considerations

outlined

above,

but

finding of adequate markets for by-products.

often

requires the

Much has been said

about the wastefulness of buying coal in its raw state, and one of the principal subjects for research is the processing of coal to

yield coke, gas and a great variety of by-products. The proportions of these various things that can be made are definitely fixed by chemical and engineering considerations, but the markets for them are quite variable, not only from day to day, but over longer periods. The demand for gas may be greater than the demand for the coke produced, or it may be less, and these relations may shift from day to day or week to week. For a time it was difficult to find adequate outlet for the benzol made as a by-product, and it was chiefly used as a substitute for gasolene. However, development of the nitro-cellulose lacquers provided a large demand for benzol at an increased price, and the present supply was in 1929 practically all used for this purpose.

The problems involved in considering substitutes for things which are the result of life processes are even more complex. Citing clothing as an example, changes in human habits and considerations of style are extremely important. Only a few years ago wool and cotton were the principal materials from which articles of clothing were made, but in recent years demands have been transferred so largely to silk and fur that the woollen and cotton textile industries have been seriously affected. Straw, ribbon and other materials were formerly used extensively in making women’s hats, but now felt hats are almost universal. To what extent demands for materials may be affected by a change in styles which may be brought about by skilful advertising and merchandising is exceedingly difficult to prophesy. Such changes have some limits imposed by physical conditions; thus wool is used for men’s outer garments, because they keep their shape better. In food products the tendency has been steadily to increase the number, variety and quality over a long period of years, with the result that people are now better nourished than at any previous period in human history. Fruit, for example, instead of being available to only the wealthier class outside the growing season is now a regular article of diet in almost every home all the year round; its greater consumption, it is believed, has led to a decline in the per capita consumption of meat. Sugar and chocolate are also used much more extensively than formerly; these, like most other food products, seem capable of being produced in any amounts that are required. Chewing gum, though not a food, is, however, an example of an organic product for which it may be necessary to find a substitute, as its increasing use bids fair to outstrip the present supply of chicle gum (the principal ingredient), which is the only gum that at the temperature of the mouth is neither too soft nor too hard, and is also free from any objectionable flavour. Rubber illustrates the manner in which public concern over supply of raw materials

varies. The demand for rubber was easily met, until the introduction of the automobile forecast a great increase. This caused much concern for future supply and many chemists have worked to discover substitutes. The great increase in rubber production in Malaya shifted attention to schemes to maintain the price of

the raw material in the face of production that had increased faster than consumption. If anything equally serviceable can be produced and sold at less cost it will be adopted, but the world

PHYSICAL can produce what is needed without necessity for any substitutes.

Raw material for paper manufacture has long been a source of concern. Different materials are used to produce the various

grades of paper, but newsprint, which is the largest in demand, is made from wood pulp. For the purpose soft woods are re-

quired, and these woods are also the principal kind needed for

lumber purposes.

Neither newsprint nor lumber has much sal-

vage value and they are largely destroyed by their first use. Some

progress has been made in decreasing the demands on lumber for packages, and it has also been found possible to remove the

ink from newspapers, though not sufficiently to permit the re-use of the stock for the same purpose. It seems probable that wood and all the other raw materials that are produced as a result of growth can, with care, always be produced in sufficient amounts

to meet human needs, so that the problem is really one of producing them at a cost which will not produce some economic shift that disturbs the complex equilibrium in modern industry. Shifts of this sort result from so many other causes in addition to shortage of essential raw materials and human ingenuity has been so successful in meeting them thus far that while the study of substitutes is proper for the engineer and chemist, it does not at present need to be a matter of great public concern. (T. T. R.)

PHYSICAL

UNITS.

In order that our acquaintance with

any part of nature may become exact we must have not merely a qualitative but a quantitative knowledge of facts. Hence the moment that any branch of science begins to develop to any

UNITS

877

measurable quantities involved. In constructing a system of physical units, the first thing to consider is the manner in which we shall connect the various items. What, for instance, shall be the unit of force, and how shall it be determined by simple reference ta the units of mass, length and time? The modern absolute system of physical measurement is founded upon dynamical notions, and originated with C. F. Gauss. The postulate which lies at the base of the study of physics is that in the ultimate issue we can describe all phenomena in terms of mechanical data. Our fundamental scientific notions are those of length, time, and mass. Hence, in selecting units for physical measurements, we have first to choose units for the above three quantities. Fundamental Units—Two systems of fundamental units are in common use: the British system, having the yard and pound as the standard units of length and mass, frequently termed

the “foot-pound-second” (F.P.S.) system; and the “centimetregramme-second” system (C.G.S.), having the centimetre and gramme as standard units of length and mass, termed the “metric” system. The fundamental unit of time is the same in both systems, namely, the “mean solar second,” 86,400 of which make

one solar day.

(See Tıme.)

Since these systems and the cor-

responding standards, together with their factors of conversion, are treated in detail in the article MEASURES AND WEIGHTS, we need only deal here with such units as receive special scientific

use, że., other than in ordinary commercial practice. Various secondary units are chosen for special purposes. In astronomy, extent, attempts are made to measure and evaluate the quantities where immense distances have to be very frequently expressed, and effects found to exist. To do this we have to select for each a common unit is the mean radius of the earth’s orbit, the “astromeasurable magnitude a ast or standard of reference, by come nomical unit” of length, 7.e., 92,900,000 miles. For stellar disparison with which amounts of other like quantities may be nu- tances astronomers have adopted a unit of length termed the merically defined. There is nothing to prevent us from selecting “light year,” which is the distance traversed by light in a year; these fundamental quantities, in terms of which other like quanti- this unit is 63,000 times the mean radius of the earth’s orbit. ties are to be expressed, in a perfectly arbitrary and inde. Another unit employed is the par-sec, that is, the distance pendent manner, and, as a matter of fact, this is what is generally at which the value of the parallax is one second of are. For very done in the early stages of every science. We may, for instance, small lengths, such as the wave lengths of light, the unit selected choose a certain length, a certain volume, a certain mass, a cer- is a ten-thousand-millionth of a metre, termed an Angstrém unit tain force or power as our units of length, volume, mass, force or a “tenth-metre,” since it is 107? metres. Sometimes the or power, which have no simple or direct relation to each other. thousand-millionth of a metre, the “micromillimetre,” denoted by Similarly we may select for more special measurements any arbi- uu, or again the “micron,” denoted by p and equal to onetrary electric current, electromotive farce, or resistance, and call millionth of a metre is employed. The latter is much used by them our units. The progress of knowledge, however, is greatly bacteriologists. Units in Mechanics.—The quantities to be measured in meassisted if all the measurable quantities are brought into relation with each other by so selecting the units that they are related chanics (g.v.) are velocity and acceleration (dependent on the in the most simple manner, each to the other and to one common units of length and time only), momentum, force, energy or work set of measurable magnitudes called the fundamental quantities. and power, dependent on the three fundamental units. The unit The progress of this co-ordination of units has been greatly of velocity in the British system is 1 foot per second. The unit Moaided by the discovery that forms of physical energy can be con- on the metric system is rı centimetre per second. verted into one another, and that the conversion is by definite mentum is defined as the product of mass into velocity; unit rule and amount. (See ENERGY.) Thus the mechanical energy momentum is therefore the momentum of unit mass into unit associated with moving masses can be converted into heat, hence velocity; in the British system the unit of mass is the pound, and heat can be measured in mechanical energy units. The amount of in, the metric system, the gramme is the unit of mass. Force, being measured by the change of momentum in unit heat required to raise one gramme of water through 1° C in the neighbourhood of ro®° C is equal to about 42 million ergs, the time, is expressed in terms of the same units in which unit moerg being the kinetic energy or energy of motion associated with mentum is defined. The natural British unit is the “poundal,” amass of 2 grammes when moving uniformly, without rotation, the force which in one second accelerates the velocity of a mass with a velocity of r cm, per second. This number is commonly of one pound by one foot per second; but it has not come into called the “mechanical equivalent of heat,” but would be more general use. The metric (and scientific) unit, named the “dyne,” exactly described as the “mechanical equivalent of the specific is derived in the same way from the centimetre, gramme, and heat of water at ro? C.” Again, the fact that the maintenance second. The poundal and dyne are related as follows:—1 poundal of an electric current requires energy, and that when produced we 13,825-5 dynes. A common unit of force among engineers is the “weight of its energy can be wholly utilized in heating a mass of water, enables us to make a similar statement about the energy required one pound,” by which is meant the force equivalent to the gravito maintain a current of one ampere through a resistance of one tational attraction of the earth on a mass af one pound. This unit ohm for one second, and to define it by its equivalent in the obviously depends on gravity; and since this varies with the latienergy of a moving mass. Physical units have therefore tude and height of the place of observation (see EartH, FIcure been selected with the object of establishing simple relations be- ar), the “force of one pound” of the engineer is not constant. tween each of them and the fundamental mechanical units. Meas- Roughly, it equals 32-47 poundals. A pressure is a force per unit urements based on such relations are called absolute measyre- area and can be measured in terms of the above units; for examments. The science of dynamics, as far as that part of it is con- ple, as Ib. wt. per square foat. The standard atmosphere (correcerned which deals with the motion and energy of material sub- sponding to a barometric height of 760 cm.) is often taken as stances, starts from certain primary definitions concerning the a secondary unit; it is equal to 1,013,600 dynes per centimetre.

PHYSICAL

878

Energy or work is measured by force acting over a distance.

The scientific unit is the “erg,” which is the energy expended when a force of one dyne acts over 1 centimetre. (See ENERGY.) This unit is too small for measuring the quantity of energy associated, for instance, with engines; for such purposes a unit ten million times as great, termed the “joule,” is used. As we noticed in the case of units of force, common-life experience has led to the introduction of units dependent on gravitation, and therefore not invariable; the common British practical unit of this class is the “foot-pound”; in the metric system its congener is

UNITS resistance is defined. But for electric engineering (power and light) the choice is decided by the nature of the quantities themselves. Since resistance is a permanent quality of a substance,

it is possible to select a certain piece of wire or tube full of mercury, and declare that its resistance shall be the unit of resistance and if the substance is permanent we shall possess an unalterable standard or unit of resistance. For these reasons the practical unit of resistance, now called the international ohm, has been selected as one of the above three practical electrical units.

It is known that there are two available methods for creating

the “kilogramme-metre.” Power is the rate at which force does work; it is therefore ex-

a standard or unit electric current.

kilowatt-seconds

current by the mass of silver it can liberate per second. Again,

pressed by “units of energy per second.” The metric unit in use is the “watt,” being the rate equal to 1 joule per second. Larger units in practical use are: “kilowatt,” equal to 1,000 watts; the corresponding energy unit being the kilowatt-second, and 3,600 or r kilowatt-hour

called a “Board

of Trade

unit” (B.T.U.). This last is a unit of energy, not power. In British engineering practice the common unit of power is the “horse-power” (HP), which equals 550 foot-pounds performed per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute; its equivalent in the metric system is taken as 746 watts. Units of Heat.—In studying the phenomena of heat, two measurable quantities immediately present themselves:—(1) temperature and (2) quantity of heat. Three arbitrary scales are in use for measuring temperature (see THERMOMETRY), and each of these scales affords units suitable for the expression of temperature. On the Centigrade scale the unit, termed a “Centigrade degree,” is one-hundredth of the interval between the temperature of water boiling under normal barometric pressure (760 mm. of mercury) and that of melting ice; the “Fahrenheit degree” is one-hundred-and-eightieth, and the “Réaumur degree” is oneeightieth of the same difference. Empirical units of “quantity of heat” readily suggest themselves as the amount of heat necessary to heat a unit mass of any substance through unit temperature. In the metric system the unit, termed a “calorie,” is the quantity of heat required to raise a gramme of water through one degree Centigrade. This quantity, however, is not constant, since the specific heat of water varies with temperature. (See CALORIMETRY.) In defining the calorie, therefore, the particular temperatures must be specified; consequently there are several calories particularized by special designations:—(1) gramme-calorie, the heat required to raise 1 gramme of water between 15° C and 17° C through 1° C; (2) “mean or average gramme calorie,” one-hundredth of the total heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water from o° C to 100° C; These units are thus related:—z common calorie=0-987 mean calories=o-992 zero calories. A unit in common use in thermo-chemistry is the greater calorie, which refers to one kilogramme of water and 1° C. In the British system the common unit, termed the “British Thermal Unit” (B.Th.U.), is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit; a centigrade unit (C-HLU.) has also been introduced and is rapidly being adopted. Electrical Units.—We are principally concerned in electrical work with three quantities called respectively, electric current, electromotive force, and resistance. These are related to one another by Ohm’s law, which states that the electric current in a circuit is directly as the electromotive force and inversely as the resistance, when the current is unvarying and the temperature of the circuit constant. Hence, if we choose units for two of these quantities, the above law defines the unit for the third. Much discussion has taken place over this question. From the scientific standpoint the current and voltage are most readily defined in terms of forces. The ampere is defined as one-tenth of that current which, flowing in a circle of x cm. radius, exerts a force of 27 dynes upon a unit magnetic pole placed at its centre. This unit pole is itself defined in terms of the mechanical force between two such poles; so the ampere is made to depend on mechanical units. Again, voltage X current X time is mechanical work and is expressed in terms of ergs or joules. Resistance is voltage divided by current, and thus the corresponding unit of

passed through or electrolyses cathode of the all: subsequent time the same

If an unvarying current js

a neutral solution of silver it and deposits silver upon electrolytic cell. According experience, the same current mass of silver. Hence we

nitrate it decomposes the negative pole or to Faraday’s law and deposits in the same may define the unit

there is the method already described. Thirdly, the unit of electromotive force may be defined as equal to the difference of potential between the ends of the unit of resistance when the unit of current flows in it. Apart, however, from the relation of these electrical units to each other, it has been found to be of great importance to establish a simple relation between the latter and the absolute mechanical units. Thus an electric current which is passed through a conductor dissipates its energy as heat, and hence creates a certain quantity of heat per unit of time. Having chosen our units of energy and related unit of quantity of heat, we must. so choose the unit of current that when passed through the unit of resistance it shall dissipate 1 unit of energy in 1 unit of time. British Association Units—The founders of the modem system of practical electrical units were a committee appointed by the British Association in 1861, at the suggestion of Lord Kelvin, which made its first report in 1862 at Cambridge. (See B. A. Report.) The five subsequent reports containing the results of the committee’s work, together with a large amount of most valuable matter on the subject of electric units, were collected in a volume edited by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin in 1873, entitled Reports of the Committee on Electrical Standards. This committee continued to sit and report annually to the British Association since that date until 1912; the whole of the reports have since been reprinted in book form. It is to the labours of this committee, acting in friendly correspondence with international committees, that the present system of electrical measurements is due. . Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Units.—It has throughout been recognized that a second consistent system of electrical units is possible. The unit electrical charge (or quantity of electricity) can be based upon the force between two electric charges. Accordingly, on the electrostatic system the unit of electric quan-

tity is such that f=q?/(Kd*) where gq is the quantity of each of two equal charges, d is the distance between them and Kis the dielectric constant (or specific inductive capacity) of the intervening medium, that of air being taken as unity. (See ELECTROSTATICS.) The current is then defined as the amount that flows in unit time, and the energy is specified in terms of. ergs or joules; thence the unit of resistance is defined by means of the equation Energy=RC?#. The relation between the electromagnetic and electrostatic system of units is that the absolute EMU unit of

current (ż.e., 1o amperes) is equal to 310° electrostatic units. (See the various articles on ELECTRICITY.)

Practical Electric Units—The committee of the British Association charged with the duty of arranging a system of absolute and magnetic units settled:also on a system of practical units of convenient magnitude, and gave names to them as follows :— ro® absolute electromagnetic units of resistance 108 24 3 units of electromotive force Poth of an ,, ss unit of current goth of an ,, _ unit of quantity oT Io”

n

S

units of capacity

units of capacity

=1 ohm =r volt =I ampere =r coulomb = 1 farad

=x microfarad

PHYSICAL

UNITS

879

large unit of length (the earth quadrant) and an absurdly small unit of mass. Also in consequence of the manner in which the unit electric quantity and magnetic pole strength are defined, a coxo" ergs or absolute C.G.S. units of energy =r joule efficient, 47, makes its appearance in many practical equations. ro” ergs per second or C.G.S. units of power =1 watt For example, on the present system the magnetic force H in the 10? absolute units of inductance =1 henry interior of a long spiral wire of N turns per centimetre of length 108 absolute units of magnetic flux =1 weber when a current of A amperes circulates in the wire is 4rAN/Io. 1 absolute unit of magnetomotive force =I gauss (Neither the weber nor the gauss has received very general adop- Again, the electric displacement or induction D through a unit of tion, although recommended by the committee of the British area is connected with the electric force E and the dielectric conAssociation on Electrical Units. Many different suggestions have stant K by the equation D=KE,’47. In numerous electric and been made as to the meaning to be applied to the word “gauss,” magnetic equations the constant 47 makes it appearance where The practical electrical engineer, up to the present, prefers to use it is apparently meaningless. A system of units in which this one ampere-turn as his unit of magnetomotive force, and one line constant is put into its right place by appropriate definitions is of force as the unit of magnetic flux, equal respectively to 10/4r called a rational system of electric units. Several physicists have times and 1 times the C.G.S. absolute units. Very frequently the proposed such systems. Heaviside’s Rational System.—One remedy for the difficulty “Liloline,” equal to 1,000 lines of force, is now used as a unit of has been suggested by Heaviside. He proposes to restate the magnetic flux.) An Electrical Congress was held in Chicago, U.S.A., in Aug. definition of a unit magnetic pole in such a manner as to remove 1893, to consider the subject of international practical electrical this constant 47 from the most frequently employed equations. units, and the result of a conference between scientific representa- His starting-point is a new definition according to which a unit tives of Great Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Italy, magnetic pole is said to have a strength of m units if it attracts Mexico, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden and British North America, or repels another equal pole placed at a distance of d centimetres after deliberating for six days, was a unanimous agreement to with a force of m?/4md? dynes. It follows from this definition recommend the following resolutions as the definition of practical that a rational unit magnetic pole is weaker or smaller than the international units. These resolutions and definitions were con- irrational or British Association unit pole in the ratio of 1/\/47 firmed at other conferences, and at the last one held in London to I, or -28205 to 1. The magnetic force due to a rational pole of strength m at a distance of d centimetres being m/47d° units, in Oct. 1908 were finally adopted. It was agreed to take:— “As a unit of resistance, the International Ohm, which is based if we suppose a magnetic filament having a pole of strength m in upon the ohm equal to 10? units of resistance of the C.G.S. system rational units to have a smaller sphere of radius r described round of electromagnetic units, and is represented by the resistance its pole, the magnetic force on the surface of this sphere is m/4rr? offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury units, and this is therefore also the numerical value of the flux at the temperature of melting ice 14-4521 grammes in mass, of a density. Hence the total magnetic flux through the surface of the sphere is constant cross-sectional area and of the length of 106-3 cm. 4nr’xXm/a4rr? units =m units; “As a unit of current, the International Ampere, which is oneand therefore the number which denotes the total magnetic flux tenth of the unit of current of the C.G.S. system of electromagnetic units, and which is represented sufficiently well for practical coming out of the pole of strength m in rational units is also m. It follows, therefore, that if the intensity of magnetization of use by the unvarying current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of the magnetic filament is I and the section is s, the total flux traversing the centre of the magnet is Is units; and that if the fila000111800 of a gramme per second. “As a unit of electromotive force, the International Volt, which ment is an endless or poleless iron filament magnetized uniformly is the electromotive force that, steadily applied to a conductor by a resultant external magnetic force H, the flux density will be whose resistance is one international ohm, will produce a current expressed in rational units by the equation B=I+H. The physical of one international ampere. It is represented sufficiently well for meaning of this equation is that the flux per square centimetre in practical purposes by ig; of the E.M.F. of a normal or satu- the iron is simply obtained by adding together the flux per square rated cadmium Weston cell at 20° C, prepared in the manner centimetre, if the iron is supposed to be removed, and the magnetization of the iron at that place. described in a certain specification. A final question suggests itself: Do the systems of units founded “As a unit of quantity, the International Coulomb, which is the quantity of electricity transferred by a current of one interna- directly upon mechanical quantities constitute finality, or can we proceed to make a further reduction in the number of primary tional ampere in one second. “As the unit of capacity, the International Farad, which is the quantities? There are certain constants of nature which are fundamental, capacity of a condenser charged to a potential of one international volt by one international coulomb of electricity. (This unit is far invariable, and, as far as we know, of the same magnitude in all too large for most purposes; one millionth of it is called a micro- parts of the universe. One of these is the mass of the atom, say farad; even a millionth of this is more practical in certain modern of hydrogen. Another is the length of a wave of light of particular applications—it might be called a micro-microfarad or a dimicro- refrangibility emitted by some atom, say one of the two yellow farad, on the analogy of the use of di- in chemical nomenclature.) lines in the spectrum of sodium or one of the hydrogen lines. “As a unit of work, the Joule, which is equal to 10 units of Also a time is fixed by the velocity of light in space which is work in the C.G.S. System, and which is represented sufficiently according to the best measurement very close to 3X rol? cms. per well for practical use by the energy expended in one second by sec. Another natural unit is the so-called constant of gravitation, or the force in dynes due to the attraction of two spherical masses an international ampere in an international ohm. “As a unit of power, the Watt, which is equal to 10’ units of each of r gramme with centres at a distance of r cm. Very power in the C.G.S. System, and which is represented sufficiently approximately this is equal to 648X 1079 dynes. Another natural

Since the date when the preceding terms were adopted, other multiples of absolute C.G.S. units have P received practical names, thus :—

well for practical use by the work done at the rate of one joule per second. “As the unit of inductance, the Henry, which is the induction in a circuit when an electromotive force induced in this circuit is one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere per second.” Rational System of Electrical Units.—The above-described practical system based on the C.G.S. double system of theoretical

units labours under several very great disadvantages. The practical system is derived from and connected with an abnormally

electrical unit of great importance is the electric charge represented by 1 electron. (See Exvectricrry.) This, according to the latest determination,

is nearly 3-4X107?° electrostatic units of

quantity on the C.G.S. system. Hence, 2,930 million electrons are equal to r E.S. unit of quantity on the C.G.S system, and the quantity called 1 coulomb is equal to 879X to! electrons. In round numbers 9X107'8 electrons make 1 coulomb. The electron is nature’s unit of electricity and is the charge carried by t hydrogen ion in electrolysis. (See CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC, sec. Liquids.) Accordingly a truly natural system of physical units

88o

PHYSICS

would be one which was based upon the electron, or a multiple of it, as a unit of electric quantity, the velocity of light or frac-

tion of it as a unit of velocity, and the mass of an atom of hydrogen or multiple of it as a unit of mass. An approximation to such a natural system of electric units will be found discussed in chap. 17 of a book on The Electron Theory, by E. E. Fournier

d’Albe (London, 1906), to which the reader is referred. In addition, in more recent times, a new universal constant has been determined. It is generally known as Planck’s constant because it first appeared in Planck’s theory of full radiation. BIBLioGRAPHY.—See J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii., chap. x. (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892) ; E. E. N. Mascart and J. Joubert, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, trans. by E. Atkinson, vol. i, chap. xi. (1883); J. D. Everett, Zllustrations of the C.G.S. System of Units (1891 and later editions); Fleeming Jenkin, Reports on Electrical Standards (1873) ; Reports of the British Association Committee on Electrical Units from 1862 to 1912; J. A.

the head physics, which, by derivation from plots, signihes a study of nature so far as it can be reduced by calculation and ex. periment to a few simple or at least fundamental laws. Those laws, first studied by Galileo, were formulated with masterly precision by Isaac Newton, and throughout the 19th century domi-

nated the field. It was hoped at one time that they would be all-

inclusive; the expressed ambition of Newton was that ultimately all observable phenomena might be brought under their sway. A long continued effort was made throughout the roth century to

apply them, not only to matter, but to the ether also—an attempt which failed, and has now, for a time at any rate, been abandoned. Hypothetical attempts were also made to include the phenomena

of life and mind under the same fundamental laws of mechanism.

without necessarily postulating anything outside and beyond such treatment; these efforts, the basis of a materialistic philosophy. were perfectly legitimate, though they have proved unsuccessful Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing-Room No one claims that the ordinary laws of physics and chemistry (2 vols., 1907); Lord Rayleigh, Collected Scientific Papers, vol. il. (1881-87); A. Gray, Absolute Measurements in Electricity and are disobeyed by live things, but it is now fairly admitted that Magnetism, vol. ii., part 2, chap. iv., p. 130 (1893, and later editions) ; they have to be supplemented, while, with regard to the ether. it Oliver Heaviside, Electromagnetic Theory, i. 116 (1893); Sir A. W. is still a question as to how far the simple laws are applicable at Rücker, “On the Suppressed Dimensions of Physical Quantities,” Proc. all. The very terms inertia, velocity, acceleration, force, are of Phys. Soc. Lond. (1888), 10, 37; W. Williams, “On the Relation of the Dimensions of Physical quantities to Directions in Space,” Proc. only doubtful validity except when applied to definite material particles, and even then these properties themselves require elucidaPhys. Soc. Lond. (1892), 11, 257. (X.; A. W. Po.) PHYSICS. The old term “natural philosophy” signified an tion. It may be that no fundamental explanation of even the simattempt to frame a theory of that part of the material universe plest phenomenon can be satisfactorily and safely given until the which could be explored by observation and experiment, and of laws of the fundamental substance, of which probably matter itwhich the underlying laws were sufficiently understood to be self is composed. are better understood and formulated. amenable to mathematical calculation.

The science of biology was

excluded from its purview, for life was not sufficiently understood to be amenable to treatment of that thorough kind, and similarly the mental sciences were excluded, although an observable material organism was a sensible instrument and mode of manifestation; but even so the subject was a huge one and had to be subdivided. The branch of biological science nearest to inclusion was physiology, being a study of the mechanism involved in the functions of living organisms. The branch of natural philosophy that advanced most rapidly towards perfection was the mechanics of the heavenly bodies, where the things treated of were comparatively few and far apart, and could readily be dealt with as individuals, so that the laws governing their movements could be formulated with some satisfaction. This branch, under Sir Isaac Newton, became so highly elaborated as to dominate and set an example to the rest; but, after all, astronomy was only a special case of the motion of material bodies, and Galileo had begun the study of ordinary motions on the earth’s surface, developing into a complete treatment of their velocities, accelerations and distortions, and partly accounting for them by the fundamental inertia of matter influenced by forces of different kinds, and by the subsidiary properties of elasticity, friction, cohesion and the like. Matter was always known to exist in three states, solid, liquid and gaseous, each having peculiar properties of its own; and the fluids formed resisting media through which the solids could move. Moreover all these bodies were subject, not only to locomotion in bulk, but to internal vibrations, and for the apprehension of these vibrations we had special sense organs, which enabled them to be examined with special facility, and thereby taught us much concerning the things themselves. Some of these vibrations are known as sound, others as heat, and there was yet a third kind of vibration, appealing to the eye, the effect of which could travel across

space empty of matter, which therefore had to be filled with a hypothetical substance called “the ether” (or aether), whose properties are still in doubt.

Apart from these vibrations, which could be originated and absorbed by matter, it was found that matter consisted of particles called atoms, of a definite size and weight, which could enter into combination with each other, and so form the various compounds with which humanity had always been acquainted. A study of this branch of natural philosophy blossomed into the great science of chemistry, while geology took over a study of the history and conditions of the earth’s crust. The remaining portions of natural philosophy were grouped in comparatively modern times under

The Sub-divisions

of Physics——Meanwhile

the science of

physics has made gigantic strides, throwing off such branches as sound, light, heat, elasticity, hydrodynamics and the kinetic theory of gases. It was found that, although the atoms of matter were too small to be dealt with individually, the results of their combined action could be formulated statistically, in accordance with the laws of probability; and that, although the atoms of a gas were flying about in all directions at random, yet their number was so great that the pressure on any surface exposed to their random bombardment could be treated as perfectly uniform, except indeed when the exposed surface was extremely small. In the latter case individual atoms might exert a noticeable effect, giving occasionally a one-sided bombardment, and exerting an otherwise inexplicable propelling action on the body exposed to it. Thus originated a discrimination, now universally recognized, between the peculiar activities displayed by very small things and the customary behaviour of things on so large a scale that we can handle and directly apprehend them by our senses.

So far as matter was concerned there seemed little difference between physics and chemistry, except that physics sought to probe into the deeper-seated motions underlying molecular combination, and to investigate not only the anatomical groupings but the actual working of the agencies which rendered those groupings possible. It sought to understand the hidden meaning of chemical affinity and the nature of cohesion generally, and indeed of gravitation too. It was not satisfied with the idea of forces acting at a distance, or of the mere clinging together of polarized particles; it sought to dive down into the hidden meaning of attraction, and to explain if possible the very atoms themselves. In all this it was mightily helped by the development—since

| Newton’s time, in fact mainly in the 19th century—of two great and important new branches, the sciences of electricity and magnetism. These are agents which, like light, operate through what we call empty space or vacuum, and therefore seem primarily associated not with matter as such, but with the more fundamental ether. The fact that mankind has no sense organ for their direct appreciation involved the consequence that, unlike sound, light and heat, they had to be discovered as well as critically examined and studied.

Nevertheless in our own

time these new

powers

have become dominant; they have been taken up by engineers, and applied on an extensive and beneficent scale, so that they are now more or less familiar to everybody. The applications of electricity and magnetism are of great and growing importance, but that is not what constitutes their vivid interest to a physicist. Their importance is that they give a clue and greatly extend our

PHYSICS

S31

knowledge of the properties of the ether, which had only very | space, and to have a rate of variation and indeed an accelerated

partially been displayed in the familiar form of light. Indeed, | or variable rate of variation in time. The equation expresses the Clerk Maxwell, perhaps the greatest man of science in the 19th |relation between these extremely abstract possibilities as atfecting century, made the far reaching discovery that light itself was | the (perhaps unknown) quantity H, while 4, B, C are physical an electromagnetic vibration, a fact which has now blossomed | constants characteristic of the special conditions appropriate to into the engineering application of radio telegraphy.

| Some particular problem, each being capable of a physical inter-

The phenomenon called radiation, of which visible light is one | pretation in any definite case. small portion, contains the key to the interaction between ether; When the conditions are such that A is zero, the equation and matter, and is the link between the physics of the 19th and | can be made to represent the whole theory of the conduction of that of the 2oth century. All matter is always radiating, and: heat; and it was thus worked out by the great mathematician if it does not cool or otherwise lose energy it is only because it | Fourier into a complete analysis of diffusion by a series of harabsorbs exactly the quantity and quality which it emits. Stag- | monics. It gives primarily the flow of heat through a conductor nation of any kind is non-existent in the material universe. Every | of any shape, and it was applied by Lord Kelvin, after Fourier, particle quivers, and the ether quivers in sympathetic unison. | to the cooling of the earth, and to diffusion in gases and liquids, The problem of their interaction is being attacked and partially | and to many other phenomena. In fact the same differential solved by the mathematical physicists of the 2oth century. equation represents his theory of signalling through an Atlantic It may be asked, indeed it often is asked, how discoveries can | cable. The working out of the consequences of any equation

be made by means of calculation. The answer is quite definite. | may be treated as a mathematical exercise; the interpretation of The mathematical physicist probes down into the fundamental | those consequences in any particular case belongs to the physicist. activities, so as to be able to formulate in his mind what is | When the conditions are such that only B is zero, the equation

really going on, and to express the actions which can be observed | represents the phenomenon of waves, or at least of such waves

in a definite and quantitative form called an equation, especially | as travel with a definite velocity independent of wave-length, like in that form called a differential equation, which expresses inter- | air waves and ether waves.

actions among the smallest parts. The discovery of the relation | When C is zero the equation represents the settling down of a between electricity and magnetism on the one hand, and light on | disturbance, whether electrical or material, after the forces which

the other, will serve as an illustration of the process.

Clerk | originated the disturbance have ceased to act. The neutralization

Maxwell took the known phenomena of electricity and the known | of the C term avoids reference to space-considerations and makes

phenomena of magnetism, together with their interaction so | it an equation in time alone, like a law of cooling or of leakage,

brilliantly discovered and examined by the early physicists of | which last is so simple a case as not even to involve 4; while if

all countries at the beginning of the 19th century culminating in| the right-hand side be changed to C H the equation represents all the work of Faraday, and threw them into the form of equations. | the laws of electrical oscillations as worked out by Lord Kelvin 1853 and now applied in wireless wave meters. The 4 term These, when combined and manipulated in accordance with the | laws of pure mathematics, resulted in a differential equation in| then represents inertia, or the magnetic property called self-inductime and space, containing nothing but electric and magnetic | tion; the B term signifies resistance, especially the kind of electriquantities, which nevertheless corresponded with the known equa- | cal resistance involved in Ohm’s law. When the conditions are tion for waves, such as those of sound or of light or on the suriace | such that 4 and B are both zero, things have become stationary,

of water.

He perceived therefore that electromagnetic experi- j|and the equation reduces to the one so extensively applied by

ments could in the future probably give rise to such waves, and | Laplace to solve static gravitational problems.

It embodies the

that they would travel at a speed which could be calculated in| conditions which gravitational fields must satisfy, and develops terms of the electric and magnetic constants of a vacuum, 7.é., | into part of the theory of astronomy.

of the ether. He inaugurated a set of experiments which would |

When none of the coefficients is zero, and all three terms have

determine, not-indeed those constants separately, for they are still | to be taken into account

(especially if a term involving A is

unknown, but their product, viz., the product which appeared in | added in some cases), the equation represents waves or diffusions

his differential equation as determining the speed of the waves. | travelling through a more complicated medium, at speeds varying He found that the velocity with which his waves ought to travel | with or at least dependent on the wave-length. Waves such as

was identical with that of light, and thus came to the conclusion, | these can occur in the ether when it is interfered with or loaded

and was ultimately held to prove for all time, that light was an | by electrified particles, or when a medium is a polarizable insulator electromagnetic phenomenon. On this basis a whole new develop- | or a conductor. It can be made to represent the reflection of light by metals, as well as the transmission of waves through the

ment began, and continues to this day.

Applications of Differential Equations.—It is worth while | Heaviside layer of ionized air, now becoming familiar to wireless

illustrating the bearing of a differential equation, and the way in | amateurs. It also gives the Heaviside theory of cable signalling, apwhich it embodies a whole series of phenomena which can be | which is more complete than Lord Kelvin’s was, and which, dissected from it by the arts of pure mathematics

in a purely | plied in practice in America and elsewhere, has much improved

mechanical though recondite manner, and then handed back to the | long-distance telephony.

Needless

to say the equation in full

physicist for interpretation. Naturally the physicist and the | form can do much more than that. It, or rather an interlacing set mathematician may be combined in the same individual in ex- | of such equations, represents the most general kind of wave; and expanding. ceptional cases, and as has recently been said (Nature, May 26, | the kingdom dominated by waves is now rapidly of all but high powers the taxes equations such of solution The intellectual| the whether 1928): “It is interesting to speculate of vast interest

gulf separating the great physical scientists from the rest of |mathematicians and may lead to new functionssymbols by a pure of the their fellows is not greater now than at any previous period in| and importance. Skilled manipulation

information about the world’s history—whether they have not usurped the place | mathematician is neither aided nor hindered by to represent. The intended be may they things particular the | and day, Newton’s in true was That of the metaphysicians.” even 1 the symbols is true now: though no one claims that any single individual | laws are just as valid and self-consistent they sometimes do. In the possesses the exceptional power displayed by Newton.

represent imaginary quantities,

following :

a return to

as

of the integrated solution however there must be A differential equation which may serve as an illustration is the | interpretation reality. PH

At =r

dH

Bm —

=

C

PH

.H

ËH

Sa ay +z (TaeaaT oe

The vast multitude of facts and phenomena which can thus E

so that previously unsuspecte q ted byby a differential equation, treated

consequences can be deduced, is surely of high interest even to

not enable them oo eens H is any quantity, no matter what, representing some salient | those whose education does cs o powerful in eae eae SO are they why reason of subject dealt with; it is allowed to have The feature in the kind to light is plain enough. a slope of variable gradient in any of the three directions in | be brought

It is

because the actual proc-

PHYSICS

882

esses at work are compactly, precisely and completely formulated, in all their interactions, by these equations, so that they

embody the essence of the phenomenon; their solution and consequences can subsequently be worked out by the few who possess sufficient skill and insight. This method of procedure—from formulation, through solution, to interpretation—is indeed the highest example of the advantage possessed, and the power gained, by those who have successfully attained the aim of all science, “rerum cognoscere causas.” MODERN

PHYSICS

So long as we are dealing with massive bodies or with great groups of particles, the laws of dynamics, based upon Newton’s laws of motion and applied without any breach of continuity, were sufficient and reigned supreme. This kind of dynamics dominated the roth century, but just at the end, as a fitting prelude to the 20th century, a number of discontinuities began to be discovered. The first discontinuity was indeed old, viz., the atomic theory of matter, and was only evaded by the fact that we inevitably dealt with great numbers of atoms. In the years 1897 to tg00 however Sir J. J. Thomson, elaborating some 1879 experiments of Sir William Crookes in a partial vacuum, discovered and finally clinched the discontinuity of electricity; in other words he realized the electron, which had previously been only surmised rather vaguely by a few. Zeeman and Lorentz had just showed that electric charges were the agents really responsible for the generation of radiation, a fact further illustrated and enforced by RGntgen’s discovery of X-rays. After their isolation electrons were weighed and measured by Thomson, and found to possess the fundamental properties of matter. The nature of radiation as emitted by electrons was analysed and examined in precise detail by the spectroscope. Then another discontinuity was discovered by Max Planck, for, as soon as single atoms and their constituent particles were attended to, a new discontinuity appeared, apparently in radiation, but rather in what turned out to be a quantity connected with the orbital revolutions of an electron, akin to the sweeping out of equal areas which Kepler long ago had formulated for the planets; and Bohr formulated his astronomical theory of the structure of the atom. So through various channels it was found that these fundamental electric units, which were presumably structures in the ether, lay at the root of matter itself, and that matter was actually an electrical phenomenon. Discontinuities are natural and inevitable when dealing with individual minute particles; they were only masked in previous days because this minute treatment had not been attempted, though a hint had been given in that direction by the failure of the kinetic theory of gases, as ordinarily applied, to explain the irregular movements of very small bodies exposed to molecular bombardment. The Theory of Relativity.—Then came the theory of relativity, which adopted, generalized, and boldly formulated a number of vague but growing suspicions. In particular it postulated a universal and unalterable constitutional velocity in the ether, now known as ¢, which had been recognized in Clerk Maxwell’s theory as of an electromagnetic nature, but the nature of which is still unknown. This, like Planck’s constant 4, is found to enter into every department of physics, not only conspicuously when minute bodies are dealt with, but secretively throughout. All matter is moving through the ether, so that the constitutional velocity ¢ of that medium enters into and modifies even the Newtonian laws of motion, thus giving a complexity which sometimes seems strange to ordinary or evolutionary experience, and with a little ingenuity can be made to appear paradoxical. Many other results of high interest follow, and the gravitational function of the medium shows signs of yielding to mathematical treatment. The revolutionary outcome of all this is that the ether in its various forms of energy dominates modern physics, though many

these two great abstractions by aid of the velocity c. This how-

ever is rather verging on metaphysics, unless it is merely regarded as a legitimate convenience in calculation to deal with four similar

variables instead of three and an odd one. One definite outcome of the bold generalisations or challenges of relativity is that energy, which since its conservation was estab lished has always been recognised as protean in form, now includes not electric charges alone but matter itself as one of its forms, so that atoms of matter might be turned into other forms of

energy, if only we knew how. The idea already has some cosmological significance, for it is believed by Jeans to be the cause or mechanism of the radiation of the sun and other stars. The atom of matter is electrically constituted; it is composed of equal amounts of positive and negative electricity in its normal condition. High temperature signifies great activity or immense speeds among the atoms. They can be dissociated or broken up by collision, and their opposite ingredients may occasionally clash, lose their identity, or at least their locality, and pass quickly away

as a quantum of radiation.

The interior of stars is known to be

at an exceedingly high temperature, and accordingly their mass is believed to be gradually decreasing, their matter dying and

passing away as radiation into the depths of space. Whether there is ever or anywhere a recuperative action is at present unknown. When, if ever, such action is discovered—as is not unlikely—it will have a cosmological and philosophical bearing. It is interesting, as illustrating Newton’s exceptional foresight and speculative skill, that at the end of a disquisition on the changes and interchanges of known forms of energy (though the term “energy” as a dominating physical term was not adopted till long afterwards), he should conclude thus: “And among such various and strange

transmutations,

why

may

not Nature

change

bodies into light, and light into bodies?” Interaction of Matter and Radiation.—Meanwhile strange reactions have been discovered between matter and radiation. Radiation is generated by electrons, and accordingly itself suffers discontinuity. Maxwell calculated that it must exert pressure: it

is now found to exert pressure after the same bombarding fashion as the molecules of a gas exert it. Radiation is generated and absorbed not continuously but in quanta, and these quanta exert a bombarding action as if they were particles or corpuscles; yet they must be waves, because they exhibit interference and diffraction phenomena—a study of which, in optics, began with Newton himself. Wave quanta with extra high frequency of vibration are more efficient projectiles, and eject such suitable electrons as they encounter with more energy than do those with a more ordinary rate of vibration. This connection between energy and frequency is a development of Planck’s quantum, which, like much else, is due to Einstein’s bold and forcible conceptions. The outcome of all this is that the old barrier between the corpuscular

theory and the wave theory is being removed. There is truth in both. High speed particles are accompanied by waves, somewhat akin to the waves at the bows of a steamer, and the apparently sharp distinction between a wave and a corpuscle is subject to a compromise which includes both. We have long studied matter by means or by the aid of radiation or Waves; we are now beginning to see that momentum, which seemed a property of matter, is possessed by waves, and that the familiar thing which we call matter is after all a manifestation or localization of ether-energy, in a form not as yet completely known or understood. Ether energy—the one fundamental

existence—seems to manifest itself alternatively, or even as it would seem indiscriminately, sometimes as what we might call a particle and sometimes as a wave. De Broglie seems to have initiated this idea, which has been taken up and elaborated by Schrodinger and others. The result is that, whereas we once thought that we knew a great deal about an electron, its size and its speed, we are now confronted with some uncertainty. It is all very well to speculate and theorize, but all theories must be verified and brought to the test of experiment; and experiment—even indirect observation—on this minute scale is barely possible.

prefer to avoid the term “ether” because of its 19th century associations, and use the term “space.” The term used does not much matter. Faraday began the discovery that it is in space that the real phenomena occur. Every differential equation is an expression in space with its three dimensions and the other abThe difficulty can easily be rendered intelligible. We have to use straction called time; and some attempt has been made to unify |some physical means to examine the behaviour of anything. We

PHYSICS—PHYSICS

IN MEDICINE

88

itself; and, if we are examining something very minute, the illu-

cannot see a thing unless it is illuminated, or unless it emits light

ern view of solids comes under Sotm State, THEory or. Fort arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystalline solids the art

mination itself, which consists of quanta with a definite momentum, may be altering the conditions of the very thing we want

cle X-Rays AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURE should be consulted.

to observe.

How then can we determine the position and speed

of an electron?

Heisenberg has shown that we cannot do both.

If one determination is accurate, even sure now of the size of an with it, those waves must occupy perhaps small compared with an

the other is vague. We are not electron, for if it carries waves a certain region, which, though atom, is far greater than any-

thing we can call the electric nucleus. Indeed a highly accelerated electron, like one of those in Bohr’s inner atomic orbits,

Cry

tals have a regular ordered structure: in many ways the antith sis of the crystalline state is the colloidal state, dealt with und

CotLors.

Important general properties of liquids have speci

articles SURFACE TENSION and Viscosity devoted to them. The: articles, then, deal with the general properties of matter: tl field of radiation is covered in RapraTion, Rays, which dea broadly with the various kinds of waves comprised in the electri Magnetic spectrum.

The peculiar task of physics in the present century has bee to effect a synthesis of the properties of matter and radiation ) so that only in the outer and larger orbits is there any close terms of units of electric charge, of matter and of radiatio correspondence between ordinary dynamics and actual fact. That Modern atomic physics, which comprises this field, is well repr there is a correspondence at all is satisfactory, but there is much sented in the Encyclopedia. The unit of electricity is the Exx detail in the ultimate minutiae which at present escapes us. TRON, to which an article is devoted. A vast body of wor The difficulty of examining very small things by reason of the that established and developed the electron theory is describe perturbations introduced by our measuring instruments can be under ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTION oF, IN Gases. The connectir illustrated in a simple manner. To take the temperature of a hot link between matter and radiation is furnished by the nucle: bath is easy enough, but a thimbleful would be chilled or other- theory of the atom, which asserts that an atom consists of wise altered by the thermometer employed. It is in fact difficult minute, positively-charged massive nucleus, surrounded by grou] to observe any very small quantity without introducing pertur- ings of electrons in motion. The general nuclear theory is e: bations. Heisenberg has actually formulated a law of uncertainty, plained under Atom, the properties of the nucleus, and their prc in a singularly definite manner, showing that Planck’s quantum is found consequences for physics and chemistry, under NUCLEU involved. There is an uncertainty in the position of an electron, Isotopes, and Positive Rays. TRANSMUTATION OF THE Eu} and an uncertainty about its speed or momentum. The product of MENTS presents another aspect of nuclear theory. RADIOACTIVIT is an article of first importance for the understanding of moder the two uncertainties is equal to Planck’s constant A. There are still more recent developments. Speculation is active, physics. The theory of emission of light and X-rays by a the revolution is in progress and fresh discoveries are constantly atom, described under Atom, is based upon the Quantum TH! being made. The whole constitutes an elaborate network of inter- ory, discussed in a key article which leads up to the new develoy lockings and coincidences, which must have a deep-seated mean- ments known as wave mechanics. X-Rays, NATURE OF; SPECTRO‘ ing when we can unravel the tangled skein. All we can do now is copy; BAND SPECTRUM; RESONANCE POTENTIALS; THERMIONICS to hint at the stages that are being reached, to realize that nothing PHOTOELECTRICITY; ComMPTON ErFecT; RAMAN EFFect deal wit like the last word has been spoken, to wonder at the genius which the experimental and theoretical side of radiation phenomen has so greatly illuminated and yet partly confused us and to have which have a prominent place in atomic physics, while WrLso Croup CHAMBER describes a method of experimenting on sing: faith in the advent of a great generalization. (O. J. L.) PHYSICS, ARTICLES ON. The astonishing advances atoms and electrons which has had far-reaching results. The general body of physics is dealt with under comprehensis which the science of physics has made since the Eleventh Edition articles devoted to the main conventional divisions—Hea' by met been have prepared was Britannica of the Encyclopædia a complete and drastic revision of the physics articles. How far LIGHT, SOUND, ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, with important supple the researches of the present century have changed the outlook mentary articles, among which may be mentioned: under hea ligh is evidenced by the fact that the Eleventh Edition contains noth- THERMODYNAMICS; CALORIMETRY; THERMOMETRY; under ing on relativity, on atomic structure or on the quantum theory, OPTICS; SPECTROSCOPY; FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE three questions which dominate modern physics, and influence under electricity, ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTION OF}; ELECTROLYSI Coz every branch. Not only have articles by the highest authorities Important instruments and their uses are described under: In BINOCULAR Mrrror; Microscopy; Microscope; DENSER; fundamental less the and introduced, been topics new the on ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS, INTERFEROMETER; STRUMENTS; way a such articles on older subjects been cut down in size in SeLenrum CELLS as to make the balance accord with actuality, but every article Accumutator; Inpuction Cort; Compass; VACUUM. it make to as so revised or has been either completely rewritten Applied physics is another aspect of the subject which receive part of a proportioned and organic body of information on representation. The meteorological side is represented b full modern physics. ATMOSPHERIC and the geophysical by TERRESTRIA ELECTRICITY, the of view The articles Screncr and Puystcs give a general and GRAVITATION. Some of th scope of physics, and its place among the sciences. The funda- MAGNETISM; EARTH CURRENT of physics in everyday lif bearing the which under heads chief of and world, physical the mental nature of space and time in Acoustics; AERODYNAM are: detail in described is industry and gravitation, is discussed under ReLativity and Spacr-TIME, E OF; ELECTRC MANUFACTUR VALVES, AND LAMPS ELECTRIC Ics; nature the of aspect another and growth, the of while the history PHOTOMETRY ; PHOTOGRAPHY LENS; ; GRAMOPHONE MAGNET: of account of, the relativity problem is given under ETHER. An X-Rays, APPLICATION experiments and observations which played a great part in pre- TELEGRAPH; TELEPHONE; TELEVISION; is included in the scheme: ELECTRI paring the way for relativity will be found under MICHELSON- or. Every aspect of wireless discovery and the subsequen original Hertz’s with MORLEY EXPERIMENT and ABERRATION OF LicHT. Measurements Waves deals TELEGRAPHY deals, in tw WIRELESS ; developments laboratory fundamental, is which of constancy the of the VeLocttY or Licut, aspect of the subjeci practical and theoretical the with divisions, exare described under the article so entitled. The historical, SPEAKER; RADI LouD ; MICROPHONE VALVE; perimental and theoretical aspects of the subject are thus all while THERMIONIC vital to BroapcasTING, all aspect apparatus describe RecerveR readily accessible. (E. N. pa C. A.) that title.

seems to spread like a sinuous disturbance over the whole orbit,

The subject-matter of physics can be broadly classed as matter and radiation. The physical nature of matter is expounded under Kinetic Turory or Matter, which deals mainly with gases. Supplementary to this article is BRowNIAN MOVEMENT. The transition from gas to liquid is handled from the general theoretical point of view in the article LIQUEFACTION OF GASES, which also deals with technically important aspects of the subject. The mod-

of which are discussed under PHYSICS IN MEDICINE.

The science of physics con

cerns itself with energy in its various manifestations and th properties of matter, and in consequence plays a part in medicin

whose value and importance are ever increasing. It furnishe th means of investigating the structure of the animal body and functions of its members; it assists in the detection of abnormalit:

884

PHYSICS

IN MEDICINE

and disease, and in the preparation, control and administration on physiological processes require the existence of mechanism of therapeutic remedies; finally, it enables man to acquire a for the prevention of conside rable changes of this kind. One of measure of control of his environment by scientific heating, light- the main functions of blood is to provide this. It can itself withing, ventilation and drainage, and the development of means of stand the addition of relatively considerable amounts of free acid transport for himself and his necessities. or free alkali without much change in its reaction, largely owing In particular, such processes of the living body as muscular to the presence of carbonates and phosphates. The electrolytic contraction, the circulation of the blood, the respiratory intake dissociation theory provides the only satisfactory explanation of and output of the lungs, the nervous impulse and its journeyings this. and the maintenance of the energy balance by food intake are in a Colloids and Membranes.—The colloidal state is recognised measure explicable in terms of physics and physical chemistry. as a permanent suspension of solid particles or liquid globules in Source of Bodily Energy.—To consider some of these in a continuous medium of a different kind. In contrast to true detail, first the question of the energy value of food may be cited. solutions, colloids are heterog eneous systems in which the susAccording to the principle of conservation of energy—if this is pended particles are large enough to possess the special properties valid for transformations of energy accurring in the living animal peculiar to surfaces. It is easily seen that, since molecules at the ~—the same amount of energy should be evolved from the utilisa- surface of separation of two phases are attracted more powertion of food inside the body as outside, provided the resulting fully in the direction of the phase to which they belong than in chemical end-products are the same in the two cases and have the opposite directio n, the interface will be in a state of tension. the same physical state. This has been shown to be the case by Consequently any change in the area of a surface film will result the direct measurement over a sufficiently long period, of the in a loss or gain of surface energy. Again, particles of colloid heat given out by resting man or animal when placed in a suitable solutions usually possess an electrical charge, which is localized calorimeter, and by also separately measuring the heat evolved on its surface. Such particles are to a large extent prevented from in the oxidation of a quantity of food equal to that which was aggregating togethe r -and falling as precipitates by the mutual consumed in this period. When due allowance is made for sub- repulsion of their electrical charges. stances which are excreted unchanged or only partially oxidized, The deposition of charged ions on a colloidal particle or any and for the work of evaporation, it is found that the agreement surface would confer on the surface a charge of corresponding is beyond doubt. This is of considerable importance, for if it sign. This process is called adsorption and it may or may not be were not the case, then it would be quite uncertain whether or accompanied by chemical action between the constituents of the not man received energy from unknown sources and physics surface and the adsorbed material. The neutralization of elecwould be of little use in medicine. As it is, the fact that the trical charges by adsorption of oppositely charged ions from oxidation of food is the only source of bodily energy of man, added neutral salts results in precipitation. A similar effect may makes possible the prescription of diets adequate to a variety of be produced by oppositely charged colloids. conditions, whether of health or disease. An important case of adsorption is that occurring at the semi- Not only does the principle of conservation of energy apply to permeab le membrane which covers cells. Physical principles the body as a whole, it is also applicable to the units which go to show that any material which lowers surface energy will be acform it, i.e. to all those energy changes and oxidations necessary cumulat ed in the surface. Certain substances, such as proteins, for life which occur in the cell. Now the living cell consists of may form solid deposits in the surface films owing to their cona watery solution containing colloids, crystalloids and substances centrati on brought about in this way. These deposits are capable in suspension, enclosed in a cell wall or membrane. Therefore in some cases of being redissolved if carried into the interior of the study of the physical properties of solutions, colloids and the cell. Hence the cell membrane must have a variable strucmembranes in the laboratory should, and does, afford much in- ture in equilibrium with its contents. formation concerning its behaviour. Below some of these properOsmotic Pressure.—Semi-permeable membranes, 7.¢., memties are examined with this object. branes which allow water to pass freely, but hold back dissolve d Hydrogen Ion Concentration.—It is well known that solusubstances exhibit another important property. Water will tend tions which conduct electricity (electrolytes) do so in virtue of to diffuse more rapidly through the membrane towards that side the electrically charged “ions,” positive and negative, derived on which the concentration of dissolved substance is greater, than from the dissociation of the molecules of the dissolved substances. in the reverse direction. This would cause a difference in hydroPure water is only slightly ionized, yielding hydrogen ions carry- static pressure on the two sides if an increase in volume of the Ing a positive electrical charge and an equal number of hydroxyl more concentrated solution is prevented by a non-ylelding enions with a negative charge, the product of the concentration of velope. This pressure is called osmotic pressure and the unihydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions being constant for a given tem- lateral passage of fluid osmosis (g.v.). Solutions which exert the perature. When a substance is dissolved in water it, in general, Same osmotic pressure are said to be tsotomic. produces a change in its chemical neutrality, owing to the disIt is easy to see that the solutions which bathe a cell not enturbance in the balance existing between the concentration of closed in a rigid envelope must, for equilibrium, possess the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Thus an acid dissolved in water same osmotic pressure as the cell contents. Otherwise the cell yields hydrogen ions as a direct result of solution, and leads to will contract through loss, or expand through gain of water, and an Increase in hydrogen ion concentration and a decrease in the will be destroyed unless the osmotic pressures can be equalized concentration of hydroxyl ions. Similarly the solution of a base in this way. In any case if any change of concentration occurs, produces hydroxyl ions and leads to a decrease in hydrogen ion the functional activity of the cell will be affected. The memconcentration and an increase in the concentration of hydroxyl brane covering individual cells and blood corpuscles is impermeions. able to salts, glucose, etc.; that forming the walls of the capillary Acidity then is due to the preponderance of hydrogen ions over blood vessels is permeable to these but not to colloids. hydroxyl ions, and alkalinity is due to the converse. Neutrality The osmotic pressure of colloids although it is very small comis an equilibrium of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. Certain subpared with that of solutions of electrolytes, has been shown by stances—called amphoteric electrolytes—produce both hydrogen Starling to play an important part in the formation of urine. ions and hydroxyl ions on dissociation, and may therefore combine Oedema also, according to some authors, is a phenomenon of as acids with bases, or as bases with acids. Proteins are of this osmosis. class, and so of course, is water. The chemical behaviour of colloidal particles is very inert An alteration in acidity is the causative factor in the regulacompared with the same amount of material in true solution. tion of respiration, the activity of muscle, and the excitabi lity of This permits of the use in medicine of colloidal preparations of nerve and plays an important part in regulating excretio n and metals and other powerful drugs to secure a slow and prolonged secretion. action of continuous minute doses of the active ionized form The powerful effects of variation in hydrogen ion concentr ation into which they break down.

PHYSIOCRATIC The reference already made to the properties of colloids and electrolytes and to some of the parts they play in the animal body are properties and phenomena which demanded for their elucidation the use of the microscope, ultra-microscope,

electrometer, etc.

polarimeter,

SCHOOL

885

the absorption of a given amount of radiant energy of this wave length will provoke a much greater response in a given cell or Organism than the absorption of an equal amount of energy of another wave length.

These two effects—the

specific and the selective effects of

Physics of Muscle and Nerve—rThe study of the action of different radiations—are of great importance in radiation therapy.

muscles and nerves illustrates perhaps in a still more definite manner, the dependence of medical on physical science. This

The mechanism

of the action of radiation on the cell has not

been traced in all its stages. Ultimately, however, it is attributdependence is twofold, in that the investigation and rational ex- able either to the heat produced by the energy absorbed. or to planation of physiological phenomena has had to await, not only the ionizing (photo-electric) effect on the atoms of the cells inthe development of physical theory for the realm of inanimate volved. The principal methods of physical dosage measurement matter, but also the invention and technical perfection of de- In radiation therapy also depend on these two last mentioned tecting and recording instruments ef the greatest sensitivity and properties. Exact dosage measurements have shown that the highest precision. biological reactions produced by different kinds of radiation In order to maintain living muscles and nerves outside the obey similar laws in that they all require a minimum duration animal for long periods they are bathed in an artificial saline and have a threshold value of intensity below which no effect is

solution, which, as we have seen, must be isotonic with them and have the same hydrogen ion concentration. Now much of the difficulty in investigating vital processes is due to the microscopic size of the living cell, which results in changes which are also small. Largely owing to the development of sensitive gal-

vanometers and also to the modern thermionic amplifier and cinematograph camera, it is possible to detect extremely small variations

of energy if they occur

in the form

of electrical

changes or can be converted into that form. Minute changes of temperature—and therefore the production of small quantities of heat—can be measured by the electrical currents generated in thermocouples or by changes in electrical resistance of metallic

conductors.

Methods of Investigation—In studying the activity of an

isolated nerve or muscle preparation, it is usual to employ a brief electric current as stimulus, since it is possible to repeat it without producing permanent damage and the duration and intensity can be so readily and accurately controlled. By these means, it has been possible to measure with some accuracy the heat produced in a muscle by a single stimulus, and also that liberated over long intervals at rest, or in recovery after prolonged stimulation. The results prove that oxidation is necessary to maintain the normal life and structure of an animal cell in a living but completely resting condition. Further it has been shown that muscular contraction is a surface phenomenon, since the energy developed is proportional to the length of the fibres and not their volume. Similarly it has been shown that the nervous impulse is excited by a stimulus which in all probability consists in an accumulation of ions in certain parts of the nerve fibre. The arrival of the impulse at any point on the nerve is indicated by the active region developing a negative electrical potential with regard to the neighbouring inactive regions. If then, electrodes are placed in contact with the active and inactive regions and connected through a galvanometer, a current will pass through the circuit towards the active region. It is found that the energy involved in the transmission of the impulse is derived from that stored in the fibre itself, and not from the stimulus: the latter only acts as a trigger. Radiation.—Not the least service rendered by physics to medicine is the demonstration and exploitation of the fact that, in addition to those radiations—light and radiant heat—which are directly perceived through the senses, there exist others which have a profound influence on the animal body. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is now known to comprise, in descend-

produced. For other applications of physics to medicine the reader should consult the following articles:—Pnuysiotocy; HyGIene: E:LECTRO-THERAPY; X-RAYS; RADIUM. (F. Ho.)

PHYSIOCRATIC

SCHOOL,

the name of a group of

French economists and philosophers. The heads of the school were François Quesnay (g.v.) and Jean Claude Marie Vincent. sieur de Gournay (1712-1759). The principles of the school had been put forward in 1755 by R. Cantillon, a French merchant of Irish extraction (Essai sur la nature du commerce en général), but it was Quesnay and Gournay who gave them a systematic form, and made them the creed of a united group of thinkers and practical men, bent on carrying them into action. The members of the group called themselves les économistes, but it is more convenient, because unambiguous, to designate them by the name physiocrates (Gr. bois nature, and xparecv

to rule), invented by P. S. Dupont de Nemours

(1739-1817).

The general political doctrine is as follows: Society is composed of a number of individuals, all having the same natural rights. If all do not possess (as some members of the negative school maintained) equal capacities, each can at least best understand his own interest, and is led by nature to follow it. The social union is really a contract between these individualis, the object of which is the limitation of the natural freedom of each just so far as it is inconsistent with the rights of the others. Government though necessary, is a necessary evil; and the governing power appointed by consent should be limited to the amount of interference absolutely required to secure the fulfilment of the contract. In the economic sphere this implies the right of the individual to such natural enjoyments as he can acquire by his labour. That labour, therefore, should be undisturbed and unfettered, and its fruits should be guaranteed to the possessor; in other words, property should be sacred. Each citizen must be allowed to make the most of his labour; and therefore freedom of exchange should be ensured, and competition in the market should be unrestricted, no monopolies or privileges being permitted to exist. The Single Tax on Land.—tThe physiocrats then proceed with the economic analysis thus: Only those labours are truly “productive” which add to the quantity of raw materials available for the purposes of man; and the real annual addition to the wealth of the community consists of the excess of the mass of agricultural products (including, of course, metals) over their

cost of production. On the amount of this produit net depends the well-being of the community and the possibility of its ading order of wave lengths, the Hertzian waves of wireless com- vance in civilization. The manufacturer merely gives a new form munication, infra-red rays, the visible spectrum, ultra-violet to the materials extracted from the earth; the higher value of through his hands, only represents rays, X-rays and the gamma rays of radio-active substances. the object, after it has passed The shorter wave lengths of the visible spectrum and the still the quantity of provisions and other materials used and consumed shorter ones mentioned above, all possess the power of either in its elaboration. Commerce does nothing more than transfer stimulating or destroying the animal cell, according as the quan- the wealth already existing from one hand to another; what the tity of energy absorbed is small or excessive. The action of the trading classes gain thereby is acquired at the cost of the nation, rays is selective in that different cells exhibit different degrees and it is desirable that its amount should be as small as possible. The occupations of the manufacturer and merchant, as well as of response to a given quality and intensity of radiation. Some radiations, notably those from certain parts of the ultra- the liberal professions, and every kind of personal service, are violet spectrum, have a specific action on biological material, z.e., “useful” indeed, but they are “sterile,” drawing their income, not

886

PHYSIOGNOMY

from any fund which they themselves create, but from the super-

fluous earnings of the agriculturist. The revenue of the state, which must be derived altogether from this net product, ought to be raised in the most direct and simplest way—namely, by a single impost of the nature of a land tax. The special doctrine relating to the exclusive productiveness of agriculture arose out of a confusion between “value” on the one hand and “matter and energy” on the other. A. Smith and others have shown that the attempt to fix the character of “sterility” on manufactures and commerce was founded in error. And the proposal of a single zmpét territorial falls to the ground with the doctrine on which it was based. But such influence as the school exerted depended little, if at all, on these peculiar tenets, which indeed some of its members did not hold. The effective result of its teaching was mainly destructive. It continued in a more systematic form the efforts in favour of the freedom of industry already begun in England and France. The Rule of Nature.—These conclusions as to the revolutionary tendencies of the school are not at all affected by the fact that the form of government preferred by Quesnay and some of his chief followers was what they called a legal despotism, which should embrace within itself both the legislative and the executive function. The reason for this preference was that an enlightened central power could more promptly and eficaciously introduce the policy they advocated than an assembly representing divergent opinions and fettered by constitutional checks and limitations. Turgot used the absolute power of the Crown to carry into effect some of his measures for the liberation of industry, though he ultimately failed because unsustained by the requisite force of character in Louis XVI. But what the physiocratic idea with respect to the normal method of government was appears from Quesnay’s advice to the dauphin, that when he became king he should “do nothing, but let the laws rule,” the laws having been, of course, first brought into conformity with the ius naturae. The partiality of the school for agriculture was in harmony with the sentiment in favour of “nature” and primitive simplicity which then showed itself in so many forms in France, especially in combination with the revolutionary spirit, and of which Rousseau was the most eloquent exponent. The members of the physiocratic group were undoubtedly men of thorough uprightness, and inspired with a sincere desire for the public good, especially for the material and moral elevation of the working classes. Quesnay was phy-

sician to Louis XV., and resided in the palace at Versailles; but in the midst of that corrupt court he maintained his integrity,

and spoke with manly frankness what he believed to be the truth. And never did any statesman devote himself with greater singleness of purpose or more earnest endeavour to the service of his country than Turgot, who was the principal practical representative of the school. The physiocratic school never obtained much direct popular influence, even in its native country, though it strongly attracted many of the more gifted and earnest minds. Its members, writing on dry subjects in an austere and often heavy style, did not find acceptance with a public which demanded before all things charm of manner in those who addressed it. The physiocratic tenets, which were in fact partly erroneous, were regarded by many as chimerical, and were ridiculed in the contemporary literature; as, for example, the impôt unique by Voltaire in his L’Homme

aux quarante écus, which was directed in particular against P. P. Mercier-Lariviére (1720-1794). It was justly objected to the group that they were too absolute in their view of things; they supposed, as Smith remarks in speaking of Quesnay, that the body politic could thrive only under one precise régime—that, namely, which they recommended—and thought their doctrines universally and immediately applicable in practice. They did not, as theorists, sufficiently take into account national diversities or different stages in social development; nor did they, as politiclans, adequately estimate the impediments which ignorance, prejudice and interested opposition present to enlightened statesmanship. The physiocratic system, after guiding in some degree the

policy of the Constituent assembly, soon ceased to exist as a living power; but its good elements were incorporated into the more complete construction of Adam Smith. See the articles on Quesnay

(with bibliography), MIRABEAU and

TurcoT; also Tocqueville, L’Ancien régime et la révolution, ch. iii.: Taine, Les Origines de la France contemporaine, vol. i.; R. Stourm,

Les Finances de Vancien régime et de la révolution (1885); J. F. X. Droz, Histoire du régne de Louis XVI.; L. de Lavergne, Économistes francais du XVIII ¢ siécle (1876); H. Higgs, The Phystocrats (1897) C. Landauer, Die Theorien der Merkantilisten und der Physiokratey

uber die Gkonomische Bedeutung des Luxus (Munich, 191s); R. Savatier, La Théorie du commerce chez les physiocrates (1918); R. Gonnard, Hist. des doctrines economique

(3 vols., 1921-22).

PHYSIOGNOMY, a term which denotes a supposed science for the “discovery of the disposition of the mind by the lineaments of the body” (Bacon); is also used colloquially as a synonym for the face or outward appearance, being variously spelled by the old writers. Physiognomy was regarded by those who cultivated it as a twofold science: (1) a mode of discriminating character by the outward appearance, and (2) a method of divination from form and feature. On account of the abuses of the latter aspect of the subject its practice was forbidden by the English law. By the act of parliament 17 George II. c. 5 (1743) all persons pretending to have skill in physiognomy were deemed rogues and vagabonds, and were liable to be publicly whipped, or sent to the house of correction until next sessions. The pursuit thus stigmatized as unlawful is one of great antiquity: in ancient times physiognomy was a profession. The first systematic treatise which has come down to us is that attributed to Aristotle, in which he devotes six chapters to the consideration of the method of study, the general signs of character, the particular appearances characteristic of the dispositions, of strength and weakness, of genius and stupidity, of timidity, impudence, anger and their opposites, etc. Then he studies the physiognomy of the sexes, and the characters derived from the different features, and from colour, hair, body, limbs, gait and voice. He compares the varieties of mankind to animals, the male to the lion, the female to the leopard. The general character of

the work may be gathered from the following specimen. While discussing noses, he says that those with thick bulbous ends belong to persons who are insensitive, swinish; sharp-tipped belong to the irascible, those easily provoked, like dogs; rounded, large, obtuse noses to the magnanimous, the lion-like; slender hooked noses to the eagle-like, the noble but grasping; round-tipped retroussé noses to the luxurious, like barndoor fowl; noses with a very slight notch at the root belong to the impudent, the crow-like; while snub noses belong to persons of luxurious habits, whom he compares to deer; open nostrils are signs of passion, etc. While the earlier classical physiognomy was chiefly descriptive, the later mediaeval authors particularly developed the predictrve and astrological side, their treatises often digressing into chiromancy, onychomancy, clidomancy, podoscopy, spasmatomancy and other branches of prophetic folk-lore and magic. Along with the medical science of the period the Arabians contributed to the literature of physiognomy; notably ‘Ali b. Ragel, Rhazes and Averroes. Avicenna also makes some acute physiognomical remarks in his De antmalibus, which was translated by Michael Scot about 1270. Among mediaeval writers Albertus Magnus (born 1205) devotes much of the second section of his De animalibus to physiognomy. The famous sage of Balwearie. Michael Scot, while court astrologer to the emperor Frederick Il., wrote his treatise De hominis phisiognomia, much of which is physiological and of curious interest. It was probably composed about 1272, but not printed until 1477. This was the first printed work on the subject.

The 16th century was rich in publications on physiognomy.

Treatises were published, among

others, by John de Indagine,

Cocles, Andreas Corvus, Michael Blondus, Janus Cornaro, Anselm Douxciel, Pompeius Ronnseus, Gratarolus, Lucas Gauricus, Tricassus, Cardanus, Taisnierus, Magnus Hund, Rothman, Johannes Padovanus, and, greatest of all, Giambattista della Porta. The earliest English works were anonymous: On the Art of Foretelling

Future Events by Inspection of the Hand (1504), and A Pleasant

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ARTICLES—PHYSIOLOGY

Introduction to the Art of Chiromancie and Physiognomie (1588). Dr. Thomas Hill’s work, The Contemplation of Mankynde, con-

tayning a singular Discourse after the Art of Physiognomie, published in 1571, is a quaintly written adaptation from the Italian authors of the day. The development of a more accurate anatomy in the 17th cen-

tury seems to have diminished the interest in physiognomy by substituting fact for fiction; and consequently the literature, though as great in quantity, became less valuable in quality. The

principal writers of this age were T. Campanella, R. Coclenius,

Clement, Timpler, J. E. Gallimard, Moldenarius, Septalius, Saun-

ders, C. Lebrun

(a precursor of Charles Bell), Elsholz, de la

Belliére, J. Evelyn (in the appendix to Numismata), Baldus, Bul-

wer (in his Pathomyotomia), Fuchs, Spontoni, Ghiradelli, Chiaramonti, A. Ingegneri, Finella, De la Chambre, Zanardus, R. Fludd and others of less importance.

The 18th century shows a still greater decline of interest; the only name worthy of note is that of J. K. Lavater (g.v.). The popular style, good illustrations and pious spirit of his works gave them a popularity they little deserved, as there is no system in

his work, which chiefly consists of rhapsodical comments upon the several portraits. The physiological school of physiognomy was foreshadowed by Parsons and founded by Sir Charles Bell, whose Essay on the Anatomy of the Expression, published in 1806, was the first scientific study of the physical manifestation of emotions in the terms of the muscles which produce these manifestations. In the later editions of this essay the thesis is elaborated with greater detail. Moreau’s edition of Lavater, in 1807, was somewhat along the same lines. In 1817 Dr. Cross of Glasgow wrote his defence of a scientific physiognomy based on general physiological principles. The experiments of G. B. A. Duchenne (Mécanisme de la physiognomie humaine, Paris, 1862)' showed that by the use of electricity the action of the separate muscles could be studied and by the aid of photography accurately represented. These observations confirmed by experimental demonstration the hypothetical conclusions of Bell. The machinery of expression having thus been indicated, the connection of the physical actions and the psychical state was made the subject of speculation by Herbert Spencer (Psychology, 1855). These speculations were reduced to a system by Darwin (Expression of Emotions, 1872), who formulated the following as fundamental physiognomical principles :— (1) Certain complex acts are of direct or indirect service, under certain conditions of the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations or desires; and whenever the same states of mind are induced the same sets of actions tend to be performed, even when they have ceased to be of use. (2) When a directly opposite state of mind is induced to one with which a definite action is correlated, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to perform a reverse action. (3) When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in definite directions, depending on the connections of nerve-cells and on habit.

The last of these propositions is adversely criticized by P. Mantegazza as a truism, but it may be allowed to stand with the quali-

fication that we are ignorant concerning the nature of the influence called “nerve-force.” It follows from these propositions that’ the expression of emotion is, for the most part, not under control of the will, and that those striped muscles are the most expressive which are the least voluntary. To the foregoing may be added the following three additional propositions, so as to form a more complete expression of a physiognomical philosophy :— (4) Certain muscles concerned in producing these skin-folds become strengthened by habitual action, and when the skin diminishes

in elasticity and fulness with advancing angles to the course of the muscular

age, the wrinkles at right fibres become permanent.

(s) To some extent habitual muscular action of this kind may, by

affecting local nutrition, alter the contour of such bones and cartilages as are related to the muscles of expression. (6) If the mental disposition and proneness to action are inherited by children from their parents, it may be that the facility in, and disposition towards, certain

forms of expression ate in like manner matters of heredity.

887

Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression (1890), to which the student may be referred for further information. For information on artistic anatomy as applied to physiognomy see the catalogue of sixty-two authors by Ludwig Choulant, Geschichte und Bibliographie der anatomischen Abbildung, etc. (Leipzig, 1852), and the works of the authors enumerated above, especially those of Aristotle, Franz, Porta, Cardan, Corvus and Bulwer. For physiognomy of disease, besides the usual medical handbooks, see Cabuchet, Essai sur expression de la face dans les maludies (Paris,

1801); Mantegazza, Physiology of Pain (1893), and Polli, Saggio

di fistognomonia e potognomonia (1837). For ethnological physiognomy, see amongst older authors Gratarolus, and amongst moderns the writers cited in the various textbooks on anthropology, especially Schadow, Physionomies nationales (1835) and Park Harrison, Journ.

Anthrop. Inst. (1833). For the physical characteristics of criminals see Lombroso, L'Uomo delinquente (1897) ; Ferri, L’Omicidio (1895) ; von Baer, Der Verbrecher (1893); Laurent, Les Habitués des prisons (1890) ; Havelock Ellis, The Criminal (1901); A. Lenz, Grundriss der Kriminalbiologie (Vienna, 1927); L. Grimberg, Emotion and Delinquency (1928).

PHYSIOLOGICAL

ARTICLES.

The special articles in

Physiology form natural complements to those of the medical programme. DIGESTION; HEART AND CIRCULATION: NUTRITION; EQUILIBRIUM; MUSCLE AND MUSCULAR EXERCISE; PAIN, SIGNIFI-

CANCE OF; BIOCHEMISTRY; TASTE AND SMELL; Enzymes and REPRODUCTION and SEx, are among the most important articles in this section. See also MEDICAL ARTICLES.

PHYSIOLOGY is the science which treats of the functional working of the body in health, as opposed on the one hand to anatomy which treats of the structure of the body and pathology which treats of its function as distorted by disease. In all forms of animal life except the lowest, the body is made up of organs. With regard to the functions of all the more important organs

special articles will be found under their respective names (see HEART; INTESTINE; Liver; LunG; etc.).

The activities of these organs are co-ordinated by the nervous system (see BRAIN; Nerve; SprnaL Corp; SYMPATHETIC SysTEM) and the hormones (see Hormones). Nevertheless the body is in a sense more than a number of co-ordinated units. The body has an architecture which has been evolved along well defined lines and which it is the business of the present article to trace as far as may be possible.

The phrase “well defined lines” rather than “well defined principles” has been used advisedly; for it may often be a matter of speculation, whether, even when a frequent repetition of the same sort of architectural conceit occurs, any principle is really involved; or whether merely the same sort of accident has taken place in the same sort of way. To the most reflective type of mind physiology presents no more fascinating problem, than that of the extent to which the structure of the body is the result of some well ordered plan either of “evolution” or “design.” In the strict sense of the word “principle” would imply such a plan, but in what follows the word will be used more loosely to include phenomena that recur with sufficient frequency to simulate an orderly sequence, even though the recurrence may in reality be little more than accidental.

Constancy of Internal Environment.—This principle is associated particularly with the name of the great French physi-

ologist Claude Bernard. Innumerable examples might be given in illustration of it but a few must suffice. Moreover the examples might be either in the realm of the physical or of the chemical properties of the environment. The first to be discussed, namely constancy of internal temperature, is physical and is chosen not because it is more important than others, but because the constancy has crept into the animal kingdom very slowly and its implications are to some extent traceable. A unicellular organism, such as the amoeba, exists at a temperature indistinguishable from that of the water in which it lives. Every accident which affects the temperature of the water affects that of the amoeba, the only defence which the creature can put up against a too rigorous environment, whether of heat or cold, is to flee if it can to more genial surroundings. Within those limits all the processes of its

of respiration, of movement, must take place Illustrations of these theoretic propositions are to be found in body, of digestion, of the water in which the unicellular organism temperature the at publilater the in and Darwin, and the works of Bell, Duchenne the condition of affairs in man, the most Compare itself. finds and cations of Theodor Piderit, Mimike und Physiognomik (1886)

PHYSIOLOGY

838 highly organized

creature;

the

temperature

of the body

is

within very narrow limits (1) constant from one time to another;

(2) the same over the whole body; and (3) maintained at a level quite different from—and independent of—that of the surrounding medium. In the development of man, this constancy has been brought about by stages. The root of the matter lies in the fact that the organism itself produces heat; the amoeba is so small and its cooling surface relatively so great, that the heat produced by the organism itself is a negligible factor in determining its temperature; but if enough amoebae were packed together the heat which they produced would have less opportunity of escape and so the centre of the mass would attain a higher temperature just as the heat produced in a hay rick raises the temperature of the interior of the rick. Therefore a high body temperature argues a certain considerable size as one of the properties of the body. That the body temperature should be uniform over the whole body is accomplished by the circulation of the blood. The maintenance of the constancy of environment inside the body by the device of circulating the same fluid throughout all its interstices appears very early in the develcpment of animal life and maintains the constancy in many other respects besides that of temperature. The constancy of the body temperature with regard to time is on the other hand something which has been attained at a late stage in the development of the animal kingdom. The so called “warm blooded animal,” in reality the animal whose temperature remains at an even level, did not appear until long after the vertebrate level had been reached. Yet this device was developed apparently independently both in birds and mammals. So manifest are the advantages of a constant temperature that its late development seems almost surprising. The body from one point of view consists of innumerable and ceaseless chemical reactions. These reactions take place at given velocities, the velocity of each reaction depending upon the reaction itself and the temperature at which it is taking place. Imagine the whole machine adjusted perfectly to work at 30° Cent., each reaction progressing at a velocity which (a) is most suitable for its own purpose, and (b) fits into the general scheme so nicely that the whole multitude of reactions take place harmoniously. Now alter the temperature from 30° to 10°; some of the reactions are affected much by the alteration, some little; chaos must result and the whole machine be thrown out of gear. Therefore a third condition (c) is necessary, namely, that the effect of temperature on the velocities of the reactions must be such that when the temperature is altered the reactions alter in speed harmoniously with one another. This fresh condition naturally limits the number and nature of the chemical processes, which are available. Some chemical operation might be most desirable and could take place at 37° C, but its insertion into the body wou.d be merely vicious if, by refusing to keep pace with its fellows, it brought the mechanism to a standstill at ro° C. By maintaining a uniform temperature condition (c) is dispensed with and the body is free to select what chemical reactions are most suitable under the constant condition without reference to the extent to which they may be affected by alteration of the temperature.

The constancy of the body temperature is maintained by a nice adjustment of the heat loss of the body to the heat formation; for the mechanism of this adjustment see the article on ANIMAL Heat; here it need only be said that the adjustment is controlled entirely by the nervous system.

Alkalinity of the Blood.—The second property of the in-

ternal medium, which is maintained at an approximately constant level, is the alkalinity of the blood. Great prominence has been given to the study of the hydrogen ion concentration of the blood

within the last decade. So far as is known the limits within which the alkalinity of the blood may vary are between pH 8-00 and pH 7-00. The work of L. J. Henderson and of Hasselbalch has gone to show that the hydrogen ion concentration depends not upon the actual quantity of acid or alkali present but upon the balance between the two. In a system consisting of carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate in solution the hydrogen ion concentration,

cH=KxX

(COs) (N aHCOs)

where K is a constant and (CO2) and (NaHCOs) the molecular concentrations respectively of carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate, from which it follows that addition of water to the system will not alter the hydrogen ion concentration.

Every action of the body tends to upset this equilibrium usually in the sense of putting more acid into the blood; muscular exercise for instance adds carbonic and sometimes lactic acid to the circulating medium. How then is the constancy maintained? First by the action of the respiratory system. Increase of the hydrogen ion concentration of the blood leads to increased activity of the respiratory centre, and greater consequent loss

of carbonic acid by the body in the breath.

Secondly the kidney

comes into play and if the concentration of acid in the blood falls alkali is secreted in correspondingly excessive amounts in the

urine. Whether the central nervous system controls the output of alkali by the kidney is not known. The actual secreting cells of the kidney are not regarded as being operated by nerves; if therefore the nervous system plays a part it probably does so by controlling the blood supply.

Two examples have been taken for consideration but the reader can from any book on physiology learn of many more, such as the constancy of sugar, of protein, of the calcium-phosphorus

ratio of oxygen, of haemoglobin and so forth. Yet these are not absolutely constant in the blood but their variation is within small limits—any considerable deflection from which is in health soon redressed. The Principle of Maximal Activity.—The most elementary

consideration of the architecture of any structure demands some discussion of the sizes of the various components. This question has received little attention from the physiological point of view. The anatomist has tabulated the average dimensions of the various organs but the physiologist has little to say about the reasons which determine these sizes. What little there is on this subject in the literature of physiology is not always to the point. The human body at rest may be compared to a battleship with her fires lit, her ammunition on board and her guns ready for action. Any description of such a ship is, however, given in terms of the energy she puts forth, not when at rest, but when in the fullest possible activity; she has a speed of so many knots, her hitting power is so and so. Only expressed in those terms the dimensions of her various parts become intelligible. So it is with the body, but the difficuities of studying it, or any of its parts, when the maximum of energy is being developed is very great. Some decision must be come to as to the units in which the energy is to be expressed. In the case of a motor car it is expressed in terms of fuel consumed—so many miles to the gallon or to the litre. In the case of man it may also be expressed in litres—litres of oxygen used in consuming the fuel. A man may use as much as four litres of oxygen per minute. This oxygen is of course used in the tissues themselves and therefore must be carried to them.

To carry four

litres of oxygen efficiently requires probably about 30 litres of blood, therefore 30 litres of blood must pass out of the heart per minute. That fact fixes the size of the aorta and presumably the dimensions of the heart itself. Moreover the blood has to be oxygenated and therefore the dimensions of the lungs are also fixed. Thus the limiting factor in deciding the size of any organ has nothing to do with the events taking place in the resting body

but with the maximum activity with which the organ is concerned. A striking instance is furnished by the splenic vein. Many observers have noted that the splenic vein is large out of proportion to the quantity of blood which usually passes along it. Only recently has it been appreciated that the spleen may hold at a time perhaps one-fifth of the total quantity of blood in the body and that it may contract suddenly expelling possibly ł of a litre of blood in a few seconds. What is true of the body as a whole is true of the individual organs. The following table gives the quantity of oxygen which they are

capable of using in the dog or cat :—

PHYSIOLOGY Voluntary| muscle

Nerves cut

Unstriped|

Rest

muscle Heart

|

Slow and feeble con-

traction

o003 | Tone at rest 0:006 Gentle contraction | 0-020 Active contraction | 0-08 ooog | Contracting 0°007

at work all the time, the activity of each unit being graded in the same degree as that of its fellow. With regard to the kidney Richards and Wearn have shown it to be otherwise, the degree of activity of the organ being the expression of the number of

Normal contrac-| tions

0°08

tubules which are in action at any time; for the tubules appear to work in shifts. Haldane has found reasons for suspecting the Same principle to operate in the case of the lung. In normal

O-Lo

involved, while when the respiration is more

0-007 | Very active

Submaxillary | Nerves cut | 0-03

gland

Pancreas

Not secreting

839

Chorda

tion

stimula-

o-os

Secreting after injection of secretia | o-10

quiet breathing he regards only a portion of the lung as being laboured a larger

results; it was observed also that the removal of one lung did not

number of alveoli become ventilated. The application of the principle of mobilized units to the lung rests, however, on a less sure basis than its application to the kidney. In the latter case the glomeruli have been seen to go in and out of action, the blood flow through them being at times suspended; in the lung it is a matter of inference. The most striking instance of the mobilization of units is that of the capillaries as observed by Krogh. In a muscle for instance the capillaries run parallel to the muscle fibres. When the muscle is at rest the majority of these capillaries are entirely closed, no blood whatever running along them. As the muscle becomes more and more active, a correspondingly greater number of capillaries

appear to be very serious. Men marvelled at the fact that the organs were so unnecessarily large; the standard which they

open till the maximum may be many times the number at rest. Principle of Substantial Reserves.—The principal materials

Intestines

Liver Suprarenal

Not absorbing Fasting ani-] mal Normal

0°03 0°02

o-or 0°02

045

Absorbing peptone | 0-03

Fed

animal

0°03

0°05

Thirty years ago physiologists were exercised with the study

of the extent to which organs could be cut away without fatal results. Bradford found that the whole of one kidney and the half of the second could be removed in animals without fatal

applied was that of rest and not the conditions under which the

kidney or the lung was required to function on the greatest scale

of which it is capable. Again it is well known that but a small portion of many of the endocrine organs, if left in the body, will apparently prevent the obvious sequelae of removal of the whole. Why then should the body contain so much more of the organ than appears necessary and why in many cases will the part left grow perhaps to the original size? Presumably because there are moments when the whole organ is required. It is in relation to such that its size is regulated. The Principle of Mobilized Units—When an organ becomes active it may be conceived of as doing so in one of two ways (of course the two may be combined). The first is that each unit of which the organ is composed may become heightened in activity; the second is that a single unit is capable of only two states, the active and the resting and that the degree of activity of the organ depends simply on the relative number of active and of resting units which it contains. For many years the view has been held with regard to the heart, that that organ cannot give a partial contraction; if it contracts at all it gives the full contraction of which it is capable in the condition in which it may be at the moment. This was known as the “all or none” principle. It seemed to indicate that not only did each fibre of the heart muscle contract to its full extent but that when contraction took place, all the fibres in the heart contracted. These are two separate points. For the moment the applicability of the “all or none” principle to the cell will be considered. More recently the principle has been applied both to striated muscle and to nerve. As now conceived each fibre of

which a skeletal muscle is composed, contracts to its full extent if it contracts at all, but, unlike the heart, not all the fibres need necessarily contract. Thus the degree of shortening of the muscle will depend upon the number of fibres which are thrown into contraction and not upon the degree of contraction of each. Very beautiful records have recently been obtained of the impulses which pass up sensory nerve fibres; the same principle holds good. There is a standard impulse which can pass up, that Is a property of the nerve. The gradation of the sensation depends upon the number of such which pass along the nerve in a given time, and on the number of nerve fibres which are stimulated simultaneously.

With regard to the applicability of the “all or none” law to secreting cells there is nothing known. organ: the lung

vary gland, the

recently it was

scale in the mammal.

To pass to the possible reconversion of fat into carbohydrate,— that is at the moment a subject on which the highest authorities when muscle is in want of is frequently a unit between the cell and the are in controversy. It may be thatfrom the usual sources fat is any get cannot and te carbohydra salithe of consists of alveoli, the same is true not be so, If it is not, however, there kidney consists of tubules, and so forth. Tull reconverted, but it may , namely, that the muscle can possibility one but be to appears are units the all organ one any assumed that in

Passing from the consideration of cells to that of organs, one

finds that there

(gross) which the body requires are carbohydrate, fat, protein, water and oxygen. In the case of each the body carries some sort of store beyond that placed at the immediate seat of metabolism. Carbohydrate-—The blood contains about 7 grams of sugar; that is a little more than half an hour’s supply for the whole body. The remaining carbohydrate is stored as glycogen. Of this about half is distributed throughout the tissues generally and may therefore be regarded more or less as being at the seat of its metabolism. The remaining half, amounting to 75 grams or half a day’s supply, is to be found in the liver which acts as a store for the body as a whole. Thus the body has a store of about one half day’s supply of carbohydrate-——250~300 grams being the figure put down in the standard dietaries for daily consumption. That is not to say that after 12 hours’ abstinence there is no carbohydrate left in the body, but it means that the organism is gradually falling back on something else. Fat is stored on a much greater scale than carbohydrate. The amount of fat stored in the body naturally differs in different individuals within very wide limits, but it has been established as the result of numerous experiments that a portion of the fat laid down in the body is directly derived from what is eaten. Thus if some oil of low melting point be taken in the food it may at once be recognised as entering into the store of fat reserved in the body. Whilst it is quite clear that carbohydrate eaten may be stored as carbohydrate and used as such, and while it is equally clear that fat eaten may be stored as fat, the more arresting question arises—Is not much of the fat of the body essentially a store of carbohydrate? In order to establish this thesis it would be necessary to prove (1) that carbohydrate taken may be laid on as fat: and (2) that when carbohydrate is needed fat may be reconverted into carbohydrate or at all events used as carbohydrate is used. That carbohydrate taken in the food may be laid on as fat was proved by the classical experiment of Lawes and Gilbert. In this two young pigs were chosen from the same litter and while one was killed and analysed, the other was fed on “grains,” a diet which is practically free from fat, consisting of protein and carbohydrate. The amount of fat put on by the growing pig was greater than could be accounted for on the assumption that it was formed from protein. Indeed since the days of Lawes and Gilbert it has become increasingly doubtful whether fat can be formed from protein on any considerable

890

PHYSIOLOGY

derive energy from fat without its passing through the carbohydrate stage. In either case the muscle would be availing itself of fat entering the body as carbohydrate. Therefore the fat would be a potential, if not an actual reserve of carbohydrate. Oxygen.—Oxygen is stored to some extent in the body. At one time the conception was held that oxygen was stored actually in the tissues as so-called “intra-molecular” oxygen. That conception was founded on two others—(1) that a frog’s muscle could contract in an atmosphere free from oxygen; and (2) that the contraction was essentially an oxidation. Now the idea of ‘“intra-molecular oxygen” has been given up and we must look for no further store of oxygen than is to be found in the haemoglobin of the body. What is to be found there and in the lungs suffices to preserve consciousness for a few, perhaps two or three, minutes, and life for a somewhat longer time. The blood on the

average is circulated round the body (at rest) rather more than once per minute and not so much as twice; on that circuit about one third of its oxygen is taken out. If therefore one assumes that all the blood goes round the body in 45 seconds and that there is enough oxygen in the blood for three circuits that would give oxygen enough for 135 seconds. In addition in such a case as that of drowning there is reserved oxygen in the lungs to the extent of what would supply the body for about two to three minutes. But if the body has no great store of oxygen on which to fall back, it has a considerable store of the material which transports oxygen and that is probably much more important. So far as is known about 80 per cent of ‘the haemoglobin of the body is in circulation; the rest is stored, some in the spleen, some probably in the red marrow and the rest in situations as yet not fully explored. The Principle of Specific Chemical Response.—There are a number of relatively simple chemical substances, any of which if injected into the body cause the body to produce some other substance which unites with and in a sense neutralises it. To give three examples:—lIf a fatty acid be administered to the alimentary canal, the acid will be absorbed by the villi, the cells of which will produce glycerine and the result will be a neutral fat. If on the other hand benzoic acid be administered it will get so far as the kidney and there the kidney cells will produce glycine, turning it into hippuric acid. Lactic acid similarly if thrust into the general circulation will be excreted as ammonium lactate, the ammonia being produced not by the cells of the body generally but by those, or certain of those, in the kidney. We have now arrived at the confines of the great subject of immunity — and perhaps outside the region of the present article. The Principle of Dual Control.—The body has two ways of doing a great many things. Examples of this principle are so numerous as to be found in almost any system of the body. To take the point at which two of the most important systems of the body—the nervous and the respiratory systems—touch, let us consider the nervous control of respiration. The essence of respiration is a rhythmic outflow of alternate inspiratory and expiratory impulses from the brain to the muscles concerned. That rhythm is probably, but not certainly, inherent in the brain itself, but it is regulated by influences which play upon the brain. These influences fall into two general categories— those which arrive along the nervous paths from the lungs and elsewhere and those which are borne to the brain in the blood stream.

An increase of total respiration may then take place in either of two ways—(a) many forms of irritation in the lung produce an increased total ventilation which is abolished by cutting the vagi and which may therefore be regarded as being due to special stimuli passing up along these nerves, (b) increase of carbonic acid in the blood even in the absence of nervous stimulation will so act upon the respiratory centre as to increase the total ventilation. During muscular exercise both the nervous and the chemical factors come into play; the nervous is the first to be initiated and therefore it may be regarded as the most sensitive: but even were it not involved a sufficient regulation could probably be carried out by the carbonic acid in the blood. The respiratory centre furnishes another example. This time

it is a combination of a nervous with a physical regulation. The facts are principally based on the observations of Professor Richet. If a dog lies down in the sun he will very shortly com. mence to pant in rapid, shallow respirations passing air over his tongue and through his respiratory passages. According to Pro. fessor Richet this tachypnoea is associated with an actual lowering of the body temperature and is due to stimuli from the warm skin reaching the respiratory centre via the sensory nerves. But even did not this nervous regulation of the body temperature take place another would supervene of perhaps a cruder character, for as soon as the body temperature began to rise, the warmer blood reaching the respiratory centre would itself produce an increased

ventilation. Here again the nervous effect is the first to be invoked and presumably the more delicate.

The digestive system abounds with examples of duality. Of the three principal forms of food which are digested, carbohydrates, proteins and fats, the organs for the secretion of the digestive ferments are in all cases reduplicated. Starch is turned into sugar both by the saliva and by the pancreas, protein is broken down to the peptone stage both by the pepsin of the stomach and the

trypsin of the pancreas, while to quote Leathes “two fat splitting enzymes are present in the intestinal contents, one being provided by the pancreatic juice and the other by the intestinal juice. . . The action of the intestinal juice is however overshadowed by that of the pancreatic juice.” i Not only are the ferments which effect digestion duplicated but there is a measure of duplication about the mechanisms responsible for their secretion. The processes of the alimentary canal are actuated, some by nervous

stimuli, some by chemical,

but in large measure by both. The secretion of saliva is entirely actuated by nervous stimuli; gastric juice is secreted largely as a result of nervous stimuli, but its flow is maintained by chemical bodies. In the secretion of pancreatic juice chemical stimuli play the more prominent part, nervous stimuli not however being entirely absent; whilst the secretion of the intestine is—so far as is known—due entirely to hormones. If the whole process from end to end be reviewed, some of the statements made about the respiratory centre are applicable. The process of digestion is initiated by nervous and maintained by chemical stimuli. As Dr. Anrep has pointed out, the further the food gets from the surface of the body, the less is it under the influence of the nervous, the more is it under the influence of the hormonal system.

The vascular system no less than the alimentary is subject to both hormones and to nervous stimuli, inasmuch as nearly all its parts are innervated by the sympathetic system (for adrenaline acts on the nerve endings of that system). Thus Florey has shown in the intestine of the dog, that a sudden sound will cause the mucous membrane to pale in a matter of a few seconds. If the nerves to this piece of intestine be severed the noise will still cause the intestine to pale, but after a much longer time—in about a quarter of a minute. The paling is in each case due to constriction of the small vessels. In the first case the constriction is initiated by nervous stimuli reaching the mucosa along the branches of the splanchic supply; in the second the blanching is due presumably to adrenaline secretion. The case is not however entirely parallel to that of the nervous and chemical government of the pancreas inasmuch as the adrenaline secretion is itself due to nervous stimulation, so that the reduplication is merely a reduplication of the paths by which the nervous system can control the calibre of the vessels.

What applies to the blood vessels applies, so far as the relative réles of the nervous and the endocrine systems are concerned, to many other structures in the body which will at once occur to the reader. Many organs have not only a chemical and a nervous mechanism but also a double nervous supply. That however will be treated under the heading of ANTAGONISTIC NERVES. Two organs in the mammals stand out as having no substitutes, the lungs and the generative organs, and in each case the fact is a little interesting because lower down in the animal kingdom that simplicity does not exist. Apart from the existence of gills, in the frog there is a cutaneous respiration so that it, even

PI—PIANOFORTE in air, has two alternatives. As regards reproduction of course the most primitive form is simply by fission. Reproduction by fission exists in many forms of life collaterally with sexual reproduction, but in all the higher types of the animal kingdom it has been given up.

The Principle of Antagonistic Nerves.—There are numer-

ous places in the body in which the actual condition of the organ at any moment is obtained by the balancing of antagonistic influences upon it. Four examples may be given.

(1) The rate of the heart beat is regulated by two nerves, one

of which, the vagus, when stimulated, makes the heart go slower, while the other, the sympathetic, drives it faster. Normally its

pace is neither so fast nor so slow as that of which it is capable,

a fact to be accounted for by the balance of influences passing down the two nerves; if this balance alters the rate changes. (2) The diameter of the pupil of the eye is under the control of two nerves, one of which if stimulated dilates the pupil while the other constricts it; the actual size depends upon the relative influence of the two at any one moment. (3) The movements of the joints (say of the thigh joint) in walking are obtained by the balancing of the muscles which move the joint. It is not merely that alternately one set of muscles comes into action whilst the antagonistic set goes out of action: but each set is the whole time

in a greater or less degree of tone. The whole action of the thigh depends upon the relative degree of the various muscles which exert an antagonistic action. (4) In the highest animals delicate manual movements have been secured by the antagonism of the thumb to the fingers, especially to the first finger. The four examples cited, if examined, show little similarity in the mechanism by which the antagonism is produced. In the first the nerves act presumably in the same structure in the heart ussue. In the pupil the two sets of nerves act on different muscles. These do not pull directly against one another like men in a tug

of war; the muscle which tends to close the pupil is a ring, that which tends to open it is radial. In the thigh you have definite groups of muscles pitted against one another and pulling the bone in opposite directions, while in the finger and thumb there are actually different organs. Thirty years ago thought was focussed on antagonistic nerves because they were supposed to initiate opposite phases of protoplasmic activity in the organs which they supplied. All living matter was conceived as capable of anabolism (building up) and katabolism (breaking down); the slowing of the heart due to vagus stimulation was supposedly the expression of accentuated anabolic activity, the quickening of the heart due to sympathetic stimulation was held to indicate increased katabolism. Of the known cases of antagonistic nerves there are so few in which the two sets of fibres end in the same tissue that their connection with anabolic and katabolic activity has passed out of the picture. It seems likely that their principal interest lies in the fact that by use of such antagonisms nature has built up a body capable of potentialities which it (the body) would not otherwise possess. By the balancing of the finger against the thumb more accurate and more delicate movements can be made than those of which either finger or thumb separately is capable. By the balancing of the thigh muscles against one another an accuracy of poise is secured which would not otherwise exist. The same is clearly true of the pupil, and had we the necessary discernment we could probably see the application of the general principle involved to the heart and blood vessels. The Principle of Integrative Adaptation.—When the body is subjected to such adverse conditions that constancy of the composition of the blood cannot be maintained, the lack or excess of some one constituent may be of considerable gravity. In such circumstances some form of adaptation frequently takes place. This adaptation consists in an alteration in quite a number of factors each of which changes only a little though when the whole series of changes are integrated the net result is a very large degree of adaptation to the new environment. In such cases the

Sor

exercise, to high altitudes, to anaemia and so forth, for which the articles on ANOXAEMIA, MUSCULAR EXERCISE, VASCULAR SYSTEM and ANAEMIA may be consulted. (J. Bar.) BrsriocrapHy.—M. W. Flack and L. E. Hill, A Text book of Physi-

ology (1919); H. W. Lyle and D. H. de Souza, Manual of Physiology (1921); W. N. Bayliss, Principles of General Physiology (4th ed, 1924); F. A. Bainbridge and J. A. Menzies, Essentials of Physiology

(sth ed., 1925); E. H. Starling, Principles of Human Physiology (4th ed., 1926); W. H. Howell, A Text book of Physiology (roth ed., 1927) ; see also A. von Tschermak, Allgemeine Physiologie (1916, etc.) ;

A. Keith, The Engines of the Human

Body

(1919);

R. B. Opitz,

Advanced Lessons in Practical Physiology (1920); J. J. R. MacLeod, Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine (5th ed., 1926); E. A. Schaefer, Experimental Physiology (4th ed., 1927).

PI, the Greek letter a, used to denote the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter: 3.14159 .....

PIACENZA

(Lat. Placentia), a town and episcopal see of

Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Piacenza, 424 m. S.E. of Milan and 9: m. N.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1921) 47,917 (town), 58,190 (commune). It lies on the Lombard plain, 217 ft. above sea-level, near the Po, which here is crossed by road and railway bridges each about 600 yd. long, just below the confluence of the Trebia. It is still surrounded by walls with bastions and fosse in a circuit of 4 miles. The cathedral was erected between 1122 and 1233, in the Lombard Romanesque style. The campanile is 223 ft. high. The entire edifice has been restored since 1898, and the frescoes by Guercino, Lodovico Caracci and Procaccini seem inappropriate to its severe style. In Sant’ Antonino the deputies of the Lombard League swore to the conditions of peace ratified in 1183 at Constance. San Francesco is a Gothic edifice begun by the Franciscans in 1278. S. Savino, a Romanesque building of a.p. 903 (rebuilt in 1107 and restored in 1903) contains a mosaic pavement with curious representations, including one of a game of chess. §. Sisto (1499) once contained Raphael’s Sistine Madonna, now in Dresden, sold in 1754 to Frederick Augustus III. Its place is occupied by a copy by Avanzini, and there are also several good intarsias by Bartolomeo da Busseto. Of the secular buildings the most interesting is the Palazzo Comunale, begun in 1281, built in marble and brick, with beautiful windows, one of the finest buildings of its kind in Italy. The Palazzo dei Tribunali and the Palazzo degli Scoti are early Renaissance brick buildings with terra-cotta decorations. The huge Farnese palace was begun after Vignola’s designs by Margaret of Austria in 1558, but it was never completed, and since 1800 it has been used as barracks. The town has a motor car factory. It is an important agricultural centre. Petroleum wells have been bored hereabouts. Piacenza was made a Roman colony in 218 B.c., in which year it afforded protection to the remains of the Roman army after the battle of the Trebia (g.v.). In 205 it withstood a siege by Hasdrubal. Five years later the Gauls burned it; and in 190 it was recruited with 3,000 families. In 187 it was connected with Ariminum and the south by the construction of the Via Aemilia. Later on it became a very important road centre; the continuation northwards of the Via Aemilia towards Milan, with a branch to Ticinum, crossed the Po there, and the Via Postumia from Cremona to Dertona and Genoa passed through it. Later still Augustus reconstructed the road from Dertona to Vada, and into Gallia Narbonensis, and gave it the name of Julia Augusta from Placentia onwards. The rectangular arrangement of the streets in the centre of the town, through which passes the Via Aemilia, is a survival from Roman times. Placentia is mentioned frequently as an important military point in Roman times. It was one of the leading members of the Lombard League. In 1447 the city was captured and sacked by Francesco Sforza. Having been occupied by the papal forces in 1512, it was in 1545 united

with Parma (g.v.) to form an hereditary duchy for Pierluigi Farnese, nephew of Paul TIT. In 1796 it was occupied by the French. In 1848 Piacenza was the first town of Lombardy to join Piedmont, but was reoccupied by the Austrians till 1859. PIANOFORTE. The group of keyed stringed musical instrubody is not restored to its original degree of efficiency, but it ments, among which the pianoforte is latest in order of time, has been invented and step by step developed with the modern art of has moved a considerable distance in that direction. Examples may be drawn from the response of the body to music. During the roth century the “organum” arose, an elemen-

PIANOFORTE

892

tary system of accompaniment to the voice, consisting of fourths and octaves below the melody and moving with it, and the organ (qg.v.), the earliest keyed instrument, was, in the first instance, the rude embodiment of this idea and convenient means for its expression. About the same time arose a large stringed instrument, the organistrum, the parent of the now obsolete hurdygurdy; as the organ needed a blower as well as an organist, so the player of the organistrum required a handle-turner, by whose aid the three strings of the instrument were made to sound simultaneously upon a wheel, and, according to the wellknown sculptured relief of St. George de Boscherville, one of the strings was manipulated by means of a row of stoppers or tangents pressed inwards to produce the notes. The other strings were drones, analogous to the drones of the bagpipes, but originally the three strings followed the changing organum.

In the rxrth century (the epoch of Guido of Arezzo [g.v.], to whom the beginning of musical notation is attributed), the Pythagorean monochord, with its shifting bridge, was used in the singing schools to teach the intervals of the plain-song of the church. The practical necessity, not merely of demonstrating the

ze Ant

one,

a

m te Ye SY AEP ap at a REET Pelee Pt a eae $ ae A = 0 RTD

a k Paj aka

Re ene

IRE

A

x

nEn

FIG. 1.—PRIMITIVE CLAVICHORD (BEFORE 1460); EARLIEST EXISTING REPRESENTATION OF A KEYED

proportionate relations of the in- STRINGED INSTRUMENT, FROM ST.

tervals,

but also

of initiating MARY'S. SHREWSBURY

pupils into the different gradations of the church tones, had soon after Guido’s time brought into use quadruplex monochords, which were constructed with scales so that four lines indicated authentic and the four plagal tones. This arrangement found great acceptance, for Aribo, writing about fifty years after Guido, says that few monochords were to be found without it. Aribo strenuously endeavoured to improve it, and “by the grace of God” invented a monochord measure which, on account of the rapidity

of the leaps he could make with it, he named a caprea (wild goat). Jean de Muris (Musica speculativa, 1323) describes the musical instruments known in his time, but does not mention the clavichord or monochord with keys, which could not have been then invented. Perhaps one of the earliest forms of such an instrument, in which stoppers or tangents had been adopted from the organistrum, is shown in fig. 1, from a wood carving of a vicar choral or organist, preserved in St. Mary’s church, Shrewsbury. The latest date to which this figure may be attributed is 1460. In the Weimar Wunderbuch, a MS. dated 1440 with pen and ink miniatures is given a “clavichordium” having 8 short and apparently 16 long keys. The artist has drawn 12 strings in a rectangular case, but no tangents are visible. A keyboard of balanced keys existed in the little portable organ known as the regal, so often represented in old carvings, paintings and stained windows. Vitruvius, De architectura, lib. x. cap. xi., translated by Newton, describes a balanced keyboard; but the key apparatus

LORIGIN

stitution of tangents (fixed in the ends of the balanced keys) for the movable bridges of the monochord or such stoppers as are shown in the Shrewsbury carving. Thus the monochordium or “payre of monochordis” became the clavichordium or “payre of

clavichordis”—pair being applied, in the old sense of a “pair of steps,” to a series of degrees. Ed. van der Straeten (La Musigue aux Pays Bas, i. 278) reproduces a so-called clavichord of the

rsth century from a MS. in the public library at Ghent. The treatise is anonymous, but other treatises in the same MS. bear dates 1503 and 1504. In the Weimar Wunderbuch is a pen-and-ink sketch of the “clavicimbalum” placed upon a table, in which we recognize the outline of the harpsichord, but on a smaller scale

The earliest known record of the clavichord occurs in some rules of the minnesingers, dated 1404, preserved at Vienna. (See Ambros, Geschichte der Musik [1892], ii. 226.) The monochord

is named with it, showing a differentiation of these instruments, and of them from the clavicimbalum—the keyed cymbal, cembalo (Italian), or psaltery. From this we learn that a keyboard had been thus early adapted to that favourite mediaeval stringed in-

strument, the “cembalo” of Boccaccio, the “sautrie” of Chaucer. There were two forms of the psaltery: (1) the trapeze, one of the oldest representations of which is to be found in Orcagna’s famous Trionfo della Morte in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and another by the same painter in the National Gallery, London; and (2) the contemporary “testa di porco,”’ the pig’s head, which was of triangular shape as the name suggests. The trapeze psaltery was strung horizontally, the “istromento di porco” either horizontally or vertically—the notes, as in the common dulcimer, being in groups of three or four unisons. In these differences of form and stringing we see the cause of the ultimate differentiation of the spinet and harpsichord. The compass of the psalteries was nearly that of Guido’s scale; but according to Mersenne (L’Harmonie universelle [Paris, 1636], livre iii., p. 107), the lowest interval was a fourth, G to C, which is worthy of notice as anticipating the later “short measure” of the spinet and organ. The simplicity of the clavichord inclines us to place it, in order of time, before the clavicimbalum or clavicembalo; but we do not know how the sounds of the latter were at first excited. There is an indication as to its early form to be seen in the church of the Certosa near Pavia. In 1472, chromatic keyboards, which imply a considerable advance, were already in use. There is an authentic representation of a chromatic keyboard, painted not later than 1426, in the St. Cecilia panel (now at Berlin) of the famous Adoration of the Lamb by the Van Eycks. The instrument depicted is a positive organ, and it is interesting to notice in this realistic painting that the keys are evidently boxwood, as in the Italian spinets of later date, and that the angel plays a common chord—aA with the right hand, F and C with the left. But diatonic

clolElFIGLALE clbolelFlelalelc

FIG. 2.—DIATONIC CLAVICHORD KEYBOARD (GUIDO’S SCALE) FROM is more particularly shown in The Pneumatics of Hero of AlexVIRDUNG, BEFORE 1511, SHOWING THE SHORT KEYS B FLAT andria, translated by Bennet Woodcroft (London, 1851). The name of regal was derived from the rule (regula) or gradu- organs with eight steps or keys in the octave, which included the ated scale of keys, and its use was to give the singers in religious B flat and the B natural, as in Guido’s scale, were long preserved, processions the note or pitch. The only instrument of this kind for Praetorius speaks of them as still existing nearly two hundred known to exist in the United Kingdom is at Blair Atholl, and it years later. This diatonic keyboard, we learn from Sebastian bears the very late date of 1630. The Brussels regal may be as Virdung (Musica getutscht und auszgezogen, Basel, 1511), was the modern. (See Victor C. Mahillon, Catalogue Descriptif [1880], keyboard of the early clavichord. We reproduce his diagram as I. p. 320, p. 454.) We attribute the adaptation of the narrow the only authority we have for the disposition of the one short key. regal keyboard to what was still called the monochord, but was Virdung’s diagram of the chromatic is the same as our own now a complex of monochords over one resonance board, to the familiar keyboard, and comprises three octaves and a note, from F latter half of the 14th century; it was accomplished by the sub- below the bass stave to G above the treble. But Virdung tells

PIANOFORTE

CLAVICHORD]

8903

us that even then clavichords were made longer than four octaves |was now able to produce, in 1722, Das wohltemperirte Clavier, his

by repetition of the same order of keys. The introduction of the chromatic order he attributes to the study of Boetius, and the

consequent endeavour to restore the three musical genera of the Greeks—the diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. But the last-

named was not attained until equal temperament tuning was de-

veloped by J. S. Bach. Virdung gives woodcuts of the clavi-

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PRM ae

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famous collection of preludes and fugues in all the twenty-four

major and minor scales for a clavichord which was tuned to what is now known as “‘equal temperament.” The oldest clavichord, here called manicordo (as French mazicorde, from monochord), known to exist is that shown in fig. 4. The lowest octave is here already “bundirei”’ or fret-free. The strings are no longer of equal length, and there are three bridges, divisions of the one bridge, in different positions on the soundboard. Mersenne’s ‘“manicorde” (Harmonie Universelle, Paris, STRINGS 1636, p.115),shown in an engraving in that work, has the strings stil nearly of equal length, TANGENT but the sound-board bridge is divided into five. The fretted clavichords made in Germany in the last years of the 17th century have the curved sound-board bridge, like a spinet. In the clavi-

ITE}

FIG. FIG. 3.—VIRDUNG’S CLAVICHORDIUM REVERSED TO CORRECT THE KEYBOARD

(1511);

FACSIMILE

WOODCUT,

board

chordium, the virginal, the clavicimbalum and the clavicytherium.

We reproduce three of them (figs. 3, 6 and 8), omitting the virginal ag obviously incorrect. Writers on musical instruments have continually repeated these drawings without discerning that in the printing they are reversed, which puts the keyboards entirely wrong, and that in Luscinius’s Latin translation of Virdung (Musurgia, sive praxis musicae, Strasbourg, 1536), which has been hitherto chiefly followed, two of the engravings, the clavicimbalum and the clavicytherium, are transposed, another cause of error. Still commonly known as monochord, Virdung's clavichord was teally a box of monochords, all the strings being of the same length. We observe in this drawing (fig. 3) the short soundboard, which always remained a peculiarity of the clavichord, and the straight sound-board bridge—necessarily so when all the strings were of one length. To gain an angle of incidence for the tangents against the strings the keys were splayed, an expedient further rendered necessary by the “fretting’—three tangents being placed to give three different notes from each single group of strings tuned in unison. In the drawing the strings are merely indicated. The German for fret is Bund, and such a clavichord, in that language, is known as a “gebundenes Clavichord” both fret (to

5.—CLAVICHORD

Showing

position

when

is depressed;

TANGENT front

of key-

the tangent

rises

into contact with the strings and forms the end-point of the speaking length. The back string is kept from

vibrating by means of the “Listing”

chord the tangents always formed the second bridge, deciding the pitch, besides acting as the sound exciters (fig. 5). The common damper to all the strings was a “list” of cloth, interwoven behind the

tangents.

As

the

tangents

cloth quitted the strings the cloth immediately stopped all vibration. As regards compass Handel's clavichord now in the museum at Maidstone (an Italian instrument dated 1726, and not fretted), has a compass of 34 octaves

(F to A). The clavichord must have gone out of favour in Great Britain and the Netherlands early in the 16th century—the more brilliant and elegant spinet being preferred to it. Like the other keyboard instruments it had no German name, and can hardly have been of German origin, but it remained longest in use in Germany— until even the beginning of the 19th century. The next instrument described by Virdung is the virginal (virginalis, proper for a girl), a parallelogram in shape, having the same projecting keyboard and compass of keys as the clavichordium. Here we trace derivation from the psaltery, in that the sound-board covers the entire inner surface of the instrument

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Arter De

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FIG 4.—MANICORDO (CLAVICHORD) KRAUS MUSEUM, FLORENCE

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D’ELEONORA

“yt eg

SUELO ANSEL SS dd LAS

ane

ra

ail

DI MONTALVO

GE

(1659).

rub) and Bund (from binden, to bind) having been taken over from the lute or viol. The French and Italians employ “touche” and “tasto” (touch). Praetorius who wrote a hundred years later than Virdung, says two, three and four tangents were thus employed in stopping. Clavichords were made with double fretting up to about the year 1700—that is to say, to the epoch of J. S. Bach, who, taking advantage of its abolition and the consequent use of independent pairs of strings for each note, was enabled to tune in all keys equally, which had been impossible so long as the fretting was maintained. The modern scales having become established, Bach

FIG.

6.—VIRDUNG’S

CLAVICIMBALUM

(SPINET),

1511:

REVERSED

FAC-

SIMILE WOODCUT . and the disposition of the strings is triangular. The virginal in Virdung’s drawing has an impossible position with reference to the keyboard, which renders its reproduction as an illustration useless. But in the next drawing, the clavicimbalum, this fs rectified, and the drawing, reversed on account of the keyboard, can be accepted as roughly representing the instrument so called (fg. 6). There would be no difference between the clavicimbalum and the virginal were it not for a peculiarity of keyboard compass. which emphatically refers itself to the Italian “spinetta, a name

PIANOFORTE

894

[SPINET

unnoticed by Virdung or by his countryman Arnold Schlick, who, in the same year 1511, published his Spiegel der Orgelmacher (Organ-builders’ Mirror), and named the clavichordium and

keyboard, which had previously entirely projected; by this recessing a greater width was obtained for the sound-board. The spinets by Annibale Rosso at South Kensington, dated respectively 155s

clavicimbalum as familiar instruments.

and 1577, show this alteration, and may be compared with the

In the first place, the key-

board, beginning apparently with B natural, instead of F, makes the clavicimbalum smaller than the virginal, the strings in this arrangement being shorter; in the next place it is almost certain that the Italian spinet compass, beginning apparently upon a semitone, is identical with a “short measure” or “short octave” organ compass, a very old keyboard arrangement, by which the first three notes while appearing to be B, C and C sharp were tuned to G, Cand A. The origin of this may be deduced from the psaltery and many representations of the regal, and its object appears to have been to obtain dominant basses for cadences, harmonious closes having early been sought for as giving pleasure to the ear. Authority for this practice is to be found in Mersenne, who, in 1636, expressly describes it as occurring in his own spinet (espinette). We read (Harmonie Universelle, Paris, 1636, liv. 3, p. 107)— “Its longest string is little more than a foot in length between the two bridges. It has only thirty-one keys [marches] in its keyboard, and as many strings over its sound-board, so that there are five keys hidden [he now refers to the illustration] on account of the perspective—that is to say, three diatonic and two chromatic, of which the first is cut into two; but these sharps serve to go down to the third and fourth below the first step, C sol {tenor clef C], in order to go as far as the third octave, for the eighteen principal steps make but an eighteenth, that is to say, a fourth more than two octaves.” Mersenne’s statement sufficiently proves, first, the use in spinets as well as in organs of what we now call “short measure,” and, secondly, the object of divided sharps at the lower end of the keyboard to gain lower notes. As regards the kind of plectra earliest used we have no evidence. The little crow-quill points project from centred tongues in uprights of wood known as “jacks” (fig. 7), which also carry the dampers, and rising by the depression of the keys in front, the quills set the strings vibrating as they pluck them in passing. J. C. Scaliger in Poetices libri septem (1561, p. 51. c. 1.) states that the clavicimbalum and harpichordum of his boyhood were called spinets on account of those quill points (ab illis mucronibus), and attributes the. introduction of the name “spinetta” to them from spina, a thorn, the meaning being extended to any small pointed object such as a quill. We will leave “harpichordum” for the present, but the early identity of “clavicimbalum” and “spinetta” is certainly proved. Scaliger’s etymology re-

older and purer form of one, dated 1568, by Marco Jadra (also known as Marco “dalle spinette,” or “dai cembali”). The apparent compass of the keyboard in Italy generally exceeded four

octaves by a semitone, E to F;

but we may regard the lowest natural key as usually C, and the lowest sharp key as usually D,

in these instruments, according to “short measure.” The

spinet,

or

the fashion of the large “cassoni” or wedding chests. The oldest we know of in this style, and dated, is the fine specimen belonging to M. Terme which fig-

n

SES Ures in L’Art decoratif. Virginal

7 T iT ]MENN

HH

IUM 1511;

CUT

tangular instrument in Italy is “spinetta tavola.” In England, from Henry VII. to Charles II.,

CLAVICYTHER-

(UPRIGHT REVERSED

is not an Italian name; the rec-

X

FIG. 8.—VIRDUNG’S

HARPSICHORD), FACSIMILE

WOOD-

all

quilled

instruments

(stro-

menti di penna), without distinction

as

to

form,

were known

as

virginals. It was a common name, equivalent to the contemporary Italian clavicordo and Flemish clavisingel. From the latter we arrive at the French clavecin the spinet being simply a “petit clavecin.” Mersenne (op. cit., liv. iili., p. 158) gives three sizes for spinets —one 24 ft. wide, tuned to the octave of the “ton de chapelle” (a half tone above the present English medium pitch), one of 3% ft. tuned to the fourth below, and one of 5 ft. tuned to the octave below the first, the last being therefore tuned in unison to the chapel pitch. The octave spinet, of trapeze form, was known in Italy as “ottavina” or “spinetta di serenata.” It had a less compass of keys than the larger instrument, being apparently three and two-third octaves, E to C—which by the “short measure” would be four octaves, C to C. These little spinets were placed upon the larger ones in performance and used to heighten the STRINGS

4

mained unquestioned until Signor Ponsic-

}

chi of Florence discovered another, but less acceptable derivation. He found in a

I

a

t !

4 t

rare book entitled Conclusione nel suono dell’ organo, di D. Adriano Banchieri (Bologna, 1608), the following passage, which translated reads: “Spinetta was thus named from the inventor of that oblong form, who was one Maestro Giovanni Spinetti, a Venetian; and I have seen one of those instruments, in the possession of Francesco Stivori, organist of the magnificent community of Montagnana, within FIG. 7.—SPINET "JACK" Showing the quill which which was this inscription—Joannes S7- twangs the string on its upnetus Venetus fecit, A.D. 1503.” Scaliger’s ward journey, but, being and Banchieri’s statements may be com- hinged, slides quietly past bined, as there is no discrepancy of dates, on its return or we may rely upon whichever seems to us to have the greater authority, always bearing in mind that neither invalidates the other. In France the word “épinette” still stands for both “spinet” and “chicken-house” which seems to strengthen the first-named theory. A spinet dated 1490. was shown at Bologna in 1888; another old spinet in the Conservatoire, Paris, is a pentagonal instrument made by Francesco di Portalupis at Verona, 1523. The Milanese Rossi were famous spinet-makers, and have been accredited (La Nobilità di Milano, 1595) with the recessing of the

rectangular

“virginal,” early assumed in Italy

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BUTT

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The hinged

9.—CRISTOFORI'S

lever, when

ESCAPEMENT

ACTION

struck by the jack, transmits

thus having the effect of throwing the hammer

(1720)

the blow to the butt,

towards the strings

brilliant effect. In the double rectangular clavisingel of the Netherlands, in which there was a movable octave instrument, we recognize a similar intention, There is a fine spinet of this kind at Nuremberg. Praetorius illustrates the Italian spinet by a form known as the “spinetta traversa,” an approach towards the harpsichord, the tuning pins being immediately over the keyboard. This transposed spinet, more powerful than the old trapeze one, became fashionable in England after the Restoration, when Haward, Keene, Slade, Player, Baudin, the Hitchcocks, Mahoon, Haxby, the Harrir family, and others made such “spinets” during

a period for which we have dates from 1664 to 1784.

Pepys

HARPSICHORD]

PIANOFORTE

bought his “Espinette” from Charles Haward for £5, July 13

1664. Thomas Hitchcock (for whom there are dates 1664 and 1703 written on keys and jacks of spinets bearing Edward Blunt’s name and having divided bass sharps) made a great advance in constructing spinets, giving them the wide compass of five octaves from G to G, with very fine keyboards in which the sharps were

895

in an inventory of the furniture of Warwick Castle, r584. “a faire

paire of double virginalls,” and in the Hengrave inventory, 1603, “one great payre of double virginalls.” Hans Ruckers, the great

clavisingel maker of Antwerp, lived too late to have invented the

double keyboard and stops, evident adaptations from the organ, and the octave string was already in use when he began his work. inlaid with a slip of the ivory or Until the last harpsichord was made by Joseph Kirkman, in 1798, ebony, as the case might be, of scarcely an ‘instrument of the kind was constructed, except in the naturals. Italy, without the octaves. The harpsichord as known throughout We have now to ask what was the r8th century, with “piano” upper and “forte” lower keyboard, the difference between Scaliger’s was the invention of Hans Ruckers’s grandson, Jean Ruckers’s harpichordum and his clavicymnephew, Jan Couchet, about 1640. Before that time the double bal. Galilei, the father of the keyboards in Flemish harpsichords were merely a transposing astronomer of that name (Diaexpedient, to change the pitch a fourth, from plagal to authentic logo della musica antica e moand vice versa, while using the same groups of keys. derna, Florence, 1581), says that After the Antwerp make declined, London became pre-eminent the harpichord was so named for harpsichords—the representative makers being Jacob Kirckfrom having resembled an “arpa mann and Burckhard Tschudi, pupils of a Flemish master, one giacente,” a prostrate or Tabel, who had settled in London, and whose business Kirck“couched” harp, proving that the mann continued through marriage with Tabel’s widow. Tschudi clavicymbal was at first the trawas of a noble Swiss family belonging to the canton of Glarus. peze-Shaped spinet; and we According to the custom with foreign names obtaining at that should therefore differentiate time, by which Haendel became Handel, and Schmidt Smith, harpichord and clavicymbal as Kirckmann dropped his final n and Tschudi became.Shudi, but he derived from the harp and psalt- Fic. 10.—cRIsTOFORI'S PIANO E resumed the full spelling in the facies of the splendid harpsichords ery respectively. FORTE (1726); KRAUS MUSEUM, he made in 1766 for Frederick the Great, which are still preserved The Latin name “clavicim- FLORENCE at Potsdam. By these great makers the harpsichord became a balum,” having early been replaced by spinet and virginal, larger, heavier-strung and more powerful instrument, and fancy . was in Italy and France bestowed upon the long harpichord, stops were added to vary the tone effects. To the three shifting and was continued as clavicembalo and clavecin. Much later, registers of jacks were added the “‘lute,” the charm of which was after the restoration of the Stuarts, “harpichord” was accepted due to the favouring of high harmonics by plucking the strings and naturalized in England as harpsichord, which we will define close to the bridge, and the “harp,” a muting effect produced by as the long instrument with quills, shaped like a modern grand impeding the vibration of the strings by contact of small pieces piano. We can point out no long instrument of this kind so of buff leather. Two pedals were also used, the left-hand one a old as the Roman cembalo at South Kensington. The outer case combination of a unison and lute. is of finely tooled leather. It has a compass of nearly four The right-hand pedal was to raise a hinged portion of the top octaves, E to. D, and the natural keys are of boxwood. or cover and thus gain some power of “swell” or crescendo, an The startling “piano e forte’ of 1598, brought to light from invention of Roger Plenius, to whom also the harp stop may be the records of the house of D’Este by Count Valdrighi of Modena rightly attributed. The first idea of pedals for the harpsichord to (see Van der Straeten, vi., 122), we are disposed to regard, not act as stops appears to have been John Hayward’s (?Haward) as as an anticipation of Cristofori’s subsequent invention of the early as 1676, as we learn from Mace’s Musick’s Monument, p. pianoforte, but as an ordinary cembalo with power to shift by a 235. The French makers preferred a kind of knee-pedal arrangestop, from two unisons (forte) to one string (piano), at that time ment, known as the “genouillére,” and sometimes a more coma Flemish practice, and most likely brought to Italy by one of the plete muting by one long strip of buff leather, the “sourdine.” As Flemish musicians who founded the Italian school of composition. an improvement upon Plenius’s clumsy swell, Shudi in 1769 patAbout the year 1600, when accompaniment was invented for ented the Venetian swell, a framing of louvres, like a Venetian monody, large cembalos were made for the orchestras to bring blind, which opened by the movement of the pedal, and becoming out the bass part, the performer standing to play. Such an instru- in England a favourite addition to harpsichords, was early transment was called “archicembalo,” a name also applied to a large ferred to the organ, replacing the rude “nag’s-head”’ swell. To keep his collection of musical instruments in playing order cembalo, made by Vito Trasuntino, a Venetian, in 1606, intended by thirty-one keys in each of its four octaves, to restore the three Prince Ferdinand dei Medici engaged a Paduan harpsichord maker, Bartolommeo Cristofori, the man of genius who invented and progenera of the ancient Greeks. Double keyboards and stops in the long cembalo or harpsichord duced the pianoforte. We fortunately possess the record of this came into use in the Netherlands early in the 16th century. We invention in a literary form from a well-known writer, the find them imported into England. The following citations, quoted Marchese Scipione Maffei; his description appeared in the Giornale by Rimbault in his History of the Pianoforte, are from the privy dei letterati d'Italia, a publication conducted by Apostolo Zeno. The date of Maffei’s paper was 1711. Rimbault reproduced it, purse expenses of King Henry VIII. “1530 (April). Item the vj daye paied to William Lewes for ii with a technically imperfect translation, in his History of the payer of virginalls in one coffer with iili stoppes brought to Grenewiche

ili, li. And for ii payer of virginalls in one coffer brought to the More other iii, li.”

Now the second instrument may be explained (“virginals” mean-

ing any quilled instrument) as a double spinet, like that at Nurem-

berg by Martin van der Beest, the octave division being movable. But the first cannot be so explained; the four stops can only belong to a harpsichord, and the two pair instrument to a double-manual.

Again from the inventory after the king’s death (see Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 1419) fol. 247—

“Two fair pair of new long Virginalls made harp-fashion of Cipres, with keys of ivory, having the King’s Arms crowned and supported by his Grace’s beastes within a garter gilt, standing over the keys.

This is probably another double keyboard harpsichord. We read

Pianoforte. We learn from it that in 1709 Cristofori had completed four “gravecembali col piano e forte”—keyed-psalteries

with soft and loud—three of them being of the long or usual harpsichord form. The sketch of his action in Maffei’s essay shows an incomplete stage in the invention, although the kernel of it—

the principle of escapement or the controlled rebound of the ham-

mer—is already there. He obtains it by a centred lever (linguetia

mobile) or hopper, working, when the key is depressed by the touch, in a small projection from the centred hammer-butt.

The

return, governed by a spring, must have been uncertain and incapable of further regulating than could be obtained by modifying the strength of the spring. Moreover, the hammer had each time to be raised the entire distance of its fall. There are, however, two pianofortes by Cristofori, dated respectively 1720 and

PIANOFORTE

896

1726, which show a much improved construction, for the whole of an essential piano movement is there. The earlier instrument (now

[HARPSICHORD

prior to J. S. Bach’s visit to him in 1747, we find the Cristofori framing, stringing, inverted wrest-plank and action complete, Fig, II represents the instrument on which J. S. Bach played in the Stadtschloss, Potsdam.

in the Metropolitan Museum, New York) has undergone considerable restoration, but the 1726 one, which is in the Kraus Museum It has been repeatedly stated in Germany that Frederici, of Gera at Florence, retains the original leather hammer-heads. Both instruments possess alike a contrivance for determining the radius in Saxony, an organ builder and musical instrument maker, inof the hopper, and both have been unexpectedly found to have vented the square or table-shaped piano, the “fort bien,” as he is said to have called it, about 1758-60. No Square piano by this maker is forthcoming, though an “upright grand” piano, made by

R cree

i“Tun

Domenico del Mela in 1739, with an action adapted from Cristofori’s has been discovered by Signor Ponsicchi of Florence. Victor

met

eee

pale HOPPE

Tieat

ONON SCOOT aN Tannen

FIG.

11.—SILBERMANN

FORTE

PIANO

(1746),

Ea

Stare

TN

khara gna Tee is

STADTSCHLOSS,

POTSDAM

the “check” (Ital. paramartello), which regulates the fall of the hammer according to the strength of the blow which has impelled it to the strings. Thicker stringing, to withstand even Cristofori’s light hammers, demanded in its turn a stronger framing than the harpsichord had needed.

Accordingly to make his structure firm Cristofori con-

siderably increased the strength of the block which holds the tuning-pins, and as he could not do so without materially adding to its thickness, he adopted the bold expedient of inverting it; driving his wrest-pins, harp-fashion, through it, so that tuning was affected at their upper, while the wires were attached to their lower, ends. Then, to guarantee the security of the case, he ran an independent string-block round it of stouter wood than had been used in harpsichords, in which block the hitch-pins were driven to hold the farther ends of the strings, which were spaced at equal distances (unlike the harpsichord), the dampers lying between the pairs of unisons. Cristofori died in 1731. He had pupils, but did not found a school of Italian pianoforte-making. The 1711 essay of Scipione Maffei was translated into German, in 1725, by König, the court poet at Dresden, and friend of Gottfried Silbermann, the renowned

organ builder and harpsichord and clavichord maker (see Dr. Oscar Paul’s Geschichte des Claviers, Leipzig, 1868). Incited by this publication, and perhaps by BELL-CRANK having seen in Dresden one of LEVER Cristofori’s pianofortes, Silbermann appears to have taken up the new instrument, and in 1726 to have manufactured two, which

J. S. Bach, according to his pupil Agricola, pronounced failures. The trebles were too weak; the touch was too heavy. There has long been another version to this story, viz., that Silbermann borrowed the idea of bis action from a very simple model contrived by a young musician named Schroeter, who had left it at the electoral court in 1721, and, quitting Saxony to travel, had FIG. 12.—FREDERICI'S UPRIGHT not afterwards claimed it. GRAND PIANO ACTION (1745) Whatever Silbermann’s first In the museum of the Brussels Conexperiments were based upon, he servatoire. The leather hinge allows bellcrank lever to convert the ultimately adopted Cristofori’s the upward throw of the jack into a forpianoforte without further alter- ward motion of the hammer towards ation than the compass and col- the string our of the keys and the style of joinery of the case. In the Silbermann grand pianofortes at Potsdam, known to have been Frederick the Great’s, and to have been acquired by that monarch

FIG. 13.—SCHROETER'S MODEL FOR AN ACTION (1721); SHOWING THE KEY READY TO LIFT THE HOPPER, AND MAKE IT STRIKE THE HAMMER SHANK Mahillon of Brussels, however, acquired a Frederici “upright grand” piano, dated 1745. In Frederici’s upright grand action (fig. 12) we have not to do with the ideas of either Cristofori or Schroeter; the movement is practically identical with the hammer action of a German clock, and has its counterpart in a piano at Nuremberg; a fact which needs further elucidation. We note here the earliest example of the leather hinge, afterwards so common in piano actions. An attempted combination of harpsichord and pianoforte appears very early. The English poet Mason, the friend of Gray, bought such an instrument at Hamburg in 1755, with “the cleverest mechanism imaginable.” It was only under date of 1763 that Schroeter published for the first time a diagram of his proposed invention, designed more than forty years before. It appeared in Marpurg’s Kritische Briefe (Berlin, 1764). Now, immediately after, Johann Zumpe, a German in London, who had been one of Shudi’s workmen introduced (there is some tradition that Mason had to do with the invention of it) a “square” piano, which was destined to become the most popular domestic instrument. Zumpe was in fact not the inventor of the square piano, which appears to have been well known in Germany before his date, a discovery made by Mr. George Rose. In Paul de Wit’s Musical Instrument Museum— formerly in Leipzig, afterwards transferred to Cologne—there is a smali square piano by Hildebrandt 27 in. long ro in. wide and 44 in high, having a contracted keyboard of 3 octaves and 2 notes.

The action of this small instrument is practically identical in every 4

FIG. 14.——-ZUMPE’S SQUARE PIANO ACTION (1765): GIVING BLOW WITH THE JACK NEAR THE BUTT END OF THE HAMMER

A DIRECT

detail with that of the square pianofortes made much later by Zumpe (Paul de Wit, Katalog des musikhistorischen Museums, Leipzig, 1903. No. 55, illustration, p. 38). Inside is inscribed: “Friedrich Hildebrandt, Instrumentenmacher in Leipzig, Quergasse,” with four figures almost illegible. Paul de Wit refers the instrument to the middle of the 18th century. It has all the

PIANOFORTE

IN ENGLAND] appearance of being a reduced copy

of a well-e

‘fering very little from the later aan

i

peas

ee

Burney tells us all about Zumpe; and his instruments still exist-

ing would fix the date of the first at about 1765. Fétis narrates however, that he began the study of the piano on a square piano made by Zumpe in 1762. In this simple action (fig. 14) we have the nearest approach to a realization of Schroeter’s idea. It will be noted that Schroeter’s damper (fig. 13) would stop all vibration

3897

Viennese instrument, famous for its lightness of touch. We will quit the early German piano with an illustration (fig. 17) of a square Gottlob Wagner principle rather Burney, who the harpsichord

piano action in an instrument made by Johann of Dresden in 1783, and embodying the Cristofori than the Viennese. lived through the period of the displacement of by the pianoforte, is the only authority to whom

at once. This defect is met by Zumpe’s “mopstick” damper. Another piano action had, however, come into use about that time or even earlier in Germany. The discovery of it in the

STRING

i

FIRM RESIST ANGE Y

NOTCH

OFRER

IN

LOU

IA

u

FIG. 17.—GERMAN SQUARE ACTION AT THE POINT WHERE THE HOPPER WAGNER, DRESDEN

FIG. 15.—EARLIEST KNOWN PIANO ACTION ON THE GERMAN PRINCIPLE OF ESCAPEMENT, WHEREBY THE PIVOT RISES WITH THE KEY AND THROWS THE BUTT AGAINST A FIRM RESISTANCE

simplest form is to be attributed to V. C. Mahillon, who found it in a square piano belonging to Henri Gosselin, painter of Brussels

(fig. 19). The principle of this action is that which was later perfected by the addition of a good escapement by Stein of Augs-

burg, and was again later experimented upon by Sebastian Erard. Its origin is perhaps due to the contrivance of a piano action that should suit the shallow clavichord and permit of its transformation into a square piano. It will be observed that the hammer is, as compared with other actions, reversed, and its pivot rises with the key, necessitating a fixed rail against which the hammer butt strikes. It was Stein’s merit to graft the hopper principle upon this simple action; and Mozart’s approbation of the invention, when he met with it at Augsburg in 1777, is expressed in a wellknown letter addressed to his mother. No more “blocking” of the hammer, destroying all vibration, was henceforth to vex his mind. He had found the instrument that for the rest of his short life replaced the harpsichord. V. C. Mahillon secured for his museum the only Johann Andreas Stein piano which is known to remain. It is from Augsburg, dated 1780, and has Stein’s escapement action (fig. 16), two unisons, and the knee pedal. Mozart’s own grand piano, preserved at Salzburg, and the two grand pianos (the latest dated 1790) by Huhn of Berlin, preserved

| j

|

(1783); ESCAPEMENT IS EFFECTED FALLS INTO THE NOTCH. PIANO BY

we can refer as to the introduction of the latter instrument into England. He tells us without giving the exact date that the first hammer harpsichord that came to England was made by an English monk at Rome, a Father Wood, for an English gentleman, Samuel Crisp of Chesington; the tone of this instrument was superior to that produced by quills, with the advantage of piano and forte expression so that, although the touch and mechanism were imperfect, yet in a slow movement like the “Dead March” in Saul it excited wonder and delight. Fulke Greville afterwards bought this instrument for too guineas, and it remained unique in England for several years, until Plenius, the inventor of the lyrichord, made a pianoforte in imitation of it. In this instrument the touch was better, but the tone was inferior. Plenius produced his lyrichord, a sostenente harpsichord, in 1745, and Mason imported a pianoforte ten years later. Burney further tells us that the arrival in London of J. C. Bach in 1759 was the motive for several of the second-rate harpsichord makers trying to make pianofortes, but with no particular success. Of these Americus Backers (d. 1776), said to be a Dutchman, appears to have gained the first place. He was afterwards the inventor of the so-called English action, based upon Cristofori’s, and may have made the instrument referred to in an old play-bill of Covent Garden in Messrs. Broadwoods’ possession,

dated May

16, 1767, which has the following an-

nouncement :-——

“End of Act 1. Miss Brickler will sing a favourite song from Judith, accompanied by Mr. Dibdin on a new instrument call'd Piano Forte.”

Backers’s “Original Forte Piano” was played at the Thatched House in St. James’s Street, London, in 1773. Ponsicchi has PIVOT OF THE HAMMER found a Backers grand piano at Pistoria, dated that year. The escapement lever is suggested by Cristofori’s first action, to which Backers added a contrivance for regulating it by means of a button and screw (see fig. 18). The check is from Cristofori’s second action. John Broadwood and Robert Stodart were friends, Stodart having been Broadwood’s pupil; and they were the assistants of Backers in the installation of his invention. On his deathbed he commended it to Broadwood’s care, but Stodart appears to have been the first to advance it—Broadwood being probably held back by his partnership with his brother-in-law, the FIG, 16.—STEIN’S ACTION AFTERWARDS CALLED VIENNESE (1780) end the of Shudi, in the harpsichord business. (The elder Shudi had by son caused is blow the and key the with rises hammer The pivot of the of the hammer coming into contact with the escapement died in 1773.) Stodart soon made a considerable reputation with a designation he was the first to give at Berlin and Charlottenburg, follow Stein in all particulars. his “grand” pianofortes, piano we first find an adaptation from grand Stodart’s In them. muting the and upwards, These instruments have three unisons steel arches between the wrest-plank of Plenius, of lyrichord movement known as celeste, which no doubt Stein had also. The the up which the hammers rise. ‘These gap the bridging belly-rail, and Cristoof imitation any there is nor wrest-plank is not inverted; German instruments, but may contemporary any in found not are well as fori. Stein’s instrument was accepted as a model in Berlin small square plano had Zumpe’s Backers’s. Vienna, to which city his business was transferred in 1794 by have been part of ve

|

as his daughter Nanette, known as an accomplished pianist and friend of Beethoven,

who

at that

time

used Stein’s

pianos.

Streicher, a pianist, who married Nanette, further improved the

met with great success; he was soon enabled to retire, and his imitators, who were legion, continued his model with its hand stops for the dampers and sourdine, with little change but that

PIANOFORTE

898

which straightened the keys from the divergences inherited from the clavichord. John Broadwood took this domestic instrument in hand to improve it, and in the year 1780 succeeded in entirely reconstructing it. He transferred the wrest-plank and pins from the right-hand side, as in the clavichord, to the back of the case, an

[BROADWOOD

was solved by dividing the sound-board bridge, the lower half of which was advanced to carry the bass strings, which were stil] of brass.

Even the first attempts to equalize the tension and im-

prove the striking-place were successful in improving the tone greatly. To please Dussek, Broadwood in 1791 carried his fiveoctave, F to F, keyboard, by adding keys upwards, to five and a

half octaves, F to C. In 1794 the additional bass half octave to C, which Shudi had first introduced in his double harpsichords, was given to the piano. The first square piano made in France is said to have been constructed in 1776 by Sebastian Erard, a young Alsatian. In 1786 he came to England and founded the London manufactory of harps and pianofortes bearing his name. Erard took out his first patent for a “repetition” action in 1808. He did not, however, succeed in producing his famous repetition or double escapement action until 1821; it was’then patented by his nephew Pierre Er-

yor

TRING

T HAMMER

wy

= i TN

HOPPER

KEY

———

—————

FIG. 18.—GRAND

AMERICUS BACKERS

PIANO

ACTION

(1776).

THE

*‘ENGLISH’’

ACTION

OF

The button screw throws the jack out of the notch in the butt after making the blow; improved by Messrs. Collard (1835), who reversed the lever and

hammer butt

improvement universally adopted after his patent, No. 1379 of 1783, expired. In this patent we first find the soft and sustaining pedals, since universally accepted, but at first in grand pianofortes only. John Geib patented (No. 1571 of 1786) the hopper with two separate escapements, one of which was soon adopted in the “grasshopper” of the square piano, it is believed by Geib himself; STRING.

4

V

HAMMER Burtt PS

NOTCH

Q 4

í 7s A

LINT INT

SET-OFF

BUTTON

HOPPER

F1G. 19.—BROADWOOD'S GRAND PIANO ACTION (1884), ENGLISH DIRECT MECHANISM The hopper is thrown from the notch in the butt, by the slanting blow given by the set-off button when the hopper rises

and Petzold, a Paris maker, appears to have taken later to the escapement effected upon the key. To return to John Broadwood—having launched his reconstructed square piano, he next turned his attention to the grand plano to continue the improvement of it from the point where Backers had left it. He called in the aid of professed men of science—Tiberius Cavallo, who in 1788 published his calculations of the tension, and Dr. Gray, of the British Museum.

The problem

FIG. 20.—COLLARD’S GRAND PIANO ACTION (1884); ENGLISH ACTION, WITH REVERSED HOPPER AND CONTRIVANCE FOR REPETITION ADDED, OPERATING UNDER THE BUTT ard. When the patent expired in England in 1835 it had proved a loss from the difficulties of carrying out the invention. This induced the House of Lords.to grant an extension of the patent. Erard invented in 1808 an upward bearing to the wrest-plank bridge, by means of agraffes or studs of metal, through holes in which the strings are made to pass, bearing against the upper side. A long brass bridge on this principle was introduced by William Stodart in 1822. A pressure-bar bearing of later introduction is claimed for the French maker, Bord. The first to see the importance of iron combined with wood (ultimately almost supplanting it) in pianoforte framing was a native of England and a civil engineer by profession, John Isaac Hawkins, known as the inventor of the ever-pointed pencil. He was living at Philadelphia, U.S.A., when he invented and first produced the familiar upright pianoforte—“portable grand” as he then called it. He patented it in America, his father, Isaac Hawkins, taking out the patent for him in England iin the same year, 1800. There had been upright grand pianos as well as upright harpsi-

chords, the horizontal instrument being turned up upon its wider end and a keyboard and action adapted to it. William Southwell, an Irish piano-maker, had in 1798 tried a similar experiment with a square piano, to be repeated in later years by W. F. Collard of London; but Hawkins was the first to make a piano with the strings descending to the floor, the keyboard being raised, and this, although at the moment the chief, was not his only merit. He anticipated nearly every discovery that has since been introduced as novel. His instrument is in a complete iron frame, independent of the case; and in this frame, strengthened by a system of iron resistance rods combined with an iron upper bridge, his sound-board is entirely suspended. An apparatus for tuning by mechanical screws regulates the tension of the strings, which are of equal length throughout. The action, in metal supports, anticipates Wornum’s in the checking, and still later ideas in a contrivance for repetition. Southwell appears to have been one of the first to profit by Hawkins’s ideas by bringing out the tall cabi-

net pianoforte, with hinged sticker action, in 1807. All that he could, however, patent in it was the simple damper action, turning on a pivot to relieve the dampers from the strings. The next

PIANOFORTE

IRON STRUCTURES]

899

steps for producing the short or cottage upright piano were taken

resistance to the tension of the strings and the reduction of their

1813 a vertically, strung instrument. Wornum’s improved crank action (fig. 23) was not complete until 1826, when it was patented for a cabinet piano; but it was not really introduced until

mented on as substitutes for the wooden bracing by Joseph Smith In 1798; but to James Broadwood belongs the credit of trying them first above the sound-board in the treble part of the scale in 1808, and again in 1818; he did not succeed, however, in fixing them properly. Sebastian and Pierre Erard seem to have been first in the field in 1823 with a complete system of nine resistance bars from treble to bass: with a simple mode of fastening them through the sound-board to the wooden beams beneath. James DAMPER HEAD Broadwood, by his patent of 1827, claimed the combination of FELT string-plate and resistance bars, WIRE which was clearly the completion of the wood and metal instrument, differing from Allen's in the resistance being fixed. Broadwood left the bass bars out, but added a fourth bar in the middle to the three in the treble he had

by Robert Wornum, who in 1811 produced a diagonally, and in

three years later, when Wornum applied it to his little “piccolo.” The principle of this centred lever check action was introduced STRING

mresa

FIG. 21.—ERARD'S DOUBLE ESCAPEMENT ACTION (1821)

The escapement of repetition is effected by a spring pressing the hinged lever upwards, to allow the hopper which delivers the blow to return into position, before the key has risen again

into Paris by Pleyel and Pape, and thence into Germany and America. (Pleyel exhibited a small upright piano in Paris in 1827, but a Erard did not turn his attention to upright pianos until 1831.

Early in the roth century William Allen, a young tuner in the employ of the Stodarts, devised a metal system of framing intended primarily for compensation, but soon to become, in other hands, a framing for resistance. His idea was to meet the divergence in tuning caused in brass and iron strings by atmospheric changes by compensating tubes and plates of the same metals. guaranteeing their stability by a cross batoning of stout wooden bars and a metal bar across the wrest-plank. Allen consulted

Stodart’s foreman, Thom; and Allen and Thom patented the invention in January 1820. The firm of Stodart at once acquired the patent. We now arrive at an important epoch in pianoforte construction—the abolition of the wooden construction in favour of a combined construction of iron and wood, the former material gradually asserting pre-eminence. Allen’s design is shown in fig.

24. ‘The long bars are really tubes fixed at one end only; those

FIG.

22.—STEINWAY'S

GRAND

PIANO

ACTION

(1884)

The double escapement as In Erard’s (fig. 21) but with shortened balance and usual check. The hopper escapes from under the roller owing to the ballcrank lever corhing into contact with the set-off button

of iron lie over the iron or steel wire, while those of brass lie over the brass wire, the metal plates to which they are attached being in the same correspondence. At once a great advance was made in the possibility of using heavier strings without danger to the durability of the case and frame. In 1821, a fixed iron

string-plate, the invention of one of Broadwood’s workmen, Samuel Hervé, was applied to one of the square pianos of that firm. The great advantage in the fixed plate was a more even

length behind the bridge. Long iron resistance bars were experi-

previously used. But the weight of the stringing was always increasing, and a heavy close copper covering of the bass strings had become general. The resistance bars were increased to five, Six, seven, eight and, as we have seen, even nine, according to the ideas of the different English and French makers who used

them in their pursuit of stability. A method of fastening the strings on the string-plate depending upon friction, and thus dispensing with “eyes,” was a FIG. 23.—WORNUM’S UPRIGHT AC. TION (1826), ORIGINAL OF THE NOW contribution of the Collards, who UNIVERSAL ACTION IN UPRIGHT had retained James Stewart, a PIANOS man of considerable inventive The Hopper in its ascent drove the hammer forward at the same time con- power, who had been in Amerita tacting the rail which threw the upper with Chickering. This invention end of the hopper out of the notch was introduced in 1827. Beforming what is known as the escapement. Meanwhile the damper-head is tween 1847 and 1849 Mr. Henry raised by the wire, and the felt is Fowler Broadwood, grandson taken from the string of John Broadwood, invented a grand pianoforte to depend practically upon iron, in which, to avoid the conspicuous inequalities caused by the breaking of the scale with resistance bars, there should be no bar parallel to the strings except a bass bar, while another flanged resistance bar, as an entirely novel feature, crossed over the strings from the bass corner of the wrest-plank to a point upon the string-plate where the greatest accumulation of tension strain was found. After the Great Exhibition of 1851 he employed an ordinary straight bar in the middle of his concert grand scale, his smaller grands having frequently two such as well as the long bass bar. After 1862 he covered his wrest-plank with a thick plate of iron into which the tuning pins screw as well as into the wood beneath, thus avoiding the crushing of the wood by the constant pressure of the pin across the pull of the string. The introduction of iron into pianoforte structure was differently and independently effected in America, the fundamental idea there being to use a single casting for the metal plate and bars, instead of forging or casting them in separate pieces. Alphaeus Babcock was the pioneer of this kind of metal construction. He also cast an iron ring for a square piano in 1825, which, although not a success, gave the clue to a single casting resistance framing, successfully accomplished by Conrad Meyer, in Philadelphia, in 1833, in a square piano which still exists, and was shown in the Paris Exhibition of 1878. Meyer’s idea was improved upon by Jonas Chickering (1797-1853) of Boston, who applied it to the grand piano as well as to the square, since which time this prin-

900

PIANOFORTE

ciple has been universally adopted. We have now to consider over- or cross-stringing, by which the bass division of the strings is made to cross over the tenor part of the scale—the object being in the first instance to get longer bass strings than are attainable in a parallel scale, and in the next to open out the scale and extend the area of bridge pressure on the sound-board. In the 18th century clavichords were sometimes overstrung in the lowest octave to get a clearer tone in that very indistinct part of the instrument (strings tuned an octave higher being employed). The first suggestion for the overstringing in the piano was made by the celebrated flute-player and inventor Theobald Boehm, who carried it beyond theory in London, in 1831, by employing a small firm located in Cheapside, Gerock & Wolf, to make some overstrung pianos for him. Boehm expected to gain in tone; Pape, an ingenious mechanician in Paris, tried a like experiment to gain economy in dimensions, his notion beLA NT ENN ing to supply the best piano p eB

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A view of Pittsburgh, from an etching by Anton Schutz, looking toward the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, which here join to form the Ohio river

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PITTSBURGH teachers and 6,716 students (1927). In the Allegheny district are the Allegheny Theological seminary (United Presbyterian, 1825), the Western Theological seminary (Presbyterian, opened

1827), and the Reformed

Presbyterian Theological seminary

(1856). Under the new school code (1911) a board of education consisting of 15 members appointed by the judges of the common

979

two chamber locks and instead of no. 7 two new and larger locks have been constructed. Coal is brought to the city from

the coal-fields by boats on the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers as well as by rail, and great fleets of barges carry coal and other heavy freight, such as steel rails, cotton ties, sheet iron, wire and

nails, down the Ohio in the winter and spring. A ship canal to provide water communication between Pittsburgh and Lake Erie has been projected and is awaiting the approval of the army engineers. The railways have a heavy tonnage of coal, coke and 2,022 teachers and 79,122 pupils and evening schools with 12,224 iron and steel products, and a large portion of the iron ore that pupils. The parochial schools had 11 high schools, 84 teachers is produced in the Lake Superior region is brought to Pittsburgh. and 2,837 pupils and 78 grade schools, 817 teachers and 38,254 In 1926 the river traffic amounted to 30,717,002 tons and in 1925 pupils; and there are many private schools and academies, among it was 35,458,669, much of which was carried on barges down the them Shadyside academy. The Henry C. Frick Education Com- Ohio. Pittsburgh is also a port of entry; in 1927 the value of its mission has an endowment of several millions for the improvement imports amounted to $09,181,226. of teaching in the public schools. According to the census of manufactures for 1927 the facThe Pittsburgh Gazette (1786) was probably the oldest news- tories, 1354 in number, situated within the city gave employment paper west of the Allegheny mountains and was (1906) con- to 61,892 workers, paid in wages the total sum of $89,038,960, solidated with the Times (1879) under the name of Gazette- and manufactured products valued at $508,528,845. The ten Times and recently (1927) consolidated with the Post (Sunday, leading industries in the order of the value of their products were: 1792; daily, 1842) under the name Post-Gazette, the only Tron and steel, steel works and rolling mills, $97,806,867; bread morning paper. The evening papers are Sun-Telegraph and the and other bakery products, $34,712,013; foundry and machinePittsburgh Press which purchased and discontinued (1923) the shop products, $33,091,071; printing and publishing, newspaper, Dispatch (1846) and the Leader (Sunday 1864, daily 1870). A periodical, book and job, $30,624,902; slaughtering and meatGerman and a Polish daily, weeklies in Slovak, Italian and other packing, $28,262,048; electrical machinery and supplies, $15,languages, and iron, steel, building, coal, glass, agriculture and 873.513; car shop, construction and repairs, $12,270,594; conother trade journals are published in the city. In Pittsburgh are fectionery, $10,977,891; bolts, nuts, washers and rivets, $ro,published the Presbyterian Banner (1814, the second oldest re- 515.530; coffee and spice, roasting and grinding, $10,386,612. ligious paper in the United States), the United Presbyterian, the Other manufactures included brass, bronze and non-ferrous alloys; Christian Advocate, the Catholic Observer, the Pittsburgh Catholic paints and varnishes, and planing-mill products. and other weeklies. In finance Pittsburgh occupies with San Francisco and Los The oldest hospital was the Reineman (1893), for maternity Angeles fifth place in bank clearings and (Oct. 1927) had national cases, made the University maternity hospital (1893) and trans- bank deposits $459,667,442, State bank deposits $153,399,522 and ferred to Magee hospital (1910), the latter with the Children’s, trust and savings deposits $351,256,793. In Pittsburgh or the Eye and Ear and Presbyterian forming the new medical Centre immediate vicinity are the more important plants of the United of the University of Pittsburgh. Other hospitals are: Municipal States Steel corporation, including that of the Carnegie company, (1878), Tuberculosis, Homeopathic, Montefiore, Passavant, Ro- and the Jones and Laughlin Steel corporation, one of the largest selia Maternity, St. Johns, St. Josephs, St. Margaret Memorial, independent steel companies in the United States. Here, too, South Side, West Penn, Allegheny General, Columbia, in charge are the plants of the Westinghouse company for the manufacture of United Presbyterian Women’s Association, and the Sisters of of electrical apparatus, of air-brakes invented by George WestingMercy, Mercy hospital, Sisters of St. Francis, St. Francis hos- house (born 1846), and of devices for railway signals which he pital, and the Sisters of Charity, Pittsburgh hospital. The Western also invented. In the Allegheny district the H. J. Heinz company Pennsylvania schools for the deaf and for the blind, are located in with its 57 varieties has its main food-preserving plant, the largest Pittsburgh and many of the hospitals, schools, homes and chari- establishment of the kind in the country. Government.—The Pittsburgh charter of 1816 vested the table institutions, non-sectarian, are in part maintained by the State. The Y.M.C.A. had 14 branches and the Y.W.C.A. (metro- more important powers of the city government in a common counpolitan) had six branches (1927), and there were 556 churches, 20 cil of 15 members and a select council of nine members, and until all-year playgrounds, 14 public swimming pools, 28 parks and 1834 the mayor was appointed annually by these city councils from their own number. By the Wallace Act of the State legisover 200 social and welfare agencies. Industry and Commerce.—Pittsburgh is in the midst of the lature in 1874 a form of government was provided for cities of most productive coal-fields in the country; the region is also rich three classes, and Pittsburgh became a city of the second class in petroleum and natural gas. The city is on one of the main lines (population between 100,000 and 300,000); under the Act of of communication between the east and the west, is the centre of 1895 a new Classification was made, under which Pittsburgh rea vast railway system, and has freight yards in and outside the mains in the second class. An Act of 1887 had amended the procity with a total capacity for more than 60,000 cars. Its harbour visions of the Wallace Act in regard to second class cities by has a total length on the three rivers of 27-2m., and an average changing the terms of select councilmen from two to four width of about 1,oooft., and has been deepened by the construc- years and of common councilmen from one to two years. In tion (in 1877-85) of the Davis Island dam, by dredging, under Igor a new act was passed for the government of cities of the a Federal project of 1899. This dam has been superseded by the second class. It provided that the executive be a “city recorder”; Emsworth fixed dam. Slack water navigation has been secured on this provision was repealed in 1903, when the title of mayor again the Allegheny by locks and dams (1890, 1896 eż seq.) at an ex- came into use. By act of legislature (1911) the former common pense up to July 1909 of $1,658,804; and up to that time and select councils were superseded by a small council of nine $263,625 had been spent for open-channel work. In 1927-28 members, elected by general vote of the entire city. The mayor, elected by the people for a term of two years, continued to apthree new dams, Nos. 4, 5 and 6 were completed. The Monongahela from Pittsburgh to the West Virginia State line (91-5m.) point the heads of departments (public safety, public works, aswas improved in 1836 et seg., by a private company which built sessors, treasurer, law, welfare, health and supplies), and the seven locks and dams; this property was condemned and bought comptroller also continued to be elected by popular vote. By a for $3,761,615 by the United States Government in’ 1897, and, two-thirds vote the council may pass resolutions or ordinances under the project of 1899 for rebuilding three of the locks and over the mayor’s veto. The department of public safety controls enlarging another, and that of 1907 for a new lock and dam and the bureaux of police, fire, building inspection, electricity and for other improvements, $2,675,692 was spent up to July 1909. general office; the department of public works controls the Since then six of these have been entirely rebuilt and changed to bureaux of water, highway and sewers, property, parks, recrea-

pleas courts controls the public schools. There were (1927) 17 high schools, with 979 teachers and 22,727 pupils, one Teachers’ Training school, six special schools, 136 elementary schools, with

tions, tests, lights, deed registry, bridges and construction. mayor

II.

PITTSFIELD—PIUS

980 appoints the members

of the civil service

The

commission.

Through a city-planning commission, recommending zoning ordinances and through a board of adjustment, the height and character of all buildings are controlled. A bureau of traffic relief and a traffic commission were created in 1924, and in 1925 a department of city transit, charged with the regulation of traffic conditions and with the matter of recommending subways and a comprehensive system of rapid-transit lines for the entire city. In 1927 the taxable valuation was $344,625,560 for land and buildings and the tax rate was 22-40 mills on land, 11-20 on buildings and 11-50 for schools.

The water supply of Pittsburgh is taken from

the Allegheny river and pumped into reservoirs, the highest of which in Highland park is 367ft. above the river; the supply is filtered. For the history of Pittsburgh, see PENNSYLVANIA. (S. B. McC.)

PITTSFIELD, a city of western Massachusetts, U.S.A., the

be seen minute oval spores of a vegetable parasite, the Microsporon furfur. The disease is mostly one of adults, found all over

the world, and not associated in any special way with poor general health. The treatment consists of rubbing in an ointment of potassium sulphide or one of the mercurial ointments, or using sulphur-soap habitually.

PIURA, a coast department of northern Peru, with area 15,239 sq.m.; pop. (est. 1920) 213,909. The department includes mountainous areas in the north (Cerros de Amatope) and

east (cordilleran sierra) and a great desert (Sechura) in the south. The chief rivers are the Chira, a permanent stream, and the Piura.

Crops are grown with the aid of irrigation as there

is rainfall only at intervals leading

industry

of years.

Cotton-growing is the

in the irrigated valleys,

stock-raising

in the

sierra. The cultivation of espero (full-rough cotton) is peculiar to this department, the product of a large bush, and is known

as vegetable wool

(see Peru:

Agriculture).

There are gins

and factories for making cotton-seed oil and cake; also a crushing-mill for castor-beans which produces about 20,000 gal. of castor-oil annually. Other crops include rice, sugar, tobacco, maize, potatoes, yuca, beans, cacao and fruits, all of which are consumed locally. Szerran cattle are fattened in the upper valleys. Goats are raised extensively. Charcoal is made from the wood of the algaroba tree. Though mineral deposits are widespread, the villages of Barkerville, Coltsville Junction, Pontoosuc, Shaker, petroleum is the only one exploited. It now heads the list of Stearnsville, Taconic, Tillotsons and West Pittsfield, and the Peruvian exports and the only producing oil fields in the republic whole or parts of five lakes (Pontoosuc, Onota, Morewood, Silver are in the department of Piura and the adjoining province of and Richmond). It is a well built city, with dignified public Tumbez. They lie along the north-western coast, a narrow belt buildings, substantial business blocks, modern schools, shaded about 60 m. in length. The two chief operating companies are residential streets and on the outskirts large manufacturing plants. in Piura; the International Petroleum Corporation, a subsidiary The assessed valuation for 1927 was $57,809,775. Pittsfield is a of the Standard Oil Company, whose chief field is Negritos, 40 m. touring centre and a resort for winter sports. Its manufacturing north-west of Paita, produces about 80% of the national output industries are large and distinctive, with an output in 1927 (1,140,000 tons in 1926) and has a modern refinery at its port, valued at $50,191,653. They include a plant of the General Talara. The Lobitos Oil Company, ro m. north of Talara, forElectric Company, making monster transformers and other ma- merly British, now Peruvian, produced 271,000 tons in 1926, chinery and devices, where artificial lightning was produced in shipped via Talara to the United States and Canada for refining. 1927; and the mill that makes all the paper used for the U.S. About 15% of total production is consumed in Peru, largely as bank notes and Government bonds. The oldest industry (still crude oil by railways, A standard gauge railway runs from one of the most important) is textile manufacturing, chiefly Paita (g.v.), to Piura (58 m.) by way of Sullana, a distributing woollen goods. Fine stationery, paper-mill equipment, machine centre for southern Ecuador, and narrow gauge railways connect tools, spool silks and silk braids are other leading products. The the oil-fields with Talara. Roads are under active construction and first settlement within the present boundaries of Pittsfield (Boston sections of the coast highway and of the road across the Andes Plantation or Pontoosuc), made in 1743, was soon abandoned from Paita to the Amazon are finished. Piura, capital of the because of trouble with the Indians. It was revived in 1749, and department, pop. (estimated 1920) 15,000, is on the Piura river, ın 1761 was incorporated as the town of Pittsfield, named in 164 ft. above sea-level. It was founded by Pizarro in 1532 on honour of the elder William Pitt. The town was chartered as a a slightly different site. It has electric lights, telephone and city in 1889. Shaker Village was settled (by Shakers) about 1790. telegraph, banks, theatres, superior court, secondary schools and Elkanah Watson (1758-1842), while living (1807-16) at what is an excellent hospital. Catacaos, 6 m. south of the capital, is the centre of the Panama hat industry. Hats are woven from now the Country club, introduced the merino sheep. PITTSTON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., leaves of toquilla palm (Carludovica palmata). PIUS I., pope from about 141 to 154. He was the brother of on the Susquehanna river just below the mouth of the Lackawanna, about midway between Scranton and Wilkes-Barre. It Hermas, author of the Shepherd. PIUS II. (Enea Silvio de Piccolomini, known in literature is served by the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware and Hudson, the Erie, the Lackawanna, the Lackawanna and Wyom- as Aeneas Silvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, was born on Oct. ing Valley and the Lehigh Valley railways. Pop. (1920) 18,497 18, 1405, at Corsignano (later called Pienza after him) near (26% foreign-born white, about half from Italy), and in 1930, 18,- Siena. His family claimed to trace descent from Romulus. The 246 and 7,940 (1930) in the adjoining borough of West Pittston. eldest of 18 children, he worked on the farm with his father until Within 2-5 m. of the city hall about 60,000 persons were living a priest enabled him, at the age of 18, to go as a poor student in 1928. Pittston is in the midst of the anthracite coal region. to Siena, where he divided his time between severe humanistic Fire-clay also abounds. The city has paper, silk and knitting mills, studies and sensual pleasure. He was attracted to Florence by terra-cotta works, brass foundries, cigar and cut-glass factories, the teaching of Filelfo. He became secretary to Domenico Capand the Lehigh Valley railroad employs 1,200 men. It was one of ranica, bishop of Fermo, and went with him to the Council of the five towns founded in the Wyoming valley by the Susquehanna Basle, where he stayed several years (1431-35), changing masters company of Connecticut, and was named after the elder Pitt. It whenever he could improve his position. He was engaged on was settled about 1770, incorporated as a borough in 1803 and various errands, some of them dangerous; they included a long journey to England and Scotland on secret diplomatic business. chartered as a city in 1894. PITUITARY EXTRACT or PITUITRIN: see Animmat In 1436 he was back at Basle, and, although a layman, obtained a seat in the council and exercised considerable influence. Aeneas EXTRACTS. PITYRIASIS VERSICOLOR, a skin disease, consisting of took an active part in the council after it was transferred to patches of brown discoloration, mostly on the front of the body, Florence, and though he still declined to take orders, he was and often attended with itching, especially after exercise. The given a position on the conciliar conclave which elected Amadeus epidermis is scaly over the patch, and among the débris there may of Savoy as pope under the title of Felix V. In return for his

county seat of Berkshire county; on Federal highways 7 and 20, and served by the Boston and Albany and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railways. Pop. (1920) 41,763 (20% foreignborn white); 1930 Federal census 49,677. It occupies 41.4 sq.m., at an altitude of 1,000 ft., in the midst of the Berkshire hills. Three branches of the Housatonic river wind through the city, uniting about a mile from the central green. Within its limits are

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PIUS III.—PIUS IV. services Felix made Aeneas papal secretary. A new period of his career opened in 1442, when he was sent by the council to take part in the diet of Frankfurt-on-Main. Here he met Frederick III. of Germany, who made him poet laureate and his private secretary. He ingratiated himself with the chancellor, Kasper Schlick, at Vienna, one of whose adventures he celebrated in Lucretia and Eurialus, a novel in the style of Boccaccio. At this period he also wrote his witty but immoral play, Chrisis. In 1446 he took orders as subdeacon, and wrote that he meant to reform, “forsaking Venus for Bacchus.” Aeneas was useful to Frederick as a diplomatist, and managed to give all parties the impression that he was the devoted advocate of each. He took an important part in the diet of Nuremburg (1444), and in 1445 made his peace with Eugenius. At the diet of Frankfurt (Sept. 1446) Aeneas modified the hostility of the electors to pope and emperor. The new pope, Nicholas V., made him bishop of Siena, and for his services in negotiating the concordat of Aschaffenburg in 1448 he was made prince of the empire and cardinal. The death of Calixtus IIT. (who succeeded Nicholas V.) occurred on Aug. 5, 1458. After a hot fight in the conclave, Aeneas was elected and took the title Pius IIL., with a reminiscence of Virgil’s “pius Aeneas.” The humanists hailed his election with joy, and flocked around to secure a share of the good things, but they were bitterly disappointed, as Pius did not prove himself the liberal and undiscriminating patron they hoped. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 made a deep impression upon Pius, and he never ceased to preach the crusade against the Turk. In Sept. 1459 he opened a congress at Mantua to promote the crusade,

but both the French and the Germans were annoyed with him for different reasons, and he received little support. He believed that the decline in the papal influence was due to the usurpation of power by the councils, and he now issued (Jan. 1460) the bull Execrabilis et in pristinis temporibus inauditus, in which he condemned as heretical the doctrine that the councils were superior to the popes, and proclaimed the anathema against any one who should dare to appeal to one. While Pius was at Mantua war broke out between the French and Spanish in southern Italy, and a rising of the barons devastated the Campagna. Hurrying back to Rome, Pius succeeded in quelling the disorders. This measure still further alienated the

QBI

mentari rerum memorabilium quae temporibus suis contigerunt, a history of his times, told in an interesting and rational manner.

Also, there is the Cosmographia in Asiae et Europae .. . descriptione, of which a complete edition was published at Venice

in 1503, and Historia Bohemica (Cologne, 1532). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The letters of Pius II. are in process of publication by R. Wolkan, Der Briefwechsel des Eneas Silvius Piccolomini (Vienna, 1909- ), in Fontes rerum Ausiriacarum. The Commentaries were published in 1584, as begun by Pius himself, and completed by J.Gobellinus. His other works are found in Aenae Silvii opera omnia, edit. M. Hopperus (Basle, 1551). See also Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo padie (1904), vol. xv., where a full bibliography will be found; Voigt, Pius II. (1856-63); L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1896, vol. ii.); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, vol. ii. (1882); W. Boulting, Aeneas Silvius (1908); C. M. Ady, Pius II.: the Humanist Pope (1913); C. Lucius, Pius I. und Ludwig XI. von Frankreich, 1461-62 (1913).

PIUS II. (Francesco Nanni-Todeschini-Piccolomini), pope from Sept. 22 to Oct. 18, 1503, was born at Siena on May ọ, 1439. When only 22 years of age he was made archbishop of

Siena and cardinal-deacon of St. Eustachio by his uncle Pius II, who permitted him to assume the name and arms of the Piccolomini. He was employed by subsequent popes in several important legations, as by Paul II. at the diet of Regensberg, and by Siztus IV. to secure the restoration of the ecclesiastical authority in Umbria. He opposed the policy of Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the disturbances consequent upon the death of the latter, through the influence of Cardinal della Rovere, afterward Julius II. Pius was a man of blameless life, and would doubtless have accomplished much had he lived. His successor was Julius IT. See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. (London, r90r); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii., trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); Piccolomini, “Il Pontificato di Pio III.” in Archivio stor. ital, vol. v. (Firenze, 1903).

PIUS IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medici, or “Medighino”), pope

from 1559 to 1565, was born at Milan on March 31, 1499. He began his career as a lawyer, but later entered the service of Paul III., who made him a cardinal in 1549. In the protracted conclave that followed the death of Paul IV. the election of Pius pope from the French, with whom he was at that time negotiating (Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a compromise between the Spanish for the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction. When Louis XI. and French. In temperament Pius was affable, vivacious, concame to the throne (Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he vivial. He was, moreover, astute, diplomatic and experienced in had abolished the Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get affairs. He allowed the reform movement initiated by Paul IV. the kingdom of Naples, for his countryman, René of Anjou. As free course, but tried to repair certain injustices of Paul IV., and Pius continued to support Ferdinand, Louis retaliated by reassert- mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nephews of ing the ancient liberties of the Gallican Church. At the same Paul he showed no mercy: they were charged with various crimes, time a serious quarrel with the Germans prevented anything condemned, upon testimony of suspicious validity, and executed being done towards a crusade. George Podiebrad, king of on March 5, 1561. With England lost to the papacy, Germany Bohemia, was plotting to depose the emperor Frederick II., overwhelmingly Protestant, and France on the verge of civil war, who was supported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of Mainz, took Pius realized how fatuous was the anti-Spanish policy of his the side of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius’s measures by appeal- predecessor. He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and ing to a general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, conciliated Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. But but kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize subsequently, antagonized by Philip’s arrogance, he assisted France him again. The quarrel with Podiebrad, who was accused of with troops and money for use against the Huguenots. After a suspension of ten years the council of Trent reconvened supporting the Utraquist heresy, continued with increasing bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of Pius. In on Jan. 18, 1562. Among the demands presented by the various the meantime the pope did what he could to further the cause of nations were the recognition of the equality of the episcopate, the crusade. The discovery of alum mines at Tolfa gave him communion in both kinds, clerical marriage and the use of the an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate the zeal of vernacular in Church services. It required all the pope’s diploChristendom, Pius took the cross on June 18, 1464. He set out macy to avoid compliance on the one hand, and a breach with for Venice, where he intended to sail for the East, but he was the powers on the other. Thanks to Morone and Borromeo, however, he achieved his end. The council was dissolved on Dec. 4, attacked with a fever, and on Aug. 14, 1464, he died. Pius II. was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novel and 1563, and its decrees and definitions confirmed by the pope (Jan. a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were considered 26, 1564), who reserved to himself the sole right of interpretation, models of eloquence in their day. The tale of Euryalus and and took various measures for enforcing its decisions. After the termination of the council Pius indulged his desire Lucrezia was translated into many languages (Eng., 1560), and his Latin poems, Misertae curialium (Rome, 1473), were read for ease and pleasure, to the great offence of the rigorists. Pius throughout Europe. Alexander Barclay translated some of them fortified Rome, and contributed much to the embellishment of the in Certayne Eglogues ... (1548?) repr. by Spenser Society city—among other works, the church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli (188s). His most valuable work, however, is his Pi IT. Com- in the Baths of Diocletian; the Porta Pia; the Villa Pia in the

PIUS V.—PIUS

982

Vatican Gardens; and the Palace of the Conservatori. Dec. 9, 1565, and was succeeded by Pius V.

He died on

See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontif. rom. (a contemporary of Pius); Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontif. rom. (Rome, 1601-02; also contemporary); T. Miiller, Das Konklave Pius 1V. (Gotha, 1889; more comprehensive than the title suggests); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 323 seq., 358 seq.;

and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. ili. 2, 534 seq., 730 Seq. PIUS V. (Michele Ghislieri), pope from 1566 to 1572, was born on Jan. 17, 1504, in the Milanese. At the age of fourteen he became a Dominican monk. He was appointed inquisitor in Como,

the treasurership of the apostolic chamber by Clement XIII, and in 1773 he became cardinal-priest of San Onofrio.

Spain, France and Portugal at length dropped their objection to Braschi, and he was elected to the vacant see on Feb. 15, 177s. Pius had received the support of the ministers of the Crowns and the anti-Jesuit party upon a tacit understanding that he would continue

secretly

pp. 616 seg., containing the life by Gabuzio

(Rome,

maij, tom.

the action

of Clement,

by whose

brief

Dominus

ac

redemptor (1773) the dissolution of the Society of Jesus had been pronounced. On the other hand the zelanti, who believed him

1571). Pius died on May 1, 1572; and was canonized by Clement XI. in 1712. Acta sanctorum,

In the

four months’ conclave which followed the death of Clement XIV.,

the Turks, and contributed to the victory of Lepanto (Oct. 6,

of Pius);

of doctor of laws he went to Ferrara and became the private secretary of Cardinal Ruffo, in whose bishopric of Ostia and Velletri

XIV., who appointed him one of his secretaries and canon of St. Peter’s. In 1758 he was raised to the prelature, and in 1766 to

prostitutes were driven from the city, or confined to a certain quarter; penalties were attached to Sunday desecration, profanity and animal baiting; clerical residence was enforced; conventuals were compelled to live in strict seclusion according to their vows; catechetical instruction was enjoined. A new catechism appeared in 1566, followed by an improved breviary (1568), and an improved missal (1570). The use of indulgences and dispensations was restricted, and the penitential system reformed. Pius was the avowed enemy of nepotism. One nephew, it is true, he made cardinal, but allowed him no influence: the rest of his relatives he kept at a distance. By the constitution Admonet nos (March 29, 1567), he forbade the reinvestiture of fiefs that should revert to the Holy See, and bound the cardinals by oath to observe it. In March 1569 Pius ordered the expulsion of the Jews from the States of the Church. For commercial reasons they were allowed to remain in Rome and Ancona, but only upon humiliating conditions. In February 1571, the Umiliati, a degenerate monastic order of Milan, was suppressed on account of an attempt upon the life of the archbishop, Carlo Borromeo. The rules governing the Holy Office were sharpened; old charges, long suspended, were revived; rank offered no protection, but rather exposed its possessor to fiercer attack; none were pursued more relentlessly than the cultured, among whom many of the Protestant doctrines had found acceptance; princes and states withdrew their protection, and courted the favour of the Holy See by surrendering distinguished offenders. Cosimo de’ Medici handed over Pietro Carnesecchi (and two years later received in reward the title of grand duke, Sept. 1569); Venice delivered Guido Zanetti; Philip II., Bartolomé de Carranza, the archbishop of Toledo. In March 1571 the Congregation of the Index was established, and hundreds of printers took flight to Switzerland and Germany. The regret of Pius was that he had sometimes been too lenient. He spurred Philip IT. on in the Netherlands, and commanded the utter extermination (ad internecionem usque) of the Huguenots; he protested against the tolerance shown by the emperor. One of his cherished schemes was the dethronement of Elizabeth, whom he excommunicated and declared a usurper (Feb. 25, 1570); but he had to content himself with abetting plots and rebellions. He effected an alliance with Spain and Venice against

a contemporary

PIUS VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi), pope from 177s to 1799, was born at Cesena, on Dec. 27, 1717. After taking the degree

a mission to the court of Naples won him the esteem of Benedict

pope (Jan. 7, 1566). Retaining his ascetic mode of life, Pius immediately began the work of reform. Decrees and ordinances were rapidly issued; the papal court became a model of sobriety;

See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontif. rom.

See also Hilliger, Die Wahl Pius V. zum Papste (Leipzig, 1891): Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 361 seq., 384 seqg.; and von Reumont, Gesch. der Stadi Rom. ili. 2, 557 seq.

he held the post of uditore until 1753. His skill in the conduct of

where his zeal provoked such opposition as to compel his recall (1550). The chief inquisitor, Caraffa, convinced of his value, straightway sent him upon a mission to Lombardy, and in 1551 appointed him commissary-general of the Holy Office. When Caraffa became pope, Ghislieri was made bishop of Nepi and Sutri, cardinal (1557), and finally grand inquisitor. In this office he was continued by Pius IV., whom, however, he antagonized by his censoriousness and obstinacy. But after the death of Pius IV., the rigorists, led by Borromeo, had no difficulty in making him

1601-02;

VII.

i.

(1605), based upon an

earlier one by Catena (1586); Falloux, Hist. de St. Pie V. (3rd ed., Paris, 1858), eulogistic; Mendham, Life and Pontificate of St. Pius V. (London, 1832), a bitter polemic. The life of Pius has also been written by Fuenmayor (Madrid, 1595), Paolo Alessandro Maffei

(Rome, 1712), and by T. M. Granello (Bologna, 1877). His letters

have been edited by Catena (vide supra), Goubau (Antwerp, 1640), and a select number in a French translation, by de Potter (Paris, 1826).

inclined

towards

Jesuitism,

expected

from

him some

reparation for the alleged wrongs of the previous reign. The halfmeasures adopted by Pius gave little satisfaction to either party. It is perhaps largely due to him that the order was able to escape shipwreck in White Russia and Silesia; in 1792 he its re-establishment as a bulwark against revolutionary The authority of the papacy was threatened in the social and ecclesiastical reforms undertaken by

considered ideas. Austria by Joseph II.

and, in the hope. of staying them, Pius adopted the exceptional course of visiting Vienna in person. His mission proved afiasco; he was, however, able a few years later to curb those German archbishops who, in 1786 at the Congress at Ems, had shown a tendency towards independence. Difficulties also arose in Naples and in Tuscany. At the outbreak of the French Revolution Pius saw the old Gallican Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecclesiastical possessions in France confiscated and an effigy of himself burnt by the populace at the Palais Royal. The murder of the republican agent, Hugo Basseville, in the streets of Rome (January 1793) gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with complicity by the French Convention; and Pius threw in his lot with the league against France. In 1796 Napoleon invaded Italy, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and Loreto. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino on Feb. 19, 1797; but on Dec. 28 of that year, in a riot created by some Italian and French, revolutionists, General Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a new pretext furnished for invasion. General Berthier marched to Rome, entered it unopposed on Feb. 13, 1798, and, proclaiming a republic, demanded of the pope the renunciation of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal he was taken prisoner, and on Feb. 20 was escorted from the Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. The French declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removal by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the citadel of Valence, where he died six weeks later, on Aug. 29, 1799. Pius VII. succeeded him. See Zopffel and Benrath, “Pius VI.” in Herzog-Hauck, RealencyRlopddie, 3rd ed., vol. xv., pp. 441-451 (Leipzig, 1904, with elaborate bibliography) ; F. Nielsen, Hzstory of the Papacy in the roth Century, vol. i. chap. vii. (London, 1906); J. Gendry, Pie VI. sa vie, son pontificat, d’aprés les archives vaticanes et de nombreux documents inédits (2 vols., 1907).

PIUS VII. (Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonti), pope from 1800 to 1823, the son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti and the deeply religious Countess Ghini, was born at Cesena on Aug. 14, 1740 (not 1742). He entered the Benedictine monastery of St. Mary

at Cesena, and held various teaching appointments in the colleges of his order at Parma and at Rome.

He was created an abbot

of his order by his relative Pius VI., who also appointed him bishop of Tivoli in 1782, and raised him to the cardinalate and the see of Imola in 1785. He became pope on March 14, 1800. His attention was at once directed to the ecclesiastical anarchy of France, and he negotiated the celebrated concordat of 180I.

PIUS VIII. (See Concorpat.) The importance of this agreement was, however, considerably lessened by the “articles organiques” appended to it by the French government on April 8, 1802. In 1804 Napoleon opened negotiations to secure at the pope’s hands his formal consecration as emperor. After some hesitation Pius was induced to perform the ceremony at Notre Dame and to extend his visit to Paris for four months; but in return for these favours he was able to obtain from Napoleon merely one or two minor concessions. Napoleon soon began to disregard the Italian concordat of 1803, and himself decreed the dissolution of the marriage of his brother Jerome with Miss Patterson of Baltimore. The irritation between France and the Vatican increased so rapidly that on Feb. 2, 1808 Rome was occupied by General Miollis; a month later the provinces of Ancona, Macerata, Fermo and Urbino were united to the kingdom of Italy, and diplomatic relations between Napoleon and Rome were broken off; finally, by a decree issued from Schönbrunn on May 17, 1809, the emperor united the Papal States to France. Pius retaliated by a bull excommunicating the invaders; and, to prevent insurrection, Miollis—either on his own responsibility, as Napoleon afterwards asserted, or by order of the latter—employed General Radet to take possession of the pope’s person. On July 5 Pius was made prisoner; he was taken to Grenoble, and then to Savona, where he steadfastly refused canonical institution to the bishops nominated by Napoleon. In 1812 the aged and sick pontiff was removed to Fontainebleau, where he was lodged in a suite of regal magnificence to await the return of the emperor from Moscow.

PIUS

IX.

983

In 1821 he was made cardinal-bishop of Frascati, also grand penitentiary; and later he became prefect of the Congregation of the Index. In the conclave which followed the death of Leo XII., Castiglioni, the candidate of France, was elected pope on March 31, 1829. He abandoned the system of espionage employed by his predecessor, and published an encyclical condemning Bible societies and secret associations. He exhibited a pacific spirit in dealing with the problem of mixed marriages in Germany. He died on Dec, 1, 1830. His successor was Gregory XVI. See Zopffel and Benrath, “Pius VIII.” in Herzog-Hauck, RealencyRlopddie, xv. 458 seq. (Leipzig, 1904, with bibliography) ; F. Nielsen, A History of the Papacy in the roth Century, ii. 31-30 (1906); P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesiae catholicae (Regensburg, 1873).

PIUS IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), pope from 1846 to 1878, was born on May 13, 1792 at Sinigaglia, the fourth son of Count Jerome and Countess Catherine Vollazi; the family of Mastai was of ancient descent, and the title of count came to it in the 17th century, while later the elder branch, allied by marriage with the Ferretti family, took that name in addition. He spent some time at the College of Piarists in Volaterra, and prepared to enter the pontifical guard as an officer but was refused on the ground that he suffered from epilepsy. The malady, however, was surmounted; and in 1819 he was ordained priest. After ministering for some time in his native town, he accompanied Cardinal Muzzi to Chile (1823). On his return he was entrusted by Leo XII. with the direction of the Roman hospital of San Michele; in 1830 he received the archbishopric of Spoleto, in 1832 the bishopric of Imola, and in 1840 Gregory XVI. created him a cardinal, with the title Santi Pietro e Marecellino. On the death of Gregory XVI. (June 1, 1846) the College of

When Napoleon arrived, he entered into personal negotiations with the pope, who on Jan. 25, 1813 assented to a concordat so degrading that his conscience found no relief until, on the advice Cardinals met in conclave on June 14, and on June 16 Mastaiof the cardinal Pacca and Consalvi, he abrogated it (March 24); Ferretti obtained the requisite two-thirds majority, and ascended and on the oth of May he defied the emperor by declaring invalid the papal chair under the title of Pius IX. In his various capacities all the official acts of the new French bishops. Napoleon sent him he had gained much popularity: he had shown himself to be of a back to Savona for safe keeping; but the course of events in kindly disposition and a zealous churchman, and his reputation 1814 forced him to liberate the pope and give back the States of for piety and tact stood high; he possessed, too, a winning perthe Church. On the roth of March Pius left Savona, and was sonality and a handsome presence. received with rejoicing at Rome on May 24. Reaction set in at Papal Reforms.—The reign of Pius IX. began at an extremely Rome; the Jesuits were restored; the French legislation, much critical time. The problem of the government of the Papal States, of which was of great social value, was repealed; the Index and transmitted to him by his predecessor, stood in urgent need of the Inquisition were revived. On his return from the congress solution, for the conditions were intolerable. Dissatisfaction found of Vienna Consalvi conducted a more enlightened and highly vent in revolts which could only be quelled by the intervention of centralized administration, based largely on the famous Motu foreign powers; and the ferment in the dominions of the Church proprio of 1816; nevertheless the finances were in a desperate was accentuated by the revolutionary disturbances throughout condition. Discontent centred perhaps in the Carbonari, a Liberal ascendant in all the states of Europe. The proclamation of a secret society condemned by the pope in 1821. Consalvi nego- general political amnesty made an excellent impression; and tiated a series of valuable concordats with all the Roman Catholic Pius at once instituted preparations for a reform of the adminispowers save Austria. In the latter years of Pius’s life royalty tration, the judicature and the financial system. ‘The regulations often came to Rome; the pope was very gracious to exiled kings affecting the censorship were mitigated, and a breath of political and showed notable magnanimity toward the family of Napoleon. liberalism vitalized the whole government. Pius at once acquired He attracted many artists to the city, including the greatest the reputation of a reforming pope. But two demands were urged sculptors of the time, one of whom, the Protestant Thorwaldsen, with ever increasing energy-—a share in the government and a prepared the tomb in which repose the remains of the gentle and national Italian policy. The problem of popular representation courageous pontiff, who passed into rest on Aug. 20, 1823. His was one of peculiar difficulty in the Papal States. It was not simply successor was Leo XII. a question of adjusting the claims of monarch and subject: it was BrsriocRAPHy.— See Zopffel and Benrath, “Pius VII.,” in Herzogto oust the clergy—who, till then, had held all the more Hauck, Realencyklopédie, xv. 451-458 (Leipzig, 1904) (long list of necessary older literature); Ilario Rinieri, La Diplomazia pontifica nel secolo important offices—from their dominant position, or at least to XIX. (Rome, 1902), two volumes treating the years 1800-05, based limit their privileges. That the clerical character of the adminislargely on Vatican sources; I. Rinieri, Napoleone Pio VII. (1804-1813), tration could not be indefinitely retained was plain to any clearrelazioni storiche su documenti inediti del? archivio vaticano (Turin, thinking statesman: for, since the restoration of the Papal State 1906) ; H. Chotard, Le Pape Pie VII. à Savone (Paris, 1887) ; Mary H. pernicious effects of this confusion of the spiritual Allies, Pius the Seventh (London, 1897), a popular Roman Catholic in 1814, the biography; Leo König, S.J., Pius VII. Die Säkularisation und das and the secular power could no longer be denied. But Pius IX. Reichskonkordat (Innsbruck, 1904), based chiefly on Vienna material; lacked the courage and perspicacity to draw the inevitable conH. Welschinger, Le Pape et Pempereur, 1804-1815 (Paris, 1905) ; Louis clusions from these premises; and the higher clergy at Rome Madelin, La Rom. de Napoléon: la domination française è Rome de were naturally opposed to any change which would deprive them 1809 & 1814 (Paris, 1906), an elaborate study; L. G. Wickham-Legg, of the year 1847 the “The Concordats” (Cambridge Modern History, vol. ix. ch. 7, 1906); of power and privileges. In the course Lady Blennerhassett, “The Papacy and the Catholic Church” (Cam- pope by a series of decrees gave a reorganized municipal council bridge Modern History, vol. x.ch. 5, 1907). Both these last have good to Rome and instituted a state council, and a responsible ministry, bibliographies. but these reforms were hedged in with reservations which made 1829 them unacceptable to the people. In March 1848 the pope profrom pope Castiglioni), PIUS VIII (Francesco Xaviero of two to 1830, was born at Cingoli on Nov. 20, 1761. He studied canon mulgated a constitution, with a parliament consisting law at Rome, became vicar-general at Anagni and later at Fano; chambers. Revolution of 1848.—The utility of this constitution was bishop of Montalto and in 1816 of Cesena.

in 1800 was appointed

984

PIUS

never tested; for the demand for an extension of popular rights

was now eclipsed byastill more passionate aspiration towards the national unity of Italy. This nationalist movement at once took

head against Austria. On March 18 the revolution broke out in Milan, and King Albert of Sardinia undertook the conduct of the

war against the emperor. The populace was swept by a whirlwind of enthusiasm: the Austrian embassy was mobbed; the imperial arms, surmounting the main gate of the palace, were torn down: and great troops of volunteers clamoured to be led against Austria. Pius seemed, after his proclamation of March 30, on the point of conferring his blessing upon the war against Austria. But on April 29, in his allocation to the cardinals, he proclaimed the papal neutrality; and the storm broke. Mamiani, Fabbri and Rossi, in successive ministries, sought to restore order. On Nov. 15 Rossi was assassinated as he was about to open the session of the chambers. The pope then assented to the formation of a radically democratic ministry under Galetti. The Swiss, who composed the papal guard, were disbanded; and the protection of the pontiff was transferred to the civil militia; in other words, Pius IX. was a prisoner. On Nov. 24 he fled, with the aid of the French and Bavarian ambassadors—the duc d’Harcourt and Count Spaur—to Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. On Feb. 9, 1849 the constituent assembly decreed, by 142 votes to 23, the erection of a Roman republic. Pius answered by a protest dated Feb. I4. He had already appealed to the European Powers for assistance. For the intervention of France and Austria see Itaty. On July 14 Oudinot proclaimed the restoration of the pontifical dominion : and, three days later, Pius IX. issued a manifesto entrusting the government to a commission appointed by himself. Loss of the Temporal Power.—On April: 12, 1850 Pius returned to Rome, supported by foreign arms, embittered, and hostile henceforward to every form of political liberalism or national sentiment. In Gaeta he had mentally cut himself loose from all ideas of progress, and had thrown himself into the arms of the Jesuits. His subsequent policy was stamped by reaction. Whether it might have been possible to avoid the catastrophe of 1870, in which the remnant of the Papal States was lost, is a difficult question. But undoubtedly the policy which Pius now inaugurated, of restoring the old pre-revolutionary conditions, sealed the fate of the temporal dominion of the papacy. He made no attempt to regain the estranged affections of the populace, and took no measures to liberate himself and his subjects from the incubus of the last few years. The system of precautionary arrest, aS it was termed, rendered it possible for any man to be thrown into prison, without trial and without verdict, simply on the ground that he lay under suspicion of plotting against the Government. The priests, who usurped the judicial function, displayed such cruelty on several occasions that officers of the Austrian army were compelled to record a protest. The consequence of these methods was that every victim—innocent or guilty—

IX. 1866 (see IraLy: History), the States of the Church formed the last remaining obstacle to complete national unity. The news of

the fall of the French empire in 1870 produced an electrical effect in Italy. The French troops had evacuated Rome in 1869, and

the Italian parliament now called on the king to occupy Rome;

on Sept. 8 Victor Emmanuel crossed the borders; and on Sept. 20 the green-white-and-red of the tricolour floated over the

Capitol. The protests of Pius IX. remained unheeded, and his attempts to secure another foreign intervention met with no success. On Oct. 2 Victor Emmanuel instituted a plébiscite ip

Rome and the possessions of the Church to decide the question of

annexation.

The result of the suffrage was that 153,681 votes were

given in favour of union with Italy, and 1,507 against the Proposed

incorporation: that is to say only the direct dependants of the Vatican were opposed to the change. The papal state was now merged in the kingdom of Italy, which proceeded to define its diplomatic relations with the Holy See by the law of May 13,

1871. (See Irary: History.) Ultramontanism.—In his capacity as head of the Church, Pius IX. adhered to the principles of the Ultramontanist party,

and contributed

materially to the victory of that cause.

The

political reaction which followed the revolutionary era in most quarters of Europe offered a favourite soil for his efforts; and in several countries he found it possible to regulate the relations

between Church and state from the standpoint of the curia. In

185z he concluded a concordat with Queen Isabella II. of Spain, proclaiming Roman Catholicism the sole religion of the Spanish people, to the exclusion of every other creed (art. 1); and we find the same provision in another concordat with the South American republic of Ecuador (1862). A third concordat, negotiated with the emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria (1855), entrusted the supervision of schools and the censorship of literature to the clergy, recognized the canon law, and repealed all

secular legislation conflicting with it. France came into line with

the wishes of the pope in every respect, as Napoleon needed clerical support in his political designs. Even in Germany he found no resistance; on the contrary, he was able to secure advantageous Sg from individual states (Hesse, 1854; Württemberg, 1857).

Among the most important acts of Pius IX. must be counted his proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, by the bull Ineffabilis Deus, on Dec. 8, 1854. In this bull the preservation of Mary from every stain of hereditary sin, in the first moment of her conception, was declared to be a divinely revealed truth, which consequently demanded universal acceptance. (See IMMACULATE ConceEPTION.) By this means a view, which till then had been no more than a pious belief, was elevated into a dogma to be held de fide; though grave doubts on the subject had always been entertained, even in the midst of the Church itself. For the inner life of that ranked as a martyr in the estimation of his fellow-citizens. Brig- Church this solution of the controversy was of great significance, andage revived, corruption was rampant, and the financial ad- and created a desire for further dogmatic decisions on the Virgin ministration under Cardinal Antonelli (g.v.) was disastrous. Mary—her resurrection and ascension. The mismanagement which obtained in the papal dominions As reigning sovereign of the Papal States Pius IX. had passed could not escape the observation of the other powers. As early through a “liberal period”: as head of the Church, he had never as the Congress of Paris in 1856 the English ambassador, Lord been liable to attacks of liberalism. Nevertheless, his return from Clarendon, had directed an annihilating criticism against the exile left its mark on his spiritual administration. For from this government of the pontiff; and a convincing proof of the justice period onwards he set his face against the influence of modernism of his verdict was given by Pius himself, in his treatment of the on ecclesiast ical famous Mortara case (see Mortara, Encar), which gave rise to scientific theologylife; showed his displeasure at and distrust of the and philosophy which marked a moderate addiplomatic representations from France and England. The sequel vance (Giinther , Frohschammer and Dollinger); and, entrenched to this mode of government was that the growing embitterment in the stronghol d of mediaeval ideals, combated the transformaof the subjects of the Church came to be sympathized with outside tions of the new order of society, and the changes in the relationthe bounds of Italy, and the question whether the secular author- ship between Church and state, which obtained in most countries ity of the papacy could be allowed to continue became a much- of Europe since the French Revolution. After long and careful debated problem. The continued existence of the Papal States consultation, the adverse criticisms which he had expressed on as such, depended in fact on the maintenance of the under- various occasions were published on Dec. 8, 1864, together with standing between the two powers protecting the papal state— the encyclical Quanta cura, under the title Syllabus complectens France and Austria. praecipuos nostrae aetatis errores. (See SYLLABUS.) In this Pius But Napoleon came to an agreement with Cavour against claimed for the Church the control of all culture and all science, Austria, and one of the results of the war of 1859 was that the and of the whole educational system. He rejected the liberty pope forfeited two-thirds

of his dominions.

After the war of of faith, conscience and worship enjoyed by other creeds; and

PIUS X.—PIUS bade an easy farewell to the idea of tolerance. He claimed the complete independence of the Church from state control; upheld the necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of the Roman See; and finally, in the last clause, declared that “the pontiff neither can be nor ought to be reconciled with progress, liberalism and modern civilization.” The publication of this syllabus created a profound impression: for it declared war on modern society, and committed the papacy to the principles of Ultramontanism (g.v.). But, as any attempt to translate its precepts into practice would entail a disastrous conflict with the existing régime as established by law, Roman Catholic circles have frequently shown a tendency to belittle the significance of the manifesto and to deny that its rules are absolutely binding. But these well-meant explanations, however comprehensible, are refuted by the unequivocal pronouncements of Pius IX., Leo XIIL, and many recognized ecClesiastical authorities—e.g., Cardinal Manning, archbishop of Westminster, who described the syllabus as an emanation from the highest doctrinal authority in the Church. Infallibility.—The zenith of Pius’s pontificate was attained on July 18, 1870, when the Vatican council proclaimed the infallibility of the pope and the universality of his episcopate, thus elevating him to a pinnacle which none of his predecessors had reached and at the same time fulfilling his dearest wish. That, personally, he laid great stress on the acceptance of the dogma, was a fact which he did not attempt to conceal during the long preliminary deliberations of the council; and his attitude was a not inconsiderable factor in determining its final resolutions. But the loss of the Papal States, immediately afterwards, was a blow from which he never recovered. Whenever he brought himself to speak of the subject—-and it was not rarely—he repeated his protest in the bitterest terms, and, to the end of his days, refused to be reconciled with the “sacrilegious” king of Italy. When, in Germany, the situation created by the Vatican council led to the outbreak of the Kulturkampf, Pius IX. failed to display the tact peculiar to his successor. For, in the encyclical Quod numquam (Feb. 5, 1875), he took the rash step of declaring invalid the

Prussian laws regulating the relationship between Church and state—the only result being that the feud was still further embittered. In these later years the dark days of his “captivity” were amply compensated by the proofs of reverence displayed by Roman Catholic Christianity, which accorded him magnificent ovations as his period of jubilee began to fall due. The twenty-fifth anniversary of his pontificate was celebrated with great splendour on June 16, 1871; for he was the first pope who had thus reached the traditional “years of Peter.” In 1872 his 80th birthday gave occasion for new demonstrations; and 1875 was a so-called “year of jubilee.” Finally, in 1877, the fifty years of his priesthood were completed: an event which brought him innumerable expressions of loyalty and led to a great manifestation of devotion to the Holy See from all the Roman Catholic world. He will be remembered as the pope who re-established the hierarchy in England. On Feb. 7, 1878 Pius IX. died. His successor was Leo XIII. (C. Mr.; X.)

XI.

985

until his appointment in 1875 as canon of the cathedral and superior of the seminary at Treviso. In 1880 he refused the bishopric of Treviso, but accepted that of Mantua in 1884, at the command of Leo XIII. On June 12, 1893, he was created a cardinal and three days later was nominated patriarch of Venice. where his piety, simplicity and readiness to act in harmony with the Italian Government made him very popular. He succeeded Leo XIII. in his election to the papal chair on Aug. 4, 1903. During his pontificate, in the defence of the faith, his condemnation of the 65 propositions of Modernism in 1907 will rank as a parallel to the condemnation of the 68 propositions of Molinism by Innocent XI. in 1637 or the ror propositions of Jansenism condemned by Clement XI. in 1713. l Reforms of the first importance were undertaken—the codifica-

tion of canon law; the protection of the liberty of the conclave by the abolition of the exclusiva; the simplification and security of the conditions of marriage by the ne temere legislation; the restoration of the Rota as the supreme court of appeal; the regulation of the triennial or quinquennial visits of bishops to Rome; the legislation as to church music; and the decree as to first communion, and the encouragement of international eucharistic congresses; the reform of the Roman breviary; the founding of the biblical institute for the work ‘of Scriptural research; the regulation of studies in the seminaries; the creation of the commission for the great work of editing the true text of the Vulgate; the reconstruction of the official machinery of the Roman curia; the transfer of the English-speaking countries from the propaganda or missionary régime to the normal government of the Church. To these may be added in the domain of discipline the unflinching vindication by Pius X. of the Church’s right to depose delinquent bishops, carried out even at the cost of rupture of diplomatic relations with France; an apostolic visitation rigorously carried out through the dioceses of Italy, resulting in four bishops being made to resign on account of neglect or inefficiency; a further regulation by which no one

can be proposed for a bishopric unless his promotion receives the visa of the Holy Office, which means that his past life has been free from ecclesiastical censure or reproach. The well-known personal characteristics of Pius X. were his piety, charity, deep humility, simplicity, pastoral zeal, combined with great charm of manner to all who approached him. For war he had nothing but horror and it was the shock of the outbreak of the World War that hastened his death, which took place in Rome on Aug. 20, ror4. It is said that one of his last acts was to refuse the request of the Austrian emperor to bless his cause, saying: “I do not bless war: I bless peace.”

PIUS XI. (1857~ ), pope since 1922, was born on May 31, 1857, at Desio, a small town north of Monza, in the environs of Milan, on the road to Como, and was named Ambrose Damien Achille. His father was Francesco Ratti, the manager of one of the great silk factories of Desio, and partner in the firm of Gadda. Achille was educated at the seminaries of San Pietro Martire and of Monza, and at the college of St. Charles at Milan, where he graduated. Feeling that he was called to the priesthood, he studied

for two years in the greater seminary. His life at this time was profoundly influenced by his spending his vacation months with the Ninth (being the 3rd ed. of Rome and its Ruler. 1870); J. M. his uncle, Don Rodolpho, the venerable and exemplary parish Villefranche, Pié IX. sa vie son histoire, son stécle (and ed. 1876); A. Pougeois, Histoire de Pié IX. et de son pontificat (6 vols., 1877— priest and provost of Asso, a village in the promontory of the 86); L. Wappmannsperger, Leben und Wirken des Papstes Pius des Bellagio. From his windows he could see Lake Como and the Neunten (Regensburg, 1878); J. M. Stepischnegg, Papst Pius IX. und Alps, of which later on he was so strongly to feel the lure. It seine Zeit (2 vols., Vienna, 1879); R. de Cesare, Roma e lo Stato del was also here that he came under the personal notice of the Papa (2 vol. 1907. Eng. trans. abridged by H. Zimmern as The archbishop of Milan, Mgr. Nazario di Calebiana, who was stayLast Days of Papal Rome, 1850~1870, 1909); P. R. Ballerini, Les premiéres pages du pontificat de Pie IX. (1909). Sources: Acta ing as the guest of Count de Herra and was a frequent visitor at Pii IX., 4 vol. (Rome, 1854 etc.) ; Acta Sanctae Sedis (Rome, 1865 etc.). his uncle’s presbytery. The archbishop was much struck by the A selection of the documents for the history of Pius IX. will be future pope’s earnestness and maturity of judgment, and was wont found in C, Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstiums und des to call him his “young old man.” Ever afterwards he took a deep römischen Katholi.‘smus, pp. 361-390 (2nd ed. Tübingen, 1901). interest in his career. He sent him to the college of St. Martin ULTRAMONTANISM. See the Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. BrBLrogrRAarnY.—F, Hülskamp, Papst Pius IX, in seinem Leben und

Wirken (2nd ed. Münster, 1870); J. F. Macguire, Pontificate of Pius

See also

PIUS X. (Giuseppe Sarto), pope from Aug. 4, 1903, to Aug.

20, 1914, was born of humble parents on June 2, 1835, atRiete in the province of Treviso, Italy, and studied at the episcopal seminaries of Treviso and Padua, being ordained priest in 1858.

For 17 years he acted as parish priest at various places in Venetia

and then to Rome to study at the Lombard college and attend the lectures at the Gregorian university. Here Achille Ratti took with distinction the degrees of doctor of philosophy, of theology and canon law. He was ordained priest on Dec. 20, 1879. At the Lombard college his fellow student and closest friend

986

PIZARRO

was Alessandro Lualdi, later cardinal archbishop of Palermo. These two were mentioned to the pope by Professor Liberatore as the most brilliant of his students. They were the first to win the doctorate at the Angelico, the new Thomistic college founded by Leo XIII. at Rome. The pope sent for the two students and while passing through the Clementine Hall, from his chair in which he was being carried to the Vatican gardens he delivered to them an impressive lecture upon the vital importance of a sound philosophy and of their mission in promoting it in the years which lay before them. In 1882 Dr. Ratti returned to Milan and was appointed for a period of some months to a curacy at the village of Barni. Following up the intentions of Leo XIII., the archbishop transferred him to the Great Seminary, where he filled for five years the post of professor of dogmatic theology. In 1888 he was admitted as a member of the college of doctors at the great Ambrosian Library. This appointment gave a new direction to his scholarship. In this task, Dr. Ratti found a congenial field of labour under the guidance of the prefect of the college, the learned

Abbate Cerriani. He became an expert, especially in Latin palaeography and published several studies, and contributed numerous articles to the learned reviews. In 1907 he succeeded Cerriani as prefect of the library. He was made domestic prelate by Pius X. During 1905~07 he undertook and carried out a reclassification of the library upon modern methods so as to facilitate the work of consultation and research. His success in this enterprise was recognized by the king of Italy, who bestowed on him the knighthood of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. From 1888 onwards he was chaplain and director to the nuns of the Cenacle, an order specially devoted to the work of arranging spiritual retreats or conferences for all classes of women. At their convent he was brought into contact with all that was most distinguished and zealous among the laity of Milan and became

an active organiser of their manifold works of charity. At the same time, he spent the hours that he could spare from his library in teaching the catechism to numbers of poor children, including the little chimney sweeps that annually come down from Tirol, He clung to this work during the 30 years that he remained in Milan. He more than once visited England. In June 1900 he stayed for a time with his intimate friend, Bishop Casartelli, at Manchester. He studied at the Bodleian in Oxford and at the British Museum and said Mass in Westminster cathedral. In his summer vacations it was his custom to'make climbing excursions in the Alps. The Bolletino of the Italian Alpine Club relates how, in 1889, he discovered a new way of ascent by the eastern slope to Monte Rosa, and how on one occasion by his courage and promptitude he saved the life of his guide. The ascent is commemorated by a monument erected by the club at Macugnaga.

In 1908 during

sion, when most of the embassies withdrew

from Warsaw, the

nuncio remained and carried on his work of conciliation and of succour for the poor in devastated regions.

Pope Benedict Xv.

sent him the pallium, the Polish Government decorated him with the Order of the White Eagle and the university enrolled him

amongst its doctors. On the death of Cardinal Ferrari, Benedict XV., in June, 1921, appointed him archbishop of Milan, and made him a cardinal under the title of S.S. Silvestro and Martino aj Monti. On Sept. 2 he returned from a pilgrimage to Lourdes and on the following day was solemnly enthroned.

Pope Benedict XV. died on Jan. 22, 1922.

On Feb. 2 the

cardinals entered into conclave and on Feb. 6 Cardinal Ratti was elected pope. He chose the name of Pius XI., and was pro-

claimed from the balcony of St. Peter’s. He received the triple obedience of the cardinals and on Feb. rr was crowned in the presence of an enormous concourse in the Basilica. Since then

the life of Pius XI. may be summed up as one of constant activity,

in which his encouragement of all high ideals and good works has

been marked by staunchness in matters of principle and the spirit of pacification and conciliation in administration. During 1925, the year of the jubilee, he was brought, perhaps more than any other pontiff, into personal contact with his spiritual subjects by receiving more than 1,250,000 pilgrims from all parts of the Catholic world. By all he is revered for his learning, his charity, piety and width of sympathy, his courtesy, tact and charm of deportment and, most of all, for his untiring devotion to the duties

of his exalted pastorate. (J. Ms.) Pope Pius XI. will go down in history as the supreme pontiff who, with the cordial co-operation of Mussolini—and their respective advisers—closed the breach between Church and State, known as the Roman Question. (See Papacy.) His holiness is said to have devoted over two-and-a-half years of patient and persistent study to the problems that were involved. Examination

of the communiqués that were available at the time of the signing of the treaties between the Holy See and Italy shows that all bore the stamp of the august humility which has always characterized Pius XI.’s utterances. He is reported to have said, on the day the treaties were signed (Feb. 11, 1929), that he had asked for the least possible indemnity because he regarded himself as a father negotiating with his children, and, therefore, he had wished to make agreement as easy as possible. The seventh anniversary of Pius XI.’s coronation (Feb. 12, 1929) coincided with his appearance on the balcony of St. Peter’s, when he gave the pontifical blessing, Urbz et Orbi. A crowd, 100,000 strong, gathered in the square, shouted, “Hail, Pius, Pope and King!” The ratification of the treaties by his own signature and by that of the king of Italy set the seal to documents the importance of which will appear more and more evident as time goes on. It is now very apparent that the world has, in Pius XI, a great force making for righteousness, whose influence became all the stronger the moment it was known that the renewal of papal

the riots at Milan, he was active in pacifying the turbulent elements and intervened successfully to save the Capucine convent from destruction during the bombardment. Cardinal Ferrari had made him his trusted counsellor in the sovereignty carried with it no territorial expansion or material government of the diocese and in 1909 appointed him to a can- aggrandisement. A new factor has entered into the relations of onry in the cathedral. In rg12 Pius X. called him to Rome, made the nations. The cause of universal peace and goodwill has rehim vice-prefect of the Vatican library (where he served under ceived an historic impetus and reinforcement. Whatever view Cardinal Gasquet) and at the same time promoted him to a can- may be taken of the fact, the earth has one monarch whose power onry of St. Peter’s. On the succession of Benedict XV. he became is entirely spiritual and moral, whose office it is to hold aloft the the familiar friend of the new pope, who, with a keen appreci- banner of the highest ideals in the eyes of a world whose vision ation of his qualities singled him out for the diplomatic service is too often obscured by selfishness and greed. and entrusted him with the delicate mission of apostolic visitor BrsriocraPHy.—He has published Climbs on Alpine Peaks, trans. to the new republic of Poland. Here his clear judgment and tact by J. E. C. Eaton, with introd. by Bishop L. C. Casartelli and a and his fluent knowledge of German and Polish enabled him to foreword by Douglas W. Freshfield. See also Annuaire Catholique achieve a marked success in dealing with the complicated claims (1923), ed. by Mer. A. Baudrillart; Acta Apostolicae Sedis. Commentarium Oficiale (1919—25) ; and Documentation Catholique (1922-26). along the Russian-Polish frontier. In June 1919 Ratti was made nuncio apostolic in Poland and PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541), distitular archbishop of Lepanto and on July 3 was consecrated in coverer and conqueror of Peru, was born at Trujillo in EstreWarsaw by the archbishop, Mer. Kakowski. It was a mark of the madura, Spain, about 1471 (or 1475). He was an illegitimate son confidence reposed in him by all classes that he was chosen by of Gonzalo Pizarro. Of Pizarro’s early years hardly anything is the Interallied Commission to act as high ecclesiastical com- known; but he appears to have been poorly cared for, and his missioner for the plebiscite of Upper Silesia by agreement of both education was neglected. Shortly after the news of the discovery the Polish and German Governments, During the Bolshevik inva- of the New World had reached Spain he was in Seville, and thence

PIZARRO—PLACE-NAMES found his way across the Atlantic. There he is heard of in 1510 as having taken part in an expedition from Hispaniola to Uraba under Alonzo de Ojeda, by whom he was entrusted with the charge of the unfortunate settlement at San Sebastian. He accompanied Balboa (whom he afterwards helped to bring to the block) in the discovery of the Pacific. In 1522 he entered into a partnership with a priest named Hernando de Luque, and a soldier named Diego de Almagro, for purposes of exploration and conquest towards the south. Explorations were then undertaken down the west coast of South America, in which Pizarro was left for months with but 13 followers on the island of Gallo, without ship or stores. There it was that Pizarro displayed the courage which has made famous the story of himself and his companions. (Some authorities, among them Xeres, Pizarro’s secretary, give the number of his companions as 16. Herrera states the names of 13; Garcilasso supplies the remaining three.) But Pizarro persisted till he had coasted as far as about 9° south and obtained distinct accounts of the Peruvian empire. The governor of Panama showing little disposition to encourage the adventurers, Pizarro resolved to apply to the sovereign in person for help, and with this object sailed from Panama for Spain, accompanied by Pedro de Candia, in the spring of 1528, reaching Seville in early summer. Charles V. was won over. Pizarro was decorated with the order of Santiago, was granted a coat-of-arms and 13 of his heroic companions were ennobled by name. On July 26, 1529, was executed at Toledo the famous capitulación, by which Pizarro was upon certain conditions made governor and captain general of the province of New Castile for the distance of 200 leagues along the newly discovered coast, and invested with all the authority and prerogatives of a viceroy, his associates being left in wholly secondary positions. One of the conditions of the grant was that within six months Pizarro should raise a sufficiently equipped force of men, of whom 100 might be drawn from the colonies; as he could not make up his due complement he sailed clandestinely from San Lucar in Jan. 1530. He was afterwards joined by his brother Hernando with the remaining vessels, and when the expedition left Panama in January of the following year it numbered three ships, 180 men and 27 horses. The subsequent movements of Pizarro belong to the history of Peru (g.v.). After the final effort of the Incas to recover Cuzco from 1536 to 1537 had been defeated by Diego de Almagro, a dispute occurred between him and Pizarro respecting the limits of their jurisdiction. This led to battle; Almagro was defeated (1538) and executed; but his supporters conspired, and assassinated Pizarro on June 26, 1541. BrsriocraPHy.—See F. Pizzaro Nuevo Mundo (1639) ; Don Manuel Célebres (1807); W. H. Prescott, (1847); A. Helps, Life of Pizzaro

PIZARRO,

GONZALO

Society. He used his frequent enforced leisure for self-education, especially in political economy, and became a great admirer of Bentham. In 1799 he and a partner opened a tailoring shop in Charing Cross road, and the next year he went into business alone, rapidly becoming so successful that in one year he made

y Orellano, Varones Ilustres del José Quintana, Vidas de Españoles History of the Conquest of Peru (1869); Justin Winsor, Narrative

and Critical History of America, vol. ii. (1886).

(?1505-1548),

explorer, half-

brother of Francisco Pizarro, was born at Truxillo in 1505 or 1506. He accompanied the Peruvian expedition in 1531, and re-

ceived for his services extensive grants in the Potosi mines. In 1539 he was made governor of Quito, and in 1541-42 he led an expedition east of Quito in the course of which Francisco de Orellan explored the Amazon. Two years later he defeated Vela, the new viceroy, and was declared governor of Peru, but in 1548 he was himself defeated by a Spanish force under Pedro de la Casco, was compelled to surrender and was executed on April ro, 1548.

PIZZICATO, a musical term indicating that a given passage

for a stringed instrument is to be plucked by the fingers instead of played by the bow. ;

PLACARD, abill or poster pasted or affixed to a wall or in

any prominent position. (See POSTER.) PLACE, FRANCIS (1771-1854), radical reformer, was born on Nov. 3, 1771, and later apprenticed to a leather-breeches

maker. He suffered great hardships owing to the decline of this trade, and in 1793 organized an unsuccessful strike of London breeches-makers. He acted as secretary to other trade clubs and

from

1794-97

was prominent

in the London

Corresponding

987

£3,000.

He was already known as a Radical politician when in

1814 he taok up seriously a campaign to secure the repeal of the Combination Acts forbidding trade unions. For some years he met with little success, but in 1824, acting through Joseph Hume, M.P , he secured a parliamentary committee “on artisans and machinery” which reported in favour of the abolition of the acts. Bills to this effect were carried, amid general indifference; the premier, indeed, afterwards assured the House of Commons that he had no idea of the contents of the bills when he recommended them. The immediate effect of the repeal was a sudden increase in the number and activity of trade unions, and next year the Government attempted to restore the prohibition. The public excitement and the interest of the working-men were such that after a parliamentary struggle of an unusual stiffness, Place secured the passing of an act which scarcely altered the position. His skilled political organization made the Westminster elections from 1807—32 events of national importance in the struggle for parliamentary reform. In 183r and 1832 he greatly assisted behind the scenes in the preparations for military revolt should the Lords remain obstinate. Together with Joseph Parkes of Birmingham he framed the placard “TO STOP THE DUKE, GO FOR GOLD” which produced the run on the banks that drove Wellington from office and carried the Reform bill without violence. He also disorganized the “Rotundanist” reformers, who wished the extension of the franchise to the working class, by the organization of a “tame” working class union at the height of the struggle. He died at the age of 83, having been for many years out of politics. See Graham Wallas, Francis Place (1918). Place’s mss. and guardbooks, an incomparable source of political information from 1790 to 1850, are in the British Museum. (R. W. P. .

PLACE-NAMES.

Ancient historians often speculated upon

the meaning of place-names, inventing persons who are presumed to have been the first founders of the country and to have left their mark on its nomenclature. But it is only within the last halfcentury that attempts have been made to lay the foundations of a science of place-names. Förstemann in Germany, Rygh in Norway, Noreen in Sweden, Skeat in England, Longnon in France, are perhaps the best-known pioneers in this work. The main foundations upon which they built were the recognition (1) that no place-name can be interpreted in the light of its present-day form alone, but must be traced back to its earliest recorded form, (2) that no explanation of a place-name, however convincing as philology, can hold good if inconsistent with the known history and topography of the site, and, conversely that no explanation based upon legend or topography, is of value if inconsistent with philology. Processes of Change.—The ordinary word is to some extent controlled by the written or printed book. But the transmission of most place names is still very largely oral, and as the name is merely a name, and rarely has any significance in itself, at least to its modern user, there is little or nothing to check the process of change. The natural result is that the modern form of the name Cenwulfesleak has become Knowsley, is often misleading. Tidwulfestreo has become Elstree; and Cholmondeley, Cirencester, Auchinleck, and Wymondham, while in spelling they retain something like their original form, in pronunciation have been reduced to Chumley, Sissiter, Affleck and Wyndham. (It should be noted that the spread of the printed word and universal primary education are now tending to reverse the process and to substitute spelling-pronunciations for the genuine local ones.) The lack of stress upon the final element together with certain common soundassimilations have obscured the history of many names. Thus Embleton really should end in don, “hill,” Hallington is really “holy dene” (the site of the battle of “Heavenfield”), Warden-onTyne is a “watch don” or “hill” at the Junction of north and south

Tyne. So, also, nearly all the place-names in -hall, such as Willen-

988

PLACE-NAMES

hall, really end in hale, “nook” or “corner of land.” The proximity of some similar sounding name may lead to its ultimate substitution as when Combe-in-Teignhead replaces Combe-in-Tenhide because the place stands on a headland at the mouth of the Teign.

cept in Cornwall, Monmouthshire and Herefordshire, the nomen-

which conveys some sort of meaning, however inapposite. Thus all the places once called Fivehide have now: become Fivehead or Fyfield, since we are no longer aware what a “hide” of land is. Highenovre (lit. “high bank”) becomes High and Over. Folketymology has led to the formation of a series of “ghost” placenames, commonly spoken of as “back-formations.” Cambridge is assumed to be the “bridge over the Cam” and the river is henceforward so called, though in reality Cambridge is an Anglo-Norman corruption of an earlier Grantabrycg and the correct name of the river is Granta. This process is specially common with rivernames. The Sussex Arun and Rother are back-formations from Arundel and Rotherfield, while the Adur is a back-formation from the false identification of Portus Adurni with Shoreham. The old names for the rivers, in this case Tarrant, Limen, Bramber, were early lost and new names had to be found. Early forms of certain names may be recorded by early geographers, historians or chroniclers but for most we have to turn elsewhere, to national surveys such as Domesday Book or the Danish Landbook of King Valdemar, to ancient charters, which often give not only the name of the land granted but also the names of the land-marks on its boundaries, royal and episcopal documents of every kind and, in later days, surveys, extents, terriers, maps. Here fresh difficulties arise. We find a large number of faulty and fantastic spellings, as when Knighton (O.E. cnihiatun) commonly appears in Domesday as Chenistetone, or Gilling (O.E. Gillingas) is disguised as Gwyllingues. Such forms, if they appeared repeatedly in official documents, might actually be recognized as the correct names even locally. Thus the Ciren-

of country and were not the property of any single settler, while

clature of the counties of England is predominantly English or

Scandinavian. The only exception to this general statement is to be found in a good number of the names of natural features, such Folk-Etymology.—-When we come across a name which in as rivers and mountains. Here, and in other countries also, the itself conveys no meaning we are apt to turn it into something old names were usually kept. The rivers ran through wide tracts:

of Cirencester is the Norman-French spelling for the native English Churn, the river on which that town stands, and Durham is the result of the Norman’s attempt to pronounce Dunholm, in Wea the sound-combinations ~k and lm proved too difficult for im. Interpretation.—In the interpretation of early forms, we have, first, words descriptive of the actual topography and secondly personal names belonging to those who have been owners or occupiers of the site. Most of the descriptive words can readily be recognized but a goodly number furnish difficulties. Our knowledge of the vocabulary of our forefathers is derived chiefly from

works of religious or homiletic character and there are extensive gaps in our knowledge of their secular vocabulary, especially in

its earliest stages. These lost words may be found in place-names. Thus in Herne (Beds) and Harome (Yorks) we have an otherwise

unknown O.E. kar, “a stony place, heap, hill,” found in various cognate languages. So also a word in common use in early days may have passed completely out of use in our language and still survive in place-names. O.E, hearg, “heathen grove” only survives in such place-names as Harrow, Harrowden and Arrow Fill. And similar difficulties arise with regard to the personal names found in place-names. Often when a personal name has been assumed the very name itself turns up later in some newly discovered document. Thus a personal name Blicc with a diminutive Bliccel was assumed to explain Blickling and then later the name was found in a r2th century cartulary. In most countries we have to deal not with one people or language alone but with successive settlements by peoples using different languages. If the new race is only a powerful minority, as for example the Normans in England or the English in Ireland, its influence on place-names may be very small. In the

case of the Romans in Celtic Britain it was almost negligible.

If the invasion or settlement was a mass one, there may be very extensive renaming of the places, as was the case with the English in most parts of England, the Vikings in certain parts of the Danelaw and in Normandy, and the Celtic refugees who settled in Brittany. In England the dominant race and speech since the beginning of the 6th century has been English and, ex-

the mountains had no attractions for settlers in search of good

pasture or arable land. Thus it is that Wear, Tyne, Avon, Cheviot,

Eildon, Malvern, Mendip, are Celtic names, though English ones are not entirely wanting, as, for example, Blyth, Loud, Clent. Many river and hill-names cannot be explained even upon a Celtic basis and may have been taken over by the Celts from still earlier

peoples. We must also note that some names which now look con-

vincingly English may really be folk-etymological perversions of earlier Celtic names. The Celtic name has in a few cases survived to prove it, as in the case of O.E. in Eoforwic, Searoburh our York and Salisbury, which mean in Old English “boar-dwel]ing” and “‘trickery-fort” respectively but are really anglicisings of the old Romano-Celtic names Eburacum and Sorbiodunum,. How many similar cases there may be in which the evidence for it has not chanced to survive it is impossible to say. The Romans seldom renamed the British towns, and beyond one or two somewhat doubtful examples, such as Speen and Chester (earlier Lega-ceaster) and Lincoln from the Latin spinae, (urbs) legionis and Lindum colonia, they left little to be handed on to the English. The latter had picked up a certain number of Latin

words both in their old Continental homes and in England through the channels of war and trade and Christianity, such as castra,

(via) strata, monasterium. These became ceaster, Strat and mynster in their own language and have given rise to groups of names in -chester, -cester, -caster, in Street-, Stret-, Strat-, Streat- and in -minster. The first of these elements is very commonly found in the names of the old Romano-British fortified towns, but it should

be noted that the first element in such names (e.g., Gloucester, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Exeter) is Celtic and not Roman, the old names being Glevum, Corinium, Uriconium and Isca. The English Conquest involved widespread renaming of the countryside. The comparative frequency of place-names in -ing and -ingham in the eastern and south-eastern counties and their comparative rarity elsewhere suggests the importance of the great

leader and his followers in the early stages of the invasion, for in O.E. the suffix ing(as) was added to a personal name to denote that man and his family, followers, etc. Thus Basing denotes the “followers of Basa” and Whittingham is the “home of the followers of Hwita.” The elements kam and stede, “site,” “place,” later

ste(a)d, were freely used in the early days of the invasion. The suffix żon, from O.E. tun “enclosure” becomes relatively much more frequent as we travel westwards to the districts latest con-

quered and this suffix remained a living one till long after the

Norman Conquest. Worth, worthy and wardine all denote small enclosures but the first soon ceased to be a living suffix. Port was used for a town (a loan-word from Lat. porta), and burh (dat.

sing. byrig) is the source of many names in bury and a few in borough, burgh, It denotes a fortified place, of whatever age, and

has none of the constitutional associations of the common word borough. Large areas of land were still covered with forest; as these were brought under cultivation names in -ley and -field arose, from the O.E. words leah, “clearing in woodland,” and feld, “open country.” Land dedicated to the service of religion was often called stow, hence Halstow, “holy place,” Bridstow,

“St. Bride’s land,” corresponding to the Welsh Lian san Bregit. Many other elements of a purely topographical character are found in place-names. Here and in other countries we find early peoples very sensitive to slight differences of terrain and a place

might be called a cliff, e.g., Egglescliffe, or hangra (i.e., “hanging

wood,” as in Shelfanger), where we should only note a slight slope. The personal names found in these place-names, especially in eastern and south-eastern England, are often of an exceedingly archaic type, suggesting that soon after the settlement there were rapid changes in the nomenclature among our forefathers. The Scandinavian settlement of certain districts of England

PLACENTA

989

affected the place-nomenclature as deeply as the earlier English | at least Gallicised names, such as Richmond, Devizes, Belvoir, settlements, but its intensity varied a good deal from area to area Rievaulx, Jervaulx. The traditional pronunciations of these names and as the speech of the Vikings was closely allied it is not always | are Anglo-French in character and thus it is that we have Bewley easy to differentiate native and Scandinavian names. Changes for Beaulieu, Beaver for Belvoir, Rivers for Rievaulx, and Beauwere brought about in various ways. The commonest was en- mont commonly pronounced as Beamont or Bewmont. Knowltirely to re-name

the place, as when O.E. Nor-worig

became

edge of modern French is gradually ousting these in favour of

Derby. There was also a good deal of Scandinavianizing of pseudo-educated ones. Norman-French feudalism led to the disnames, as when O.E. Eofor-wic became Jor-vik (and so Yorick tinguishing of one manor from another by the suffixing (or occaand York) or places which had once ended in -bury were given sional prefixing) of the name of its feudal holder, whence such the Scandinavian suffix -by, so that in the middle of the roth cen- names as Stanstead Mountfitchet, Buckland Sororum (ie., of tury Badby (Northants.) is called indifferently Baddanby and the nuns), Bishop’s Tawiton. The more one studies the history of place-names the more one Baddanburh. How deep the influence of Scandinavian speech went is shown by more than one place-name which retains Scandi- finds what a large proportion of them are really early in their navian inflexional forms (eg., Beckermet, “meeting of the origin. There are however two types which are definitely late. stream,” which contains the gen. sing. bekkj7ar of O.Norse bekkr, The type whereby a place came to be called Poynatts, Chequers, and still more by a name like Osmotherley in which the English and the like, from the family names, Poynait, Chequer, dates personal name Osmund was given a Scandinavian gen. sing. in ar from the rath century onwards. Place-names formed from even before an English second element). In some counties, where phrases, often of a humorous character, such as Glororum (glower raids were extensive but where there was no organized dividing up o’er ’em), Make ’em Rich, Bo-peep come even later, belonging of the land among the new settlers (e.g., Northumberland and a as a rule to the 17th century or later.

BretiocrapHy.—England: The English Place-name Society, with the help of the British Academy, is carrying through a survey of English place-names and has published volumes on Bucks., Beds., and in Lindsey), where the land was parcelled out among the Dan- Hunts., Worcs., the North Riding of Yorks. and Sussex, together with ish, we have a dominantly Scandinavian nomenclature. Danes an Introductory volume and one on the Chief Elements (1924-. In for the most part settled in eastern England, Norsemen in north- progress). Skeat has volumes on Cambs., Beds., Hunts., Herts., SufBerks. (1901-13), Moorman on the West Riding (1910), Stenton western England. That there were some colonies of Norsemen folk, on Berks. (1911), Duignan on Staffs, Worcs. Warw. (1905-12), amid a prevailing Danish population is shown by the Normanbys Baddeley on Gloucs., Bannister on Heref. (1913), Goodall on 5.W and Normantons in the east and the Midlands, all settlements of Yorks., Walker on Derbys. (1914), Alexander on Oxon. (1912), Norsemen and not of Normans. In the North Riding there were Ekblom on Wilts. (19r7), Sedgefield on Cumberland and Westmorland (1915), Mawer on Northumberland and Durham (1920), Ekwall on enough Norsemen for certain villages to have to be distinguished Lancs., Gover on Middlesex (1922). Monographs on particular subas Danby, “villages of the Danes.” Where the English were al- jects are Ekwall on Place-names in -ing (1923) and on River-names most entirely ousted we have a few Jnglebys, isolated villages of of England (1928), Lindkvist on Middle English Place-names of the English surviving, while the Denbys and Denaby of Derby- Scandinavian Origin (1912), Zachrisson, Anglo-Norman Influence on Johnston, shire and the West Riding suggest Danish settlements amid a English Place-names (1909). Wales: No systematic work a but good many. of England and Wales (1914) includes prevalent English population. Those Vikings, chiefly Norsemen, Place-names Scotland: Johnston, Place-names of Scotland (1903), and Watson, The who had previously been raiding in Ireland were commonly known Celtic Place-names of Scotland (1927). Ireland: Joyce, Origin and as the “Irishmen” and gave their name to certain Jrbys, Irebys History of Irish names of places (1875-1901). Isle of Man: Kneen, and Jretons. When they had been to Wales they were nicknamed Place-names of the Isle of Man (1926-28). France: Longnon, Les noms de lieu de la France (1920—23), incomBrettar and so we get Bretby and two or three Birkbys, which plete. were earlier Brettaby. The commonest suffixes denoting various Germany: Förstemann-Jellinghaus, Altdeutsches Namenbuch, Ortskinds of settlement are as follows: by, denoting variously farm, namen (1913-16), including many Teutonic place-names from other hamlet and village, thorpe, “a village,” especially an “offshoot Continental countries. Norway: Norske Gaardnavne (1897-1919), Norske Elvenavne from a larger one” (carefully to be distinguished from the native (1904), Indledning (1898) by Rygh, Olen and others. Sweden: thorp, throp, often found in the South Midlands, as in Eyzhrope, Sverges Ortnamn (1909—. In progress), Ortnamen i Göteborgs och Thrupp, Sedrup, Colstrope), thwaite, “clearing,” “paddock,” toft, Bohus Län (1923-. In progress), Lindroth, Våra ortnamen (1923). “piece of ground,” “messuage,” “homestead.” To the Vikings also Denmark: Danmarks Stednavne (1922—. In progress), Steenstrup, Indledende Studier (1909), De Danske Stednavne (1919). we owe the ridings of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, from O.Norse Holand: Nomina Geographica Neerlandica (1892—1901). Flanders: thrithungr, “third part” and the wapentakes of Scandinavian Eng- Woordenboek der Toponymie (1914-. In progress), Mansion, Oudland generally, from O. Norse vapma-tak, “taking of weapons.” Gentsche Naamkunde (1924). The periodicals Namn och Bygd (1913~) and Zeitschrift für OrtsThey had their own topographical terms, some of the commonest the chief European countries. being found in the suffixes scoe, skew “wood,” with, “wood,” namenforschung (1926—) cover (A. M.)

good part of Durham),

the number

of Scandinavian names is

small but in others (e.g., the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire

force, “waterfall,” fell, “mountain,” Norse breck and Danish brink “slope,” wath, “ford,” Norse slack, “shallow valley.” Personal names are very common as first elements in their placenames while in a few we have post-position of the personal name (e.g., Aspatria, lit. ash-Patrick), showing that the Norsemen when

in Ireland must have learned the old Gaelic method of putting the personal name after the significant element. This name and others, such as Commondale, earlier Colmandale, containing the O.Ir. name Colman show how common Gaelic names were among these Vikings who had intermarried with the Celts. In gauging Scandinavian influence on the basis of place-names it should be borne in mind that many Scandinavian words (e.g., biggin, fell) soon became part of the English speech and that certain Scandinavian names such as Harold soon came to be borne by persons of English descent, so that the presence of such elements in place-

names is no certain proof of their Scandinavian origin. The main sphere of Norman-French influence on place-names

has already been indicated, viz., its importance in changing the spelling and pronunciation of many of the older names. Such influence was specially common in the neighbourhood of the great castles and monasteries. They themselves often bore French, or

PLACENTA, the organ by which the embryo is nourished within the womb of its mother. When the young one is born the placenta and membranes come away as the “afterbirth.” ‘The human placenta is a circular disk about 7 or 8 in. in diameter and 14 in. in thickness at its centre, while at its margin it is very thin and is continuous with the foetal membranes. It weighs about a pound. Mode of Formation.—Before each menstrual period, during the child-bearing age of a woman, the mucous membrane of the uterus hypertrophies, and, at the period, is cast off, but if a fertilized ovum reaches the uterus the casting off is postponed until the birth of the child. From the fact that the thickened mucous membrane lining the interior of the uterus is cast off sooner or later, it is spoken of as the “decidua.” The fertilized ovum, on reaching the uterus, embeds itself in the already prepared decidua, and, as it enlarges, there is one part ef the decidua lying between it and the uterine wall (“decidua serotina” or “basalis”), one part stretched over the surface of the enlarging ovum (“decidua reflexa” or “capsularis”) and one part lining the rest of the uterus (“decidua vera”) (see fig. 1). It is the decidua

PLACERS

99°

basalis which is specially concerned in formation of the placenta. That part which is nearest the ovum is ealled the “stratum compactum,” but farther away the uterine glands dilate and give a spongy appearance to the mucous membrane (stratum spongiosum). Processes from the surface of the ovum penetrate the stratum compactum and push their way into the enlarged maternal blood sinuses; these are the “chorionic villi.” Later, DECIDUA

DILATED PART GLAND

UNCHANGED LAYER

STRATUM SPONGIOSUM

BASALIS

UNCHANGED PAR R

STI,

/

STRATUM Ni

\cos MUCOSA

ea

LRAT

nA CAVITY WHICH: =f BECOMES COELOM

ECTODERMAL VILLUS ENCLOSING SPACE CONTAINING MATERNAL BLOOD

FIBRIN PLUG

a very immature condition, finish their development in their mother’s pouch; but although these mammals have no allantoic placenta there is an intimate connection between the walls of the

yolk-sac and the uterine mucous membrane, and so an umbilical placenta exists. The name Aplacentalia therefore only means that they have no allantoic placenta. Among the Placentalia the umbilical and allantoic placentae sometimes coexist for some time, as in the hedgehog, bandicoot and mouse. In the Carnivora, elephant, procavia (Hyrax) and aard vark (Orycteropus), there is a “zonary-placenta” which forms a girdle

round the embryo. In sloths and lemurs the placenta is domeshaped, while in rodents, insectivores and bats, it is a ventral disk or closely applied pair of disks, thus differing from the dorsal disk of the ant-eater, armadillo and higher Primates, which is known as a “metadiscoidal placenta.” Thus the form of the pla-

centa is not an altogether trustworthy indication of the systemic position of its owner. In the diffuse and cotyledonous placentae the villi do not penetrate very deeply into the decidua, and at

ENTODERM

CAVITY OF UTERUS

DECIDUA VERA

DECIDUA CAPSULARIS

UNCHANGED LAYER FROM A. H. YOUNG AND MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS)

A.

ROBINSON,

IN CUNNINGHAM,

“TEXT-BOOK

OF

ANATOMY”

(OXFORD

FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM REPRESENTING A VERY YOUNG HUMAN OVUM ALMOST IMMEDIATELY AFTER ITS ENTRANCE INTO THE DECIDUA, THE PLACE OF ENTRANCE STILL BEING COVERED WITH A PLUG OF FIBRIN

the “allantoic” or “abdominal stalk” grows from the mesoderm of the hind end of the embryo into the chorionic villi which enter the decidua basalis, and in this blood-vessels push their way into the maternal blood sinuses. Eventually the original walls of these sinuses and the false amnion, disappear, and nothing separates the maternal from the foetal blood except the delicate walls of the foetal vessels covered by undifferentiated, nucleated tissue (syncytium), derived from the chorionic epithelium, so that the embryo is able to take its supply of oxygen and materials for growth from the blood of its mother and to give up carbonic acid and excretory matters. It is the gradual enlargement of the chorionic villi in the decidua basalis together with the intervillous maternal blood sinuses that forms the placenta; the decidua capsularis and vera become pressed together as the embryo enlarges, and atrophy. The allantoic stalk elongates enormously, and in its later stages contains two arteries (umbilical) and one vein embedded in loose connective tissue known as “Wharton’s jelly.” At first the stalk of the yolk-sac is quite distinct from this, but

later the two structures become bound together (see fig. 2), as the “umbilical cord.” A distinction must be made between the allantoic stalk and the allantois; the latter is an entodermal outgrowth from the hind end of the mesodaeum or primitive alimentary canal, which in the human subject only reaches a little way toward the placenta. The allantoic stalk is the mass of mesoderm containing blood-vessels which is pushed in front of the allantois and, as has been shown, reaches and blends with the decidua basalis to form the placenta. For further details see Quain’s Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908); and, for literature, O. Hertwig’s Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre (Jena). Comparative Anatomy.—lIf the placenta is to be regarded as a Close union between the vascular system of the parent and embryo, the condition may be found scattered throughout the phylum of the Chordata. In so lowly a member as Salpa, a placenta is formed, and the embryo is nourished within the body of its parent. In some of the viviparous sharks, e.g., the blue

shark (Cacharias), the yolk-sac has ridges which fit into grooves in the wall of the oviduct and allow interchange between maternal and foetal blood. This is an example of an “umbilical placenta.” In the viviparous blennies (Zoarces viviparus), among the teleostean, fishes, 200 or 300 young are nourished in the hollow ovary, which develops villi secreting nutritive material. The mammals are divided into Placentalia and Aplacentalia; in the latter group, to which the monotremes and most marsupials belong, the ova have a great deal of yolk, and the young, born in

STRATUM SPONGIOSUM STRATUM COMPACTU

‘i

ALLANTOIC DIVERTICULU

l

ro “

£

UMBILICAL CORD AMNION

4

ve JE J) a

PERICARDIUM

fr

See FUSED MESODERM OF AMNION AND CHORION

YOLK SAC

HEART FUSED DECIDUA CAPSULARIS AND DECIDUA VERA

FROM A. H. YOUNG AND A. ROBINSON, IN CUNNINGHAM, “TEXT-BOOK OF ANATOMY" (OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS) FIG. 2.——-DIAGRAM OF THE LATER STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLACENTA, SHOWING THE RELATIONS OF THE FOETAL VILLI TO THE PLACENTAL SINUSES, FUSION OF THE AMNION WITH THE INNER SURFACE OF THE CHORION, AND THE THINNING OF THE FUSED DECIDUAE

birth are simply withdrawn, the decidua being left behind in the uterus, so that these placentae are spoken of as non-deciduate while other kinds are deciduate. For further details see S.W. W. Turner, Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Placenta (Edinburgh, 1876); A. Robinson, “Mam-

malian Ova and the Formation of the Placenta,” Journ. Anat. and Phys. (1904) xxxviii., 186, 325. For literature up to 1906, R. Wiedersheim’s Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, trans. and adapted by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; O. Terasaki, Ueber die Githerfaserstructuren i. d. menschlichen Placenta, Ztschr. f. Geburtsh. u. Gyn.,

92, 94 (1927, bibl.); J. W. Williams, Placenta circumvallata, Am. J.

Obst. and Gyn., 13, 1 (1927, bibl.); H. Westermark, Weight of the Human Placenta relative to that of the Foetus, etc., Acta Obst. et Gyn. Scandin., 4, 249 (1925-26, bibl.), and F. L. Adair and H. Thelander, Am. J. Obst. and Gyn., 10, 172 (1925, bibl.) ; H. Richter, Zur Physiologte u. Morphologie der Placenta, Arch. f. Gyn., 124, 557 (1928, bibl.);

J. E. Davis, B. V. Kellog and A. L. Amolsch, Anatomical and Clinical Studies upon 875 placentae, Am. J. Obst. and Gyn., 7, 637 (1924; bibl.) ; G. I. Strachan, Physiology of the placenta, J. Obst. and Gyn. Brit. Emp., 32, 89 (1925, bibl.) ; O. Grosser, Vergleichende u. menschliche Placentationslehre, in Halban and Seitz, Biologie u. Pathologie

d. Weibes, vol. vi, part x, p. 41 (bibl.); H. A. Dietrich, Biologie

der Placenta, ibid. p. 195 (bibl.); H. Hinselman, Normales u. path. Verhalten der Placenta w. d. Fruchtwassers, ibid. p. 241 (bibl.).

PLACERS,

the common name given to the alluvial deposits

in which gold frequently occurs. They consist of sand and gravel

deposited by existing or former streams of water carrying de-

PLAGIARISM—PLAGUE

gga

tritus of gold-bearing rocks. Other metals, e.g., tin, are similarly | cleavage flakes (oor and oro), sections cut perpendicular to the deposited. The gold of the placers consists of grains called “‘gold- optic axes and bisectrices, and especially those perpendicular to dust” and larger pieces, rounded by attrition, called ‘‘nuggets.” the plane of albite twinning (oro) in multiple-twinned crystals. The placer of an ancient stream may be deep-lying because cov- Other optical determinations are available for discriminating the ered since its formation with other deposits or even lava. (See various members of the group. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—For a detailed summary of the optical characters, Gotp MIniInG and METALLURGY.) their employment in the recognition of the quantitative composiPLAGIARISM, an appropriation or copying from the work and tion of the felspars, the following should be consulted: H. Rosenof another, in literature or art, and the passing off of the same busch, Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine as original. The Lat. plagiarius meant a kidnapper, stealer or (Band i., Zweite Hälfte, 5 Auflage, revised by O. Miigge, 1927); abductor of a slave or child, though it is also used in the modern L. Dupare and M. Reinhard, “La Détermination des Plagioclases” (Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve, xl., 1924, fasc. 1.); A. N sense by Martial (I. 53, 9). (See COPYRIGHT.) Winchell, Elements of Optical Mineralogy (pt. 2, 1927, pp. 277-341). PLAGIOCLASE, an important group of rock-forming min- For a recent preliminary X-ray study of the plagioclase felspars, erals constituting an isomorphous series between albite felspar and reference may also be made to E. Schiebold, Fortschritte der anorthite felspar. The intermediate members are soda-lime felspar which in their crystallographical, optical and other physical properties vary progressively between the two extremes, albite (Ab) NadAISi,0O,, and anorthite (An) CaAlSi.O,. The name plagioclase is derived from the Gr. mwAdyios, “oblique,” and

Kav, “to break,” in allusion to the oblique angle between the cleavages. Names are applied to members of the plagioclase group falling between certain arbitrary composition limits, those now commonly adopted being albite (Abio-Abo), oligoclase (Abor Abw), andesine (Ab,»—Abs.), labradorite (Abs—-Abs), bytownite (Aba~Ab,.), anorthite (Aby-Anio). The pure end members are practically unknown in nature. All the plagioclases crystallize in the triclinic system, and as members of an isomorphous series

Mineralogie,

Kristallographie

und

Petrographie

(Band

xii.,

1927,

pp. 78-82). A more detailed account of the occurrence of the various members is given under ALBITE, OLIGOCLASE, ANDESINE, LABRADORITE,

BYTOWNITE, ANORTHITE.

See also FELSPaR.

(C. E. T.)

PLAGUE, in medicine, a term formerly given to any epidemic disease causing a great mortality, but now confined to a specific infectious fever caused by b. pestis.

History to 1880.—The first historical notice of the plague is

contained in a fragment of the physician Rufus of Ephesus, who lived in the time of Trajan, preserved in the Collections of Oribasius!. Rufus speaks of the buboes called pestilential as being specially fatal and as being found chiefly in Libya, Egypt and Syria. This passage shows the antiquity of the plague in northern show closely similar crystallographic constants. They possess a Africa, which for centuries was considered as its home. It is not till perfect cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid (oor) and a less the 6th century of our era, that we find bubonic plague in pronounced cleavage parallel to the pinacoid (oro), the angle be- Europe, as a part of the great cycle of pestilence, which lasted tween the two cleavages varying progressively from 86° 24’ in fifty years, and spread over the whole Roman world, beginning in albite to 85° so’ in anorthite. The molecular volumes are closely maritime towns and radiating inland. In another direction it exsimilar (Ab 100-1) (An tor-5). The habit of well-formed crystals tended from Egypt along the north coast of Afrıca. Whether the is usually tabular on the plane oro, sometimes flattened parallel numerous pestilences recorded in the yth century were the plague to oor or, as in microlitic plagioclases of volcanic rocks, elongated cannot now be said; but it is possible the pestilences in England in the direction of the edge oo1:o10. Twinning is a very important chronicled by Bede in the years 664, 672, 679 and 683 may have character of the plagioclases, being almost invariably present and been of this disease, especially as in 690 pestis inguimaria is again affording a ready means of distinguishing them from other fel- recorded in Rome. In the great cycle of epidemics in the 14th century known as the spars. The chief twin laws are the Carlsbad, albite and pericline; the latter two, being commonly polysynthetic, give rise to numer- Black Death, some at least were bubonic plague. The mortality ous thin lamellae, which are the cause of the fine striations seen of the black death was, as is well known, enormous. It is estimated on cleavage planes, and of the banded character visible in thin in various parts of Europe at two-thirds or three-fourths of the population in the first pestilence, in England even higher; but sections of the minerals examined in polarized light. With the exception of the sodic end member (albite), which, some countries were much less severely affected. Hecker calculates owing to the high viscosity of its melts, is with difficulty crystal- that one-fourth of the population of Europe, or 25 millions of lized, the plagioclases are readily prepared from dry melts of the persons, died in the whole of the epidemics. The Great Plague of London.—The great plague of 1664component oxides. They show a continuous melting curve, the 1665 must not be regarded as an isolated phenomenon. Plague had intermediate members exhibiting a ‘melting interval. The temperatures of beginning of melting (solidus) have been determined in recurred frequently in all parts of Europe in the 15th, 16th and the laboratory for compositions ranging from pure An to Ab,Anm, 17th centuries. Nevertheless in London the preceding years had and of completion of melting (liquidus) for a range An to Abs- been unusually free from plague, and it was not mentioned in the bills of mortality till in the autumn of 1664 (Nov. 2) a few isolated An,. These data are shown below. cases were observed in Westminster and a few occurred in the folTemperature of Temperature lowing winter, which was very severe. About May 1665 the disease beginning of of completion again became noticeable and spread, but somewhat slowly. Bogmelting of melting hurst, a contemporary doctor, notices that it crept down Holborn Composition (solidus) (liquidus) and took six months to travel from the western suburbs to the — T,100°C Albite (AbgsAng) eastern through the city. The mortality rapidly rose from 43 in Oligoclase (AbsAn:) . 1,275°C 1,362°C May to s90 in June, 6,137 in July, 17,036 in August, 31,159 in Andesine (Ab.An1:) . 1,205°C 1,394°C Andesine-Labradorite (AbiAn1) 1,287°C r,450°C September, after which it began to decline. The total number of Labradorite (Ab:Ane) . 1,372°C 1,490°C from plague in that year, according to the bills of mortality, deaths Bytownite (Ab:Ans) 1,465°C T,521°C was 68,596, in a population estimated at 460,000, out of whom twoAnorthite (Anu) . 1,550°C 1,550°C thirds are supposed to have fled to escape the contagion. This The density and mean refractive index of the plagioclase felspars number is likely to be underestimated, since of the 6,432 recorded vary progressively, the extremes being albite, D = 2-605,u =1-530; deaths from spotted fever many were probably really from plague, anorthite, D = 2-765, w= 1-587. though not declared so to avoid painful restrictions. In December Since the plagioclases are of great importance in petrology there was a sudden fall in the mortality which continued through much detailed study of their optical properties has been under- the winter; but in 1666 nearly 2,000 deaths are recorded. According to some authorities, the plague was imported into taken, so that it is now possible to determine by simple examination of thin slices of these minerals the exact chemical composi- London by bales of merchandise from Holland, which came tion and crystallographic orientation of the selected section. For originally from the Levant; according to others it was introduced ILib. xliv. cap. 17—Oeuvres de Oribase, ed. Bussemaker and Daremthis purpose, the chief determinations are the refractive indices, and the optical extinctions of oriented sections, principally on berg (Paris, 1851), ili. 607.

992

PLAGUE

History Since 1880.—In 1880 plague existed or had existed by Dutch prisoners of war. From London the disease spread within ten years, in the following parts of the world: (1) Bengwidely over England. After 1666 there was no epidemic of plague in London or any hazi, Africa; (2) Persian Kurdistan; (3) Irak, on the Tigris ang part of England, though sporadic cases appear in bills of mortality Euphrates; (4) the Asir country, western Arabia; (5) on the up to 1679; and a column filled up with “o” was left till 1703, lower Volga, Russia; (6) northern Persia and the shores of the when it finally disappeared. The disappearance of plague in Caspian; (7) Kumaon and Garhwal, India; (8) Yunnan and London was attributed to the Great Fire, but no such cause existed Pakhoi, China. The most striking feature of the early history of plague is in other cities. It has also been ascribed to quarantine, but no effective quarantine was established till 1720, so that the cessa- the gradual retrocession of plague from the west, after a series of exceedingly destructive outbreaks extending over several cention of plague in England must be regarded as spontaneous. But this was no isolated fact. A similar cessation of plague was turies, and its disappearance from Europe. Western countries noted soon after in the greater part of western Europe. In 1666 a were the first to be freed from its presence, namely, England, severe plague raged in Cologne and on the Rhine, which was pro- Portugal and Spain. From all these it finally disappeared about longed till 1670 in the district. In the Netherlands there was 1680, at the close of a period of pandemic prevalence. Northen plague in 1667-1669, but there are no definite notices of it after and central Europe became free about 1714, and the south of 1672. France saw the last plague epidemic in 1668, till it reap- France in 1722. The last outbreak in northern Russia occurred peared in 1720. In the years 1675-1684 a new plague epidemic in 1770. After this plague only appeared in the south-east of appeared in North Africa, Turkey, Poland, Hungary, Austria and Europe, where in turn it gradually died away during the first half Germany, progressing generally northward. Malta lost 11,000 of the roth century. In 1841 its long reign on this continent persons in 1675. The plague of Vienna in 1679 was very severe, came to an end with an isolated outbreak in Turkey. From that causing 76,000 or probably more deaths. Prague in 1681 lost 83,000 time until quite recently it remained extinct, except in the East. by plague. Dresden was affected in 1680, Magdeburg and Halle The province of Astrakhan, where a very small and limited outin 1682—in the latter town with a mortality of 4,397 out of a break occurred in 1878, is politically in Europe, but geographipopulation of about 10,000. Many North German cities suffered cally it belongs rather to Asia. And even in the East plague was about the same time; but in 1683 the plague disappeared from confined to more or less clearly localized epidemics; it showed no Germany till the epidemic of 1707. In Spain it ceased about power of pandemic diffusion. In short, if we regard the history of 1681; in Italy certain cities were attacked till the end of the this disease as a whole, it appears to have lost such power from the century, but not later (Hirsch). time of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which was part of The plague-epidemics in Egypt between 1833 and 1845 are a pandemic wave, until the present day. There was not merely very important in the history of plague, since the disease was a gradual withdrawal eastwards lasting nearly two hundred years, almost for the first time scientifically studied in its home by but the outbreaks which occurred during that period, violent as skilled European physicians, chiefly French. The disease was some of them were, showed a constantly diminishing power of found to be less contagious than reported to be by popular tradi- diffusion and an increasing tendency to localization. The sudden tion, and most of the French school went so far as to deny the reversal of that long process is therefore a very remarkable occurrence. Emerging from the remote endemic centres to which contagiousness of the disease altogether. An outbreak of plague in 1878~1879 on the banks of the Volga it had retreated, plague has once more taken its place among the caused a panic throughout Europe and most European govern- zymotic diseases with which modern science has to reckon. Diffusion.—Visitations of cholera can be traced definitely to a ments sent special commissions to the spot. The British commissioners were Surgeon-Major Colvill and Dr. J. F. Payne, who, point of origin often in India. (See CHOLERA.) Similarly, though like all the foreign commissioners, arrived when the epidemic was not with equal precision, a wave of influenza was shown to have over. In the opinion of Dr. Payne the real beginning of the disease started from central Asia in the spring of 1889, to have travelled was in the year 1877, in the vicinity of Astrakhan, and the sudden through Europe from east to west, to have been carried thence development of the malignant out of a mild form of the disease across the sea to America and the Antipodes, until it evenwas no more than had been observed in other places. tually invaded every inhabited part of the globe (see INFLUPlague in India.—It used to be held as a maxim that plague ENZA). In both cases no doubt remains that the all-important never appeared east of the Indus; nevertheless it was observed means of dissemination is human intercourse. The movements during the roth century in more than one distinct centre in India. of plague cannot be followed ‘in the same way. With regard to So long ago as 1815 the disease appeared in Guzerat, Kattywar origin, several endemic centres are now recognized in Asia and and Cutch, “after three years of severe famine.” It reappeared Africa, namely, (1) the district of Assyr in Arabia, on the eastearly next year, in the same locality, when it extended to Sind as ern shore of the Red Sea; (2) parts of Mesopotamia and Persia; far as Hyderabad, and in another direction south-east as far as (3) the district of Garhwal and Kumaon in the North-West ProvAbmedabad and Dhollerah. But it disappeared from these parts inces of India; (4) Yunnan in China; (5) East and Central in 1820 or early in 1821, and was not heard of again till July 1836, Africa. The last was discovered by Dr. Koch. when a disease broke out into violence at the town of Pali in The following is a list of countries in which plague is known to Marwar in Rajputana. It spread from Pali to the province of have been present in each year (see Local Government Board’s Meywar, but died out spontaneously in the hot season of 1837. Reports): 1880, Mesopotamia; 1881, Mesopotamia, Persia and In 1823 (though not officially known till later) an epidemic China; 1882, Persia and China; 1883, China; 1884, China and broke out at Kedarnath in Garhwal, a sub-district of Kumaon India (as mahamari); 1885, Persia; 1886, 1887, 1888, India (as on the south-west of the Himalayas, on a high situation. In 1834 mahamari); 1889, Arabia, Persia and China; 1890, Arabia, Persia and 1836 other epidemics occurred, which at last attracted the and China; 1891, Arabia, China and India (as mahamari); 1892, attention of the government. In 1849-1850, and again in 1852, the Mesopotamia, Persia, China, Russia (in central Asia); 1893, disease raged very severely and spread southward. In 1853 Dr. Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Russia, East Africa, Madagascar and Francis and Dr. Pearson were appointed a commission to inquire China and India (as mahamari); 1895, Arabia and China; 1896, into the malady. In 1876-1877 another outbreak occurred. The Arabia, Asia Minor, China, Japan, Russia and India (Bombay); symptoms of this disease, called maha murree or mahamari by 1897, Arabia, China, Japan, India, Russia and East Africa; 1898, the natives, were precisely those of oriental plague. The feature Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Russia, East Africa, Madagascar and of blood-spitting, to which much importance had been attached, Vienna; 1899, Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Mesopotamia, East appeared to be not a common one. A very remarkable circum- Africa, West Africa, Philippine Islands, Straits Settlements, stance was the death of animals (rats, and more rarely snakes) at Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, Egypt, European Russia, the outbreak of an epidemic. The rats brought up blood, and Portugal, Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Paraguay, Argenthe body of one examined after death by Dr. Francis showed an tine, Brazil: 1900, to the foregoing should be added Turkey, affection of the lungs. Australia, California, Mexico and Glasgow; in rgo1, South Africa

PLAGUE

993

and in 1902 Russia, chiefly at Odessa. In 1896 plague appeared in the city of Bombay; the infection spread gradually and slowly at first, but during the first three months of 1897 not only was the town of Bombay severely affected, but district after district in the presidency was attacked, notably Poona, Karachi, Cutch Mandvi, Bhiwandi and Daman. The following figures give the mortality for Bombay and Bengal, as well as the total mortality in India.

is the classification of plague cases under the three heads: (1) bubonic, (2) pneumonic, (3) septicaemic. This classification is a Clinical one, and the second and third varieties are just as much plague as the first. It is necessary to say this, because a misleading use of the word “bubonic” has given rise to the erroneous idea that true plague is necessarily bubonic, and that non-bubonic types are a different disease altogether. The illness varies within the widest limits, and exhibits all gradations of severity, from a mere indisposition, which may pass almost unnoticed, to an extreme violence, only equalled by the Bengal Presidency Bombay Presidency most violent forms of cholera. The mild cases are always bubonic; Year (including Calcutta) |(including Bombay City) All India the other varieties are invariably severe, and almost always fatal. 1896 2,219 2,219 Incubation is generally from four to six days, but it has been 1897 is 47,710 47,974 observed as short as thirty-six hours and as long as ten days 1898 219 86,191 89,265 (Bombay Research Committee). As a rule the onset is sudden 1899 3,264 96,592 102,369 1900 38,412 33,196 73:576 and well marked. IQOI 78,629 128,259 236,433 (x) Bubonic cases usually constitute three-fourths of the 1902 32,967 184,752 452,655 whole, and the symptoms may therefore be called typical. In a 1903 65,680 281,269 684,445 well-marked case there is usually an initial rigor—in children 1904 75:438 223,957 938,010 1905 126,984 71,363 940,821 convulsions—followed by a rise of temperature, with vomiting, 1906 59,019 54,525 390,355 headache, giddiness, intolerance to light; pain in epigastrium, back and limbs; sleeplessness, apathy or delirium. The headache is In 1900, there was an outbreak of plague in Australia, The described as splitting; delirium is of the busy type, like delirium total number of cases reported in Queensland was only 123, with tremens. The temperature varies greatly; it is not usually high 53 deaths. In Sydney there were 303 cases, with 103 deaths, a on the first day—from ro1r° to 103°—and may even be normal, case mortality of 34%. The infection is supposed to have been but sometimes it rises rapidly to 104° or 105° or even 107° F; a brought from Noumea, in New Caledonia, where it was present at fall of two or three degrees on the second or third day has frethe end of 1899, Plague in Glasgow was on a still smaller scale. quently been observed. The eyes are red and inflamed; the tongue It began, so far as could be ascertained, in August 1900, and is somewhat swollen, and at first covered with a thin white fur, during the two months it lasted there were 34 cases and 15 deaths. except at the tip and edges, but later it is dry, and the fur yellow

Once more the disease was not at first recognized, and its origin could not be traced. In rg01 plague invaded South Africa, and obtained a distinct footing both at Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. The total number of cases down to July was 760, with 362 deaths; the number of Europeans attacked was 196, with 68 deaths, the rest being natives, Malays, Indians, Chinese and negroes, With regard to Great Britain, a few ship-borne cases had to be dealt with at the ports. Causation.—Plague is a specific infectious fever, caused by the bacillus pestis, which was identified in 1894 by Kitasato, and subsequently, but independently, by Yersin (see BACTERIA and Drsease). It is found in the buboes in ordinary cases, in the blood in the so-called “septicaemic” cases, and in the sputum of pneu-

monic cases, It may also be present in the urine. Post mortem it

is found in great abundance in the spleen and liver. Nothing is known of its natural history outside the body, but on cultivation it is apt to undergo numerous involution forms. Its presence in a patient is regarded as positive diagnostic proof of plague; but failure to find or to identify it does not possess an equal negative

value, and should not be too readily accepted. It is quite clear, from the extreme variations in the severity of the illness, that the resisting power of individuals varies greatly. According to the Plague Research Committee of Bombay, the predisposing causes are “those leading to a lower state of vitality,” of which insuffcient food is probably the most important. There is no evidence that age, sex or race exercises a distinct predisposing influence.

The largest incidence in Bombay was on young adults; but then

they are more numerous and more exposed to infection, because they go about more than the younger and the older. Similarly, the comparative immunity of Europeans in the East may be ex-

plained by their different conditions of life. It is doubtful whether

the distinction drawn between pestis minor and pestis major has a real aetiological basis. Very mild cases occurring in the course of an outbreak of typical plague may be explained by greater power of resistance in individuals, but the epidemic prevalence of a mild illness preceding the appearance of undoubted plague sug-

gests some difference or modification of the exciting cause. Of course plague does not stand alone in this respect. Epidemic out-

or brownish. Prostration is marked. Constipation is the rule at, first, but diarrhoea may be present, and is a bad sign. A characteristic symptom in severe cases is that the patient appears dazed and stupid, is thick in speech, and staggers. The condition has often been mistaken for intoxication, There is nothing, however, in all these symptoms positively distinctive of plague, unless it is already prevalent. The really pathognomonic sign is the appearance of buboes or inflamed glands, which happens early in the illness, usually on the second day; sometimes they are present from the outset, sometimes they cannot be detected before the third day, or even later. The commonest seat is the groin, and next to that the axilla; the cervical, submaxillary and femoral glands are less frequently affected. Sometimes the buboes are multiple and on both sides, but more commonly they are unilateral. The pain is described as lancinating. If left, they usually suppurate and open outwards by sloughing of the skin, but they may subside spontaneously, or remain hard and indurated, Petechiae occur over buboes or on the abdomen, but they are not very common, except in fatal cases, when they appear shortly before death. Boils and carbuncles are rare. (2) Pneumonic plague was observed and described in many of the old epidemics, but its precise significance was first recognized by Childe in Bombay. He demonstrated the presence of the bacilli in the sputa, and showed that the inflammation in the lungs was set up by primary plague infection. The pneumonia is usually lobular, the onset marked by rigors, with difficult and hurried breathing, cough and expectoration. The prostration is great and the course of the illness rapid. ‘The breathing becomes very hurried—forty to sixty respirations in the minute—and the face dusky. The expectoration soon becomes watery and profuse, with

little whitish specks, which contain great quantities of bacilli. The temperature is high and irregular. The physical signs are those of broncho-pneumonia; oedema of the lungs soon supervenes, and death occurs in three or four days.

(3) In septicaemic cases the symptoms are those of the bubonic type, but more severe and without buboes. Prostration and cerebral symptoms are particularly marked; the temperature

breaks of other diseases—for instance, cholera, diphtheria and

rises rapidly and very high. The patient may die comatose within twenty-four hours, but more commonly death occurs on the sec-

lence of mild illness of an allied type. Clinical Charactets.—One of the results of recent observation

The lowest recorded is 34% in Sydney, and the highest 95% at

typhoid fever—are often preceded and followed by the preva-

ond or third day. Recovery is very rare. The case mortality of plague still remains exceedingly high.

294

PLAICE— PLAINFIELD

Hong Kong in 1899. During the first few weeks in Bombay it was calculated by Dr. Viegas to be as high as 99%. It is very much higher among Orientals than among Europeans. In the Bombay hospitals it was about 70% among the former, and between 30% and 40% among the latter, which was much the same as in Oporto, Sydney and Cape Town. It appears, therefore, that plague is less fatal to Europeans than cholera. The average duration of fatal cases is five or six days; in the House of Correction at Byculla, where the exact period could be well observed, it was five and a half days. Patients who survive the tenth or twelfth day have a good chance of recovery. Convalescence is usually prolonged. Second attacks are rare, but not unknown.

Diagnosis.—When plague is prevalent in a locality, the diagnosis is easy in fairly well-marked cases of the bubonic type, but less sO in the other varieties. When it is not prevalent the diagnosis is never easy, and in pneumonic and septicaemic cases it is impossible without bacteriological assistance. The earliest cases have hardly ever been even suspected at the time in any outbreak in a fresh locality. It may be taken at first for almost any fever, particularly typhoid, or for venereal disease or lymphangitis. In plague countries the diseases with which it is most liable to be confounded are malaria, relapsing fever and typhus, or bronchopneumonia in pneumonic cases. Dissemination.—The investigations of the Indian plague commission working in conjunction with the advisory committee showed that bubonic and septicaemic plague are transmitted by the agency of fleas. Highly susceptible animals are not infected by their plague-stricken fellows so long as fleas are excluded from the cages, but with the introduction of these ectoparasites the disease forthwith spreads from the sick to the healthy. Subsequent experience has confirmed the main findings of the commission, and outbreaks of human plague are unquestionably mere extensions of preceding or concurrent plague affecting animals.

Rats (Rattus rattus) are of outstanding importance as reservoirs of infection through their close association with man, but marmots (Arctomys bobac), gerbilles (Tatera lovengulae) and ground squirrels (Citellus beecheyi) have been responsible for epidemic outbreaks in China, South Africa and California respectively. The plague commission concluded that the disease can. be transmitted by the faeces of infected fleas, but did not state that this is the usual method of spread. Bacot and Martin later demonstrated that the entrance to the flea’s stomach becomes obstructed by a mass of plague bacilli. Such fleas in their persistent efforts to feed merely succeed in distending the gullet with blood, which, now contaminated, regurgitates on to the skin of the host. The organisms then enter the body either through the flea’s bite or through some abrasion of the skin. The fiea most commonly incriminated as a plague-vector is Xenopsylla cheopis, but several other species of rat fleas (Cerato-

phyllus fasctatus, Stivalius ehalae), the common mouse flea (Leptopsylla musculi), the dog flea (Ctenocephalus canis), a marmot flea (Ceratophyllus silantievi) and the human flea (Pulex irritans), amongst others, are proven carriers of plague. Epidemiology.—Laborious studies on the biology of fleas have added to our knowledge of the epidemiology of plague. These insects cannot withstand desiccation, and their survival apart from their host is proportional to the rate at which they lose moisture. Bacot and Martin (1924) found the water content of fleas to be 80% of their weight, and death occurred before the Joss of water had reached 60% of their weight. This goes far to explain the observation that plague does not maintain itself in epidemic form when the temperature rises above 80° F, accompanied by a saturation deficiency of over -30 of an inch. The seasonal variations in the spread of plague have been recognised for many centuries. In temperate countries epidemics attain their maximum in the summer months, whereas in tropical climates the onset of hot, dry weather brings an existing epidemic to an end. In each case, the peak of the plague curve coincides with meteorological conditions most favourable to the activity and longevity of fleas. In contradistinction to the foregoing, pheumonic plague, once established, spreads independently of animals and fleas. In outbreaks of ordinary plague, a secondary

involvement of the lungs supervenes in a small proportion of cases, and if atmospheric and environmental conditions favour the survival and transmission of the bacilli an epidemic of pneumonic plague may result, the virus being transmitted from the cougher

to the victim up to a range of about three feet. Treatment and Prophylaxis—Unfortunately, there is no plague specific. Serum, to be really effective, must be given before the symptoms of the disease are manifest, an impossible procedure in most cases. Still, when available, serum should be administered intravenously in doses of 80-100 c.c.’s, and repeated. Some advocate injection of tincture of iodine (7-10 minims), or other antiseptics, intravenously, and also into the buboes. These measures are of doubtful benefit. Buboes showing signs of suppuration should be incised.

Otherwise,

treatment is on general

lines, and cardiac stimulants should be administered early. So long as members

of a community

are content to live in

association with rats and fleas correlative plague is a likely result, Meanwhile, plague prophylaxis consists mainly of warfare against

rats, in the hope of ultimately banishing them from human habita-

tions and from contact with man. Any general elimination of these

pests over wide areas is a slow, costly and usually impracticable affair, and all that can be achieved in most cases is some degree of palliation by rat-proofing of grain stores, wharves and other places which serve as centres for the dissemination of plague. Destruction of rats by trapping and poisoning is a commendable procedure, but of itself will never eradicate endemic plague, for the losses in the rat population are quickly made good if survivors are provided with food and harbourage. An important measure of personal prophylaxis is inoculation with anti-plague vaccine, which affords a good degree of protection. Persons entering plague-infected houses should wear gaiters, and otherwise render their clothing as flea-proof as possible; if there is any suspicion of pneumonic plague, goggles, and masks made of sev-

eral layers of fine gauze, should be worn without fail. BrIBLioGRAPHY.—Journal of Hygiene, Plague Supplements (1912-7); League of Nations Report, ch. 130, Prevalence of Epidemic Disease in the Far East (Geneva, 1923); Ministry of Health, Report rọ, Hydrogen Cyanide for Fumigation Purposes (1923); Sir L. Rogers, Recent Advances in Tropical Medicine (London, 1928, bibl.); J. A. Mitchell, J. H. H. Pirie and A. Ingram, The Plague Problem in South Africa; Historical Bacteriological and Entomological Studies, Vol. iii. of Publications of the South African Institute of Medical Research (1927, bibl.); J. H. L. Cumpston and F. MacCallum, History of Plague in Australia, 1900-1925, Dep. of Health of Commonwealth of Australia, Service Publication No. 32 (Melbourne, 1926, bibl.) ; Wu Lien-Teh, Treatise on Pneumonic Plague, Pubs. League of Nations iii., Health iii. 13, C. H. 474 (Geneva, 1926, bibl.) ; B. J. Lloyd, Plague; Past, Present and Future, Journ. Amer. Med. Assn., 1925, LXXXV., 729 (bibl). (J. E. P., A. St., H. L. He.)

PLAICE

(Pleuronectes platessa), a flat-fish that ranges from

Iceland and northern Europe to south of Great Britain, and one of the most important commercial fishes of the North sea. Other species of somewhat similar form, with large eyes on the right side and with a small terminal mouth, are the dab and flounder; from these the plaice is easily distinguished by the red spots scattered over the body. The pharyngeal bones are strong and bear large blunt teeth, used for crushing the shells of the bivalves that are the principal food of this species. A length of more than 30 in. and a weight of 8 Ib. may be attained, but nearly all the fish marketed are less than. half that length.

PLAINFIELD, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,

24 m. W. by S. of New York city; served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Central of New Jersey and the Reading railways. Pop. (1920) 27,700; and 34,422 in 1930 by Federal census. With the adjacent boroughs of North Plainfield and South Plainfield, the population of “the Plainfields” was estimated locally at nearly 50,000. Situated on high ground among the charming Watchung

hills, well laid out and strictly zoned, Plainfield is one of the most attractive of the residential suburbs of New York. There are five golf courses in and near the city, clubs devoted to various sports and recreations, a symphony orchestra, a community playhouse and excellent public and private schools. While manufacturing is relatively unimportant, there are substantial industries and the aggregate output in 1927 was valued at $14,708,345. The city’s

PLAINS

INDIANS—PLAINSONG

assessed valuation for 1928 was $55,545,725. Settlement here dates from 1684. In 1760 a grist-mill was erected, and for several

years the village was called Milltown. The township of Plainfield was created out of the township of Westfield in 1847 and in 1867 the city was chartered.

PLAINS INDIANS.

North

American

The tribes of the central portion of the

continent,

on the open plains and parkland

prairies extending from Alberta and Saskatchewan to Texas and from the Rocky Mountains almost to the Mississippi river, formed

a natural unit, both in environment and culture. Essentially, this territory is the habitat of the American bison (buffalo); and on this animal the Plains tribes primarily depended for food, shelter, clothing and many utensils, and to its habits many of their customs were adapted. The eastern tribes, in the prairies, seasonally combined bison hunting and maize farming; the western ones, in the plains proper, were wholly nomadic. Originally, they transported their tents and belongings on travois frames dragged by dogs. After the introduction of the horse by the Spaniards, beginning about 1650, this animal gradually replaced the dog, tribal movements became freer, while their numbers augmented and their culture elaborated. They camped in large circles of tepees, conical tents of bison skins supported by long poles leaning on a primary tripod (or four poles)—a highly specialized, convenient dwelling quickly pitched and struck. Cooking was by roasting, or with hot stones in bison rawhide containers; meat predominated heavily in the diet. Property and food were stored and transported in rawhide bags and “parfleches.” Clothing was of deer (antelope, elk) skins, supplemented by bison robes, and was well tailored, ample, comfortable, and often highly ornamented with embroidery of porcupine quills, later beads. Social organization was simple: matrilinear clans, patrilinear clans, or nonexogamic bands, according to tribe. Warfare was constant, being carried on partly for profit (horse raiding) but chiefly for honour, a man’s career depending directly on the prestige of his war ex-

ploits; hence arose the system of “counting coups,” that is, publicly recounting blows struck on enemies. The best known ritual was the so-called Sun dance. Most other rites were conducted by societies, which among some tribes were age-graded. Supernatural power was sought in visions by most men, warriors as well as curers. There were sacred “bundles” for tribes, clans and societies; these were fetiches preserved for generations. The Plains tribes are proud, brave, out-spoken and direct, and possess an unusual sense of individuality and personality. The physique is exceptionally tall, rangy and hardy. With their long braided hair, fringed costume, eagle feather war-bonnets, mounted on ponies, with tepees as a background, the Plains tribes have captured the imagination of recent generations of whites: and pass popularly as the most representative of Indians. The most typical Plains tribes are the Dakota, Assiniboine, Blackfeet, Gros Ventre, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Kiowa, Comanche; others are the Sarsi, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwa, Wind River Shoshone, Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, Pawnee, Omaha, Ponca, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, Kansas, Osage, Wichita, Kiowa Apache; and, among the tribes in or across the Rocky mountains, the Kootenay, Flathead, Nez Percé, Bannock, Ute and Jicarilla Apache have been especially influenced by Plains culture. The preponderant stock is the Siouan; next, the Algonkin; Shoshonean, Athabascan, Caddoan are also each represented by two or more tribes.

995

dance is necessarily regular in its rhythm; so also, though less tied, is music which is set to metrical verse. On the other hand music fitted to a prose text is not so regular. Thus there arise different kinds of rhythm in music, ranging from strict time to the freest of movement. Again some music arises from recitation and the need to declaim some words artistically and audibly: while other music aims at melody, that is to say a succession of sounds, which is pleasant for its own sake, and would be so independently of any words. The ecclesiastical music which is called plainsong is so named because it is unmeasured music, not regular in rhythm, a cantus planus as contrasted with cantus mensurabilis or measured music.

It is this feature that chiefly differentiates it from modern music; and at the same time allies it with such things as seachanties, counting-out rhymes, and the like. The Christian church, like other worshipping bodies, requires euphonious sounds for the recitation of its psalms, and for the reading of its scriptures in public. As these passages are not (for the most part) written in any strict metre, the music to be provided is essentially a “plain” chant; there are several classes of such plainsong. Influence of the Psalter.—The chief influence in this evolution has been that of the Psalter. Hebrew poetry follows a metrical system, but this disappears in translation. There survives however, a more obvious feature of the original, viz., its parallelism. This consequently becomes a prominent characteristic of certain sorts of plainsong, so that the chants directly derived from the psalms take a binary form. The recitation demands a reciting note, on which the text can be freely recited in its own rhythm and shape. If this note alone is used, the effect soon becomes, in the strict sense of the word, monotonous. Therefore the music adopts the natural tendency of the voice to rise up to its reciting note at the beginning and to drop down from it at the end of the phrase. Thus arises the commonest chant-form of plainsong, consisting of (1) an intonation, (2) recitation, and (3) cadence, in each half-verse. The psalm-tones whether Gregorian or Ambrosian take this shape; and the form is capable of more or less elaboration for the psalms. The Gregorian tones are very simple; more elaborate forms of them are used for the Gospel-canticles; and

still more developed forms for the Introits. A limit is naturally set to the amount of elaboration either (a) when whole psalms are to be sung at length, or (b) when they are to be sung by the whole congregation. When, however, select verses only are sung, and are sung by trained singers, there is far more scope for elaboration; and the developed responds used both at Mass and at the Choir-office exhibit this chant-form in a highly ornamental shape. The chief development occurs in the Cadences. In its simplest

form the musical cadence affects only the last syllable, e.g. there is the drop of a minor third. Next it concerns the last two syllables. These two simple cadences are familiar, even to those who do not know the Gregorian tones, from their being used in the Versicles and Responses of the Prayer Book. The more elaborate cadences naturally followed the “cursus” used by Latin prosewriters of the best, or at any rate, the most formal, style. In the responds a five-syllable cadence is constantly in use, and often in a highly decorated form. All this music arises out of the recitation of ‘psalms. For the purpose of declaiming the lessons of Scripture only the simpler inflexions were used; and the same is true of the prayers or colSee C. Wissler, “Indians of the Plains” (Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1912) lects, except a few which are of exceptional solemnity such as the for a general summary; and monographs or books by G. Catlin, W. P. “Preface” or the Lord’s Prayer, as used in the consecration prayer Clark, E. H. Curtis, G. A. Dorsey, J. O. Dorsey, A. C. Fletcher, G. B. at Mass; or the Hallowing of the Font at Baptism. Grinnell, A. L. Kroeber, F. La’Flesche, Lewis and Clark, R. H. Lowie, Antiphons.—Next to be considered is a totally different way Maximilian (Prince zu Wied), W. McClintock, J. Mooney, J. Murie, S. Riggs, J. W. Schultz, L. Spier, C. Wissler. (A. L. K.) of beautifying the recitation of psalms or other prose texts. InPLAINSONG or PLAIN CHANT. A general term for a stead of elaborating the chant itself there was interpolated becertain style of unisonal music, comprising chiefly the church- tween the verses a suitable refrain. These refrains came to be music called “Gregorian” which belongs to Rome, and that called known as “antiphons”: and thus side by side with the older “Ambrosian” which hails from Milan. But the other Western method, which came to be called “responsorial” from the responds collections of church-music, much less well-known than these, and which represented it at its fullest development, there arose the a good many groups of Eastern church-music could also quite newer “antiphonal”’ method. The former music developed from recitation, and even in its most elaborate forms in more or less properly be put under this heading. Origin.—There are various factors in the genesis of music degree it hung round a reciting note. The antiphons were purely which determine its essential characteristics. Music intended for a melodic and the method had its quality and meaning determined,

996

PLAINSONG

not by reference to a “dominant” reciting-note, but to the “final” note on which it ultimately came to rest. Antiphonal music underwent modification and development just as the responsorial music did. Its relation to the psalm al-

tered; the singing of the refrain after each verse survived mainly in processional use. In choir offices the refrain was dropped so that it was sung only at the beginning and end of the psalm, or else in a curtailed form at the beginning and in full only at the end. In the psalmody of the Mass the opposite form of abbreviation was adopted. For at the Introit and the Communion the psalm became restricted to only one or two verses, and at the Communion it ultimately disappeared altogether, leaving the Antiphon alone. Some antiphons composed on a large scale arose independently of any connection with a psalm. These were used especially in processions. Others retained the idea of a psalm-verse, but utilized for such verses not the normal psalm-tones, but independent melodies, perhaps as elaborate as the psalm itself. Such antiphons especially prevailed at the Offertory in the Mass. The greater part of the classical Gregorian plain-chant falls into one or other of these two classes. The amount of elaboration depended mainly upon two considerations (1) the importance of the occasion; and (2) the capacity of the singers. A great festival or a specially dignified part of the service demanded richer treatment: and the trained singers undertook more difficult music than the congregation, the soloists than the choir generally. The Gregorian Music.—The Cantilena Romana, Gregorian chant proper, is thus a body of music, purely vocal and ecclesiastical, evolved by the Papal choir in the course of the fifth and sixth centuries. This was codified in the time of St. Gregory (ec. 540-604) (g.v.) and it stands as the basis of all the Gregorian Music. The Milanese tradition was similar but less artistic. It is called “Ambrosian” (see St. Amsprose) but the term has no historical significance as the term Gregorian has. A comparison of these two families of plain-chant brings out clearly the comparative crudity of the Ambrosian tradition as distinct from the artistic balance and delicate finish of the classical Gregorian chant. The same is true also of such other specimens of Western ecclesiastical chant as are known. The Gregorian reform marks the close of a golden age of classical monody. The middle-ages subsequent to St. Gregory produced nothing so good; and the later part of them while producing only little and decadent plainsong depraved also the form of the classical tradition. Something more must be said to describe the contents of the Gregorian corpus and also to explain the musical theory which lay behind it. The music covers the whole set of services of the Roman rite, but principally the Mass and the series of daily Choir Services. At the Mass some of the things sung are invariable, while others change according to the Sunday, or Festival, or occasion generally. The unchanging elements are chiefly the Kyrie, Creda, Sanctus, Agnus det, and Gloria iz excelsis. For these the old tradition provided little or no change of music; and what there was followed very simple lines suitable for congregational singing, The variable elements were principally the Introit-psalm, the Gradual-respond, the Offertory-antiphon and the Communion-antiphon. The Gradual was at times replaced or supplemented

by an Alleluia with a Verse attached to it, or by a Tract. The Alleluia belonged specially to festive seasons and occasions, the Tract to penitential. Neither of these falls exactly into either of the two chief categories responsorial and antiphonal. The Tract is a very ancient but elaborate type of the developed psalmody; the

freedom of movement, and are not “measured,” like modern hymn-tunes. Underlying Musical Theory.—The musical theory which lies behind this music is based on a series of eight scales or Modes. It uses the old diatonic scale of the Greek theorists (equivalent to

the white notes of the pianoforte with the addition of B), but the modes themselves are different from the old Greek modes, and

the use of the old Greek names only leads to confusion. The eight-mode system was probably the same as the éxrénxos which underlies the Eastern church music; but the origins are obscure alike in East and West. The scheme seems to go back at least to St. John of Damascus (c. 750); but it is known in the West only in theoretical treatises derived through the Byzantine teachers at

the court. of Charlemagne at the end of the eighth century. The eight modes are really four pairs, each pair being founded

on the same note, the one scale (called Authentic Mode) being

an octave ranging above the foundation or final note, the companion (called Plagal) being an octave ranging above and below it, First ist q Third

:

a

}A BCD

(rn

EF G abcd Pe

en ge

T BCDEFGabede a

ScD EF Gabe det

Seventh D ere}

EF

a bed ef g

Each of these pairs has a character or tonality of its own, dependent upon the position which the semitones have in the scale. None is similar to the major or minor key of modern music. It is this tonality which gives the special character to plain-song melody. Some theorists have reckoned twelve or even fourteen Modes; but this is unnecessary. So far as pitch goes, the range of two octaves covered by the eight modes is adequate; and so far as tonality is concerned, the new modes would be only the same as the first four or six over again with the Bb used instead of B. (For further discussion of the Modes see Harmony.) This modal theory does not fully account for all the procedure of the classical plain-chant (practice always surpasses theory): but these eight modes are clearly the foundation of this music, whether responsorial or antiphonal. In the middle ages the cantilena Romana was handed on by tradition from St, Gregory’s days; in the ninth century it was recorded in the notation reames. The notation on a staff which began a couple of centuries later, while it fixed accurately the pitch of each note, failed to reproduce the rhythmical delicacies which the earlier notation had recorded. Hence the recent renascence of classical plain-song has been based on a return to the reames, as interpreted by the subsequent tradition. The revived interest in music of the Carolingian era stimulated composition, which had been long in abeyance. Not only new music for new feasts arose, but fresh settings of the “Ordinary” (fixed elements) of the Mass, While the old music was preserved, it was padded out with new and inferior interpolations called by the generic name of “Tropes.” These had their day and pervaded all the church music for a century or more; but then they went out of fashion, leaving only two considerable legacies, (a) a further series of settings of the “Ordinary,” (b) the new form of rhythmical, or (later) metrical, poem called Sequences or Proses. These survived in considerable numbers down to the sixteenth century, but at the present time only a few are in use. Modern Revival.—tThe rise of the art of harmony beginning

Alleluia was an innovation which came in towards the end of the classical period, and extended beyond it into the “Silver Age” when little else was being composed. from the eleventh century, diverted attention from the monody For the choir-offices there was provided a large number of of plain-chant, and part-singing had the effect of “measuring” the antiphons to go with the psalmody, and a considerable number of music so that it fell into regular time and was no longer free responds which mainly served as interludes between the lessons or “plain.” Under these influences the old plain-song was proat Mattins. When hymnody began with St. Ambrose it was taken gressively debased and as harmonized music went up, plain chant up and incorporated into the services by the monks; but Rome went down, Not until the nineteenth century did this degradawas for a long time too conservative to admit hymns. The plain- tion cease. The efforts then made in various quarters to recover song hymn-tunes are, in the nature of the case, more definitely alike the true rhythm and tonality of the old music have culmetrical than the other music: but they retain 2 considerable minated in the work of the Benedictines of Solesmes and their

PLAINTIFF—PLANET followers, and in the revival which has produced the new Vatican Gradual and is producing by degrees a restored Antiphonal as well. With the recovery of the music has come a new insistence upon its use and study, as being the official music of the Roman

Church. (W. H.F.) PLAINTIFF: see PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE. PLAINVIEW, a city of north-western Texas, U.S.A., 270

997

pendulous heads, which contain either male or female flowers; the small one-seeded fruits are densely crowded in a ball, from which they gradually separate in drying, and are readily carried by the wind. A variety of forms are known in cultivation, the commonest being the maple-leaved (acerifolia), the London plane, which has usually three-lobed leaves; var. laciniata has very deeply much divided leaves, and var. variegata, variegated foli-

m. W. by N. of Fort Worth, on the south plains of the ‘‘Panhandle” at an altitude of 3,370 ft.; the county seat of Hale county. It is on Federal highways 70 and 385, and is served by the Santa

Fe and the Colorado and Southern railway systems. Pop. (1920) 3,989; in 1930, 8,834 by the Federal census. It is the trade centre

of sooo sq.m. of farming territory (partly irrigated) raising chiefly cotton, wheat and grain sorghums. The Texas Panhandle Plains Dairy Show is held here annually. The site for the city was surveyed in 1887. The settlement remained a mere trading

post for the cattlemen who then occupied the entire region until the railway reached it in 1907, whereupon it was incorporated as a city. By 1927 it had an assessed valuation of $6,443,061. Di-

versified farming began to displace ranching about 1915, and the cultivation of cotton began in 1918.

PLANCK, MAX

(1858-

_), German physicist, was born

at Kiel on April 23, 1858. He studied at the universities of Munich and Berlin, became an assistant in Munich University, and was subsequently appointed a professor in Kiel (1885) and in Berlin (1889). Planck devoted himself to the study of theoretical

physics, and in particular to that of thermodynamics. His lectures on this subject appeared in book form and were translated into English, French and Russian. He gained international fame by his Law of Radiation (1901), which asserts that the energy of radiation is emitted and absorbed in integral multiples of certain indivisible “quanta” of energy, which depend on the frequency of oscillation of the electrons. In 1912 Planck extended this “quantum theory” (q.v.) to all kinds of energy and added the assumption that only emission proceeds discontinuously, in quanta, while absorption is continuous. On this assumption he was able to derive the distribution of energy in the spectrum of blackbody radiation. The quantum theory has been developed and modified by him and many other physicists but the foundation was laid by Planck’s work on black-body radiation. In 1918 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. Planck became editor of the Annalen der Physik. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1926.

Among his works are: Die Entstehung und bisherige Entwickelung der Quantentheorie (1920, Eng. trans. 1922); Vorlesungen über die Theorie der Warmestrahlung (1921) ; Physikalische Rundblicke (1922, Eng. trans. 1925) ; Einführung in die Theorie der Elektrizität und des Magnetismus (1922) ; and Die Ableitung des Strahlungsgesetzes (1923).

PLANE.

The simplest definition of plane given by the Greek

geometers is that of Heron of Alexandria (c. 200):—a surface

“such that if a straight line passes through two points on it, the line coincides wholly with it at every spot, all ways.” Crelle (1834) defined it as the surface containing all the straight lines

(throughout their entire lengths) passing through a fixed point and

also intersecting a straight line in space. EpcE TOOLS.)

(For plane, a tool, see

See H. Schotten, Inhalt und Methode des planimetrischen_Unterrichts (Leipzig, 1890, 1893); Sir T. L. Heath, Tke Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements (1926). (See also SURFACE.)

NS ae shèrs as, # Pes] ice z Dr dN I

PLANE (PLATANUS ORIENTALIS), BRANCH WITH DROOPING FEMALE

SHOWING BRANCH WITH HEADS WHICH ARE WIND

A. FRUITS. POLLINATED

age. Platanus occidentalis, an allied species, is a native of the United States, being most abundant and growing to its largest

size in the basin of the lower Ohio and the Mississippi rivers.

It was introduced into England early in the 17th century, and is occasionally met with in western and central Europe; it is known in America as sycamore and buttonwood. It differs from P, orientalis in its less deeply lobed, more leathery pubescent leaves and in the usually solitary balls of fruit. Both the native sycamore and the London plane are extensively planted as ornamental trees in the eastern United States. The California sycamore (P. racemosa) and the Arizona sycamore (P. Wrighti), of the extreme South-west, are much smaller than the eastern species.

PLANER: see Macurne Toots; Woopworxinc MACHINERY. In botany, plane is the common name of a handsome tree PLANET (Gr. rXavirns, a wanderer). The term was applied a known botanically as Platanus orientalis (family Platanaceae), or geocentric astronomy to the seven native of Greece and western Asia, a favourite shade-tree of the in the ancient Ptolemaic observed to change their places as prowere which bodies heavenly to latter the by ancient Greeks and Romans, and introduced background of the so-called fixed stars. These south-west Europe. It is one of the most successful trees in jected against the the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter Sun, the were is bodies leaf the of face smooth the London and other large towns; were supposed to revolve round the earth. which of all Saturn, and also easily washed by rain; and the periodical peeling of the bark or heliocentric astronomy (taught by Aristarchus serves to get rid of surface deposits of soot, etc. It is a large tree In the modern third century B.C. but forgotten or neglected till the in Samos of fivepalmately with widely spreading branches and alternate, in the 16th century of the Christian era) lobed leaves, resembling those of the sycamore in shape, but revived by Copernicus and opaque bodies in revolution round the dark all to applied is it axil leaf the in bud The quite hairless and of a brighter green. and the number of such bodies known has been greatly inis protected during its development by the hollow base of the sun, by successive discoveries. In 1781 William Herschel discreased falls leaf the when extinguisher leaf-stalk, which lifts off like an Uranus. In r8or, on the first night of the new century, covered dense in autumn. The minute, unisexual flowers are borne in

PLANET TABLE I. Elements of the Orbits of the Major Planets for the Epoch 1925, Jan. O. G.M.N. Mean distance from

:

Planet

eee Astronomrn: : | qMillions

ical units f mil Q Of mies | ee

a EF : Eccentricity | Inclination | Ascending e

ac

Neptune

Pluto

.

0-387099 36-0 0°7 23331 67-2 I-000000 92°9 1-523688 I41'5 5° 202803 483°3 9°538843 886-1 I19°190978 | 1782-8

02056193 0:0068088 0:0167406 00933359 0:0483786 00558035 O:0471146

o Perihelion

; node t Q a a te o

Mercury Venus Earth Mars . Jupiter Saturn Uranus

Mean longitude of

| 7 | 3 |I | I | 2 |©

z

© 23 s 51 18 2ọ 46

at

o

?

120 |47 380 | 76 œ6 |48 26-74 | 99 28:7 |II3 221 | 73°

26 o he 58 41 O 36

= +t

o

32z'Iī| 76 16-7/130 IOI 45-0/334 26°31 13 5:7] OL 57:7/169

30°070672 | 2793'5 | 0-0085493 | I 46 36:7 [130 57 13°31 43

/

17 30 39 40 6 34 26

Period of

Sidereal | Mean daily | Planetat | reyolution* motion

epo L a a sr

Q

I8ọ9|ro5 56-8)212 2°31 99 42+2/ 39 51°4/277 42:0/212 56-8/350

p ee

é

40 IO 38 2 6 26 50

of

‘

o

25'31| 87-967 days| 10-23}/224:701 ,, 33°06/365-256__,, 2ọ9'I9| 1-881 years! 16-69] 11-862 _,, 2-90) 29-458 ,, 7:04) 84-015 ,,

4-0923 16021 0:9856 052403 0-083091 0:033460 O-O11731

58 27:9139 59 22°73|164-788 ,, | o-00598r

Reliable elements cannot yet be given. Distance at discovery about 41 units. rather less than 300 years. Planet within Neptune’s orbit at perihelion.

Inclination about 17°.

Period probably

*In mean solar days and tropical years.

Piazzi discovered Ceres, a small planet revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter and the first of a great host of small bodies known as minor planets or asteroids; while in 1846 Neptune was added to the list of major planets following on the mathematical work on the unexplained irregularities in the motion of Uranus by Le Verrier and, independently, by Adams (see notes on Neptune). Recently (1930, Feb.) a yet more remote planet has been found at the Flagstaff Observatory near the position predicted by the late Professor Lowell. It has been named Pluto. Most of the major planets possess moons or satellites. So far as at present known, Neptune possesses one, Uranus four, Saturn nine, Jupiter nine, Mars two and the Earth one. Distances of the Planets.—An empirical Jaw expressing very closely the relative distances from the sun of the primary planets known to the ancients was discovered about the middle of the seventeenth century by Titius of Wittenburg, but it was later brought into notice by Bode and is generally known as Bode’s law. If a series of 4’s be written down, and 3 be added to the second, 6 to the third, 12 to the fourth and so on, each of the added numbers being double its predecessor, the sums of the first seven numbers are 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100. These numbers divided by ro were found to give with a surprising closeness the relative distances of the planets as far as Saturn, except that no planet was known to revolve in the orbit correspondng to 2-8 between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. When Uranus was discovered and

found to fit in well with the next number in the series (19-6) the

conviction was strengthened that the gap between Mars and Jupiter must be occupied by some planet and a search for the missing body was organized. But before systematic work was actually begun the little planet Ceres was found. The discovery was soon followed by others, and at the present time considerably more than 1,000 of these minor planets are known. They are not, however, aclually confined to the gap above mentioned. The little planet Eros discovered by Witt in 1898 comes at perihelion within 13,000,000 miles of the earth’s orbit and hence it is of special value to astronomers for the determination of the solar parallax which fixes the scale of the planetary system. Hidalgo, discovered by Baade in 1922, in the most distant part of its orbit goes out as far

as the orbit of Saturn and has a mean distance slightly greater than that of Jupiter. The actual distances of the greater planets from the sun in miles will be found in Table I. Orbits and Phases of the Planets.—From the observations of

Tycho Brahe, the great Danish observer, Kepler deduced the following three great laws of planetary motion:— (1) The planets move in ellipses with the sun at one focus. Hitherto it had been believed that the circle being the most perfect geometrical figure celestial motions took place in circles. (2) The straight line from the sun to a planet (radius vector) passes over equal areas in equal times. The importance of this law was that it involves a continually varying rate of motion, which

was also contrary to accepted beliefs at the time. To maintain the equal description of areas in unit time a planet must travel faster

in the neighbourhood of perihelion where the radius vector is at a minimum than near aphelion where it attains its maximum value.

(3) The squares of the periodic times (the times required for the orbital revolutions of the planets) are proportional to the

cubes of the mean distances (the semi-major axes of their orbits). This is known as the harmonic law and defines the relationship between a planet’s orbital motion and its distance from the sun. From these laws of planetary motion Newton deduced his law of universal gravitation which has achieved such remarkable successes and prepared the way for Einstein’s relativity theory. The dimensions, form and aspect of a planet’s orbit as well as the position of the planet in the orbit at any time are defined by what are known.as its elements. These are:—

(1) Half the major axis, or mean distance (generally denoted by a). This defines the size of the orbit. (2) The eccentricity (e) or the ratio of the distance of the sun from the centre of the orbit to the mean distance. This defines the shape of the orbit. (3) The inclination (2) of the orbit plane to the ecliptic, i.2., to the plane of the earth’s orbit.

(4) The longitude of the ascending node (9), d.e., the direction at the sun of the point on the orbit (measured from the vernal equinox or “first point of Aries’) at which the planet crosses the ecliptic from its south to its north side. This defines the aspect of the orbit. (5) The longitude of the perihelion (@). This defines the direction of the major axis in,the plane of the orbit.

(6) The period (P), ie., time the planet takes for a revolution.

(7) The longitude of the planet at the epoch (ZL) or time (T) of the planet’s perihelion passage. These elements are ‘given for

the several planets in Table I. _

-

Since the orbits of Mercury and Venus lie within that of the earth these two planets when observed telescopically will show phases similar to those presented by the moon. When on the far side of the sun, ż.e., near the time of superior conjunction, each of them will appear like a small full moon. As the angle earthplanet-sun increases a proportionally diminishing fraction of the illuminated surface will be presented to view, and when the angle reaches 90° the planet will appear half illuminated like the moon at first quarter. Following this a crescent form of steadily diminishing breadth will be assumed as the planet moves toward inferior conjunction, at which point it passes between the earth and the sun. Subsequently to this the phases described will be repeated in the reverse order up to superior conjunction when the planet will again be “full.” The phases of a planet revolving outside the earth’s orbit differ from those of Mercury and Venus in as much as the angle earth-planet-sun can never increase to 90°. Thus Mars, although at times presenting a markedly gibbous aspect like a nine or ten days’ old moon, is always more than half illuminated. In the case of Jupiter the defect of illumination is so small as to be almost imperceptible, but during the occultation of a satellite the planet’s dark limb is seen across the satellite’s disk, and a narrow black space separates the latter from the bright part of the planet’s surface. In the cases of the planets revolving outside Jupiter the phase is quite imperceptible even in powerful telescopes. The variations in apparent diameter and brightness will,

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999

TABLE IT. Physical Constants Pertaining to the Major Planets Angular semidiameter at Planet

a

qua-

torial | Polar LL

| mmm

tt

Mercury Venus

Earth Mars

.

E

unit distance

De torial

Mass (PB=1) | (6@=1)

sagen in miles | op

Density

aes Volume

Water

ae

| a

h a

| aerar

he

Inclina: Howat ë quator t6 orbit

Rotation . period

opposition} of planet | second from sun

| eum SS

i?

|

TS |

3°34 8-41

3°34 8-41

3,000 7,600

0-055 0876

0-037 0-826

8:80 4°68

8-77 4°68

7,927 4,200

1-000 O-I51

1-000 0-108

3°73 | 0-68 | near zero]

5-2 | 0-94

88 days

?

O

. 5°53 | Itoo | 23

Saturn

83°33 | 74°57 | 75,100

Uranus

34°28

30,900

33,900

1,312 | 318-4

'ihm ss 27| 23 56 4i

3'95 | ©œ7I | 25

IXO | 24 37

1-34 | o-24 | 3

7 45

763

95°2

3 | o-r2 ; | 26 0-69

59

14.°6

1-36 | œ25

72

16°9

* Rotating quickly but without atmosphere.

of course, also be small in the cases of the remoter planets. Physical Condition and Atmospheres.—There is a broad distinction between the two groups of the major planets on either side of the zone of the asteroids. The planets of the inner group are of relatively small mass and high density and possess solid surfaces. Those of the outer group, especially Jupiter and Saturn, are of much larger mass but of very low density. The density of Saturn is actually less than that of water. The masses of the planets possessing satellites are derived from the distances and periodic times of the satellites by an application of Kepler’s third law. The masses of Mercury and Venus are deduced from their gravitational effect on other bodies. There is for eacn of the planets a certain critical velocity determined by the force of gravity at its surface, and a particle of matter travelling at a speed in excess of this value will escape from the planet in question and revolve in an independent orbit round the sun. These critical values for the several planets are given in column 12 of Table IJ. Now according to the kinetic theory of gases every molecule of a gas is an independent particle and is in constant motion. Its velocity will depend on the atomic weight and the temperature and may attain to thousands of feet per second. A molecule with such a high speed in the upper part of a planet’s atmosphere where it will be comparatively free from collision with other molecules cannot be retained by a body with low surface gravity but will escape into space. It might be expected, accordingly, that only the large and massive planets are enveloped in dense atmospheres, and that those of small mass and low surface gravity have atmospheres which are of greater rarity and tenuity. Observation shows that this is in general the case. The spectra of the planets of the outer group contain strongly marked absorption bands due to their atmospheres, while those of the inner group—Mars, Venus and Mercury—show but little deviation from the ordinary solar spectrum. It may be that the light received from Venus is almost entirely reflected from the upper part of the atmosphere, but in the cases of Mars and Mercury most of it has passed through the planetary atmosphere twice. As a matter of fact the atmosphere of Mercury seems to be almost negligible. It is known that the moon which is still smaller has none at all that is appreciable, and it cannot be supposed that an atmosphere exists on any of the minor planets, the largest of which (Ceres) has a mass only ;4 and a surface gravity only

z% as great as the corresponding values for the earth. The interpretation of the spectra of the outer planets, apart from the mere fact of considerable absorption, is puzzling. From the accompanying plate and Table IIT. it will be seen that there are one or two rather faint but broad bands in the spectrum of Jupiter which are seen to be much stronger in the spectra of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The two latter also contain a

1°30 | 0-24

tTAt elongation.

o-16T

SSSEMPUtshaie asic

172 C

uncertain | —4-1t

=f PaSSPgerishes

—1-8

—

2+2

6-3

4

49

7:0

3-1

m

a

ee

Io ae

I4 38

o

h

98:0

10-7

I5I-oP

53

Ki

22-6

h

98-47 | g1:9r | 88,700

36°56

a

o

Jupiter

Neptune .

Black Stellar ae. oe magni- | tempera- | of escape tude at | ture at | in miles é mean j| distance per

p69

tog y} Weekes

15°7if

5°7

7°6

—152

37

183

22

—210

13

~Derived spectroscopically.

number of additional bands. The origin of the bands was still unknown in 1927. Temperatures of the Planets.—A matter of special interest in regard to the planets is that of the temperature of their surfaces. Speaking generally it may be said that the surface temperature of a planet which is without appreciable heat of its own and is warmed only by the solar radiation is determined by a number of factors of which the following may be specially mentioned :— (1) The distance of the planet from the sun, the intensity of solar radiation obeying the well-known inverse-square law. (2) The degree in which the planet’s surface approaches that of a perfect radiator. (3) The presence or absence of an atmosphere and the nature of such atmosphere. (4) The planet’s rotation. It can be shown that a black sphere without an atmosphere rotating with sufficient rapidity to be heated equally all round would have a mean surface temperature given by the formula T=277°/VR where T is the temperature in degrees centigrade reckoned from the absolute zero and R is the distance of the body from the sun, TABLE III. PLANETARY SPECTRA Principal Absorptiom Bands Peculiar to the Planetary Atmospheres

Approximate Wave length

Remarks

5093 -

5428

Broad, unsymmetrical, strong

5762 .

Broad, unsymmetrical, strong Strong Very strong

5973 6191

-

6677 .

Broad band

6812

Strong, narrow

.

Strong,, broad Strongest band present

Pianets

Neptune, Uranus Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Neptune Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,? Jupiter Neptune, Uranus Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Neptune Neptune, Uranus,

Saturn, Jupiter? Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter Neptune, Uranus,

Saturn, Jupiter Saturn, Jupiter

taking the earth’s distance from the sun as unity. But should the periods of axial rotation and orbital revolution be equal, so that the body turns always the same face to the sun, the formula becomes for the point immediately under the sun T=392°/V/R. This means, e.g., that on a perfectly radiating planet without an atmosphere at the distance of Mercury the point on the surface where the sun is overhead would have a temperature of 631° C (absolute). With a quick rotation the mean surface temperature would be about 445° C (absolute) or 342° F. The corresponding absolute temperatures at the distance of Mars come out 318° C

TOOO

PLANETARIUM

(113° F) and 224° C (—56° F), and at that of Neptune only 71° C (—332° F) and 51° C (—368° F). The actual temperatures will, of course, be affected to a large extent by the presence of an atmosphere which, while directly reflecting a large proportion of the solar rays, checks the escape by radiation of such as penetrate it and reach the planet’s surface. Until comparatively lately, however, the only available methods

ference between that at the centre and that of the external parts of the planet’s mass. The difficulty might be removed if it can be supposed that the cloudy surfaces of Jupiter and Saturn are composed of substances which have a very low boiling point,

Habitability

of the Planets.—It

will be clear that the

various points above referred to have an important bearing on the question of the suitability of the planets to be the abode of life.

of estimating the surface temperatures of the planets were those based on general physical principles, and in view of the great uncertainty as to the conditions prevailing on the planets, and particularly as regards the nature of their atmospheres, the conclusions arrived at were necessarily of a highly speculative character. But in recent years great strides have been made in the development of radiometric apparatus, and by the use of thermo-couples in

Apart from the question of temperature their low density rules

vacuum

temperature on the sunlit side and the intense cold of that which is in perpetual night cannot be habitable unless it be in the restricted region near the boundary of the light and dark hemi-

cells with extremely small receivers and sensitive gal-

vanometers it has been found practicable to measure with considerable accuracy the radiations received from the planetary surfaces, and even, in some cases, from particular parts of those surfaces. In these measurements transmission screens of such materials as water, quartz, glass, fluorite, are interposed in the path of the rays which absorb the radiations in certain parts of the spectrum, and thus enable the total radiation to be resolved into a number of spectral components. For example, when a water cell is employed, the infra-red heat radiations are cut out, and the ratio

of the transmitted to the total radiation of the planet provides data for determining the temperature of the planet’s surface. It will be clear that if the ratio of transmission through the water cell is large the heat radiated by the planet is small, but that if the transmission ratio is small the proportion of heat rays is comparatively great. The matter is, of course, complicated somewhat by the presence of water vapour in the terrestrial and planetary atmospheres, but the necessary corrections can be estimated, and it is found that the reduction of the débservations by various methods such as those based on (1) the distribution of energy in the spectrum, (2) the fourth power law and the measured water cell transmission, as worked out by Menzel and (3) a comparison with observations of the moon, all lead to satisfactorily accordant results. The conclusions reached are of great interest. Measurements of the heat radiations from Mercury give values which support the conclusion that the planet’s periods of rotation and orbital revolu. tion are the same, and that its atmosphere is negligible or nearly so. In the case of Venus a considerable amount of heat is apparently emitted even by the unilluminated surface, which suggests a quick rotation. Observations of Mars at the Lowell observatory in 1922, 1924 and 1926, which are in fair agreement with those made at Mount Wilson, show that despite the planet’s distance from the sun the temperature during the day rises well above the freezing point, and exceeds that value even at the polar regions during the summer; that the bright regions are cooler than the dark regions; that the summer hemisphere is warmer than the winter hemisphere; that afternoon temperatures are higher than those of the morning, and that low temperatures are recorded from what appear to be cloud surfaces which check the escape of heat from below. These radiometric results for Mars are consistent with telescopic observations of the surface features—particularly with the melting of the polar caps—and with terrestrial experiences of seasonal and diurnal temperature changes. As regards Jupiter and Saturn the results obtained have given occasion for some surprise. Physical observations of the surface features of these planets, particularly the former, combined with the known low density, suggest very strong analogies with the sun, and apparently give evidence of considerable stores of heat. Yet the radiometric researches of Coblentz, Lampland and Menzel indicate a temperature of about 100° C for the visible surface of Jupiter and a value slightly higher for that of Saturn. Dr. H. Jeffreys, too, has concluded on theoretical grounds that the temperature of these planets is low. Observers, however, find it dificult to accept the position that the very large and violent disiurbances and rapid changes exhibited by Jupiter can have their origin merely in solar radiation, and incline to the view that whatever the superficial temperature there must be a considerable dif-

out the large planets of the outer group as possible habitations for anything at all resembling human life. It is on the planets of the inner group with their solid surfaces and their proximity to the

sun that the requisite conditions must be looked for. Of these planets Mercury, whose periods of axial rotation and orbital revolution are identical, with its scanty atmosphere, its extremely high

spheres.

Of Venus almost nothing is known apart from its re-

semblance to the earth in volume and mass and its possession of a seemingly cloud-laden atmosphere. About Mars much information has been gathered. Its transparent atmosphere has permitted a study in considerable detail of its surface markings and physical condition with the result that the planet is known despite its small dimensions to exhibit important resemblances to the earth.

It may, accordingly, well support some form of animate life, though certain important differences in the conditions prevailing on its surface would seem to preclude its habitation by beings quite like man. More than this can hardly be said, but it may be held probable that on a planet where the required conditions are found life of some sort exists, and that at some period in such a planet’s life evolutionary processes may bring its inhabitants to the status of intelligent beings. See Astronomy

and articles under planetary names.

PLANETARIUM

is the name given to an arrangement,

made by Zeiss of Jena, for producing an artificial sky. By optical methods images of the sun, moon, planets and stars are projected

on a large hemispherical dome and by mechanical and electrical means the apparatus can be revolved so as to show the principal motions. The name planetarium is apparently given because of the success with which the apparent motions of the planets amongst the stars can be shown; but the apparatus makes possible the representation of many other astronomical phenomena. For several centuries orreries have been used to demonstrate the motion of the planets round the sun according to the Copernican system. Perhaps the best arrangement of this kind is in the German Museum at Munich where the observer can be carried in a cage which is moved in a path representing the earth’s orbit. By means of a periscope he can look out on the motions of the other planets and at the stars of the zodiacal constellations shown on the wall by means of small electric bulbs. But it is impossible in a model of this nature to make the relative distances correct and thus to get the proper alignment of the various bodies. When this instrument was ordered from Zeiss in 1913 it was suggested

that another astronomical model might be made depicting the heavens as actually seen from the earth and it was suggested that the heavenly bodies might be represented by electric bulbs fixed or moving on a rotating dome. This suggestion, however, was soon discarded in favour of another, due to Dr. Bauersfeld, in which the images of the bodies were projected optically on a fixed dome. The resulting apparatus has been a great success. It is found that when a dome soft. or more in diameter is used, the appearance is extremely like that of the actual sky. For the stars it is merely necessary to have the projector mounted so that it can be rotated about an axis parallel to the earth’s axis. For the sun, moon and planets small models, true to nature, are constructed. The angles between the orbit planes are alowed for and by the use of eccentric circular motion the elliptic motion is quite closely represented. For showing say the planet Venus, the model has pins representing Venus and the earth moving round the sun. A little projector is attached to the pin representing Venus and a linkage between the planets always directs the light away from j the earth. Consequently, the image of the planet on the dome

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PLANING-MACHINES—PLANK TON is in the correct position amongst the stars. The gearing is so arranged that the mean motions are accurately represented and

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has been none that did so much work as was carried out during those three years under the direction of Wyville Thomson and only comparatively slight periodic errors affect the positions of John Murray. Another equally great landmark was the ‘Plankton the sun, moon and planets. The phases of the moon are shown Expedition” carried out by the “National.” Victor Hensen, of by an occulting device. the University of Kiel, led this expedition (which worked in the The planetarium can be operated at varying speeds corre- Atlantic ocean) and with him were associated Brandt, Schütt, sponding to the phenomenon to be demonstrated so that even Fischer and Krümmell. All subsequent work on the plankton has such a slow motion as that of the procession of the equinoxes is been dominated by the methods elaborated by these workers and within its range. To show the rising and setting of the heavenly by the extraordinarily fertile ideas of Hensen, and these methods, bodies a day is compressed into an interval of from x to 4 with their results, make up the modern science of hydrobiology. minutes; to show that of the planets the diurnal motion can be The Plankton in General.—The passively drifting, pelagic put out of gear and a year run off in intervals varying from 7 life of the sea and of fresh waters consists mainly of microscopic seconds to 4 minutes. The original model was made for one organisms. There are some large plants and animals that are latitude only, but in later ones, by introducing an additional planktonic in their habits: such are the gulf-weed (Sargassum), axis of rotation, the latitude can be altered at will. The stars are medusae, siphonophores and other jelly-fishes; some molluscs shown brighter than they appear in the sky—the eyes of the like the pteropods (‘‘whale-feed”), the pearly nautilus, etc. It spectators coming from the daylight would otherwise take too is not usual, however, to consider these relatively large plants long to be sensitive enough to see them. It is, of course, im- and animals when we are discussing the plankton: in practice we possible to make the sun as bright as in nature but this has the take the latter to mean the organisms which are, as a rule, inadvantage of enabling the stars to be seen in the sky along with visible to the naked eye, because of their minute size and transthe sun and thus demonstrate the motion of the sun amongst the lucency. Even the most transparent sea water may contain very stars. large numbers of these microscopic organisms and sometimes With the planetarium the spectator can see in an hour or so they are so abundant that the water may be coloured, or turbid, motions which can only be seen in the heavens by years of and they may even tint snow and ice. A practical distinction is watching. When a year is compressed into a minute or two the made between the Macroplankton, which can be caught by filterplanets can be seen chasing one another about the sky, describing ing the water through very finely woven silk cloth, and the loops, advancing and retrograding, just as they do so slowly in Microplankton, which are so small that they escape through the nature. Great attention has been paid to details so as to make the pores of the finest fabrics that can be employed. Later on we apparatus as perfect as possible; e.g., the brightness of the objects shall consider more fully the methods of collecting the plankton. is dimmed as they approach the horizon and the light is practically A further practical distinction, in discussing distribution, is that cut off as the star actually reaches the horizon. A number of between the Transitory Plankton and the Permanent Plankton. devices have been introduced to assist a lecturer in describing the The former category includes all those organisms which have a phenomena. The ‘date corresponding to the configuration can be brief, pelagic, drifting stage in their life history, after which projected on the dome at any time as well as the names of the they develop into actively swimming, large animals (the Nekton), constellations, and by means of a luminous pointer a lecturer or into rooted or sedentary plants and animals (the Benthos). can point out objects of interest. The whole demonstration is The latter category includes a multitude of species of organisms most fascinating and has attracted large audiences in a consider- which live throughout their lives as planktonic, passively drifting able number of towns in Germany where planetaria have been individuals. It is customary to distinguish between Oceanic and Neritic Plankton, the former inhabiting water which is far from erected. Instruments are now being erected in other countries. land and the latter being practically restricted to the zone of QJ. JN.) PLANING-MACHINES rank in importance with the shallow water near the Continental coasts. Then there are many lathes and drilling-machines, and cut various kinds of plane sur- plankton organisms that prefer to live near the surface of the faces in metal. The principle is that of attaching the metal to a sea and these we call the Epiplankton, while there are others long table which slides truly upon a massive bed, so that by that habitually live in the deeper layers of the ocean: these make holding a cutting tool in a slide overhead, the material becomes up the Bathyplankton. Finally the different oceans, seas, zones shaved off as the table moves. The width of surface is treated of latitudes, etc., tend to harbour characteristic plankton comby giving the tool a cross-traverse. The slide moves on a hori- munities, so that a naturalist who is very familiar with plankton zontal rail for this purpose, and the rail is adjustable up and investigations can often say where an unknown sample has been down two uprights flanking the bed. Tool-slides are often put collected. After this general survey we may now consider the various on the faces of the uprights as well, so that the sides of the work may be planed. Planing-machines are of value both for big and kinds of organisms that occur in the plankton. The Transitory Plankton.—A great number of marine orsmall articles; they may take one of the former and deal with it singly, or a whole string of small objects can be clamped in ganisms “spawn” in the general sense—that is, they discharge line on the table and surfaced off. (See also Woop-worKING their spores, eggs and larvae into the sea, where these things simply drift about while they undergo development. After the MAcHINERY; MACHINE TOOLS.) PLANKTON is the name which is now given to the drifting latter process is complete the organisms leave the plankton com(and usually microscopic) life contained in the waters of the munities, either to settle down on the sea-bottom or to roam seas, lakes, ponds and streams. Its study was begun, just prior about in the sea as freely-locomotory animals. Thus the eggs to 1845, by the great German zoologist, Johannes Müller, in the and larvae of innumerable marine species are transitorily planksea round Heligoland. Associated with Müller, in 1845, were his tonic organisms, finally becoming benthic or nektic ones. Benthos pupils, Max Müller, Busch, Wilms, Wagener and others. Ernst includes all the organisms that live on or are attached to the sea Haeckel, as a student of 20 years of age, was with J. Müller, at bottom, while nekton includes those others that are actively Heligoland, in 1854, and began to study the plankton. “When,” locomotory in their habits. (See Marine Brotocy.) Thus most of the fishes spawn, emitting their eggs and spermasaid Miiller, “you have once entered this pelagic, magic world you will not easily leave it again.” Rapid extension of plankton tozoa into the sea water, where the processes of fertilization and investigation followed, both in Germany and in Great Britain, embryonic development occur. When embryonic development and the great names associated with this branch of roth century ends the little fish is a larva, and as such it simply drifts about marine biology are Heinrich Miiller, A. Kolliker, C. Gegenbaur, in the sea. Finally its development is completed by a metamorphosis and then it assumes the form and habits which are Leuckart, Carl Vogt, T. H. Huxley and McIntosh. In 1873-76 the “Challenger” made her voyage of circumnaviga- characteristic of its species. It leaves the plankton and becomes tion and great collections of plankton were made in all the seas of a nektic animal. Most of the marine Crustacea reproduce in the world. Many other voyages have since been made but there the same way, that is they may directly emit eggs into the sea,

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FIG 1.—PLANKTON: DIATOMS, PERIDINIANS, ALGAE, (HIGHLY MAGNIFIED) 1. Coscinodiscus, 2. Coscinosira, 3. Biddulphia, 4. Chaetocera s, 5. Thalassiosira, 6. Peridinium, 7. Algal Zoospore, 8. Ceratium, 9. Ceratium, 10. Noctiluca, 11. Acanthometron, 12. Coccosphaera, 13. Phaeocysti s (12 and 13. Uniceliular algae)

or the parents may, for a time, carry these eggs attached to their bodies, but in most cases the embryos develop into larvae which

are always small, practically non-migratory and which finish their development while drifting in the plankton. Many of the Mollusca lay their eggs (enclosed in cases, or cocoons) on the sea bottom, but others emit the eggs and sperms into the water. In all cases, however, the larvae drift about for a time. Just the same general life-history is displayed by most of the worms, the polyzoa and practically all the echinoderms, sponges and coelenterates. The rooted algae liberate their zoospores into the sea on the littoral and shallow-water zones and there these

myriads of (even microscopically)

tiny organisms drift about

and perish, The wealth of life that is so produced is incredibly great. Even one large cod will spawn annually several millions of eggs, all of which exist for a short time in the plankton, and some of which become larvae and small baby cod. So also with almost every kind of marine animal: its eggs that are spawne d every year must generally be counted by the thousands or hundred s of thousands. Yet, on the average, of all the eggs produce d by any marine animal only one or two can undergo develop ment and growth up to full reproductive maturity. The remaind er, destined to perish in the struggle for existence, have their life-phase for a few weeks or months in the hordes of transitorily planktonic organisms. The Permanent Plankton.—In all parts of the seas and oceans the plankton always contains great numbe rs of organisms that have this habitat throughout their whole lives. There are many large, permanently planktonic organ isms—some algae; many medusae (which are sometimes so numer ous as to make a visible, coloured carpet on the surface of the sea); many other coelenterates (such as the Siphonophores and the Ctenophores) ; some worms; some molluscs like the pearl y nautilus, and the Heteropods and Pteropods (the latter may exist in great shoals and form the food of the whalebone whales). These large plankton animals and plants are, however, few and unimportant when compared with the multitudes of the micro scopically small animals and plants which abound even in water that appears, to

the naked eye, to be perfectly clear and barren. Among the Crustacea the little animals called Copepods, Schizopods, Ostracods, Cumacea, with some less abundant groups are always and everywhere present in the plankton and sometimes they are extraordinarily abundant. They live mainly in the upper layers of the sea, but many species are also found in very deep water. Their significance, even for human affairs, is very great for they are the food of such fishes as herrings, pilchards, sprats, hake and other kinds that are regularly caught by the fishermen. Many other marine animals, of course, eat them. They may be so very abundant that sufficiently large numbers to cook and eat may be taken by fine nets drawn through the sea. Worms belonging to the groups called Polychaetes and Chaetognatha (these are the bristly jointed worms and the translucent “arrow-worms”) abound. The only planktonic vertebrate (or rather “chordate”) animals are some of the Tunicates, and one kind of these creatures—the salps—may at times be so very abundant in the sea as to clog and sink the drift nets set by the herring fishermen. The Heteropods and Pteropods are the only permanent plankton dwellers belonging to the Mollusca. There are no Echinoderms that are always planktonic but the beautiful larvae of these animals live for a time pelagically. The Coelenterates are, some of them, permanently planktonic (see above), but most of them (the zoophytes, sea anemones, corals, etc.) ive on the sea bottom and their larvae appear for a short time only among the plankton. None of the sponges are permanent plankton denizens. Great numbers of species of unicellular animals and plants are always planktonic: we shall notice the principal kinds very briefly, premising that their full description means writing great books on zoology and botany. Among the Protozoa are the Foraminifera and Radiolaria—the former characterized by their calcareous and the latter by their siliceous skeletons. These animals are microscopic in size (though sometimes big enough just to be discerned

by the naked eye).

They are found everywhere in the sea and

they are so numerous that extensive regions of ocean-floor, at depths of about 2 to 3m., are covered with fine oozes made up

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FIG. 2.—VARIOUS LARVAE OF MARINE ANIMALS (HIGHLY MAGNIFIED) 1. Spionid larva of a marine worm, 2. Copepod “nauplius,” larva, 3. Parapontella (Copepod), 4. Eucope (Medusoid), larva, a “Zoea,” 7. “‘Metatrochophore” larva of a marine worm, 8. “Pluteus,” larva of a Brittle-Starfish

live and die in the upper layers of the ocean. These shells are beautiful and interesting objects when seen under the microscope. Very important from the human point of view are the Peridinians: these are unicellular organisms that can be regarded either as plants or animals and they are about as abundant as the Protozoa that we have already mentioned. They also have very elegant shells made of a kind of cellulose material which is impreg-

nated with silica. Great numbers of Peridinians live in the sand and mud in the very shallow sea bottom near the land, but most of the species are pelagic—that is, they are permanently planktonic. The pelagic Peridinians are important food materials for some fishes—mainly the pilchard (when it is in the sardine stage). These organisms are interesting from another aspect— it is they that mainly cause the phosphorescence of the sea. Sometimes, when the sea is very fiery, an organism called Noctiluca is so abundant that the water may be visibly turbid and discoloured. The Diatoms are to be regarded as unicellular, algal plants, and they are, on the whole, the most abundant of all the planktonic organisms. ‘They have external, transparent, siliceous shells which are elegant in form and are often sculptured with beautiful patterns. They exist everywhere in water—in ponds, lakes, on the mud and sand of the foreshore and sea bottom, attached to weeds, etc.—the main restriction on their presence is the absence of light, for, being green plants, they cannot live except in the presence of solar radiation. There are innumerable species and they are so abundant in the ocean that millions of square miles of bottom, at about 2,000 fathoms in depth (and mainly in the Antarctic) are covered by the dead shells of Diatoms. The Microplankton.—The above observations apply to the larger planktonic organisms, but there are numerous species which are not captured by using the ordinary “tow nets” (presently we refer to the methods that are employed by the planktologists). These smaller species (the Micro- or Nannoplankton) include many minute Diatoms, Peridinians, shelled and naked Protozoa, Flagellates, unicellular Algae and algal zoospores. There are, of course, hosts of marine bacteria, but these we do not consider in this connection. We shall see that, in point of numbers of individuals, the microplanktonic organisms far exceed the larger forms. The Seasonal Variations in the Plankton.—Everywhere in the sea and in fresh waters the composition and abundance of the plankton change with the season. To some extent the nature

5. Fish-egg,

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and sequences of these changes depend on the region which is being investigated and this is particularly the case when we consider the larvae, for the nature and abundance of these will depend on the nature of the local benthic and nektic faunas. If, however, we consider the North Atlantic region the following general descriptions will apply, to some extent, at all events, to most local regions. The cold and dark months, December to February, are generally periods when the marine plankton is scarce and when the Diatoms and Peridinians, in particular, are relatively few in number. This is because of the feeble intensity of sunlight, which is necessary for the growth and reproduction of these organisms. But sometime about March or April there is a great outburst of life in the sea. Certain indispensable food materials (inorganic nitrogen compounds, silica and phosphates) have been accumulating during the dark months; in the spring there is a rise in sea temperature and this acts as a stimulus to vital processes, but the main factor is the increase in the length of the day and the growing intensity of sunlight. The result of these changes is that all the vegetable plankton, but particularly the Diatoms, become stimulated to reproduce, so that there is almost an explosive outburst of life in the sea and great swarms of Diatoms invade the shallow sea areas. This is the great event of the year—the “vernal maximum” of vegetable life in the sea. Immediately following it comes the reproduction of the nektic and benthic animals. Hosts of Fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, Echinoderms and worms spawn their eggs into the water, or deposit them on the sea bottom. The eggs hatch out and the waters of the sea

teem with larvae. The latter must feed and they utilize the vegetable plankton (Diatoms, algal spores, etc.). The production of animal larvae lasts into the early summer (or even later with some species), but while it goes on there is a diminution in the abundance of the Diatoms. Those indispensable food-stuffs which accumulated during the winter months are largely used up while the vernal maximum of vegetable plankton lasts. The extraordinary abundance of Diatoms therefore falls off during the months of June to August, but about then the Peridinians begin to increase. The summer months are characterized then by a relative scarcity of Diatoms, a great increase in the Peridinians, an abundance of larvae belonging to many groups of invertebrates and a great abundance in the Copepods. In the autumn or early winter the Diatoms sometimes increase

1004.

PLANTAGENET—PLANTAIN

again—there is an autumnal maximum. But this is a very brief phase and with the shortening of the day and the drop in sea temperature towards the annual minimum all kinds of planktonic life in the sea decrease. In this very summary account of the seasonal change stress has been laid on certain physical agencies —light, temperature and inorganic food substances—that are regarded as of importance, but we must never forget that intrinsic causes are also operative. Heredity has implanted, in the organizations of all marine organisms, a cyclical tendency so that the annual outbursts of reproductive activity are stimulated, or set off, so to speak, by the seasonal changes. The Abundance of the Plankton.—There is no part of the seas and oceans where planktonic organisms do not occur. Even in the greatest depths of the ocean we suspect that certain microcrustacea exist. Under the ice, in polar regions, rich collections may be taken and there are abundant algal organisms in the pools that form in hollows on the surfaces of ice-floes in the summer. Snow and ice may actually be tinted with Diatoms and other organisms. The richest plankton in any part of the world-ocean is that found just on the borders of the polar seas, in the regions

of melting ice. In general the temperate and cold seas are rich in plankton, while the tropical and warm

waters are relatively

boat for about half an hour.

When the net is hauled it is drained of water and turned out. side in. The pointed end is then rinsed in sea water contained in a 2 lb. glass jam jar. A small sieve is made by loosely tacking a piece of muslin on a square wooden frame about 4in. along each

side. The water containing the catch is then slowly poured through the central part of the sieve. Then the latter is turned upside down and the plankton is washed off into a little sea water in the bottom of a saucer. This will now be a thick, greenish turbid mass. A dipping tube is made (like a fountain pen filler, but with a wider opening) and some of the plankton is lifted with this and put into a watch glass, which is then examined under the microscope.

Examined day by day the spring and summer plank-

ton is full of the most beautiful things. Nets contrived to fish quantitatively are also used. In such investigations fine miller’s silk bolting cloth is used. This has

meshes

of over 100 to the inch.

Heaps of organisms escape

through this net. To catch the very minute plankton the water must be centrifuged, or cultures are made in an analogous way to those employed by bacteriologists. Elaborate methods have been evolved for counting the organisms taken in a plankton catch. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—There is a huge literature on plankton but many

poor. What absolute quantities of plankton-organisms exist in the general papers are cited, and their source stated, in The Marine sear There is so much variation with regions and seasons that it Plankion, by Johnstone, Scott and Chadwick ATEOS A. J.) is difficult to give definite figures without going into great detail. A long series of experimental hauls made in the Irish sea gave a PLANTAGENET, a surname conveniently, but unhistorigeneral average of one or two organisms in every cubic centi- cally, applied to the royal line descended from the union of metre of water, while at the periods of greatest abundance each ‘Geoffrey, count of Anjou, with the empress Maud, who are now cubic centimetre contained about a dozen organisms. But this in- styled by historians the Angevin house. It was, historically, only cluded only the larger planktonic individuals, and it is generally the a personal nickname of Geoffrey, as was “Curtmantel” of his son case that the micro-forms are far more numerous. In some experi- (Henry IT.), and was derived from his wearing in his cap a sprig ments made at Plymouth it was shown that there must have been of the broom (genet) plant. When the fashion of personal nickat least several hundreds of individual organisms (macro- and names passed away, the members of the royal house were usually micro-species) in every cubic centimetre of sea water. named from their birthplace, as Thomas “of Brotherton,” These estimates refer to the numbers of organisms in the sea Thomas “of Woodstock,” and so forth. But Edward I. and his water at a particular moment, and we ought also to consider the younger brother, the founder of the house of Lancaster, had still rate at which they reproduce and grow. There is not the knowl- nicknames respectively, as “Longshanks” and ‘“‘Crouchback.” In edge at present which would enable us to make such estimates, the later days of the dynasty the surname of Beaufort was adopted but some approximate idea of the total mass of living material by the legitimated issue of John of Gaunt by Katherine Swynthat is produced in a sea area can be obtained by indirect methods. ford, but that of Plantagenet was bestowed on Arthur, natural son We must note, first, that all animal life in the sea depends on of Edward IV., who was created Viscount L’Isle. It appears, vegetable life: the animals can only subsist by eating other ani- however, to have been adopted as a surname by Richard duke of mals, or plants, but the plants can use as their source of food- York (father of Edward IV.) some 12 years before his death. stuff the carbonic acid that is dissolved in the water. Utilizing the At the death of Geoffrey’s grandson, Richard I., his younger energy of sunlight they can synthesize this carbonic acid into brother John succeeded. John’s younger son Richard, king of cellulose and other vegetable substance. Now it is mainly the the Romans, left a son Edmund, earl of Cornwall, with whom his Diatoms, Peridinians (and other plankton organisms that have line ended; his elder son Henry III. left two sons of whom the the vegetable mode of nutrition) that do this, for the total mass younger was created earl of: Lancaster and was grandfather of of all the rooted algae must be very small in comparison with Henry, earl of Lancaster, whose heiress married John of Gaunt the mass of the vegetable plankton. It is possible, by routine (7.e., Ghent). (See Lancaster, House or.) John of Gaunt’s next chemical methods, to find out how much carbonic acid is removed brother, Edmund of Langley, founded the Yorkist line. (See from solution in a sea area, during the spring and summer seasons, YorxK, House of.) and then converted into carbohydrate by the activity of the vegeAlthough no other dynasty has reigned so long over England table plankton. The result is very surprising: at least 300,000 since the Norman Conquest, the whole legitimate male issue of kilog. of dry organic carbohydrate must be produced during a Count Geoffrey Plantagenet is clearly proved to have become single season per square kilometre of sea surface. Or, expressed extinct in 1499. 4 in more familiar terms, a spring and summer of organic producPLANTAGINACEAE, a family of dicotyledonous herbs, tion in the sea gives origin to about ten tons of moist vegetable the best known members of which are the plantains (Plantago), substance per acre of sea. This is the marine harvest due to the cosmopolitan weeds, of which five species occur in Great Britain activity of the vegetable plankton: at present man reaps only a and upwards of 30 in the United States. (See PLANTAIN.) The very small fraction of it in the shape of the fishes and other family contains three genera and about 200 species. The seeds edible animals that he catches. of Plantago Psylium (Mediterranean) are used in silk and cotton Methods of Studying Plankton.—A veritable wonderland manufacture. The flowers, usually hermaphrodite and inconspicuawaits the amateur naturalist who can spend a short time at the ous, are wind-pollinated. seaside during the spring months. He will require a student’s PLANTAIN, a name given to certain plants with broad microscope (magnifying 50 to 500 diameters) and some cheap, leaves. This is the case with certain species of Plantago, Alisma home-made apparatus. The net is simply a conical bag of the and Musa, to all of which the term is popularly applied. The finest and strongest muslin obtainable: it is about x to 2ft. in species of Plantago (family Plantaginaceae) are mostly weeds with diameter and about 4ft. long. Its mouth consists of an iron ring, a dense tuft of radical leaves and scapes bearing terminal spikes to which a selvage of strong canvas is laced. The net is sewn on of small flowers; the long spikes of P. major, when in seed, are fo this canvas edging. It is towed in the sea behind a rowing used for feeding cage-birds; P. lanceolata, so called from its nar-

PLANTAIN-EATER—PLANT row lanceolate 3—-6-ribbed Eaves, is popularly known as ribwort; Alisma Plantago-aquaticum (family Alismaceae) is the water-

plantain, so called from theresemblance of its broad ribbed aerial leaves to those of P. major. The tropical fruit known as plantain

belongs to the genus Musa. (See BANANA.) PLANTAIN-EATER: see Tovuracov, PLANTATION, literaly the placing of plants in the ground, hence a place planted ora collection of growing things, particularly used of ground plinted with young trees. The term was early applied, in a figurative sense, to the settlement of people, and particularly to the cdonization of North America in the early part of the 17th century and to the settlement of Scottish and English in the forfeit:d lands in Ireland. The practice of sending convicted criminak to serve on the plantations in the colonies became common inthe 17th century (see DEPORTATION).

For “plantation songs” see NEGRO. PLANT BREEDING. The first object of plant breeding is to produce new varieies superior to one or more of the old ones. Superiority means asricultural superiority and is measured by net monetary return peracre. It may be sought in many directions, of which yielding capacity and quality of produce are chief. In many countries and 5r a diversity of crops, resistance to disease has a great impotance. Rapid growth is sometimes a transcendent consideratin because it ensures escape from an intensely hot summer or fom early frosts. The earliest efforts in cop improvement consisted of the simple practice, many centuries ld, of picking out the finest plants as the source of seed for thr next season. During the rgth century the two methods of breeding now universally used—selection of single plants and artificial hybridization—were brought to a relatively high pitch. But they were entirely empirical and, uninformed by scientific knovledge, appeared incapable of any substantial modification. Thm, swiftly, with the opening of the 2oth century, came Mendel’s hws of heredity, Johannsen’s theory of pure lines, and the mutition theory of de Vries. These great advances, while recastingbiological science, gave to plant breeding an orderly basis and : new outlook. An ordinary field cro, especially in a backward or agriculturally young country, dten contains plants of several different varieties. By selecting aid separately propagating single plants it is possible to produce sed stock of these several varieties. Those which, on test, prove bet, may be introduced into general cultivation. This procedure the selection method of breeding, is widely used. Chevallier and Goldthorpe barleys and also Potato and Sandy oats, all of grat value in their day, arose from selected single plants. Dr. E. S. 3eaven’s Archer and Plumage barleys are other notable selections The earlier exponents sought to carry improvement further by restarting from the best seed from the best plant among the preeny of a single plant. Johannsen demonstrated the futility of ths, showing that, in self-fertilizing plants, the descendants of a shgle plant were normally a “pure line,” i.e., all alike save for pwely fortuitous differences and such as to breed true on producing seed. Normal constancy inreproduction may, in some instances, be varied by the productior of a “sport” or new type. The biological processes responsible for this happening—or mutation—are still imperfectly understood. But de Vries demonstrated that a mutation, once produced, renains constant in subsequent generations.

Thus a valuable mutant type is a permanent asset to agriculture and de Vries’ discoveres gave fresh stimulus to the selection method of breeding. Mutations may arise either in the reproduction of plants by seed or as buds. In citrus fruits mutant buds arise with marked frequency and it is by finding and propagating them that Californian growers of the navel orange have developed a considerable number of new types, some of all-round superiority to the original navel orange which was introduced from Brazil. Artificial hybridization or crossing, now the chief method of breeding, may be illustrated by a simple hypothetical example. Suppose it were desired to breed a wheat having short straw and earliness in ripening (short-early); that the only short straw variety adapted to the country concerned was late ripening (shortlate); and that the only available early ripening variety had tall

BREEDING

I005

straw (tall-early). The actual half-bred or first-hybrid (Fi) obtained by hybridizing the two chosen varieties would be about intermediate in straw and maturity. If allowed to self-fertilize it would form seeds from which would grow the second hybrid generation (F2) plants. Mendel’s laws make it possible to predict (i.) That among the F; plants would be four types, viz.. short-late: short-early: tall-late: tall-early. (ii.) That the four types would occur in certain definite proportions (in other crosses, involving different plant characters, the proportions might be different from these but they would always be constant andsystematically explicable for any one case) (iii.) That only a proportion of the F: plants of any one type would breed true to type. By raising separate progenies from the seed of all short-early F, plants it would be possible to select those lines which were fixed or true breeding. Unfortunately yield and almost all attributes of agricultural consequence do not behave with this hypothetical simplicity. They are, indeed, not single units of inheritance but combinations of many. Thus the breeder cannot pick the ideal Fs plant and by simple seed propagation build up a stock of an ideal new variety. In cereals, for instance, 10 to 12 years of continual selection must follow on the act of hybridizing before it is possible to obtain a uniform true breeding type having the desired combination of characters from the two parent forms. Not even the keenest eye, the ripest experience or the utmost resource of science is able to detect, in the early stages of breeding, which is best of the new types that hybridization has brought into being. It is necessary by successive years of study to eliminate types one by one until a few remain. These must then be systematically tested for yield and the other characters of importance. The test methods associated with plant breeding represent a specialized field of applied science. The older hybridists frequently sought to cross widely different parents, as for instance cabbage by turnip or two markedly divergent wheats. Complication or failure was the usual result. Morgan’s chromosome theory of heredity has now furnished the breeder with both a test and an understanding of the limits of cross-compatibility. WHEAT

AND OTHER CROPS

Improved varieties of wheat take first rank, and among them the Marquis wheat of Canada is pre-eminent in point of acreage. In 1892, Dr. William Saunders crossed Hard Red Calcutta, a commercial grade rather than a variety, and Red Fife, then the standard wheat of western Canada. Subsequently his son, Dr. Charles E. Saunders, selected one type from the progeny. This became commercially established in Canada in 1tgrz under the name of Marquis. In rgr7 it constituted 80% of the wheat of the prairie provinces. Imported into the United States in 1913 it had, by 1919, a spread of 11,900,000 acres. Only one wheat is now more widespread in America; this is Turkey, which, with twice the area of Marquis, is a striking example of introduction, for it was brought from Russia by Mennonite immigrants. Earlier maturity, the primary distinction between Marquis and the Red Fife and other wheats it has displaced, makes for immunity from rust, drought and frost. India, with great environmental diversity and characteristic impurity of native varieties, has proved a fine field for the breeder. Under Dr. A. Howard, the Pusa Institute has established selected wheats which are ousting the older forms. Pusa 12 and Pusa 4 have an area of 500,000 acres in the United Provinces, while Punjab xz is grown in the canalized parts of the Punjab on nearly twice this scale. Helped by the provision of good seed. these new products are estimated to represent an annual gain to the cultivators of £1,000,000,

Something of romance attaches to the introduction into Argentina of a wheat from the Szechwan province of China. It has proved highly resistant to Puccinia triticina, the rust which more than anything else threatened to suppress the great promise of wheat-growing in South America. The introducer, Mr. W. O. Backhouse, has now raised hybrids which, both rust resistant and generally superior, are fast becoming the standard forms.

PLANTIN—PLANTING

1006

From the Swedish station, Svaléf, have come a number of new wheats, barleys, oats and peas; Swedish Iron wheat has added to its laurels by gaining a hold in Great Britain; millers, however, dislike the thick skin and the quality of its grain. The Little Joss and Yeoman wheats bred by Prof. Sir R. H. Biffen and introduced in 1912 and 1917, occupy one-tenth and one-fifth respectively of the whole wheat area of the 14 principal producing counties. Little Joss, a hybrid from Ghirka (Russian), and Square Head’s Master (British) are the only forms with a definite resistance to yellow rust (Puccinia glumarum), besides possessing marked standing capacity and a curiously wide soil adaptation. Yeoman

is also a product of premeditated synthetic breeding.

The parents were Browick

and Red Fife—the best

(British)

bread-making wheat. Heavy yield and great standing power are merits it shares with the best of the older forms; but its quality or bread-making capacity has set a standard formerly believed impossible in British wheats. Barley.—Barley is of peculiar interest because the quality of beer-making kinds is nearly as important as the yield. At the end of the roth century Chevallier and Standwell were the prevailing forms in Ireland. Archer barley was introduced from England in 1900, and Irish Archer, a selection made by Dr. H. Hunter, soon displaced the older varieties. An even more marked success attended his hybrid Spratt-Archer (derived from a cross between Archer and Spratt, the latter being an old form with special adaptation to peaty soils), distinguished by high yield, exceptional standing power and superior quality; it now occupies almost 90% of the barley area of Ireland. It is estimated that £40,000 spent on breeding and testing in Ireland during the period 1905—25 has brought an increase equivalent to £250,000 per annum. Contemporaneously the selections, Archer and Plumage, introduced by Dr. E. S. Beaven of Warminster, have contributed to the prosperity of English growers. Roots.—Roots, such as potatoes which flower uncertainly and mangolds whose varieties freely intercross in the field, are diffcult subjects. But mangolds and swedes have yielded to that systematic patience which has done so much in Danish agriculture. Helweg, in Denmark, first made clear that the only sound basis of estimation for mangolds was yield of solid matter per acre and not mere wet bulk. Next he demonstrated that different forms or strains within any one variety might be widely divergent in gross yield and percentage of solid matter. Indeed, two strains of the same variety might correspond toa difference of £6 to £8 in value of feeding material from one acre. The best strains were picked out, and by persistent teaching all bad strains were forced out of cultivation; good seed was ensured, and roots came to have a greater feeding value per acre than corn. In Denmark the area under roots has steadily grown, and when the World War stopped the importation of feeding-stuffs it was roots that saved Denmark. There was a time when wart disease (Synchytrium endobioticum) appeared to threaten wholesale destruction of British potato crops. But steady production of immune varieties, reinforced by appropriate legislation, may now be said to have brought security to the one great crop in which this country is

still self-supporting.

i

s

Other Staple Crops.—Rice in Malaya and South India, the

millets in India, the Fulghum oat of Texas and Kansas, the hybrid round-tipped tobacco of Connecticut, Svalof’s Victory oat, which has proved itself to be one of the best oats grown in Great Britain, and Dr. C. A. Barber’s new sugar-canes in India are among many other valuable new products of the last decade. BreriocrapHy.—A. H. Reginald Buller, Essays on Wheat (1919)3 H. Faber, Forage Crops in Denmark (1920) ; J. A. Clark, J. H. Martin and C. R. Bal, “Classification of American Wheat Varieties,” U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 1074 (1922); A. Howard, Crop Production in India (1924); The Organisation Achievements and Present Work of the Experimental Dominion Farms, Government Printing Bureau (Ottawa, 1924); F. L. Engledow, “Economic Possibilities of Plant Breeding,” Proceedings of the Imperial Botanical END

OF

OF TREES

Conference, 1924 (Cambridge, 1925).

(F. L. E.)

PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE (1514-1589), French printer,

was born in a village near Tours (probably Saint-Avertin). He

learned bookbinding and bookselling at Caen, and, having married in that town, settled in 1549 as bookbinder in Antwerp, where he was soon known as the first in his profession. A bad wound in the arm seems to have been the cause that first led him (about

1555) to apply himself to typography. The first known book printed in his office was La Institutione di una fanciulla nata nobilmente, by J. M. Bruto, with a French translation, and this was soon followed by many other works in French and Latin, which in point of execution rivalled the best printing of his time,

while the masters in the art of engraving then flourishing in the Netherlands illustrated many of his editions. In 1562, Plantin himself being absent in Paris, his workmen printed an heretical pamphlet, which caused his movables to be seized and sold. It

seems, however, that he recovered a great deal of the money, and in 1563 he associated himself with some friends to carry on his business on a larger scale. Among them were two grandnephews of Dan. Bomberg, who furnished him with the fine Hebrew types of that renowned Venetian printer. His editions of the Bible in Hebrew, Latin and Dutch, his Corpus juris, Latin and Greek classics, and many other works produced at this

period are renowned for their beautiful execution and accuracy. A much greater enterprise was planned by him in those years— the publication of a Biblia polyglotta, which should fix the original text of Old and New Testaments on a scientific basis. In spite of clerical opposition he was supported by Philip II. king of Spain, who sent him the learned Benedictus Arias Montanus to superintend the work. It was finished in five years (1559-73, 8 vols. folio). Plantin earned little profit, but received the privilege of printing all liturgical books for the states of King Philip, and the office of “prototypographus regius.” Though outwardly a faithful son of the church, he was till his death the partisan of a mystical sect of heretics; and it is now proved that many of their books published without the name of a printer came from his presses together with the missals, breviaries, etc., for the Roman Catholic Church. Besides the polyglot Bible, Plantin published in those years editions of St. Augustine and St. Jerome, the botanical works of Dodonaeus, Clusius and Lobelius, the description of the Netherlands by Guicciardini, etc. In 1575 his printing-office reckoned more than 20 presses and 73 workmen, besides a similar number that worked for the office at home. But in Nov. 1576 the town was plundered and in part burnt by the Spaniards, and Plantin had to pay an exorbitant ransom. He established a branch of his office in Paris; and when in 1583 the states of Holland sought a typographer for the newly erected university at Leyden, he left his much reduced business in Antwerp to his sons-in-law John Moerentorf (Moretus) and Francis van Ravelinghen (Raphelengius), and settled there. When in 1585 Antwerp was taken by the prince of Parma and affairs became there more settled, he left the office in Leyden to Raphelengius and returned to Antwerp, where he worked till his death on July 1, 1589. His son-in-law, John Moretus, and his descendants continued to print many works of note “in officina Plantiniana,” but from the second half of the ryth century the house began to decline. It continued, however, in the possession of the Moretus family, which religiously left everything in the office untouched, and when in 1876

the town of Antwerp acquired the old buildings with all their contents, for 1,200,000 francs, the authorities created one of the most remarkable museums of its kind in existence, the Musee Plantin, opened Aug. 19, 1877.

See Max Rooses, Christophe Plantin imprimeur anversois (Antwerp, 1882); Aug. de Backer and Ch. Ruelens, Annales de Pimprimerie Planfinienne (Brussels, 1865); Degeorge, La Maison Plantin (2nd ed., (P.A.T. Brussels, 1878).

PLANTING OF TREES: see TREE PLANTING.

SEVENTEENTH

VOLUME F PRINTED IN THE U.S. A. BY R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO.