Encyclopaedia Britannica [10, 3 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA,-

D I C T I

NARY

6 O F

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; Conftrufted on a PLAN, BY WHICH

THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digefted into the

TREATISES

FORM

of Dillinft

OR

SYSTEMS,

COMPREHENUUtO

The HISTORY, THEORY, and P R A c T i c E, of each, according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements; jfND

FULL EXPLANATIONS GIVEN OF THE

VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO NATURAL

and

Objeds, or to Matters

ARTIFICIAL CIVIL,

MILITARY,

COMMERCIAL,

ECCLESIASTICAL, &C.

Including ELUCIDATIONS of the mod important Topics relative to MANNERS, and the OECONOMY of LIFE : A DESCRIPTION

A General

HISTORT,

RELIGION, MORALS

of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, 6c. throughout the W o R L D j Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;

An Account of the LIVES of the moll Eminent Perfons in every Nation, from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. Compiled fr^m the 'writings of the heft Authors, i* fevural language ; the mofl approv'd Tnaiouarh,, as ■well of general feiom* a, ofinp^icuiar branches ; the Tranfaflions, Journals, and Memoirs, of Learned Societies, both at home and abroad-, the MS. Leitures of ,

/ I the Decemviri, the Military Tribunes, Triumviri, and Tribunes of" the people. If any of thefe propofed a law, it was firft committed to writing, and privately examined as to its utility and probable cfonfequences, by fome perfons well qualified for the talk ; fbmetimes it was referred to the whole fenate for their fentiments^ It was then hung up publicly for three market-days, that all the people might have time to examine it, and confider its tendency: This was called legis promulgatio, quq/i provulgatio. If the perfon who framed the bill did not fee caufe in the mean time to drop it, the people were convened in cowitia, and he addreffed them in an oration, being alfo feconded by his friends, fetting forth the expediency and probable utility of fuch a law: This was called rogatio legis, becaufe the addrefs was always prefaced with tliis petitionary form of words, Vclitis jubeatifne, £)uiritcs? “Will you, O Romans, confent and order this lav/ to pafs ?” This being done, thofe that difliked the motion delivered their fentiments in oppofition to it. An urn was then brought to certain priefts who attended i/pon the occafion, into which were call the names of the tribes, centuries, or curia, as the comitia happened to be tributa, centuriata, or curiata. The names were ftiaken together; and the firft drawn tribe or century was called prarogativa, becaufe their fuffrages were firft taken. The curia that was firft drawn was called principium for the fame reafon. The other 'tribes, centuries, &c. were called tribus jure vocata, centuria jure vocata. See. Matters being in this fituation, the veto or negative 'voice of the tribunes of the people might put an entire end to the proceedings, and difiblve the affembly. The tribune’s interference was called intercejfio. The conful alfo had it in his power to ftop further proceedings, by commanding any of the holidays called feria imperativa to be obferved. The comitia would of courfe be diflblved alfo by any of the perfons prefent being feized with the falling-ficknefs, or upon the appearance of any unlucky omen. But fuppofing the bufinefs to meet with no interruption of this fort, the people were each of them prefented with two tablets, on one of which was written in large chara&ers A. on the other U. R. Their difapprobation of the bill was •exprefled by throwing into an urn the tablet inferibed A. fignifying “ I forbid itantiquo, “ I prefer the old.” Their afient was fignified by throwing in the tablet marked U. R. i. e. uti rogas, “ be it as you defire.” According to the majority of thefe tablets the law pafied or not. If it pafied, it was written upon record, and carried into the treafury; this was called legem ferre. Afterwards it was engraved upon plates of brafs, and hung up in the moft public and confpicuous places : this was termed legem Jigere, and a future repeal of this law was legem refigere. If a law palled in the comitia curiata, it was called VOL. X. Parti.

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lex curiata; if in the comitia centuriata, it had the name LemrcM of lex centuriata ; but if it palled in the comitia tributa, ^ it was termed plebifcitum. The laws, too, generally bore ■ J th^ names of the propofers, as lex JElia, lex Fvfta, See. Romulus ufed to make laws by his own fingle authority, but fucceeding kings fought the approbation of the people. LEX-IARCHI, at Athens, fix officers affifted by 30 inferior’ones, whofe bufinefs it was to lay fines upon fuch as came not to the public affemblies, and alfo to make ferutiny among fuch as were prefent. The lexiarchi kept a regifter of the age, manners, and abilities of all the citizens, who were always inrolled at the age of 20. LEXICON, the fame with di&ionary. The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Greek dictionaries : it is derived from the Greek 'word', diction ; of uih / Speak. LEYDEN, in Latin Lugdunum Balavorum, one of the largeft and fineft cities in Holland, abounds with canals, along which are rows of lofty trees that afford very pleafant walks. An arm or fmall branch of the Rhine runs through it. Over the canals are 145 bridges, moft of them of Hone or brick. The univerfity here is the oldeft in the United Provinces : it has large privileges ; a library well furnifhed, and particularly rich in manuferipts ; a phyfic-garden well ftocked with all forts of plants, many of which have been brought from the Cape of Good Hope and the Eaft Indies ; an anatomy-hall, well provided with ikeletons ; 1 and an obfervatory. The profeffors, who are generally very eminent, read public le&ures four times a week, for which they take no money, but about three guineas are paid for a courfe of private lectures, which lafts a whole year. The ftudents have no diftindt habit, but all wear fwords, though they generally go to the public and private ledtures in their night-gowns and flippers. The falaries of the profeffors are from xool. to 200I. a-year: they wear gowns only when they prefide at public difputations, read public lectures, or meet in the fenate ; and their ledtures are always in Latin- The ftudents do not lodge in the univerfity, but where they pleafe in the town. The cloth manufadture here is much decayed, which formerly flouriftied to fuch a degree, that 100,000 pieces, it is faid, have fometimes been made in a year. The city is famous for the long and fevere fiege it maintained in 1573 again ft the Spaniards. We cannot help mentioning the reply of that illuftrious magiftrate, Adrian de Verf, when the citizens reprefented to him the havoc made by the famine during the fiege, and infifted upon his furrehdering: “ Friends (faid he), here is my body, divide it among you to fatisfy your hunger, but banifh all thoughts of furrendering to the cruel and perfidious Spaniard,” They took his advice, in regard to their not furrendering, and nevei would liften to any overtures ; but told the Spaniards, they would hold out as long as they had one arm to eat and another to fight. There are fome fine churches here, and many long, broad, handfome, ftreets ; but the Papifts, as at Haerlem, are more numerous than the Proteftants. LEYDEN Phial, a phial coated on the infide and eutfide with tinfoil, or other proper conducing fubftance, C and

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I^yfera and furnifhed with a brafs wire and knob, for giving . J* , the ekftrical fhock. See ELECTRICITY-//^^. ■ Lucas'van LET URN. See LUCAS. LEYSERA, in botany: A genus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, Compqfita. The receptacle is naked ; the pappus paleaceous; that of the difc plumy ; the calyx fcarious. LEYTE, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 118. o. N. Lat. 11. o. Its greateit length is about 40 leagues, and its circumference about 90 or 100. Its foil on the eaft fide is very fruitful; but there are very high mountains which cut it almoft through the middle, and occafion fo great an alteration in the air, that when it is winter on the north fide, it is fummer on the fouthern part of the ifland. Thus when the inhabitants of one half of the ifland reap, the others fo.v; and they have two plentiful harvefts in a year, to which the rivers running down from the abovementioned mountains contribute not a little. The ifland contains about 9000 inhabitants, who pay tribute to the Spaniards in rice, wax, and quilts. LHUYD,or LHOYD (Humphrey), a learned antiquarian of the 16th century, born at Denbigh, who applied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; and living moftly within the walls of Denbigh caftle, pra&ifed there as a phyfician; and died in 1570, with the character of a wellbred gentleman. He wrote and tranflated feveral pieces relative to hiftory and antiquities; in particular, The hiftory of Cambria, now called Wales, from Caradoc of Langcarvan, &c. but died before it was finiflied: however. Sir Henry Sidney, lord prefident of Wales, employed Dr David Powel to finiih it, who publiflied it in 1584. Anew and improved edition of this work was publiflied in 1774*. LHUYD (Edward), keeper of the Mufeum at Oxford, was a native of South Wales, the fon of Charles Lhuyd, Efq; of Lhanvorde. He was educated at Jefus College, Oxford, where he was created M. A. July 21. 1701. He was bred under Dr Plot, whom he fucceeded as keeper of the A.flimolean mufeum, and had the ufe of all Vaughan’s colleftions. With inceflant labour and great exaftnefs he employed a confiderable part of his life in fearching into the Welfh antiquities ; had perufed or collected a great deal of ancient and valuable matter from their MSS.; tranfcribed all the old'charters of their monafteries that he could meet with; travelled feveral times over Wales, Cornwall, Scotland, Ireland, Armoric Bretagne, countries inhabited by the fame people, compared their antiquities, and made obfervations on the whole ; but died in July 1709, before hehad digefted them into the form of a difcourfe, as he intended, on the ancient inhabitants of this ifland. The untimely death of this excellent antiquary prevented the completing of many admirable defigns. For want of proper encouragement, he did very little towards underftanding the Britiih bards, having feen but one of thofe of the fixth century, and not being able to procure accefs to two of the principal libraries in the country. He communicated many obfervations to Bifhop Gibfon, whofe edition of the Britannia he revifed ; and publiflied “ Archtologia Brit arnica, giving fijme ac-

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count additional to what has been hitherto publiflied Lhuyd of the languages, hiftories, and cuftoms of the original . 11 inhabitants of Great Britain, from colleilions and ob- Litunusd fervations in travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas Bretagne, Ireland, and Scotland, Vol. I. Gloffography, Oxford 1707,” fol. He left in MS. a Scottiflf or Irifli-Englifh Ditiionary, propofed to be publiflied in 1732 by fubfcription,by Mr David Malcohne,a miniiler of the church >of Scotland, with additions ; as alfo the Elements of the faid language ; with neceflary and urefill informations for propagating more effeftuallyrthe Englifli language, and for promoting the knovvlege of the ancient Scottifli or Irifh, and very many branches of ufeful and curious learning. Lhuyd, at the end of his preface to the Archaeologia, promifes an hiftoricaldictionary of Britifli perfons and places mentioned in ancient records. It feems to have been ready for prefs;. though he could not fet the time of publication. His collections for a fecond volume, which was to give an account of the antiquities, monuments, &c. in the principality of Wales, were numerous and well chofen ;, but, on account of a quarrel between him and Dr Wynne, then fellow, afterwards principal of the college^, and bifliop of St Afaph, he refufed to buy them, and they were purchafed by Sir Thomas Seabright, of Beachwood in Hertfordftiire, in whofe library the greateft part ftill remain, but fo indigefted, and written with fo many abbreviations, that nobody can undertake to publifh them. They confift of about 4® volumes in folio, 10 in quarto, and above xoo fmaller, and all relate to Irifli or Wellh antiquities, and chief-* ly in thofe languages. Carte made ext rafts from them, about or before 1736 ; but thefe were chiefly hiftoricaL Sir John Seabright has given Mr Pennant 23 of Lhuyd s MSS. Latin and Englifh. Many of his letters to Lifter, and other learned contemporaries, were given by Dr Fothergill to the univerfity of Oxford, and are now in the Aflimolean mufeum. Lhuyd undertook more for illuftratiag this part of the kingdom than any one man befides ever did, or than any one man can be equal to. L1BANIUS, a famous Greek rhetorician and fophift in the 4th century, was born at Antioch, and. had a great ftiare in the friendfliip of Julian the Apoftate. Tliat prince offered him. the dignity of Pr,t~ feBus Pretoria ; but Libanius refufed it, thinking the name of fapbift, or profejfor of eloquence, much more, honourable. There are ftill extant feveral of his letters and Greek orations, by which he acquired great reputation ; but his ftyle is fbmewhat affefted and obfeure. He was a pagan. Bal’d and’ Chryfoftom were his difciples. about the year 360. His letters were publilbed at Amfterdam in 1738 ; his orations at Venice, 1755. LIBANOMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpec'es of divination performed with frankincenfe ; which, if it. prefently caught fire, and fent forth a grateful odour, was efteemed a happy omen,, and vice verfa. LIBAN-US, the name of a chain of mountains of Turkey in Alia, which lie between Proper Syria and Paleftine, extending, from weft to eaft, from the Mediterranean fea as far as Arabia. The fummits of thefe mountains are fo high, that they are always covered with fnow : but below are very pleafant, and fruitful

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^Liltatlon fruitful valleys. They were formerly famous for the 11 great number of cedar-trees growing thereon; but l4bel. now Geographers diare very few remaining. ftinguifh this chain into Libanus and Antilibanus; the latter of which lies on the fouth fide of the valley> riling netlr the ruins of Sidon, and terminates at others in Arabia, in N. Lat. 34. They are feparated from each other at an equal diftance throughout; •and form a bafon, or country, called by the ancients Calo Syria. LIBATION, amongft the Greeks and Romans, was ’nn effential part of folemn facrifices. It was alfo performed alone, as a drink offering, by way of procuring the protection and favour of the gods, in the ordinary affairs of life. Libations, according to the different natures of the gods in honour of whom they were made, confifled of different liquids, but wine was the moft ufual. The wine offered to the gods was always unmixed with water. We meet with libations of water, libations of honey, libations of milk, 6nd Ii i libations of oil; thefe are called P *. The libation was made with a ferious deportment and folemn prayer. At facrifices, the libation, after it had been tailed by the prieft, and handed to the byllanders, was poured upon the vidlim. At entertainments, a little wine was generally poured out of the cup, before the liquor began to circulate, to fhow their gratitude to the gods for the bleffings they enjoyed. Libations were alfo in ufe among the Hebrews, who poured an hin of wine on the vidtim after it was drilled, and the feveral pieces of the facrifice were laid on the altar, ready to be confumed in the flames. LIBAW, afea-port town of Courland,Jying on the Baltic fea, confifling entirely of wooden houfes. It belongs to the duke of Courland, and is fituated in E. -Long. 21. 27. N. Lat. 56. 27. LIBEL, (libAlus famojus), taken in its largeft and moll extenfive fenfe, fignifies any writing, picture, or the like, of an immoral or illegal tendency ; but, in n peculiar fenfe, Is ufed to denote a malicious defamation of any perfbn, and efpecially a magiftrate, made public by either printing, writing, figns or pictures, in order to provoke him to wrath, or expofe him to public hatred, contempt, and ridicule. The direCt tendency of thefe libels is the breach of the public peace, by llirring up the objeCts of them to revenge, and perhaps to bloodfhed. The communication of a libel to any one perfon is a publication in the eye of the law : and therefore the fending an abufive private letter to a man is as much a libel as if it were openly printed, for it equally tends to a breach of the peace. With regard to libels in general, there are, as in many other cafes, two remedies ; one by indiftment, and another by aCiion. Tl)e former for the public offence ; for every libel has a tendency to break the peace, or provoke others to break it: which offence is the fame whether the matter contained be true or falfe; and therefore the defendant, on an indiClment for publishing a libel, is not allowed to allege the truth of it by way of jollification. But in the remedy by action on the cafe, which Is to repair the party in damages for the injury done him, the defendant may, as for words fpoken, juilify the truth of the fads, and ihow that the p'aintiff has received no injury at all. What was faid with'regard to words fpoken, will alfo

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hold in every particular with regard to libels by wri- Libella. ting or printing, and the civil adions confequentw--v~~ thereupon : but as to figns or. pidures, it feems neceffary always to (how, by proper innuendos and averments of the defendant’s meaning, the import and application of the fcandal, and that fome fpecial damage has followed ; otherwife it cannot appear, that fiich libel by pidure was underftood to be levelled at the plaintiff, or that it was attended with any adionablc confequences. In a civil adion, then, a libel mull appear to be falfe, as well as fcandalous ; for, if the charge be true, thfe plaintiff has received no private injury, and has no ground to demand a compenfation for himfelf, whatever offence it may be againll the public peace: and therefore, upon a civil adion, the truth of the accufation may be pleaded in bar of the fuit. But, in a criminal profecution, the tendency which all libels have to create anjgiofities, and to dilturb the public peace, is the foie confideration of the law. And therefore, in fuch profeeutions, the only points to be confidered are, firlt, the making or publifhing of the book or writing; and, fecondly, whether the matter be criminal: and, if both thefe points are againfl the defendant, the offence againll the public is complete. The punilhment of fuch libellers, for either making, repeating, printing, or publilhing the libel, is a fine, and fuch corporal punilhment as the court in -its diferetiqn lhall inflid ; regarding the quantity of the offence, and the quality of the offender. By the law of the twelve tables at Rome, libels, which affected the reputation of another, were made a capital offence : but, before the reign of Auguftus, the punifliment became corporal only. Under the emperor Valentinian it was again made capital, not only to write, but to publilh, or even to omit dellroying them. Our law, in this and many other refpeds, correfponds rather with the middle age of Roman jurifprudence, when liberty, learning, and humanity, were in their full vigour, than with the cruel edids that were eltablifhed in the dark and tyrannical ages of the ancient decemviri, or the latter emperors. In this, and other inllances, where blafphemous, immoral, treafonahle, fchifmatical, feditious, or fcandalous libels are punifhed by the Englifli law, fome with a greater, others with a lefs degree of feverity ; the liberty of the prefs, properly underftood, is by no means infringed or violated. See LIBERTY of the Prefs. LIBELLA, a piece of money amongft the Romans, being the tenth part of tho denarius, and equal in value to the as. It was called HMIa, as.being a little pound, becaufe equal to a pound of brafs. ■ - Its value in our money is I ob. 1 qu. or a half-penny farthing. See MONEY. LI BELLA, or Libel!ula, in zoology, a genus of four-winged flies, called in Englifh dragonflies^ or adder flies ; the charaders of which are thefe.: The mouth is furniflied with jaws: the feelers are (horter than the breaft ; and the tail of the male ter- p. minates in a kind of hooked forceps. There are 21 cctxxiyv fpecies, chiefly dillinguiflied by their colour. They have all two very large and reticulated eyes, covering the whole furface of the head. They fly very fwiftly; and pyey upon the wing, clearing the air of inmimerC 2 able

LIB [ 20 ] LIB Ivbel!-', able little flies. They are found in Augufl and Sep- pally of trees. This is to be conceived asconfifting of a Libera { lber « " - i tember in our fields and' gardens, efpecially near places number of cylindric and concentrip furfaces whofe texil v where there are waters, as they have their origin from ture is reticular, and in fome trees plainly extrulxble Libertines, worms living in that element. The great ones ufually every way, by reafon that the fibres are foft and flexlive all their time about waters; but the' fmaller are ible. While in this condition, they are either hollow common among hedges, and the fmalleft of all fre- regular canals, or, if not fo, they have interftitial fpa- quent gardens. The fmaller kind often fettle upon ces which ferve the office of canals. The nutritious" bufhes, or upon the ground; but the large ones are juice which they are continually receiving, remains in almoft always upon the wing, fo that it is very diffi- part in them; makes them grow in length and thickcult to take them. Their eyes are beautiful objects nefs, and (Lengthens and brings them clofer together;: for the microfcope. The largeft fpecies is produced and by this means the texture which was before reticufrom a water-worm that has fix feet, which, yet lar becomes an affemblage of ftraight fibres ranged veryoung and very fmall, is transformed into a chryfalis, tically and parallel to each other; that is, as they are thus altered behind one another, they by degrees bet at 138 ts we n Sari t' ^ ' d Mi g water. People have thought In/i&i they difcovered them to have gills like fiffies. It wears come a new fubftance, more woody, called blea. LIBERA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs, a mafic as perfectly formed as thofe that are worn at a mafquerade; and this mafic, faftened to the infect’s which Cicero, in his book Of the Gods, reprefents as neck, and which it moves at will, ferves it to hold the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. Ovid in his Fafti its prey while it devours it. The period of trans- fays that -the name was given by Bacchus to Ariadne. Libera is exhibited on medals as a kind of female iormation being come, the chryfalis makes to the water-fide, undertakes a voyage in fearch of a conve- Bacchus, crowned with vine leaves. LIBERAL ARTS, are fuch as depend more on the nient place; fixes on a plant, or (ticks fad to a bit of dry wood. Its flcin, grown parched, fplits at the up- labour of the mind than on that of the hands; or, that per part of the thorax. The winged infedt iffues forth confift more in fpeculation than Operation ; and have gradually, throws off its (lough, expands its wings, a greater regard to amufement and curiofity than to neflutters, and then flies off with gracefulnefs and eafe. ceffity. The word comes from the Latin liberalis, which aThe elegance of its flender (hape, the richnefs of its colours, the delicacy and refplendent texture, of its mong the Romans/ fignified a perfon who was not a wings, afford infinite delight to the beholder. The Have ; and whofe will, of confequence, was not checkfexual parts of the libellulse are differently fituated in ed by the command of any mailer. Such are grammar, rhetoric, painting, fculpture, the male and female. It is under the body at the joining of the thorax, that thofe parts are difcovered in architecture, mufic, &c. The liberal arts ufed forthe males: thofe of the "females are known by a (lit merly to be fummed up in the following Latin verfe : placed at the extremity of the body. Their-amours Lingua, Tropu's, Ratiot Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, AJlra. conclude in a rape.' The male, while hovering about, And the mechanical arts, which, however, are innuwatches, and then feizes the female by the head with merable, under this : Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates.. the pincers with which the extremity of his tail is armed. The raviftier travels thus through the air, till the See ARTS. LIBERALIA, feafts celebrated by the ancient female yielding to fuperior ftrength, or rather to inclination, forms her body into a circle that terminates at Romans, in honour of Liber or Bacchus, the fame the genitals of the male, in order to accomplifli the with thofe which the Greeks called DION Y si A, and purpofe of nature. Thefe kind of rapes are common. Dionyjiaca They took their name from liber, i. e. free, a title Libellulae are feen thus coupled in the air, exhibiting the form of a ring. The female depofits her eggs in the conferred on Bacchus in memory of the liberty or water, from whence fpring water-worms, which after- freedom which he granted to the people of Bceotia; or, perhaps, becaufe wine, whereof he was the repuwards undergo the fame transformations. LIBELLI, was the name given to the bills which ted diety, delivers men from care, and fets their mind were put up amongft the Romans, giving notice of the at eafe and freedom. Varro derives the name of this time when a (how of gladiators would be exhibited, feaft irovn. liber, confidered as a noun adjective, and figwith the number of combatants, and other circum- nifying free; becaufe the prieffs were free from their, ftances. This was called munus pronunciare orproponcre. function, and eafed of all care, during the time of the —Thefe bills were fometimes termed edifia. Thefe pu- liberalia : as the old women officiated in the ceremonies blic notices were given by the perfon who deligned to and facrifices of thefe feafts. oblige the people with the (how, and were frequently LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival obferved, attended with pictures reprefenting the engagement of. on the 16th of the kalends of April, at which time the fome celebrated gladiators. This cuftom is alluded to youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga virilis,. by Horace, lib. ii. fat. vii. v. 96, &c. or habit peculiar to grown men. See the article There was alfo the famofus libellus, a defamatory li- Tocji. bel. Seneca calls them contumeliofi libelli, infamous LIBERTINES, LIBERTINI, in ecclefiaftical hiftorhymes, which by a Roman ordinance were pun!(liable ry, a religious left, which arofe in the year 1525, with death. Libellus alfo in the civil law fignifies the whofe principal tenets were, that the Deity was the foie declaration, or (late of the profecutor’ charge againil operating caufe in the mind of man, and the immedi_jhe defendant; and it has the like fignification in our ate author of all human aftions; that, confequently, the fpiritual courts; diftinftions of good and evil, which had been eftabliftied. LIBER, in vegetables, the bark or rind, princi- with regard to thofe actions, were.falfe and groundlefs.

L I 23 LIB c i ] I.ibertincs, and that men could not, properly fpeaking, commit Thefe ftill retained fortte mark of their ancient ilate : LiBterlyi ^ Liberals. 1 _ 1 fin . that religion confifted in the union of the fpirit or he who made a flave free having a right of patronage ——v~“ j'"' * * rational foul with the 'Supreme Being; - that all thofe bver the lHertvs; fo that if the latter failed of fhowwho had attained this happy union, by fublime con- ing due refpeft to bis patron, he was reftored to his templation and elevation of mind, were then allowed fervitude ; and if the libertus died without children,, to indulge, without exception or reftraint, their appe- his patron was his heir. See Slave, tites or paffions; that all their actions and purfuits were In tile beginning of the republic, libertinus denoted then perfectly innocent; and that, after the death of the fon of a libertus or freedm^n ; but afterwards, bethe body, they were to be united to the Deity. They fore the time of Cicero, and under the emperors, the likewife faid that JefusChrift was nothing but a mere terms libertus and libertir.us, as Suetonius has remarked, je ne fcai quoi, compofed of the fpirit of God, arid of the were ufed as fynonymous. opinion of men. LIBERTY, denotes a ftate of freedom, in contraThefe maxims occafioned their being called Liber- diftinCtion to Jlavery or rejlraint; and may be contines ; and the word has been ufedin an ill fenfe ever fidered as either natural or civil. The abfolute rights of man, confidered as a free frnce. The Libertini fpread principally in Holland and Bra- agent, endowed with difeernment to know good from bant. Their leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, Poc- evil, and with power of choofing tl\ofe meafures which kefius, Ruffus, and another called Chopin, who jdined appear to him to be moft defirable, are ufually fum- med up in one general appellation, and denominated’ with Quintin, and became his difciple. This fe£t obtained a certain footing in FraricCthro’ the natural liberty of mankind'. This natural liberty the favour and protection of Margaret, queen of Na- conlifts properly in a power of afting as one thinks, varre, and lifter to Francis I. and found patrons in fe- fit, without any reftraint or controul, unlefs by the veral of the reformed churches. This fe& was pro- law of nature ; being a right inherent in us by birth, bably a remnant of the more ancient Beguards or and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation y when he endued him with the faculty of free-will. Brethren of the Free Spirit. Libertines of Geneva, were a cabal of rakes rather But every man, when he enters into fociety, gives up, than of fanatics; for they made no pretences to any a part of his natural liberty, as the price of fo vareligious fyftem, but pleaded only for the liberty of luable a purchafe ; and, in confideration of receiving leading voluptuous and immoral lives. This cabal was the advantages of mutual commerce, oblige's himfelf compofed of a certain number of licentious citizens, to conform to thofe laws which the community has who could not bear the fevere difeipline of Calvin, who thought proper to eftablilh. And this fpecies of lepunilhed with rigour not only dilfolute manners, but gal obedience and conformity is infinitely more defirealfo whatever bore the afperit of irreligion and impiety. able than that wild and favage liberty which is facriIn this turbulent cabal there were feveral perfons who ficed to obtain it. For no man, that confiders a mowere not only notorious for their diffolute and fcanda- ment, would wifh to retain the abfolute and unconlous manner of living, but alfo for their atheiftical im- trouled power of doing whatever he pleafes : the conpiety, and contempt of all religion. To this odious fequence of which is, that every other man would alfo,clafs belonged one Gruet, who denied the divinity of have the fame power; and then there would be no the Chriftian religion, the immortality of the1 foul, the fecurity to individuals in any of the enjoyments ofdifference between moral good and evil, and rejected life. with' difdain the doctrines that arc held moft facred Political, therefore, or civil, liberty, which is that among Chriftians; for which impieties he was at laft of a member of fociety, is no other than natural librought before the civil tribunal, in the year 1550, and berty, fo far reftrained by human laws (and .no farther) condemned to death. The Genevan fpirit of reforma- as is neceffary and expedient for the general advantage tion, improperly directed by the violence and zeal of of the public. Hence we may colled:, that the law, Calvin, did at this time operate to a degree which has which reftrains a man from doing mifehief to his felmarked the chara&er of this great reformer with re- low citizens, though it diminilhes the natural, inproach. For in 1544, Sebaftian Caftalio, mafter of creafes the civil liberty of mankind: but every wanthe public fchool at Geneva, who was a man of probity, ton and caufelefs reftraint of the will of the fubjed,. and diftinguiftied by his learning and tafte, was, never- whether pradifed by a monarch, a nobility, or a pothelefs, depofed from his office and baniftied the city, pular affembly, is a degree of tyranny. Nay, that becaufe he diiapproved fome of the menfures that were even laws themfelves,. whether made with or without purfued and fome of the opinions entertained by Calvin our confent, if they regulate and conftrain our condud and his colleagues,, and particularly that of abfolute in matters of mere indifference, without any good end. and unconditional predeftination. Jerome Bolfec alfo, in view, are laws deftrudivc of liberty: whereas, if a man of genius and learning, who became a convert any public advantage can arife from obferving fuch. to the Proteftant religion and fled to Geneva for pro- precepts, the controul of our private inclinations, in , teftion, was caft into prifon, and foon after fent into one or two particular points, will conduce to preferve banifhment, becaufe, in 1551, he imprudently and in- our general freedom in others of more importance, decently declaimed, in full congregation and at the clofe by fupporting that ftate of fociety which alone can of public worfhip, againft the doritrine of abfolute de- fecure our independence. Thus the ftatute of king crees. Edward IV. which forbad the fine gentlemen of thofe LIBERTUS, or Libertinus, among the Romans, times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upon a freedman, or a gerfon fet free from a legal fervi- their Ihoes or boots of more than two inches in length, iude. was a law that favoured of oppreffion; becaufe, how-

t I B l 12 ! LIB • ever ridiculous the fafhion then In ufe might appear, be as conllantly denounced againft all thofe t’uat by loflierty. ~ the reftralning it by pecuniary penalties could ferve word, deed, or counfel, aft contrary thereto, or in any ' v—^ no purpofe of common utility. But the ftatute of degree infringe it. Next by a multitude of fublequent King Charles II. which preferibes a thing feemingly corroborating ftatutes (Sir Edward Coke reckons 32), as indifferent, viz. a drefs for the dead, who were all from the firft Edward to Henry IV. Then, after a -ordered to be buried in woollen, is a law confiftent long intervalj'by the petition of right; which was a parwith public liberty; for it encourages the flaple trade, liamentary declaration of the liberties of the people, on which in great meafure depends the univtrfal good affented to by King Charles I. in the beginning of his of the nation. So that laws, when prudently framed, reign. Which was olofely followed by the ftill more are by no means fubverfive, but rather introduftive, of ample -Conceflions made by that unhappy prince to his liberty; for (as Mr Locke has well obferved) where parliament, before the fatal rupture between them ; there is no law there is no freedom. But then, on and by the many falutary laws, particulary the habeas the other hand, that conflitution or frame of govern- corpus aft, puffed under Charles II. To thefe fucceedment, that fyftem of laws, is alone calculated to main- ed tlye bill of rights, or declaration delivered by the lords tain civil liberty, which leaves the fubjeft entire ma- and commons to the prince and princefs of Orange, Iter of his own conduft, except in thofe points where- 13 th February 1688 ; and afterwards enafted in parin the public good requires feme direction or reftraipt. diament, when they became king and queen: which deThe idea and praftice of this political or civil li- claration concludes in thefe remarkable words ; “ and berty flourifh in their highefl vigour in thefe king- they do claim, demand, and infift upon, all and finguxloms, where it falls little fhort of perfection, and can far the premifes, as their undoubted rights and liber-only be loft or deftroyed by the folly or demerits of ties.’* And the aft of parliament itfelf recognifes “all its owner; the legiflature, and of courfe the laws of and lingular the rights and liberties afferted andclaimBritain, being peculiarly adapted to the prefervation ed in the faid declaration to be the true, ancient, and of this ineftimable bleffmg even in the meaneft fubjeft. indubitable rights of the people of this kingdom.” Very different from the modern conftitutions of other Laftly, thefe liberties were again afferted at the comhates on the continent of Europe, and from the genius mencement of the prefent century, in the a£t of fettle* of the imperial law; which in general are calculated merit, whereby the crown was limited to his prefent to veft an arbitrary and defpolic power, of controul- majefty’s ilhittrious houfe: and fome new proviiions ing the aftions of the fubjeft, in the prince, or in a were added, at the fame fortunate era, for better fecufew grandees. And this ipirit of liberty is fo deeply ring our religion, laws, and liberties ; which the flaimplanted in our conflitution, and rooted even in our tute declares to be “ the birthright of the people of very foil, that a Have or a negro, the moment be lands England,” according to the ancient doctrine of the in Britain, falls under the proteftion of the laws, and common law. fo far becomes a freeman; though the mailer’s right Thus much for the declaration of our rights and lito his fervice may pofhbly Hill continue. berties. The rights themfelves, thus defined by thefe The abfolute rights of every Briton (which, taken feveral flatutes, confifl in a number of private immuin a political and extenfive fenfe, are ufually called nities; which will appear, from what has been pretheir liberties), as they are founded on nature and rea- mifed, to be indeed no other, than either that reft* fon, fo they are coeval with our form of government; duum of natural liberty, which is not required by the though fubjeft at times to fluftuate and change, their laws of fociety to be facrificed to public convenience ; -cflablifhment (excellent as it is) being flill human, or elfe thofe civil privileges, which fociety hath engaAt fome times we have feen them deprefled by over- ged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties fo given bearing and tyrannical princes; at others, fo luxuriant up by individuals. Thefe therefore were formerly, eias even to tend to anarchy, a worfe Hate than tyranny ther by inheritance or purchafe, the rights of all manitfelf, as any government is better than none at all. kind; but, in moll other countries of the world, being But the vigour of our free conflitution has always de- now more or lefs debafed and deflroyed, they at prelivered the nation from thefe embarraffments: and, as fent may be faid to remain, in a peculiar and emphafoon as the convulfions confequeni on the llruggle have tical manner, the rights of the people of Britain. And been over, the balance of our rights and liberties has thefe may be reduced to three principal or primary arie' tied to its proper level; and their fundamental ar- tides ; the right of perfonal fecurity, the right of pertides have been from time to time afferted in parlia- fonal liberty, and the right of private property : bement, as often as they were thought to be in danger: caufe, as there is no other known method of compulj&laclft. Firil, by the great charter of liberties, which was iion, or of abridging man’s natural free-will, but by yCsmment* obtained, fword in hand, from King John, and after- an infringement or diminution of one or other of thefe wards, with fome alterations, -confirmed in parliament important rights, the prefervation of thefe inviolate by King Henry HI. his fon. Which charter contain- may juflly be faid to include the prefervation of our ed very few new grants; but, as Sir Edward Coke ob- civil immunities in their largetl and moll extenfive fenfe. ferves, was for the moll part declaratory of the prin- See the article Rights. cipal grounds of the fundamental laws of England. In vain, however, would thefe rights be declared. Afterwards, by the llatute called confrmatio cartamm, afeertained, and protefted by the dead letter of the whereby the great charter is direfted to be allowed as laws, if the conflitution had provided no other methe common law; all judgments contrary to it are de- thod to fecure their aftual enjoyment. It has theredared void ; copies of it are ordered to be fent to all fore eflablifhed certain Other auxiliary fubordinate rights .cathedral churches, and read twice a-year to the pco- of the fubjeft, which ferve principally as barriers to pie ; and fentence of excommunication is d!refted to proteft and maintain inviolate the three great and- primary

L I B [ 23 ] LIB l^ibcty. marjr rights, of perfanal iecurity, perfonal liberty, and c. I o. upon the diflblution of the court of ftar-cliamber. Liberty, that neither his majefty, nor his privy-council, have private property. Thefe are, any jurifdi&ion, pow'er, or authority, by Englifh bill, 1. The conflitution, powers, and privileges of par- petition, articles, libel fryhich were the courfe of proliament ; for which fee Parliament. ceeding in the ftar-chember, borrowed from the civil 2. The limitation of the king's prerogative, by law), or by any other arbitrary way whatfoever, to exbounds fo certain and notorious, that it is impoffible amine, or draw into queftion, determine, or difpofe he fhould exceed them without the confent of the peo- of the lands or goods of any fubjefts of this kingple ; as to which, fee Prerogative. The former of dom the fame ought to be tried and deterthefe keeps the legiflative power in due health and vi- mined; inbutthethatordinary courts of juftice, and by courfe gour, fo as to make it improbable that laws fhould of law. be ena&ed deftructive of general liberty : the latter is 4. If there fiiould happen any uncommon injury, or a guard upon the executive power, by reliraining it infringement of the rights before mentioned, which from acfting either beyond or in contradiction to the the ordinary courfe of law is too defeftive to reach, laws that are framed and eltabliflied by the other. 3. A third fubordinate right of every Briton is that there ftill remains a fourth fubordinate right, apperindividual, namely, the right of petiof applying to the courts of jultice for redrefs of in- taining tothe every king, or either houfe of parliament, for juries. Since the law is, in this realm, the fupreme tioning the redrefs of grievances. In •Ruflia we are told, that arbiter of every man’s life, liberty, and property, courts of juftice mult at all times be open to the fub- the Czar Peter eftablifhed a law, that no fubjedl might ject, and the law be duly adminiftered therein. Th« petition the throne till he had firft petitioned two emphatical words of rrwgna carta, fpoken in the perfon different minifters of ftate. In cafe he obtained juftice neither, he might then prefent a third petition of the king, who in judgment of law (fays Sir Edward from Goke) is ever prefent and repeating them in all his to the prince ; but upon pain of death, if found to becourts, are thefe : Nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus, aut in the wrong. The confequence of which was, thatdifferemus redum vel juffitiam ; “ and therefore every no one dared to offer fuch third petition ; and griefubjecft (continues the fame learned author), for injury vances feldom falling under the notice of the fovereigiv done to him in bonis, in terris, velperfona, by any other he had little opportunity to redrefs them. The refubjeft, be he ecclefiaflical or temporal, without any ftrittions, for fome there are, which are laid upon peexception, may take his remedy by the courfe of the titioning in Britain, are of a nature extremely different $ law, and have juitice and right for the injury done to and while they promote the fpirit of peace, they are. him, freely without fale, fully without any denial, and no check upon that of liberty. Care only muft be Jpeedily without delay.” It were endlefsto enumerate taken, left, under the pretence of petitioning, the fuball the affu native abts of parliament, wherein jullice is ject be guilty of any riot or tumult; as happened in diretied to be done according to the law of the land s the opening of the memorable parliament in 1640: and what that law is, every fubjeft knows ; or may and, to prevent this, it is provided by the ftatute 13 know' if he pleafes : for it depends not upon the arbi- Car. II. ft. 1. c. 5. that no petition to the king, or trary wdll of any judge ; but is permanent, fixed, and either houfe of parliament, for any alteration in church unchangeable, unlefs by authority of parliament. We or ftate, Ihall be figned by above 20 perfons, unlefs {hall however juft mention a few negative ftatutes, the matter thereof be approved by three juftices of the whereby abides, perverfions, or delays of juftice, efpe- peace, or the major part of the grand jury, in the eially by the prerogative, are. reftrained. It is ordain- country; and in London, by the lord mayor, aidered by magna carta, that no freeman ihall be outlawed, men, and common-council: nor Ihall any petition be that is, put out of the protection and benefit of the prefented by more than 10 perfons at a time. But, laws, but according to the law of the land. By 2 under thefe regulations, it is declared by the ftatute Edw\ III. c. 8. and 11 Ric. II. c. 10. it is enacted, 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. that the fubjeft hath a right that no commands or letters fhall be fent under the to petition; and that all commitments and profecutions great feal, or the little feal, the fignet or privy feal, for fuch petitioning are illegal. in difturbance of the law ^ or to difturb or delay 5. The fifth and laft auxiliary right of the fubjeft, . common right : and, though fuch commandments that we (hall at prefent mention, is that of having arms fhould come, the judges Ihall not ceafe to do right: for their defence, fuitable to their condition and^dewhich is alfo made a part of their oath by ftatute- gree, and fuch as are allowed by. law. Which is alfo j8 Edw'. III. ft. 4. And by 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. declared by the fame ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. it. is declared, that the pretended power of fufpending and is indeed a public allowance, under due reftric- • or difpenfing with laws, or the'execution of laws, by lions, of the natural right of refiftance- and felf-preregal authority without confent of parliament, is il- fervation, when the. funftioqs of fociety and laws legal. are found infufficient to reftrain the violence of op— Not only the fubftantial part, or judicial decifions, preffion. of the law, but alfo the formal part, or method of In thefe feveral articles- confift. the rights, or, as proceeding, cannot be altered but by parliament: for, they are frequently termed, the liberties of Britons : liif once thofe outworks wrere demolifhed, there w'ould berties more generally talked of, than thoroughly unbe an inlet to all manner of innovation in the body of derftood ; and yet highly neceffary to be perfectly the law itfelf. The king, it is true, may eredt new known and confidered by every man of rank or pro-courts of juftice; but then they muft proceed accord- perty, left his ignorance of the points whereon they ing to the old eftabliftied forms of the common law-. are founded ftiould hurry him into faction and beenFor which-reafon it is declared, in the llatute 16 Car. I, tioufaefs on the one hand, or a pufiliammous indiffe-

LIB T 24 ] LIB Libert;-, rente and criminal fubmifiion on the other. And \ve ment to revive It, in the fubfequent part of that reigfi hiberty, —' have feen that thefe rights confift, primarily, iin tire (Com. Journ. 11 Feb. 1694. 2(5 Nov. 1695. 22 Ott. ,1 free enjoyment of perfonal'fecarity, of perfonal liber- 1696. 9 Feb. 1697. 31 Jan. 1698.) yet the parliament * * IJf ty, and of private property. So long as thefe remain refilled it fo ftrongly, that it finally expired, and the inviolate, the fubjett is perfe&ly free ; for yvery fpe- prefs became properly free in 1694, and has continued -ties of compulfive tyranny and oppreffion mull aft in ioeverfince. oppofition to one or other of thefe rights, having no The liberty of the prefs, however, fo elfential to other objeft upon which it can poffibly be-employed, the nature of a free Hate, confifts not in freedom from To preferve thefe from violation, it is necelfary that. cenfure for any criminal matter that may be publilhed, •the conftitution of parliaments be fupported in its full but in laying no previous rellraints upon publications, vigour; and limits, certainly known, be fet to the royal Every freeman has undoubtedly a right to lay what 'prerogative. And, laftly, to vindicate thefe rights, fentiments he pleafes before the public; to forbid this, 'when actually violated or attacked, the fubjefts of Eri- is to deftroy the freedom of the prefs: but' if he pub, tain are intitled, in the fir’ll place, to the regular ad- lilhes what is improper, mifchievous, or illegal, he mull miniftration and free courfe of juftice in the courts of take the confequence of his own temerity f. To fub- f See L/ir/. ? law ; next, to, the right of petitioning the king and jedt the prefs to -the rellriClive power of a licenfer in parliament for redrefs of grievances ; and, laltly, to the the manner above mentioned, is to fubjedl all freedom right of having and uiing arms for felf preiervation of fentiment to the prejudices of one man, and make and defence. And all thefe rights and liberties it is him the arbitrary and infallible judge of all controverted ■our birthright to enjoy entire ; unlefs where the laws points in learning, religion, and government. But to of our country have laid them under neceffary rellraints. punifh (as the law does at prefent) any dangerous or Rellraints in themfelves fo gentle and moderate, as offenfive writings which, when publilhed, lhall, on a will appear upon farther inquiry, that no mart of fenfe fair and impartial trial, be adjudged of a pernicious •or probity would wilh to fee them llackened. For all tendency, is necelfary for the prefervation of peace and of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a good order, of government and religion, the only folid -good man would defire to do ; and are rdlrained from foundations of civil liberty. Thus the will of indivinothing, but what would be pernicious either to our- duals is Hill left free ; the abufe only of'that free-will felves or our fellow-citizens. So that this review of is the objeft of legal punilhment. Neither is any recur fituation may fully juilify the obfervation of a ftraint hereby laid upon freedom of thought or inquiry; learned French author, who indeed generally both liberty of private fentiment is ftill left; the diifeminathought and wrote in the fpirit of genuine freedom; ting or making public of bad fentiments, deftrudlive and who hath - not fcrupled to profefs, even in the of the ends of fociety, is the crime which fociety corvery bofom of his native country, that the Britifh is redls. A man (fays a fine writer on this fubjedl) may the only nation in the world, where political or civil be allowed to keep poifons in his clofet, but not publiberty is the diredl end of its conftitution. Recom- licly to vend them as cordials. And to this we may mending therefore to the Undent in our laws a far- add, that the only plaufible argument heretofore ufed ther and more accurate fearch into this extenfive and for reftraining the juft freedom of the prefs, “ that it important title, we lhall clofe our rerparks upon it with was neceffary to prevent the daily abufe of it,” will the expiring wilh of the famous Father Paul to his entirely lofe its force, when it is Ihown (by a feafonable country, “ Esto perpetua !” exertion of the laws) that the prefs cannot be abufed to IjMertt and Necejfily. See Metaphysics. any bad purpofe without incurring a fuitable punifhLibfrtt of the Prefs. The art of printing, foon ment: whereas, it can never be ufed to any good one after its introduction, was looked upon in England, when under the controul of an infpedtor. So true as well as in other countries, as merely a matter of will it be found, that to cenfure the licentioufnefs, is t® Hate, and fubjedt to the coercion of the crown. It was maintain the liberty of the prefs. therefore regulated with us by the king’s proclamations, Liberty, in mythology, was a goddefs both among prohibitions, charters of privilege and licence, and fi- the Greeks and Romans. Among the former Ihe nally by the decrees of the court of liar-chamber, which was invoked under the title Eleutheria ; and by the limited the number ofprinters, and of preffes which each latter Ihe was called Lilertas, and held in lingular veIhould employ, and prohibited new'publications unlefs neration; temples, altars, and ftatues, were eredled previoully approved by proper licenfers. On the de- in honour of this deity. A very magnificent temple molition of this odious jurifdidtion in 1641, the long was confecrated to her on mount Aventin, by Tibeparliament of Charles I. after their rupture with that • rius Gracchus, before which was a fpacious court, prince, affumed the fame powers as the ftar-chamber called atrium libertatis. The Romans alfo ere died a had exercifed with refpedl to the licenfing of books: new temple in honour of Liberty, when Julius Crefar and in 1643, I(H7> 1b49, and 1652 (Scobell. i. 44, eftablilhed his empire over them, as if their liberty 134. ii. 88, 230.) iffued their ordinances for that pur- had been fecured by an event which proved fatal to pofe, founded principally on the ftar-chamber decree it. In a medal of Brutus, Liberty is exhibited under of 1637. In 1662, was paffed the ftatute 13 & 14, the figure of a woman, holding in one hand a cap, the Car. II. c. 33. which, with fome few alterations, was fymbol of Liberty, and two poinards in the other, with copied from the parliamentary ordinances. This adl the infcription idibvs martiis. expired in 1679 » but was revived by ftatute 1 Jac. II. LIBETHRA (anc.geog.), the fountain of fong, c. 17. and continued till 1692. It was then continued was fituated in Magnefia, a diftridt of Macedonia arfor two years longer by ftatute 4 W. & M. c. 24. but nexed to Theffaly; diftindl from the town of Lithough frequent attempts were made by the govern- bethra, which flood on the mount Olympus, where it N?i8i. 3 verges

1 I B r 25 ] LIB s verges towards Macedonia1: lienee the Mufes are called Libra penfa, ill rmr law books, denotes a pound of XMethrides, (Virgil,) Strabo places on Helicon, not money in weight. It was ufual in former days not 6nly Hippocrene, and the temple of the Mufes, but only to tell the money but to weigh it: becaufe many cities, lords, and bilhops, having their mints, coined alfo the cave of the nymphs Libethrides. LIBETHRIUS mons (anc. geog.), a mountain money, and often very bad too; for which reafon, of Bceotia, diftant from Coronea 40 ftadia; where though the pound confifted of 20 (hillings, they alilood the ftatues of the Mufes, and of the nymphs, ways weighed it. furnamed Libethride. A mountain probably conjoined LIBRARII, among the ancients, were -a fort of copyills who tranferibed in beautiful or at leaft legible with, or at leaft very near to, Helicon. LIBITINA, in the Roman mythology, a goddefs charadlers, what had been wri..ten by the notarii in which pfefided over funerals. This goddefs was the notes and abbreviatures. fame with the Venus infera or Epithymbia of the Greeks. LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deftined for She had a temple at Rome, where was lodged a cer- holding a confiderable number of books placed regutain piece of money for every perfon who died, whofe larly on fhelves ; or the books themfelves lodged in it. name was' recorded in a regifter called Libitina ratio. Some authors refer the origin of libraries to the This practice was eftablilhed by Servius Tullius, in Hebrews ; and obferve, that the care thefe took for order to obtain an account of the number of annual the prefervation of their facted books, and the medeaths in the city of Rome, and -confequently the mory of what concerned the adliqns of their anteftors, became an example to other nations, particularly to rate of ir.creafe or decreafe of its inhabitants. LIBITINARII, were undertakers whofe office it the Egyptians. Ofmanduas, king of Egypt, is laid Was to take care of funerals, prepare all things necef- to have taken the hint firft ; who, according to Diofary upon the folemn .occafion, and furniffi every ar- dorus, had a library built in his palace, with this inticle required.—They got their livelihood by this feription over the door,'E-txhx iatpeion. Nor were gloomy bufinefs, and kept a number of fervants to the Ptolemies, who reigned in the fame country, lefs perform the working part of the profeffion, ftich as curious and magnificent in books. the pnll'mclores, vefpiltones. See. The name Libitinarii is The feripture alfo fpeaks of a library of the kings derived from Libifina, the goddefs of funerals, in whofe of Perfia, Ezra v. 17. vi. 1. which feme imagine to temple were fold all things relating to funerals. See have confifted of the hiftorians of that nation, and of Funeral. memoirs of the affairs of ftate; but, in effedt, it apLIBNA (anc. geog.), a facerdotal city in the tribe pears rather to have been a depofitory of laws, dharof Judah, a place of ftrength, as appears from Senna- ters, and ordinances of the kings. The Hebrew text cherib’s laying liege to it, 2 Kings xix. Ifafah xxxvii. calls it the houfe of treafures, and aftenvards the houfe In Jerome’s time, a village, called Lobna, in the ter- of the rolls, where the treafures were laid up. We may, with more juftice, call that a, library, mentioned ritory of Eleutheropolis. LIBOURNE, a town of France, in Guienne, and in the fecond of Efdras to have been built by Nehein Bourdelois. It is a populous trading town, and is miah, and in which were preferved the books of the feated on the river Dordogne. W. Long. o. 1 o. N. prophets, and of David, and the letters of their kings. The firft who eredled a library at Athens, was tire Lat. 44. 55. LIBRA, or balance, ohe of the mechanical tyrant Pififtratus; and yet Strabo refers the honour of it to Ariftotle. That of Pififtratus was tranfportpowers. See Balance, Libra, in aftronomy, one of the 12 figns of the ed by Xerxes into Perfia, and w’as afterwards brought zodiac, and exaftly oppofite to Aries; fo called be- back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. Long after, •ca'ufe when the fun is in this fign at the autumnal it was plundered by Irylla, and re-eftabliflied by Haequinox, the days and nights are equal as if weighed drian. Plutarch fays, that under Eumenes there was in a balance.—The liars in this conllellation according a library at Pergamus, containing 200,000 books. to Ptolemy are 17, Tycho 10, Hevelius 20, and Tyrannian, a celebrated grammarian, contemporary Flamftead 51. with Pompey, had a library of 30,000 volumes. That Libra alfo denotes the ancient Roman pound, bor- of Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to A. Gellius, conrowed from the Sicilians, who called ,it /itra. tained 700,000, all in rolls, burnt by Caffar’s foldiers. The libra was divided into 12 uncia or ounces, and Conilantine, and his fuceeffors, eredled a magnithe mince into 24 fcruples. ficent one at Conftantinople ; which in the eighth cenThe divifions of the libra were, the uncia, one tury contained 300,000 volumes, all burnt by order tw elfth ; the fextans, one fixth; the quadrans, one of Leo Ifaurus; and, among the reft, one wherein fourth 5 the triens, one third; the quincunx, five ounces; the Iliad and Gdyffey were written in letters of gold, the femis, fix ; the feptunx, feven : the bes, eight; the on the guts of a ferpent. dodrans, nine : the dexlrans, ten ; the deunx, eleven ; The moft celebrated iibrai-ies of ancient Rome, were laflly, the as weighed twelve ounces or one libra. the Ulpian, and the Palatine. They alfo boaft much The Roman libra was ufed in France for the pro- of the libraries of Paulus iEmilius, who conquered portions of their coin till the time of Clfarlemagne, Perfeus; of Lucilius Lucullus, of Afinius Pollio, Ator perhaps' till that of Philip I. in 1093, their fols being Julius Severus, Domitius, Serenus, Pamphilius fo proportioned, as that 20 of them were equal to the ticus, and the emperors Gordian and Trajan. libra. By degrees it became a term of account; and Martyr, Anciently, large church had its library; as eveiy thing of the value of twenty fols was called a appears by the every writings of St Jerome, Anaftafius, and Imre. others. Pope Nicholas laid the firft foundation of Vol. X. Part I. D that

LIB I 26 1 LIB Library, that of the Vatican, in 1450. It was dcftroyed by Society, called the Arundelian or Norfolk library, be- Libratkin — 1 the conftable Bourbon, in the lacking of Rome, and caufe the principal part of the colledtion formerly be- LI1 reftored by Pope Sixtus V, and has been confiderably longed to the family of Arundel, and was given to enriched with the ruins of that of Heidelberg, plun- the fociety by Henry Howard, afterwards duke of dered by Count Tilly in 1622. One of the moft com- Norfolk, in 1666, which library has been increafed plete libraries in Europe, was faid to be that ere&ed by the valuable colledtion of Francis Afton, Efq; in at Florence by Cbfmo de -Medicis, over the gate 1715, and is continually increafmg by the numerous whereof is written, labor absque labore ; though benefadtions of the works of its learned members, and it is now exceeded by that of the French king, be- others : that of St Paul’s, of Sion college; the queen’s gun by Francis I. • jmented by Cardinal Richelieu, library, eredted by Queen Caroline in 1737 ; and the furgeon’s library, kept in their hall in the Old Bailey, &c. and completed by M. Colbert. The emperor’s library at Vienna, according to Lam- In Edinburgh there is a good library belonging to becius, confifts of 80,000 volumes, and 15,940 curious the univerfity, well furnilhed with books ; which arc kept in good order. There is alfo a noble library medals. The Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foun- of books and manufcripts belonging to the faculty of dation of that of Duke Humphry, exceeds that of advocates. See Advocate. any univerfity. in Europe, and even thofe of all the LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent irregufovercigns of Europe, except the emperor’s and French larity of the moons’s motion, whereby fhe feems to liking’s, which are each of them older by 100 years. brate about her axis, fometimes from the eaft to the It was firft opened in 1602, and has lince found a weft, and now and then from the weft to the eaft. See great number of benefaftors ; particularly Sir Robert Astronomy, n°420. Cotton, Sir FI. Savil, Archbifhop Laud, Sir Kenelm LIBURNIA (anc. geog.), a diftridl of Tllyricum, Digby, Mr Allen, Dr Fococke, Mr Selden, and extending towards the Adriatic between Iftria on the others. The Vatican, the Medicean, that of Beifa- weft, Dalmatia on the eaft, and mount Albius on the rion at Venice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed the north. Liburni, the people. The apparitors, who Bodleian in Greek manufcripts: which yet outdoes at the command of the magiftrate fummoned the them all in Oriental manufcripts. people from the country, were called Liburn i, becaufe As to printed books, the Ambrofian at Milan, and generally men. of Liburnia.—Liburna, or Liburnica, that of Wolfenbuttle, are two of the moft famous, (Horace), denoted a kind of light and fwift fluff, ufed and yet both inferior to the Bodleian. by the Liburnians in their fea-rovings or piracies, for King's Library, at St James’s, was founded by which they were noted. Lilurnum (Juvenal) was a fpecias Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and made up partly of of litter made in form of Liburnian flciffs, wherein the books, and partly of manufcripts, with many other noblemen of Rome were carried, and where they fat at curiofities, for the advancement of learning. It has their eafe, either reading or writing. received many additions from the libraries of Ifaac LIBURNUS (anC.geog.), a mountain of Campania. Cafaubon and others.Alfo a port of Tufcany, Now Livorno, or Leghorn. Cottonian Library, originally confifted of 958 vo E. Long. 11. N. Lat. 43. 30. lumes of original charters, grants, inftruments, letters LIBYA, in general, according to the Greeks, de» of fovereign princes, tranfaftions between this and noted Africa. An appellation derived from lub, other kingdoms and ftates, genealogies, hiftories, re- “ thirft,” being a dry and thirfty country. See gifters of monafteries, remains of Saxon laws, the book A.FRICA. of Genefis, thought to be the moft ancient Greek Libya, in a more reftrained fenfe, was the middle copy extant, and faid to have been written by Origen part of Africa, extending north and weft, (Pliny).; in the fecond century, and the curious Alexandrian between the Mediterranean to the north, and Ethiopia copy or manufcript in Greek capitals. • This library to the eaft; and was two-fold, the Hither or Exterior is kept in the Jlritifh Mufeum, with the large and va- Libya; and the Farther or Interior. The former lay luable library of Sir Hans Sloane, amounting to up- between the Mediterranean on the north, and the wards of 42,000 volumes, &c. There are many pu- Farther Libya and Ethiopia beyond. Egypt on the blic libraries belonging to the feveral colleges at Ox- fouth, (Ptolemy). The Farther or Interior Libya, ford and Cambridge, and the univerfities in North was a vaft country, lying between the Hither Libya Britain. The principal public libraries in London, on the north, the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the Jbefide that of the Mufeum, are thofe of the college of Ethiopic on the fouth, and Ethiopia beyond Egypt heralds, of the college of phyficians, of Doftors Com- on.the eaft, ^Ptolemy). mons, to which every bifhop, at the time of his con- Libya, in a ftill more reftrained fenfe, called, for fecration, gives at leaft 20I. fometimes 50I. for the fake, Libya Propria, was a northern dipurchafe of books; thofe of the Gray’s Inn, Lincoln's diftinftion’s of Africa, and a part of the Hither Libya ; fituInn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple ; that of ftrict ated between Egypt to the eaft, the Mediterranean to Lambeth, founded by Archbifhop Bancroft in 1610, the the Syrtis Major and the Regio Tripolifor the ufe of fucceeding archbifhops of Canterbury, tana north, the weft, the Garamantes and Ethiopia beand increafed by the benefactions of Archbifhops Ab- yond toEgypt to the fouth. Npw the kingdom and defart bot, Sheldon, and Tennifon, and faid to confift of of Barca. This Libya was again fubdivided into Libya at leaft 15,000 printed books, and 617 volumes in taken in the ftricteft of all, and into Marmarica manufcript; that of Red-Crofs ftreet, founded by Dr and Cyrenaica.. Libyafenfe in the ftrifteft fenfe, otherwife Daniel Williams, a Prefbyterian divine, and fmce en- the Exterior, was the moft eaftern part of Libya Proriched by many private benefactions; that of the Royal pria, next to Egypt, with Marmarica on the weft, the

L I G L I C [ 27 1 Licence Mediterranean on the north, arid the Nubi, now called the rocks, and mix it with their tallow, to make golden 1 ’Lichen, 7 candles to burn on feftival days. * lci! ien Nubia, to the fouth, (Ptolemy). ^ v* ' , LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a perfon 5. The tartarius, or large yellow-faucer’d dyer’s lichen, is frequent on rocks, both in the Highlands ' to do fome lawful aft. Licenser of'tie Prefs. See Liberty of the Prefs, and Lowlands of Scotland. The cruft is thick and LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree tough, either white, or greenifh-white, and has a rough of a licence.—The greateft number of the officers of warted furface. The ihields are yellow or buff-cojuftice in Spain are diftinguiihed by no other title loured, of various fizes, from that of a pin’s head to than that cf licentiate. In order to pafs licentiate in the diameter of a filver penny. Their margins are of common law, civil law, and phyfic, they mull have the fame colour^as the cruft. This lichen is much ufed ftudied feven years, and in divinity ten. Among us a by the Highlanders for dyeing a fine claret or' pomlicentiate ufually means a phyfician who has a licence padour colour. For this purpofe, after fcraping it from the rocks, and cleaning it, they fteep it in urine for to praftife, granted by the college of phyficians. LICETUS, a celebrated phyfician of Italy, was born a quarter of a year. Then taking it out, they make it cakes, and hang them up in bags to dry. Thefe at Rappollo, in the ftate of Genoa, 1577. He came, it into feems, into the world, before his mother had complet- cakes are afterwards pulverifed, and the powder is ufed ed the feventh month of her pregnancy ; but his father, to impart the colour with an addition of alum. being an ingenious phyfician, wrapped him up in cotton, 6. The parellus, or crawfiih-eye lichen, grows upon and nurtured him fo, that he lived to be 77 years of walls and rocks, but is not very common. The crufts age. He was trained with great care, and became fpread clofely upon the place where they grow, and a very diftinguiihed man in his profeffion ; and was the cover them to a confiderable extent. They are rough, author of a great number of works: his book De tartareous, and aih-coloured, of a tough coriaceous fubMonjlris every body mull have heard of. He was ftance. The ffiields are numerous and crowded, having profeflbr of philofophy and phyfic at Padua, where he white or afh-coloured, (hallow, plain difcs, with obtufe margins. This is ufed by the French for dyeing a red died in 1655. LICHEN, liver wort, in botany; a genus of colour. the natural order of algae, belonging to the ciyptoga- 7. The faxatilis, or grey-blue pitted lichen, is very mia clafs of plants. The male receptacle is roundilh, common upon trunks of trees, rocks, tiles, and old fomewhat plain and fhining. In the female the leaves wood. It forms a circle two or three inches diameter. have a farina or mealy fubftance fcattered over them. The upper furface is of a blue-grey and fometimes of There are about 130 fpecies, all found in Britain. a whitifh afti-colour, uneven, and full of numerous finall pits or cavities ; the under fide is black, and covered all Among the moll remarkable are the following : 1. The geographicus; it is frequent in rocks, and over, even to the edges, with (hort fimple hairs or may be readily diftinguiihed at a diftance. The cruft radicles. A variety fometimes occurs with leaves tinged or ground is of a bright greenilh-yellow colour, of a red or purple colour. This is ufed by finches and fprinkled over with numerous plain black tubercles; other fmall birds in conftrufting the outfide of their which frequently run into one another, and form lines curioully formed nefts. refembling the rivers in a map, from which laft cir- 8. The omphalodes, or dark-coloured dyers lichen, is frequent upon rockg. It forms a thick widely .excumftance it takes its name. 2. The calcarious, or black-nobbed dyer’s lichen, panded cruft of no regular figure, compofed of numeis frequent on calcarious rocks; and hath a hard, rous imbricated leaves of a brown or dark-purple colour, fmooth, white, Honey, or tartareous cruft, cracked or divided info fmall fegments. The margins of the (hields tefielated on the furface, with black tubercles. Dille- are a little crifped and turned inwards, and their outfide nius relates, that this fpecies is ufed in dyeing, in the afti-coloured. The lichen is much ufed by the Highfame manner as the tartareus after mentioned. landers in dyeirig a reddifh brown colour. They fteep it 3. The ventofus, or red fpangled tartareous lichen, in urine for a confiderable time, till it becomes foft and hath a hard tartareous cruft, cracked and tefielated on like a pafte ; then, forming the pafte into cakes, they the furface, of a pale yellow colour when frelh, and a dry them in the fun, and preferve them for ufe in the light olive when dry. The tubercles are of a blood- manner already related of the tartarius. red colour at top, their margin and bafe of the fame 9. The parietinus, or common yellow wall-lichen, is colour as the cruft. The texture and appearance of very common upon walls, rocks, tiles of houfes, and this (according to Mr Lightfoot), indicate that it trunks of trees. It generally fpreads itfelf in circles would anfwer the purpofes of dyeing as well as fome of two or three inches diameter, and is faid to dye a others of this tribe, if proper experiments were made. good yellow or orange colour with alum. 4. The candelarius, or yellow farinaceous lichen, is 10. The iflandicus, or eatable Iceland lichen, grows on common upon walls, rocks, boards, and old pales. many mountains both of the Highlands and Lowlands There are two varieties. The firft has a farinaceous of Scotland. It confifts of nearly eredl leaves about cruft of no regular figure, covered with numerous, two inches high, of a ftiff fubftance when dry, but foft fmall, greenifh-yellow, or olive fhields, and grows and pliant wdien moift, varioufly divided without order commonly upon old boards. The other has a fmooth, into broad diftant fegments, bifid or trifid at the exhard, circular cruft, wrinkled and lobed at the circum- tremities. The upper or interior furface of the leaves is ’ ference, which adheres clofely to rocks and ftones. In concave, chefnut colour, fmooth, and (hining, but red at the centre are numerous (hields of a deeper'yellow or the bafe ; the under or exterior furface is fmoofh and orange colour, which, as they grow old, fwell in the whitilh, a little pitted, and fprinkled with very minute middle, and affume the figure of tubercles. The in- black warts. The margins of the leaves and all the kabitants of Smaland in Sweden fcrape this lichen from fegments from bottom to top are ciliated with fmall, D2 ftiort,

LIC [ 28 T LI C ; in rainy weathdr, of a dull fufeous green cofhort, ftiff, hair-like fpinules, of a dark chefnut colour, loured turning towards the upper fide. The fhields are very lour ; their under-fide white and hoary, having many thick downy nerves, from which defeend numerous, rarely produced. For the ufes of this as an efculent long, pencil-like radicles. The peltae, or fliields, herb,fee Iceland, n° 10. Made into broth or gruel, it is grow white, at the extremities of the elevated lobes, fhaped faid to be very ferviceable in coughs and confumptions; and, according to Haller and Scopoli, is much ufed in like the human nail; of a roundifh oval form, convex above, and concave beneath ; of a chocolate colour oil thefe complaints in Vienna. ■ 11. The pulmonarius, or lung-wort lichen, grows in the upper fide, and the fame colour with the leaves on under. There are two varieties, the one called ihady woods upon the trunks of old trees. The leaves the are as broad as a man’s hand, of a kind,of leather-like rcdd'ijh, and the other many-fingered, ground-liverwort. fubftanee, hanging loofe from the trunk on which it The former is more common than the other. This grows, and laciniated into wide angular fegments. Their fpecies has been rendered famous by the celebrated Dr natural colour, when freflr, is green; but in drying, Mead, who afferted that it was an infallible preventative they turn firil to a glaucous and afterwards to a fufeous of the dreadful confequences attending the bite of a mad colour. It has an aftringent, bitter tafte; and, ac- dog. He directed half an ounce of the leaves dried cording to Gmelin, is boiled in ale in Siberia, inftead of and pulverifed to be mixed with two drachms of powhops. The ancients ufed it in coughs and afthmas, &c. dered black pepper. This was to be divided into four dofes, one of which was to be taken by the patient but it is not ufed in modern pra&ice. 12. The calicaris, or beaked lichen, grows fonletimes every morning falling, for four mornings fucceifively, upon trees, but more frequently upon rocks, efpecially in half a pint of warm cow’s milk ; after which he was©n the fea-coads, but is not very common. It is fmooth, te ufe the cold bath every morning for a month. It is gloffy, and whitilh, producing flat or convex fliields, much to he lamented, however, that the fuccefs of this, of the fame colour as the leaves,-very near the fummits medicine, or. indeed any other recommended for the of the fegments, which are acute and rigid, and, being fame purpofe, hath not always anfwered the expecoften reflected from the perpendicular by the growth of tation. There are inftances where the application hasthe fliields, appear from under their limbs like a hooked not prevented the hydrophobia, and it is even uncerbeak. This will dye a red colour ; and promifes, in that tain whether it has ever been inftrumental in keeping off intention, to rival the famous Lichen Rocolla or Argot, that diforder. which is brought from the Canary Iflands, and fome- 16. The aphthofus,.or green ground-liverwort with times fold aj; the price of 801. per ton. It was formerly black warts, grows upon, the ground at the roots of trees in woods, and other ftoney and moffy places. It ufed inftead of ftarch to make hair-powder, 13. The pninaftri, or common ragged hoary lichen, differs very little from the foregoing, and according togrows upon all forts of trees ; but it is generally moft fame is only a variety of it. Linnaeus informs us, that white and hoary on the floe and old palm trees, or the country-people of Upland in Sweden give an infulip on old pales. This is the moft variable of the whole flon of this lichen in milk to children that are troubled, tribe of lichens, appearing different in figure, magni- with the diforder called the ihrujh or aphtha, which intude, and colour, according to its age, place of growth, duced that ingenious naturalift to bellow upon it the and fex. The young plants are of a glaucous colour, trivial name of apthofus. The fame writer alfo tells us, {lightly divided into fmall acute .crefted fegments. As that a decoflion of it in water purges upwards and they grow older, they are divided like a flag’s horn, downwards, and will deftroy worms. into more and deeper fegments, fomewhat broad, flat, 17. The cocciferus, or icarlet-tipped cup-lichen, is. foft, and pitted on both fides, the upper furface of a frequent in moors and heaths. It has inthe firft Hate glaucous colour, the under one white and hoary.—The a granulated cruft for its ground, which is afterwards male plants, as Linnaeus terms them, are fhort, feldom turned into fmall laciniated leaves, green above, and more than an inch high, not hoary on the under fide ; hoary underneath. The plant affumes a very different and have pale glaucous ftiields fituated at the extremi- afpedl, according to the age, fituation, and other acties of the fegmenta, Handing on fhort peduncles, which cidents of its growth; but may be in general readily are only fmall ftiff portions of the leaf produced.—The dillinguilhed by its fructifications, which are fungous female fpecimens have numerous farinaceous tubercles tubercles of a fine fcarlet colour, placed on the rim of' both on the edges of their leaves, and the wrinkles of the cup, or on the top of the ftalk. Thefe tubercles, their furface.—The pulverifed leaves have been ufed as fteeped in an alcaline lixivium, are faid to dye a fine dua powder for the hair, and alfo in dyeing yarn of a red rable red colour. colour. 18. The rangiferinus, or rein-deer lichen, is frequent 14. The jupiperinus, or common yellow tree-lichen, in woods, heaths, and mountainous places. Its geneis common upon the trunks and branches of elms and ral height, when full grown, is about two. inches. The many other trees. Linnoeus fays it is very common up- ftalk is hollow, and very much branched from bottom qn the juniper. The Gothland Swedes dye their yarn to tdp : the branches are divided and fubdivided, of a yellow colour with it, and give it as a fpecific in the and at laft terminated by two, three, four, or five very jaundice. fine, ftiort, nodding horns. The axillae of the branch15. The caninus, or afh-coloured ground-liverwort, es are often perforated. The whole plant is of a hoary grows upon the ground among mofs, at the roots of white or grey colour, covered with white farinaceous trees in fhady woods, and is frequent alfo in heaths and particles, light and brittle when dry, foft and elaftic Atony places. The leaves are large, gradually dilated to- when moift. The fructifications'are very minute, round, wards the extremities, and divided into roundifh eleva- fufeous, or reddifli-brown tubercles, which grow on Hdlobss. Their upper fide, in dry weather, is afh-co- the very extremities of the fineft branches ; but thefe 6 tu*

likhen H lachtenes ' k

LIC l 29 1 LID tcbercles are very feldom found. The plant feerns circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Bamberg, featedT Liclittntoyhave no foliaceous ground for the bafe, nor fcarcely on the river Mayne, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. ftein an vifible roots.—Linnxus tells us, that in Lapland 50.20. this mofs grows fo luxuriant that it is fometimes found LICHTENSTEIN,a town of Swifferland, in Tock- ,_Ll^el; , a foot high. There are many varieties of this fpecies, erberg, feated on the river Thour. E. Long. 2. 15. of which the principal is the fylvaticus, or brown-tipt N. Lat. 47. 25. rein-deer lichen. The moft remarkable difference be- LICHTSTALL, an handfome town of Swiflerland, tween them is, that the fylvaticus turns fufeous by age, in the county of Bade ; feated on the river Ergetz. In while the other always continues white. For the ufes of E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 47. 40. thefe fpecies, fee Lapland. LICINIUS Stolo, a famous Roman tribune, 19. The plicatus, or officinal ftringy lichen, grows ftyled Slo/o on account of a law he made, while tribune, on the branches of old trees, but is not very common. that no Roman citizen ftiould poffefs more than 500 The ftalks are a Loot or more in length, cylindrical, acres of land ; alleging, that when they occupied more, rigid, and, ftring-ffiaped, very irregularly branched, they could not cultivate it with care, nor pull up the ufethe branches entangled together, of a cinereous or afh- lefs fhoots (Jio/ones) that grow from the roots of trees. He colour, brittle and ftringy if doubled fhort, otherwife is memorable alfo for enabling, that one of the confuls. tough and pliant, and hang pendent from the trees on Ihould always be of a Plebeian family. He lived about which they grow. The fhields grow generally at the 362 B. C. extremities of the branches, are nearly flat, or flightly LICNON,. in the Dionyfian folemnities, the myconcave, thin, afh-coloured above, pale-brown under- ftical van of Bacchus ; a thing fo effential to all the neath, and radiated with fine rigid fibres. As the folemnities of this god, that they could not be duly cele*plant grows old, the branches become covered with brated without it. SccDionysia. a white, rough, warty cruft; but the young ones are LICNOPHORI, in the Dionyfian folemnity,, deftitute of it. It was formerly ufed in the fhops as an thofe who carried the licnon. aftringent to flop hsemorrhagies, and to cure ruptures ; LICOLA, or Lago-bi-Licola, a lake in the kingbut is out of the modern praftice. Linnxus informs dom of Naples, formerly famous for plenty of excellent us, that the Laplanders apply it to their feet to relieve fiffi; but in the year 1538 an explofion of a volcano the excoriations occafioned by much walking. changed one part of it into a mountain of affies, and the 20. The barbatus, or bearded lichen, grows upon the other into a morafs. It was anciently known by the branches of old trees in thick woods and pine-forefts. name of the Lucrine-lake. The ftalks or firings are flightly branched and pendu- LICONIA, in botany : A genus of the digynia orlous, from half a foot to two feet in- length, little big- der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There ger than a taylor’s common fewing thread; cylindrically are five petals inlaid in the pit of the ne&arium at its jointed towards the bafe ; but furrounded every where bafe ; the capfule is bilocular and feed-bearing. elfe with numerous, horizontal, capillary fibres, either LICTORS, among the Romans, were ofiicers eftafimple or flightly branched. Their colour is a whitifh blifhed by Romulus, who always attended the chief magreen. This has an aftringent quality like the preceding. giftrates when they appeared in public. When fleeped in water, it acquires an orange colour ; The duty of their office confifted in the three followand, according to Dillenius, is ufed in Penfylvania for ing particulars : 1. Submotio, or clearing the way for the dyeing that colour. magiftrate they attended : this they did by word of 21. The vulpinus, or gold-wiry lichen, grows upon mouth ; or, if there was occafion, by ufing the rods they the trunks of old trees, but is not very common. It is always carried along with them. 2. Ammadverfw, or produced in ere£l tufts, from half an inch to two inches caufing the people to pay the ufual refpedl to tlie magiin height, of a fine yellow or lemon-colour, which readi- ftrate, as to alight, if on horfeback or in a chariot ; to, ly difeovers it. The filaments which compofe it are not rife up, uncover, make way, and the like. 3. Praitio, or cylindrical, but a little comprefled and uneven in the walking before the magiftrates : this they did not confurface, varioufly branched, the gngles obtufe, and the fufedly, or altogether, nor by two or three abreaft, . branches ftraggling and entangled one with another. but fingly following one another in a ftraight liner They Linnxus informs us, that the inhabitants of Smaland alfo preceded the triumphal car in public triumphs; and in Sweden dye their yarn of a yellow colour with this it was alfo part of their office to arreft criminals, and to lichen ; and that the Norwegians deftroy wolves by be public executioners in beheading, &c» Their enfigni fluffing dead carcafes with this mofs reduced to pow- were the fasces and securis. der, and mixed with pounded glafs, and fo ekpofing As to the number of lidlors allowed each magiftrate, them in the winter-feafon to be devoured by thofe ani- a dictator had twenty-four, a mafter of the horfe fix, a mals. conful twelve, a prxto.r fix ; and each veftal virgin, when LICHFIELD. See Litchfield. ftie appeared abroad, had one. LICHTENBERG, a caftle of France, in Lower LIDD. See Lydd. Alface, and the chief place of a county of the fame LIDDEL (Dr Duncan), profeflbr ofmathematics, name; feated on a rock, near the mountains Vofges, and of medicine in the univerfity of Helmftadt, was born and is looked upon as impregnable. E. Long. 7. 35. in the year 1561 at Aberdeen, where he received the firft N. Lat. 48. 55. part of his education in languages-andphilofophy. About LICHTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the age of eighteen he repaired to the univerfity of Franceircle of Franconia, and margravate of Cullembach. the fort, where he fpent three years in a diligent application E. Long. 12. o. N. Lat. 50. 26. to mathematics and phildfophy. From Francforf he LICHTENFELS, a town of Germany, in the proceeded to Wratiflaw, or Bre-flaw, in Silefia, where

LID L 30 ] LID I-iddeJ. he is faid to have made uncommon progrefs in his fa- and Mahometan faith, and a return of the golden age in Lidfbrd vourite ftudy of mathematics, under the direction of a 1700, preparatory to the end of the world. Theimpofvery eminent profefibr, Paulus Wittichius. Having ftu- ture was foon after difcovered to be a thin plate of gold, died at Breflaw for the fpace of one year, he returned to fkilfully drawn over the natural tooth by an artift of that Francfort, and remained there three years, paying the country, with a view to excite the public admiration and moft intenfe application to the ftudy of pbyfic. A con- charity. 5. Artis confervandiSanitatem,lihri duo,Aberdonite, tagious diftemper having broke out at that place, the 1651, 12mo.; a pofthumous work. The merit of thefc Undents were difperfed,and Liddel retired to the univer- works of Dr Liddel, it is not now neceffary to eftifity of Roftock. Here he renewed his ftudies, rather as mate with>precilion. They appear, however, to con-' a companion than as a pupil of the celebrated Brucaeus, tain the moft fafhionable opinions and practice, in the who, though an excellent mathematician, did not fcruple medical art, of the age in which he lived ; nor is there to confefs that he was inftrudted by Liddel in the more almoft any difeafe or medical fubject then known of perfect knowledge of the Copernican fyftem, and other which he has not treated in one or other of his writings. aftronomical queftions. In 1590 he returned once more Of his language it may be fufficient to obferve, that to Francfort. But having there heard of the increafing the Latin is at leaft as pure as is generally found among reputation of the Academia Julia, efcablifiled at Helm- medical writers, and that his ftyle is plain and perfpiftadt by Henry duke of Brunfwick, Mr Liddel removed cuous, and fometimes even elegant. thither ; and foon after his arrival was appointed to LIDFORD, a village of Devonihire in England, the firft or lower profefibrftiip of mathematics. From fituated on the river Lid, two or three miles eaft of thence he was promoted to the fecond and more digni- Brent Tor, was formerly a famous town, with a caltle, fied mathematical chair, which he occupied for nine which was always committed to men of quality, and years, with much credit to himfelf and to the Julian twice fent burgefles to parliament. It was fadly {batAcademy. In 1596 he obtained the degree ofM. D. tered by the Danes in 997: and though now a conwas admitted a member of that faculty, and began pu- temptible village, the parifh may for lands and liberties blicly to teach phyfic. By his teaching and his writings compare with any in the kingdom, the whole foreft of he was the chief fupport of the medical fchool at Helm- Dartmore being in the' verge of it. The river here ftadt ; was employed as firft phyfician at the court of being pent up at the bridge with rocks, has made itfelf Brunfwick, and had much practice among the princi- fo deep a fall, by its continual working, that paflengers pal inhabitants of that country. Havingbeenfeveral times only hear the noife of the water without feeing it. elected dean of the faculties both of philofophyand phyfic, LIDKOPING, a town of Weft Gothland in Swehe had in the year 1604 the honour of being chofen pro- den, feated on the lake Wenar, in E. Long. 13. 40. reftor of the univerfity. But neither academical honours, N. Lat. 58. zy. nor the profits of an extenfive praftice abroad, could make LIDNEY, a town of Gloucefterfhire in England, Dr Liddel forget his native country. In the year 1600 71 miles from London, is feated on the weft bank of he took a final leave of the Academia Julia ; and after the river Severn, and has a market onWednefdays, with travelling for fome time through Germany and Italy, he two fairs in the year. In the neighbourhood are the at length fettled in Scotland. He died in the year remains of a large Roman encampment, with founda1613, in the fifty-fecond year of his age. By his laft tions of many ancient buildings, among which are the will he beftowed certain lands purchafed by him near ruins of a Roman hypocauft of an oval form, and Ro- ■ Aberdeen upon the univerfity there, in all time co- man antiquities and coins are often found here in great ming, for the education and fupport of fix poor fcho- number. Mr Bathurft has a fine feat here called Sydlars. Among a variety of regulations and injun&ions . ney-Park, with very extenfive woods adjoining. for the management of this charity, he appoints the LIE, in morals, denotes a criminal breach of vemagiftrates of Aberdeen his truftees, and folemnly de- racity. —Archdeacon Paley, in treating of this fubieft, nounces the eurfe of God on any perfon who (hall abufe obferves, that there are falfehoods which are not lies; or mifapply it. His works are, 1. Difputationes M#di- that is, which are not criminal: and there are lies which einales, Helmjladt, 1603, 410. 2. sirs Medico, fuccincte are not literally and dire&ly falfe. et perfpicue explicata, Hamlurgbi, 1607, 8«o. This per- I. Cafes of the firft clafs are thofe, 1. Where no one formance is dedicated to king James VI. and is divid- is deceived: as for inftance in parables, fables, novels, ed into five books, viz. Introduilio in totam Medicinam; jefts, tales to create mirth, or ludicrous embellifhments De Phyjiologia ; De Pathologia ; De Signonem doclrina ; of a ftory, in which the declared defign of the fpeaker De Therapcutica. 3. De Febribus Lilri tres, Hamburghi, is not to inform, but to divert; compliments in the 1610, l2mo. A...Tra8atns de dente aureo,Hamburghi, 1628, fubfcription of a letter ; aprifoner’s pleading not guil12mo. This laft performance Dr Liddel publiftied in ty ; an advocate aflerting the juftice, or his belief of order to refute a ridiculous ftoiy then current of a the juftice, of his client’s caufe. In fuch inftances no poor boy in Silefia, who, at feven years of age, having confidence is deftroyed, becaufe none was repofed ; no loft fome of his teeth, brought forth, to the aftonifti- promife to fpeak the truth is violated, becaufe none ment of his parents, a new tooth of pure gold. Ja- was given or underftood to be given. 2. Where the cobus Horftius, doctor and profeflbr of medicine in perfon you fpeak to has no right to know the truth, the Academia Julia, at the fame time with our author, or more properly where little or no inconveniency rehad publiftied a book, which he dedicated to the Em- fults from the want of confidence in fuch cafes; as peror Rudolphus II. to prove that this wonderful tooth where you tell a falfehood to a madman for his own was a prodigy fent from heaven to encourage the Ger- advantage ; to a robber to conceal your property ; to mans then at war with the Turks, and foretelling, from to defeat or to divert him from his purpofe. this golden tooth, the future vidtories of the Chrif- anIt affaflin is upon this principle, that, by the laws of war, it tians, with the final deftrudtion of the Turkifti empire is allowed to deceive an enemy by feints, falfe colours, 4 fpies.

L 1 LIE E [ ;i ] Lie fpies, falfe intelligence, and the like: but, by no means, fees held of him, that they were obliged to do him all manner of fervice, as if they were his domeltics. He " l. !I ^ in treaties, truces, Cgnals of capitulation, or furrender: this was formerly called Utgium fervitiurr,. and the ' and the difference is, that the former fuppofe hoftili- adds, ties to continue,. the latter are calculated to terminate perfon litge. In this fenfe, the word is ufed, Leg. Edw. cap. 29. Judai fab tutela regis Ugea debent ejfe; or fufpend them. Many people indulge in ferious difcourfe a habit of that is, wholly under his prote&ion. fiction and exaggeration, in the accounts they give of By liege homage, the vaffal was obliged to ferve his towards all, and againft all, excepting his father. themfelves, of their acquaintance, or of the extraordi- lord nary things which they have feen or heard ; and fo In which fenfe, the word was ufed in oppofition to long as the fails they relate are indifferent, and their fimple homage ; which laft only obliged the vaffal to pay narratives though falfe are iuoffenfive, it may feem a the rights and accuftomed dues to his lord ; and not to fuperititious regard to truth to cenfure them merely bear arms againft the emperor, prince, or other fupefor truth’s fake. Yet the practice ought to be check- rior lord : fo that a liege man was a perfon wholly deed : for, in the firft place, it is almoft impoffible to voted to his lord, and entirely under his command. • pronounce beforehand, with certainty, concerning any Omnibus, &c. Regimldus, rex Infularum, falutetn. Sciatis lie, that it is inoffenfive ; or to fay what ill confe- quoddeveni homo ligeus domini regis Anglia Johannis, contra quences may refult from a lie apparently inoffenfive : omnes martales, quamdiu vixero ; iff inde ei Jidelitatem iff faAnd, in the next place, tire habit, when once formed, cramentum prajliti, &c. MS. penes W. Dugdale. is eafily extended to ferve the deligns of malice or in- But it muff be obferved, there were formerly two tereft ; like all habits, it fpreads indeed of itfelf. Pious kinds of liege homage : the one, by which the vaffal frauds, as they are improperly enough called, pretend- was obliged to ferve his lord, againft all, without exed infpirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are ception even of his fovereign ; the other, by which he impoutions of a more ferious nature. It is poffible was to ferve him againft all, except fuch other lords as that they may fometimes, though feldom, have been he had formerly owed liege homage to. fet up and encouraged with a defign to do good: but In our old ftatutes lieges, and liege people, are . the good they aim at requires, that the belief of them terms peculiarly appropriated to the king’s fubjebls ; as fhould be perpetual, which, is hardly poffible ; and the being'liges, ligi, or ligati, obliged to pay allegiance to . detection of the fraud is fure to difparage the credit him; 8 Henry VI. 14 Hen. VIII. &c. though priof all pretenfions of the fame nature. Chriftianity has vate perfons had their lieges too. Reinaldus, Dei grafuffered more injury from this caufe than from all other tia, abbas Ramefue, prapofito iy hominibus de BranceJIre, iff omnibus vicinis Francis iff Anglis, falutem. Sciatis eaufes put together. II. As there may be falfehoods which are not lies, me dedijfe terram Ulfe, in depedene (hodie depedale) huic Jo there may be lies without literal or diredt falfehood. Bofelino, iff uxori ejus Alfuia—-ea conditione quod eJfeSi An opening is always left for this fpecies of prevarica- Jint homines leges. Lib. Ramef. tion, when the literal and grammatical fignification of LiEGF.-PouJlie, in Scots law, is oppofed to deatha fentence is different from the popular and cuftomary bed ; and fignifies a perfon’s enjoying that ftate of meaning. It is the wilful deceit that makes the lie ; health in which only he can difpofe of his property at and we wilfully deceive, when our expreffions are not pleafure'. true, in the fenfe in which we believe tlfe hearer ap- LIEGE, a biffiopric of Germany, in the circle of prehends them. Befides, it is abfurd to contend for Weftphalia; bounded to the north by Brabant, to the any fenfe of words, in oppofition to ufage ; for all fouth by Champagne and Luxemberg, to the eaft by fenfes of all words are founded upon ufage, and upon Limburg and Juliers, and to the weft by Brabant, nothing elfe.. Or a man may acl a lie ; as by pointing Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal both in his finger in a wrong direction, when a traveller in- length and breadth; the former being in fome places quires of him his road ; or when a tradefman ffiuts up above 90 miles, in others not half fo much ; and the his windows, to induce his creditors to believe that he latter in forpe places 45, in others hardly 25. The is abroad : for to all moral purpofes, and therefore as air here is very temperate; and the foil fruitful in to veracity, fpeech and action are the fame ; fpeech corn, wine, wood, and pafture. Here alfo are mines being only a mode of adtion. of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and LIECHTENAU,,a town of Germany, in the cir- ftone, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as fhofe cle of Franconia and margrayate of Anfpach, fubjedt of Spa and Chau-fontaine. The principal rivers are, to Nurenburg. E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 48. 43. the Maes and Sambre. The manufaftures and comLIEGE {Ligius,) in law, properly fignifies a vaf- modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails, fal, who holds a kind of fee, that binds him in a clo- ferge, leather, with the produbts we have juft menfer obligation to his lord than other people. tioned. The ftates of the biftiopric are compofed of. The term feems to be’ derived from the French Her three bodies: the firft is the chapter of Liege; the “tobind on-account of a ceremony ufed in render- fecond, the nobility of the country ; and the third, the ing faith or homage : which was by locking the vaffal’s deputies of the capital and the other towns. The thumb or his hand in that of the lord, to Ihow that three eftates are feldom called together, except to he was faff bound by his oath of fidelity. Cujas, raife taxes for the fervice of the province, or upon Vigenere, and Bignon, choofe rather to derive the fome particular emergency ; but there is a committee word from the fame fource with leudis or leodi, “ loy- of the ftates, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of al, faithful.” But Du Cange falls in with the opi- war daily. They are always about the prince-bifhop, nion of thofe who derive it from //Vi, a kind of vaffals, to make retnonftrances, and demand the redrefs of * fo firmly attached to their lord, on account of lands or grievances. The bilhop is fpiritual and temporal lord of

LIE t 3- T LIE of the vv4iole country; but, as bifhop, is fuffragan to Englifh traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an in* the archbifliop of Cologne. He ftyles himfelf, by the feription in barbarous French, recuefting thofe who grace of God, bi/hop and prince of Liege, duke of Bou- read it to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the illon, marquis of Franchimont, count of Looz, Hoorn, 8cc. faddle, fpurs, and knife, that he made ufe of in his •His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pede- travels. After having feen moft of the cities of any ftal of the fame, with a crown or, in a field ruby. note in the world, he made choice of this to fpend the In the matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horfe eve of his life in. A little way from the city, on the and 170 foot; or 1280 florins monthly, in lieu of other fide the Maes, ftands the epifcopal palace of them, but now only at 826. An abatement of one Seraing, in which the bifhops generally refide during third has alfo been granted of the ancient affefiment the fummer. The latitude of this city is 50. 36. N. and to the chamber-court, which was 360 rix-dollars the longitbde 5. 40. E. 621 kruitzers for each term. Here are feveral col- Some difturbances took place here in the year 1789, leges which fit at Liege, for the government of the in confequence of certain difputes that had arifen becountry, and the decrfion of caufes, civil, criminal, tween the prince-bifhop and the inhabitants. The latter fpiritual, and feudal, and of fuch alfo* as, relate to the having demanded certain privileges, which he did not finances. The chapter confifts of 60 perfons, who think proper to grant, they took up arms, and compelled •muft either prove their nobility for four generations, • him and his chapter to comply with their requeft. The both by father and mother, before they can be ad- prince, together with many of the clergy, nobility, and mitted : or if they cannot do that, muft at leaft have citizens, alarmed by this commotion, and dreading the "been doctors or, licentiates of divinity for feven years, confequences of popular fury, which when once roufed, or, of law, for five years, in feme famous univerfity. feldom knows any bounds, fought fafety by a voluntary The bilhopric is very populous and extenfive, contain- exile. They then appealed to the imperial -chamber 1 ing 1500 parilhes, in which are .24 walled towns, be- and this tribunal, inftead of acting the part of arbiter, fides others, 52 baronies, befides counties and feignio- decided as afovereign, and ordered the circles of the ries, 17 abbeys for men, who muft be all gentlemen, Lower Rhine and Weftphalia to execute the fentence. and 11 for ladies, exclufive of others. The king of Pruffia, at whofe court one of the chiefs Liege, the capital of the biflioprre of the fame of the infurrefHon had refided, and who wifhed to gain —name, ftands upon the Maes, in a fine valley, fur- a party at Liege, became mediator •; and feemed to farounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial vour the Liegoife, many of whofe claims were juft, city, and one of the largeft and moft eminent in Europe. though they attempted to enforce them by violence Though it is too miles from the fea by water, the and the moft illegal fteps. Intoxicated with this proMaes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates; teftion, the people of Liege treated the remonftrances 17 bridges, fome of them very handfome ; 154 ftreets, of their bifliop, the decrees of the imperial chamber, many of them ftraight and broad; a fine epifcopal and the refolutions of the directory of the two circles, palace; a very large ftately cathedral, in which, be- with the utmoft contempt; and proceeded fo far as fides five great filver coffers full of reliques, are feveral even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent lilvcr ftatues of faints, and a St George on horfeback in the perfon of a French prelate. The electoral colof maffy gold, prefented to the cathedral by Charles lege having deliberated on the beft means of putting the Bold, by way of atonement for ufing the inhabi- an end to thefe difturbances, its propofitions, though motants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches, dified by M. Dohm the Pruflian plenipotentiary, made •that of St Paul is the moft remarkable, both for its the infurgents break out into open fedition. Deluded by ftrudlure and fine ornaments in painting and marble. their leaders, they gave themfelves up every day to new The city is well fortified, and there are alfo two exceffes; the effefts of the citizens were expofed t« caftles on the mountain of the Holy Walburg for its pillage, and their perfons to infult. The king of defence. • Befides a great number of other convents of Pruffia, who was defirous to bring matters to an acboth fexes, here is a college of Englifh Jefuits, found- commodation, and not, to inftigate the Liegoife to ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of Engliftr become independent, finding that the efforts of his Jadies. Indeed, churches, convents, (and other reli- minifter were not attended with the defired fuccefs, gious foundations, take up the greater part of it. feemeed unwilling to interfere any farther in an affair The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for which might have led him into a quarrel with the emgranted, that it is a moft bleffed, holy, and happy pire. The executive troops, at the fame time, recity. But however it may fare with the profane, un- mained almoft in a ftate of fnaftivity; and feemed rahallowed laity, it is certainly the paradife of priefts, ther to guard the frontiers of this petty ftate, than to as it is exprefsly called, by way of eminence. It is make any attempt to reduce it to obedience. Neither divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower; this conduct, however,' nor the exhortations of Pruflia, and the latter again into the ifland, and the quarter added to the moral certainty of their being foon combeyond the Maes. The houfes are high, and built pelled to lay down their arms, made any change in tlic of bluilh marble. In the town and fuburbs are 12 conduct of the malecontents. They declared openly, public places or fquares, 10 hofpitals, a beguin-houfe, in the face of all Europe, that they would either con-and two fine keys, planted with feveral rows of trees, quer or die ; and they perfifted in this refolution, while for the burghers to take the air ; but a great part of commerce, manufactures, and the public revenues, that within the walls is taken up with orchards and were going daily to decay. vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms, Having at length openly attacked the executive nails, leather, ferge, and beer. In St William’s forces without the territories of their city, the empeconvent, without the city, is the tomb of the fara@u» ror could no longer remaitf an indifferent fpe&ator. It was N° 181,

LIE T 33 1 LIE Liege, was nowt ie fulle0time to put a period to that madnefs to born at Leyden in 1607. He dilcovered an early in- K>C811 Lieoue clination for the arts, and was the difciple firft of Joris v ' Lievers ’, accomplilh ^ PthisP^ in an abandoned themfelves and to van Schooten, and afterwards effectual manner, the ;imperial of Peter Laftman. He chamber at Wetzlar requefted the emperor, as a mem- excelled principally in painting portraits; but he alfoexeber of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its cuted feveral hiftorical fubjefts with great fuccefs. He orders refpefting this objeft. In confequence of this came over into England, where he refided three years, meafure, Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body of and painted the portraits of Charles I. the queen, the Auftrians cantoned in Limburgh and the confines of prince of Wales, and feveral of the nobility; after Brabant, notified, by order of Marlhal Bender, to which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with the ftates and municipality of Liege, that the em- full employment for his pencil. We have feveral etchperor intended to fend troops into their city and terri- ings by this mafter, which are performed in a flight, tories, for the purpofe of reftoring tranquillity and but mafterly manner. The chiaro fcuro is very flrilgood order. The ftates had already been informed of fully managed in them, fo as to produce a mpft powerthis refolution by their agent at Wetzlar. They there- ful effeft. His ftyle of etching bears fome refemblance fore wrote to Marlhal Bender, to affure him of the to that of Rembrandt; but it is coarfer in general, and refpeftful confidence which they placed in the jullice lefs finiftied. and magnanimity of the emperor, and to requeft that LIEOU-KIEOU, the name of certain iflands of the Auftrian troops might enter alone, without thofe Afia, fubjeft to China; but hitherto little known to ef the electors ; and that they might be confined to occu- geographers, who have been fatisfied with marking py the gates and the fuburbs only. To this letter, which their exiftence and latitude' in their charts. They, was carried to Bruflels by a deputation of the ftates, however, form a powerful and extenfive empire, the Marihal Bender returned a very fatisfaftory anfwer, re- inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to lating to the difpofition of the eleftoral troops: but be confounded with other favage nations difperfed Baron Alvinzi, in a note which he wrote to the ftates, throughout the iflands of Afia. Father Gabil, a Jeinfifted among other articles, that all the citizens fliould fuit, has furnilhed us with fome interefting details rcthrow down their arms; that proper accommodations fpe£ting thefe iflanders, which he extraded from a fhould be prepared for the officers and men ; that the Chinefe relation, publiftied in 1721, at the end of a warlike ftores, collected for making refiftance, fliould voyage that was undertaken on the following account. . be removed ; and that cockades, and every other di- The emperor Kang-hi having refolved, in 1719, to ftin&ive mark of the like kind, ftiould be laid afide be- fend an ambaflador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chofe fore the arrival of the Imperial troops. However hu- for this purpofe one of the great doctors of the emmiliating thefe preliminaries might be, efpecially that pire, named Supao-Koang. This learned man departof a general difarming, the ftates and municipalities ac- ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in quielced without the leaft referve ; and their fubmiffion, 1720, where, in the year following, he caufed a relaas fudden as complete, was communicated to the people, tion of his voyage to be publiftied in two volumes. It is in the firft of thefe that he gives an accurate and with an exhortation to follow their example. Notwithftanding this pacific appearance, two days particular defcription of the ifles of Lieou-kieou; and before the entrance of the Imperial troops, the muni- what he relates appears to be worthy of the greater credit, being on the fpot, he examined, as he himcipal council of Liege, flattering themfelves, perhaps,. becaufe, with the hopes of affiftance from Pruffia, affured the felf fays, according to the orders of the emperor, whatinhabitants that they would remain unftiaken in their everjie found curious or interefting, refpe&ing the numpoft, and that they had fworn never to defert the caufe ber, fituation, and productions of thefe ifles; as all* in which they were engaged. This, however, did not the hiftory, religion, manners, and cuftoms of the people prevent the Auftrian troops, to the number of 6000, who inhabit them. from penetrating, without oppofition, into the heart Thefe ifles, fituated between Corea, Formofa, and of the city ; where they occupied every poft; made Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largeft the citizens lay afide their arms, uniforms, and cock- is called Lieou-kieou ; the reft have each a particular de* ades ; and, in a Angle hour, dethroned fo many fove- nomination. The largeft ifland extends from north to reigns of a year. The greater part of the municipal fouth almoft 440 lys, and 120 or 130 from eaft to weft ; officers, who, two days before, had folemnly promifed but on the fouth fide, the extent from eaft to weft is fuch great things, betook themfelves to flight, and re- not 100 lys. The fouth-eaft part of the ifland, where tired either to France or Wefel; while the ancient the court refides, is called Cheouli; and it is there that magiftracy, which had been expelled in the month of Kint-ching, the capital city, is fituated. The king’s Auguft 1789, was provifionally re-inftated by the di- palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in /cumreftorial commiffioners.—The decrees of the imperial ference, is built on a neighbouring mountain, it has chamber at Wetzlar have fince been executed in their four gates, which correfpoud to the four cardinal points; and that which fronts the weft forms the grand entry. -utmoft extent. The ancient magiftracy and the privy- The view which this palace commands is moft extenfiv# council of the prince bifliop have been reftored; and the prince himfelf having returned, peace and good and delightful; it reaches as far as the port of Napakiang, at the diftance of ten lys, to the city of Kintorder have been re-eftablilhed. L1ENTERY, a flux of the belly, in which the ching, and to a great number of other cities, towns, aliments are difcharged as they are fwallowed, or very villages, palaces, temples, monafteries, gardens, and little altered either in colour or fubftance. See (Index pleamre-houfes. It ftands in longitude 146° 26' eaft, fubjoinedto) Medicine. and in latitude 26° 2' north. LIEVENS (John or Jan), a celebrated painter, was If we believe thefe iflanders, the origin of their emE . pure Vou X. Part L

L I E [ 34 1 LIE pire is lo-ft in the remoteft antiquity. They reckon up commiffion, and he acquitted himfelf of it with all the 1 25 fuceeffive dynafties, the duration of which forms prudence and addrefs of an able minifter. In a private * period of more than 18,000 years. It would be ufe- audience which he had with Tfay-tou, he exhorted lefs to employ a fmgle moment in pointing out the ab- this prince to declare himfelf a tributary of the empire, furdity of thefe pretenfions. It is however certain, and laid before him the advantages he would derive that the exiftence of the country called Lieou-kieou was from this ftep. His reafonihg, fupported by the pownot known in China before the year 605 of the Chri- er of his natural eloquence, made fo much impreflioa ftian sera. It was in the courfe of that year, that one of on the mind of Tfay-tou, that he embraced the propothe emperors of the dynally of Soui, having heard of fal made him, and fent immediately to the emperor to thefe ifles, was defirous of knowing their fituation. demand the inveftiture of his ftates. This prince at firIt fent fome Chinefe thither ; but Hong-vou received his envoys in a magnificent mantheir expedition proved fruitlefs, as the want of inter- ner, and loaded them with prefents. He folemnly depreters prevented them from acquiring that knoTedge clared Tfay-tou a vafial of the empire; and, after hawhich was the objeft of their voyage. They only ving received his firft tribute (which confifted in valubrought fome of the iflanders with them to -Sigan-fou, able hones, aromatic wood, fulphur, copper, tin, &c.) the capital of the province of Chen-fi, which was the he fent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the ufual refidence of the emperors of the dynafty of Soui. choice he had made of one of his fons for fucceflbr. It fortunately happened, that an embafiador of the king The emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almoft all of Japan was then at court. This ambaflador and from the province of Fo-kien to Lieou-kieou. Tfayhis attendants immediately knew the ftrangers to be na- tou received them, affigned them lands near the port of tives of Lieou-kieou ; but they fpoke of thefe ifles as Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their of a miferable and wretched country, the inhabitants of ufe, at the fame time that Hong-vou made them conwhich had never been civilized. The emperor of'China fiderable remittances. Thefe families firft introduced afterwards learned, that the principal ifland lay to the into Lieou-kieou the learned language of the Chinefe, call of a city called at prefent Fou-tcheou-fou, which is the ufe of their chara&ers, and the ceremonies practithe capital of the province of Fo-kien ; and that, in a fed in China in honour of Confucius. On the other paffage of five days, one might reach the large ifland hand, the fons of feveral of the grandees of the court where the king kept his court. of Tfay-tou were fent to Nan-king, to ftudy Chinefe On this information, the emperor Yang-ti fent flcil- in the imperial college, where they were treated with ful men, accompanied by interpreters, tp fummon the diftinftion, and maintained at the emperor’s expences. prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to The ifles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor porpay him tribute. This propofal was very ill received. celain. Hong-vou fupplied this want; he caufed a The king of Lieou-kieou fent back the Chinefe, telling great number of utenfils of iron and inftruments to be them, fternly, that he acknowledged no prince to be made, which he fent thither, together with a quantity his fuperior. This anfwer irritated the emperor, who, of porcelain veflels. Commerce, navigation, and the to obtain revenge, caufed a fleet to be immediately arts foon began to flourifli. Thefe iflanders learned to equipped in Fo-kien, in which he embarked ia,ooo caft bells for their temples, to manufacture paper and men. This fleet fet fail, and arrived in fafety at the the fineft ftuffs, and to make porcelain, with which port of Napa-kiang. The army, in fpite of every effort they had been fupplied before from Japan. made by the natives, landed on the ifland; and the The celebrated revolution which placed the Tartars king, who had put himfelf at the head of his troops to on the imperial throne of China, produced no change oppofe the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinefe in the conduct of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Changpillaged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more tche, who was then reigning, fent embafladors to acthan 5000 flaves, and returned to China. Chun-tchi, and received a feal from him, on The emperors of the dynafty of Tang, thofe of tire knowledge which were engraven fome Tartar characters. It was fl.ort dynafties that followed, and thofe of the dynafty then fettled, that the king of Lieou-kieou fliould pay «f Song, although _ they were fully, informed of every hi»-tribute only every two years, and that the number thingrefpeCting the Lieou-kieou ifles, made no attemptsj of perfons in the train of his envoys fliould not exceed to render them tributary. In 1291, Chi-tfou, empe- 150. ros of the dynafty of Yven, was defirous of reviving the The emperor Kang-hi feemed to pay more attenpretenfions of his predeceffors. He fitted out a fleet tion to thefe ifles than any of his predecefibrs. He to fubdue thefe iflands ; but fchemes of conqueft had caufed a fuperb palace to be ereCted in honour of Conbecome difagreeable to the Chinefe, fince the difafter fucius, and a college where he maintained matters to that befel their army in an expedition againft Japan. teach the feiences and the Chinefe characters. He alThe fleet of Chi-tfou went no farther than the ifles of fo inftituted examinations for the different degrees of Pbng-hou, and the weftern coaft of Formofa, from literati. He ordained, that the king of Lieouwhence, under divers pretences, they returned to the the kieou fhould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, clovesT ports of Fo-kien. or any other really fend of thea It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong-vou, growth of theproduction country; which but thatwashenotfliould founder of the dynafty of Ming, that thefe iflands fub- fixed quantity of fulphur, copper, tin, {hells, and momitted voluntarily to the Chinde government. Hong- ther of pearl, which is remarkably pretty in thefe vou had fent one of the grandees of his court to Tfay- iflands. He permitted, that, befides the ufual tribute, tou, who. was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform he might prefent him horfe-furniture, piftol-cafes, and him of his acceflion to the throne. The Chinefe noble- other things of the fame kind, which thefe iflanders man had received particular inftruCtions refpeCting this are faid to manufacture with great tafte and neatnefs. It

1>gu* Kieou,

LIE [ 35 ] LIE it Is more than 900 years fmceworfhip the bonzes of Chiit. The latter have agents, who refide at court. Lleutaui, of Fo, and on There are alfo particular tribunals for civil and criminal Lieutenant.the principal books belonging to their fe£t. This matters ; for whatever concerns the families of the gran- '-"""V—"”' worlhip is at prefent the eftablilhed religion both of dees and princes ; for the affairs of religion ; for inthe grandees and of the people. There is ftill to be fpedting the public granaries, king’s revenues, duties ; feen in the royal city a magnificent temple, erected in for commerce, manufadtures, civil ceremonies, and for honour of another idol borrowed from the Chinefe, navigation, public edifices, literature, and war. The veffels that are built in this country are greatly named Tfin-fey, which fignifies cehjlial queen or lady. Thefe iflanders do not make promifes or fwear be- valued by the people of China and Japan. In thefe fore their idols. When they have occafion to do this, the natives go not only from one ifland to another, but they burn perfumes, prefent fruits, and Hand refpeft- alfo to China, Tong-king, Cochinchina, Corea, Nangafuliy before fome ftone, which they call to witnefs the za-ki, Satfuma, the neighbouring ifles, and to Formofa, folemnity of their engagements. Numbers of ftones where they difpofe of their different commodities. Beare to be feen in the courts of their temples, in moll fides thofe articles of commerce which their manufacpublic places, and upon their mountains, which are en- turies of filk, cotton, paper, arms, copper utenfils, &c. tirely appropriated to this purpofe. They have alfo furniih them, they alfo export mother of pearl, tortoife among them women confecrated for the worlhip of and other fhells, coral and whet-ftones, which are in fpirits, who are fuppofed to have great influence over great requeft both in China and Japan. thefe beings. They vifit the lick, diftribute medi- LIEUTAUD (Dr Jofeph), counfellorof ftate and firft phyfician at the court of France, was born at Aix cines, and recite prayers for their recovery. They refpeft the dead as much as the Chinefe, and in Provence, and refided principally there till he took they are no lefs ceremonious in wearing mourning; the degree of dodtor of medicine. After this he profebut their funerals are neither fo pompous, nor attended cuted his ftudies for fome years at Montpelier. He with fo much expence. Their coffins, which are of an returned to Aix, where he foon acquired extenfive hexagonal or ^diagonal figure, are three or four feet pradtice, and became eminent for literary abilities. He high. They burn the flelh of the bodies of their dead, refided there till the year 1750, when he was invited and preferve only the bones. They never offer pro- to adt as phyfician to the royal infirmary at Vervifions to them ; they are contented with placing lamps failles. There he pradtifed with fuch reputation and fuccefs, that he foon arrived at the head of his proround them, and burning perfumes. Different families are diltinguilhed in Lieou-kieou feffion ; and in the year 17 74, upon the death of M. by furnames, as in China; but a man and a woman of Senac, he was appointed archiater. His extenfive en-* the fame furname cannot be united in marriage. The gagements in pradtice did not prevent him from cultiking is not permitted to marry but in the three grand fa- vating the fcience of medicine in all its branches, and milies, which always enjoy the higheft offices. There is from freely communicating to others the refult of his a fourth, of equal diftinction to the three former ; but own ftudies. He publhhed many valuable works; aneither the king nor the princes contract any alliances mongft which the following may be accounted the molt with this family ; for it is doubtful, whether it be not remarkable. 1. Elementa Pbilologia. 2. Precis de la fprung from the fame Item as the royal line. Medecine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Maticre Medicale. A plurality of wives is allowed in thefe illes. Young 4. EJfais Atiatomique. 5. Synopjis Univerfa Praxeos men and young women enjoy the liberty of feeing one Medicines. 6. Hijloria Anatomico-Medica. He died at another, and ofconverfing together ; and their union is Verfaillesin 1780, aged 78 years. always in confluence of their own choice. < The wo- LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the men are very referved ; they never ufe paint, and wear place and difcharges the office of a fuperior in his no pendants in their ears ; they colledt their hair on the abfence. Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords lieutop of their heads in the form of a curl, and fix it in tenants of kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants of that manner by means of long pins made of gold or counties ; and others are military, as the lieutenantfilver. general, lieutenant-colonel, &c. Befides the vaftdomains which the king poffeffes, he Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, is properly a viceroy ; receives the produce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin- and has all the ftate and grandeur of a king of Engmines, and of the falt-pits, together with what arifes land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has from taxes. From thefe revenues he pays the falaries the power of making war and peace, of bellowing all of the mandarins and officers of his court. Thefe fala- the offices under the government, of dubbing knights, ries are eftimated at a certain number of facks of rice ; and of pardoning all crimes except high treafon ; he but under this name is comprehended whatever the king alfo calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill gives in grain, rice, filk, cloth, &c. The whole is va- can pafs without the royal affent. He is affifted in lued according to the price of the facks of rice. his government by a privy-council; and, on his leaThere are here, as In China, nine orders of manda- ving the kingdom, he appoints the lords of the rerins, who are diftinguilhed by the colour of their caps, gency, who govern in his abfence. or by their girdles and cuftiions. The greater part of Lord Lieutenants of Counties, are officers, who* the titles of thefe mandarins are hereditary in their upon any fnvafion or rebellion, have power to raife families ; but there are fome which are only bellowed the militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and upon merit. In the royal city there are tribunals efta- other officers, to arm and form them into regiments* blilhed for managing the revenue and affairs of the prin- troops, and companies. Under the lord-lieutenants, cipal illand, and of all the others which are dependent are deputy-lieutenants, who have the fame power-; E2 thefe na Introduced at Lieou-kieou the

LIE [ 36 ] L I F iiieuteijaat. thefe are chofen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the and acquaints the captain at all other times of the mif- Lieufena«I; l "" principal gentlemen of each county, and prefented to behaviour of any perfon in the Ihip, and of whatever -1' fe~ elfe concerns the fervice or difcipline. * the king for his approbation. The youngeft lieutenant in the ffiip, who is ffifo LiEUTENANT-Colonel. See Colonel. ftyled lieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is. LiEvrENAXr-General. See General. Lieutenant, in the land-fervice, is the fecond particularly ordered, by his inftruAions, to train the eommiffioned officer in every company of both foot feamen to the ufe of fmall arms, and frequently to exand horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the ercife and difcipline them therein. Accordingly his command upon the death or abfence of the captain. office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direct and attend Lieutenant of Artillery. Each company of ar- them ; and at all other times to have a due regard to tillery hath four; 1 firil and 3 fecond lieutenants. the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft The hril lieutenant hath the fame detail of duty with or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good the captain ; becaufe in his abfence he commands the condition for fervice. company : he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and LiEUTENANT-Reformed, he whofe company or troop neat; that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are is broke or dilbanded, but continued in whole or halfin good and ferviceable order ; and to watch over every pay, and ftill preferves his right of feniority and rank thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He in the army. muft give attention to their being taught the exercife, LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated fte them punftually paid, their meffes regularly kept, ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of and to vifit them in the hofpitals when fick. He muft their foul and body lafts. affift at all parades, &c. He ought to underftand the The Prolongation of Life is made by Lord Bacon one doctrine of projectiles and the fcience of artillery, with of the three branches of medicine ; the other two rethe various eftedts of gun-powder, however managed lating to the prefervation of health, and the cure of ' or directed; to enable him to conftruCt and difpofe difeafes. See Medicine. his batteries to the bell advantage ; to plant his can- The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the non, mortars, and howitzers, fo as to produce the defiderata. Some means or indications that feem to greateft annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well lead to it, he lays down as follow. | ikilled in the attack and defence of fortified places ; and Things are preferred in two manners; either in their to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, mecha- identity, or by reparation. In their identity ; as a fly or ant in amber ; a flower, or fruit, or wood", in a connics, &c. Second Lieutenant in the Artillery, is the fame as fervatory of fnow; a dead carcafe in balfams. By an enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft reparation ; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, See. To commiffioned officer in the company, and muft affift attain to the prolongation of life, both thefe methods the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty. muft be ufed. And hence, according to him, arife His other qualifications ffiould be equal with thofe of three intentions for the prolongation, of life : Retardation of confumption, proper reparation, and renovation the firft lieutenant. Lieutenant of ajhip of IVar, the officer next in of what begins to grow old. rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is Cbnfumption is occafioned by two kinds of depredaaccordingly charged with the command of the Ihip, as tion ; a depredation of the innate fpirit, and a deprealfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re- dation of the ambient air. Thefe may be each preceived from the commander relating to the king’s fer- vented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents lefs predatory, or by rendering the paffive parts [viz. the tice. The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea, juices of the body) lefs liable to be preyed on. The' keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong- fpirit will be rendered lefs predatory, if either it's'fubing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe- ftance be condenfed, as by the ufe of opiates, grief, dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe who See.; or its quantity diminifhed, as in fpare and moare abfent from their duty. During the night-watch, naftic diets; or its motion calmed, as in idlenefs and he occafionally vifits the lower decks, or fends thither tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs predatory, a careful officer, to fee that the proper centinels are at if it be either lefs heated by the rays of the fun, as in their dtity, and that there is no diforder amongft the cold climates, in caves, mountains, and anchorets cells ; saen ; no tobacco fmoked between decks, nor any fire or be kept off from the body, as by a denfe Ikin, the or candles burning there, except the lights which are feathers of birds, and the ufe of oils and unguents within lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on par- out aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered ticular occafions. He is expected to be always upon lefs liable to be preyed on, either by making them deck in his watch, as well to give the neceffary orders harder or more moift and oily ; harder, as by a coarfe with regard to trimming the fails and fuperintending the fharp diet, living in the cold, robuft exercifes, and fome navigation, as to prevent any noife or confufion ; but mineral baths : moifter, as by the ufe of fweet foods, he is never to change the flap’s courfe without the cap- &c. abftaining from falts and acids ; and efpecially by tain’s direftions, unlefs to avoid an immediate dan- fuch a mixture of drink as confifts wholly of fine fubtile particles, without any acrimony or acidity. The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to Reparation is performed by means of aliment; and. fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters, alimentation is promoted four ways: By the conco&ion where they have been previoufiy ftationed according of the vifcerft, fo as to extrude the aliment: By exciting to the regulations made by the captain. He orders the exterior parts to the attraftion of the aliment; as and. exhorts them every where to perform their duty ; in proper exercifes and frications, and fome undtions and

L I G [ 37 ] L I G Life, and baths :. By the preparation of the food itfelf, fo as Some of their philofophers pretend, that this liga- Idcature, I-igature. may be effedted by the fhutting of a lock, the v it may more eafily infmuate itfelf, and in fome meafure ture ^ anticipate the digeftion ; as in various ways of dreffing drawing of a knot, or the flicking of a knife in the wall, of time wherein the prieil is joining a meats, mixing drinks, fermenting breads, and reducing at the point together; and that a ligature, thus effedted, the virtues of thefe three into one : By promoting the couple be dilfolved, by the fpoufe s urining through a a6t of affimilation itfelf, as in feafonable fleep, fome ex- may ring. This piece of fuperftition is faid to obtain alfo ternal application, &c. the Chriftians of the Eaft. The renovation of what begins to grow old, is per- among fame author tells us, that during the ceremony formcd two ways : By the inteneration of the habit of of The marriage in Raffia, he obferved an old fellow lurking the body ; as in the ufe of emollients, emplafters, unc- behind the church-door, and mumbling over a ftring. tions, &c. of fuch a nature, as do not extract but im- of words; and, at the fame time, cutting a long rod, prefs : Or'by purging off the old juices, and fubllitu- which he held under his arm, into pieces; which, it ting frefh ones ; as in feafonable evacuations, attenua- feems, is a common pradlice at the marriages of great . ting diets, &c. The fame author adds thefe three axioms: That the perfons, and done with defign to elude and counterr prolongation of life is to be expected, rather from fome work any other perfon that might poffibly be inducing' ftated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or the ligature. any extraordinary medicines ; more from operating on The feeret of inducing a ligature is delivered by the fpirits, and mollifying the parts, than from the the fame author, as he was taught it on the fpot by manner of feeding ; and this mollifying of the parts one of their adepts: but it is too abfurd and obfeene without is to be performed by fubftantials, impriments, to deferve being tranferibed here. M. Marfhal mentions a" ridiculous, form of ligature,, and occludents. See Longevity. which he received,from a bramin at Indoftan : “ If Vegetable Life. See Plants. Life-Rent, in Scots law. When the ufe and enjoy- (fays he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara ment of a fubject is given to a perfon during his life, be cut into two, and the one part ftirs and the other not, if the ftirring part be bruifed, and given with half it is faid to belong to him in life-rent. a beetle to a man, and the other half to a woman, the LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes.any charm will keep each from ever 3having to do with any thing that ties or binds one part to another. Ligament, in anatomy, a ftrong compaft fubftance, other perfon.” Phil. Tranf. N 268. Ligature, in. the Italian mufic, fignifies a tying ferving to join two bones together. See Anatomy, n or binding together of notes. Hence fyncopes ° LIGARIUS 7often called ligatures, becaufe they are made by (Quintus), a Roman proconful in are ligature of many notes. There is another fort Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was the of ligatures for breves, when there are many of thefe forbid by Julius Csefar to return to Rome: to obtain -on his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his different lines, dr on different fpaces, to be fung to fyllable. defence which has immortalized the memory of the oneLigatures, among printers, are types confifting of client with that of his celebrated advocate. or characters joined together; as 9, LIGATURE, in furgeiy, is a cord, band, or Jl,twoJi.letters old editions of Greek authors are extremefiring; or the binding any part of the body with a ly full The of ligatures; the ligatures of Stephens are by cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any much the moil beautiful. — Some editions have been other matter. printed without any ligatures at all; and there Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that lately a defign to explode them quite out of printing. 1 are broken or dillocated ; to tie the patients down in was lithotomy and amputations ; to tie upon the veins in Had this fucceeded, the fineft ancient editions would phlebotomy, on the arteries in amputations, or in large in time have grown ufelefs; and the reading of oldwould have been rendered almoft impradliwounds ; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac- manuferipts to the learned themfeives. tures ; to tie up the precedes of the peritoneum with cableLIGHT, in the moil common acceptation of the the fpermatic veffeis in caftration; and, laflly, in taking word, fignifies that invifible etherial matter which makesoff warts or other excrefcences by ligature, objects perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. FigurativeLigature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage ly, is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftrudlion toor fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part itminds, and likewife for that inllruction itfelf. of the bodies of men or beads, to divert or drive off ourThe nature of light hath been .a fubjedl of fpecula- opinionsfome difeafe, accident, &e. tlon from the earlieil ages of philofophy. Some of of the fir fir. Ligature is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in thofe diftinguiihed by the appellation of philofo-'refpecl to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome phers firft even doubted whether objedls became vifible by, V*ler.s COB*' charm or witchcraft. of any thing proceeding from them,, or from*^™® Kaempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature or means eye of the fpe&ator. The fallacy of this notion knotting, in ufe among the people of Maffacar, Java, the very foon have been apparent, becaufe, in that Malaja, Siam, &c. By this charm or fpell, a man mutt cafe, we ought to have feen as well in the night as in hinds up a woman, and a woman a man, fo as to put the day. The opinion was therefore qualified by Emit out of their power to have to do with any other pedocles and who maintained, that vifion wasperfon ; the man being thereby rendered impotent to occafiofied byPlato; particles continually flying off from the; any other woman, and all other men impotent with furfaces of bodies, which met with others proceeding; refpedl to the woman. from.

L I G [ 38 ] L I G from the eye; but Pythagoras afcribed it folely to which fome phenomena give us reafon to fuppofe the particles proceeding from the external objefts and are diffufed through all the mundane fpace. To ac- w—< count for this faCt and others fimilar to it, he conentering the pupil of the eye. Among the modern philofophers there have been cludes, that the particles of which light confifts muft be two celebrated opinions, viz. the Cartefian and New- incomparably rare, even when they are the moft denfe; tonian. According to the former, light is an invifible that is, that the femidiameters of the two neareil parfluid prefent at all times and in all places, but which ticles, in the fame or in different beams, foon after requires to be fet in motion by an ignited or otherwife their emiffion, are incomparably lefs than their diftance one another. This difficulty concerning the nonproperly qualified body in ordermaintain, to makethatobjefts 3 Ofewton. Sir Ifaac ^j light vi-is from e to us.—The Newtonians interference of the particles of light is not folved, as not ^ conp,^8 Qf a vafl. nuTnber 0f ex_ he obferves, by fuppofing with Mr Bofcovich and ceedingly fmafl particles fhakcn off in all directions others, that each particle is endued with an infuperfrom the luminous body with inconceivable velocity able impulfive force; becaufe, in that cafe, their fphere* by a repulfive power ; and which moil probably never of impulfion would even be more liable to interfere, and return again to the body from which they were emit- they would on that account be more likely to dilturb g ted. Thefe particles are alfo faid to be emitted in one another. right lines by the body from whence they proceed: The difficulty, according to Mr Canton, will nearly ByMrSai*. and this reCtilinear direction they preferve until they vanifh, if a very fmall portion of time be allowed be- ton. are turned out of their original path by the attraction tween the emiffion of every particle and the next that of fome other body near which they pafs, and which follows in the fame direction. Suppofe, for inftance, is called infledlon; by palling through a medium of that one lucid point of the fun’s furface emits 150 pardifferent denfity, which is called refraBion, or by be- ticles in a fecond, which are more than fufficient to ing thrown obliquely ordireCtly forward by fome body give continual light to the eye without the leaft apwhich oppofes their palfage, and which is called re- pearance of intermiffion; yet ftill the particles of AeSion; or, laflly, till they are totally flopped by the which it confifts, will on account of their great velofubftance of any body into which they penetrate, and city be more than 1000 miles behind each other, and which is called their extinBion. A fucceflion of thefe thereby leave room enough for others to pafs in all diparticles following one another in an exaCtly ftraight rections. y line is called a ray of light; and this ray, in whatever In order to determine whether light really confifts Expeiimanner it hath its direction changed, whether by re- of particles emitted from the luminous body, or only in ments e tone fraCtion, reflection, or inflection, always preferves its the vibrations of a fubtile fluid, it has been attempted ‘^ ™' reCtilinear courfe; neither is it poffible by any art what- to find out its momentum, or the force with which it nientuin of ever to make it pafs on in the fegment of a circle, el- moves. The firft who fet about this matter with any light, lipis, or other curve. —From fome obfervations on the tolerable pretenfions to accuracy was M. Mairan. O- 8 eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, and alfo on the aberration thers indeed, particularly Hartfocker and Homberg, of the fixed liars, it appears that the particles of light had pretended, that in certain cafes this momentum move at the rate of little lefs than 200,000 miles in a was very perceptible ; but M, Mairan proved, that the 4 fecond of time. See AsTRQNOMY-/nm luminous bodies by the emiffion of ftnall

L I G [ 40 ] L I G but that it was communicated to the give a white heat to glafs. The colour of the ignited Light, tm-y—». orfmall gan particles, 0f flgjjj. j^y their preffure upon the materia fub- matter, according to our author, has an effect upon v-*—* tilis, with which they fuppofed the univerfe to be full. the colour of the light emitted. Thus, during the *6 But, according to this hypothefis, it could never be calcination of zinc, the calx of which is white, a light.^° dark ; becaufe, when a fluid fuftains any preffure, if is produced farce inferior in beauty to that of the fun matter fupthat fluid Alls all the fpace it takes up, abfolutely, himfelf. A beautiful green is communicated by the pofed to without leaving any pores, which is the cafe of the green calx of copper to the flame of a fire into which an infuppofed materia fubtilis, then that preffure muff ne- it is thrown; and the yellow empyreumatic oil into cefl’arily be communicated equally and injlantaneoujly which tallow or any common oil is converted in burning, 0f ^ to every part. And therefore, whether the fun were communicates a part of its own colour to the flame, flame, above or below the horizon, the preffure communica- which very much alters the appearance of bodies feen by ted, and confequently the light, would be the fame. candle-light from what it is by day-light. It does not, And farther, as the preffure would be inftantaneous, fo however, appear that this always holds good; for the would the light, whicli is contrary to what is collefted fletme of burning iron is intenfely white; and yet neither the metal itfelf nor any of its calces are of that from the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites.” It is obvious, however, that whatever fide we take colour. concerning the nature of light, many, indeed aim oft Light produced by the decompofition of bodies by proall the circumftances concerning it, are incomprehen- inflammation without ignition is always blue, and pro-ducedin duces very little heat. Thus phofphorus of urine is de-cafe8 13 fible,Moftandofbeyond the reach ofbyhuman underftanding. TTnaccountthe difcous flowers, fome power unknown compofed by mere expofure to the air; and gives but jY^g teat, US very little heat, though a confiderable light is emitted. pertieTof tot0 his ’ evening ^°^ow t^ieretreat, ^un *n and cour fehis - rifing They luftre attendin him The following proof is adduced by our author that this light. meet the morning with the fame unerring law. If a plant alfo emiflion of light is a true inflammation. “ Take a reis (hut up in a dark room, and a fmall hole is afterwards ceiver of white glafs, capable of holding fix or eight opened by which the light of the fun may enter, the gallons; put into it a drachm of phofphorus finely plant will turn towards that hole, and even alter its powdered, and half an ounce of water; cork the mouth own ihape in order to get near it; fo that though it of the receiver, and tie it over with a bladder, fo as was ftraight before, it will in time become crooked, to exclude the external air: incline the receiver to all that it may get near the Ijght. It is not the heat, but fides gently, and afterwards fet it to reft; the powder the light of the fun, which it thus covets ; for, though will adhere to the fides, and the water will drain from a fire be kept in the room, capable of giving a much it. As foon as the water is fufficiently drained off, ftronger heat than the fun, the plant will turn away the particles of the phofphorus will become luminous, from the fire in order to enjoy the fun’s light.—The and emit a thick fmoke; this will continue for fome green colour of plants alfo depends on the fun’s light days; but at laft no more light or vapour will appear. being allowed to Ihine upon them; for without this' Open the receiver, and you will find that the air will they are always white.— From this laft circumftance, have contracted, as it does from the inflammation of a and likewife the property which the folar light has of candle in Van Helmont’s experiment; that is, about a part. It is become unfit for inflammation ; * See Che- blackening of filver fromeither the nitrous acid*, twentieth for if a lighted candle be immerfed in it, it will be exwithy, it has beeninprecipitates thought that light n® 756. phlogijlon very confiderable quantity, orcontains is itfelfthea tinguilhed as well as the phofphorus, and an animal will of..that unknown fubftance. But that be fuffpeated by it. The air then has fuffered the fame tmodification 1s as that which has ferved for the inflammation of anodifica^ ‘ cannot be the cafe, we have a proof littleof change other bodies-; and the phofphorus is partly decompofed, tion of the Dr IhortPrieftley of demonftration, the laftnowexperiments phiogifton. concerningfrom the production of pure de- the water in the receiver being impregnated with its j phlogifticated air from pump-water, by means of the acid, and the air faturated with its phlogifton. Blow frelh air into the receiver, and the light and fmoke will 4l gy\n° See Aero36j Adar f. If light eitherconfiderable were the phlogifton feT, orlight contained it in very quantity, itit-is immediately re-appear. In like manner it is known that et0feq. impoffible the air produced by its means could be pure fulphur will burn and give light without heat fufficient and dephlogifticated.—For the properties of light aCl- for ignition. Take a piece of iron heated nearly red ing as the medium of our perceptions by the fenfe of hot, and throw a little gun-powder upon it. If the fight,n fee the article Optics. heat be of a proper degree, the fulphur will burn off a blue flame, without heat fufficient for ignition ; Dr Forex- Fordyce I thegives Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1776, upon Dr with for if fuch heat had been produced, the gun-powder dyce’s an account of fome experiments periments the light produced by Inflammation. They were made would certainly have taken fire. It is the inflammation on the light tot iedetermine, whether there was any light.produced by and decompofition of the fulphur, and not its evaporation, which produces the light; for'if we fublime fulphur by°inflam^ inflammation itfelf, independent of ignition. Subin veffels of the moft tranfparent glafs, no light will be mation. ftances, he obferves, begin to be luminous in the dark when heated to between 6 and 700 degrees of Fahren- vifible except at the very beginning, when a fmall heit’s thermometer. If the fubftances be colourlefs, portion of it burns till the air in the veffel be faturatid, ,g they firft emit a red light; then a red mixed with and rendered unfit for inflammation.” yellow ; and laftly, with a great degree of heat, a pure Our author is of opinion, that the light produced by Lipht from white. This whitenefs, however, feems to depend inflammation is of a blue colour, from whatever body it greatly upon the denfity of the body; for the vapour is derived. This he endeavours to prove from an oh- feTm be° at the end of the flame urged by a blow-pipe is not fervation on the flame of a candle, the lower part ofalways vifibly luminous, though its. heat be fufficieutly great to which, where the inflammation is, always appears ofhlue. r a

L I G [ 41 3 L I G Light, a blue colour. “Or (fays he) take a candle which has By increafing the heat, we fliall mix the violet with Light, V v— burned for fome time; extinguifh it by applying tallow the indigo: by iricreafing it ftill more, we fliall add to the wick, and let it Hand to cool; afterwards fet the blue and the green to the mixture, till at length we it on fire by the flame of another candle; at firfl no reach that intenfity of heat yhich will caufe all the rays more vapour will arife than can be a£ted upon by the to efcape at the fame inftaflt, and make the flame of air at once ; inflammation, therefore, will go on in the a combuftible perfectly white. By examining the flame Rcmarks whole fmall flame, and it will be blue. When a candle of a common candle, we may obferve, that its loweft ex- on athefiame Obfervaburns, takes into place.empyreumatic The tallow tremities, or the part in which the black colour of the candle, tions on boils in the the following wick; andprocefs is converted wick terminates, difeharges the leaft heat; and that, as. in the form of vapour. As it rifes the vertex of the flame is approached, a fucceffive order from every part of the wick, the volume is increafed of parts is paffed through, in which the loweft is contitill it comes to the top, and gives to the lower part of nually adding to the heat of that which is juft above it, the flame the form of the fruftum of an inverted cone. till we come to the top of the flame, near which all The air is applied to the outer furface of the column the heat is collected into a focus. At the loweft: exof vapour; and there decompofingthe empyreumatic oil, tremity, however, where the heat is inconfiderable, a produces heat and blue light: the ftratum of vapour, blue colour may always be obferved ; and from this apwithin the outer burning furface, is heated white-hot; pearance, amongft others, I think it may be concluded, the heat diminiihes towards the centre, which, if that the blue rays are. fome of thofe which efcape from the flame be large, is fcarcely red hot; as the column combuftibles in an early period of their decompofition; rifes, decompofition taking place conftantly on its and that if the decompofition could be examined in a furface, it neceflarily diminilhes, and the upper part of peiiod ftill more early, the colour of the flame would be the flame is conical. That the tallow boils in the wick, violet. By an a priori dedudtion of this kind, I was led can be feen: that it is converted into empyreumatic to obferve, that to the external boundary of the flame of oil, is proved by drawing the vapour, rifingin the middle a common candle is annexed a filament of light; which of the flame, where it does not burn, into a glafs- if proper care be taken to prevent the efcape of much fmoke, wall appear moft beautifully coloured tube : the empyreumatic oil condenfes; this alfo fhows too that the flame does not burn in the middle. That with the violet and indigo rays. If fulphur or ether be the heat is produced on the outer furface, appears, if we burned, or any other cdmhuftible whofe vapour is take a fmall rod of glafs, and put the end of it in the kindled in a fmall degree of heat, a blue flame will apblue flame on the furface ; it will be heated white hot, pear ; which, if examined by the prifm, will be found and melt. Immerfe the rod into'the flame, fo that the to confift of the violet, the indigo, the blue, and fomepoint fliall be in the centre: it will melt and bend times a fmall quantity of the green rays. The beft where it is in the blue flame on the furface; whereas, if mode, however, of Ihovving the efcape of fome rays by the flame be large, the point which is in the centre will that degree of heat which will not feparate others till hardly he heated red-hot. That the empyreumatic oil increafed, is the following. Give a piece of brown Curious ex* is depompofed, is proved by burning a candle with a paper a fpherical form, by preffing it upon any hard periment very fmall wick in diftilling veffels; no condenfation of globular fubftance. Gradually bring the paper thus “ fomed to that diftance from the candle at which it will brown paempyreumatic oil takes place.” ao begin to take fire. -In this cafe a beautiful blue flame per. Mr MorIn the 75th volume of the Tranfa&ions, Mra Morgan may be feen hanging, as it were, by the paper till a hole gan’s obtreats the fubject of light at fome length. As foundafervatjons tion for his reafoning he aflumes the following data, is made in it; when the flame, owing to the increafed upon light, j _ That light is a body, and, like all others, fubjeft to aftion of the air upon all parts of it, becomes white, the laws of attraftion. 2. That light is an heterogeneous though the edges ftill continue of a blue or violet colour. body; and that the fame attractive power operates As a confirmation of this, it may be obferved, that the with different degrees of force on its different parts. very flame, which when expofed toa certain degree ofheat 3. That the light which efcapes from combuftibles when emits only the moft refrangible rays, will,, if expofed to decompofed by heat, or by any other means, was, pre- one confiderably greater, emit alfo thofe which are vious to its efcape, a component part of thefe fubllances. lefs fo. The flames of fulphur and fpirit of wine, if Hence he concludes, that when the attractive force by fuddenly expofed to the heat of a reverberatory, will which the feveral rays of light are attached to a body change their blue colour for One that is perfectly is weakened, fome of thofe rays will efcape fooner white.” . 33 than others ; it being evident that thofe which are de- To obtain a more perfect knowledge of this matter, Experltained by the' fmallefl: power will fooneft go off when our author examined the light proceeding from com- ments on the general attractive force is weakened. This he buftible bodies by Mr Melville’s method. Having illuftrates by the example of a mixture of fpirit of darkened the room, he interpofed betwixt the eye method! * wine, water, and other more fixed fubftances. The and combuftible a fheet of pafteboard, in which- was a application of a .gentle heat will carry off the fpirit of very fmall hole for tranfmkting the light. Viewing the wine only ; a heat not much greater will evaporate the light which paffed through this hole with a prifm, fpirits and water mixed together; and a ftill greater degree he obferved, that the blue and violet rays were in will carry off a mixture of all the particles together. greater abundance than any of the reft, though all the “ In like manner (fays he), when the furface of a com- different kinds paffed through it when fpirit of wine - buftible is in a ftate of decompofition, thofe parts of it only was made ufe of. When the combuftion of the fpirit which are the leaft fixed,1 or which are united with the of wine was checked by throwing, in fal ammoniac, the leaft force, will be feparated firfl:. Amongft thefe the red rays difappeared, but made their appearance again indigo rays of light will make the earlieft appearance. as foon as the fait became heated tp fuch a degree as to Vol.X. Part I. F increafe

L I G I G ) fimilar to theLpreceding Light. increafe father than diminifh the combuftion of (the 42pearances may be obferved in Light. ^ fpirits. On examining the different parts of the flame a comtpon kitchen fire. When it is fainteft,>its colour feparately, it was always found that the colours varied is molt red, the other rays having been emitted, and according to the degree of heat. At the bafe of the the combWtion at a Hand ; but by blowing upon it in ' flame, or where the heat was leaft, the indigo, violet, this ftate, itshfightnefs will be encreafed, and more and and blue always appeared in gfeateft quantity ; but as more of the rays which are yielded by the internal parts the vertex was approached, the other rays appeared, of the body will come to the eye, till at length, by conandrifmat the very top they were all vifible through a tinuing to blow, the combuftion will be made fo complete as to yield all the rays, or to make it appear 24 P - thefe fafts Mr Morgan concludes, 1. That light, perfectly white.” Condufions 2(S from thefe as From an heterogeneous bo^y, is gradually decompofed Our author concludes the fubjeCt with a criticifir^ir Ifaac upon Sir Ifaac Newton’s definition of flame, Viz..Newl0.11’* mems* the during combultion ; that the indigo rays efcape with leall heat, and the red with the greateft ; and from that it is a vapour heated red hot. In his opinion, flame this again he explains the reafon why flames affume is an inftance of combuftion whofe colour will be crjtid"fed by; different colours. “ If a piece of paper (fays he), im- determined by the degree of decompofition which takes.Mtan Morpregnated with a folution of copper in nitrous acid, be place. When very imperfed, only the moft refrangible £ * fet on fire, the bottom and fides of the flame are always rays will appear. If it be very perfeCt, all the rays will tinged green. Now this flame is evidently in that weak appear, and its flame will be brilliant in* proportion. ftate of decpmpofition in which the moil refrangible rays But there are flames which confiit of burning particles, efcape in the greatefl abundance; but of thefe the the rays of which havepartlyefcaped before they afcendgreen rays efcape moft plentifully through the unignited ed inform ofvapour. “ Such (fayshe) would be the flame vapour and that portion of the atmofphere which is of a red hot coal, if expofed to fuch a heat as would interpofed betwixt the eye and the flame. This pe- gradually convert it into vapour. When the fire is veiy. culiarity may be obferved in greatefl; perfection in brafs low under the furnace of an iron foundery, at the. founderies. Here the heat, though veiy ftrong, is upper orifice of the chimney a red flame of this kind may fcarcely fufficient to decompofe the metallic vapour be feen, which is different from the flame that appears which efcapes from the melted brafs; whence the flame immediately after frefh coals have been thrown upon the has a very Angular appearance, the edges being green, fire | for in confequence of adding , fuch a fupply toand the body of fuch an appearance, as to give fubfiances the burning fuel, a vafl column of fmoke afcends, and viewed by it a pallid and ghaftly appearance, owing to forms a medium fo thick as to abforb molt of the the want of a fufficient quantity of red rays to make rays excepting the red.” 1$ white.” explains the red appearance of bodies Thus we have a moft elaborate theory for the. Wr Redap- a perfect 2.t eMrr Morgan folving of phenomena which feem not eafily to admit jran’s theeof any folution. It is obvious, however, that thedatan' not bodies in ^ ^ * ^ ^ate ignition, from the previous efcape upon which he builds his fyitem are altogether -un-wfAhamd* their laft of the more refrangible rays, fo that only the red ones reftate ofcx-ig- fmain. “ofAgain, (fays he), body we mayas confider the external founded and hypothetical. That light is fubjeCt toe