Encyclopaedia Britannica [10, 14R ed.]

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ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Encyclopedia Britannica is published

with the editorial advice of the faculties

of The University of Chicago

and of a

committee of members of the faculties of Oxford, Cambridge

and London

universities

and

of a committee

at The University of Toronto

* LET KNOWLEDGE

AND THUS

BE

GROW FROM MORE TO MORE HUMAN LIFE ENRICHED."

A New Survey of Universal Knowledge

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA Volume Garrison

to

10

Halibut

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. WILLIAM BENTON, PUBLISHER

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO •

•

•

GENEVA SYDNEY TOKYO •

•

© 1966 BY Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright

Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. printed in the U.S.A. Library of Congress Catalog Card

Number: 66-10173

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 10

Garrison GARRISON,

WILLIAM LLOYD

to

(1805-1879),

U.S. antislavery leader, was born in Newburyport, _Mass., on Dec. 12, 1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a sea

home when William was

captain, drank heavily a child.

and deserted

his

The mother, whose maiden name

was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. WiUiam had httle education but made the most of his opportunities. He was set to learn the trade of a shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815,

Md. Then he was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker at Haverhill, Mass., but ran away. In Oct. 1818, when he was 12, he was indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, proprietor of the Newburyport Herald, to learn the trade of a printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write anonymously for the Herald. His communications won the commendation of the

at Baltimore,

who had not at first the slightest suspicion that Garrison was the author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the Herald, when temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his

editor,

charge.

The printing office afforded him an opportunity to increase his meagre education. He was enthusiastic about liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his sympathy; and at one time he seriously thought of entering the West Point academy and fitting himself for a soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the pubhcation of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the Free Press, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was an intellectual force, but was too radical for Newburyport, and the enterprise failed.

Garrison then went to Boston, where, after working for a time journeyman printer, he became the editor of the National Philartthropist, the first journal estabhshed in America to promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors; but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year. In 1828 he estabhshed the Journal of the Times

as a

at

Bennington, Vt., to support the re-election of John Quincy

Halibut

to the presidency of the United States. This paper also died within a year. In Boston he had met Benjamii; Lundy {q.v.), who had for years been preaching the abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals, and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question.

Adams

Lundy was then publishing

in

Baltimore a small monthly paper,

the Genius of Universal Emancipation, and he went to Bennington and invited Garrison to join him in the editorship. Garrison first accepted Lundy's views of gradual emancipation, but soon changed to total and immediate freedom for slaves in Baltimore in 1829. Lundy believed that the Negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; Garrison held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the

when he joined Lundy

Garrison saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders. The Genius, when it became a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was feared and hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. He was prosecuted for libel by the owner

rights of freemen.

was fined $50, and, in default of payjail. to committed ment, John Greenleaf Whittier, whose first poems Garrison had published in the Free Press, interceded with Henry Clay to pay GarClay responded rison's fine and thus release him from prison. favourably, but before he could act Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and of a slave-carrying vessel,

The set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and Garrison resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which he could advocate the doctrine of immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He first proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done in the south while the nonslaveholding north was lending its

influence for the sustenance of slavery.

He

determined, there-

GARROTE—GARRYA Boston, and set himself to the task of by lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the north. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, until a group under the leadership of fore, to publish his

awakening an

paper

in

interest in the subject

Abner Kneeland (1774-1844) proffered him the use of their small hall. He accepted it gratefully, and delivered in Oct. 1830 three lectures, in which he unfolded his principles and plans. On Jan. 1, 1831, without capital and without a subscriber, he and his partner, Isaac Knapp (1804-43), issued the first number of the Liberator, avowing their "determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands obtain employment." Its motto "Our Country is the World our Countrymen are Mankind" shows his changed viewpoint. The paper, in

—

addition to favouring abolition, attacked war, alcoholic liquors

and tobacco, and assailed freemasonry, capital punishment and imprisonment for debt. The editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and spirit of his life: "I am in earnest I will

—

—

—

not equivocate I will not excuse I will not retreat a smgle inch I will be heard." For many months Garrison and his partner made their beds on the floor of the room in which they printed

—and

weekly paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of BosGov. Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina, "ferreted them out." Otis decided, however, that the paper could not be suspended. In the same year (1831), $5,000 reward was offered for Garrison's arrest and conviction under the laws of Georgia. The Liberator, though in constant financial difficulties, exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record not only President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the United their

ton, in compliance with the request of

States forever prohibiting slavery.

power of Christianity to bear against the slave system, advocate the rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom. When they did not respond, he denounced them, and by 1840 had become very unorthodox. The first society organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his to bring the to

principles,

was the

New

England Antislavery society

in Jan, 1832.

The same spring Garrison issued his Thoughts on African Colonization, in which he showed from official documents that the American Colonization society was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself as a practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception. Garrison was deputed by the

New England Antislavery society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting the influence there of agents of the Colonization society. He went in the spring of 1833, and was received with by British abolitionists. He took home with him a "protest" against the American Colonization society signed by great cordiality

William Wilberforce and other abolitionists in England. Garrison's visit to England enraged the proslavery people, and when he returned in September with the "protest" against the Colonization society, and announced that he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American slavery, there were fresh outbursts. The American Antislavery society was organized in December of that year (1833), the declaration of its principles ities

of this society

that, in the

autumn

secretly to England.

women's antislavery finding him, until he

it

seized

was rescued

coming from Garrison's pen. The activand Thompson's lectures aroused such fury of 1835, Thompson was compelled to return He had announced that he would address the society in Boston, and a mob gathered. Not Garrison and dragged him through the streets and given protection in the jail until he could

leave the city in safety.

The

'

abolitionists of the

agents;

subjects.

These differences

tional antislavery society in

led to the organization of a

new

na-

1840, and to the formation of the

Liberty party (q.v.) in politics {see BiftNEV, James Gillespie). societies sent their delegates to the world's antislavery convention in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat in that body,' because the women delegates from the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years served to make clearer than before that the constitution of the United States supported slavery; and Garrison came to the conclusion that its proslavery clauses were immoral, and that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. Because of this. Gar-

The two

burned the constitution, denouncing it as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." He chose as his motto, "No union with slaveholders," and thereafter worked for peaceful disunion. When in 1861 the southern states seceded from the union and took up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery rison

would perish in the struggle and that the constitution would be purged of its proslavery clauses. He therefore ceased to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to hastening the inevitable event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the agitation which resulted in the abolition of slavery was largely due to his uncompromising spirit and indomitable courage.

In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being was ended. He counseled a dissolution of the American Antislavery society, insisting that whatever needed to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be accomplished by new associations formed for that abolished, his career as an abolitionist

Garrison was a pacifist, and sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. He knew that the national government had no power over the system in any state, though he thought it should bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition. His idea was to combine the moral influence of the north, and pour it through every open channel upon the south. To this end he made his appeal to the northern churches and pulpits, beseeching them

and

women in the cause, even appointing them as lecturing moreover, he believed in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed upon social and religious grounds. His attack on the churches caused dissent. Many believed that Garrison injured abohtionism by causing it to be associated in men's minds with these unpopular views on other tivity of

United States were a united body until 1839-40 when division occurred. Garrison countenanced the ac-

purpose.

The Liberator was discontinued

end of the same England for the when he was received with distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1869 he became president of the Free Trade league, advocating the abolition of custom houses throughout the world. In 1877, he again visited England, and declined every form of public recognition. He died in New York on May 24, 1879, at the age of 74, and was buried in Boston, after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of his So?inets and Other Poems was pubKshed, and in 1852 appeared a volume of Selections from his writings and speeches. One of Garrison's sons, William Lloyd Garrison (1838-1909), was a prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's suffrage and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion act, and an opponent of imperialism. Another son, Wendell Phillips Garrison (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York Nation from 1865 to 1906. Bibliography. The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid work of his sons, W. P. and F. J. Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805-1879: the Story of His Life Told by His Children (4 vol., 1885-89), See also Russel B. Nye, William Lloyd Garrison and the Humanitarian Reformers (19SS) Ralph Korngoid, year, after an existence of 35 years. third time in 1846, and again in 1867,

He

at the

visited

—

;

Two

Friends of

Man

(1950).

GARROTE

(Span, for "cudgel"), an appliance used in Spain and Portugal for the execution of condemned criminals. The execution was performed originally by twisting a cord or bandage on the criminal's neck by means of a rod or stick (whence the name) until strangulation occurred, but later a mechanically operated metal collar with a screw that penetrated the base was adopted. "Garroting" is the name given in England to a form of robbery in which the victim is suddenly throttled from behind, which became rather common in the winter of 1862-63. An act of 1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offense, had the effect of stopping it almost entirely. the single genus of attractive, broad-leaved, evergreen, treelike shrubs of the family Garryaceae consisting of several Californian, Mexican and Central American species closely

GARRYA,

GARSHIN— GARY related to the dogwood family, Cornaceae. Their male and female flower-bearing catkins occur on separate plants, are pendant, hence the common several inches long and somewhat woolly

—

Pulpy berries develop on female catkins. different species vary from light to dark green on top, are hairy or downy on the lower surface and have smooth to wavy margins. Two California species, Garrya elliptica and G. jremontii, have been horticulturally adapted.

name silk-tassel The leaves of

tree.

—L.

Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, and Richard M. Beeks, "Studies of the I. The Comparative Morphology and Phylogeny," Phyto(R. M. Re.) morphology, vol. v, pp. 314-346 (1955). Bibliography.

(1928) Garrvaceae. vol.

ii

;

M.

H. Bailey, F. Moseley, Jr.

GARSHIN, VSEVOLOD MIKHAILOVICH

(1855-

Born Feb. 14 (new style; 2, 1888), Russian short-story writer. old style), 1855, in the district of Bakhmut, province of Yekaterinoslav, the son of a retired army officer, he was educated at the In 1877 he enlisted as a private St. Petersburg Mining institute. Russo-Turkish War, which inspired his first story, one of a number in which Chetyre dnya (1877; "Four Days") he expresses his horror of war. Many of his other stories, such as Krasny tsvetok (1883; "The Red Flower"), which describes a maniac, show his skill in handling morbid subjects and reflect his hypersensitivity. Though his output was small, Garshin's stories helped to awaken general interest among Russian authors in the short story. He committed suicide in St. Petersburg on April 5 to serve in the

(N.S.,

March

—

(R. F. Hi.)

24, O.S.), 1888.

GARSTANG, JOHN

(1876-1956), British archaeologist, whose extensive experience in the middle east culminated in his excavations at Mersin, Turk., during 1937-47, was born at Blackburn, Lancashire, on May 5, 1876. While a mathematics scholar at Jesus college, Oxford, he became interested in Romano-British In 1902 archaeology, publishing Roman Ribchester (1899). Garstang became reader in Egyptian archaeology at the University of Liverpool, and from 1907^1 was professor of archaeological methods and practice there; he was instrumental in establishing the Liverpool Institute of Archaeology. Garstang went to Egypt in 1899, working under Sir William Matthews Flinders Petrie. During the next 15 years he excavated in Egypt, Nubia and Asia

Minor, becoming an authority on the Hittite civilization. A standard work, The Land of the Hittites (1910), was revised as The Hittite Empire in 1927. His excavations at the ancient Ethiopian capital, Meroe (1910-14), revealed evidence of Roman occupation.

During World War I Garstang served with the Red Cross. In 1919 he was appointed first director of the British School of Archaeology at Jerusalem, and in 1920 took charge of the Palestinian department of antiquities, retiring from both positions in 1926. His work at Jericho, 1930-36, first indicated the great antiquity of the site. He made major discoveries concerning the Neolithic

and Bronze Age settlements. Garstang's work at Mersin was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II, and the report. Prehistoric Mersin, appeared in 1953. The significance of his Anatolian studies was recognized by Garstang's appointment as first director of the British School of Archaeology at Ankara, 1947-48, and as president from 1949 until his death at Beirut, Lebanon, Sept. 12, 1956. (J. M. Wi.) (Garyarsa) is the capital of Ngari (Ari) district in the western Tibetan highland. Ngari was the birthplace of the native pre-Buddhic Tibetan religion, Bon Po, a mixture of exorcism and primitive worship, and was also the scene of the Buddhist renaissance in the nth century. Gartok, on the upstream of the Indus, is the western gateway to Tibet. A caravan route leading to Leh and Simla in India through the Shipki pass has existed for centuries. Gartok is joined to Ngachuka via Zhikatse, and to Polur and Khotan in Sinkiang by modern highways. The Taklakot or Taklakhar highway, 157 mi. long, links Gartok with Pulanchung (Puran Tzong), a rich agricultural region on the south. Gartok, once a desolate town in winter, was considerably built up after the Chinese Communist occupation of Tibet. A large

GARTOK

garrison force

is

stationed in the region.

schools, general stores

the

Gar

river.

New

banks, post

offices,

and hospitals have been constructed along

During the warm season, a brisk barter trade is carried on between the nomads from the northern plain, the Zhikatse merchants and the traders from India and Nepal. Regular fairs are held throughout the summer, attracting as many as 2,000 people daily, with hundreds of tents littering the bare plain and hillside during (T.-L. S.) a town and district of West Java, Indon., is the centre of a well-cultivated region. Pop., town (1957 est.), 55,850; The town, 2,300 ft. above sea level, district (1961) 924,543. It is charmingly laid out and is an agricultural trade centre. The district forms a plateau around lies 30 mi. S.E. of Bandung. which are grouped magnificent mountains, some volcanoes, with the night.

GARUT,

mountain lakes and hot

springs.

Among

places of interest are the

crater of the Papandajan, a volcano still active, which blew out the greater part of one side of a mountain in 1772, killing thou-

much of the surrounding countrya group of pools of boiling mud, geysers and fumaroles; the Telagabodas or White lake, in a forest setting; the Kawah Manuk or Bird's crater; the lakes of Bogendit and Leles and the hot springs of Tjipanas; the lake of Pandjalu sands of people and destroying side;

the

Kawah Kamodjan,

Garut district is noted for its tea, rubber and cinchona plantations but is better known as a health resort area. The district, formerly part of the Dutch West Preanger residency, was occupied by the Japanese from March 1942 to the end of (E. E. L.; X.) World War II. (1846-1927), U.S. jurist and chief organizer of the United States Steel corporation, was bom on Oct. 8, 1846, near Wheaton, 111. He studied law fi^rst in the office of his uncle. Col. Henry Vallette, and then at the Union College of Law in Chicago, from which he was graduated in 1867. In 1S69 he began his law practice in Chicago. He was elected judge of Du Page county in 1882 and again in 1886. During this period he also frequently held court in Chicago and Cook county and occasionally presided over important cases in other counties through-

and Mt. Tjikuraj.

GARY, ELBERT HENRY

Illinois. He was three times elected president of town of Wheaton and, on its becoming a city in 1890, served

out the state of the as

mayor

two terms. and authority

for

A leader

in

corporation law and insurance matters,

he became general counsel and a director in a number of large railroads, banks and industrial corporations, including steel and wire companies. In 1891 he was one of the organizers of the Consolidated Steel and Wire company. In 1898, upon the organization of the Federal Steel company, with the financial backing of J. P. Morgan and Company, he became its first president and retired from legal practice. This company was merged in 1901 with the U.S. Steel corporation, which was then organized with a capita! stock exceeding $1,000,000,000, then by far the largest industrial corporation in the world. Gary was elected chairman of the executive committee and later chairman of the board of directors and of the finance committee, and continued to be chief executive officer during 26 years of remarkable development of the steel, industry

and growth of the corporation. The steel mills and town of Gary, Ind., were laid out in 1906 by the U.S. Steel corporation and later named in his honour. By the time of Gary's death, the town had grown to be a city of more than 100,000, with enormous and varied mills for the manufacture of iron and steel products. As chairman of U.S. Steel, he advocated and established many measures for the welfare of the employees of industrial corporations, including stock ownership by them and participation in profits, high wages and safe, sanitary and pleasing surroundings. He was always a strong advocate and During his chairmanship the a firm upholder of the open shop. 7-day week and the 12-hour day for labour in the steel mills were abolished. He died in New York city, Aug. 15, 1927. (J. A. Fa.; X.) GARY, one of the largest cities in Indiana, is located at the southern end of Lake Michigan. The city's history began in 1906 with the construction of the huge steel mills and various subSince the sidiary plants of the United States Steel corporation. building of the municipality was included in the plans of the steel company, Gary was a "city by decree." Gary was incorporated as a town in 1906 and became a city in 1909. It was named for

GAS—GASCOIGNE Judge Elbert H. Gary, chairman of the board of directors of United States Steel.

to

In 1905 and 1906 the steel company purchased 9,000 ac. of sand and swamps which included a frontage of more than seven miles on Lake Michigan. The location was selected because of its ridges

midway between the iron ore beds of the north, accessible by water, and the coal region of the south. The steelworks were constructed along the lake shore and the city was located to the south. The Gar>' Land company, a subsidiary of the steel corporation, platted and laid out its part of the city, constructed the streets and sidewalks, installed the sewage system and built the water works and electric plant. In Dec. 1908 the first blast furnace was fired, and the production of steel began early the followposition

ing year.

Subsidiary plants of the United States Steel corporation,

American Bridge, American Sheet and Tin Plate and National Tube mills were located in the vicinity, and a large manufactory of Portland cement was established. Manufacturers of screws and bolts, steel springs, automobile bodies and chemicals also established plants in the course of the years. However, Gary is essentially a one industry city; it has periodically suffered economic hardship when steel production has declined and when the huge mills have been shut down by strikes, as during the 116-day strike in the fall of 1959, which was finally settled in Jan. 1960. Culturally, Gary was the scene of the establishment by William A. Wirt of the work-study-play school, more popularly known as the platoon school, a significant development in the history of public-school education. The city is served by an extension centre of Indiana university. The park system includes a public beach on Lake Michigan. The population soared, reaching 178,320 in 1960; for comparative population figures see table in Indiana: Population. In the 1950 census Gary was treated as a part of the Chicago metropolitan area; in 1960 it was designated a central city of the

Gary-Hammond-East Chicago standard metropolitan comprising Lake and Porter counties, pop. 573,548,

statistical area,

a part of the Chicago standard consolidated area.

See Chicago: Population: Metropolitan Area. (P. Me.) GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation of matter; also more specifically applied to coal gas. See Anesthesia AND Anesthetics; Chemistry: Physical Chemistry; Gas Industry Chemical Warfare. See also references under "Gas" in the Index volume. a method of execution used in the United States, introduced in an effort to provide a more humane way of killing condemned criminals; it was first used in Nevada in 1924. It consists of a sealed chamber into which poisonous fumes are injected. The condemned man is strapped in a chair in the lethal chamber and is killed by inhaling the fumes. If the prisoner breathes deeply, his death is almost instantaneous and painless, but many resist by holding their breath or by taking short, slow breaths, and some observers claim that these prisoners suffer very much. By the second half of the 20th centurj' nearly one-fourth of the states prescribed the gas chamber as the method of execution. See also Capital Punishment Concentration Camps Nazi ;

GAS CHAMBER,

;

:

Germany.

(R. G. Cl.) GASCOIGNE, (c 1530-1577), English poet, was one of the most talented of the writers who flourished during the early Elizabethan period, before Edmund Spenser's Shepheardes Calender (1579) gave a new direction and impetus to English poetry. The son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, he attended Trinity college, Cambridge, began the study of law at Gray's Inn in 1555, and thereafter pursued careers as a politician, country gentleman, courtier, soldier of fortune and man of

GEORGE

achieving moderate distinction in each. He was M.P. for Bedford in the parliaments of 1557-58 and 1558-59. In 1561 he married Elizabeth Breton, a widow, and thus became stepfather to letters,

the poet Nicholas Breton. On his paternal estate he became involved in litigation, mainly because of his extravagance and debts, was once imprisoned in Bedford jail and gained a reputation for

disorderly living.

troops in the

I at Kenilworth and Woodstock, and in 1576 went Holland as an agent in the royal service. Gascoigne died at Bernack, near Stamford, on Oct. 7, 1577, and was buried at Stamford. Among his personal friends were many of the leading poets, courtiers and court ladies of his day, notably the poets George Whetstone, George Turberville and Edmund Spenser and the

Queen Elizabeth

Low

From 1572 to 1574 he served with English Countries and obtained a captain's commission,

ending his military career as a repatriated prisoner of war. In 1575 he helped to arrange the celebrated entertainments provided for

literary patron

Lord Grey of Wilton.

Gascoigne was a skilled literary craftsman, and his work

is

mem-

and vividness of expression and" for his treatment of events based on his own experience; but his chief orable for

its versatility

importance is as a pioneer of the English Renaissance, with a remarkable aptitude for domesticating foreign literary genres. He foreshadowed the English sonnet sequences with groups of linked sonnets in his first published work, A Hundreth Sundrie Flowres (1573), a collection of verse and prose. In The Posies (1575), an authorized revision of the earlier work which had been published anonymously, he included also "Certain Notes of Instruction," the In The Steel Glass (1576), one first treatise on prosody in English. of the earliest formal satires in English, he wrote the first original nondramatic English blank verse. In subject, however. The Steel Glass is traditional; it is an attack, in the spirit of Piers Plouinan, on the worldliness, corruption and Italianate manners of the arisIn tw-o amatory tocracy, and a defense of native feudal virtues. poems, the autobiograpMcal "Dan Bartholomew of Bath" (published in A Hundreth Sundrie Flowres) and The Complaint of Philomene (1576), Gascoigne developed Ovidian verse narrative, the form used by Shakespeare in Venus and Adonis and Lucrece. "The Adventures of Master F. J.," pubhshed in A Hundreth Sundrie Flowres, was the first original prose narrative of the English Renaissance. Probably because of embarrassment caused by the factual elements in this tale of love intrigue in an English country house, Gascoigne revised the work; and it appeared in The Posies as "The Pleasant Fable of Ferdinando Jeronimi and Leonora de Valasco," purportedly a translation from the Italian, with the more libidinous passages removed. Another prose work. The Spoil of Antwerp (1576), is an early example of war journalism, characterized by objective and graphic reporting. Gascoigne's Jocasta (performed in 1566) was the first Greek tragedy to be presented on the English stage. Translated into blank verse, with the collaboration of Francis Kinwelmersh, from Lodovico Dolce's Giocasta, it derives ultimately from Euripides' Phoenissae. In comedy, Gascoigne's Supposes (1566?). a prose translation

and adaptation of Ariosto's

/ Suppositi,

was the

first

prose comedy to be translated from Italian into English. A dramatically effective work, it provided the subplot for Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew. A third play. The Glass of Government 1575"), is a didactic drama on the prodigal son theme. Together with several moralistic works in traditional forms of verse and (

prose on such commonplace themes as the vanity of human life, the sinfulness of man and the evils of drunkenness, it rounds out the picture of Gascoigne as a typical literar\'

Renaissance,

who never

lost contact

man

of the early

with native tradition as he

made his periodic excursions into foreign literature to bring back new forms and themes. The standard edition is The Complete Works of George Gascoigne, edited by J. W. Cunliffe. published in two volumes (190710). The original version of his first published work was reprinted in George Gascoigne's "A Hundreth Sundrie Flowres," edited by C. T. Prouty (1942). See C. T. Prouty, George Gascoigne, Elizabethan Courtier, Soldier, S. A. Tannenbaum, George Gascoigne, a Concise (L. A. Sk.) Bibliography (1942).

and Poet (1942)

;

GASCOIGNE, SIR 'WILLIAM

(c.

1350-1419), chief jus-

England under Henry IV, was a practising lawyer in 1374, and became sergeant-at-law before 1391, when he was retained as a councilor by Henry Bolingbroke (afterward Henry IV). Dur1398-99) Gascoigne acted as one of his ing Henrj''s banishment attorneys. His services were rewarded (Nov. 1400) when Henry IV appointed him chief justice of the king's bench. In June 1405 he refused the king's insistent demand that he pronounce sentence of death on the rebel leaders. Richard Scrope. archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas Mowbray. Gascoigne maintained tice of

(

—

GASCONY—GAS INDUSTRY

5

GAS INDUSTRY. The gases produced for utilization as that a royal court could not try a bishop and that Mowbray had a sources of heat and energy in private residences and industry inright to trial by his peers. The famous story of Gascoigne's comclude manufactured gas (e.g., coal gas, water gas, producer gas, mittal of Prince Henry (afterward Henry V) to jail for contempt blast furnace gas), natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. This rests on no contemporary authority and was first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. After Henry V became king, Gascoigne article deals chiefly with manufactured gas. For discussions of the was superseded as chief justice (March 29, 1413) and thereafter other types of gas see Petroleum. See also Fuels: Gaseous dropped into comparative obscurity, although he still served on a Fuels. On a world basis, the use of manufactured gas declined as the number of assizes and commissions and was in no sense disgraced. He died on Dec. 17, 1419, and was buried in Harewood parish use of natural gas and electricity increased. Major producers of manufactured gas in the early 1960s were West Germany, Great (C. D. R.) church, Yorkshire, where his effigy can be seen. Britain, the United States, Japan, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, (Fr. Gascogne; Med. Lat. Wasconia or VasIn about half of conia), a region of southwestern France, which in the last cen- France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy. these countries, including Britain and the U.S., production had turies of the ancien regime was merged with Guienne {q.v.) in declined slowly in the preceding five years while in the others it the gotivernement of Guienne-et-Gascogne. At its greatest extent, was static or had increased slightly. In the U.S. in the early 1960s, in the early middle ages, Gascony may be regarded as extending from the western Pyrenees northward to the Gironde estuary and the amount of natural gas marketed was almost 50 times greater from the Bay of Biscay eastward to the lower Garonne valley and than the amount of manufactured gas produced. In Britain, howeven across the upper Garonne; but the northern area, with Bor- ever, practically all of the gas consumed was manufactured gas. The principal use for manufactured gas originally was the illudeaux, was finally regarded as part of Guienne, while in the southwest French Navarre and Beam were separated from the minating of streets and interiors of buildings, but electricity evengouvernement. The Gascon areas of the gouvernement corre- tually became the chief illuminant. Gas then came to be used sponded approximately to the modern departements of Landes, chiefly for space heating, cooking and the firing of industrial (X.) Gers and Hautes-Pyrenees, with parts of Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn-et- furnaces. Most manufactured gas is made from coal, although coke, oil Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariege and Basses-Pyrenees (gg.v.). During the period of Roman rule in Gaul, the southernmost and other starting materials also are used. The process of carbonization, or coking, in which coal is heated in an absence of air, was areas between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, predominantly Ibein the 1960s still the most important method for producing fuels rian rather than Celtic in ethnic composition, had been detached from Aquitania (see Aquitaine) to form the separate province of derived from coal, but other gaseous fuels were being manufacNovempopulana. Taken from the Visigoths by the Franks after tured by methods known as gasification; i.e., water gas made by the action of steam upon red-hot coke and producer gas made by the battle of Vouille (a.d. S07), this country was overrun from a.d. blowing air, usually mixed with some steam, through a deep bed 561 by the Vascones or Basques from beyond the Pyrenees (see Basque); and in 602 the Prankish kings recognized Vasconia or of hot coke or coal. Coal gas has the highest heating value, averGascony as a duchy under the national leader Genialis. In the aging about 500 B.T.U. per cubic foot; water gas averages about 300 B.T.U. but may be enriched with oil vapours (carbureting; latter half of the 7th century the Gascon duke Lupus I extended his power over adjacent areas. In the Sth century, however, the Table I) up to or above the value for coal gas. The heating value Carolingians, having imposed Prankish authority over Aquitaine, of producer gases is much lower (120-160 B.T.U. per cubic foot) were able to set up the march of Bordeaux as a frontier countship Table I. Properties of Coal, Water and Producer Gases to watch over Gascony. The duke Lupus II recognized Prankish suzerainty in 769, and the title "prince of the Gascons" is recorded Seguin I, a in 801 for Lupus Sancho (probably Lupus IPs son). count of Bordeaux whom the Carolingians tried to set up as duke of the Gascons, was displaced in 816, after which Lupus Sancho's son Aznar is found styled "count of Hither Gascony." On Aznar's death (836) his brother Sancho Sanchez or Mitarra made himself duke. Sancho Mitarra's son Garsia Sancho (d. 926) dispossessed his cousin Arnaldus in 887 and is recorded with the style "count and marquis on the borders of the Ocean" in 904. Finally, in the latter half of the 10th century, Garsia Sancho's grandson William Sancho (d. 997), duke of all Gascony, became count of Bordeaux also. Bazadais (the country round Bazas) and Agenais (east of the Garonne) Ukewise passed into Gascon hands in the same

GASCONY

period.

On the death of William Sancho's son Sancho William in 1032 war of succession broke out. Gascony was eventually won, in 1052, by Guy Geoffrey, stepson of Sancho William's sister Brisca and, from 1058, duke of Aquitaine. Thus in the 12th century Gascony passed with the Aquitanian inheritance to the Plantagenet kings of England. Though Henry III of England in 1259 acknowledged himself as the French king Louis IX's vassal for Gascony as part of the duchy of Guienne, Edward I's jurists were able to claim that Gascony, as distinct from Aquitaine, had previously never been a French fief but was either a fief of the Holy Roman a

empire or an

allodial possession of the dukes.

In fact throughout

the years of intermittent warfare between England and France

up French reconquest at the end of the Hundred Years' War (g.v.), Gascony remained the kernel of English power in southwe'stern France. The dukes' authority, however, had for centuries been only nominal over large areas of the original duchy: Beam (q.v.) had early shaken off all suzerainty before it was orientated first toward Foix, then toward Navarre; and Armagnac and Albret (gg.v.) pursued practically independent pohcies. GAS ENGINE: see Internal-Combustion Engine. to the definitive

GAS INDUSTRY 6.

III.

Modern Trends

Gas Supply 1.

2.

in the

in

Gas Manufacture

possessed a regional structure that was acknowledged to be well suited to its particular requirements and conducive of the best service to its consumers. Research was specified to be one of the

United States

The First Gas Plants Growth and Changes

in the Industry

5.

Natural Gas Liquefied Petroleum Gases Storage of Gas

I.

THE GAS INDUSTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN

3. 4.

Coal gas, when used as an illuminant, burns with a characteristic yellowish luminous flame. The earliest demonstration of this property has been variously ascribed to Jean Pierre Minckelers of Belgium, to Philippe Lebon of France and to Lord Dundonald and William Murdock of Great Britain; but William Murdock is usually given entire credit for being the first to apply coal gas on any considerable scale. Murdock set up a small experimental plant

Soho (Birmingham) factory by gas a few years and in Feb. 1808 was awarded the Rumford medal of the Royal society of London for his invention as described in a paper

council's responsibilities, and its obligation in this respect was interpreted as being the search for fundamental knowledge and the development of new ideas up to and including the pilot-plant stage. Large-scale plant development and the normal improvement of

apphances were entrusted to the area boards and the plant manufacturers. A permanent committee, including scientists from outside the industry, was set up to advise the council on methods of research. Research stations were established in London and Birmingham; in addition, the council contributed to a number of research associations engaged in work of interest to the industry. It also maintained the industry's close association with the University of Leeds and with the British Ceramic Research associa-

in 1795, lighted a

tion.

later

As result of research aimed at finding more economical methods for producing gas, an experimental plant that used low-grade

read before the society. In 1813 the foundation was laid for the London and Westminster Gas company, soon to become the famous Gas Light and

Coke company.

coal was built at Westfield, Fife, Scot., in 1961. A similar plant was planned at Coleshill near Birmingham. Oil gasification plants were built at several places, including the Isle of Grain, Kent. A plan for shipping methane from the Sahara was being considered

15 mi. of mains,

in the early

It possessed three manufacturing stations with and Westminster bridge was ht by its gas. Gas lighting was introduced in Bristol in 1823, by which time the Gas Light and Coke company in London was producing nearly 250,000,000 cu.ft. of gas annually for distribution through 122 mi. of street mains. Rapid expansion followed, so much so that the gas companies that had sprung up in the metropolis and in the provinces are recorded as "innumerable" in 1860. Public supply was governed by many local and general acts of parliament. With the advent of electric lighting in 1882 the industry encountered serious competition, which appeared to threaten its e.xistence. In fact, however, the severe shock that it experienced was a stimulus

some remote rural areas where bottled Hquefied petroleum gas was used. The industries and businesses that used gas were gen-

to the industry to look elsewhere than to lighting for the disposal

erally those that required accurately controlled temperatures.

of

1

960s.

In Great Britain early in the second half of the 20th century the approximately 375 gasworks supplied about 13,000,000 customers with about 600,000,000,000 cu.ft. of gas annually. Half of this amount was used in homes and half in industrial and commercial establishments. About three-fourths of the household gas was used for cooking while the rest was used for space heating, water heating and other purposes. Most British homes were supplied with manufactured gas of the coal gas type except in

products, and the great potential market available to gas in capacity of a heating medium was soon recognized. The year

its

its

1920 stands out as epoch making in the history of the industry; in that year the Gas Regulation act was introduced, the main provision of which was to make it obligatory to charge for gas on the basis of its declared and attested heating value furthermore, gas had to be supplied at a minimum pressure of 2 in. water gauge in mains or ser\ices of 2 in. or more in diameter. These and earlier ;

regulations, including the requirement that gas should be entirely free from the poisonous and objectionable gas hydrogen sulfide, fully protected the interests of the consumer. At that time the annual production of gas in Great Britain had risen to 250,000,000,000 cu.ft., and there were 7,000,000 consumers (4,250,000 supplied through prepayment or "slot" meters) receiving gas through approximately 40,000 mi. of mains.

On May

1, 1949, the gas industry passed into national ownership accordance with the provisions of the Gas act of 1948. Many of the provisions of the acts that previously had nationalized the coal and electricity industries were repeated, but there was one

in

sigtiificant difference:

the larger measure of decentralization and regional responsibility accorded to the gas industry. Twelve area boards were constituted to assume the ownership

of 1,037 undertakings for the nation. The area boards were separate, corporate bodies, each charged with the prime duty of developing and maintaining an efficient, co-ordinated and economical

system for the supply of gas and coke and to develop and maintain methods of recovering the by-products of gas manu-

efficient

facture.

At the same time padiament decided that a central body, the Gas council, was needed to represent the industry as a whole and to be responsible for such matters as capital finance, labour relations, research and others calling for central action. The Gas council was to consist of a chairman, a deputy chairman and the 12 chairmen of the area boards; its duty was to advise the minister of fuel and power on questions affecting the industry and generally to assist the area boards in exercising their statutory functions. Thus, after about 140 years of progressive expansion, the gas industry was unified under its central council but at the same time

II.

THE MANUFACTURE OF GAS

In Murdock's apparatus coal was contained in an inclined iron retort heated by a fire burning on a grate below. Cast-iron retorts were used for a long time in the early days of manufacture. Charged with the coal to be carbonized, the retorts were heated by small coal to temperatures of about 600°-700° C, much lower than those used in modern practice. At this point it is convenient to consider the principles involved in the carbonization process. Coal is the term applied to those rocks in the earth's crust pro-

duced by the decay of plant remains and accumulated many millions of years ago. Coal is thus a complex mixture of organic substances that so far cannot be recognized except in broad terms. The essential elementary constituents are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with small quantities of nitrogen and sulfur and some incombustible matter— the ash. When heated out of contact with air,

the coal

more

or less fuses

and partially decomposes.

Gaseous mass and give it a honeycombed structure. As the temperature of the mass increases, the coal becomes less fusible and is transformed into a porous solid known as coke. Further heating drives off more gas and results in shrinking and hardening of the coke. The volatile matter evolved in the lower-temperature stages is rich in easily condensable tarry matter and gaseous hydrocarbons. At temperatures above 800° C. the volatile matter is principally hydrogen, with some carbon monoxide. The manufacturing process thus consists essentially in driving off the volatile products by heat, leaving the solid residue of coke in the retort for subsequent extraction. The volatile matter, or crude gas, leaves the retorts at a temperature usually between 700°-800° C; at this temperature the gas is heavily charged with steam (derived from hydrogen and ox>'gen in the coal as well as from actual moisture) and with condensable tarry vapours, hydrocarbons, some sulfur-containing gases, some hydrogen cyanide and ammonia. These constituents must be removed before the products of decomposition force their

gas

is

way through

the plastic

distributed to consumers.

When

the gases enter the collecting main they are cooled so that condensation takes place; and this is further assisted by

—

GAS INDUSTRY Table

II.

Composition of Coal Gas

GAS INDUSTRY

8

CHIMNEY

SHUTTLE BELT CONVEYER

VENTILATION PIPE

COAL STORAGE HOPPER

WASTE GAS DISCHARGE PIPE

and the sequence of steps in the manufacturing process. Gases travel from the retorts through an "ascension" pipe, which then bends over and dips below the hquid seal in the so-

FOUL MAIN

called hydraulic main, the seal being used to prevent access of

AUXILIARY COAL HOPPER RETORT COKE SKIP GAS OFFTAKE

COAL INLET VALVE WASTE HEAT BOILER COAL INDICATOR GEAR WASTE GAS MAIN

air to the

main when the

retort is

opened for charging and discharging. Some cooUng and consequent condensation of tarrj' mat-

COLLECTING MAIN

ter occurs in ascension pipes.

RETORTS PRODUCER COKE SKIP COKE CHARGER

SPRING BRACING LIQUOR SEPARATING TANK

AND DISTRIBUTOR MECHANICAL PRODUCER

common hydrauUc

main. Easily condensable constituents gather there and in the foul

COKE EXTRACTOR

main that

leads to the condensers.

The condensers

ROTATING GRATE

consist of nests

of pipes cooled externally or water

PRODUCER ASH SKIP DUST SEPARATOR

WATER SEALED DISCHARGER TRAVELING COKE CHUTEDUST COLLECTING DUCT ST COURTESY OF

It

usual for the gas from a number of retorts to be collected in a is

gas

AIR-COOLED FLOOR JOISTS COKE BELT CONVEYER

made upon the maintenance of These changes in the conditions

(insistence, however, being rightly

that Standard as all-important).

of manufacture and of use, together with the new legislation, permitted and encouraged such developments in gas manufacture as make for more complete gasification of coal; i.e., for obtaining a larger proportion of its potential heat in the gas made. Use of High Temperatures. One method of achieving more complete gasification of coal was to work at a higher temperature.

-sv-ithin

them

is

thus lowered,

of both tar and water, which collect at the base of the pipes.

— CROSS SECTION OF A CONTINUOUS VERTICAL RETORT INSTALLATION

quality in B.T.U. per cubic foot of the gas that they would supply

air

resulting in further condensation

rOOOALL-DUCKHAH CONSTRUCTION COyPANY LTD.

FIG. 2.

by

the temperature of the

;

The next stage is the washing or scrubbing of the gas, in which further cooling and removal of constituents by solution in water are secured. There are many designs of washers and scrubbers but all act on the principle of obtaining the greatest possible contact between gas and liquid. In the Livesey washer, for example, the gas stream is repeatedly

In

broken up and forced through water. In modern practice there follow an electrostatic detarring for the complete removal of tar. Next in sequence are rotary or static washers, in which the gas is brought into intimate contact with water or weak Uquor, Ammonia is completely removed from the gas at this stage, although a trace may be allowed to pass forward to preserve alkalinity in the purifiers used later for extracting hydrogen sulfide. Additional scrubbing, using suitable oil solvents, is needed

practice silica refractories are preferred for the walls of retorts (except for a few feet at the top and the bottom) because

if it is intended to remove volatile tar constituents such as benzene and toluene. The tar and hquor condensed at different

of their higher stability, strength and general durability. By such means, higher yields of gas per ion 13,000 cu,ft, per ton) have become common. The gas so made is rich in hydrogen but poorer in illuminating constituents than was the gas usually supplied for

points in the system are usually led there is good reason to suppose that

—

This, in turn, called for special attention to the quality of the refractory materials used in the construction of the retorts and their settings fire

clay in

and

\-ital

led to

an increase

in the use of sihca instead of

parts subject to the higher temperatures.

modern

(

lighting purposes;

lower in calorific value (say SOO as compared with 600 B.T.U, per cubic foot). Steaming. Another widely used method of improving the yield in volume and thermal units is known as the "steaming" of continuous vertical gas retorts it is carried out by introducing steam at the base where it can react with the red-hot coke. By this means an addition is made to the volume of gas by the interaction of carbon and steam; water gas is thereby generated. it

also

is

—

;

An investigation by the joint research committee of the University of Leeds and the Institution of Gas Engineers, carried out on a Glover-West setting of continuous vertical retorts, showed

may

ous hquors

is

desirable

others, with the result that the question of disposal easy for all Liquors,

Purification.

therms

in the gas

made per

—As already indicated,

on grids. The oxide absorbs hydrogen sulfide becoming converted into iron sidfide. The formation of

of iron spread rapidly,

EXHAUSTER RETORT HOUSE

COOLERS

ELECTROSTATIC DETARRER ROTARY OR

LIVESEY

WASHERS TAR,

LOJ tcqc

AMMONIA

n

STATIC WASHERS

Qlbi AMMONIA

ton of coal,

the crude gas leaving

the retorts contains materials that have to be removed in order to purify the gas before distribution and to recover by-products of commercial value. Many of these constituents are more or less

condensed or washed out, and the appropriate plant consists of a train of vessels that vary widely in detail from one works to another but are essentially the same in principle. Fig, 3 shows diagrammatically the individual plant units in a tj-pical gasworks easily

not equally

—

carbonized. When steaming was employed, to the extent of 26,4% of steam-on the weight of the coal used, the yield increased to 16,900 cu,ft, of gas with a calorific value of 447 B,T,U, per cubic 2.

is

Hydrogen Sulfide. It has already been mentioned that law requires the elimination of hydrogen sulfide from gas used for pubUc supply. The final process of purification in ordinan.' practice is to pass the gas through iron oxide purifiers and thence to gasholders (storage tanks). The purifiers contain hydrated oxide

that a lean coal gave 10,400 cu,ft, of gas per ton with a calorific value of 544 B.T.U. per cubic foot (gross) when steaming was not used. This corresponds to 56. S therms in the gas per ton of coal

foot, representing 75.7

away to a common well, but some separation of the varibecause some may be more potent than

GOVERNORS

PUMPS i"^

3,

— DIAGRAMMATIC

BENZOL

SULFUR

LAYOUT OF A GASWORKS PURIFICATION SYSTEM

GAS INDUSTRY iron sulfide tends to render the material inactive for absorbing hydrogen sulfide but it can be reactivated by removal and exposure

by admitting a little air into the gas stream so that regeneration takes place in situ. In both cases the sulfided material When the sulfur is reoxidized with the formation of free sulfur. content has risen to about 50%, the so-called spent oxide is removed and sold for sulfuric acid manufacture. Most of the sulfur in crude coal gas is present as hydrogen sulfide (about 1%) to air, or

and

is

completely removed by

this process.

Smaller quantities

of sulfur are present, however, in the form of organic sulfur compounds, which are not extracted to any extent by iron oxide but which may be reduced considerably in amount by special additional

In 1942 a special committee set up by the industry recommended that the organic sulfur should be reduced to 10

processes.

grains per 100 cu.ft. (about

0.01%)

as a first step

and that proc-

esses should be introduced to obtain lower figures as they became available. The recovery of benzol by oil washing simultaneously

removes much of the organic sulfur so that additional processing Satisthe exception than the rule in general practice. factory methods for reducing the organic sulfur to, say, S-6 gr. per 100 cu.ft. are available, however, and are applied when gas is

more

Such processes of exceptionally low sulfur content is needed. are frequently used to purify the gas after distribution to the consumer's works. Ammonia. Liquor containing the ammonia washed out of the gas is either sold as such or is used at gasworks for the production of ammonium sulfate. Distillation of the liquor with lime drives off ammonia, which may be absorbed in sulfuric acid to form the The quantity obsulfate, which constitutes a valuable fertilizer.

—

peratures,

more

tar

produced and the

is

light oil fraction

coming

over on distillation is usually greater in volume. Limited gasification of coke in steam can be 3. Water Gas. effected in the continuous vertical retort as already described, but complete gasification of carbon in coke is carried out in an entirely At high different type of apparatus known as a water gas plant. temperatures, carbon decomposes steam into hydrogen and carbon monoxide, but with an absorption of heat according to the equation CO -h Ho - 56,145 B.T.U. When the temperature C of the carbon has been brought down by this absorption of heat, the reaction is altered with the production of carbon dioxide.

—

+ HoO^

An

equilibrium tends to be established by the catalytic action of the solid carbon (and inorganic ash constituents) so that a ratio

CO X H2O CO2 X Ho

may

be set up between the gas constituents, the ratio

being constant for any one temperature but falling as the temperature becomes less. The reversible reaction occurring (CO -|- HoO (-» COo Ho) results in a higher carbon dioxide content of the gas as the temperature is lowered; and, moreover, since the ve-

+

locity of gasification

the gas

made with

is

the

rapidly lowered with falling temperature, rate of steam supply comes to contain

same

Carbon dioxide lowers the calorific value of the gas and the steam requires condensation. The high temperature of the carbon can, however, be restored by stopping

more undecomposed steam.

the steam and blowing with

air,

thus raising the temperature of

the fuel bed and generating a producer gas. The industrial process based upon this principle of alternately

blowing a bed of coke with steam and lard (1S49), Tessie

du Motav and T.

air S.

was developed by GailLowe (1873) and is

C.

tained at gasworks usually lies between 20 and 30 lb. of ammonium The ammonia yield can be sulfate per ton of coal carbonized. increased by steaming the retorts, but the Hquor obtained is usually

weaker because of the passage of undecomposed steam from the top of the gas retort into the gas. A weaker liquor has a lower commercial value if it has to be sent away for treatment and has

GAS AND STEAM REVERSING GEAR

the further disadvantage that after distillation for ammonia the residual liquor is greater in amount. The direct method of recovering ammonia, in which the gas is passed through sulfuric acid for the absorption of ammonia, in-

BLAST VALVE GEAR

THERMOCOUPLE

stead of effecting a separation of the ammonia liquor and distilling has found little application in gasworks.

it,

GENERATOR

disposal of the residual liquor after distillation for ammonia, or sometimes of the crude undistilled liquor itself, presents the gas industry with a problem that is serious because of the stringent

The

regulations designed to reduce the pollution of rivers and streams. Although liquor is relatively weak, it is nonetheless a strong trade efiSuent

and

its

usual method

is

direct disposal into streams to feed

it

is

prohibited.

into the local sewer for eventual de-

in bacteria beds.

methods of disposal, the latter being particularly directed to meet the needs of those gas (and coke oven) works whose situation is remote from suitable sewage disposal plant.

—The

tar

made

at

BY COURTESY OF THE

It has,

tive

Tar.

'

The

however, long been known that the constituents of liquor throw an increased load on the sewage purification process, so that the rate at which liquor may be discharged into sewers has to be carefully controlled. Normally the maximum permissible discharge of spent liquor is about 0.5% of the dry weather flow of the sewage. Much attention has been given both to re-examining the amount of liquor that can properly be discharged into sewers and also to developing alternacomposition

STEAM INLET (BASE) )y:J.'. J^ l,;S^lH,^^!ji"J^w^.:';.'^"^^

!

gasworks

is

subjected to a complicated

process of distillation that resolves it into fractions that boil off in different temperature ranges, the fractions being afterward refined. These operations are usually carried out at separate Among the many products made from tar are tar distilleries.

naphthalene and anthracene, which find appUcation in the production of dyes, medicines, perfumes, disinfectants, solvents, plastics and paints. Tar oil is used for fuel and also for road construction, whereas distilled tar and pitch are used for many purposes; e.g., in connection with building materials, roofing toluol, cresol,

felts, briquettes, etc.

The average yield of tar by the ordinary gasworks process can be taken as 5% of the weight of coal carbonized. At lower tem-

INSTITUTION

FIG. 4.

— PLANT

OF GAS

called the water gas process.

of

ENGINEERS

FOR PRODUCING BLUE WATER GAS

Humphreys and Glasgow.

The plant illustrated in fig. 4 is that The coke bed, enclosed in a steel

may be blown through the grate below An arrangement of valves also enables

casing lined with firebrick,

by

either air or steam.

the steam to be introduced above the coke for a "down run." The exact arrangement and time in the up run with steam, down run with steam and blowing with air are varied to suit the fuel and other conditions and constitute a cycle of operations that is carried

out systematically and automatically in modern plants. The coke is blown with steam until, as the temperature falls, the carbon dioxide produced in the water gas is reducing its quahty too far. During the steam blow, the water gas made is carried forward to a scrubber down which water is running and then goes forward to

main gas stream of the works for removal of hydrogen This water gas should have a calorific value of 300 B.T.U. per cubic foot. When the steam blast is replaced by air, in order to restore the high temperature in the fuel bed, the producer gas generated, being heavily charged with nitrogen, is not allowed to go forward to the scrubber but is turned up the stack as waste. Use of air continues until a satisfactory high temperature has been re-established in the fuel bed, when steam is again employed. The join the sulfide.

heaviest thermal loss in the process

is

that of the potential

and

—

GAS INDUSTRY

lO

thermal heat in the producer gas, but this is lessened in modern plants by the installation of a waste heat boiler. It has been noted that the water gas made by the process described above has a calorific value approximating to 300 B.T.U.

per cubic foot.

It is

known

as "blue" water gas because of the

and is definitely lower in grade than the coal gas made from retorts. The calorific value can be increased, however, by using some of the heat in the gases leaving the generator to crack oil (i.e., to convert it into permanent gas rich in hydrocarbons), so obtaining a "carbureted" water gas of characteristic colour of its flame

Fig. 5 illustrates a Humphreys and enhanced calorific value. Glasgow plant used for the process. The gas from the generator passes through two charhbers. a carburetor and a superheater packed with brickwork, which are raised to redness, some air being admitted for the combustion of the "blow" gas therein. The oil is run in from the top of the carburetor and should be of a grade that can be efficiently cracked under the conditions of the process. In early stages of the development of the plant the oil was run directly upon the coke in the generator, but this was unsatisfactory for various reasons.) In this plant, blue water gas leaves the generator with a calorific value of 300 B.T.U. per cubic foot but leaves the superheater enriched by the carbureting to an extent determined by the amount of oil used. The thermal efficiency of the oil cracking in the plant is high, amounting to something like 90% consequently the thermal efficiency of the carbureted water gas process is higher than that of the blue water gas process and (

;

increases with the

employed

is

amount

of oil used.

influenced by this factor,

The

by the price of

oil

and by

In Great Britain, carbureting is usually continued until the calorific value of the carbureted water gas approximates that of the coal gas made at the same works, say 500 B.T.U.; but in the U.S. it has been usually carried much further. It is plain, too, that blue water gas, enriched by carbureting to the extent desired, can be used as a means of modifying the calorific value of the mixture of coal gas and water gas supplied frojn a works. The extent to which the coke made in a gasworks may be economically gasified and water gas supplied depends on relative capital and operating costs and the prices of coal, coke and oil. The main advantages of a water gas plant are that it can be put rapidly into full operation to meet maximum demands and that the yield of gas per ton of fuel is high; for example, modern plants may give about 50.000 cu.ft. of 300-B.T.U. water gas or 70,000 cu.ft. of 500-B.T.U. carbureted water gas per ton of coke. Modern carbureted water gas plants are entirely automatic with an annular boiler around the generator and self-clinkering grates. A regular quantity of coke is fed to the generator during each gasmaking cycle without interruption to the gasification process.

now

virtually self-supporting in their

—

is

of carbon maintained at a high temperature,

above 1,000° C, is attained and equilibrium is maintained, almost the whole of the carbon is obtained as carbon monoxide, according to the equation

way

in such a

C

CO2

i.e.,

that complete contact with the carbon

+

+ 4N2}^ CO +

i{02

If the temperature and equilibrium is

is

2N2

+ 29,000 cal.

lower, even though the contact is complete attained, some carbon will be burned to

still

according to the equation

C

-f

O2

+ 4N2 ^ CO2 +

4N2

+

97,000

cal.

If, however, the high temperature has been maintained and the carbon entirely converted to CO, it is plain that the gas will consist of one-third carbon monoxide and two-thirds nitrogen, and the equation representing its formation may be called the ideal producer gas equation. If this producer gas is collected and burned with air, it will generate heat according to the equation

CO

+

2N2

+

i{02

+ 4N2}^ CO2 +

4N2

+

68,000

cal.

be seen that even if the whole of the heat generated in making the producer gas by converting the carbon to CO were lost, some 70% (actually ff ) of the total heat of combustion It will

Table

extent of carbureting

the quality of the gas desired.

Plants of large capacity are requirements of steam.

Producer Gas.

Producer gas is simple to manufacture the gas usually employed to heat steelmaking and other large industrial furnaces. When air is passed through a deep bed 4.

and

Steam

III.

Producer Gas as Modified by Steam

saturation, temperatxxre of blast

J

GAS INDUSTRY

II

The generator is water-jacketed, with the for gas at the top. object of preventing adhesion of clinker and at the same time Fuel for a run of raising the steam needed to saturate the blast. about six hours on full load is contained in a feed hopper, from which it falls into the producer through several chutes arranged so as to ensure uniform distribution and to prevent segregation. a series of superposed cast-iron rings; space horizontal ports through which the blast forms between The grate is secured to a revolving ashpan is distributed evenly. designed to continuously shear the bottom from the column of ash, break up lumps of clinker and discharge both over a plow bolted

The KoUer

grate

is

the rings

Steam from the annular boiler passes into a vapour box and thence to the air-blast pipe. Blast is supplied by saturated a blower and is measured by a Venturi meter it is then the proto admitted and temperature desired any at steam with ducer from beneath the grate. Satisfactory operation of a gas producer depends upon keeping the distribution of blast and ascending gas current as uniform as possible across the section to the sealing ring.

;

FROM RAMBUSH FIG. 6.

S

MODERN GAS PRODUCERS

— SIEMENS SYSTEM

CBENN BROS

)

-i

i

FOR MANUFACTURE OF PRODUCER GAS

water ing of the temperature of the fuel bed and the formation of is used, the lower steam more The carbon. with interaction gas by dioxide the temperature and the greater the formation of carbon and hydrogen at the expense of carbon monoxide. The percentage water gas. of nitrogen is further lowered by the admixture with Moreover, as the quantity of steam is increased and the tempercarbon ature decreases, the rate of steam decomposition by the lessens and steam passes through the fuel bed undecomposed. The quantity of steam supplied is best controlled by the temperature of the mixed blast at a point well beyond the introduction temperature of the steam, so as to allow a thorough mixing. The underof the blast rises with the proportion of steam. It will be stood that undecomposed steam, which begins to occur in quantity exceeded, as soon as the saturation temperature of 60° C. has been

of the fuel bed, so as to give proper contact in all parts with the descending fuel. For this purpose the producer may be provided with holes through which pokers may be inserted to keep the fuel

bed

level

and free from channels that would tend

the gas stream.

Some

to short-circuit

designs incorporate mechanical revolving

pokers.

In many cases the producer gas can be used hot direct from the generator without further cleaning; the advantage gained is that the sensible heat (i.e., as shown on the wet-bulb thermometer) in the hot gases is retained. When a clean gas is required (as, for example, in a gas engine) the gas must be cleaned and cooled. This is usually effected by means of a washer cooler containing

water sprays, in which dust and some tar are removed. Next, a centrifugal washer takes out most of the remaining dust and tar;

an objectionable constituent in the producer gas, since it is thermally useless and would tend to prevent the attainment of high temperatures on combustion because of its high specific heat. W. A. Bone and R. V. Wheeler followed changes brought about increasin the composition and yield of producer gas by gradually

is

shown in Table III. The was washed nut screened over a one-inch mesh. As the saturation temperature was raised by more steam, the gas composition shows a rise in carbon dioxide from 5% to 13% and a change-over from a carbon monoxide producer gas, in which that constituent is dominant, to a hydrogen producer gas is explained. The nitrogen has fallen and the percentage of total com-

ing the proportion of steam, with results coal used

on account of the increase of carbon dioxide resulting from the lower temperature of the fuel bed. The calorific value of the gas has slightly diminished but the volumetric yield has increased, so that the yield in therms contained in the bustibles has also fallen

The weight of gas per ton of coal gasified shows httle change. steam undecomposed per pound of coal has run up from 0.09 to 0.9 lb. per ton of coal.

—

Early Producer Construction. It would appear that the earliest gas producers were deep shafts of brickwork, but the structure most closely identified with the successful establishment of this process of gas manufacture was devised in 1861 by K. W. (Sir William) Siemens; a diagram of his producer is given in fig. 6. It illustrates

how

the coal falls

from the hopper and

lies in

The producer was connected gasification was drawn through the

producer above the step grate.

furnace, and the air for bed by natural chimney draft supplemented effect,

POKERHOLEv

the to a fuel

by a siphon induced by the disposition of the main between producer

and furnace.

at times

—

Although producers based essentially on Pressure Producers. Siemens' simple design were in widespread use, the demands of industry for higher outputs per unit of space and grate area led to the development of producers that work under a positive blast of The modern gas producer is essentially of the air and steam. The generator is a design shown diagrammatically in fig. 7. cylindrical body provided with a grate or tuyere through which the air-steam blast is admitted at the bottom and with an outlet

L—

FIG. 7.

— MODERN

PLANT FOR MAKING PRODUCER GAS

GAS INDUSTRY

12

ing atmospheric pollution

was bound

for smokeless fuels, such as STATIC

WASHERS

methods, being

and

efficient

to result in a greater

coke). flexible,

But complete seemed certain

demand

gasification to find ex-

tensive application in the gas industrj-.

Most of these processes depend upon a combination of carbonization and generation of water gas. In the modern plant of Humphreys and Glasgow, the blow takes place in the lower part of the generator, the blow gases being led to the carburetor \-ia an annuius surrounding the generator. Available heat in the blow gases is stored in the carburetor and superheater and used to assist carbonization of the coal by transference back to the generator. Part of it may also be used for carbureting. A back-run produced

by admitting steam

•JW»',.!w»'*»My

BT COURTESY OF THE POWER GAS CORP

FIG. 8.

— DEEP FUEL BED PLANT FOR RECOVERING AMMONIA

FROM PRODUCER

GAS the gas then passes through a moisture eliminator and then to a dry scrubber in which the final removal of dust is accomplished.

This scrubber

may

consist of an oxide

box

to

remove hydrogen

sulfide.

In the past, bj--product recovery from producer gas was pracon a considerable scale, and modified designs and processes were developed to obtain larger yields of ammonia and tar than were normally obtainable. The essential feature was the use of a verj- deep fuel bed of coal (12 to 14 ft. at a lower temperature, which favoured high yields of tar and ammonia. The recovery process called for a rather elaborate plant, the main features of which are indicated in fig. 8. The gas is washed, freed from tised

)

ammonia and cooled by passing in turn through three Lymm static washers, the ammonia being absorbed in weak ammonium sulfate solution maintained slightly acid. ready for furnace use but needed

extractors

Gas leaving such a plant was more thorough cleansing by tar and scrubbers before its use in engines. With such

plants, coal could be gasified to yield

an average of 122,000 cu.ft. 7S-B.T.U. gas per ton. with a recovery of 90 lb. of ammonium sulfate and 21 gal. of tar per ton of dry fuel gasified. A few such plants still remained in use in the 1960s, though the t>pe was by then obsolescent. 5. Blast Furnace Gas Blast furnace gas is a low-grade gas with a calorific value of about 95 B.T.U. produced on a large scale of

1

.

—

as the inewtable by-product of the smelting of iron. The blast furnaces used for the production of pig iron may be regarded as

very deep, air-blown gas producers giving a gas containing about 27% of carbon monoxide and 11% of carbon dioxide, with 60% of nitrogen. The cleaned gas is used for steam raising and power production for furnace firing it usually needs to be mixed with a ;

richer gas.

—

6. Modern Trends in Gas Manufacture. The processes described above represent what by the middle of the 20th century had long been established as standard practice; but much attention had meanwhile been paid, especially in the later years of the period, to methods of completing the gasification of coal in one process instead of carbonizing it first and then gasifying the coke residue in a separate generator. Alternative methods for making gas, particularly from coals of

poorer quality than had been used hitherto, then came to assume great importance to the industry because of the increasing scarcity of the special coals

needed for the manufacture of gas and coke by orthodox methods. Furthermore, oil fuels became so plentiful and cheap as to demand attention as raw materials for gasmaking on a greater scale. The pattern of the future industry could be seen as a system of interhnked large stations of high efficiency, preferably situated at or near the coal fields and operating processes best suited to the coal available. However, the object of complete gasification methods is to process the coal solely into gas with no solid residue other than ash; the extent to which such processes could be effectively introduced depended upon the bal-

ance needed between the supply of gas and of coke (it should be pointed out in this connection that the new emphasis on minimiz-

to the top of the superheater and then to the base of the generator gives water gas; the heat in this gas then carbonizes coal in the upper part of the generator. In another part of the run. steam admitted to the generator base, this time without superheat, generates hot water gas, which again passes through the coal in the upper part of the generator. This gas

also can be fed to the carburetor if desired. The yield may be from 175 to 190 therms of 345-B.T.U. gas per ton. The plant

designed to gasify coal, coke or any mixture, with subsequent enrichment by oil as may be desirable. Considerable importance was attached to finding a means of developing these processes and applying them on a large scale. is

The

availabihty of low-cost oxygen stimulated the development methods in which the gasification of sohd fuels is carried out in o.x>-gen and steam. In Germany and elsewhere, from about 1945, the Lurgi process of gasification in steam and ox\-gen under pressure was successfully appUed on a large scale to lignites young coals unsuitable for carbonization by orthodox means i. This process came to be accepted as having many attractive features for the manufacture of town gas: it can make use of small coal of high ash content and of weakly caking coals unsuitable for carbonization; the plant operates at ver>' high output; and the gas can be readily freed from sulfur and is available at pressure for long-distance transmission. For Great Britain, the search for new gasification processes was given first place in the research program of the Gas council the former Gas Research board). An important achievement of the British work was the demonstration that the considerable proportion of methane characteristic of Lurgi gas was not due to the sjmthesis under pressure from carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced on gasification but resulted directly from the hydrogenation of coal, a reaction that proceeds vigorously under pressure. As a consequence, the possibility of manufacturing gas comparable in quality with town gas by gasification methods adapted to favour hydrogenation appeared to be most promising, although many technical problems would have to be solved before large-scale application could follow, of

(

(

Xew

processes for the direct gasification of oil, without recourse to water gas production, were adopted by certain area boards in Great Britain, The plant developed by the North Thames

Gas

board and installed at their Southend works produces a rich gas by the partial combustion of oil. .\nother process, devised by the South Eastern Gas board and installed in its own area and also within the North Eastern board's area, generates gas by the catalytic decomposition of oil. Other methods include the OniaGegi, giving an oil gas (from 300 to 1,000 B.T.U.) by the cyclic catalytic cracking of hea\y oil, and the Geim process for the continuous production of gas from 370 to 470 B.T.U. by the thermal (

cracking of gas

)

The

synthesis of gases rich in methane by hydrogenating coal under pressure was an important objective of the search for new gasmaking processes. W. C. A. L. oil.

(J.

m. GAS SUPPLY 1.

The

First

;

Rs.)

IN THE UNITED STATES

Gas Plants.— Following

the discovery of gas-

making from coal and the unparalleled success of gaslighting in one or two European cities, gaslighting got its start in the United States in Baltimore, Md, .Although there were a few isolated instances of gas being used previously by individuals in other cities, introduction of gaslights in Rembrandt Peale's museum in Balti-

more

1816 proved to be such a success that the city council passed an ordinance on June 17, 1816, permitting Peale aiid others in

GAS INDUSTRY

13

gas, lay pipes in the streets and contract with the The first recorded demonstration of gas city for street Ughting. in the United States was in Philadelphia, Pa., in Aug. 1796. The gas was manufactured by M. Ambroise and Co., Italian fireworkers

same phase by heating alternately in a forward and a reverse direction, followed by making gas in the forward and reverse directions. The incoming oil, air and steam are preheated regeneratively by waste heat from the outgoing products, thereby securing good

In 1812, David Melville of Newport, R.I., Ughted his the street in front with gas that he manufactured. He also lighted a factory at Pawtucket, R.I., and induced the government to use gas at Beaver Tail lighthouse. By the second 2. Growth and Changes in the Industry

thermal

to

manufacture

and

artists.

home and

—

half of the 20th century the gas industry

had grown into one of

the key industries, showing remarkable ability to adapt itself to meet severe competition, changing raw materials, and drastic economic and labour conditions, while constantly maintaining

When the illumination market was its service. invention of electric lighting, the gas service emerged as a heat producer; when the severe labour and raw material inflations and dislocations caused by World War II threatened and expanding lost after the

the manufactured gas service and solvency, the industry maintained and expanded its markets by drawing more natural gas from

transcontinental pipelines. The first pubUc utility gas was manufactured by heating a highvolatility coal in a metal retort and subjecting the resulting gas to

efficiencies.

gases of a total thermal content less than that of natural gas are distributed, or where liquefied petroleum gases are used for enrichment, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gases, gasolines and petroleum oils may be reformed in machines of the

Where mixed

water gas or oil-gas type to greater volume, lower thermal content and controlled combustion characteristics and gravity to meet production and mixing needs. The reforming processes may involve partial combustion, pyrolysis or reaction with steam Reforming, with enrichment or some combination of these. of the reformed gas with Uquefied petroleum gases or refinery oil gases, may also be used to meet peak loads on natural gas systems.

Unique in post-World War II gasmaking processes was the development of catalytic reforming. The feed stock may be natural gas, propane, butane, refinery oil gases or natural gasoline.

reforming

is

The

carried on in chrome-nickel alloy tubes heated ex-

ternally, usually with light fuel

oil.

The tubes

are filled with a

and the reforming gas zone is maintained at a temperature of about 982° C. The type of reformed gas depends upon the relative proportions of air and steam in the feed mixture.

A water gas process was introduced cooling and purification. This injected steam over the coal, which was heated exlater. ternally. The work of Thaddeus Lowe, a Union balloon officer in

nickel oxide catalyst,

the Civil War, made possible the economic manufacture of water gas in internally fired machines. This became the basis of the modern carbureted and blue water gas processes. By-product coke oven gas supplemented and often supplanted coal gas and

The ultimate Pyrolysis of the feed mixture is not attempted. capacity depends upon the rate of deposition of carbon, excessive

Internally fired oil-gas processes were invented and Prior to World War II these were used very httle Even there prior in the United States except on the west coast. to World War II the use of oil-gas was declining as natural gas

water

gas.

developed.

became

available.

by the change from manuThis tremendous exploitation of factured gas to natural gas. natural gas followed the discovery and proof of large reserves of natural gas in the midcontinental and southwestern areas in the 1920s. In 1925 seamless electrically welded steel pipe made the transportation of oil and gas for long distances economically All

these changes were dwarfed

feasible.

The change was

particularly striking after

World War

II

transcontinental petroleum pipelines became available for gas transmission and the economic inflation and short labour supply made public utility gas manufacture based on solid fuels

when

generally uneconomic.

By the 1960s intrastate and interstate transportation of natural gas by major pipelines had become so far-flung that, except in Maine, Vermont and Hawaii, there was practically no major city in the United States beyond the reach of natural gas supplies. Long-distance transmission of natural gas changed the engineering and economic problems of the gas industry. It involved heavy investments in long pipelines and, in many cases, the substitution of high thermal value (natural) gas for medium thermal value (manufactured) gas. These changes led to major new developments in gas manufacturing processes, storage and sales. The large investments in long pipelines favour the use of these Hues at high load factors; thus natural gas becomes the base gas or the base material for gas manufacture. Off-peak sale of natural gas to industry at attractive rates is favoured with shutoff agree-

ments

at times of

A number

peak public demands.

of oil-gas processes have been designed

to utilize the cheaper grades of

heavy

oils.

In

and developed

many

situations

component parts of abandoned water gas equipment have been built into the new oil-gas machines. Other studies have developed new equipment as well as new processes for the purpose. In general, such heavy oil-gas making machines use oil and air internally to create the heat they require, then inject oil and steam into the heated zone to make the gas. Partial combustion with air is sometimes simultaneously employed to increase the volume of the gas made. The cycle is then continued by returning to the heating phase, followed by another gasmaking phase. Good heat economy and good heat distribution within the machine are obtained in the

carbon being objectionable. The unit is very flexible. The reformed gas, usually of ISO to 350 B.T.U. per cubic foot (at 15.5" C. and 30 in. mercury barometer saturated with water) with a specific gravity from 0.52 to 0.65 referred to air, is then enriched with undecomposed feed stock. The unit can produce a perfectly matched gas that can be used as 100% replacement of the regular The automatic controls and flexibility of this utility sendout. continuous process permit feeding directly into the distribution system. A minimum of labour is required, capital investment is low, purification of the gas is not necessary and there are no tars and no waste disposal problems. As the plant produces no smoke can be tolerated in residential locations. Although natural gas had been noted in the United States before manufactured gas was introduced, it was not used commercially until long after manufactured gas was dis-

or dust 3.

it

Natural Gas.

—

tributed.

There is a record of a "Burning Spring" in 1775 near Charleston, W.Va., on land that George Washington dedicated as a public park. In 1821 the first natural gas well in the United States was drilled In to a depth of 27 ft. near a "burning spring" at Fredonia, N.Y. 1854 the first deep gas well, approximately 1,200 ft. deep, was sunk at Erie, Pa. In 1859 Edwin L. Drake began the petroleum Natural gas is frequently associated industry at Titusville, Pa. with petroleum in the earth's crust and its pressure serves to drive the oil to the surface. Oil men in early days ignored natural gas. The gas liberated from the oil at the surface was piped to a Wells that gave gas only flare and burned as a gigantic torch. were flared and allowed to burn themselves out over the years. The first natural gas corporation in the United States was the Fredonia Gas Light and Water Works Co., organized in 1858. In 1873 Titusville was supplied with natural gas through a two-inch iron pipe five miles long. In 1870 a burning well at Bloomfield, N.Y., was extinguished and connected to a 25-mi. pipeline of white In 1872 this gas was pine logs bored with an eight-inch hole. turned into the mains of the Rochester Gas Co., but the venture soon

failed.

By

the early 1960s there were about 70,000 gas wells in the United States; these, with gas producing oil wells, accounted for the annual marketing of about 13,500,000,000,000 cu.ft. of gas. (See also Natural Gas. Gases. The liquefied petroleum 4. Liquefied Petroleum gases, propane and butane, have been obtained from natural gas condensates at wellheads, in compression operations or at lowtemperature points in "wet" gas transmission systems. A very important source has been the crude natural gas gasoline extracted )

—

GASKELL

14 from natural gas by

oil

absorption.

The enriched

gasoline-oil

stripped with steam, and the vapours from the crude These hydrocarbons are gasoline are then fractionally distilled.

mixture

is

also recovered in petroleum refining

and petroleum cracking opera-

tions.

Propane alone has sufficiently high vapour pressure at the customary temperatures prevailing over the United States to permit Butane, however, For single consumer installations beyond gas mains a mixture of propane-butane compressed into steel cylinders is sold as bottled gas. Where a number of consumers are to be supplied, propane alone may be distributed by small mains. Communities that are too small to warrant a gas plant may be served with a butane-air mixture in which the content of air must be sufficiently high to avoid condensation of butane from the mixture, but the air content must always be much less than 91.59% and the butane must be more than 8.41% by volume under ordinary atmospheric pressure to prevent explosions. Air it

to be distributed as a gas without admixture.

requires a carrier gas.

content usually does not exceed 67%. Butane-air gas may be mixed with natural gas under some peak load conditions to gssist in meeting consumer demands. A butaneair plant can be instrumented so that it is operated, controlled and safeguarded completely by automatic devices; consequently its small demands for labour and supervision make it very suitable for service to isolated small communities. 5.

Storage of Gas.

for meeting variable

—

The generation and transmission of gas demand loads, e.g., in a public utility, possess

an important advantage over electricity in that gas can be stored in large quantities economically, whereas electricity must be generated and transmitted as consumed. This permits gas generating units and long-distance transmission units to be designed for average rather than peak conditions, thereby reducing markedly the capital investment required. For example, the long-distance transmission of natural gas is maintained at a high load factor in the summer season by moving large gas supplies to storage pools near the customers. Depleted gas tields or natural geological formations of porous rock completely capped by an impervious rock formation can be used for this purpose. They may have storage capacities of bilhons of cubic feet. (W. J. Hf.) BiBLioGR.^PHY. British Gas Federation, Report on the Planning of the Gas Industry (1943) J. Mitchell, British Gas Industry (194S) G. M. Gill, Manual of Carbonization in Horizontal Retorts, rev. ed. 1946) D. Chandler and A. D. Lacey, Rise of the Gas Industry in Britain (1949); S. Everard, History of the Gas Light and Coke Company (1949) \V. Gumz, Gas Producers and Blast Furnaces (1950) Battelle Memorial Institute, Economics of Fuel Gas from Coal (1950); Sir Hubert Houldsworth et al.. Efficiency in the Nationalised Industries (1952); British Gas Industry Productivity Team, Gas (1953); American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Gasification and Liquefaction of Coal (1953); B. W. Levson, Miracle of Light and Power (1955) A. Key, Gas Work Effluents and Ammonia, 2nd ed. (1956) American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM Standards on Gaseous Fuels (195S) E. B. Swanson (comp.), Century of Oil and Gas in Books (1960); A. Lief, Metering for America (1961); J. Lawrie, Natural Gas and Methane Sources (1961) American Gas Association, Historical Statistics of the Gas Industry (1956), Gas Fads (1961). Proceedings (annual); The Register of the Gas Industry (1962)

—

;

;

(

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

For current Britannira

statistics see the

Book

UN

Monthly

Bidletin of Statistics

and

of the Year

GASKELL, ELIZABETH (nee Stevenson) (1810-1865), English novelist, short-story writer and the first and best biographer of Charlotte Bronte, was a writer of courage and compassion with an instinctive grasp of the storyteller's art. She began her distinguished literary career only in middle life. The daughter of William Stevenson, who was suc-

CLEGHORN

cessively Unitarian minister, farmer, editor of the Scots Magazine and keeper of the treasury records, she was born in Chelsea on

Sept. 29. 1810; her

mother died early, and she was brought up from infancy by her maternal aunt, Mrs. Lumb, in Knutsford, Cheshire, spent two years at an efficient boarding school at Stratford-on-Avon, and then lived with her father and an uncongenial stepmother until his death in 1829. When visiting relatives in Edinburgh she met, and married in 1832, the Rev. William Gaskell, Unitarian minister of Cross Street chapel, Manchester, live years her senior. They collaborated in what was intended to be the

first

of a series of verse "Sketches

Among

the Poor," published

anonymously in Blackwood's Magazine (Jan. 1837). Domestic life claimed Mrs. Gaskell's time but not all her thoughts (the Gaskells had six children of whom four daughters lived to grow up). Her first novel, Mary Barton: a Tale of Manchester Life, developed slowly, reflecting the temper and events of the 1830s, the period of Chartist agitation, and was written mainly in 1845-46, when the death of an infant son had intensified her sense of community with the suffering poor and her desire, as she said, to "give utterance" to their "agony." Delayed by hesitant publishers, the appearance of the novel in 1848 proved well-timed; although it was published anonymously, it won her immediate and widespread fame and an entry to intellectual circles outside Manchester. She had already published short stories in Howitt's Journal (under the name "Cotton Mather Mills") and elsewhere, and in the next few years contributed to many other periodicals. Dickens, whom she met in 1849, was eager to have her as a contributor to his Household Words; "Lizzie Leigh," another Lancashire tale, appeared in 1850, in the first three numbers, fol-

lowed by two tragic stories, "The Well of Pen-Morfa" and "The Heart of John Middleton," and in 1851-53 the eight sketches subsequently revised and combined as Cranford (1853). There and in the related "Mr. Harrison's Confessions," which first appeared in the Ladies' Companion in 1851, the isolated countrytown society of an earlier generation is presented as a microcosm of life. A vi\'id chapter of social history, demonstrably faithful to memories of Knutsford (a place which was old-fashioned even then and long remained so), the book is yet more remarkable for its mastery and subtlety of tone, serenely avoiding both the sentimental and the satiric. Writing to John Ruskin, one of its many admirers, in the last year of her life, Mrs. Gaskell said it was the only one of her books she cared to read again. In her next two novels she again drew attention, though without letting the raised voice of propaganda disturb her art, to neglected claimants upon sympathetic understanding; in Ruth (1853) she proposed an alternative to the seduced girl's usual fate in contemporary life and fiction, while dealing perceptively with the moral, domestic and social dilemmas of the dissenting minister who rescues her. In North and South (Household Words, Sept. 2, 1854-Jan. 27, 1855), she modified the emphasis of Mary Barton by making her hero a factory owner and setting Manchester Hfe in a wider context; it is the most balanced and assured of her earlier novels. But publication as a weekly serial proved irksome both to her and to Dickens as editor, and the novel was revised and enlarged by several chapters for publication in two volumes in 1855. Among the many friends attracted by her writing and her delightful personality was Charlotte Bronte, who died in 1855 and whose biography Mr. Bronte urged her to undertake. The Life (1857), written with warmhearted admiration and insight and an unforced narrative skill disposing a mass of firsthand material, is one of the few literary biographies that is at once a work of art and a well-documented interpretation of its subject. But with characteristic impulsiveness she committed some minor indiscretions which brought vexatious controversy, and the work was at first less widely acclaimed than it deserved. For a time she concentrated on the writing of magazine stories of diverse length and subject, including the supernatural; the longest.

My

Lady Ludlow

{Household Words, June 19-Sept. 25, 1858), included in the collection Round the Sofa (1859), is an artfully linked chain of retrospect leading back to life in a noble household 60 years earlier.

All Mrs. Gaskell's 30 or so tales were collected in volumes pubhshed between 1854 and 1865. The most outstanding is Cousin Phillis (which first appeared in the Cor?thill Magazine, 186364), a sad love story of common life; often, and justly, called "an idyl," it is also a technical triumph of first-person narrative. Like most of her later work, it returns to the past, her share in contemporary problems now taking the form of energetic works of relief in Manchester in the period of une.xampled hardship resulting from the American Civil War. This took toll of her health, but her writing remained resilient, exemplifying what a Victorian

GAS

MASK—GAS METER

15

her "suppressed gipsiness" (matching her delight in which impelled her to be constantly making trial in imagination of various modes of life." She was in several years at work on Sylvia's Lovers (1863), which is set "Monkshaven" (Whitby) during the Napoleonic Wars and shows critic called

travel), "a restless instinct

the impact of horrifying events upon the quiet and vividly realized homestead. Her life of individual and community in town and powers of moral analysis are at their height in this study of temptation and retribution, and despite the less convincing scenes of battle novel in foreign fields, leading to a rather contrived conclusion, the

remains one of the masterpieces of Victorian fiction, recalling Scott and anticipating Hardy. Wives and Daughters: an Every-day Story, her last and longest novel, which appeared in the Cornhill Magazine between Aug. 1864 and Jan. 1866, was nearing its conclusion as a serial at the time Set of her sudden death at Alton, Hampshire, on Nov. 12, 186S. and some of the places of her girlhood, concerned simply with the interlocking fortunes of two or three country

in the period

families, the novel exhibits

some of her

distinctive gifts in greater

freedom and abundance than any previous work, notably her sense of social nuances and her insight into the relations of parent and child; and her gentle but penetrating portrayal of feminine deceit was compared with George Eliot's. The novel was memorably praised by Henry James. What may be called its summer sadness and yet the story is not confined to vicissitudes and bereavements; tends steadily toward the happy ending of the final, unwritten In all her chapters, which makes it unusual among her novels. work, her sense of the forces that divide individuals and classes time, both within each novel is keen, even painful; at the same and in the reader's response, there is a movement toward reconunderstandciHation and understanding, if no more than a mutual of rich ing of the inevitable differences between the two nations and poor, between north and south, town and country, the old and and was regarded pre-eminently as "the authoress novels of Mary Barton;' undoubtedly the most influential of her Cranford. in its time, though long since overtaken in popularity by

the young, the good In her lifetime she

the clever.

literary affiliations generally are less with novelists of the 19th century (though she owes something to Maria Edgeworth)

Her

than with Goldsmith, Crabbe, Lamb and Wordsworth. Mrs. Gaskell's wish that there should be no biography was respected by the daughters who long survived her, and none that is really definitive yet exists, a prerequisite being the edition of her

admirable letters in preparation in 1961. Bibliography. Much primary material may be found in A. W. vol. Ward's introductions to the Knutsford edition of her works, 8 Norton (1906-08) see also Letters of Mrs. Gaskell and Charles Eliot R. D. 1S'!'!-186S,' ed. with an introduction by Jane Whitehill (1932); Contemporaries Waller, Letters Addressed to Mrs. Gaskell by Celebrated The most comprehensive studies are Gerald De Witt Sanders, (1935) Elizabeth Gaskell, with a bibliography by Clark S. Northup (1929); Annette B. Hopkins, Elizabeth Gaskell, Her Life and Work (1952). The most complete edition of her works is in the World's Classics Shorter. series, 11 vol. (1901-19) with introductions by C. K.

—

;

(K. Ti.)

Casualty gas, as a weapon of war, was first in used in World War I by the Germans against the Russians Poland on'jan. 31, 1915, .and against Allied forces north of Ypres

GAS MASK.

Belgium, on April 22, 1915. (See Chemical Warfare.) The cumberfirst military gas masks used by the Allies in that war were

in

mask proper, which fitted around by a tube to a canister suspended around the soldier's neck and hung in front of his body. The wearer breathed air through a tube in his mouth from which the poison gases were

some

affairs consisting of the

the face, attached

through charcoal contained in the canister. A nose clip prevented breathing through the nostrils. The use of this type

filtered

movements and efficiency and made it impossible for him to "hug the ground" closely when under attack by machine gun fire. Considerable improvement in the gas mask was made after Worid War I and soldiers in World War II were provided with a mask that was lighter in weight, better fitting, ensured clearer and wider-range vision and, by eliminating the nose clamp and mouth Another advantage of the inhaler, lowered breathing resistance. of

mask

in battle

greatly impeded the soldier's

VOICEMITTER;

OUTLET VALVE ASSEMBLY.

FILTER LLEMENT

BY COURTESY

OF

U.S.

ARMY

AIRFLOW PATTERN THROUGH THE M17 MODEL GAS MASK. CUTAWAY VIEW II equipment was that the canister was slung over the shoulder and carried at the soldier's side, thus permitting greater freedom of action in combat.

World War

Although many improvements were made

in the

mask

itself in

the decades following World War I, the chemical agencies used to filter impurities from gas-infected air remained fundamentally the same. The canisters were filled with charcoal and soda lime which absorb and neutralize all gases known to be usable for tac-

However, some of the chemicals used to produce tical purposes. poison gases on the battlefield remain suspended in the air as fine, solid particles for long periods. These particles were filtered from the air entering the canisters by pads of felt inserted in the air passage.

For U.S. forces a major improvement came with the M-17 gas the army, navy and marine corps and issued to troops in the eariy 1960s. The new mask differed radically from earlier versions in that it did not require an external canister or hose. Instead, it filtered air through pads of pliable material enclosed in cavities molded into the facepiece of the mask. It offered protection against gases and aerosols of chemical, bacteriological and radiological agents.

mask adopted by

In addition to military uses, gas masks are widely used in industry to protect, workmen employed in mining and in chemical and other types of plants where fumes and gases resulting from natural circumstances or manufacturing processes are known to be injurious. Firemen and members of rescue squads also carry gas masks as part of their normal equipment. During World War II masks designed for civilian use in the event of air raid or other form of attack deUvering poison gases were also provided, partic(M. B. H. X.) ularly in Europe. ;

GAS METER,

Coma device for measuring gas volumes. panies selling gas to the pubhc commonly use a positive displacement meter, a rotary meter, an orifice meter or a heat capacity meter to compute charges for gas usage or purchase. For small volumes of consumption as in residential premises or most commercial installations, a positive displacement dry meter Its operation involves the alternate expansion and conis used. traction of each side of a double bellows of leather or synthetic The meter case, of tin, iron or aluminum, houses two working compartments, each of which encloses a bellows. The

material.

compartments are separated by a vertical partition which intersects a horizontal partition above the bellows and below the gear mechanism.

GASOLINE

i6

Valve parts and seats are

meters cannot be used on gas contaminated with foreign materials such as tar fog, moisture or dust. See also Gas Industry. (W. J. Hf.) (Petrol), a volatile, inflarfimable liquid usually consisting primarily of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum by various processes. By far the most important use is as a fuel for internal-combustion engines (g.v.), but it is also used to some

lo-

cated in the horizontal partition, the two working provided for each bellows, one space inside and one

one

FIG.

1.

METER

INDEX;

volume

is

outside

the

bellows

As each

from meter inlet and empties through the meter outlet, the gas gear mechanism to the meter alternately

the

measured through

a

lower temperature than kerosene, the principal product desired. It was largely wasted until the advent of the automobile. Gasoline became the preferred motor fuel because of two important properties: it had the high energy of combustion typical of hydrocar-

dial.

register the total volume passed. The right-hand index turns clockwise and adjacent indexes turn in opposite directions. The meter is read from left index to right by taking in each the figure behind the position of the index. Three ciphers are added, giving the result in cubic feet. Usually the customer is billed on company readings

but prepayment meters are set by an inspector to deliver the purchased volume of gas. In another type, an inserted coin permits a definite volume to pass the meter.

For higher

rates of delivery the rotary

meter is used. This is two or three revolving

a case with semicylindrical ends in which are

moves exactly counter to that adjacent. The entering gas is trapped and must move the rotors to be discharged. The trapped constant gas volume is recorded through gear mechanism to a dial. In some rotary meters the

impellers (rotors).

Each

rotor

may be large enough to supply gas to a small town. For measurement of large volumes of gas, an orifice meter

capacity

Essentially, a steel plate with a centre hole

used.

the gas pipe.

This obstruction causes the gas to

is

jet

is

fitted inside

downstream,

creating there a partial vacuum.

A

i^np « ^£3--.-. ij.^^^Ij^^jt' ""^^tSP^ ^B^^*^ V# ir^

W^ »\^tfSf'^^A '^ mmTi li«w '

'

differential

pressure

can

be

measured by connecting the upstream space and the downstream space to the two sides of a recording manometer. The differential pressure varies with the

flow through the orifice, thus measuring the volume of gas flowing. Orifice meters are relatively simple, sturdy and precise, but they have two disadvantages: there

is

a large loss of pressure,

and the mathematical relations between the differential pressures and the volume of the gas passed are very complex. Fortunately, natural gas is often available at pressures much higher than is required by conBY COURTESY OF AMERICAN METER CO. 2.

extent in special stoves and as a solvent. In the early days of the oil industry, gasoline (termed "straight run") was simply the portion of petroleum that distilled off at a

fills

The number of index circles in the dial of the dry meter varies with the capacity of the meter. At the top are one or two test circles, usually two. For leak testing, one of the two makes a complete revolution for each cubic foot of gas or designated fraction thereof. The second dial registers two to five cubic feet and is used for checking the accuracy of the meter. The lower dials

FIG.

GASOLINE

diaphragm

each compartment.

bellows

READING. 1.084.000

index

thus

in

— TIN-CASE

for

set

spaces

— CUTAWAY

CASE METER

VIEW OF A TIN

sumers, so the loss of pressure may not be objectionable. The

mathematical relationships have been carefully analyzed and

compiled into tables that simplify the readings. \\here the gas measured has a uniform known heat capacity per unit volume, a device for measuring the passing heat capacity can be employed as a gas meter. Two thermometers of the electrical may be placed some distance apart in a gas pipe. Between these is placed a source of heat, such as an electrical heating coil. The thermometers control the heat input to the coil grid type

to

maintain a constant rise of temperature between them. The readings of a recording electric wattmeter establish the volumes of gas flowing.

An alternate but similar device measures the varying rise in temperature caused by a fixed rate of heat input. Heat capacity

bons, and

it was sufficiently volatile to form a combustible mixture with air in a simple, relatively inexpensive carburetor. It was also cheap and plentiful. As the demand for gasoline increased during the first two decades of the 20th century, it ceased to be a by-product, and more and more of the kerosene cut began to be included. By 1913 even this became inadequate and a gasoline shortage threatened the further rapid development of the automobile. Fortunately, the first commercial cracking process, the Burton process, was developed about this time to convert heavier oils, particularly the gas oils which

boiled just above kerosene, into gasoline by subjecting them to temperatures of around 399° C. and pressures of around 100 lb. As a result of this and many later improvements in cracking proc-

have increased to about 50% of the crude oil processed, a figure well over twice the amount of hydrocarbons of suitable boiling point found in average crude oil. esses, gasoline yields

Gasoline is a complex mixture containing hundreds of different hydrocarbons. Most of them are saturated and contain 4 to 12 carbon atoms per molecule, but they differ widely in structure. Motorcar gasoline boils mainly between 32.2° and 210° C, the precise blend being adjusted to the climate and the season. More fight, volatile

components are needed for quick

warm up when

the weather

starting

and

fast

but these are Ukely to cause high evaporation losses and vapour lock at summer temperatures. The heavier portions of the gasoline are valuable for their higher heating value, but in excess they may cause carbon deposits and is cold,

uneven

fuel distribution. A\'iation gasofine is a "heart cut" containing less of both the lighter and heavier ends than motorcar gasoline.

As engine designers sought greater efficiency through higher compression ratios, they encountered increasing trouble with engine "knock," a rapid detonation occurring toward the end of the com-

The shape

of the gasoline molecules was found to be very determining the knocking tendency of a gasoline. Straight-chain molecules knock much more readily than branched or ring-shaped molecules, especially of the saturated type naturally present in crude oil. It soon became evident that the extent to which the compression ratio, and hence the efficiency, of gasoline engines could be increased depended on changing the kind of mole-

bustion.

important

in

cules present in gasoline.

To istics,

establish a definite scale for measuring antiknock characterso-called

"iso-octane"

(2,2,4-trimethylpentane), a highly

branched hydrocarbon, was assigned a value of 100 on the knockrating scale, and normal heptane a value of 0. The octane number indicates simply that a gasoline has the same knocking tendency in a standard engine under standard conditions as a particular blend of heptane and iso-octane, the percentage of the iso-octane in the blend being termed the octane number. However, the actual behaviour in different engines is likely to vary somewhat from the' results of the standard test. The straight-run gasoline found in average crude oil has a low octane number. Needed high-octane components are made by a variety of processes which have been developed over the years. Branched hydrocarbons are plentiful in gasoline made by cracking particularly if the cracking has been brought about by catalysts instead of by older processes using only heat and pressure. Branched structures are even more abundant in alkylate and polymer gasolines, both of which are made by joining together, (

—

)

GASPARRI—GAS PLANT with the aid of catalysts, small molecules of gases made as a byproduct in most cracking processes. Of the ring-shaped hydrocarbons, among the most valuable are benzene and toluene, which are obtained from coal tar or may be made by passing certain cuts of straight-run gasoline over platinum or other catalysts. By the end of World War II about 60% of the average motor fuel was composed of synthetic molecules, and aviation gasoline was more than 90% synthetic. By the 1960s most motor gasoline was fully 80% synthetic. This illustrates forcibly the revolution in refining methods brought about by the advent of cracking. The discovery that the cheap hydrocarbons in petroleum could be readily changed in composition and structure led also to a rapidly growing petrochemical industry, which makes from petroleum or natural gas a wide variety of chemicals for solvents, plastics, fibres, synthetic rubber and for many other purposes. Another important way of increasing antiknock is by the addition of tetraethyl lead, as was discovered by Thomas Midgley in 1920. Though the amount used in motor fuel is less than 0.1% by volume, it may increase the octane number by as much as 1 5 points. By the 1960s the average octane number of U.S. gasoline had risen to about 91 for the regular grade and 99 for the premium grade, as compared with a figure of 55 octane or below before the

advent of cracking. Military aviation gasoline reached the 100octane level just before World War II, and still better fuels were later developed. Their antiknock quality is stated in terms of performance numbers, which indicate the knock-free power obtainable in an engine of suitable compression ratio as a percentage of the power obtainable from pure iso-octane. The most widely used grade of aviation gasoline had a performance number of 115 under cruising conditions, 145 under take-off conditions.

However,

fur-

ther substantial increases in octane number promised to be quite expensive. As the result of these improvements, the compression ratios of new automobile engines went up from an average of 4.4 to

1

in 1925 to

an average of

9.5 to

1

by

1958, with an

improvement

about 60%. The average power generated per cubic inch of engine displacement increased in the elficiency of gasoline utilization of

from

.234 h.p. to .779 h.p. in the

same period.

Additives are also used in gasoline for purposes other than antiChlorine and bromine compounds convert the lead in tetraethyl lead to relatively volatile salts and thus assist in its removal by the exhaust gases and in reducing the build-up of deposits on exhaust valves, etc. Antioxidants are used to inMetal deactivators prevent deterioration hibit gum formation. caused by contact with the metal of the fuel tank. De-icers prevent engine stalling caused by the icing of carburetor throttle

knock improvement.

plates.

Although petroleum is the principal source of motor fuel, other raw materials are used. Natural gas often contains moderate amounts of liquefiable hydrocarbons, which are recovered as "natural" or "casinghead" gasoline. In Europe alcohol is sometimes included in motor fuel blends. Motor benzol recovered from coal is also used at times. Gasoline can be produced by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high pressure in the presence of a suitable catalyst. The needed mixture of gases may be produced by the partial oxidation of natural gas (methane) with pure oxygen. To be commercial the process requires cheap natural gas as the starting material, and good prices for the by-product alcohols, acids, ketones and other organic chemicals. In the distant future, coal may be used to provide the hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Direct hydrogenation of coal is also possible, but is expensive. Gasoline can likewise be made from tar sands, of which there are very large deposits in Canada. The most promising of the long-range sources, however, appeared to be oil shale. The U.S. reserves of shale are much larger than the country's known reserves of petroleum. See Petroleum; Petrochemicals; see also references under (R. E. Wn.j "Gasoline" in the Index.

tar

17

In 1904 Pius X, having decided to codify the canon law, confided to Gasparri the direction of the work. The new code was

Paris.

in 191 7 {see Canon Law). In 1907 Gasparri was made cardinal, and in Oct. 1914 Benedict appointed him secretary of state, which office he held throughout the arduous World War I period and the almost equally strenuous reconstruction period which followed. He was retained by

promulgated

XV

Pius XI and in 1926 began negotiations which resulted in the Vatican treaty. He resigned in Jan. 1930 and was succeeded by Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli (later Pius XII). Cardinal Gasparri died (B. Ty.) at Rome on Nov. 18, 1934.

GASPE, PHILIPPE AUBERT DE

ruptcy, for which he spent over three years in debtors' prison, forced him out of public life in his 40s. After years of reading and meditation, inspired by a rebirth of

nationalism in mid- 19th century,

Anciens Canadiens set in

Canada

at the

to preserve the old

(1852-1934), Italian cardinal and Capovalazza de Ussita on May 5, 1852. He received the degrees of doctor of philosophy, theology and canon law after study at the pontifical seminary at Rome, and from 1880 to 1898 was professor of canon law at the Catholic institute in

was born

De Gaspe composed Les

romantic historical novel time of the British conquest (1760), written It is a

late in hfe.

De Gaspe

French traditions for posterity.

makes use of known

historical material, personal family records,

folklore and folksongs. The novel has a nostalgic charm spiced with avuncular humour. It was enthusiastically received and became a classic in French Canada, an aristocratic precursor of Maria Chapdelaine (1916) by Louis Hemon, and hence of the

whole regionalist school that flourished into the 1930s. The common features are idealization of the "good, old days" and of the habitant farmer, loyalty to the soil and distrust of English Canada.

—

Bibliography. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe, Les Anciens Canadiens (1863; Eng. trans. The Canadians of Old by G. M. Pennee [1864] and C. G. D. Roberts [1890]) and Memoires (1866); Msgr. C. Roy, Romanciers de chez nous (ig.5S) J- S. Tassie, "Philippe Aubert de (J. S. Te.) Gaspe," in Our Living tradition, vol. 2 (1959). ;

GASPE PENINSULA

(Gaspesia) juts into the Gulf of

St.

Lawrence and comprises that part of eastern Quebec province which lies between the St. Lawrence river and the province of New Brunswick. It is a hilly to mountainous area with well-forested slopes. The central portion is occupied by the Shickshock range, a continuation of the Appalachians, which rises to over 4,000 ft. (1,219 m.).

Settlement

coastal villages.

The

is light,

area

is

occurring only in widely separated as a tourist centre because

known

and picturesque coastal scenery, its striking hills and and fishing. Lumbering and coastal fishing are the principal occupations but there is some mining of copper, zinc and lead and a small production of pulp for papermaking. of its rugged

excellent hunting

GAS PLANT

(W. F. Ss.) (Dictamnus

albus), a hardy perennial herb of

the rue family ( Rutaceae) known also as dittany, fraxinella and as burning bush. It has long been ,

a well-known and popular garden ornamental. The stems are stout, woody at the base, bear alternate odd-pinnate leaves, with glossy leathery leaflets dotted with oil

glands and surmounted by long, racemes of terminal showy, snowy white or rose-coloured fragrant flowers with a strong smell

GASPARRI, PIETRO

canonist,

(1786-187O, "the

grand old man of French-Canadian literature," was the author of the first important novel published in French Canada, Les Anciens Canadiens (1863). Born on Oct. 30, 1786, into a distinguished Quebec family whose first Canadian ancestor had been ennobled by Louis XIV of France, De Gaspe was the epitome of gentlemanly dignity as hereditary seigneur of his estate on the St. Lawrence river. He received a classical education in Quebec, Bankstudied law there and later became sheriff of the city.

of

lemon.

The gas

plant

a sturdy upright growth,

at

makes and a

feet high and as breadth makes a pleasing

clump three

much GAS PLANT (DICTAMNUS ALBUS)

in

show whcn

in flower.

On

a stiU,

;

GASQUET—GASTONIA

i8 summer evening

sultry

ter near the

main stem

a lighted

match held under the flower cluswhence the name gas plant.

hard Hess, Pierre Gassend: der franzosische Spdthumanismuss und das Problem von Wissen und Glauben (1939) R. B. Lindsay, "Pierre Gassendi and the Revival of Atomism in the Renaissance," Am. J. Phys., xiii, no. 4 R. Pintard, Modernisme, humanisme, libertinage (1945)

will give a flash,

(J.

GASQUET, FRANCIS NEIL

M.

;

Bl.)

;

fin religion

Aidan) (1S46-

1929 I. Roman Catholic historian and cardinal, was born in London on Oct. 5, 1S46. Educated at Downside school, he entered the Benedictine monastery there and was prior from 1878 until 1885. From 1 888 onward he published works on monastic history, including the influential Henry VIII and the English Monasteries (i888-8gl, of considerable value but somewhat marred by inaccuracies and bias. He was created cardinal in 1914, and became Cardinal Gasquet died prefect of the Vatican archives in 1918. in Rome on April 5, 1929. See M. D. Knowles, Cardinal Gasquet as a Historian (1957) Shane

(1948).

GASSER, HERBERT SPENCER

beginning there, with Joseph Erlanger (q.v.), the brilliant series of researches on nerve fibres that led to their joint award in 1944 of the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine. In 193 1 Gasser became professor of physiology at Cornell university medical

and in 1935 director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, which position he held until his retirement in college,

D. A.)

(J.

(Gassend). PIERRE (1592-1655), French phiand mathematician, famous for his revival of Epicureanism, was born of poor parents at Chaniptercier in Provence on Jan. 22, 1592. Educated at Digne and Ai.x, he eventually took holy orders and became professor of philosophy at Aix (1617). After travels in Flanders and Holland (1628-31), he secured an appointment as provost of the cathedral at Digne (1634), which had been disputed for ten years. He then spent some time accompanying the due d'Angouleme on a tour of his gouvernement of Provence. In 1645 Gassendi became professor of mathematics at the College Royal in Paris. He died in Paris on Oct. 24,

GASSENDI

losopher, scientist

1655Gassendi's writings include: Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus Aristolelaeos (1624; new ed., 1649); EpistoUca exercitatio in qua principia philosophiae Roberti Fluddi rcteguntur (1630), written at the instance of Marin Mersenne; a letter on the parhelia ob-

served in 1629 (1630); lives of Peiresc and Tycho Brahe (1641 and 1654); a series of objections to the Meditationes de prima philosophia of Descartes, which was likewise undertaken at Mer-

appended to the second edition of the work in (1642) but republished separately (1644); Institutio astronomica (1647) De vita et morihus Epicuri (1647) Animadversiones in decimiim librum Diogenis Laertii, qui est de vita, morihus placitisque Epicuri, with Philosophiae Epicuri syntagma as an appendix (1649); and the Syntagma philosophicum, published posthumously among his collected works (1658). The last three works are those on which his lasting reputation depends. As a philosopher. Gassendi opposed the blind acceptance of Aristotle, revived atomism and advocated an empirical realism. But he was not a consistent empiricist, for while he maintains "that there is nothing in the intellect which has not been in the senses" and that the imaginative faculty is the counterpart of sense, he admits that the intellect, which he affirms to be immaterial and immortal, attains notions and truths of which sensation or imagination can give us not the slightest apprehension. He instances the capacity of forming "general notions" and unisenne's behest and

question

;

versals, the notion of

;

God and

The

first part of the Syntagma philosophicum, which deals with and method, contains a praiseworthy sketch of the history of science and contends that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to higher notions, though it admits

that inductive reasoning, as conceived by Francis Bacon, rests on a general proposition not itself proved by induction. In the second part of the Syntagma, the physics, Gassendi approves of the

Epicurean physics, but rejects the Epicurean negation of God, of and of an immaterial rational soul, endowed with immortality, capable of free determination and specially particular providence

In the third part, the ethics, there is little beyond a milder statement of the Epicurean moral code and a mass of historical quotations. The final end of life is happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body. Bibliography.— Pf/W Gassendi opera omnia, cd. by H L Habert de Montmort, with life by S. Sorbicrc, 6 voi. (1658) F.' Bernicr, Abrigi created.

;

de

M. Gassendi (1674; final cd., 6 vol., 1684) J. BouGassendi (17^57) P. F. Thomas, La Philosophie de Gassendi (iSSg) G. S. Brett, The Philosophy of Gassendi (iqo8) C. Marwan, Die Wiederaujnahme der griechischcn Alomistik durch P. Gassendi (1935) P. Humbert, L'Oeuvre astronomique de Gassendi (1936) Gerla

1953-

Gasser pioneered in the use of the cathode ray oscilloscope as an inertialess instrument for recording the action potentials of nerve impulses. With it he demonstrated the compound nature of the action potential of nerves containing various types of nerve fibres, formulated the rules relating conduction velocity to diameter of the individual nerve fibres, and characterized the several groups of nerve fibres in terms of their electrical properties and conduction velocities. Crucial to this characterization was his study of the after-potentials, which he showed to be different in the several groups of nerve fibres and to be closely correlated with the excitability cycles during recovery of nerve fibres following impulse conduction. An outstanding contribution was his study of the finest of all nerve fibres, the unmyelinated fibres, in which he elucidated their functional properties and, with the aid of the electron microscope, their anatomical structure. He died in New York city on May U, 1963. (D. P. C. L.) GASTEIN, a side valley of the Salzach river in the province of Salzburg, Aus., is situated between 3,000 and 3,500 ft. above sea level and is crossed by the Gasteiner Ache river. The principal settlements in the valley are Badgastein and Bad Hofgastein on the main railway with direct connections to the lines MunichVenice and Vienna-Zijrich. Badgastein, at an altitude of 3,320 ft., is Austria's most important spa and winter sports resort. Pop. (1961) 5,742. It has radioactive thermal springs with a natural temperature of 43.3° C. 110° F.), an underwater therapy station and, since 1950, a thermal gallery. For skiers there is a gondola cable car leading to the Stubnerkogel (7,365 ft.) and four ski hfts. Badgastein is also known for its magnificent waterfalls. (

Bad Hofgastein, lower

level,

is

the capital of the valley

commune,

lying at a

conveyed from BadPop. (1961) 4,700. At one time it was,

also a spa, the waters being

gastein by a pipeline. after Salzburg, the richest place in the province because of

and

silver mines,

which were worked from the

Roman

its gold period until

the 20th centurv.

(H. Zg.) (1856-1939), Rumanian Jewish scholar, rabbi and Zionist, a noted folklorist and philologist, was bom at Bucharest and educated at Bucharest university, where he became lecturer in Rumanian language and literature (1881-85). His championship of the cause of persecuted Jews, which included aid-

GASTER, MOSES

the power of reflection.

logic

philosophie dc

;

gerc!. Vie de

U.S.

was born in Platteville, Wis., on July 5, 1888. After graduating from the University of Wisconsin, and in medicine from the Johns Hopkins school of medicine (1915), he taught at Washington university, St. Loliis. Mo.,

;

Cardinal Gasquet (1953).

Leslie,

(1888-1963),

physiologist and Nobel laureate,

;

;

;

;

;

from Rumania, and he went to England, where he held a lectureship at Oxford in Byzantine and Slavonic languages (1886 and 1891). In 1887 he was appointed chief rabbi of the Sephardic communities ing projects for settling Jews in Palestine, led to his expulsion

Gaster retired in 1919 because of failing eyesight. He died near Abingdon, Eng., on March 5, 1939. Gaster was author of an enormous body of literature. Among

of England.

works were The Folk Literature of Rumania (1883) The Hebrew Version of Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle (1908); The Samaritan Book of Joshua ( 1908) Example of the Rabbis ( 1924) and many Rumanian translations and contributions to learned journals. His monumental Crestomatia Romana was uncompleted at

his

;

;

his death.

GASTONIA,

an industrial city and seat of Gaston county, is 20 mi. W. of Charlotte in south-central North Carolina, U.S. Gaston county, a leading cotton-mill county in North Carolina since

GASTRIC AND DUODENAL ULCER—GASTRITIS cotton mills I860, in the second half of the 20th century had more estabthan any county in the United States. The manufacturing hshments in the county produce principally textiles and textile

machinery. Gastonia was incorporated in 1877 and became the county seat Gaston, a memin 1909. The county, named in honour of William ber of congress and judge of the North Carolina supreme court, was formed in 1846. The state-operated Gaston Technical school, Orthopedic the Vocational Textile school and the North Carolina hospital are located in the city. Kings Mountain National Military is 20 mi. S.W. In 1929 Gastonia was the scene of a textile strike and severe labour disorders that attracted national attention. Following the death of the Gastonia police chief in a raid on the National Textile Workers union headquarters, union organizer Fred Beal and six

park

associates were convicted of conspiracy to commit murder. In 1919 Gastonia adopted the council-manager form of govern-

ment. For comparative population figures see table in l»ia: Population.

GASTRIC AND DUODENAL ULCER.

North Caro(R- N. E.) Peptic ulcer

is

an inclusive term referring to a sharply circumscribed, punchedout defect or loss of tissue in the mucosa or lining of the stomach The ulcerative process occurs because of the inor duodenum. ability of the

mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum

to with-

stand the corrosive and digestive action of acid gastric juice. It ulcer and is important to distinguish between gastric (stomach) duodenal ulcer because of differences in diagnosis, treatment and prognosis.

Peptic ulcer

abdominal

is

a

common

cause of recurring or persistent upper

young men. more frequently than men than in women; in gastric

distress, especially in

Duodenal ulcer ocand is

curs five to ten times

gastric ulcer,

commoner

ulcer the sex ratio

in

is

about equal. Gastric juice, consisting primarily of hydrochloric acid of a concentration of o.4SSt and an enzyme, pepsin, which digests proIt is teins, is secreted by glands in the mucosa of the stomach. capable of digesting all living tissue, including the stomach itself.

Protective mechanisms, such as secretion of mucus by the stomach glands, dilution of the acid juice by swallowed food and saliva, and intermittency of the secretion, act to prevent digestion of the stomach in the normal person. The secretion of acid gastric juice is controlled primarily by nervous impulses traveling via the vagus nerve. These impulses are stimulated by the sight, taste or smell

hormone gastrin, which is liberated from the lower part of the stomach after contact with food, and by other hormones from the duodenum. A person with a duodenal ulcer usually secretes more gastric juice with a higher hydrochloric acid concentration than a normal person does. The fact that this is not true of food, by the

in the case of gastric ulcer indicates that gastric

mucosa may be

than duodenal mucosa to the action of gastric juice. The causes of peptic ulcers are not completely understood, al-

less resistant

many factors have been implicated. Nervous tension, ingestion of certain drugs (such as salicylates and corticoidsj and though

may

play roles. The symptoms of gastric and duodenal ulcer are similar, consisting of gnawing, burning, aching, hungerlike pain or discomfort in the mid-upper abdomen, occurring from one to three hours after meals or when the stomach is empty. Pain frequently occurs

hormonal factors

This pain is characteristically relieved by inor 2 A.M. gestion of materials such as food, milk and baking soda, which at

I

dilute

and neutralize

acid.

Several complicating conditions may occur secondarily to peptic ulcer: obstruction of the stomach outlet, due to inflammation or scar formation, may cause vomiting; hemorrhage may occur, manifested by vomiting of bloody material or material resembling coffee grounds, or by black tarry stools; if the bleeding is excessive, weakness and anemia may occur. The wall of the stomach or duo-

denum

occasionally

inal pain

and

may

peritonitis.

diate surgery. Gastric ulcer

is

perforate, causing severe localized

abdom-

This catastrophic event requires imme-

diagnosed by the roentgenographic appearance of

19

seen a crater or defect in the lining of the stomach. It may also be Gastroscopy, especially when directly through the gastroscope. biopsy or microscopic examination of aspirations from the stomach (cytological examination) is also performed, usually enables differentiation of a benign gastric ulcer from an ulcerating carcinoma, symptoms of which are similar. The diagnosis of a duodenal ulcer, is usually based upon the roentgenographic appearance of a characteristic crater or deformity in the duodenum. Treatment of peptic ulcer is based upon the principle of complete and prolonged neutralization of the gastric hydrochloric This is accomplished by the use of antacids, such as calacid. aluminum hydroxide, dihydroxy aluminum aminocarbonate, cium In the acute acetate, dihydroxy magnesium aluminate, or milk. phase, which may last two to three weeks, these agents are given every half hour; later they may be given every one to two hours. Anticholinergic or antisecretory drugs, such as belladonna, atropine or scopolamine methylbromide, which inhibit the secretion In selected cases, roentgen of gastric acid, are also valuable. therapy to the stomach is valuable in producing a decrease in gastric acidity. Sedatives and tranquilizers are used to allay ten-

invariably benign,

and nervousness. During the first several days of therapy only small feedings of bland foods are allowed. Following this period a full bland dietmeals including two cooked fruits, two cooked vegetables and lean meat—is tolerated. Prolonged use of a strict diet of pureed foods

sion

It is, however, best to avoid spices, gasrarely necessary. forming' foods and alcohol or other irritants. Since coffee, chewing gum and tobacco stimulate gastric secretion, their use should also be discontinued if possible. In addition, a person with an ulcer should understand the nature of the disease so that he may reorient himself to a life of moderation, relieve nervousness and anxiety

is

and obtain adequate

rest

and

sleep.

be necessary in approximately 10% of of unwillingall cases, either because of complications or because ness or inability of patients to follow a medical regimen. When certainty a benign gastric it is not possible to differentiate with Surgical treatment

ulcer

may

from an ulcerating cancer of the stomach, surgery

is

indi-

In the surgical treatment of a gastric ulcer, the ulcer is stomach. In the case is removed along with three-fourths of the in a similar manremoved be may stomach the ulcer duodenal of a ner or else the more physiological procedure of vagotomy and gastroenterostomy is employed. In the latter procedure, the vagus cated.

nerves to the stomach are severed and an opening is made from the stomach to the small intestine. The purpose of this operation is to eliminate the secretion of gastric juice caused by nervous impulses. For ulcers

in

other parts of

the

gastrointestinal

tract,

see

Ulcer. Bibliography.— B. W. Sippy, "Gastric and Duodenal Ulcer, Medical Care by an Efficient Removal of Gastric Juice Corrosion," J.A.M.A., of Pep64-i6'S (1915) J. B. Kirsner and W. L. Palmer, "The Problem

"

;

Med., 13:61s (1952) W. L. Palmer, "Peptic Ulcer by R. L. Cecil and R. F. Loeb, 10th ed Swader, "Oral (1959) J. A. Rider, J. 0. Gibbs, W. A. Ranson and J. I. Use of Methscopolamine (Pamine) Bromide in Treatment of Duodenal Ulcer; Effect on Human Gastric Secretion," y..4.Af. ,4., 159:1085 (1955) T. L. Althausen and 0. E. Sheline, "The J A. Rider, H. C. Moeller, Effect of X-ray Therapy on Gastric Acidity and on 17-Hydroxycorticoid and Uropepsin Excretion," Ann. Int. Med., 47:651 (1957) L. R. Dragstedt, "Cause of Peptic Ulcer," J.A.M.A., 169:203 (1959). (J. A. Rr.)

tic

in

Ulcer,"

Am.

A Textbook

J.

:

of Medicine, ed.

;

;

;

GASTRITIS.

The term

gastritis

signifies

inflammation of

the stomach, acute or chronic. Acute gastritis is caused usually by dietary indiscretions, excessive intake of alcohol, irritating drugs, food poisoning and infectious diseases. The smooth, glistennormal ing, orange-red appearing inner lining (mucosa) of the

stomach becomes reddened, swollen and dulled; hemorrhages, adherent mucus and occasionally small superficial ulcerations also may develop. The chief symptoms are severe upper abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, thirst and diarrhea; the The only treatillness develops suddenly and subsides rapidly. ment necessary is temporary avoidance of food, followed by a nonirritating diet, sedatives and antispasmodics; rarely, fluids by intravenous injection

may

be required.

The

intentional or acci-

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

20

dental ingestion of corrosives (acids, alkalies) causes a severe chemical gastritis, necessitating immediate emptying and thorough washing of the stomach, general supportive care and, if the poison

has systemic effects, administration of the specific antidote. Chronic gastritis is classified into four varieties; mixtures of several types are not unusual. Superficial gastritis is character-

by redness, swelling and hemorrhage of the mucosa, with In atrophic gastritis the mucosa is thinned, grayish-green in colour and easily injured; the underlying blood vessels are abnormally visible. In hypertrophic gastritis the stomach wall is thickened, the folds are enlarged and irregular and the mucosa presents a swollen, spongelike appearance. The gastritis following operations upon the stomach combines features

man

in

exclusively

;

the other two major sections are

ANATOMY

—

Esophagus. The esophagus or gullet, a muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, stretches from the lower limit of the

ized

pharynx or throat,

adherent mucus and erosions.

diac orifice of the stomach.

of these three types.

general population

is

The incidence of chronic gastritis in the known in patients examined because of

not

;

symptoms the recorded frequency has varied from 15% 60%. The cause of chronic gastritis and the conditions con-

digestive to

development are not established; excessively hot or cold food, condiments, alcohol, tobacco, irritating medicines, tributing to its

stomach

acids, allergy, infection, nutritional deficiencies

and emoSince the stomach

tional disturbances all

have been imphcated. exposed continuously to various mechanical, chemical, thermal, bacterial, psychogenic and physiologic influences, chronic gastriUs probably results from a combination

from early

fife

is

of factors.

The symptoms

in patients

with chronic gastritis are indefinite

and often resemble the manifestations of functional digestive disorders. They include discomfort, fullness or pain in the upper abdomen, poor appetite, flatulence, belching and variable bowel habits.

In erosive gastritis the

ulcer; bleeding

or

may

occur.

symptoms may be those

of peptic

There are no characteristic laboratory

X-ray findings; these e.xaminations are valuable

chiefly to ex-

clude serious organic disease.

There

is no specific treatment for chronic gastritis; nor, indeed, therapy usually necessarj'. Reassurance as to the absence of serious illness, a bland diet eliminating irritating foods and avoiding is

large quantities of alcohol, tea

and coffee; and sedatives and antispasmodics to relieve nervous tension and quiet the congested, hyperactive stomach are helpful. Vitamins and other nutritional supplements are indicated when the food intake has been poor. Antacids and antisecretory drugs neutralizing and decreasing acid production in the stomach are useful in gastritis with erosions and with bleeding. Surgery is necessary when hypertrophic gastritis cannot be differentiated from tumour, for obstruction at the outlet of the stomach and for uncontrollable hemorrhage; however, such cases are rare. Chronic gastritis tends to be persistent or recurrent,

more general

in scope.

to

in.

1

in. in

neck, then in

men.

As

at the level of the cricoid cartilage, to the car-

It is about 10 in. long (25 cm.) and ^ At first it lies in the lower part of the the chest and lastly, for about an inch, in the abdo-

diameter.

far as the level of the fourth or fifth thoracic vertebra

membrane

is

stretching.

Stomach.

thrown into a number of longitudinal pleats

—The stomach

to allow

an irregularly pear-shaped bag, sitWhen moderately distended, the thick end of the pear or fundus bulges upward and to the left, while the narrow end is constricted to form the pylorus, by means of which the stomach communicates with the small intestine. The cardiac orifice, where the esophagus enters, is placed about a third of the way along the upper border from the left end of the fundus and between it and the pylorus; the upper border is concave and is known as the lesser curvature. From the cardiac to the pyloric orifice, round the lower border, uated in the upper and

is

left

is

part of the abdomen.

the greater curvature.

In front of the stomach are the liver (in part), the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall, while behind it are the pancreas, left kidney, left adrenal, spleen, colon and mesocolon. Whdn the stomach is empty it contracts into a tubular organ and the transverse colon ascends to occupy the vacant space. The pylorus is an oval opening, averaging one-half inch in its long axis but capable of considerable distention; it is formed by SALIVARY GLANDS

ESOPHAGUS

with unpredictable variations in type, severity and distribution. However, it usually does not lead to serious disease. Minor surface alterations, such as congestion, hemorrhage and erosions, usually heal rapidly and completely.

Bibliography .—J. B. Kirsner and W. L. Palmer, "Gastritis," Cyclopedia of Medicine, 13:157-176.\ (1955) R. Schindler, Gastritis (1942) and Gastroscopy, 2nd ed. (1950). (J. B. Kr.) ;

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT,

strictly

speaking,

is

the term applied to that portion of the food canal that includes the stomach and the small and large intestines as an anatomical and a unit. The more inclusive term "alimentary canal" (formerly, digestive tube) includes also the esophagus, whereas "digestive tract" denotes the complete food canal, from the mouth

functional

through the anal canal. In the adult human being the digestive tract is 25 to 30 ft. long, and the food passes through the following parts one after the other: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, caecum, colon, rectum and anal canal (the caecum, colon, rectum and anal canal constitute the large intestine). Into the digestive tract at various points the salivary glands, liver and pancreas {qq.v.) pour their secretions by special ducts. This article deals chiefly with the anatomy, comparative anatomy and embr>'ology of the gastrointestinal tract but includes also

SMALL INTESTINE

a

discussion of the esophagus. The mouth {q.v. and the pharynx (see Throat) are dealt with elsewhere. For the physiology of the digestive tract, see Digestion. (See also Gastrointestinal Tract, Diseases of.) The Anatomy section discusses structure )

it

behind the trachea, but when that tube ends it is in close contact with the pericardium and, at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra, passes through the esophageal opening of the diaphragm (q.v.), accompanied by the two vagus nerves, the left being in front of it and the right behind. In the abdomen it lies just behind the left lobe of the liver. In both the upper and lower parts of its course it lies a httle to the left of the mid-line. Its mucous lies

ADAPTED FROM J CARLSON AND V SION OF THE Uf IVEBStTY OF CHICAGO

FIG.

.

JOHNSON.

THE MACHINERY OF THE BOOT

HESS

—ORGANS AND GLANDS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT.

PART OF RESPIRARELATIONSHIP TO DIGESTIVE TRACT. ORGANS AND GLANDS ARE SPREAD APART FOR CLARITY 1.

TORY SYSTEM

IS

SHOWN TO INDICATE

ITS

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT muscle layer of the stomach, a special development of the circular periodic escape and during life is tightly closed, "except during the

The of gastric contents into the duodenum. rugae of the stomach is thrown into pleats or not fully distended. Superticial to the

mucous membrane when the organ is ;

mucous

coat

is

a

LARGE INTESTINE X

ot

this are three coats loose connective tissue, while superficial to middle circular and the oblique, inner the muscle, of unstriped

DUODENUM X

15

INTESTINAL

15

.INTESTINAL GLAND

SOLITARY NODULE

GUNDS

MUSCUURIS MUCOSAE DUODENAL GLANDS

.

submucous, consistmg

21

CIRCULAR MUSCULAR FIBRES

CIRCULAR

=^^

MUSCULAR FIBRES LONGITUDINAL

LONGITUDINAL

MUSCULAR FIBRES

MUSCULAR FIBRES

,

_

~ PERITONEUM

the outer longitudinal.

—The

is a tube, from 22 to and ending at the ileocaecal valve; it is divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The duodenum is from 9 to 11 in. long and forms a horseshoe It differs or C-shaped curve, encircling the head of the pancreas.

Small Intestine.

25

__VILLUS (EPITHELIUM)

small intestine

long, beginning at the pylorus

ft.

SOLITARY NODULE -

INTESTINAL

GUND

LAMINA PROPRIA

MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE

Its first part rest of the gut In being retroperitoneal. horizontal and lies behind the fundus of the gall bladder, pass-

from the is

from the pylorus. The second part hilum of the right kidopen. The ney, and into this part the pancreatic and bile ducts aorta and third part runs horizontally to the left in front of the

ing

backward and

runs vertically

to the right

downward

in front of the

vena cava, while the fourth part ascends to the left side of the second lumbar vertebra, after which it bends sharply downward and forward to forai the duodenojejunal flexure. The jejunum forms the upper two-fifths of the rest of the small convolutions intestine; it, like the ileum, is thrown into numerous and is attached by the mesentery to the posterior abdominal wall. the remaining three-fifths of the small intestine, no absolute point at which the one ends and the upper other begins. Speaking broadly, the jejunum occupies the ileum and left part of the abdomen below the subcostal plane, the opens into the lower and right part. At its termination the ileum

The ileum though there

is

is

the large intestine at the ileocaecal valve. Caecum. The caecum is a blind sac occupying the right iliac ileocaecal fossa and extending down two or three inches below the

—

From

junction.

posterior and left surface the

its

vermiform ap-

left. pendix protrudes, and usually is directed upward and to the four This wormlike tube is blind at its end and is usually three or inches long. Its internal opening into the caecum is about one inch

below that of the ileum. exit is seen to be composed of: (1) an lymphof mass a coat; submucous (3) a coat; (2) muscular ternal membrane. oid tissue, which appears after birth; and (4) mucous In many cases its lumen is wholly or partly obliterated, though ileum this is probably due to disease. Guarding the opening of the cusps into the caecum is the ileocaecal valve, which consists of two horizontal forms a upper the these of caecum; into the projecting the caecum shelf, while the lower slopes up to it obliquely. At birth bent upon itself is a cone, the apex of which is the appendix; it is throughout life. to form a U; sometimes this arrangement persists Colon.—The ascending colon {see fig. 1) runs up from the

On

transverse section

caecum

flexure at the level of the ileocaecal valve to the hepatic

beneath and behind the right lobe of the liver; it is about eight inches long and posteriorly is in contact with the abdominal wall and right kidney. It is covered by peritoneum except on its posterior surface.

The transverse colon is variable in position, depending largely on the distention of the stomach, but usually corresponding to the subcostal plane. On the left side of the abdomen its ascends to the

may make an impression on the spleen (q.v.), diaphragm opposite the 11th rib by a fold of

splenic flexure, which

and

is

bound

to the

peritoneum. The descending colon passes down in front of the

and

left kidney abdominal wall to the crest of the inches long and is usually empty and con-

left side of the posterior

ilium;

it

is

about

six

tracted while the rest of the colon is distended with gas; its peritoneal relations are the same as those of the ascending colon, but

more likely to be completely surrounded. The iliac colon stretches from the crest of the

it is

ilium to the in-

ner border of the psoas muscle, lying in the left iliac fossa, just above and parallel to Poupart's ligament. Like the descending, surface. it is usually uncovered by peritoneum on its posterior It is

about

six inches in length.

BLOOD VESSEL

SEROSA

JEJUNUM X 20 SEEN IN LONGITUDINAL SECFIG. 2.— STRUCTURE OF INTESTINAL WALL AS TIONS loop, the pelvic colon lies in the true pelvis and forms a the convexity while inferior and superior are which of limbs two fetus this reaches across to the right side of the pelvis. In the caecum descends loop occupies the right iliac fossa, but, as the of this enlarges and the pelvis widens, it is usually driven out

The

and

end of the loop turns sharply downward to of the sacrum, where it becomes the rectum. piece reach the third sigmoid Formerly the iliac and pelvic colons were spoken of as the

The

region.

distal

flexure.

.

Rectum

The rectum, according

to

ideas, begins

modern

m

ends in a dilatation or back of the prostate the with contact in which is rectal ampulla, is in front of the in the male and of the vagina in the female and front of the third piece of the sacrum.

tip of the coccyx.

The rectum

is

.

It

^b-=3

> t

(toward pylorus)

not straight, as its name would imply, but has a concavity forward corresponding to that of the sacrum and coccyx. At the end of the pelvic colon

mesocolon ceases, and the rectum is then covered only by peritoneum at its sides and in the

FROM 0- J. CUNNINGHAM. "TEXTBOOK OF ANATOMY," BY COURTESY OF OXFORD MEDICAL

front; lower down the lateral PUBLICATIONS covering is gradually reflected off FIG. 3. JEJUNUM OF THE SMALL INSHOWING- TRANSVERSE and then only the front is cov- TESTINE About the junction of the FOLDS. OR PLEATS ered.

—

or hardened

Section preserved middle and lower thirds of the (Left) spread In alcohol; (right) fresh portion covperitoneal tube the anterior out under water ering is also reflected off onto the j pouch m the male and bladder or vagina, forming the rectovesical This reflection is usually the pouch of Douglas in the female. about three inches above the anal aperture. ,

Anal Canal.—The tract

runs

i

digestive anal canal, the termination of the the lower surface of the

downward and backward from

It is about an ampulla between the levatores ani muscles. is the opening Its contact. in are inch long and its lateral walls

rectal

M.; X.) conforms to the but shows some regional general structural plan of hollow organs There are four requirements local with adaptations in agreement submucous and mucous {see fag. 2). ine (See also

Anatomy, Gross.)

Structure of the Intestine.— The

(P- C-

intestine

coats- serous, muscular,

of peritoneum continuous is an external investment incomplete on those surwith the mesentery, where present; it is the body wall. Like against pressed are that intestine the faces of shiny surface and smooth, has a it serous membranes in general,

tunica serosa

cells (mesothelium) lyconsists of a single layer of flat epithelial tissue. connective ing upon a bed of The tunica muscularis is composed of unstriped (involuntary) outer arranged in two sharply demarcated layers; the

muscle

fibres

22

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

MOUTH OF

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT In amphibians and reptiles it is in most cases a simple sac, marked off from the esophagus only by increased calibre. In the much Crocodilia, however, the anterior portion of the stomach is from a radiating muscles the muscular, highly very and enlarged sac.

central tendinous area on each is lined by a hardened secretion

of the flattened sides.

The

cavity

and contains pebbles and gravel for mechanical trituration of the food, so that the resemblance to This muscular chamber the gizzard of birds is well marked. glanduleads by a small aperture into a distal, smaller and more lar chamber. glanduIn birds the stomach exhibits two regions: an anterior relatively lar region, the proventriculus, the walls of which are (gizsoft and contain enlarged digestive glands, and a distal region a zard). The distal region is larger and is lined in most cases by more or less permanent membrane which is thick and tough in birds with a muscular gizzard, very slight in others. In mammals the primitive form of the stomach consists of esophageal a more or less globular or elongated expansion of the

narregion, forming the cardiac portion, and a forwardly curved, The rower pyloric portion, from which the duodenum arises. whole wall is muscular, and the lining membrane is richly glanIn many mammals one, two or three protrusions of the dular. cardiac region occur, while in the manatee and in some rodents the cardiac region is constricted off from the pyloric portion. In the Artiodactyla the stomach is always complex, the complexity

reaching a

maximum

in

ruminating forms.

In the chevrotains,

23

enormously long sacculated and convoluted pyloric region, the general arrangement of which closely resembles the large caecum

many mammals.

of

Intestinal Tract.

morphology of

—

It is not yet possible to discuss the general

this region in vertebrates as a

group.

While the

modifications displayed in birds and mammals have been compared and studied in detail, those in the lower groups have not yet been systematically coordinated. In the cyclostomes (lamprey, hagfish), chimaeras and Fishes. a few bony fishes the course of the gut is practically straight from the pyloric end of the stomach to the exterior, and there is no

—

marked

differentiation into regions.

In the lungfishes a contracted

sigmoid curve between the stomach and the dilated intestine is a In simple beginning of the complexity found in other groups. very many of the more specialized bony fishes the gut is much convoluted, exhibiting a series of watch-springlike coils. In a number of different groups, increased surface for absorption is given, not by increase in length of the whole gut but by the

development of an internal

fold

A

known

set of

known

as the spiral valve.

organs peculiar to

as

the pyloric

fish,

caeca,

is

present in numbers ranging from 1 to nearly 200 in the vast majorCAECUM ity of fish. These are outgrowths of the intestinal tract near the

which in many other respects show conditions intermediate between nonruminant artiodactyls and true ruminants, the esophagus extremity of the stomach, opens into a wide cardiac portion, incompletely divided into four pyloric COLONtheir function is partly glanand are lined extremity, cardiac toward the these, chambers. Three of CUT END OF RECTUM absorbing. partly dular, which with villi and correspond to the rumen or paunch; the fourth, INTESTINAL TRACT OF THE the amphibians the course FIG. 7. In portion of pyloric the and esophagus the of opening the hes between WITH WELL-DEVELOPED CAEis nearly TAPIR. tract intestinal the of with lined wall is the stomach, is the ruminant reticulum and its CUM, ADAPTED TO A DIET OF SOFT straight from the pyloric end of WATER PLANTS very shallow "cells." The fourth or true pyloric chamber is an the stomach to the cloaca; in the elongated sac with smooth glandular walls and is the abomasum, retain the gills through life (mud or rennet sac. In the camel the case of the salamanders that simple loops between rumen forms an enormous globu- puppy, olm) there are no more than a few DUODENUM that leaves the portion straight the and "rectum" and expanded walls the villous lar paunch with internally showing a trace of di- stomach. swung In fishes, amphibians and reptiles the intestinal tract is vision into two regions. It is well which mesentery a cavity by abdominal of the wall dorsal marked off from the reticulum, from the secondary absorption in places. There the diverticula of which are ex- is incomplete because of of the still forming the mis- are also traces, more abundant in the lower forms, ^___ tremely deep, more primitive ventral mesentery. ^^^^ called "water cells." Birds and Mammals.— The primitive gut must be supposed to In the true ruminants the rususpended from men forms a capacious, villous have run backward from the stomach to the cloaca This a dorsal mesentery. cavity by body the wall of partly dorsal the always nearly reservoir, of ancestors common the of phylogeny of course the tract, in sacculated, into which the food longer than the straight length bebecame mammals, and animal birds' the as rapidly passed OF THE is FIG. 6.— INTESTINAL TRACT tween its extreme points and, consequently, was thrown into a WALLABY. ADAPTED TO AN oMNivo. grazes. The food is subjected to ROUS DIET OF PLANT MATTER AND ^ rotary movement lu the pauuch, series of folds. >^^^"^ The mesentery grew out with these folds, but the presence of and is thus repeatedly subjected organs, the disturbance due to the outgrowth of the liver it is adjacent as reticulum, the by secreted fluids the with moistening to relations brought about between different porsecondary into a the and formed is and passed over the aperture of that cavity, the outgrowing loops invaded each other's as gut, rounded bolus. The food bolus, when the animal is lying down tions of the primitive simplicity. the disturbed mouth localities, the reaches and esophagus the after grazing, is passed into of outgrowth, however, are to be recregions definite prolonged Three by antiperistaltic contractions of the esophagus. After birds and in the actual disposition of the gut in existing is but ognized swallowed, again it is saliva, with mixing and mastication is a mammals. The first of these is the duodenum. The second por"

passed into the psalterium which, in true ruminants, Finally it small chamber with conspicuous longitudinal folds. reaches the large abomasum where the last stages of gastric di-

now

gestion occur.

In the whales the stomach is different from that found in any other group of mammals. The esophagus opens directly into a very large cardiac sac, the distal extremity of which forms a long At nearly the first third of its length this comcaecal pouch. municates by a narrow aperture with the elongated, relatively narrow pyloric portion. The latter is convoluted and restricted into a series of chambers that differ in different groups of whales. In most of the pouched mammals (Marsupialia) the stomach is relatively simple; in the kangaroos, on the other hand, the stomach portion and an is divided into a relatively small, caecal cardiac

tion

is

Meckel's

tract.

It consists of the part

generally

known

as

human anatomy, the small intestines, the jejunum and ileum of to the caecum duodenum the of end distal the from stretches and in nearly or caeca. It is the chief absorbing portion of the gut, and portion. It represents, howall birds and mammals is the longest straight gut, corever, only a very small part of the primitive responding to not more than two or three somites of the embryo. and third portion of the gut should be termed the hind-gut, between the caecum or caeca and the anus, corresponding to anatomy. It is the large intestines, colon and rectum of human straight gut primitive of the portion larger formed from a much proximal than the duodenum and Meckel's tract together, and its duodenum. the of origin the to close very portion lies

The lies

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, DISEASES OF

24

rectum from the hind-gut, while the mid-gut is responsible for the rest. The cephalic part of the fore-gut forms the pharynx, and about the fourth week the stomach appears as a fusiform THIRD LOOP OF HIND-GUT

dilatation in the straight tube.

Between the two the esophagus gradually forms as the embryo The opening into the yolk sac, which at first is very wide, gradually narrows, as the ventral abdominal walls close in, until in the adult the only indication of the connection between the gut and the yolk sac is the rare presence (about 2%) of

elongates.

Meckel's diverticulum. The stomach soon shows signs of the greater and lesser curvatures, the latter being ventral, but maintains its straight position. About the sixth week the caecum appears as a lateral diverticulum, and until the third month is of uniform calibre; after this period

POST-CAECAL

LOOP SPIRAL LOOP

CUT END OF RECTUM

— INTESTINAL TRACT OF

THE GIRAFFE. COMPLEXLY DEVELOPED AND ADAPTED TO A DIET OF LEAVES OF SHRUBS AND TREES FIG. 8.

—

Adaptations of the Intestinal Tract to Function. The chief business of the gut is to provide a vascular surface to which the prepared food is applied so that the nutritive material may be

absorbed into the system. Overlying and sometimes obscuring the morphological patterns of the gut are many moditications correlated with the nature of the food. Thus in birds and mammals alike there is a direct association of herbivorous habit with great relative length of gut.

In fish-eating birds and thick wall

and a

mammals

the gut

is

very long, with a

relatively small calibre, while there

is

a general

tendency for the regions of the gut to be slightly or not

at all de-

In fruit-eating birds the gut is strikingly short, wide and simple, while a similar change has not taken place in fruit-eating fined.

mammals.

Carnivorous birds and

short gut.

mammals have

a

relatively

—

The Colic Caeca. These paired or single organs lie at the junction of the hind-gut with VERMIFORM APPENDIX

Meckel's tract and are homologous in birds and mammals although their apparent position

OF CAECUM

majority of cases in The caeca are hollow outgrowths of the wall of the gut, the blind ends being directed forward. They vary in size within very wide limits and there is no invariable connection between the nature of the food and the degree of their development. differs in the

the two groups.

The

—

may

is

;

CUT ENDS OF THE FACTORS OF THE PORTAL VEIN

—

in

A. Maximow and W. Bloom, Textbook of Histology, 7th ed. (1957) A. E. Barclay, The Digestive Tract, 2nd ed. (1936) E, Gardner, D. J. Gray and R. O'Rahilly, Anatomy, part 5, "The Abdomen" (1960); Gray's Anatomy, "The Digestive System," pp. 1207-1314, 27th ed. by C. M. Goss (1959); T. H. Eaton, Jr., Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates, 2nd ed. (1960); W. S. Leach, Functional Anatomy of the Mammal, 3rd ed. (1961) L. B. Arey, Developmental Anatomy, 6th ed. (1954), Human Histology (1957) A. S. Romer, Vertebrate Body, 2nd ed. (1955). ;

most cases FIG. 9. INTESTINAL TRACT OF THE highly glandular and contains GORILLA. ADAPTED TO A DIET OF masses of lymphoid tissue. FRUIT AND LEAVES In birds and in mammals this tissue caecal wall

the terminal part ceases to grow at the same rate as the proximal, and so the vermiform appendix is formed. The mid-gut forms a loop with its convexity toward the diminishing vitelline duct, or remains of the yolk sac, and until the third month it protrudes into the umbilical cord. The greater curvature of the stomach grows more rapidly than the lesser, and the whole stomach turns over and becomes bent at right angles, so that what was its left surface becomes ventral. This turning over of the stomach throws the succeeding part of the intestine into a duodenal loop, which at first has a dorsal and ventral mesentery. The intestine now grows very rapidly and is thrown into a series of coils; the caecum ascends and passes to the right ventral to the duodenum, and presses it against the dorsal wall of the abdomen; then it descends toward its permanent position in the right iliac fossa. From the ventral surface on the hinder (caudal) closed end of the intestinal tube the allantois grows to form the placenta and bladder (see Urinary System; Reproductive System; Placenta), and this region is the cloaca into which the gastrointestinal, urinary and generative canals or ducts all open. Later, two lateral folds appear which, by their union, divide the cloaca into a ventral and a dorsal part, the former being genitourinary and the latter alimentary or intestinal. In this way the rectum or dorsal compartment is shut off from the genitourinary. Later an ectodermal invagination at the hind end of the embryo develops and forms the anal canal; this is the proctodaeum, and for some time it is separated from the hind (caudal) end of the rectal part of the mesodaeum (or part of the intestinal canal formed from the mesoderm) by a membrane called the anal membrane. This is eventually absorbed, and the digestive tract now communicates with the surface by the anus. See also references under "Gastrointestinal Tract" in the Index volume. (P. C. M.; X.) Bibliography. H. Morris, Human Anatomy, 11th ed. (1953); A.

be so greatly increased as to transform the caecum into a

;

;

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, DISEASES eases of the gastrointestinal tract are numerous.

sidered in the discussion that follows.

STOMACH

EMBRYOLOGY greater part of the digestive tract is formed by the closing in of the entoderm to make a longitudinal tube, ventral and parallel to the notochord.

This tube is blind in front and behind (cephalad and caudad), but the middle part of its ventral wall is for some distance continuous with the wall of the yolk sac, and this part of the tract,

which at

opens into the yolk sac by a very wide aperture, is The part in front of it, which lies dorsal to the fore-gut, while the part behind the aperture of the

first

called the mid-gut.

the heart,

is

yolk sac is the hind-gut. The pharynx, esophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum are developed from the fore-gut, a good deal of the colon and the

Dis-

important disorders affecting the stomach and intestines are con-

solid or nearly solid sac.

The

OF.

Only the more

Peptic Ulcer.

membrane

—A

peptic ulcer

is

a localized loss of tissue in

stomach or the immediately adjacent portion of the duodenum. This disorder, which occurs much more often in the duodenum than in the stomach, affects from 5% the

that lines the

10% of all people at some time in their lives. Though there are certain important differences between ulcers in the stomach and those in the duodenum, the two types are considered together here. to

The precise cause of peptic ulcer is unknown. It is generally agreed, however, that the hydrochloric acid normally present in the gastric juice plays an important role. The prevailing concept is

that the corrosive action of the gastric acid renders the af-

fected area of the stomach or

duodenum

susceptible to digestion

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, DISEASES OF The a digestive enzyme also found in gastric juice. ulcer, induodenal those with especially patients, ulcer that fact variably have free (excess) hydrochloric acid in their gastric juice lends support to the importance attributed to the acid-peptic by pepsin,

stress also appears to contribute to the

Emotional

mechanism.

formation of peptic ulcer and to the precipitation of ulcer attack. Recurrent attacks of upper abdominal pain or distress occur The pain generally occurs one to periodically in ulcer patients.

two hours after eating or during sleep. Characteristically, relief certain neutralizing drugs is temporarily obtained by food, milk or known as antacids. Each attack lasts several days or weeks and reappears after several weeks or months. Recurrences are especially frequent in the spring and fall. The ulcer may erode a blood vessel and give rise to hemorrhage; it also may extend through the wall of the stomach or duodenum and cause perforation; or it

may form

sufficient

amounts of scar

tissue to obstruct the outlet of

the stomach.

The keystone of medical treatment is a program that rests the stomach. This includes physical and mental rest; mild sedation; a bland diet with frequent milk feedings between meals; drugs, such as atropine and belladonna, that reduce acid secretion; and acid neutralizers, such as calcium carbonate and aluminum hydroxSurgery is necessary in from 10% to 15% of patients with ide. duodenal ulcer; surgery becomes necessary when patients fail to respond to intensive medical treatment or when they develop some complication of the disease. A gastric ulcer that does not heal in four to perhaps six weeks should be treated surgically, principally because of the possibility that the symptoms may represent an ulcerating cancer rather than a simple benign ulcer. This fear does not apply to duodenal ulcers, which practically never are (See also Gastric and Duodenal Ulcer; Ulcer.) cancerous. Gastritis.

—

Gastritis

is

an inflammation, either acute or chronic,

The acute manifested principally by vomiting and upper abdominal distress. The inflammation usually clears up after removal of the exciting cause, which may of the stomach, principally of

variety

is

its

lining

usually a temporary affair and

membrane.

is

be dietary indiscretion, excessive consumption of alcohol, the use The cause of chronic gastritis is of certain drugs or infection. unknown. Patients with this form of gastritis may experience or little or no distress, or they may complain of vague dyspepsia present symptoms simulating peptic ulcer. Erosive or ulcerative gastritis, whether acute or chronic, may on occasion cause hemorrhage. Inspection of the lining membrane of the stomach through a gastroscope may disclose one or several changes, each with its

own

characteristics.

One

of these, designated as chronic atrophic is thought to predispose to

mucosal atrophy, the development of stomach cancer.

gastritis or gastric

methods of examination, notably gastroscopy and the search for cancer

cells in gastric

Abdomen, Surgery of:

Regional Enteritis

carcinoma

is

unknown,

it

is

generally agreed, on the

basis of present evidence, that a peptic ulcer of the if

ever, turns cancerous.

The problem

rather

is

stomach

rarely,

to distinguish

an ulcerating cancer from a benign ulcer of the stomach. The symptoms of cancer of the stomach are often insidious in Indeed, the disease is usually fairiy well detheir development.

The patient may inifirst symptoms appear. experience a diminution of appetite, some weight loss or The pain may remild upper abdominal discomfort or pain. semble that of peptic ulcer and may be relieved by eating. Indigestion is especially suspect when it appears for the first time in a middle-aged or older person whose gastric secretion fails to show free acid after appropriate stimulation. The free acid secretion of the stomach is absent or diminished in most of the patients with veloped before the tially

gastric cancer.

90%

of

the

X-rays usually give evidence of the disease (80%cases)

when symptoms

are

present.

Additional

—This

is

a chronic inflammatory

;

part of the small intestine may be affected, either continuously In a type of enteritis known as or irregularly with skip areas. enterocolitis, varying lengths of the adjoining colon also may be

involved. In rare cases, the duodenum or even the stomach may be affected by the disease. Consequences of the disease are that the bowel is thickened, its channel is narrowed and its lining is ulcerated. The cause of regional enteritis is unknown. It affects both sexes of all ages but particularly those between IS and 30 years. Patients may recover completely from an initial acute attack, but the usual course is one of progression with continuously

many years. Periods of relative freedom from symptoms are interrupted by acute exacerbations; or the patient is never entirely well and complications ensue. smoldering disease for

The symptoms are extremely variable. The initial attack may simulate acute appendicitis. The usual picture is that of a continuous or intermittent diarrhea, sometimes bloody, accompanied by painful abdominal cramps. Fever is very common and someChronic debility, times overshadows the digestive symptoms. weight loss and anemia produce progressive physical deterioration. complications may occur, such as obstruction or perforation Grave

within the abdomen, of the intestine, the formation of an abscess diseased gut or an abnormal communication (fistula) between the coils of small bowel, the colon, urinary bladder or Infections about the anus, particularly a perianal fistula,

and adjacent vagina.

occur fairly commonly. Diagnosis is confirmed by X-ray examination of the small bowel and colon. Uncomplicated cases are preferably managed by conservative, nonsurgical measures. These consist basically of physisupcal rest and a bland, nutritious diet with minimal roughage,

plemented with vitamins and iron. Corticotrophin (ACTH), a hormone derived from the pituitary gland, and adrenal cortical hormones, such as cortisone, often produce gratifying improvement. These agents, however, do not cure the disease. Antibiotics are often helpful in the treatment of secondary infection but are not curative. Surgery is reserved for patients who do not

from medical treatment or who exhibit the more serious The principle of surgery is to remove the diseased segment or to isolate it from the intestinal stream by connecting

as

of gastric

(Ileitis).

disease of one or more segments of the small bowel. In its classical form it is confined to the terminal portion of the ileum i.e., where the ileum joins the colon. In some cases, however, a major

It occurs in all races and in all parts the age of 40 years. The disease usually appears in one of three the world. anatomical forms; (1) an ulcer; (2) a projecting tumour; or (3) a diffusely infiltrating and spreading growth. Although the cause

of

Gastrointestinal Surgery.

THE INTESTINES

benefit

—

washings, increase diagnostic accuracy.

Cure depends upon early diagnosis and early removal of the cancer along with part or all of the stomach. See also Cancer;

The treatment of chronic bland diet and antacids. Liver ex(See tract and vitamins have also been reported to be beneficial. also Gastritis.) Cancer. Carcinoma of the stomach is one of the most frequent malignant diseases of the digestive tract, particularly in men over

gastritis consists chiefly of a

25

complications.

normal bowel above the level of the disease to the colon at a point well beyond the diseased segment. Appendicitis.— Inflammation of the appendix generally occurs an acute attack; such attacks may culminate in perforation of The the appendix with peritonitis or localized abscess formation. in typical picture is one of pain, tenderness and muscular spasm This is often the right lower quadrant of the abdominal wall. preceded by pain that is vaguely localized in the middle or upper The parient's temperature is usually elevated and the

abdomen.

white blood cell count is increased. If appendicitis is suspected, haznothing should be taken by mouth; laxatives are espedally early ardous. Treatment is surgical removal of the appendix as in the disease as possible. Chronic appendicitis, a term often used to describe low-grade, inrecurring pain in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, is Usually the pain is found to result from a disorder frequent. (See also Apother than chronic inflammation of the appendix.

pendicitis.)

—

Functional Disorder of the Colon. Functional disorder of known as the "irritable colon syndrome," is prob-

the colon, also

cause of abdominal discomfort, pain and disorder is due predominantly to dissimilar turbed motility of the colon, but it may be associated with

ably the most irregular

common

bowel action.

The

;

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, DISEASES OF

26

disturbance of function in other parts of the digestive tract. It results from a "nervous" or irritable state of the bowel and not from organic or structural disease. X-ray and other examina-

do not disclose organic abnormalities. The terms "mucous colitis" and "spastic colitis" are popularly used to designate this condition. They are undesirable terms, however, because there is no true "colitis" (inflammation of the colon) in this disorder. The disturbed activity of the colon is usually related to nervous tension, worry and anxiety. The eating of irritant and laxative tions

foods, the overuse of harsh laxatives, allergic response to certain foods and excessive smoking also may contribute to the irritability of the bowel.

The

patient experiences abdominal discomfort, pain

and irregu-

bowel evacuation. Constipation is more common than diarrhea, but both may occur alternately in the same individual. Excessive mucus in the stool is sometimes present. Abdominal distension or bloating, rumbling sounds and excessive passage of flatus are common symptoms. Usually the digestive complaints are accompanied by general symptoms of nervousness, weakness and fatigue. Treatment begins with a thorough examination to exclude organic disease. Reassurance about the nature of the disorder and attempts to alleviate emotional tension are important in treatment. A bland diet free of physically and chemically irritant foods and the use of mild sedatives and antispasmodic drugs are helpful. The patient is urged to discontinue the use of laxatives and enemas and is encouraged to adjust his daily routine so as to provide more Development of a regular bowel habit is rest and relaxation. Constipation is treated by providing a greater intake desirable. of cooked fruits and vegetables and such natural laxatives as prune juice. In addition, the ingestion of a simple hydrophilic colloid may be useful in providing a soft stool. Constipation. Constipation is actually a symptom and not a disease. Because of its frequency and the importance attached to it, however, it merits special consideration. Constipation may be defined as the infrequent evacuation of excessively hard, dry stools. Frequency is a less important criterion than the physical character of the stool since healthy persons vary greatly in the frequency of defecation. The mistaken notion that a daily evacuation is essential for good health has, unfortunately, led to colossal overuse of laxatives and cathartics. {See Cathartic.) Constipation may be subdivided into functional and organic types. Functional constipation, in which there is no structural abnormality, is a major symptom of the irritable colon syndrome discussed above under Functional Disorder of the Colon. Organic causes are numerous and include such diverse conditions as carcinoma of the colon and rectum, diverticulitis, inflammatory diseases that produce constricting scars in the intestine, a pelvic mass pressing on the colon and painful diseases of the anus such as fissure or hemorrhoids. Treatment of organic constipation depends on its cause. larity of

—

Diarrhea.

—

-Diarrhea, like constipation, is a symptom and not Diarrhea may be defined as the frequent passage of loose or watery stools. It, too, may be either functional or organic in origin. Diarrhea frequently is a manifestation of the irritable

a disease.

colon and

commonly

associated with emotional states, such as fear and anxiety. Laxative foods, cathartics, excessive alcohol and certain foods to which the individual is sensitive may produce or aggravate diarrhea. Organic causes of diarrhea are numerous. They include infection (e.g., bacillary and amoebic dysentery. is

Staphylococcus food poisoning, cholera, paratyphoid fever, etc.) poisoning, as by mercury, arsenic or other chemical agents; regional enteritis and chronic ulcerative colitis; cancer of the intestinal tract; sprue iq.v.) and celiac disease, in which intestinal absorption of foodstuffs is impaired; and overgrowth of fungi or actual organic changes that develop as a complication of antibiotic

therapy.

Diarrhea is treated basically by physical rest, clear fluids or soft bland foods and medication; this treatment is designed to relieve pain, reduce intestinal hyperactivity and soothe the inflamed or irritated bowel. More specific measures depend on the cause for the diarrhea. {See also Dysentery; Bacterial and Infectious Diseases.)

—

Chronic Ulcerative Colitis. This is a chronic disease of unknown etiology in which the lining membrane of the colon and rectum

is

and studded with bleeding pinpoint and

diffusely inflamed

The disease affects rectum more often than the

the left (lower) half of the colon

ulcers.

ever, the entire colon

How-

right (upper) side of the colon.

affected in

more than 50%

In approximately 5% of all cases, the disorder is confined to segments of the colon above the rectum. Ulcerative colitis most commonly affects persons between 20 and 40 years of age. A few patients is

of cases.

recover completely, but most suffer recurrent episodes or are chronically and continuously ill for many years. The disease may at any time become acute and fulminating. No specific cause is known. It may well be that there are multiple causes, each playing some part. The resemblance of the '

striking, but no microorganism has been Emotional disturbance is almost invariably present and probably plays an important role. There is some evidence suggesting that the malady may be an autoimmune disease. According to this concept, antibodies injurious to the colon develop as the result of an alteration in the colonic tissue brought about by some noxious agent.

disease to infection

is

clearly imphcated.

The patient experiences intermittent or continuous diarrhea with blood commonly present in the stools. Fever, anemia, weight loss and malnutrition are common symptoms. Serious complications may occur. These include hemorrhage, perforation of the bowel, development of a perianal fistula or abscess and arthritis or arthralgia.

In addition to the classical multiple small ulcers, the lining of the affected colon often exhibits projecting tags or islands of tissue referred to as pseudopolyps. The incidence of colonic cancer is

who have had

decidedly greater in patients

ber of years than

this disease for a

num-

Sigmoidoscopic inspection of the lining membrane and an X-ray of the colon orit is

in the general population.

dinarily establish the diagnosis.

Medical treatment is similar to that for regional enteritis. Physical rest and the alleviation or control of emotional factors are essential for good results. Corticotrophin and adrenal cortical hormones are even more helpful in this disease than in regional enteritis. Antibiotics and sulfonamides are used for secondary infection with some benefit. Surgery is reserved for patients who remain debilitated or incapacitated despite prolonged and intensive medical treatment, or

who

suffer

from certain of the complications.

The operation

usually employed consists of removing the colon and rectum and

bringing the termination of the small intestine to the outside through the abdominal wall. This opening, termed an ileostomy, serves as a substitute for the anus.

ileostomy

is

The

fecal discharge

from the

In those few spared, the diseased portion of the

collected in a rubber or plastic bag.

cases in which the rectum

is

may

be surgically removed and the continuity of the normal bowel re-established by joining the remaining portions of uninvolved colon. Diverticulosis and Diverticulitis. Diverticula (abnormal colon

—

outpouchings or saccules) are frequently seen in the colons of older persons, especially those ticula are present, a

diverticula

who

person

is

become inflamed,

are constipated. said to

When

these diver-

have diverticulosis.

the condition

is

If the

described as diver-

ticulitis. Diverticula usually cause no symptoms. However, if they become inflamed or complicated by perforation or abscess formation, abdominal pain, diarrhea, bleeding, fever or intestinal obstruction may occur. Treatment of uncomplicated diverticulosis requires no particular measures other, perhaps, than those

directed against constipation.

Diverticulitis requires antibiotics

and measures designed to keep the bowel at rest; in some cases removal of the inflamed segment of colon is necessary. {See also Diverticulitis and Diverticulosis.) Cancer of the Colon. This disorder occurs even more fre-

—

quently than cancer of the stomach. Colonic polyps, the benign tumours (adenomas) of the colon and rectum that are found in about 10% of all persons beyond the age of 40, are considered to be potentially precancerous. This has led to the practice of removing polyps of the colon and rectum whenever they are found.

GASTROLITH—GATES

27 Neodasyidae and Xenotrichulidae of the Chaetonotoidea; the majority of the remaining Chae-

In the lower part of the colon, cancer tends to be constricting producing symptoms of bowel obstruction. The manifestations of this change include abdominal discomfort and an alteraAlternating tion in bowel habit in the direction of constipation.

in type,

tonotoidea are in fresh water. Gastrotrichs are elongate ani-

Blood is comattacks of diarrhea and constipation may occur. monly seen in the stool. (See also Intestinal Obstructions.) Cancer situated in the upper part of the colon is less apt to be

mals that move by means of cilia or cirri on the flattened ventral surface. The body is covered by a cuticle that generally forms

obstructive and produces poorly defined symptoms. The patient often complains of vague dyspepsia and abdominal discomfort. Diarrhea and constipation are less frequent than in cancer of the

scales or spines, or both. The animals are provided with cuticular adhesive tubules that are used for anchorage to the substratum.

Weakness and fatigue, caused by anemia, are prominent. A tumour mass may be palpable. Diagnosis is established principally by X-raying the colon (barium enema) and by direct visualization of the rectum and lower colon through a sigmoidoscope. The treatment of choice is surgical removal of the tumour with restoration of bowel continuThe progity by end-to-end anastomosis of the remaining colon. lower colon.

nosis following curative resection is the most favourable of all cancers of the digestive tract. See also Cancer. Bibliography. W. C. Alvarez, An Introduction to Gastroenterology F. A. Jones, (1948); E. D. Palmer, Clinical Gastroenterology (1957) Modern Trends in Gastroenterology, second series (1958); A. C. Ivy, M. I. Grossman and W. H. Bachrach, Peptic Ulcer (1950) B. B. Crohn and H. Yarnis, Regional Enteritis (1958); J. A. Bargen, Chronic Ulcerative Colitis (1951); R. Turell, Diseases of the Colon and Anorectum {19S9). (J. E. Bk.; I. A, W.) a term given to concentrations of solid

—

;

;

GASTROLITH,

material formed in the digestive tract or, more commonly, to pebbles swallowed and retained in the gizzard by birds, reptiles and certain fish to help grind food which their teeth or beaks can-

not chew.

Groups of pebbles found within or near the skeletons of dinosaurs and plesiosaurs, or in geologic formations in which such bones are numerous, are thought to be gastroliths and suggest stomachs of these ancient reptiles were gizzardlike, with These pebbles have common characteristics: maximum dimension one inch to four inches, shape ellipsoid, surface smooth and generally highly polished, material resistant (quartz, quartzite, chert, flint, jasper, agate, granite and gneiss). They are found almost entirely in strata of Cretaceous and Jurassic that the

thick muscular walls.

United States chiefly in Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, Ages; Montana and Utah, also in France, Germany and other parts of central Europe. These ancient gastroliths possess a higher polish than modem ones, perhaps because of the more powerful abrasive action they underwent, in which softer pebbles were crushed and served as polishing materials, along with primitive silica-bearing grasses. Another view is that many or all of these so-called gastroliths However, the variety are merely deposits of wind-worn stones. of rocks, often from distant sources, in a single assemblage and in the

their

isolation

in

fine-grained (L.

difticult.

GASTROPODA,

W. a

P.)

rocks

makes

this

explanation

o,,,„

large

group of invertebrate animals ranked as a class of the phylum Mollusca and represented by such famiUar forms as the hmpet, whelk, common snail and slug. 5ee Snail; Mollusk.

GASTROTRICHA,

a class

the

families

(A)

The body

cavity,

that

of

STRUCTURE: (B) CHAE-

the

of the

roundworms. Macrodasyo-

is provided with a pair of pores communicating with the ex-

idea

The

terior.

intestine

is

simple.

presumably a pseudocoel, contains the excretory

organs, the protonephridia.

The Macrodasyoidea are all hermaphroditic, the male and female organs occurring in the same individual. The Neodasyidae, the Xenotrichulidae and a few species of Chaetonotidae are also hermaphroditic. The remaining Chaetonotoidea, known only as parthenogenetic females, bear eggs that develop without having been

fertilized.

either paired or single. Among Macrodasyoidea, a seminal receptacle and copulatory bursa may be present in the female system and a penis in the male system. Two types of eggs are known for fresh-water gastrotrichs: tachyblastic eggs, which begin cleavage immediately, and opsiblastic eggs, which remain inactive for long periods of time. Opsiblastic eggs can survive drying and freezing.

Gonads are

See L. H. Hyman, The Invertebrates, vol. 3 (1951); A. Remane, Gastrotricha in Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs (1936).

(Mn.

S.)

GAS WARFARE: GATCHINA, a town and raion centre see

Chemical Warfare.

of the Leningrad oblast Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., lies 45 km. (28 mi.j south-southwest of Leningrad on the railway and road to Pskov and Riga. Pop. ( 1956 est.) 33,300. The village of Khotchino was founded there in the 15th century, but the town grew only after the building, between 1766 and 1772, of a summer palace for Catherine II, who presented it in 1783 to her son, later Paul I, by whom it was transformed into a combination of palace, The palace, which had about 600 rooms, fortress and barracks. including three throne rooms and a theatre, was designed by the Italian architect A. Rinaldi and was surrounded by a fine park; it was badly damaged during World War II and is now a museum. Gatchina was renamed Trotsk (1923-29 and until 1944 was called in the

where the Pskov scales

The modern town

a major railway junction, by the Narva-Volkhov outer ring has factories making machinery for the

MUS)

is

line is crossed

railway of Leningrad. It (R. A. F.) paper industry and tractor repair shops. (c. 1727-1806), American Revolutionary GATES, general, was born in England, probably at Maldon, Essex, in 1727. He entered the army at an early age and served in America in the French and Indian War. Emerging from the war as a major, he returned to England, but in 1 772 migrated to the region that is now West Virginia. Gates sympathized with colonial complaints against the crown and in 1775 was made adjutant general of the continental army. In 1776 he commanded the troops retreating from the unsuccessful invasion of Canada. The next year he superseded Gen. Philip Schuyler in northern New York and in the two battles of Saratoga his army forced Gen. John Burgoyne to surrender, largely, however, because of the previous maneuvers of Schuyler and the

HORATIO

submerged vegetation. The principal habitat of the marine forms is the space between sand grains in the intertidal and subtidal FROM "ZEITSCHRIFT FUR Wl SS E NSCH A FT" zones. Of the two orders, the FIG. 1. external features OF A Macrodasyoidea are exclusively CHAETONOTID (CHAETONOTUS MAXIare

—

2. INTERNAL MACRODASYOID; TONOTOID

FIG.

bling

The pharynx

)

phylum Aschelminthes, is a group of minute bottom-dwelling (benthic) aquatic animals ranging in size from approximately 0.1 to 1.5 mm. Fresh-water forms occur on pond bottoms and on

as

FROM "BRONNS KLASSEN UNO ORDNUNGEN DE5 TIERREICHS"

Krasnogvardeisk.

of the

marine,

Food, which consists of bacorganic detritus and diatoms, is ingested by the sucking action of the muscular pharynx. The pharynx is triradiate, resem-

teria,

initiative of

Gen. Benedict Arnold.

GATESHEAD—GAUCHO

28

Congress elected Gates president of the board of war and at the same time a group of army officers, among them Gen. Thomas Conway, inspired some thoughts of replacing Washington with Gates. The "Conway cabal" soon collapsed and in the spring of 1778 Gates returned to his command in New York. In June 1780 he was transferred to the south and was disastrously defeated at Camden, S.C., on Aug. 16. An official inquiry into his conduct was quashed but Gates did not serve again until 1 782. After the war he

emancipated his slaves, moved to New York, served one term in the state legislature and died on AprD 10, 1806. See S. (1941).

W.

Patterson, Horatio Gates: Defender of American Liberties

(H. H. P.)

GATESHEAD,

a municipal, county

Pop. (1961) 103,232. It is a closely built-up area rising steeply to 538 ft. above the river, the waterside being lined with wharves and quays used by coasting vessels and for shipbreaking and repairing. One of the largest flour mills in England is located there. Many Gateshead residents cross the Tyne to work in Newcastle, but as a consequence of the interwar depression the Team Valley trading estate, an area of 700 ac. was developed after 1936 in the southwestern part of the borough, where there was estabUshed a great variety of small-scale industries including hght engineering (pumps, microswitches, hght sheet metal), clothing and packaging. Gateshead has iron, steel and engineering works, and coal mines in

There

is

a large technical college specializing in

engineering.

Gateshead probably grew up during Saxon times, and Saxon grave covers are preserv^ed in the present church of St. Mary. Except for a short period, the town w'as under the control of the bishop of Durham, who exercised the right of appointing the keeper of Gateshead tower on the 13th-century stone bridge across the Tyne. The first charter was granted by Bishop Hugh de Puiset (Pudsey)

The common seal of the borough was mentioned in 1480, Edward \T Gateshead was merged for a time with Newcastle. The bishops of Durham incorporated nearly all the trades of Gateshead, and OUver Cromwell continued this pohcy. As part of the palatinate of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until 1832. The county borough was created in 1889 and returns two members to parliament. in 1164.

but under

Mary's church dates mainly from the 14th century, but there was extensive restoration in 1854 after a fire which destroyed much St.

Holy Trinity church, rebuilt in 1837, incorporates the south aisle of the 13th-century monastic chapel. The Shipley art of the town. gallery

was opened

in 1917.

The

Saltwell Park

museum, opened

in

1933, has exhibits relating to local antiquities and industries and a natural history collection.

GATH,

one of the

five royal cities of the Philistines, the exact

modern

been determined. The name occurs several times in the Old Testament, especially in connection with the history of David. Goliath, the Philistine champion, hailed from Gath. Rehoboam is said to have fortified Gath, but Uzziah found it still a Phihstine city. The records of Sargon II of Assyria show that he took it in 712 B.C. Gath was e\'idently a place of importance, a walled city (II Chron. xxvi, 6), but its exact location has been lost since the time of Sennacherib. The Onomasticon of Eusebius fixes the site near the Roman road five miles from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) on the way to Diospolis (Lydda). On this road within three miles of the point indicated stands Tell es-Safi, a small mud village on a hill about 300 ft. high. The position of the village at Tell es-Safi has precluded a complete survey, but the excavations carried out there have, on the whole, proved disappointing and rendered the identification with Gath highly questionable. This and the fact that the sister Philistine cities do not occupy sites naturally strong, but are merely mounds on the plain, make it probable that Gath is rather to be sought in the coastal plain west of Judah. Two sites have been proposed: Tell el-Menshiyeh (Sheikh Ahmed el Areini), by W. F. Albright. and more recently Tell en Nejileh farther south. Excavations directed in the former site by S. Yeivin prove the importance of the site but have not yielded clear evidence for its identification with location of which in

Israel has not

Work

directed

GATINEAU,

by Ruth Amiran (1962)

at Nejileh has di-

(W.

F. A.)

a river of southwestern Quebec, Canada,

and

long a highway for lumber trade, rises in a chain of large lakes due north of latitude 48° N. and continues southwesterly until it merges into the Ottawa river, about one mile below the city of Ottawa. This is one of the main sites of hydroelectric power development in

Canada.

GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN

(1818-1903), U.S. inventor for whom the Galling gun was named, was born in Hertford county, N.C., Sept. 12, 1818. He assisted his father in the construction

and parliamentary borough of County Durham, Eng., on the south bank of the Tyne (crossed there by five bridges), opposite Newcastle upon Tyne.

the vicinity.

Gath.

rectly refuted the identification with Gath.

and perfecting of machines for sowing cotton seeds and

for thinning the plants.

In 1839 he perfected a practical screw

propeller for steamboats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John Ericsson for a similar invention a few months

He established himself in St. Louis, Mo., in 1844, and taking the cotton-sowing machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains. The introduction of these machines earlier.

did

much

to revolutionize the agricultural

system in the country. study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a course at the Ohio Medical coUege in 18S0. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in 1857 a steam plow. At the outbreak of the Civil War he devoted himself at once to the perfecting of firearms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the federal authorities consented to its official adoption. Gatling died in New York city, Feb. 26, 1903. See Machine Gun. (1809-1873), English writer for children, daughter of Nelson's friend and secretary, the Rev. Alexander John Scott, was born, June 3, 1809, at Burnham, Essex. Her mother died young and her father, a book collector and antiquarian, gave her a sound education. In 1839 she married Alfred Gatty, vicar of Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, where the rest of her Ufe was spent. She died on Oct. 4, 1873. The qualities which gave \itaUty and charm to Mrs. Gatty's careful etchings, and which made her an e.xact naturalist, are intermittently apparent in her best -known work. Parables From Nature (five series, 1855-71) this was modeled on Hans Christian Andersen's tales and, in spite of uncompromisingly stated "morals," reHer own etchings illustrated the flects something of his poetry. Among other pubhcations were Aunt first and second series. Judy's Tales (1859). In 1866 she began to edit Au?it Judy's Magazine, which contained stories, verses and a flourishing correspondence one of the magazine's regular contributors was her daughter, (M. C. Cr.) Juliana Ewing {q.v.}. a free-spirited vagabond herder of cattle who flourished in the unfenced pampa or grasslands of Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay from the 18th century until late in the 19th and who remains imaginatively vivid as a lovable, romantic

Becoming interested

in the

GATTY, MARGARET

;

;

GAUCHO,

folk hero.

Since the earliest Spanish settlements, escaped cattle and horses enjoyed a huge open environment on the pampas, free from preda-

and competition, and their numbers increased extraordinarily. Soon some of the mestizo (half-breed) offspring of Spaniards and Indians found a way of hfe by preying on the wild cattle for meat and hides. In the 18th century herds of half-tamed scrub cattle and mules came to be privately owned as the European market for leather grew and as western South America came to depend on the Argentine supply of mules. The gaucho then became less a primitive nomad and more a skilled employee, somewhat resembling the early North American cowboy. In the latter part of the 19th century the fertile pampas came under the plow, and the land was fenced into huge estancias, farmed by European immigrants who were tenants of the owner. Even the pastoral economy was altered to provide more intensive use of the land as purebred cattle, horses and sheep replaced the scrub or mestizo herds and as alfalfa was grown to feed them. The gaucho was doomed, but the traditions of bravery, honour and astuteness remained even after he became a farm hand or peon. tors

GAUDEN—GAUGAMELA

and balconies here reach their highest ejcpression. Gaudi died at Barcelona on June 7, 1926. (C. G.-Wr.)

The untrammeled gaucho is depicted faithfully in Martin Fierro by Jose Hermandez, and the nostalgic story of his demise is told in an equally fine novel, Don Segundo Sombra by Ricardo

gates

GAUDIER-BRZESKA, HENRI

(E. R. Se.)

Giiiraldes.

GAUDEN, JOHN

bishop of Worcester, reputed ( 1 605-1 662 ) author of Eikon BasiUke and editor of Richard Hooker (q.v.), was' born at Mayland, Essex. He graduated in arts at Cambridge, and later became D.D. of Oxford. He tutored the sons of Sir William Russell, of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire, and married their sister. In 1640 he became vicar of Chippenham and chaplain to the earl of Warwick, the parliamentary general and admiral, who secured ,

Gauden's objective sympathies were with the parliament, before which he preached. He probably took the Solemn League and Covenant, certainly conformed to Presbyterianism, yet wrote a number of books and pamphlets on behalf of the Anglican Church and in 1648-49 published a Religious and Loyal Protestation against the trial of Charles I. In this ambiguous position he kept all his preferments until 1660 when Charles II made him royal chaplain and bishop of Exeter. He was translated in 1662 to Worcester, where in September he died. In 1662 Gauden published the eight books of Hooker's Laws of The seventh book had never before been Ecclesiastical Polity. seen. Gauden says that he possessed the manuscript, which lacked only Hooker's "last poUshing," but omits to say how he got it. It is in serious conflict with the genuine book iii, and its authenticity Its genuineness can be tested only by is therefore much doubted. internal evidence and by consideration of the character of Gauden, which is shown both by his ambiguous career and by his blackmailing letters to the chancellor, the earl of Clarendon, in 1660. He twice demanded preferment on the ground that he and not Charles I had written the Eikon BasiUke published and on sale the day after the king's execution and quickly going through 47 editions "that great secret" known only to the king and his brother and to Clarendon. He pointed out that the book had begot a pious reputation for Charles I and had been an important factor in re-estabhshing the monarchy. The evidence of these letters renders any other authorship incredible, reinforced as it is by the statement of James, duke of York (afterward James II), to Gilbert Burnet in 1673 that Gauden did write the Eikon BasUike.

him the deanery

for

of

Bocking (1641).

—

—

Bibliography.

—E. Almack, Bibliography of the King's Book

Madan, A New Bibliography of John Shirley, Richard Hooker (1949). F. F.

GAUDI, ANTONIO

the

(1S95)

;

Eikon BasiUke (1949-50); (F. J. Sy.)

(Antonio Gaudi y Cornet) (1852-

1926), Catalan architect, sculptor and ceramic artist, noted for the freedom and organic unity of his work, was born at Reus,

spatial

Tarragona, Spain, on June 26, 1852.

He

studied at the Barcelona

Valued early in the 20th century primarily for his "bizarre" imagination, he became appreciated as a great architectural inventor, as a constructor and as a sculptor of organic form. He studied natural form and developed an expressive art nouveau by giving vitality to line, space and volume as well as by original constructions (sloping pillars to take diagonal pressure). Barcelona was the centre of this deeply religious man's steadfast and uncompromising life work. For his patron. Count GiJell, he built there a town house (1885-89), the "Palace GiJell," and "Park GiJell" (1900-02). In this last he made brilliant use of raised ground to create a grandiose children's play terrace. This is bounded by a bench formed of swinging curves, which he encrusted with coloured tile mosaics, carrying out, even at that time, school of architecture.

of the

Holy Family (1883-1926) was

the

problem

and it remains a huge unfinished building, of significant with brilliant tower construction and ornamental figures. Unfinished also was his best monumental building, the Giiell colony church at S. Coloma de Cervello (1898-1914). Gaudi deserts the original neo-Gothic elements and embodies new constructive ideas. His apartment houses and office buildings in the Paseo Gracia Casa Batllo (1905-07) and Casa Mila (1905-10) expound a style which simultaneously exploits fagade and space. His fluid lines, the fantastic sculptural imagination of of his life,

plan,

—

his

(1891-1915),

Franco-

English sculptor, an outstanding exponent of the Vorticist movement, was born at St. Jean-de-Braye, Loire, Oct. 4, 1891, the son

woodworker, Joseph Gaudier. (The name Brzeska was that devoted Polish companion Sophie Brzeska.) Although he was given a scholarship to study art at Bristol, he was largely selftaught. The poet Ezra Pound became his patron and propagandist; the writer and painter Wyndham Lewis drew him into the

of a

of his

Vorticist

movement

just before

World War I. The early carvings showed original attitudes

of Sir Jacob Epstein affected him, but he

toward form and content. He was an admirable linear draftsman. His letters are deeply moving. Gaudier-Brzeska was killed in combat in World War I at Neuville-St.-Vaast, June 5, 1915. Much of his work is at the South Kensington museum. Bibliography. Ezra Pound, Gaudier-Brzeska: His Life and Work (1916) Harold S. Ede, Savage Messiah (1931) Horace Brodzky (ed.), (L. E. K.) Gaudier-Brzeska, Drawings (1946).

—

;

;

GAUDESr,

MARTIN MICHEL CHARLES,

Gaete (1756-1841), French

Due

de

finance minister throughout the con-

and the first empire and again in the Hundred Days, was born at St. Denis on Jan. 19, 1756. From 1773 he worked in the controle general des finances and rose to be a head of the tax department. In 1 791 during the Revolution, he was made a member of the commission in charge of the national treasury, but in 1 795 he resigned. The Directory twice offered him the ministry of finance (in 1795 and July 1799),but he accepted it only on Nov. 10, 1799, after Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'etat. After the immediate financial crisis had been surmounted Gaudin's task remained hard, even though, from 1801, responsibility for funds and payments was taken over by another ministry ( that of the tresor pub-

sulate

,

lic).

He wanted

to preserve the

framework of the

make them work

financial insti-

and to reject some of the innovations introduced by the Revolution. He created a body of permanent officials to assess and levy direct taxes; and as early as 1800 he wanted to reimpose certain major indirect taxes, though Napoleon, seeing how unpopular this would be, would not allow it until 1804. Gaudin also proposed a fairer distribution tutions he

knew

so well, to

better

of the land tax and, in 1807, helped to introduce the cadastre, a survey and classified register of all the divisions of the soil (this

had been authorized in 1791, but not enforced). Painstaking with own projects and equally conscientious in carrying out those of others, even though he disagreed with them, Gaudin was highly appreciated by Napoleon, who made him due de Gaete in 1809. Under the second Bourbon restoration, Gaudin represented moderate opinion as a deputy for Aisne in the chambre intromable (1815-16) and in the succeeding assembly (1816-18), speaking and writing on financial topics. He was not re-elected in 1819, but was governor of the bank of France from 1820 to 1834. He died He pubUshed his at Gennevilliers (Seine) on Nov. 5, 1841. Memoires, souvenirs, opinions et ecrits, three volumes, in 1826-34 (new edition 1926).

his

See R. Stourm, Les Finances du Consulat (1902); F. Latour, Le (C. E. Du.) (1963).

Grand Argentier de Napoleon: Gaudin

.

GAUGAMELA, BATTLE OF

.

.

Battle of Arbela), Oct. 1, 331 B.C., in which Alexander the Great of Macedonia decisively defeated Darius III of Persia, often quoted as an outFor the events standing example of the tactics of penetration. (also called

army Alexander III (The Great). The plain of Gaugamela, northeast of Nineveh (across the Tigris from the modern city of Mosul, Iraq), was chosen by Darius for

leading up to the battle and the composition of Alexander's

the Cubist "collage" principle in ceramic remainders.

The church

29

—

chimneys and ventilators and the fluctuating iron trelliswork of

see

a battle with Alexander's advancing force because of for his cavalry, in

which he outnumbered Alexander.

its

suitability

The

figures

given by ancient authorities vary, some being quite fantastic. In any case, the Persians outnumbered the Macedonians, who had 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry, according to Arrian. In front of the Persian line were the chariots, 50 on the right and centre, 100

on the

left

clear run.

;

the plain had been specially leveled to give them a Darius was in the centre of the line, with the Greek

GAUGES AND COMPARATORS

30

mercenary and Persian hea\^' infantry, archers and Persian and Indian cavalry. On the left wing was Bessus, satrap of Bactria, Mazeus, forwith Bactrian, Scythian and Arachosian cavalry. merly satrap of Cilicia, was on the right wing, with Armenian and Cappadocian cavalry. Inferior troops extended the line between centre and wings. Alexander was thus faced with the problem of striking a decisive blow with his heavy infantry and cavalry without being enveloped by the cavalry of the Persian wings or letting the chariots cut up the phalanx. He took up position on the right wing with the royal squadron

extensively developed since about 1850, when Sir Joseph Whitworth produced an original measuring machine and the system of accurate dimensional standards or master gauges (both end gauges and cylindrical gauges) for use with it. Currently available are these forms: (1 Precision gauge blocks or slip gauges, which are end standards of rectangular, square or circular section having accurately flat, parallel ends, available in sets of numerous selected lengths of blocks so that all dimensions, within the range of the set, can be produced in small increments such as 0.00005 in. by combining or "wringing" the blocks. (For a

or agetna of cavalry, heading the rest of the Companion cavalry. In front of him were half the archers and Agrianian javelin men

discussion of the wringing effect, see

Left of the Companion cavalry were to deal with the chariots. the hypaspists ("shield-bearers"), then the heavy infantry phalanx

The left wing was composed of Greek and Thescavalry commanded by Parmenio. Because of the danger of

in six battalions. salian

encirclement a second infantry line was formed, prepared to face about if necessary, and reserves were placed on each wing at an angle so that they could either extend the line or double back to meet a flank attack. The right reserve consisted of Greek mercenary and Paeonian cavalry and lancers (prodromoi), supported by the other half of the archers and Agrianians arid veteran mer-

Well cenaries, the left reserve of Greek and Thracian cavalrj'. behind the army the Thracian infantry guarded the camp where the baggage and prisoners, including Darius' family, had been left. Alexander led en echelon toward the right, away from the leveled ground. Bessus sent out successive troops of Scythian and Bactrian cavalr>'. The mercenary cavalry engaged them, supported subsequently by the Paeonians, and though outnumbered Meanwhile, before the phalanx could they stood their ground. get clear of the leveled ground, Darius sent out the chariots but the javelin men and archers shot down most of them before they reached the infantry, who opened ranks to let the others pass through. Ordering the lancers to charge the Scythians and Bactrians, Alexander continued to advance to the right. As more of the Persian left was sent in, a gap opened in the Persian left centre. Alexander promptly wheeled half left with the royal squadron and led the Companion cavalry, h>'paspists and four phalanx battalions in a charge at the gap. The Persian centre soon broke, Darius leading the flight. Pursuit was halted by a call for help from Parmenio. Mazeus' cavalry had attacked the Thessalians and the other two phalanx battalions had halted to support them. Persian and Indian cavalry had ridden through the gap thus made in the phalanx and on to the camp. The second hne had however faced about and attacked them from the rear. The retreating Persians and Indians collided with Alexander's reUeving force and were driven off after a sharp fight, by which time the Thessalians had also driven off their opponents. The Persian losses were heavy. Arrian gives the Macedonian dead as 100, although Diodorus and Curtius give higher figures. Alexander had finally overthrown the Persian empire. See Arrian, Anabasis, iii, Greece, pp. 615 ff. (1959).

U

ff.;

N. G. L.

Hammond, A

History of

GAUGES AND COMPARATORS.

Interchangeable introduced on an appreciable scale about 1800, made it essential to maintain close dimensional control of products from widely separated factories. Precision gauges and comparators are the means by which industry achieves the necessary dimensional control.

manufacture,

first

Limit Gauges.

—The reproduction of

dimensions of mechani-

cal parts within specified Hmits, or tolerances, is facihtated

by

checking with gauges, such as a "go" gauge representing the maximum-metal limit and a "not go" gauge representing the minimum-metal limit. Limit gauges used on products are also

known

working gauges. Gauges used as standards of comparison for measuring the dimensions of inspection gauges are known as master or reference gauges. Gauges are manufactured by highly skilled workers in a large variety of forms, corresponding to the parts to be gauged and to principles of gauge design. Master Gauges.— Precision gauges and comparators have been as inspection or

)

Metrology End Standards: :

Mode

These were invented in 1896 by C. E. of Calibration.) Johansson of Eskilstuna, Swed., who used a hand-lapping method and are often called Johansson blocks. In 1918 a machine-lapping method was developed by Maj. W. E. Hoke Gauge at the national bureau of standards in Washington, D.C. blocks have since been produced by more than a dozen manufacturers in four standard qualities which are accurate to 0.000002, 0.000004, 0.000008 or 0.000010 in. (2 ) End measuring rods in the form of steel bars having flat or spherical ends. (3) Master disks which are accurately lapped steel cylinders, frequently preferred to gauge blocks when pieces to be checked by comparators are round. (4) Gauges having composite surfaces, such as screw thread, profile or spline gauges. (5) Angle gauge blocks in sets of 13 or 16 selected angles, combinations of which are wrung together to produce any angle to 90°, or with an additional square block to 360°, to the nearest second by addition or subtraction according to the relative directions in which blocks are assembled. Measuring Machines. Horizontal comparators commonly are designated measuring machines. These have means provided for for their production,

—

measuring the difference between the test object and the standard, usually a micrometer screw having a divided head. Such comparators also often embody line standards of length, which rhay be used instead of contact length standards. A massive cast-iron bed is provided with straight ways, on which are mounted the headstock carrying the micrometer screw and one measuring anvil; the tailDevices are provided, usually in stock carries the other anvil. the tailstock, for ensuring a constant contact pressure, which is necessary to obtain accurate comparisons. However, such devices were absent in early models such as the Rogers-Bond universal comparator patented in 1885. There have been several different measuring machines of the modern type. A further elaboration of measuring machines is a means for providing high amplification of the displacement of one of the amdls, such as an optical lever in the millionth comparator of times, and the J. E. Sears, providing an amplification of 30,000 Pratt & Whitney electrolimit tailstock, of 5,000 or more. Vertical Comparators. In comparators of the vertical type, the master gauge and work are in turn supported on a substantial and level surface plate or anvil. The measuring contact and the ampUfying mechanism which it actuates are adjustably mounted on a vertical column. These widely used instruments are available with various amplifications up to 20,000 or more, obtained by means of a mechanical amplifying system as in the Mikrokator and various dial comparators or by a combination of mechanical and optical levers as in the Zeiss optimeter and the Shefliield visual gauge or by an inductance bridge circuit as in the Pratt & Whitney Electrolimit comparator, Shefiield Electrichek or DoAU electric comparator. The Brooks tilting level comparator compares two gauge blocks directly by a highly sensitive spirit level with ball feet resting on both gauges. The Watts Microoptic comparator reads plunger displacement directly on an attached scale by micrometer micro-

—

scope.

—

Interferometers. Gauge blocks of the same nominal length can be compared, using interference of light waves, with the help of two test flats and a source of monochromatic light. Tiie two gauge blocks are wrung edge to edge on one flat, and the second flat is placed so as to make line contact at the common edge of the thicker gauge and the other edge of the thinner. Both gauges are then seen crossed by dark bands parallel to the common edge; these represent contour lines of the air wedge between gauge and

GAUGUIN corresponding to integral numbers of half wave lengths of the employed. Specifically, the number of lines crossing the thinner gauge is equal to the difference in length of the gauges in

flat

light

units of one-half

wave

length.

Another method, not relying on hne contact, uses polychromatic light, as from helium, which produces fringes of various identifiable colours. Here the systems of fringes crossing the two gauges are merely displaced relative to each other, and a given fringe is displaced along the common edge by a number of fringes (not necessarily integral) equal to the difference in height in one-half

wave

lengths.

Using coliimated light and suitably filtered wave lengths, fringes can be seen between the two flats themselves if the separation is not The method of coincidence of excess fractions {see too great.

Light) can be employed

make

to

direct determination of the

31

Further commercial developments of these methods are embodied in projection comparators of the Wilson, Hartness or Jones and Lamson, Bausch and Lomb, Eastman and other types; and in the tool makers' microscopes of Gaertner, Taylor-Hopson and others. See also Dimensional Analysis; Physical Units.

Washington, D.C.

Bibliography.

(London)

—Annual Reports of the National Physical Laboratory

Glazebrook, "Design of Scientific Instruments," "Gauges," "Meters" and "Metrology" in vol. 3, Dictionary of Applied Physics; C. G. Peters and H. S. Boyd, "Interference Methods for Standardizing .and Testing Precision Gauge Blocks," U.S. National Bureau of Standards Scientific Papers No. 436; J. E. Sears, "Precise Length Measurements," Cantor Lectures, Royal Society of Arts (1923) F. H. Rolt, Gauges and Fine Measurements, 2 vol. (1929) I. H. Fullmer, "Fundamentals of Mechanical Dimensional Control," Mech. Engr., 57 ;

R.

T.

;

;

(1935) International Business Machines Corporation, Precision Measurement in the Metal-Working Industry, 2 vol. (1942-44); C. W. Kennedy, Inspection and Gaging (1951) National Physical Laboratory, K. J. Habell and Engineering Dimensional Metrology, 2 vol. (1955) ;

;

length of gauge.

;

In 1926 a form of Michelson interferometer was devised with one vertical arm, incorporating a monochromator for isolating the various wave lengths. This instrument doubled the measurable length of gauge by working on either side of the central white hght fringe system. It still required wringing the gauge to one flat. A later form of Michelson interferometer, which needs no wringing, operates by reflecting from both sides of the gauge; it also permits the comparison of angle blocks of the same nominal value. Internal Comparators. The precise determination of an internal dimension presents difficulties which have been largely overcome by the development of internal comparators. In the

—

absence of such comparators, the si2es of such objects as ring gauges, either plain or threaded, were usually estimated by the nature of their fit upon corresponding plug gauges. When a cylindrical plug and ring are perfectly clean and dry, they will assemble if the largest diameter of the plug is the same

A. Cox, Engineering Optics (1948) C. Candler, Modern Interferometers (1950) W. Kliever, "Automatic Machining Control," Control Engineer(I. H. F.; S. Jn.) ing, pp. 77-81 (Nov. 1955). ;

;

GAUGUIN, (EUGENE HENRI) PAUL

(1848-1903),

leading French painter of the Postimpressionist period, was born in Paris on June 7, 1848, the son of a journalist from Orleahs and of a mother who was Half French and half Peruvian-creole. After Ill's coup d'etat the Gauguin family moved (1851) to Lima, Peru, and four years later Paul and his mother returned to Orleans. At the age of 17 he went to sea and for six years sailed about the world in freighters or men-of-war. In 1871 he joined the stockbroking firm of Bertin in Paris, and in 1873 married a Danish girl, Mette-Sophie Gad. His artistic leanings were first aroused by his guardian, Gustave Arosa, whose collection included pictures by Corot, Delacrok and Millet, and by a fellow stock-

Napoleon

broker,

fimile

Schuffenecker,

with

whom

he

started

painting.

will enter

hobby seriously and started going in his spare time to an atelier libre to draw from a model and receive tuition. In 1876 his "Landscape at Viroflay" was accepted for the Salon.

0.0002

He

or smaller than the smallest diameter of the ring. If well finished and liberally covered with an oily lubricant, a cylindrical plug gauge

and pass through a ring gauge which is as much as smaller than the plug without damage to either, provided that distribution of the lubricant is maintained by constant relative motion of the gauges. The following instruments permit the measurement of internal in.

dimensions: the chord contact machine by G. A. Tomlinson, in which the displacement of a ball-ended piece is measured in a direction perpendicular to its length; the displacement type of internal measuring machine, having a micrometer and a doubleended stylus attached to a sensitive indicating mechanism, by J. E. Sears; the Sheffield internal-external measuring machine having gauging fingers which are positioned by means of precision gauge blocks and which move relative to each other and actuate an amplithe Pratt & Whitney Electrolimit universal internal comparator having one fixed and one adjustable gauging finger the Swedish internal indicator gauge and the Leitz Perflec-

fying mechanism;

;

;

tometer, a special microscope. A precision pneumatic micrometer was invented by Marcel Mennesson of France in 1928. This and other types of air gauges A cylindrical are widely used to compare internal cUmensions. spindle, somewhat smaller than the hole to be measured, has diametrically opposed orifices through which compressed air is forced. The spindle is first inserted in a ring gauge of known size and then in the piece to

be measured.

The

difference in pressure or in rate

may be

indicated by a manometer, a pressure gauge or a float in a tapered glass tube, each of which is calibrated to yield measurements of differences in size as small as of flow of the air in the

0.00001

in.

two cases

or less.

Automatic Gauging.

—

Rapid advances are being made in controlhng machine tools by gauging their products; the products are gauged either while still on the machine or just after leaving it. For these applications, micrometers of the pneumatic or electromagnetic type have been most successful. Projection Comparators The measurement of the dimensions of profile gauges and the thread angles and profiles of screw thread gauges is facilitated by optical projection methods, developed largely during and after World War I by the National Physical laboratory in London and the national bureau of standards in

—

Gauguin soon took

his

developed a taste for Impressionist painting, and between 1876 and 1881 assembled an impressive group of paintings by Manet, Cezanne, Pissarro, Monet and Jongkind. Gauguin met Camille Pissarro in 1875-76 and began to work with him, struggling to master the techniques of drawing and painting. In 1880 he was invited to contribute to the fifth Impressionist exhibition, and this invitation was repeated in 1881 and 1882. He spent painting holidays with Pissarro and Paul Cezanne and made visible progress, though his early works are often marred by clumsiness and have drab colouring. Gauguin thus became more and more absorbed by painting until, in 1883, he decided to abandon his job to be free "to paint every day." This was a decision which changed the course of his whole life. He had a wife and four children to look after, but he had no income and no one would buy his paintings. In 1884 Gauguin and his family moved to Copenhagen, where his wife's parents proved unsympathetic and his marriage broke up. He returned to Paris in 1885, destitute and despairing but determined to sacrifice everything for his artistic vocation. From then on he was destined to live in penury and discomfort; his health was undermined by hardship and privation; he became an outcast from the society to which he had belonged and could never establish himself in any other; and he came to despise Europe and civilization. In 1886 the expressive possibilities of colour were revealed to him in the pictures of Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, and he began to occupy himself with this aspect of painting at Pont-Aven, Brittany. Gauguin then had two decisive experiences: a meeting with Vincent van Gogh in Paris 1886 and a journey to Martinique (1887). The one brought him into contact with a passionate personality who had similar pictorial ideas and tried to involve him in working them out communally; this attempt came to a disastrous end after a few weeks together at Aries in 1888. The other enabled Gauguin to discover for himself the brilliant colouring and sensuous delights of a tropical landscape and to experience the charm of a primitive community living the "natural" Ufe. Gauguin took a great step forward at this time when he decided to seek through painting an emotional release, in consequence of which he (

)

GAUHATI

32

Before 1891, Gauguin tended

to flatten things deliberately

and

throughout the 1890s his "primiaggressive as the influences of J. A. D. Ingres

his effect w-as often strained, but

tivism" became less and Puvis de Chavannes led to increasingly rounded and modeled forms and a more sinuous line. This process can be followed in works such as "Nafea Faa Ipoipo" (When shall we be married?; 1892), "Nave Nave Mahana" (Holiday; 1896) and "Golden Bodies" (1901). Simultaneously Gauguin's images became more luxuriant, and more naturally poetic, as he developed his marvellously orchestrated tonal harmonies. His chief Tahitian work is an immense canvas painted in 1897-98 in the belief that he would be dead before its discovery. This is the consummate expression of much that he had painted in the previous six years, and the aura of dreamlike, poetic inconsequence which surrounds

semiphilosophical allegory of primitive life is more powerful in any other of his canvases. Analyzing the composition (from right to left) and giving its title, Gauguin wrote to Charles

this

than

Morice (1901): "Whence do we come? A spring. A child. Communal life. What are we? The life of everyday. The man of instinct wonders what it all means. Whither are we going? An BY COURTESY OF NATIONAL GALLERY OF SCOTLAND,

EDINBURGH

The key

reacted against Impressionism.

IN

THE NA-

to his artistic attitude

is to be found in these significant phrases: "Primitive from the spirit and makes use of nature. The socalled refined art proceeds from sensuality and serves nature. Nature is the servant of the former and the mistress of the latter. She demeans man's spirit by allowing him to adore her. That is the way by which we have tumbled into the abominable error of naturalism." Gauguin therefore set out to redeem this error by "a reasoned and frank return to the beginning, that is to say to primitive art.'' A possible method for arriving at a new form of pictorial representation was suggested to him by £mile Bernard, a young artist well acquainted with stained glass, manuscripts and folk art. He pointed out that in these arts reality was generally depicted in nonimitative terms and that the pictorial image was made up of areas of pure colour separated by heavy black outlines. Such was the origin of the style known as cloisonnisme or synthetisme, which attained its most expressive possibilities in

from 18S8 on

art proceeds

Gauguin's paintings such as "The Vision After the Sermon" (1888),

"Bonjour Monsieur Gauguin" and "The Yellow Christ" (1889). When Gauguin broke with his Impressionistic past he gave up using lines and colours to fool the eye into accepting the fiat painted image as a re-creation of an actual scene, and explored

means to induce in a spectator a particular feeling. His forms became ideated and his colours suggestive abstractions. Maurice Denis {Theories, 1920) describes a small painting executed by Paul Serusier under Gauguin's direction in 1889. This landscape seemed to "have no form as a

instead the capacity of these pictorial

result of being synthetically represented in violet, vermilion, Veronese green and other pure colours. 'How does that tree appear to you?' Gauguin had asked. 'It's green isn't it? All right, do it in

green, the finest green on your palette.

And

that

shadow?

Isn't

Well then, don't be frightened of making it as blue as possible.' Thus (writes Denis) was presented to us for the first time, in a paradoxical but unforgettable manner, the fertile conception of a painting as 'a flat surface covered with colours arranged in a certain order.' " Gauguin indulged in "primitivism" because he could make a more easily intelligible image; his simple colour harmonies intensified this image; and. because he wanted his pictures to be pleasing to the eye, he aimed at a decorative effect. His purpose in all this was to express pictorially an "idea." Gauguin's whole work is a it

blue?

protest against the soul-destroying materialism of bourgeois civilization. "Civilization that makes you suffer. Barbarism which is to

me

rejuvenation," he wrote

1891) to Strindberg. So Gauguin (Pont-Aven and Le Pouldu, 1889-90, 1894), Tahiti (1891-93, 1895-1901) and the Marquesas Islands (1901-03), where he could paint scenes of "natural" men and women living with their fears, faiths, myths and primitive passions.

installed himself in Brittany

(

woman

near to death. A strange stupid bird concludes the a comparison between the inferior creature as opposed to the intelligent one in this great whole which is the problem indiold

•THE ViSlON AFTER THE SERMON' BY PAUL GAUGUIN; TIONAL GALLERY OF SCOTLAND. EDINBURGH

poem by

cated by the title. Behind a tree, two sinister figures, shrouded in garments of melancholy hue, add a note of anguish beside the tree of knowledge, anguish caused by knowledge contrasting with simple creatures set amid a virgin landscape which might be man's conception of paradise, and not hesitating to enjoy life." From 1899 on Gauguin became increasingly ill and was continually in pain he was also involved in frequent rows with the governing authorities for siding with the natives against them. Yet despite melancholy, his last pictures still have serenity and hope. He died a miserable death at Atuana (Marquesas) on May 8, 1903. Gauguin was unique in his ability to hold a mysterious balance between idea, perception and visual image, and his pictures make ;

He

their effect visually, not as a result of literary overtones.

was a great

innovator and, when he rejected the conception of a picture as a mirror-image of an actual scene and turned from an empirical to a conceptual method of pictorial representastylistic

tion, his step

was decisive

for the developments in art during the 20th century. In 1889-90 a group of young followers gathered round him at Pont-Aven, including Serusier, Charles Filiger and Denis, who transmitted Gauguin's ideas to J. E. Vuillard and P. Bonnard, the initiators of the Nabi movement. Edvard Munch too owed much to Gauguin, as did the first

half of the

Fauves

— Matisse

in

Gauguin's

colour.

particular

—who

from

profited

and

"primitivism"

styUstic

his

use

of

simplifications

young Picasso, led to the aesthetic appreciation and hence to the evolution of Cubism. In Germany, too, Gauguin's influence was very strong, notably on the artists of the Briicke and Blauer Reiter groups. Gauguin's own writings include: Les Guepes and Le Sourire, Tahitian periodicals (1899-1.900); Racontars d'un Rapin (1902); The Letters of Paul Gmtguin to Georges Daniel Monfreid (English translation, 1923); Noa-Noa (1924); Letters to Ambroise Vollard and Andre Fontainas (EngUsh translation, 1943); Paul Gauguin: Letters to His Wife and Friends (English translation, 1948); Ancien Culte Mahorie 1951) Avant et Apres (translated as The Intimate Journals of Paul Gauguin, new edition, 1952 ). See also references under "CJauguin, (Eugene Henri) Paul" in the Index volume. Bibliography. C. Morice, Paul Gauguin (1920) J. de Rotonchamp, greatly affected the of

Negro

art

(

;

—

;

Gauguin (1925) A. Alexandre, Paul Gauguin (1930) R. Burnett, The Life oj Paul Gauguin (1936) Pola R. Gauguin, My Father, Paul Gauguin (1937); C. Chasse, Le Mouvement symbolisle (1947); Gauguin, Sa Vie, Son Oeuvre, J. Rewald, Post-Impressionism (1956) special number of Gazette des Beaux-Arts, series 6, vol. xlvii (1958) H. R. Rookmaaker, Synthetist Art Theories (1959). (Ds. Cr.) .

;

.

.

;

;

.

.

.

;

;

GAUHATI,

headquarters town of

Kamrup

district,

Assam, bank

India, lies mainly on the left or south, but partly on the right of the

Brahmaputra.

Pop. (1961) 100,707.

situated with an amphitheatre of

wooded

It

hills to

is

picturesquely

At the and monuments.

the south.

foot of Sukleswar hillock are several large tanks

GAUL frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are the temples of Kamakhya (on a hill 2 mi. W. of the town) and Umananda on a rocky island in the Brahmaputra. Other temples include those of Aswakranta, Nabagraha and the Basistha Ashram.

Much

an important centre of river trade and the largest in Assam. An oil refinery and a state farm are It is the site of Gauhati university (1948) with located there. seven of its colleges, the state high court, state museum and zoological garden. There are air connections with Calcutta (from Borjhar airport) and rail connections with Calcutta and ChitGauhati

seat of

is

commerce

it was the capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Kamarupa (c. a.d. 400). During the 17th century Gauhati was taken and retaken by Muslims and Ahoms eight times in SO years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor

of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. From 1816 it was occupied by the Burmese, but on the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till 1874, when the headquarters were moved to Shillong (67 mi.) with which Gauhati is connected by a good motor road.

GAUL, WILLIAM GILBERT

(18SS-1919), U.S. artist known for his American Civil War scenes, was born in Jersey City, Brown and L. E. N.J., on March 31, 18S5. He was a pupil of J. G. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures. He was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of American Artists. His important works include "Charging the Battery," "News From Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost," "Silenced," "On the Look-out" and "Guerrillas Returning

From

a Raid."

He

New York

died in

city,

Dec, 21, 1919.

GAUL (Lat. Gallia)

the name of the two chief districts where the Celts, namely (1) Gallia Cisalpina, that Gallia Transalpina, is, the Po valley of northern Italy; and (2) usually called Gallia simply—i.e., the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic and the Rhine (France and Belgium with parts of Germany, Holland and Switzer,

Romans encountered

This article deals with Gallia Transalpina for Gallia Cisalpina, see Gaul, Cisalpine. Transalpine Gaul first entered Greco-Roman history about 600 B.C. with the foundation by Greeks from Phocaea of Massilia (Marseilles), from which Greek pottery and other goods were carried

)

;

.

up the Rhone and Saone

rivers

:

a startling

example

is

the great

6th-century Greek bronze crater found in 1953 near Chatillon-surSeine. From about 400 B.C. Rome was allied with Massilia, which But later protected the vital Roman communications with Spain. the MassiUots found

unite the great majority of tribes in his ill-fated attempt to

it

increasingly difficult to resist raids

by

tribes

undo

(See also Celt and articles on particular tribes; e.g., Arverni, Helvetii, Sequani.) The Gallic wars of Caesar brought Roman territory up to the Atlantic, the English channel and the Rhine. The organization was left to Augustus, who established four provinces, namely Narbonensis (the old provincia) together with Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica, these last three collectively called the Tres Galliae ("three Gauls") or Gallia Comata ("long-haired Gaul"). Aquitania extended north to the Loire and east (beyond the Aquitani the

Roman

conquest in 52

B.C.

the Arverni; Lugdunensis (so called from its lay between the Loire and Seine rivers; and Belgica stretched from the Seine to the Rhine, including the Low Countries in the north and the Helvetian territory in the

proper) to take

tagong. As Pragjyotishpur,

land

33

capital,

in

Lugdunum, Lyons)

(For the adjacent Rhine camps and the later province of Germania Superior see Germany: History.) Narbonensis was governed by a proconsul appointed by the senate, and each of the Tres Galliae by an imperial legate of praetorian standing. The only garrison was a single cohort at Lugdunum to guard the imperial mint, but the Rhine army could and did move rapidly into the south.

Tres Galliae if trouble occurred. Narbonensis, the land between the Alps, the sea and the Cevennes mountains, was in climate and history markedly different from the It had attracted a large number of Roman immirest of Gaul. grants, both veterans and traders, and under the empire was a land of cities, said by Pliny the Elder to be "Italy rather than a province." (i^aesar had sent veterans to Arelate (Aries), Augustus to

and both Aquae Sextiae (Aix) and Forum lulii But most (Frejus) were colonies of one or the other ruler. towns, such as Nemausus (Nimes; see Volcae), Vienna (Vienne; see Allobroges) or Tolosa (Toulouse), received only Latin rights initially, though some, notably Vienna, were promoted later to Splendid public buildings were erected, many full Roman status. Vines and olives were of which have left impressive remains. grown in profusion, and the country's wealth was increased by the Arausio (Orange)

;

development of industries, particularly in timber and specialized metalwork. Narbonensis was the birthplace of several men prominent in Roman public life. Agricola came from Forum lulii, and has been conjectured that his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, also Narbonese. The high level of culture in the province was famous, particularly the schooUng provided at Massilia.

it

was

Perhaps the greatest contrast in the Tres Galliae lies in the survival of the old tribal organization. Lugdunum, founded as a Roman colony in 43 B.C., served as common capital of all three provinces, and Augusta Treverorum (Trier) became a colony under Augustus; other towns on the Roman model included Burdigala (Bordeaux, already a flourishing port in Augustus' time), Augus-

todunum (Autun) and Augustonemetum (Clermont-Ferrand), but Other urban centres, like Lutetia Parisias time went on, but they were

of the interior, and in the late 2nd century the Romans intervened more decisively. The Ligurian tribes ,of the Isere valley were

these were exceptional.

conquered by 123 B.C., when the fortress of Aquae Sextiae (Aix-enProvence) was founded. Two years later Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Q. Fabius Maximus defeated the Allobroges of Savoy and the powerful Arverni of the Auvergnat and formed the province of Gallia Transalpina, the provincia that gave its name to Provence. In 118 Narbo Martins (Narbonne) was founded as a Roman colony, and a vast influx of Roman businessmen began. Trade flowed outside the province across to the Garonne valley and the sea, as well as northward to central and northern Gaul. The provincia was quickly romanized and was consistently loyal to

not necessarily inhabited by the tribal magistrates. It is the tribes, not the towns, whose memory is perpetuated in modern place names compare Bourges, Chartres, Reims, Sens, Soissons, the centres respectively of the Bituriges, Carnutes, Remi,

orum

(Paris), attained

some dignity

:

Senones were of and the was no

and Suessiones.

Hill forts like the

Aeduan Bibracte

(q.v.)

course too dangerous to Rome and had to be abandoned; But there ancient power of the Druids was weakened. interference with religious observance save that human sacrifice was prohibited and that the imperial cult was promoted,

respectively the south, the centre and the north of the country

notably in the annual meeting of tribal dignitaries at Lugdunum. Roman names were applied to Celtic gods, but local customs and language survived; as late as the 3rd century the Celtic leuga ("league") was reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on local milestones. All opposition to Roman rule disappeared early. A rising led by romanized nobles of the Aedui and Treveri was quickly crushed in a.d. 21. The revolt in 68 by Julius Vindex, the

between the Pyrenees and the Rhine. There were numerous tribes and constant intertribal rivalries and contesting factions within each tribe. It was a faction within Rome's old allies the Aedui q.v. and their struggle for primacy among their neighbours which chiefly enabled Caesar to gain a foothold in Gaul and it was only by a remarkable feat of initiative that Vercingetorix was able to

Aquitanian-born governor of Lugdunensis, was directed against Nero rather than against Rome, and the imperium Galliarum proclaimed by the states that joined the movement of Civilis (q.v.) next year was frustrated by the very states that had supported Meanwhile Roman citizenship had been conferred on Vindex. numerous individuals, and in a.d. 48 the emperor Claudius ad-

Julius Caesar

(q.v.) during his governorship.

Caesar's Commentaries provide fairly full information about preGaul. The provincia apart, Gaul was at that time divided among three more or less distinct peoples, the Aquitani, the Gauls proper "who call themselves Celts," and the Belgae, occupying

Roman

(

)

;

.

GAUL—GAULTIER

34

mitted certain Aeduan nobles to the Roman senate, where they were soon followed by men from other tribes. Economic development owed most to the proximity of the Rhine camps and to the ethcient system of communications, based partly on the waterways and partly on the roads radiating from Lugdunum. Winegrowing spread rapidly. In Augustus' day it was confined to Narbonensis, but by the 2nd century vineyards were abundant in Burgundy and along the Moselle river. Equally important was the growth of a pottery industry, which competed sucIn cessfully against Italian wares both inside and outside Gaul.

south Gaul, La Graufesenque near Rodez put its pottery on the market as early as the reign of Tiberius a.d. 14-37 and by a.d. 79 )

(

was actually exporting to Campania (a crate of La Graufesenque ware was found at Pompeii). More famous later were the products of Lezoux in the Auvergnat, the

common ware

of the late 1st

Livestock products went to Rome from as far as northern Belgica, and Gallic textiles and metal goods found a market not only in the Rhine army but in "free" Germany. The exactions of the Severan emperors (late 2nd-early 3rd centuries) bore heavily on the Gallic communities, and it was then

and 2nd centuries

a.d.

that the villa, a protection to its owner, began to grow at the The process became more rapid when the expense of towns. In 257 (probably) the Franks frontiers began to break down.

crossed into Gaul in great numbers; and

when

the situation

was

restored, an independent though romanized state was set up under Postumus, who from Trier exercised authority over Gaul, Spain and Britain. In 268 Spain and Narbonensis fell away and acknowledged Claudius II, but it was not till 273 or 274 that The late Aurelian recovered the rest of Gaul from Tetricus. 3rd century saw the rise of the Bagaudae, brigands who reflect the disorder and economic troubles of the age. Under Diocletian and Gaul like other parts of the his colleagues conditions improved. empire was divided into numerous small provinces, and Con-

them (together with Britain) from Trier. Fresh invasions of Alamanni and Franks were with difficulty beaten back by Julian, who in 358 allowed the Salian Franks Yet the frontiers to settle in Toxandria in the Scheldt valley. were precariously held till the great invasions of Vandals and other Even then Gaul remained a bastion of tribes at the end of 406. stantius Chlorus ruled

Roman

civilization.

and Frankish

all

of

A Roman general, Aetius

allies to

(9.1;.

),

led his Gothic

victory over Attila in 451. and the classical

literary tradition was kept alive in this last period of the empire by Ausonius, Symmachus, Sidonius Apollinaris and other Gallic

who bear

writers,

witness to the high level of culture surviving

in their days.

See also references under "Gaul" in the Index volume. Bibliography. The comprehensive work of C. Jullian, Hiitoire de la Gaule, in 8 vol. (1908-26), is still fundamental; as also, on Caesar's campaigns, is T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest oj Gaul, 2nd ed. (1911). See also M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History 0/ the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., ch. 6 (1957) A. Grenier in T. Frank, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, vol. iii (1937) 0. Brogan, Roman Gaul (1953); and the detailed bibliography with E. Albertini's chapter in Cambridge Ancient History, vol. xi, pp. 501 ff., 905 ff. (1936). For art see M. Pobe and J Roubier, The Art of Roman Gaul ( 196 1 )

—

;

;

.

GAUL, CISALPINE Roman name

(G. E. F. C.) Cisalpina), the ancient

(Gallia

for the part of northern Italy

nines and the Alps settled

by

between the Apen-

Celtic invaders.

Both the date and the direction of the Celtic invasion of north and they are still disputed. Livy's account of a crossing of the Mont Cenis or Mont Genevre pass about 600 B.C. is generally discredited, but the variant tradition of an invasion just before the attack on Rome in 390 is unlikely on the archaeological evidence. The first Gauls probably passed the Alps no later than the early 5th century, and it is possible that their route was as far to the east as the Brenner pass. Mediolanum Milan was founded c. 400 by the Insubres q.v. after a victory over the Etruscans nearby at Melpum Bononia Bologna did not supplant the Etruscan Felsina until c. 350. By now Etruscan control over the valley of the Po river had been eliminated. But difficulties with the Veneti of northeastern Italy, which traditionally recalled the Gauls from Rome in 390, made their later southward thrusts less dangerous. In 283 the Italy were disputed in antiquity,

(

(

I

;

)

(

)

Boii (g.v.) and Senones were defeated at Lake Vadimo in Etruria, Romans annexed the ager Gallicus around Ancona

after which the

and founded Ariminum (Rimini) as a Latin colony in 268. A major Gallic threat in 225 was completely defeated; the Boii and their allies were crushed at Telamo in Etruria (Talamone) and two years later, making use of the Cenomani in eastern Lombardy as

Romans

received the submission of the Insubres Piacenza and Cremona were founded as Latin colonies in 219 or 218 and were strengthened in 190 after their losses in the Hannibalic war. There followed the Latin colony of Bononia (189) and (183) the Roman colonies of Parma and their allies, the

and other

tribes.

Placentia

(

)

Mutina (Modena), and then, beyond the Veneti, the Latin colony Major roads w'ere built, especially the Via (181). Aemilia from Ariminum to Placentia (187), and the Via Postumia from Genua Genoa to Placentia, Cremona, Verona and Aquileia of .^quileia

)

(

(begun in 148). Individual Romans received land in great numbers, and Polybius claimed that by his time (c. 150 B.C. the Gauls had been expelled from the Po valley except from a few settlements near the Alps. This statement is exaggerated. Celtic nomenclature is obvious on later inscriptions, and the continued predominance of a Celtic population in the lowland towns accounts for the special treatment accorded to the whole region after the Social War (the war of the )

socii or allies; see

Roman

Roman

when

History'),

the rest of Italy re-

A

province of Gallia Cisalpina ("Gaul this side of the Alps") was created, and under a law passed by the father of Pompey the Great in 89 B.C. the native communities acquired "Latin" rights, so that only their magistrates became The inferior status of the Transpadani ("people livfull citizens. ing across the Po," for the Latin towns were mainly north of the

ceived

Po) became an

citizenship.

issue of

Roman

politics,

made

more

the

significant,

by the value of

especially during Caesar's governorship (59-50),

In 49, soon after the civil the province as a recruiting ground. war began, Caesar made the desired grant of full citizenship, and in 42 B.C. the triumvirs

Gallia Cisalpina

incorporated the province into Italy. of many famous Latin writers:

was the home

Virgil of Mantua and Livy Patavium (Padua) under Augustus; and Pliny of Comum (Como) in Trajan's time. Under the early principate the prosperity of the district was unrivaled in the empire, and it continued to provide many legionaries and was the home of several

Catullus of Verona in the late republic

;

of

Romans

of distinction, especially

among

Pliny's contemporaries.

But by that time it was in reality as well as in name a part of Italy, and its economic and social development belong to the main stream of Roman history. Bibliography. Polybius, Histories, book ii, IS ff., with F. W. Walbank's commentary (i9S7); Strabo, Geography, book v, ch. 1. See also J. M. de Navarro and L. Homo in Cambridge Ancient History, vol. vii, ch. 2 and 17 (1928) J. Whatmough, The Foundation of Roman Italy (1937) for the invasions and wars with Rome; U. Ewins in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. xx, pp. 54 ff. (1952) and xxii, pp. 73 ff.

—

;

(1955) for the late republic; G. E. F. Chilver, Cisalpine Gaul (1941) (G. E. F. C.) for the early empire.

GAULISH: see Celtic Languages. GAULLE, CHARLES ANDRE JOSEPH MARIE DE: see

De Gaulle, Charles Andre Joseph Marie.

GAULTIER, DENIS

(Gaultier le Jeune) (1597 or 16031672), French lutenist and composer, whose chief contribution to the music literature of the period is the Hamilton codex of 69 compositions called "La Rhetorique des Dieux" (1664-72). This is a collection of short pieces, mainly dances, in tablature for arranged in groups of suites. The characteristic way in which Gaultier labeled his pieces with fanciful and descriptive titles, a feature later to be found in the music of the clavecinists, stemmed from the group of lutenists called the fecole de Paris of which Gaultier was the last great exponent. His style explores the full lute,

—ornamentation

range of the new "French style" of lute playing and broken chords (style brise) are to be found

in all his

work,

again a facet of the lute style later to be transferred to the keyboard. Gaultier was one of the great French virtuosos of the lute. He was enormously popular in his own time and toward the end of his life much of his music was transcribed in staff notation so that

it

might reach the wider public of keyboard players.

Gaultier

)

GAUR—GAUSS was the originator of the "tombeau," a small piece written

memory

of a great personage.

GAUR

(Lakhnauti),

(

to the

B. P.

a ruined city of India, in the

Malda

Bengal situated approximately 8 mi. S. of English Bazar and about 153 mi. N. of Calcutta, on the eastern bank of an old It is said to have been founded by channel of the Ganges. Lakshman, the Sena king of Bengal, and its ancient name was Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. It was the ancient Hindu capital of Bengal. Its recorded history begins with its conquest c. 1203 by Mohammed Bakhtiyar Khalji. Ghiyath ud-din district of

Iwaz Khalji made it his capital c. 1219. The seat of government was transferred c. 1340 to nearby Pandua. Gaur once more became the capital in the mid- 15th century. It was besieged and pillaged during the struggle between the Mogul Humayun and the Afghan Sher Shah 1538-39). In 1564 because of a change in the course of the Ganges it was abandoned for Tanda, nearer the main stream. Gaur was temporarily reoccupied in 1575 by Akbar's general Munim Khan, after a struggle with Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty. This occupation was followed by a virulent epidemic, which depopulated the city. It was, however, the residence of Shah Jahan's son. Shah Shuja", in the mid- 17th century. In the 18th century it was httle better than a heap of ruins almost overgrown with jungle. In the 1870s, however, the site was par(

tially

cleared for cultivation.

The

finest ruin in Gaur is that of the Great Golden mosque, also Bara Darwaza, or "12-doored" (1526). The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque has fine carving and is faced with stone, fairly well preserved. The Tantipara mosque (1475-80) has beautiful molding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same period is unique in retaining glazed tiles. The citadel was entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil Darwaza (1460P-74). At the southeast corner was a palace surrounded by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is standing. Nearby were the royal tombs. Within the citadel is the Kadam Rasul mosque (1530), still used, and close outside is a tall tower called the Firoz Minar. Bibliography. James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern

called

—

35

mean. Gauss now manifested his outstanding trait of critical analysis and thus began to do creative work. He called this acuteness the rigor antiqims. In 1792, the year that he entered the three-year Collegium Carolinum in Brunswick, his interests led him to question the foundations of geometry. Gauss shunned controversy, and though a pioneer he published nothing on non-Euclidean geometry. In 1793-94 he did intensive research in number theory, especially on the frequency of primes. He made this study his life's passion and is regarded as its modern founder. Gauss obtained a copy of Newton's Principia in 1794; In 1795 in that year he discovered the method of least squares. he completed important research on quadratic residues. Gauss studied at the University of Gottingen from 1795 to 1798; there he had access to the works of Fermat, Euler, Lagrange and Legendre, the masters in his field. He soon realized that he too was a master and decided to write a book on the theory of numbers. It appeared in 1801 under the title Disquisitiones arithmeticae; this classic work, establishing the theories of cyclotomy and arithmetical forms, usually is held to be Gauss's greatest accomplishment. In studying the roots of the equation x'. the

(C. H. Ho.) 1809-1889), Italian orator of He the Risorgimento, was born at Bologna on March 21, 1809. joined the Barnabite Fathers in 1825 and taught rhetoric in their college at Naples. Dismayed by the social evils of Italy, he was drawn to the movement for Italian independence. His preaching for a united Italy and his criticism of the government of the papal states caused Pius IX to regard him as heretical. After the capture of Rome and the reinstatement of the pope by the French, Gavazzi fled to England in 1849. Disillusioned with papal Catholicism, he associated with the Italian Protestant congregation in London, His lectures against the papacy and his oratorical powers attracted English attention to Italian affairs. Returning to Italy he became

GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO

army

(

1860. Uncommitted to Church isee Waldenses), he aided the formation of the Free Church Chiesa libera of Italy in 1870, seeking to show the simplicity of the primitive church and to avoid the doctrinal emphases of contemporary Protestant

chaplain to the

of

Garibaldi in

the theolog},' of the Italian Waldensian

(

}

Gavazzi taught in the theological college of that church in Rome until his death there on Jan. 9, 1889. See L. Santini, Alessandro Gavazzi (1955). (B. H.) churches.

GAVELKIND,

a custom formerly

presumed

to apply to all

freehold land in Kent, and capable of applying to land elsewhere

England and Wales. The chief feature of the custom was partiwhereby on the death of the tenant intestate the land descended to all males of the same degree equally instead of to the in

bility,

male alone. Thus, whereas at common law the eldest son excluded his brothers, by gavelkind all sons shared equally. Gavelkind land in Kent was subject to certain other customs which survived even if the land was disgaveled by statute. These were: (1) the land was always devisable, i.e., disposable by will; (2) there was no escheat ig.v.) on attainder of felony; (3) a tenant could alienate the land by feoffment (q.v. at 15 years of age; (4) a widow's dower g.v. was in one-half of the land dum casta et sola, i.e., while she remained chaste and unmarried, instead of in one-third absolutely; (5) a widower's curtesy (a life interest in his wife's realty) was in one-half of the land until remarriage instead of in the whole absolutely and could be claimed even if no children had been born capable of inheriting the land. Both gavelkind and the Kentish customs were abolished by the Law of Property acts, 1922 and 1925, and the Administration of Estates act, eldest

)

(

)

1925.

Under Irish gavelkind the land was not di\aded among the sons but was thrown again into the common stock, and redixaded among

members of the sept. The equal division of an inamong children is of common occurrence outside the British Isles. See also Intestate Succession; Real Property AND Conveyancing, Laws of. (R. E. My.) the surviving

heritance in land

GAVESTON, PIERS

(d.

1312), earl of Cornwall, friend

and adviser of the English king Edward II, was the younger son of a Bearnais knight and was brought up in the household of Edward, then prince of Wales. In Feb. 1307 Gaveston, whose character was strongly criticized by contemporary chroniclers, was banished by Edward I on account of his friendship with the prince, but he was recalled by Edward II on his accession in July and was created earl of Cornwall in August. Gaveston married Edward's niece, Margaret de Clare, and was made keeper of the realm during the king's absence in France 1308). At Edw-ard's coronation he bore the Confessor's crown. These marks of favour aroused baronial opposition, and in June 1308 Edward was com(

pelled to assent to Gaveston's banishment, appointing

him

lieu-

After his recall by Edward in 1309. Gaveston's unpopularity, and the favour shown to him by the king, resulted in the formation of a baronial committee of 21, who drafted in tenant in Ireland.

1311 the document known as the ordinances, demanding among other things the renewal of the sentence of banishment on Gaveston. The favourite withdrew briefly to Flanders, but returned by Christmas 1311. In the conflict following his reinstatement,

Gaveston was captured at Scarborough castle by a force under the Pembroke and Warenne. Despite a promise of personal immunity, he was seized by forces of the earl of Warwick and executed on Blacklow hill, near Warwick, on June 19, 1312. Edward had Gaveston's body buried in the Dominican church at King's Langley. The execution deepened the conflict between Edward II and the barons and was the first of the many political executions which took place during the 14th century. See also earls of

Edward

II.

G A VIAL

(J.

Ta.)

(Gharial), a long-snouted fish-eating crocodilian

inhabiting northern India.

A

single species, Gavialis gangeticus,

constitutes the family Ga\aalidae,

The snout

is extremely slender, Various crocodiles have relatively slender snouts, and the Malayan false ga\dal (Toviistoma), a close relative of the true crocodOes, approaches the gavial in this respect. 5ee Crocodilia. (K. P. S.) GAVIIDAE, the only family of the order Gaviiformes, which comprises the loons q.v.; Gavia species), fish-eating diving birds of the northern hemisphere.

with numerous equal-sized teeth.

I

GAVLE

Sweden on an Gulf of Bothnia, chief town not only of the Ian (county) of Gavleborg but also of northern Sweden. Pop. 1960) 54.618. Gavle is the chief port of one of the richest industrial districts in Sweden, and its harbour is kept open all year except for periods during winters of unusually difficult ice conditions. Fredriksskans. the outer harbour, offers facilities for the import of coal, coke and oil and for the export of timber and wood pulp, iron and steel. Export and import traffic, evenly dixided. normally amounts to about 2.800,000 tons per year. The town is an important industrial centre, manufacturing paper. inlet

(older spelling Gefle), a seaport of

of the

(

GAVLEBORG—GAWAIN pulp and other wood products, chemicals, leather goods and porcelain; there

The

is

century, the episode of the beheading challenge

also a shipbuilding yard.

principal buildings of the

mentioned — which 1446 — are the old

town

is first

castle, century and was chartered in Renaissance style (built in 1568-92 but rebuilt later), and the courthouse, one of Sweden's best-preserved ISth-century buildGavle also has a forestry museum with an arboretum. The ings. (H. V. H.) Furuvik park nearby is a popular resort. a Swedish liin (county), hes on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and extends north of the Dal river (Dalalven) for 2° of latitude. The population was 293,070 in 1960. The rivers are not suitable for navigation but are used for floating Agriculture is not of great importance belogs and for power. cause of poor soil and the severe climate but the Ian has industrial development along the coast, particularly round Gavle its capital, where pulp, paper and cotton textiles are manufactured. Sandviken, which has had a Bessemer steel industry since 1860, is noted In the extreme west of the Idn is for its manufacture of saws. Hamra National park. (A. C. O'D.) originally a sturdy peasants' dance, in brisk 2/2 rhythm, of natives of Gap (Gavots) in the Alpine province of Dauphine. At the French court in the 18th century it first became stately, and later rococo, with slow walking steps in 4/4 rhythm with upbeats on 3 and 4. In the suite, gavottes are written in their early lusty 2/2 rhythm, but retain the two upbeats. (L. Ht.) (1 881-1 9S0), patriarch of the Serb Orthodox Church of Yugoslavia, was born at Vrujci in Montenegro on May Educated at Belgrade, he pursued theological studies 17, 1881. at Constantinople and Athens. He became metropolitan of Raska Prizren (1911) and of Pec (1913-20), and served with the Red Cross in World War I. In 1920 he was made metropohtan of Montenegro, and in 1938 became patriarch of the Serb Church. He played a decisive part in bringing Yugoslavia into the war on the side of the Allies in 1940 through his influence with the boy king When the Germans overran Yugoslavia he was arrested Peter. and sent to the concentration camp of Dachau. Rescued by the U.S. army, he remained outside his country at the end of the war until 1946. On his return he encouraged co-operation with the communist government in civil matters but resisted its attempts He died in Belgrade on to interfere in the affairs of the church. (H. M. W.) May 7, 1950. one of the most famous heroes of Arthurian ro-

in the 8th in

GAVLEBORG,

GAVOTTE,

GAVRILO

GAWAIN,

mance, the son of King Loth of Orkney and nephew to King Arthur on his mother's side. William of Malmesbury in Gesta Regum Anglorum, which covers the period 449-1127, records the discovery of the tomb of Walwen (Gawain) in the province of Ros in Wales, describes him as gut juit hand degener Arturis ex sorore nepos and says that he ruled over Galloway but was expelled from his kingdom by the brother and nephew of Hengist. In the Historia regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth Gawain (Walgainus) plays an important "pseudo-historic" role. He is sent as ambassador to the Romans; and when Arthur, at the news of Mordred's treachery, returns to England, Gawain iq.v.)

goes with him and

Wace

is

slain in the battle fought after their landing.

(q.v.), in his free translation of the Historia, the

Roman

de

Brut, gives further details about his courtesy and prowess. His name appears on the archivolt of Modena cathedral, which has been placed by some scholars early, by others late, in the 12th

There the name Galvaginus

century.

is

carved against one of the

figures helping Artus de Bretani to rescue

Winlogee from a

castle.

In the Welsh romances Gereint, Owein and Peredur, and in the Welsh translation of the Historia, Gawain is equated with Gwalchmei who is one of Arthur's warriors in "Culhwch and Olwen" ic. 1100) and is there described as son of Gwyar, Arthur's hts sister's son and his first cousin who never came home without the quest he had gone to seek {see Welsh Literature: Early and Medieval Prose). Gwalchmei also appears in some of

nephew,

the

Welsh

Some

Triads.

scholars have suggested that

Gawain

is

a mythological

figure with possible connections with sun myths.

It is true that

one or two works he has strange adventures.

In Sir Gawain

in

39

and the Green Knight, an English anonymous poem of the 14th

Gawain but there with him.

It is

is

attributed to

no proof that this tale was originally linked told of Cuchulain in an early Irish saga, Bricrui's is

Feast, and also in the First Perceval Continuation.

It is also true

that in several French romances, and in Malory, Gawain's strength

waxes and wanes with the sun, but not very much is made of this in the romances. He has, on the whole, far less direct contact with the supernatural than, for example, Perceval and Lancelot (qg.v.), and although he has Grail adventures in some of the Perceval Continuations and is Grail hero in the German romance Diu Krone ("the crown of all adventures," c. 1220), Jessie Weston's theory that he was the original Grail winner finds little modern support (see also Grail, the Holy). Nevertheless, he occupies a very important position in Arthurian romance. Although he is not the hero of any of the 12th-century romances of Chretien de Troyes (q.v.), he is always one of the principal characters; for he provides the standard against which all good knights are measured, so that to equal or surpass him becomes the ultimate test of the hero's success. Thus in Chretien's Yvain the culminating point in a series of exploits performed by the hero to win back his lady is an indecisive battle against Gawain fighting incognito. And in his Le Chevalier de la Charrette (Lancelot), which is both an account of the abduction and rescue of Guinevere and an illustration of the doctrines of courtly love in the person of Lancelot, the ideal lover, Lancelot and Gawain undertake the same adventure. Here the success of Lancelot, set beside the failure of Gawain, does not imply any lack of prowess in Gawain but is rather a testimony to the power of love: prowess alone cannot rise to the heights of chivalry inspired by love. In Le Conte del Graal, Chretien's Perceval romance, Lancelot plays no part; Gawain, still the leading knight of Arthur's court, is again contrasted with the main hero and once more this contrast seems Here the to be related to the underlying theme of the romance. two knights are not directly opposed to one another but undertake a parallel series of adventures which seem to illustrate two different conceptions of chivalry, although, as the poem is unfinished, only possible to guess at the author's final intentions. Perceval

it is

engages on the quest for the Grail and through this comes to realize that chivalry is more than the seeking of earthly renown through knightly adventures. Gawain does not seek for the Grail itself but for the bleeding lance, and his aspirations remain on a

more worldly toward

plane.

ladies, still a

He

is still

model

valiant

and courteous, particularly seems to

of earthly chivalry, but he

lack the spiritual inspiration which drives Perceval, for clumsy ignorance, to greater heights.

all

his

It is, however, only in the French prose romances of the 13th century that Gawain really begins to sink from his position as the ideal knight against whom all heroes must be measured, and this decline arises directly from a new, austerely spiritual Grail Quest to be found in the prose Lancelot, or Vulgate cycle, as it is often In the Lancelot propre, the third branch of this cycle, called. Gawain is still the acknowledged leader of Arthur's court, a great warrior and a knight noted for his wisdom, courtesy and moderation. It is only when Lancelot, in another of these battles fought incognito, shows himself superior to Gawain that he proves himself to be the greatest knight of all, just before he gets a seat at the Round Table. But the situation changes with the Queste del

when not only is Lancelot displaced by Galahad as Gawain fails miserably in the Quest and death of a number of good knights. He fails because

Saint Graal,

the greatest knight but

causes the he relies exclusively on prowess, refuses to seek the help of divine grace through the sacraments and remains blind to the whole spirIn the last branch of the cycle, the itual significance of the Grail. Mort Artu, when the story returns to a more earthly plane, he resumes his position as chief support of King Arthur and leader of the knights of the Round Table, but although he shows great heroism and dies with tragic dignity, he does not return completely to grace, for it is the bitterness with which he seeks to avenge his brothers' death which is one of the causes of the destruction of the Round Table. Thus the changing attitude toward the character of Gawain in

GAWLER—GAY

40

the Vulgate cycle is connected with a change in attitude to chivalry through the introduction of the Grail theme. Gawain, once again, is the foil for the chief hero and the emptiness of his earthly chivalry is contrasted with the spiritual fullness of Galahad's heavenly chivalry. The deterioration, however, goes far beyond this in later romances such as the prose Trntan, where in a number of episodes he appears as treacherous and brutal toward women, and, in contrast with the general tradition of Middle English romances, these darker aspects of his character are also to be found in parts of Sir Thomas Malory's Morte Darthiir and hence in Nevertheless, Tennyson's Arthurian epic. Idylls of the King. Gawain's main role in Arthurian romance is to provide the pattern of chivalry for every young knight.

See also Arthurian Legend.

—

Bibliography. A general study, of the character is to be found in of her J. L. Weston's Legend oj Sir Gawain (1897), but a number theories are outdated. For discussion and further bibliography of the large number of works in which Gawain plays an important part see J. D. Bruce, Evolution of Arthurian Romance, 2nd ed. (1928), and Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, ed. by R. S. Loomis (1959). (E.

GAWLER,

a

M.

K.)

on the North and 25 mi. N.E. of Adelaide by rail. Pop. (1961)

town of South Australia,

lies

South Para rivers, 5,639. There are flour mills, a butter factory, clothing factories, clay and concrete brickworks and natural sand deposits. Gawler It is the centre of a wheat-, fruit- and flower-growing district. was named after George Gawler, governor of South Australia from (A. R.

1838 to 1841.

GAY, JOHN

Wa.)

(1685-1732), English poet and dramatist, au-

thor of The Beggar's Opera, was born on June 30, 1685, at Barn-

Devonshire, and educated at the local grammar school. He was apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but was released early from his indentures and. after a further short period in Devonshire, returned to London where he lived most of his life. Among his early literary friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell, whom he helped in the production of The British Apollo, a question-andstaple,

answer journal of the day. His journalistic interests are clearly seen in a pamphlet. The Present State of Wit (1711), a survey of contemporary periodical publications. From 1712 to 1714 he was steward in the household of the duchess of Monmouth, which gave him leisure and security to write. He had produced a burlesque of the Miltonic style. Wine, in 1708 and in 1 713 his first important poem, Rural Sports, appeared. This is a descriptive and didactic work in two short books dealing with hunting and fishing, but containing also descriptions of the countryside and meditations on the Horatian theme of retirement. Here Gay strikes at once his characteristic note of delicately absurd artificiality. In discussing bait, for example, he tells the reader: Those

reward the fisher's pains. a shining yellow stains; Cleanse them from filth, to give a tempting gloss, Cherish the sully'd reptile race with moss. baits will best

Whose poUsh'd

tails

.

He

.

of course, aware of the comic disproportion between his language and the subject. But the contrast, while it produces the effect of a reductio ad absurdum, does so in a good-humoured way and in a tone of underlying sympathy. This note of sympathetic is,

comedy

the staple one in Gay's poetry. It is strongly marked poem, Trivia: or, the Art of Walking the Streets of London (1716), a work modeled on Virgil's Georgicssnd fully alive today for the detailed observation of urban life which it displays, is

in his finest

and for

its assured technical dexterity. Something of its flavour can be gained from this couplet, describing a sophisticated lady

crossing the street:

Her shoe disdains the street the lazy With narrow step affects a limping air. ;

The

fair

force of character observation in "disdains,"

and the way in echoes the angular movements of the lady, indicate the precision of Gay's craftsmanship. The effect is not to "startle with a fine excess," but to make the reader apprehend one facet of experience more clearly. It is this effect which Gay is constantly achieving. The full significance of a couplet often depends upon a literary parallel and references back to the Georgics are common. Virgil, for example, says that the influ-

which the rhythm of the second

line

is felt throughout the whole of creation, a thought which Dryden renders by the lines:

ence of spring

From hence proceeds the birds' harmonious voice; From hence the cows exult, and frisking lambs rejoice.

Gay

varies the lines in Trivia:

The seasons operate on 'Tis

and the its

ev'ry breast;

hence that fawns are brisk, and ladies drest,

complex, at once

effect is

correlation of the animal and

It is in this sort of delicate

mundane

social life that

Gay

satirical,

sympathetic and, by

human kingdoms,

philosophical.

probing of the surface of apparently excels.

Apart from Trivia and Rural Sports, Gay's most important works are The Shepherd's Week (1714), a series of mock classical pastorals, his two series of Fables (1727 and 1738) and The Beggar's Opera (1728). The Fables went through about 350 editions and until the 20th century were the best known of his poems. They are brief octosyllabic illustrations of moral themes, often satirical in tone and frequently directed at the court and courtiers. Gay's most famous work. The Beggar's Opera, was produced on Jan. 29, 1728, at Rich's theatre in Lincoln's Inn fields, where it was said to make "Gay rich, and Rich gay." Its basic idea was to mirror the moral degradation of society by means of a story about thieves and highwaymen, and more particularly to caricature Robert Walpole and his administration. It also makes fun of the prevailing fashion for Italian opera. ever, not so

much by

the pungency of

situations of the plot,

and above

all

The play its

is

satire as

by the

kept alive, how-

by the

effective

"singability" of the

It ran for 62 nights (not all consecutive) and temporarily drove Italian opera from the stage. Gay wrote a sequel, Polly, which is set in the West Indies and in which poetic justice is more clearly seen to be done than in The Beggar's Opera, but its production was forbidden by the lord chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. The suppression proved an excellent advertisement. Gay's cause found support among his friends and indeed among all who were antagonistic to the government. When it was decided to print the play, subscriptions were canvassed even in the court itself. John Arbuthnot describes the extent of the interest in a letter to Swift (March ig, 1729): "The inoffensive John Gay is now become one of the obstructions to the peace of Europe, the terror of the Ministers, the chief author of all the seditious pamphlets which have been published against the government ... If he should travel about the country, he would have hecatombs of roasted oxen sacrificed to him." As a result of this uncharacteristic notoriety Gay made well over £1,000 from subscriptions, and Polly sold widely. The play was not produced until 1777 when it had a moderate success. Gay's less famous plays include The What d'ye Call It (1715), Three Hours After Marriage (1717) and Achilles, posthumously produced in 1733.

songs.

.

.

.

The adjective most often applied to Gay by his friends is "honest," and they agree that this was accompanied by a certain na'ivete in the face of practical problems. He lost almost all his money on South Sea stock and suffered disappointments of official patronage. Nonetheless when he died, Dec. 4, 1732, in London, he was worth £6,000, a modest but not negligible fortune. He had been helped by various patrons, including the third earl of Burlington and the third earl of Queensberry; the duchess of Queensberry mourned his death deeply. He was buried in Westminster abbey, next to Chaucer. His monument is by John Rysbrack, his epitaph by Alexander Pope. Gay's reputation remained high throughout the i8th century; during the 19th he was remembered chiefly as the author of the Fables but, following Nigel Playfair's enormously successful revival of The Beggar's Opera in 1920, Gay's general reputation gradually rose again and he became valued as a poet of a varied and considerable achievement.

—

Bibliography. The Poetical Works, including plays, were edited by G. C. Faber (1926). See also W. H. Irving, John Gay, Favourite of the Wits (ig4o) J. R. Sutherland, in Pope and His Contemporaries ;

(1949)-

(JN. C.)

GAY, 'WALTER (1856-1937), U.S. artist who painted scenes of French interiors and French peasant life, was born at Hingham, Mass., on Jan. 22, 1856. Most of his career was spent in Europe.

GAYA— GAY-LUSSAC In 1876 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris. He received an honourable mention in the salon of 1885; a gold medal in 1888, similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp (1895), Berlin (1896) and Munich ( 1897 ) He became an officer of the Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, Munich. His works are .

in the

politan

Luxembourg, the Tate gallery and the Boston and Metro-

museums

GAYA

is

of art.

a city

and

He

died July 14, 1937, in Paris.

district of

Bihar state, India.

The

city

compact but elongated, covering an area of 11.4 sq.mi., and stands largely on the west bank of the shallow, broad-channeled Phalgu river at the junction of the Grand Chord line with the Patna and Kiul branches of the Eastern railway. It is surrounded by a number of quartzitic hillocks, outliers of the Chota Nagpur plateau, and their bare rocks together with the sandy bed of the Phalgu, which is dry for much of the year, make Gaya notoriously hot. A narrow strip of the town is located on the east bank of the river. Gaya is a zone-of-contact town about 55 mi. S. of Patna near the junction of the Gangetic plain and the Chota Nagpur plateau and is an important centre of commerce. It is a Celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, and about 300,000 pilgrims visit it annually. There are 45 sacred places between Pretsil hill on the north and Buddh Gaya on the south, but most are in Gaya itself. The principal shrine is the Vishnupad temple built by the Maratha princess Ahlya Bai in 1787. Others are on the rocky temple-crowned hills of Ramsilla (715 ft.) and Brahmajuni (793 ft.), the latter being identified as the Gayasirsa Buddh Gaya is 6 mi. S. on the hill on which Buddha preached. western bank of the Lilajan river and connected by two metaled roads. It is famous as the scene of the Buddha's enlightenment. There are modern Tibetan, Burmese and Chinese monasteries, rest houses and a museum. Gaya District (pop. [1961] 3,647,892; area 4,766 sq.mi.) is an alluvial plain bounded on the south by the wooded hilly fringe of Chota Nagpur and having a number of isolated quartzitic outliers, such as the Barabar hills. The principal rivers are the Son, Punpun and Phalgu. The last two shallow-channeled rivers are Agriculture largely depends on an subject to heavy freshets. (pop.

[1961]

150,884)

is

elaborate indigenous system of irrigation consisting of short chan-

from rivers or storage reservoirs. The Son canal provides irrigation in the northwest of the district. The population is mainly agricultural, the principal crops being rice, gram, nels taking off

wheat, barley, oilseeds and sugar cane. Some mica is produced. Other manufactures include shellac and black stoneware. (E. Ah.) a domesticated breed of the gaur iq.v.), a wild ox of India and southeast Asia. The gayal is heavily built and stands about five feet high at the shoulder. The body is dark brown, and

GAYAL,

the legs below the knees are white or yellowish.

The

short diverg-

and massive. Gayal are kept by Indo-Chinese tribes of Assam, Tenasserim and upper Burma solely for food, not for milk and not as draft animals. They roam unattended through the forest by day and return of their own accord to the village of their owner at night. (L. H. M.) GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (17781850), French chemist and physicist, pioneered in the study of the gaseous state. He was born at St. Leonard, in the departement of Haute-Vienne, on Dec. 6, 1778. His father, Antoine Gay, added Lussac to the name to avoid confusion with others named Gay. (Lussac is an estate near St. Lemand.) He entered the £cole Polytechnique at the end of 1797; two years later he was transferred to the ficole des Ponts et Chaussees, and at the same time he assisted Claude L. BerthoUet (q.v.) in his researches. In 1802 he was appointed demonstrator to Antoine F. Fourcroy at the £cole Polytechnique. He succeeded Fourcroy as professor of chemistry on Jan. i, 18 10. From 1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which he resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1806 he was made an academician. In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute-Vienne in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris on

ing horns are thick

May

9, 1850. He lies buried in Pere Lachaise cemetery. Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical in character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour tensions.

41

hygrometry, capillarity, etc. His first memoir, published in 1802, dealt with the expansion of gases. In 1804 the French Academy, desirous of securing some observations on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations above the earth, obtained the use of a balloon and entrusted the task to him and Jean B. Biot. In their first ascent from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on Aug. 24, 1804, an altitude of 13,120 ft. was attained; Gay-Lussac made a second ascent by himself on Sept. 16, when the balloon rose 23,012 ft. above sea level. At this height, he made observations not only on magnetism but also on the temperature and humidity of the air and collected several samples of air at different heights. The magnetic observations led him to the conclusion that the magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above the earth's surface remains constant; and on analyzing the samples of air he could This work find no difference of composition at different heights. places him among the founders of meteorology. In the same year, in conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on eudiometric analysis {Ann. de Chitn., 1805) it contained the germ of his most important generalization, the law of combination of gases by volumes, which was, however, not enunciated in its general form until after his return from a journey through Switzerland, ;

Italy

and Germany.

In 1809 his important memoir on gaseous combination was published. In it he pointed out that when gases combine with one another they do so in the simplest proportions by volume, and that the volume of any gaseous product formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents. This is still called Gay-Lussac's law. He was one of the discoverers of the fact that all gases have approxi-

mately the same coefficient of expansion (Charles's law). About this time Gay-Lussac's work became more purely chemical. In 1808, he succeeded, with the collaboration of Louis J. Thenard, in preparing potassium by the action of red-hot iron on fused potash. The properties of the element were studied and in 1809 he used it for the isolation of boron from boric acid. GayLussac carried out some work on chlorine (1809) and iodine (1814) which brought him into direct rivalry with Humphry Davy. He considered "oxymurjatic acid" (chlorine) to be a compound, whereas Davy saw no reason to suppose that it contained oxygen and regarded it as an element, a view which Gay-Lussac was reluctantly compelled to accept. In 1810 Gay-Lussac published a paper which contains some classic experiments on fermentation, a subject to which he returned At the same time he was in a second paper published in 1815. working with Thenard at the improvement of the methods of organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents, first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he determined the composition of a number of organic substances. His last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid). In a note published in 1811 he described the physical properties of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition until 1815, when he described cyanogen as a compound radical, prussic acid as a compound of that radical with hydrogen alone, and the prussiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radical with metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid theory and comGay-Lussac pleted the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen theory. proposed the prefix "hydro" for these oxygen-free acids. He discovered ethyl iodide and chlorcyanogen. The isolation of cyanogen was of importance for the subsequent era of compound radicals in organic chemistry. As a result of his success as an investigator Gay-Lussac's services as a technical adviser became in great demand. He had been

member

a

of the consultative committee on arts and manufactures He was attached to the "administration des poudres

after 1805.

et salpetres" in 1818,

provements (1818) and

in the

in 1829 he received the lucrative post His services to industry included his im-

and

of assayer to the mint.

processes for the manufacture of sulfuric acid methods of estimating the amount

oxalic acid (1829)

;

of real alkali in potash and soda and for estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal alcoholometer published 1830 and specially commended by the institute; and the elabora-

in

GAZA—GAZELLE

42 tion of a

mon

method

by a standard solution of comwork of this period may be menorganic analysis and the investigation

of assaying silver

Among

salt.

his research

tioned the improvements in made with the help of Liebig,

who gained

of fulminic acid

the

privilege of admission to his private laboratory in 1823-24.

The most complete

list

of Gay-Lussac's papers

is

contained in

the Royal society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers, which enumerates 148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, The-

Many

were published in the Annales de title to Atmales de chimie et physique, he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his hfe; but -some are to be found in the Memoires d'Arcueil and the Comptes rendus, and in the Recherches physiques et chimiques, two volumes, pubhshed with Thenard in 1811. See also references under "Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis" in the Index volume.

nard, Welter and Liebig.

chimie, which, after

it

changed

its

For biographical details see W. Tilden, Famous Chemists (1921); Blot et Gardem le Brun, Notice F. Arago, Eloge de Gay-Lussac (1SS4) biographiqtie de Gay Lussac (1850) E. Blanc and L. Delhoume, La vie ;

;

imouvante

et

noble de Gay-Lussac (1950),

(H,

S.

V. K.)

GAZA (Ghazzah), an ancient city of southern Palestine with a continuous historj' to modern times, is situated 3 mi, from the Mediterranean coast about 40 mi. S.W. of Tel Aviv- Jaffa. After 1948 as the principal city of the Gaza strip (Qita Ghazzah) it was (except for a short period during 1956-57) under Egj^ptian administration. In ancient times it was the most southerly city of the Philistine Pentapolis and an important junction on the coastal road from Damascus and Megiddo to Egypt gold and frankincense

A.D.

It

was not

opening years of the Sth century that With the first sweep of Mushm

until the

Christianity finally triumphed. arms against Palestine in 634,

Gaza fell before the invaders and gradually lost its importance as a station along the caravan trade route between the peninsula and Syria, As a city of Palestine, it shared in the process of arabization and islamization that was to transform the ethnic and religious make-up of the entire area. It had a special sanctity for MusHms because Hashim, the greatgrandfather of Mohammed, according- to tradition was buried there. Its place in Muslim lore was further enhanced by the fact that

it

was the birthplace of

saders found

it

in near ruins

fortifyingit, but

it

(767-820), founder of one In the 12th century, the cru-

al-Shafi'i

of the four schools of law in Islam.

and deserted, and had no trouble in its ancient mihtary and strategic

never regained

importance. After Saladin's victory at Hattin (1187), it reverted Muslim hands. In 1516 Gaza fell to the Ottoman Turks. In 1799 it was captured by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1831 it came under the rule of the Egyptian governor Mohammed Ali and his son Ibrahim, but reverted to Turkish rule when the Egj'ptians were forced to evacuate Syria in 1840. During World War I Gaza was the scene of three battles in 1917 between British and Turkish armies. It was finally evacuated by the Turks when Gen. Edmund (later Field Marshal Viscount) Allenby broke through their Kne Before the termination in 1948 of the at Beersheba (Nov. 1917). British mandate in Palestine the United Nations general assembly in Nov. 1947 accepted a plan for the partition of Palestine under which Gaza and an area of surrounding territory was to be allotted (N. A. F.) to the Arabs. to

;

were brought from Arabia to Gaza via Kurnub and Beersheba. Gaza alone stood in the way of the Egyptians as they entered PalesBefore World War I it was a prosperous town with good tine. bazaars, a considerable manufacture of black pottery and an export trade in barley. It was more than half destroyed by that war, and the population dwindled. It increased again, however, as a result of the influx of Arab refugees during the Arab-Israeli war of 1948, History. The Egj^ptian monarch Thutmose III reached Gaza c. 1468 B.C. at the beginning of his forays into Palestine and established it as a base for operations in Syria. Gaza became one of the main provincial administrative centres of Palestine until 1225 B.C. In Gen. x, 19. Canaan is described as extending from Gaza to Sidon, indicating that Gaza was near its southern border, Joshua captured towns in the vicinity, but Gaza remained outside Israel's

—

borders.

In the early 12th century

the coastal plain of Palestine and

B.C.

the Philistines

made Gaza

moved

into

the chief city of

Gaza was the scene of the death of Samson. 6-7) denounced the city because of its slave traffic, Assyrian conquest came in 734 b,c. when Tiglath-pileser III stormed the city. Hanun, its king, fled to Egypt but later returned to accept Assyrian rule, Gaza deserted Assyria for Egj-pt during the reign of Sargop II; this time, Hanun, who had led the revolt, was defeated with his Eg>T>tian aUies at Raphia (Rafah; 720 B.C.) and was taken to Assyria in chains. Gaza remained loyal to Se'nnacherib against Hezekiah of Judah and the Philistines of Ekron, their pentapolis.

Amos

(i,

Gaza receiving parts of Judah as a reward for loyalty. remained faithful to Esarhaddon and furnished material for the royal palace in Nineveh. Ashurbanipal also held the city. Gaza resisted the Persian king Cambyses without success. Coins found in Gaza and dated to the period testify to its commercial importance. The town resisted Alexander the Great for two months (332 B.C.). Its ruler, Batis, had hired Arab mercenaries who defended themselves behind the high walls of the mound, Alexander took the city by undermining the walls and forcing their collapse. He was wounded in the campaign, and the city was made

Sillibel of Sillibel

The Gaza Strip.—The British mandate ended on May 15, 1948. On the same day the Arab-Israeh war broke out and Egyptian became the headquarters of the Eg>'pAs a result of heavy fighting in the autumn of 1948 the area around the town in Arab occupation was reduced in extent to a strip of territory 25 mi. long and 4 to Its boundaries 5 mi. wide, which became known as the Gaza strip. forces entered Gaza, which

tian expeditionary force in Palestine.

in the Eg>'ptian-Israeh armistice agreement of Feb. 24, 1949. The period 1949-54 was relatively quiet except for minor border incidents. In Feb. 1955 Israel launched a heavy raid against the strip, to which Egypt retaliated by organizing commando (fedayeen) raids into Israel. Border clashes with heavy

were demarcated

These were

loss of civilian hfe occurred in the spring of 1956.

followed by a long lull after the nationalization of the Suez canal company, but the area was occupied by Israeh forces during the The Eg>'ptian administration invasion of Egypt in Nov. 1956. returned after the withdrawal of the Israeh forces in March 1957, and units of the United Nations expeditionary force thereafter

pohced the demarcation

line.

from 70,000 in 1949 to 125,700 In addition there were in 1962 about 265,430 refugees. The pitiable condition of the population was alleviated by the remarkable work of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, which has direct responsibility for the refugees, and by the Egyptian administration, which cared for the largely destitute nonrefugee population. Although in Sept. 1948 Egypt sponsored the formation of an all-Palestine government in Gaza, the strip was administered by the Egyptian government. It was, however, technically considered part of Pales-

The population

of the strip rose

in 1962.'

tine

under temporary occupation by a friendly

references under "Gaza" in the Index volume.

state.

See also

(W. A. K.)

—

BiBLiOGR.APHY. Guv Le Strange, Palestine Under the Moslems (1890) G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 2Sth ed. The Annual Reports of the Director of the United Nations (1931) Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (1949) J. Baster, "Economic Problems in the Gaza Strip," The Middle East Journal, vol. ix (1955) Edgar O'Ballance, The Arab-Israeli War, 1948 (1956) and Tlie Sinai Campaign, 1956 (1959). ;

;

;

a "desert,"

From

the 3rd to the 1st centuries b.c, Egyptian, Syrian

and Jewish armies fought for its possession. (J. S. I.) Captured by Pompey in 62 B.C., Gaza was developed by the Romans as a free "maritime city." It was then known as Gaza Minoa and in 30 B.C. was granted by Augustus to Herod the Great. Upon the latter's death in 4 B.C., it was added to the imperial province of Syria. As a pagan stronghold, it resisted Christianity stubbornly, and remained an important centre for Greek commerce and Hellenistic culture, especially during the 2nd and 3rd centuries

;

GAZELLE,

the

common name

for antelopes of the genus

medium in size 24 to 35 in. Gazelles range the open plains and semideserts from Mongolia through southern Asia to the Atlantic coast of north Africa and throughout east and central tropical Africa. The numerous species differ in body size, coat pattern and size and shape Gazella, graceful in build and small to

(

at the shoulder).

of horns, but the differences are less obvious than the similarities.

GAZETTE—GEARS light In general gazelles are reddish-brown to fawn-coloured above, A colours. separating the flank the on streak dark with a below, the eye to light stripe runs down each side of the face from above and the muzzle, often with a dark streak below it; the forehead centre of the face between the stripes is generally darker than the body colour. The horns are short to medium in length with numerous raised rings; they may be spreading, lyre-shaped or back-

wardly curved, and are always slightly upturned at the ends. The horns of the females are smaller and more slender than those of the males, and in one species, the Persian gazelle G. subgutturosa), the females are generally hornless. This species also differs from (

development of a goitrelike swelling on the throat Gazelles run swiftly; Thomson's gazelle of east Africa has been paced from an automobile at 40 m.p.h. (L. H. M.) over a short distance. See Antelope. GAZETTE, a name given to newssheets or newspapers having the others in the

m

the breeding season.

an abstract of current events which were forerunners of modern newspapers (q.v.). The word came into English from the French, having been adapted from the Italian gazzetta, a name given to informal news or gossip sheets first published in Venice in the midSimilar sheets soon made their appearance in France 1 6th century. and in England. The type of gazette originating from the private newsletter existed in England before the middle of the 16th century, but was confined mainly to detailed accounts of diplomatic

maneuvers or stricted group

to the

of courtly verse

circulation

among

a re-

the accession of Queen Elizabeth I, however, a far greater variety of such sheets began to Aimed at a wide popular audience, they disseminated appear. of readers.

Upon

from nongovernment sources, news of recent explorations, commercial advertisements and the more sensational news items of the day reports of lurid crimes, supposed miracles, witchcraft and the like. The news collected in these sheets was contributed by volunteers, frequently based on the accounts of anonymous witnesses, and was notorious for its inaccuracy. In the 17th century the term was increasingly applied to official government pubhcations, such as the Oxford, London, Edinburgh and Dublin Gazettes. See Matthias A. Shraaber, Some Forerunners of the Newspaper in

gossip,

unofficial

trivia,

news

accounts

—

England, 1476-1622 (1929).

GAZIANTEP, a town and capital of the il (province) of Gaziantep in southern Turkey, is situated in limestone hills near the Syrian border about 60 mi. N. of Aleppo. Pop. (1960) 125,498, formerly largely Armenian but now Turkoman and Kurdish. Previously known as Aintab, it was renamed by Kemal Ataturk in honour of its resistance to the French in 1920-21 (Gazi means "fighter for Islam"); it is, however, frequently referred to by its old name.

paved streets and covis an important market centre and has a meteoroIt is bordered by gardens, vineyards, olive and

Well

ered bazaars,

it

logical station.

built with stone houses,

nut groves but the surrounding district is barren. In spite of its name (Aintab, "good spring"), the water of Gaziantep is of poor quality. The town has been linked by rail with the Turkish state railway system and is connected by all-weather roads with Adana

and Urfa.

The ancient mound of Gaziantep, covered by a medieval castle, is large and the city has probably been occupied since prehistoric times. Its name in Hittite times is unknown but it must have been of strategic importance since it guarded the routes from Syria. In it was an important stronghold (Hamtap), and was captured by Saladin. In 1516 it passed to the Ottoman empire and in the early 19th century it served as a base for Ibrahim Pasha before his victory over the Ottoman forces at Nizip (35 mi. E.). In 1921 it was the centre of Turkish resistance to French attacks and fell in February of that year after a heroic {See It was returned to Turkey in 1922. siege of 10 months.

the middle ages in 1183

it

43

Duluk, ancient Dohche (the site of the famous shrine to Jupiter lies on the railway several miles northwest of the town and is terraced with vineyards; it has yielded important (M. V. S.-W.) tombs. GDANSK, one of the three Baltic wojewodztwa (provmces) of Poland, was created after World War 11 from territory around Danzig (parts of East Prussia and Pomerania). Its coastline is 357 km. (223 mi.) in length and its area 10,917 sq.km. (4,218 sq.mi.). Of its 13 counties 5 belonged to Poland before the war (Tczew, Starogard, Wejcherowo, Koscierzyna and Kartuzy). The population (1960) was 1,220,000, of which 65% was urban. The most important towns (pop. 1960) are Danzig (q.v.) or Gdansk (the capital, 286,500), Gdynia (147,800), Elblag (77,000), Sopot

Dolichenus),

Tczew (34,000), Malbork (25,000), Wejcherowo (22,Starogard Gdanski (21,400), Lebork (20,300), Kwidzyn

(44,000), 700),

(18,200).

Three landscape units can be distinguished the narrow strip of its sand dunes; the Pomeranian lakelands, with a varied morainic surface and their highest point, the Wiezyca, 1,079 ft. above sea level; and the flat (western parts) of the Vistula delta, known as the Zulawy wislane, as much as (j\ ft. below sea level in places. Because of its fertile soil the Zulawy district is the most important centre of agriculture and animal :

the Baltic coast, with

breeding in the wojewodztwo.

The drainage

installations, con-

and several hundred pumps were destroyed by the German forces in 1945, and, although they were rebuilt, productivity by the early 1960s had not matched the 1939

sisting of

many

canals, dikes

level.

The economic life is Unked with the sea. The ports of Danzig, Gdynia and Sopot constitute a conurbation which handles about 50% of Poland's ship trafflc and more than 60% of the total sea import and export traffic. The shipbuilding industry was revived after World War II, as well as the food industry which processes products imported by sea. Smaller ports contributing to the fishing industry include Leba, Jastarnia, Hel, Wladislawowo, Puck and Tolmicko as well as two inland ports, Elblag and Tczew. A number of resorts lie along the coast, of which the most frequented are The picturesque lake Sopot, Leba, Jastarnia, Jurata, Orlowo. (K. M. Wi.) scenery attracts tourists to the district. a town of Poland, in the Gdansk wojewodztwa (province), one of the three main seaports of Poland, is situated on the Gulf of Danzig 10 mi. N.N.W. of Danzig (Gdansk), with which it is connected by rail. Pop. ( 1960) 147,800. Gdynia lies on that small sector of the Baltic coast that was returned to Poland by the treaty of Versailles (1919). Difficulties placed in the way of the Polish government by the authorities of Danzig led the

GDYNIA,

former to build a port on its own part of the coast line. The choice fell on Gdynia, a small Kaszuby fishing village, which had the natural conditions most suitable for the development of a port. In the period 1924-39 it became the busiest and one of the most modern Baltic ports, the installations including a large cold-storage building, an edible oil plant, shipyards,

many

stores

and railway

sidings.

During World War II the Germans occupied Gdynia after a two-week period of stubborn defense. Its name was changed to Gotenhafen, some of the Pohsh inhabitants were murdered and others were deported and their places taken by Germans. As a base of the German navy, Gdynia suffered from Allied bombing, and the port was almost totally destroyed by the Germans during their retreat in 1945. The installations were rapidly rebuilt after the war.

Gaziantep il is bounded east by the Euphrates (Firat) river. Pop. (1960) 438,477; area 3,011 sq.mi. It is noted for its wines, and the other chief products are cereals, baklava (sweet meats), pistachio nuts, aniseed, pekmez (sweet grape paste), tobacco, goatskin rugs and striped cloth. It also supphes remount horses

Since the war Gdynia has formed one port and urban group with Danzig and Sopot. It is the base of the Polish navy and the main passenger port. Exports include coal, lumber and sugar; iron ore, Gdynia contains the state fertilizers and foodstuffs are imported. naval school, the Technical College for Deep-Sea Fishing, the Sea Fishing institute, the Naval museum and a theatre. (K. M. Wi.) See also Danzig: History. GEAR-CUTTING MACHINE: see Machine Tools. GEARS are machine parts, operating in pairs, which transmit motion and force from one rotating shaft to another, or from a

for the Turkish cavalry.

shaft to a slide (rack),

Turkey:

History.)

by means

of successively engaging projec-

—

GEARS

44

tating by a brake, then iVj = and A^B = 4Nq. If the sun gear

The

smaller of a gear pair is called the pinion When the pinion is on the driving shaft, the pair acts as a speed reducer; when the gear drives, the pair is a

tions called teeth.

and the

larger

is

the gear.

rotates clockwise it will cause the planet gears to roll around on the inside of the fixed internal gear and rotate the arm and shaft C in

speed increaser. Gears are more frequently used as speed reducers than as increasers.

The

gears in

fig.

i

have teeth

a clockwise direction.

the

pact, s>Tnmetrical speed reducer,

The speed

with a comparatively high-power transmitting capacity, since the load is shared by three planet

20/10 = 2. In general, if a pinion having Tp teeth rotates at A^p r.p.m. and a gear having Tq teeth rotates at Nq r.p.m., the speed ratio R will be Tp

No

For gears of the type shown fig.

I,

in

there are physical limita-

tions to both the

minimum num-

ber of teeth on the pinion and

1. MESHING ACTION GEAR AND RACK

is

20, the pinion will rotate twice

shaft,

ratio will be

ION.

B

input

as fast as the gear.

FiG.

If

equally spaced on circles. If the pinion has 10 teeth and the gear

the

maximum number

of teeth on

the gear.

and C the output the unit becomes a com-

shaft

For this reason planetary transmissions are used on aircraft FIG. 3. INTERNAL GEAR AND PIN- where space is limited and weight '°'* must be kept to a minimum. If the sun gear instead of the internal gear is fixed, N^ = and Ni = 4/3iVc. If the gear I is the input, the output shaft C will rotate in the same direction at a slower speed. If the arm is fixed, Nc = and A^b = ^^i- In this case, the gears.

—

—

term —3 indicates that shaft B rotates three times faster than gear I and in the opposite direction. Lastly, if the sun gear and the arm are coupled together by means of a clutch so as to prevent gear tooth action and all members are

For a large speed ratio, two or more gear pairs may be required. shows two pairs arranged in a compound train. If T^ = To = 10 and T^ = T^ = 20, the speed ratio will be

Fig. 2

p

_ Ts Ja

To To

^,

^

_

Ni

_

.

iVo

The

gears in fig. i rotate in opposite directions. If another placed between them, the gear and pinion will rotate in the same direction. The intermediate or idler gear has no effect on the speed ratio. In many cases idler gears (one or more) are used to fill the space when the shafts are too far apart to be cormected

gear

is

by one

pair.

When

the shafts are close together and must rotate in the and internal gear may be used, as shown in

direction, a pinion

same fig. 3.

Teeth on the internal gear are cut on the inside of a cup-shaped

member. If

required that the input and output shafts be co-axial, the in fig. 4 may be used; this is known as a planetary, or epicyclic, gear train. The sun gear S on the shaft B meshes with two or more planet gears P, which are carried on bearings on a carrier A attached to the shaft C. The planet gears it is

arrangement shown

also It

mesh with an internal gear I. can be shown that the speeds

ternal gear

Ni

of the shafts N^, iV^ and the inare related in the following way:

Nc =

Nb Ti/Ts

+ + l

NijTi/Ta)

Ti/Ts+1

FIG. 4.

— PLANETARY. OR EPICYCLIC.

GEAR TRAIN

allowed to rotate about the central axis, iVj = A''^ = N^. Thus, with the three-element planetary system of fig. 4, the speed ratio obtained (4, 3, 4/3 or 1) depends on which element is It is this feature which makes planetary arrangements valuable in the automatic transmissions of automobiles. In these, the fixing and interconnecting of the members is accomphshed automatically by brakes and clutches.

fixed.

If Tj

=

60,

Tg

=

20,

and the internal gear

is

prevented from ro-

The number of ways in which the gears may be arranged in a planetary system is infinite. The planet gears may be compounded (i.e., have more than one gear on the same shaft) and mesh with other sun and internal gears. None of the gears may be fixed. In any two (including the arm) may be attached to input shafts and the remainder to output shafts. Speed ratios of 10,000 this case

are easily obtained in planetary transmissions. All of the gears shown in figs, i to 4 are used for connecting parallel shafts. fig. I

when

The shapes

are involutes

unwrapped from

2.

— TWO

shown

in

a taut string

Along a cylinder (fig. 5 [A] ). be either straight and parallel to the shafts, as in fig. 5(.\) or curved, as in fig. s(B). Gears with straight teeth are called spur gears, while those with curved teeth are called helical gears. The latter may be thought of as twisted spur gears, the teeth curving around the gear hke the threads on the string

is

their length, the teeth

FI6.

of the ends of the teeth

— the curve traced by any point on

GEAR PAIRS ARRANGED

IN

A

COMPOUND TRAIN

a screw.

may

GEARS

45

capacity

of the pair, the gear could be made to partially curve around the pinion in somewhat the same way that a nut envelops a The result would be a screw. worm and gear (fig. 8). It is also

possible

make worms

to

FIG.

5.

— GEAR

TEETH

the gear.

helical

produced as shown in fig. 6(A). This thrust load is ineffective in turning the shaft and results in an undesirable thrust load on the shaft bearings. This may be overcome by having the teeth slope in opposite directions on the two halves of the gear, as shown in figs. 6(B) and 6(C). On ships, for the transmission of power from high-speed turbines to low-speed propellor shafts, double helical gears are almost universally employed. Helical gears may also be used to connect nonintersecting shafts at any angle to one another. Fig. 7 shows an arrangement for connecting shafts inclined at 90°. This is the commonest angle for which such gears are used. If the helices sloped in the opposite direction to that shown, the lower shaft would rotate in the opis

posite direction.

When

the shafts are parallel, the contact between the teeth on is "line contact" regardless of whether the teeth are straight or helical. When the shafts are inclined, the contact becomes "point contact." For this reason crossed-axis helical gears

mating gears

when

the

power being transmitted

is

ever, they are relatively insensitive to misalignment

high.

How-

and are

fre-

quently employed in instruments and positioning mechanisms where friction is the only force opposing their motion. There is another aspect in which gears connecting parallel shafts When the shafts differ from those connecting nonparallel shafts. and only one pair of imaginary are parallel, there is always one friction disks which would transmit the power with the same speed The diameters of these disks are called the ratio as the gears. These diameters must be proporpitch diameters of the gears.

—

This results

Worm plest

gears provide the sim-

means

of

obtaining large

ratios in a single pair.

they are usually

However, than

less efficient

parallel-shaft gears because

when

the shafts are parallel there

is

a

movement up and down

sliding

the teeth only;

gears there

is

on crossed-axis

also a sliding

ment along the

move-

teeth.

On parallel-shaft gears,

the fric-

tion loss in each pair seldom ex-

ceeds

5%

of

power and on

transmitted

the

helical gears

it

may

be as low as 1%. The losses in worm gears may exceed 75% and are seldom less than 5%. They are greatly affected eter of the

CROSSED-AXIS

HELICAL

by the diam-

worm and

the

number

of threads, single thread

large diameter having the highest losses

(i.e.,

worms

of

the lowest efficien-

worm and gear is more than 50%, worm. With multiple-thread, hardened and ground steel worms meshing with bronze worm gears, efficiencies exceeding 50% are easily obtained, thus providing compact speed cies).

When

the efficiency of a

the gear can drive the

increasers that can be used for driving superchargers on aircraft engines.

—

For connecting shafts whose axes would intersect if extended, bevel gears are used. The pitch surfaces of bevel gears are frustums of cones, and the teeth,

tional to the numbers of teeth and fill the space between the shafts, and the gear teeth must be equally spaced on both gears. This spacing is known as the circular pitch and is equal to the circumference of the pitch circle divided by the number of teeth.

On

in a further

increase in load-carrying capacity.

On account of the overlapping action between the teeth, helical gears are less noisy in operation and have a higher load-carrying capacity than equivalent spur gears. If used singly, however, an

are never used

of

cylindrical, so that they envelop

(A) Straight or spur; (B)

axial thrust load

of an

instead

shape,

"hourglass"

which must be tapered, may be either straight or curved (fig. 9). Although curved-tooth bevel gears

crossed-axis helical gears the circular spacing of the teeth

are called spiral bevel gears, the

need not be the same on both gears of a pair. It follows that the pitch diameters need not be inversely proportional to the speeds. Consequently, if a large speed ratio is required on one this large ratio is more easily obtained pair of gears say, 100 when the shaft axes are crossed than when they are parallel. With parallel shafts, the pinion pitch diameter would have to be 1/100 of the gear pitch diameter, which is an impractical proportion. With crossed axes, the pinion could have only one heKcal tooth called a thread in this case and be as large as necessary for adequate strength. The pinion would look like a screw, and the gear would have 100 teeth. In order to achieve line contact and improve the load-carrying

curve of the teeth is usually a circular arc. The curvature of the teeth results in overlapping tooth action and creates less noise than straight bevel gears. Fdr the transmission of power at high speeds, spiral bevel gears are suWORM AND GEAR perior to straight bevel gears, just as helical gears are superior to spur gears for connecting parallel Spiral bevel gears are invaluable when power is being shafts. transmitted at an angle, as on helicopter transmissions. When adapted for use on shafts which do not intersect, spiral bevel gears are called hypoid gears (fig. 10). On automobiles they

—

—

(

)

are used to connect the engine drive shaft to the rear axles. offset permits lowering of the centre of gravity of the body.

some respects hypoid gears reThere is semble worm gears. more shding movement than on spiral bevel gears,

and the pitch

diameters are not inversely proportional to the speeds. This permits high-speed ratios, since the pinion may be made as large as necessary for adequate surface

FIG.

6.

— HELICAL

GEARS

(A) Single helical: (B) double helical: (C) herringbone

strength.

A

The In

GEBER—GECKO

46 An

interesting application of a planetary gear arrangement in-

corporating bevel gears is

The

in

the differential gears of an

ring gear, which

is

driven by the

fixed to the differential carrier

which carries

automobile (q.v.) rear drive shaft pinion,

found

is

axle.

Bevel pinions are carried on bearings in the carrier and mesh with bevel gears to which the axle shafts are the differential gears.

fixed.

On a straight road, the differential gears revolve as a unit, without meshing action, and the axles revolve as if they were fixed to the ring gear. When turning a corner, the outside wheel (and axle) must turn faster than the inside wheel, and the differential gears rotate relative to one another to permit this. If the angular speeds of the carrier, left axle shaft and right axle shaft are Nq,, iVj,. Ni^ and A'j{ respectively, it can be shown that 2Nq, = Nj^ If the rear wheels are jacked up, w-ith the engine stopped, then and A'l = If the left rear wheel is turned clockNc. wise, the right wheel will turn counterclockwise. Bevel gear differentials are extensively used in computing machines such as

+

HYPOID PINION FIG. 10.

adders.

If N^^

GEAR-AND-PINION DESIGNS

and A'r are the input speeds, Nq^ will represent one See also references under "Gears" in the Index

half of their sum.

volume.

(Ar. C.)

GEBER that were

is

the

among

name assumed by

the

most

influential

the author of several books

works on alchemy

(g.v.)

and

and 15th centuries. The name is a Latinized form of the Arabic name Jabir and was adopted because of the great reputation as an alchemist attributed to a certain metallurgj' during the 14th

Jabir ibn Hayyan, said to have flourished in the 8th century. There may have been an early Arabic alchemist of that name who wrote at least one of the books that bear his name, the Book of

Mercy.

However, the enormous number of works attributed to set at more than 2,000, aroused some doubts as to his existence even among some later Arab scholars. The studies of P. Kraus have shown that the name Jabir was used by writers of the Muslim sect of the Isma'iliya, a brotherhood that was greatly

him,

now

interested in mystical doctrines, astrology, alchemy, numerology

and cosmology. The books ascribed to Jabir apparently were written in the 9th and 10th centuries by a number of different authors. They included many works on alchemy that were based on the Aristotelian idea that matter was composed of four qualities: heat, cold, moisture and dryness. In the Jabirian corpus these qualities are given a more material character than they were by Aristotle; there is even a description of a process by which pure cold can be isolated.

somewhat quantitative approach was introduced by assuming that the various qualities were combined in definite numerical proportions in the substances with which the alchemist worked. The method of determining these proportions was based,

Some books

in the Jabirian

corpus de-

scribed practical laboratory procedures with elaborate classifications of mineral bodies. Other books were highly theoretical and

some of these, the theory that metals were composed mercury and sulfur was proposed for the first time. This theory later became very influential in alchemical thought and led finally mystical; in of

the time Arabic scientific

The Sum of Perfection or the Perfect Magistery, The Invention of Verity and the Book of Furnaces, were the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set of laboratory directions to appear before the 16th century. They were accordingly very widely read and were extremely influential in a field where mysticism and secrecy were the usual rule. In his theoretical views, Geber accepted most of the Arabic ideas and spread them through western Europe. He assumed the accuracy of the sulfur-mercury theory of metal composition and devoted much space to a description of metaUic properties in its terms. He believed in the truth of alchemy and explained the use of an elixir in transmuting base metals into gold. His rational approach, based on apparently valid theories, did much to give alchemy a firm and respectable position in Europe. At the same time, his practical directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is obvious that he was very familiar with many chemical operations. He described the purification of reagents, the preparation of mineral acids, the cupellation method for separating gold and silver, and the construction and use of many pieces of laboratory apparatus, especially furnaces. Although his books certainly owe much to the ideas developed among the Arab alchemists, they are not translations of any known Arabic work. They represent one of the early products of the new learning in Europe and were not equaled in their field until the writings of Vannoccio Biringuccio, Georgius Agricola and Lazarus Ercker in the 16th century. Perfection,

Bibliography. E. J. Holmyard, "An Essay on Jabir ibn Hayyan," Studien zur Geschichte der Chemie. Feslgabe fiir E. 0, von Lippmann (1927), (ed.), The Works oj Geber, Englished by Richard Russell, 1678 (1928) P. Kraus, Jabir ibn Hayyan. Contribution a I'histoire des idees scientifiques dans I'Islam, 2 vol. (1942-43) H. M. Leicester, The Historical Background of Chemistry, pp. 63-68, 85-86 (1956). (H. M. L.) ;

;

GEBHARD

(Gebhaijd Truchsess von Waldburg) (1547-

1601 ), archbishop-elector of Cologne from 1577 to 1584, was born on Nov.- 10. 1547, of a south German family, his uncle Otto being a cardinal and bishop of Augsburg. A canon of Cologne cathedral from 1561, Gebhard was elected archbishop in 1577 by a narrow majority of votes against the Wittelsbach candidate, Ernest of Bavaria. He had himself consecrated priest in 1578, accepted the creed of the Council of Trent and zealously promoted the Jesuits From in Cologne; his election was confirmed by the pope in 1580. c. 1580, however, he pursued a liaison with the canoness Agnes

von Mansfeld,

whom

he finally resolved to marry.

Adopting

Protestantism, he married his mistress in 1583, but refused to give up his electorate. He found support only in his duchy of Westphalia (attached to the electorate of Cologne), from the counts of the Wetterau district and from John Casimir, the count Palatine his opponents, who proceeded to elect Ernest of Bavaria as archbishop, obtained the help of Bavaria and Spain. The ensuing Cologne War devastated the electorate of Cologne. Geb;

hard, despite occasional successes, was at a disadvantage from

and after the loss of his capital, Bonn, in 1584 he retired whence he continued guerrilla warfare for some time. In 1589jie withdrew to Strasbourg, where he died on the

first;

to the Netherlands,

May

A

however, on numerology.

By

—

SPIRAL BEVEL PINION

—SPECIAL

theory of Georg Stahl in the 18th century. works began to be translated into Latin in the 11th to 13th centuries, the existence of Jabir had been accepted by almost everyone. Thus, when an author who was probably a practising Spanish alchemist began to write about 1310, he adopted the westernized form of the name, Geber, to give added authority to his work. His four books. The Investigation of to the phlogiston

31, 1601.

(Eh. W.) M. Lessen, Der kolnische Krieg, 2 vol. (1882-97). The names is any lizard of the family Gekkonidae. gecko, tokay and cheechak are based on the calls of various species. See

GECKO

They

are small, usually nocturnal reptiles, rarely over six inches

with a soft skin, a short, stout body, large head and weak limbs often equipped with suction-padded digits. Most geckos lack movable eyelids, the eyes, usually large and prominent, being protected by a transparent covering, probably a modified nictitating membrane. The family is cosmopolitan in distribution, occurin length,

ring

everywhere

in

warmer

climates, even

on the remotest oceanic

GED—GEDIMINAS islands,

and

is

adapted to very diverse habitats.

All species are

insectivorous.

Most geckos have the digits modified for climbing; the fingers and toes are dilated either terminally or at their bases and the lower surface of the dilation is covered with transverse plates whose arrangement is diverse in the various genera; each plate is beset with numerous tiny, hairlike processes that give the whole surface a velvety appearance. When the feet are placed on any suraccommodates

itself to the slightest irreguout from between the hairs; the resulting vacuum gives sufficient adhesion to enable many species to climb absolutely smooth and vertical surfaces and even to run across a whitewashed ceiling or glass

face the velvety pile

larities

and pressure forces the

air

surfaces.

in

1918 he did scenic designs

designed, produced or directed

operas, films, plays and musical comedies.

included those for

Often the tail is peculiar in shape; it be long and tapering or short and blunt, or even globular; in one species

Max

;

(Gymnodactylus platyurus) it is leafIt seems highly probable that in NORTH AFRICAN GECKO many instances, particularly where it is (TARENTOLA MAURITAlarge and globular, the tail serves as a NICA) storehouse of reserve nutriment on which the animal can draw during unfavourable conditions. The tail is extremely fragile and if detached is quickly regenerated, the new one having roughly the same shape and scale pattern as the original. As a rule the skin is soft and delicate, and covered with minute shaped.

granules; frequently there are large tubercles intermixed with the Teratosciticus, a western Asiatic desert dweller, has granules. developed large, overlapping smooth scales, that enable it to slip of friction.

He

His sets Reinhardt's The Miracle (1924); Jeanne d'Arc, produced in Paris with Eva Le GaUienne (192S) and Dead End (193s), which were said at the time to have been "more convincing than reality." He changed the whole artistic concept of

some 200

may

minimum

New York

for the Metropolitan Opera.

into the loose sand.

-through 'the sand with the

In

Little theatre in 1916.

but the toes are webbed to their extremities to enable the animal to walk over and

burrow

and the Oxford Military college, he went to the United States at 17 and worked in lumber camps, in steel mills and on railways. He also worked on railways in India before returning to England During World in 1906 to join the North Eastern Railway Co. War I Geddes, under Lloyd George as minister of munitions, held several posts in which he brought the British lines of communicaIn 191 7 he was tion in France to a high standard of efficiency. elected to parliament for the borough of Cambridge and appointed first lord of the admiralty, and in 1919 he became the first minister Geddes' best-known work was as chairman of the of transport. committee on national expenditure, its suggested measures of widespread economy in the nation's finances being called the Geddes axe. In 1922 he left parliament to resume a business career. He died at Hassocks. Sussex, on June 22, 1937. BEL (1893-1958), U.S. designer, GEDDES, particularly influential in the development of theatrical and inFoldustrial design, was born in Adrian, Mich., April 27, 1893. lowing brief study at the Cleveland Institute of Art and the Art Institute of Chicago, he became interested in the theatre and staged his own first play, Nju, and five others for the Los Angeles

NORMAN

Claws are well developed in most speand in a few are provided with a special sheath into which they are retracThe most remarkable modification of tile. the feet is found in the genus Palmatogecko from the deserts of central South-West Africa; they have no adhesive apparatus cies

partially

47

Colours as a rule

browns and dirty whites predominating, though one genus, Phelsuma, of Madagascar, comprises the bright green

are drab, grays,

day-active geckos. Although these curious looking lizards are completely inoffensive, in many regions they have been erroneously regarded as being

from the ornamental to the clean, functional effect the audience would "not be conscious of any scenery or background other than the mood in which the characters of the play should move." Toward the end of the 1920s he adapted his ideas to the area of industrial design, gradually building an organi-

scenic design

— that

zation that

employed

2,000,

and designed such a variety of things and refrigerators.

as skyscrapers, inkwells, .yachts, radios, interiors

did as much as any U.S. designer to popularize "streamlining" He designed the General as a style of industrial design (q.v.). Motors Futurama building and exhibit at the New York world's

He

(1939-40), which drew greater crowds than any other exGeddes also designed theatres all over the world, staged circuses, developed equipment and techniques for the armed services and wrote books on a number of subjects. He died on May 8, 1958, in New York city. One of his daughters, Barbara Bel Ged(Cd. Bn.) des, gained fame as an actress. fair

hibit.

ventor of stereotyping, was born in Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he perfected a system by which printing plates could be cast from type forms but, not being able to interest Edinburgh printers in his venture, he entered into partnership with William Fenner, a London stationer, and Thomas James, a typefounder. They obtained

GEDDES, SIR PATRICK (1854-1932), British biologist and sociologist whose pioneer studies of the development of contemporary human communities, an outcome of his biological research, influenced civic and regional planning, was born at Ballater, He trained in biology in London, under Scot., on Oct. 2, 1854. T. H. Huxley, and in France, becoming professor of botany at University college, Dundee, Scot., in 1883 and professor of sociology and civics at Bombay university, India, in 1919. His chief biological work stresses the importance of the role of sex in evoluIn sociology his originality is shown by his thesis, based tion. upon surveys in Scotland, India, Palestine and elsewhere, that the development of human communities presents essentially biological problems whose solutions depend first upon diagnosing the complex interactions between people, their environments and their His works include The Evolution of Sex (with J. A. activities. Thomson, 1900), City Development (1904) and Cities in Evolu-

from Cambridge university the privilege of printing Bibles and

tion (1913).

poisonous, probably from their weird and forbidding appearance. They are actually exceedingly useful because of their insect-eating habit.

Many species have a voice, the call differing with the species and ranging from a feeble click or chirp to a shrill cackle or bark. All species are oviparous, the eggs being white, hard-shelled and usually laid beneath the bark of trees or attached to the under side of (H. W. P.; X.) leaves. See Lizard. (1690-1749), Scottish goldsmith, the inGED,

WILLIAM

prayer books by Ged's method, but the partnership was undermined by the typefounder and the process hindered by compositors who saw in it a threat to their trades. Ged returned to Edinburgh where he died on Oct. 19, 1749. A Cambridge prayer book was possibly printed from Ged's plates and certainly an edition of SalHis sons briefly carried on the process but lust in Edinburgh. eventually

it

was abandoned

until taken

up by others

century.

GEDDES, SIR ERIC CAMPBELL

(J-

later in the

C.

Mn.)

(1875-1937), British businessman and administrator remembered for his reforms in economy known as the "Geddes axe," was born at Agra, India, on Sept. 26, 1875. Educated at Merchiston Castle school, Edinburgh,

Geddes died

at Montpellier, France,

on April

17, 1932.

See A. D. Peacock, "Patrick Geddes: Biologist," Alumnus Chronicle, P. Mairet, Pioneer of Sociology: Life and Letters St Andrews (1955) (A. D. P.) of Patrick Geddes (1957). ;

GEDIMINAS

1341), grand duke of Lithuania in the history of that country, succeeded his brother Vytenis in 1316 and started the Gediminas dynasty. In contemporary documents he was described as "king of the Lithuanians" or "king of Lithuania and Russia." His domain comprised not only Lithuania proper and Samogitia, but also Volhynia, northwestern Ukraine and Belorussia to the Dnieper. (c.

1275-c.

and one of the wisest statesmen

The

principalities

of

Kiev,

Pskov

and

Novgorod were

for

GEEL—GEERTGEN

48 some time under

Gediminas extended the eastern his protection. and southern frontiers of Lithuania not by war but through careful diplomacy and through the marriages of his sons and daughters. He became the strongest ruler of eastern Europe and, through his diplomacy, balanced the growing influence of the duchy of Muscovy

northern Russia. the west and north, Lithuania was threatened by the Teutonic Order and the Livonian Knights of the Sword under the pretext of converting it to Christianity. After conquering the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights continually attacked the lower Nemunas (Niemen) area, but they did not succeed in occupying Gediminas began negotiating directly with the Holy Lithuania. See. At the end of 1322 he wrote to Pope John XXH, soliciting his protection against the knights, informing him of the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in Lithuania and desiring that legates should be sent to receive him also into the church. In Oct. 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, the bishop of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and Franciscan orders and the grand master of the Teutonic Order assembled at Vilnius, where Gediminas confirmed his promises and undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived. A compact was then signed at Vilnius confirming the promised priviin

From

leges.

But the christianizing of Lithuania was by no means to the liking and they strove to nullify Gediminas' designs. Gediminas' chief object was to save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans. But he was still a pagan ruling over semipagan lands; he was equally bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his Orthodox subjects in Russia and to his Catholic allies in Mazovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and ambiguous. Thus his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the Teutonic Knights on Polish soil, gave them a weapon against him. The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a sjmod at Elblag (Elbing) denounced Gediminas as an enemy of the faith; his Orthodox subjects reproached him with leaning toward the Latins; while the pagan Lithuanians accused him of abandoning the ancient gods. Gediminas then repudiated his former promises; he refused to receive the papal legates who arrived in Riga in Sept. 1323 and dismissed of the Teutonic Knights

the Franciscans.

Gediminas saw that the pagan element was still the strongest force in Lithuania and could not be dispensed with in the coming struggle for nationality. Through his ambassador he informed the papal legates in Riga that his difticult position compelled

him

postpone his own baptism, and the legates showed their confidence in him by forbidding the neighbour states to make war to

against Lithuania for the next four years, besides ratifying the treaty made between Gediminas and the archbishop of Riga.

Nevertheless in 1325 the Teutonic Order, disregarding the censures of the church, resumed the war with Gediminas, who in the same year by the marriage of his daughter Aldona to Casimir, son of

Wladyslaw Lokietek, king of Poland, had improved

his

own

posi-

tion.

were accommodated in the Sleckenkaemer built against the wall of the church. As the crowds became too large for this, they were lodged in the houses of the inhabitants. In 1850 this rehgiousmunicipal system became a government institution. (A. L. V.) GEELONG, the second largest city and port of Victoria, Austr., is situated on a landlocked part of Port Phillip inlet, known as Corio bay, 45 mi. S.W. of Melbourne by rail. Pop. (1961) 91,777 urban area). Geelong is an important rail junction and is also linked with Melbourne by the Prince's highway. It expanded rapidly after World War II. The city is an educational centre with a large modern library that opened in the civic centre in 1959. In the early 1960s it had the only textile college in Australasia. Industries include the manufacture of motorcars, auto castings, safety glass, woolen textiles, cement, phosphatic fertilizers, agricultural machinery, rope and cordage, and spirits. Salt is produced by evaporation, and oil is refined. Geelong is the outlet for the wool-growing area in the state's Western district, and about one-tenth of Australia's wool clip is sold at the wool sales there. The port, which ranks fifth in total trade in Australia, is the terminal for the bulk handling of wheat in Victoria. Ships of 34 ft. draft can be accommodated at low water and there are many all-weather berths. Geelong is a tourist centre and a number of nearby seaside resorts have surfing beaches, including Lome, Anglesea, Torquay. Barwon Heads, Point Lonsdale and Queens(

cliffe.

DIRK JAN DE

(1S70-1960), Dutch conservative GEER, statesman who defected from Queen Wilhelmina's London government in World War II, was born in Groningen on Dec. 14, 1S70. He graduated as doctor in law from the University of Utrecht in 1895 and started his career as parliamentary editor of a newspaper. Entering politics, he became a town councilor of Rotterdam (190107) and later a Christian Historical member of the lower chamber (1907-21"). From 1921 to 1923 he served as minister of finance, from 1925 to 1926 as minister of the interior and from March 8, 1926, to July 3, 1929, as prime minister and minister of finance. In 1953 he was appointed as minister of state. Having formed a coalition government on Aug. 9, 1939, he was in charge at the time of the German invasion in May 1940 and moved to London with Queen Wilhelmina. After the collapse of France he visited Winston Churchill to propose his mediation of a negotiated peace with Germany. This proposal, based on his long-standing ideas of conciliation in law and politics, was strongly disavowed by Queen Wilhelmina and his fellow ministers, and on Sept. 3, 1940, De Geer resigned. Then, entrusted with a mission to the Dutch East Indies, for which he gave a signed assurance of loyalty, he broke his trust on his way at Lisbon, in Jan. 1941, and went via Beriin to The Hague. For this, on May 23. 1947, he was sentenced to a fine of 20,000 guilders and one year's imprisonment; the latter part of the sentence was suspended because of his age. He died at Soest on

Nov.

His internal administration bears

marks of a wise ruler. the Orthodox clergy, encourag-

He

all

the

protected the Roman as well as them both to civilize his subjects; he raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state of efficiency then attainable; defended his borders with a chain of strong fortresses; and built numerous towns including Vilnius, the capital. Gediminas died in the winter of 1341-42. Married three times, he left seven sons and six daughters. Bibliography. V. B. Antonovich, Ocherk istorii Velikogo Knviazhestva Lilovskogo (1878); J. Jakstas, Vokieciij Ordinas ir Lietuva Vyienio ir Gedimino metu. Senove, i-ii (1936-37); H. Faszkiewicz, Jagieltonowie a Moskwa (1933) and The Origin of Russia (1954). (Ma. G.) (Gheel), a large village of Belgium, situated 26 mi. E. of Antwerp, in the province of Antwerp. Pop. 1961 est.) 26,611. Geel is served by railroad, canals and highways and has some small industries tiles, concrete wares, flour mills, brewery and cigar factories). Geel is famous for its unique system of family care of the mentally ill. Legend associates this with the Irish ing

—

GEEL

(

I

St.

century and around whose tomb miracles soon happened, always in connection with insane persons. A church was built in St. Dympna's honour, and the insane who came to Geel to implore recovery

Dympna, who was beheaded

there

by her father

in the 7th

(F.

28, 1960.

GEERTGEN, TOT SINT JANS

(c.

de

l46S-c. 1493).

painter active in Haarlem, one of the most interesting

J.)

Dutch Dutch

century and important as representing a school works have survived destruction. He was surnamed "tot Sint Jans," as he lived with the knights of St. John at Haarlem. According to K. van Mander, the authority on his life, he was a pupil of Ouwater at Haarlem. Neither the year of his birth nor of his death is known, but only that he was 28 years old when he died. Geertgen painted a large triptych for the high altar of the knights of St. John. The central panel with the Crucifixion and one of the wings were destroyed in religious skirmishes; but the other wing has been identified with the aid of Van Mander's description. This wing is now in the \'ienna gallery, sliced into two separate panels, front and back. The front represents the dead Christ being mourned by His friends. The pathos of the scene is expressed with deep feeling. The influence of Rogier van der Weyden is seen in the Magdalen wringing her hands. In the background is a realistic burial scene on Mount Calvary. Here the artist broke away from the traditional symboUartists of the 15th

of w'hich very few

GEEZ—GEIGER

49 a region of the solar system opposite the sun and,

cal assemblage of emblematic figures on the altarpieces of his time and felt his way toward the more vivid and dramatic style of the

terial located in

next generation of Dutch painters. The same is true of the other panel (the back of the wing) on which the emperor Julian the Apostate is directing the burial of In the mid-distance of this the bones of St. John the Baptist. panel is an admirable group of portraits of the knights of St.

counter-sun direction

John

at

Haarlem among whom the

artist lived.

They

are lifeUke

therefore, outside the earth's orbit.

The enhanced

intensity in the

may

be attributed to an increase in the concentration of particles in that direction, to an increased reflecting efficiency for direct back reflection or perhaps to a combination of (F. E. R.) these two causes. in Jewish thought of the New Testament period, was the place set aside for the punishment of the wicked, both

GEHENNA,

maximum

months and those doomed

seem to presage those great democratic portrait groups famous in Dutch paintings of the 17th

those condemned for a to everlasting torment.

century.

and the furnace of hell [Lat. gehenna] shall be disclosed" (Ezra Apocalypse vii, [36]). Some references in the Mishnah are Aiduyoth 6; Aboth 1,5; Rosh Hashono 16. See Hell.

studies of individual characters and

A number Among

these

of pictures are ascribed to him on stylistic grounds. is the "St. John the Baptist" of the Berlin museum,

where the pensive saint In the same collection

sitting in beautiful parklike scenery. "Virgin and Child." The Louvre con-

is

is

tains the "Resurrection of Lazarus," the

Amsterdam museum, "The

Kindred" and the "Adoration of the Magi." The "Man of Sorrows" at Utrecht is a painful but wonderful picture; a triptych at Prague represents the "Adoration of the Magi" in the centre and "Donors and Saints" on the wings. It is distinguished for the original conception of some of its figures and for its animated background. The National gallery, London, has one of It represents "Nativity," a night his most attractive pictures. One of the scene, remarkable for its rendering of chiaroscuro. most striking of Geertgen's achievements is his harmonious fusion Virgin's

of the elements of the landscape.

Bibliography.

—L.

Baldass, Geertgen van

Haarlem (1921)

M.

;

J.

Friedlander, Die altniederldndische Malerei, V, G. van Haarlem und Hieronymus Bosch (1927) J. H. H. Kessler, Geertgen lot St. Jans (1930). (J. Fe.) ;

GEEZ

the language of an ancient nomadic Semitic race of See Ethiopian Literature; Semitic Languages. (1826-1903), German anatomist, was born on Aug. 21, 1826, at Wiirzburg and was educated at the university there. In 1855 he was appointed professor of anatomy at Jena, and in 1873 at Heidelberg, where he was also director of the Anatomical institute until 1901. In his best-known work, Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomic (1874, Eng. trans. 1878), Gegenbaur laid stress on the high value of comparative anatomy as the basis of the study of homologies. is

Ethiopia.

GEGENBAUR, KARL

A

by him in 187 1 in supplementing the evidence adduced by Thomas Huxley in refutation of the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae. Huxley demonstrated that the skull is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that "in the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain box, and that in higher forms distinctive piece of

work was

effected

the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since

many

of the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin."

In 1875 he founded the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, which he many years. In 1901 he published a short autobiography under the title Erlebtes utid Erstrebtes. Gegenbaur died at Heidel-

edited for

berg on June

14, 1903.

See M. Fiirbringer, "Karl Gegenbaur," in Heidelberger Professoren aus dem igten Jahrhtmdert (1903).

GEGENSCHEIN

(or

Counterglow)

is

a slightly oval patch

of faint luminosity just opposite the sun in the night sky.

As the

apparent annual path among the stars, the gegenschein moves along the ecliptic, always in the region where the sun was six months earlier or will be six months later. The patch of light is so faint that it can be seen only in the absence of moonlight, away from city lights and with the eyes adapted to darkness. Most observers use averted vision in order to utilize the peripheral regions of the retina which are relatively sensitive to very faint light. The gegenschein is lost in the light of the Milky Way in the summer and winter. The best observing periods are February, March, April and August, September, October. The gegenschein and the zodiacal light (q.v.) form a continuous band of light along the ecliptic. The spectrum of the gegenschein sun moves

in its

similar to that of the sun, and it is generally believed that the result of the back reflection of sunlight from meteoric

is

it is

ma-

"Then

of 12

the pit of torment shall appear,

.

.

.

(FRANZ) EMANUEL

(1815-1884), German GEIBEL, poet and dramatist, the head of the Munich group of formalist poets (which the king gathered round him, including Paul Heyse [^q.v.']), was born at Liibeck on Oct. 17, 1815, the son of a Protestant pastor. He studied theology and then classical philology at Bonn and Berlin, and from- 1838 to 1840 was a tutor in Athens. After much traveling he returned to Liibeck and taught at the Gymnasium, until in 1852 Maximilian II called him to Munich as professor of German literature and aesthetics. In 1868 Maximilian's successor dismissed him because of his incautious support for Prussian hegemony; and he spent the rest of his life at Liibeck, the pension of 300 talers which had been granted by the king of Prussia in 1843 then being increased to 1,000 talers. He died at Liibeck on April 6, 1884. Geibel was, in both politics and literature, a conservative. He enjoyed great popularity and his Gedichte (1840) ran to 100 editions during his lifetime; but his lyrics, despite occasional meHis lodic feUcities, now appear derivative and overdecorative. patriotic poems {Heroldsriije, 1871) are declamatory and vague and of his many plays only the comedy Meister Andrea (1855) retains an appeal. His conscientious workmanship appears to greater advantage in his translations, Spanisches Liederbuch ( 1852, with Paul Heyse), made famous by the musical settings of Hugo Wolf, Fiinj Biicher Franzosischer Lyrik (1862, with H. Leuthold) and Klassisches Liederbuch (1875). Bibliography, Gesammelte Werke, 8 vol. (1883-84). Of selections See also that by W. Stammler, 3 vol. (1920) may be mentioned.

—

C. C. T. Litzmann, E. Geibel (1887) K. Goedeke, E. Geibel (1869) K. T. Gaedertz, E. Geibel (1897) A. Kohut, Geibel als Mensch und Dichter (1915) E. Stemplinger, Der Miinchner Kreis (1933). (G. T. Hu.) ;

;

;

;

GEIGER,

ABRAHAM

(1810-1874), Jewish theologian and in Germany, was born at Frankfurt am Main on May 24, 1810, and educated at the uniIn 1832 he went to Wiesbaden versities of Heidelberg and Bonn. as rabbi of the synagogue, and in 1835 helped to found, and thereafter edited, the Zeitschrijt fur judische Theologie. From 1838 to 1863 he lived in Breslau (being after 1843 first rabbi), where he organized the Reform movement in Judaism and wrote some of his most important works. These include Lehr-and Lescbuch zur orientalist, a leader in the

Reform movement

Sprache der Mischna (1845), a translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), and Urschrift und Vbersetzungen der Bibel in Hirer Abhdngigkeit von der innern Entwicklung des Jtidentums (1857). In 1863 Geiger became head of the synagogue of Frankfurt, and in 1870 he moved to Berlin, where he took the principal charge of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. His later works included a history of Judaism, Das Judentum und seine Geschichte (1865-71). He died on Oct. 23, 1874, at Berlin.

See the memorial volume, Abraham Geiger, Leben und Lebenswerk, prepared by his son Ludwig Geiger in collaboration with others on the looth anniversary of his birth (1910).

THEODOR

(1891-1952), German sociologist, GEIGER, outstanding for his studies of social stratification, was born in Munich on Nov. 9, 1891, and received his early training in law and The upheavals of the 1920s in Germany led him to statistics. inquiries into mass behaviour and the sociology of political movements but the coming to power of the Nazi party in 1933 drove him into exile in Denmark. After some years in Copenhagen, he was appointed to the first chair in sociology in the country in the

;

GEIJER—GEISLINGEN AN DER STEIGE

50 University of Aarhus.

During the German occupation of Den-

World War

II he again lived in exile, in Sweden, returning to Aarhus in 1945. He then began a series of studies in social stratification and social mobility, culminating in a detailed

mark

in

work on the social origins of the population of Aarhus. Through UNESCO and the International Sociological association, of which he was a founder member, such studies led him to cross-national comparisons in this field. He died on June 19, 1952, at sea while returning from a visiting professorship in the University of Toronto. His principal works include Die Masse und ihre Aktion (1926), Die Soziale Schichtung des deutschen Volkes (1932) and Soziale Umschichtungen in einer ddnischen Mittelstadt (1951). (J.

GEIJER, ERIK

GUSTAF

My.)

(1783-1847), Swedish historian,

poet and philosopher, the inspiration of the national movement after the political upheavals in i8og, and of liberal thinking in the 1840s, was bom Jan. 12, 1783, at Ransater, Varmland. His father owned a foundry and the home was musical and sociable. A happy childhood instilled in Geijer an independence and harmony which

Another important influence was a life. England (1809-10). There he listened to parliamentary debates, through which he gained insight into the political life of a great state, and was impressed by the spirit of national unity and freedom. A collection of his diaries and letters was published as Geijer i England, 180Q-10 (1914; Eng. trans. 1932). Geijer continued to follow political and industrial developments in England in British journals, among them The Edi?iburgh Review, and events there were partly responsible for his famous "defection" in 1838, when, having long been the leading theorist of SwedThe political ish conservatism, he went over to the liberal camp. defeat which Sweden suffered in i8og through the loss of Finland to Russia had led him to abandon his earlier liberalism for nationalism. In 181 1 he was one of the founders of the Gotiska jorbundet, which aimed at furthering a deeper national feeling through He contributed to its journal Iduna (1811) a historical studies. number of famous poems on national themes, e.g., "Vikingen " and "Odalbonden" ("The Yeoman"). In 1817 Geijer became professor of history at Uppsala. His main historical works are Svea Rikes Havder (1825) and Svenska he retained throughout year's stay in

jolkets historia (3 vol., 1832-36; Eng. trans., abridged, 1845). Geijer's historical writings are objective, sparing in comment, and

show both

and

a grasp of each period's special problems

a sense

of the inner continuity of Swedish history in the context of events

Europe.

in

.

In the posthumously published philosophical

Man-

assistant on the geological survey, under Sir Roderick Murchison. In 1865 he was elected fellow of the Royal society and when a separate branch of the Geological Survey was established for Scotland in 1867 he became director. Geikie was the first holder (1871-82) of the Murchison professorship of geology and mineralogy at Edinburgh. He was a man of great energy, wide interests and vision, gifts which were employed both in his ad-

became an

ministrative posts and in his writings.

From 1882

until

he retired in 1901 he held the joint

was president of the Geological society of London

Nov.

10, 1924.

In addition to many papers, memoirs, essays remained in general use: 1901); Life of Sir R. I.

pubhshed as speciaUst and maps, his best-known works have The Scenery of Scotland (1865, 3rd ed. Murchison, two volumes (1875); TextBook of Geology (1882, 4th edition in two volumes 1903); The Founders of Geology, lectures at Hopkins university (1897, 2nd ed. 1905); The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, two volumes (1897); Outlines of Field Geology (1876, 5th ed. 1900). detailed studies

(W. B.Ha.)

GEILER VON KAISERSBERG, JOHANN

( 1445-1 5 10) "the German Savonarola," noted as an exceptionally forceful and impressive preacher, was bom at Schaffhausen on March 16, 1445, but in 1448 went to live at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace. He studied at Freiburg university, where he afterward lectured until 1478, when he accepted a call to fill an ofiice as preacher, created for him,

There

at the cathedral of Strasbourg.

his

bourg on March

GEISHA,

the

whose occupation

Un Rejormateur

name is

catholique a la fin du

parties in public restaurants (ryori-ya).

means "art-person," and many

of the

poetry.

Some own

set to his

by

edition of Geijer's works

is

that edited

—

;

;

x,

GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD

dance or play

musical instruments, but the majority are merely adept in the art of conversation. The main function of the geisha in society is to exquisitely dressed, delicately

The women are usually mannered and have a knowledge not

actors),

J. Landquist, 13 vol. (1923-31). Bibliography. A. Blanck's introduction to Geijer i England (1914) C. A. Hessler, Geijer som poliliker, 2 vol. (1937 and 1947) E. Norberg, Geijer's vdg frdn romantik till realism (1944) J. Landquist, Geijer. En tevnadsteckning (1954); Geijer-sludier, vol., published by the Geijer

society (i9i;i-s8).

geisha literally

of his

belong to the masterpieces of Swedish verse, expressing the feelings of a farmer, a wanderer and a seeker after truth. They were printed in his collected works (1849-55). Geijer died at Stockholm, April 23, 1847.

The most comprehensive

sing,

music,

oppression re-

which followed Geijer's break with conservative

new flowering of his lyric poems written between 1838 and 1841, and

The word

women

The its elegance but of contemporary gossip. form of indentured labour, although some girls, Usually, a girl attracted by the glamour of the life, volunteer. at an early age is given by her parents for a sum of money to an organization. She is taught, trained, fed and clothed for a period of years. Then she emerges into the society (known as karyukai, the "world of flowers and willows") and begins earning money to repay her parents' debt and her past keep. Inadequate geisha may be hired for the equivalent of a few dollars an hour, while famous ones can command as much as several hundred dollars for a single dance. Geisha are often associated with the theatre (m.any marry

it.

isolation

siecle

of a professional class of women in Japan men, particularly at businessmen's

geisha system

The

XV'

to entertain

only of the past and

his ideas

friends led to a

bold, incisive,

10, 1510.

See L. Dacheux, (1876).

on the unpredictability of events and individual responsibility in historical development are echoed in Isaiah Berlin's Historical Inevitability (1954). Geijer developed these ideas in his "philosophy of personality," based on the principle of reciprocity; the "I" and "Thou" develop through reciprocal influence. This led to the conclusior that only in a free community can the stricts

—

—

reveal kinship with Henri Bergson's philosophy of half a century-

social character of the individual fully develop;

sermons

denunciatory, abounding in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no means confined to the Bible won for him a wide fame. Although he was much interested in reform, there is no evidence that he ever considered leaving the church. Geiler died at Stras-

provide an atmosphere of chic and gaiety.

and

1891-92 and

in

again in 1906-08, of the British association in 1892, and of the Royal society in 1908-13. He was knighted in 1891 and received the Order of Merit in 1914. He died near Haslemere, Surrey, on

niskans historia (1856), Geijer interprets historical events as a combination of tradition and creation. His reflections on creation later,

oflnces of

director-general of the geological survey of the United Kingdom and director of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Geikie

(J. Lt.)

(1835-1924), notable Scottish geologist, was born at Edinburgh on Dec. 28, 1835. He was educated at the high school and University of Edinburgh, and in 1855

is

a

and plays frequently dramatize a geisha as a heroine. WTien a geisha marries, she retires from the profession. If geisha do not marry, they usually retire as restaurant owners, teachers of (F. Bs.) music or dance, or trainers of vounger geisha. STEIGE, a town of Germany GEISLINGEN which after partition of the nation following World War 11 was located in the Land state of Baden-Wiirttemberg. Federal Re-

AN DER {

)

Germany, is situated in five valleys in the wooded hills of the Swabian Jura. Pop. (1961) 25,844. Geislingen is a rail junction and manufactures foundrj' products, machinery, silverware, cutlery, tableware, glass and wood products; there are also craft industries. The town's 14th-centur>' houses and late Gothic church stand near modern schools, industrial buildings and houses. Geislingen was founded and chartered in the 13th century. (I.V.-B.) public of

GEL—GELATIN gel is an elastic coherent mass consisting of a liquid which ultramicroscopic particles are either dispersed or arranged in a fine network extending throughout the mass. The

GEL. A

in

be, for example, large molecules, such as proteins; such as bentonite; or polymer particles, such as crystals, small or polystyrene. Gels swell in suitable liquids. Depending on the gel particles

may

and on the

liquid, the swelling (that

ume) may be minute or very

large.

is,

the increase in gel vol-

Extensive swelling results in

The a gradual transformation of the gel into a colloidal solution. rheological properties of a gel vary between those of a viscous or and those of

elastic liquid

into very fluid

Some gels can be transformed

a solid.

solutions

colloidal

by

heat.

Others,

known

as

thixotropic gels, can be liquefied by mechanical action. Removal of the liquid phase, e.g., by evaporation, leads to xerogels. Xerogels are often called aerogels

if

the air-filled capillaries crisscross-

For a clearer distinction ing the system are numerous and wide. between gel and xerogel, the presence of liquid in the former may be emphasized by use of the term lyogel instead of the term gel.

may

be used instead, if, in addiGelatin forms typical tion, the type of liquid is of interest. Dry silicagel is a typical xerogel. The term gel is also lyogels. used even when it may not be certain whether a second phase such as air or a liquid is present in the system prior to swelling. A typical gel of this type is rubber. The ability of such systems

The terms hydrogel,

alcogel, etc.,

to swell extensively and to change to typical lyogels in the course properties of swelling, and, in addition, their characteristic elastic gels. are considered a sufl&cient justification to classify them as Precipitates from colloidal solutions are also occasionally called

This usage

gels.

is

not recommended since the precipitates do not

form a coherent mass. If the individual units of a precipitate conform to the definition of a gel, each unit may be called a microgel. A microgel may represent an aggregate of colloidal par(Wi. H.) ticles or a cross-linked complex of macromolecules.

town on the south coast of Sicily in the province of is situated 78 km. (49 mi.) E.S.E. of Agrigento by Pop. (1957' est.) 50,254 (commune). The modern town road. stands on a sand hill near the sea, with a fertile plain (the ancient

GELA,

a

Caltanissetta,

In World War II Gela was one of the initial landing (A. W. V. B.) objectives in the Allied invasion of Sicily. a large baboonlike animal, Theropithecus gelada, differing from the true baboons (q.v.) by the nostrils being situuntil 1928.

GELADA,

ated some distance from the tip of the muzzle. The gelada, sometimes called lion baboon, resembles the Arabian or hamadryas baboon in having a heavy mantle of long blackish-brown hair covering the forequarters of the old males, but differs in having the chest and buttocks bare and bright pink. The gelada inhabits the

mountains of southern Ethiopia, where it lives in the steep cliffs of rocky ravines. It seldom climbs trees, preferring to forage for See also leaves, roots and tubers^^on open ground. its food Primates. GELASIUS, the name of two popes. St. Gelasius I (d. 496), pope from 492 to 496, succeeded Felix III in March 492. The date and place of his birth are not known, though it is probable that he was born a Roman citizen in Africa. His pontificate was devoted mainly to combating the Acacian

—

schism which had arisen in the east during the patriarchate of Acacius (471-489) as a result of the Roman see's refusal to accept the Henoticon, a peace formula designed by the emperor Zeno to During this long reconcile the dissident Monophysites (q.v.). bitter struggle with the Eastern Church, Gelasius maintained openly and firmly the primacy of jurisdiction and the apostolic This difficult contest, though not settle_d origin of the papacy. during his pontificate, earned him the distinction of being one of the great architects of the Roman primacy. His writings, which show clearly the influence of Augustine and Leo I, include various decrees, six theological treatises and some 60 letters, of which the most celebrated is the letter addressed to Anastasius I in 494, in

which Gelasius sets forth his understanding of the relation of the church to the empire: "There are two powers by which this world and the is chiefly ruled: the sacred authority of the priesthood authority of kings." Gelasius' doctrine that both sacred and civil

power are of divine origin and independent, each in its own sphere, time and is the most progressive thinking on this subject up to that taken had formula Gelasian the If afterward. centuries many for

The ancient

firm root in Christian tradition, it is very likely that the subsequent history of the papacy would have been different. Falsely attributed to Gelasius are the Decretum Gelasianum (on the canonical books

688

of the Bible)

In the 1950s extensive petroleum Geloi) to the north. deposits were discovered nearby.

Campi

city was founded by Cretan and Rhodian colonists and sent forth colonists to found Akragas (see Agrigento) in 582 B.C. It had a treasure house at Olympia. The town took its name from the river to the east. Gela enjoyed its greatest prosperity under Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion extended over much of the island. Gelon seized the tyranny on his death, became master of Syracuse and transferred his capital there with half the inhabitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hieron

c.

51

B.C.,

to rule over the rest. Gela's prosperity revived after the expulsion of Thrasybulus in 466 B.C. but in 405 it was abandoned by DionyThe inhabitants returned and rebuilt sius' order (see Syracuse).

the town but

337

B.C.).

it

refortified in the time of Timoleon (d. c. Agathocles put to death more than 4,000

was only

In 311

B.C.

of its inhabitants and after its destruction by the Mamertines, about 281 B.C., Phintias of Agrigentum transferred the remainder to the new town of Phintias (now Licata; q.v.). In Roman times

they still kept the name of Gelenses or Geloi in their new abode. Gela has become an archaeological centre of great distinction. The elevation at the eastern end of the site was chosen by the first settlers for the sanctuary of Athena, whose cult they brought from Lindos in Rhodes, and the small primitive edifice was soon replaced by a more impressive one. Vast quantities of fragments of the rich decorative terra-cotta revetments as well as a great deposit of offerings have been recovered. In the 5th century B.C. this temple was dismantled and its cult transferred to another

The adjacent terraces along the northern slope of the ridge were devoted to smaller sanctuaries in the early period, which in the rebuilding of Gela under Timoleon were replaced by a dwell-

nearby.

At the extreme west of the town, also, a "Timoleontean" quarter arose, protected by fortifications which there consisted of lower courses of admirable stonework and an upper portion of crude brick in almost perfect preservation. Frederick II refounded the town in 1233 and it was called Terranova di Sicilia ing quarter.

and the Sacramentarium Gelasianum. Gelasius died on Nov. 19, 496. His feast is kept in the west on Nov. 21. See (R. E. McN.) also Papacy: The First Six Centuries. Gelasius II (John of Gaeta) (d. 1119), pope from 1118 to and created cardinal 1 1 19, was called to Rome from Monte Cassino He was elected pope (c. 1082), then papal chancellor (1089). II, whom Jan. 24, 1 118, at an advanced age, as successor to Paschal as leader of the moderate cardinals he had defended against his Gelasius had a reign of unending misfortunes; he was critics. grossly maltreated by the pro-imperial Frangipani, and twice driven from Rome by Henry V, who installed the antipope Gregory VIII.

Gelasius died in France on Jan, 28, 1 119, as he planned for a counhis successor, cil at Reims, leaving the close of the struggle to Calixtus II. See H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Middle Ages,

2nd

(J- J-

ed. (1925).

GELATIN, as a food;

it

one of the commoner however, many industrial

Rn-)

most familiar uses which do not re-

proteins,

has,

vol. viii,

is

quire the high purity of the edible grades. Its name is derived from the Lat. gelata, and describes its most characteristic propContrary to the popular but erty; i.e., gel formation in water.

erroneous concept, from such proteins Gelatin is derived of all white fibrous

Upon

and cannot be prepared muscle tissue and blood. from collagen, which is the prime constituent gelatin has not been

as horns, hoofs, lungs,

connective tissue occurring in the animal body.

hydrolysis, collagen yields a series of degradation products

in the hving animal body and which are This connective tissue is well known in the form of cartilage, sinews, skin or ossein (protein matrix of bone). Although the relative proportions of constituent amino acids and in collagen and gelatin are substantially the same, the physical

which are never found called gelatin.

chemical properties of these two proteinaceous materials

differ

GELATIN

52

swells and hydrates in dilute acid or not dissolve without hydrolytic cleavage to form the more soluble gelatin. This transformation of collagen into gelatin is rather analogous to the hydrolysis of starch:

widely.

Whereas collagen

alkaline solution,

it

will

Collagen—* gelatins-^ proteoses-^ peptones-

peptides—> amino acids

»low

(high viscosity

Starch

>

dextrins

Gelatin, like dextrin, can vary in molecular size,

a tremendous

are possible.

number

No

Composition.

glucose.

and therefore

of different qualities of gelatin, as of dextrin,

been determined

definite structure or size has

for the gelatin molecule since gelatin

products.

—

viscosity)

»

is

a mixture of degradation

— Both

gelatin and its precursor collagen show when analyzed. The ultimate composition of each is approximately: carbon (50%), nitrogen (18%), oxygen (25%). hydrogen (7%) and sulfur (trace). The constituent amino acids and their relative amounts are approximately: glycine (25%), alanine (9%), leucine (7%), serine (0.5%), phenylalanine (i%), methionine (1%), proline (19%), hydroxyproline (14%), aspartic acid (3%), glutamic acid (6%), histidine (1%), arginine (9%) and lysine (6%). The amino acids valine, isoleucine, tyidentical composition

tryptophane and cystine are either entirely absent or present only in negligible quantities. rosine,

Uses in Foods.

— In the food industry advantage

is

taken of the

manufacture of gelatin desserts, jellied meats and soups, marshmallows, jellied candies and other forms of confectionery. Gelatin exerts a powerful protective colloid action and for this reason is used in commercial ice cream, thereby increasing this product's resistance to "heat shock"; that is, to the formation of ice crystals by sudden changes in temperature. Gelatin has diversified uses in medicine. It is not known to have any therapeutic value beyond that of being a protein food. In pharmacy its most important use is in the manufacture of capsules in which glycerin may be incorporated if a soft capsule rather than a hard one is desired. Use in Nonfood or Chemical Industries. Nonfood uses vary from photography to fabric printing. Gelatin is an important ingredient in the preparation of photographic emulsions. For this use it must be particularly free from those impurities which would jellying properties in the

—

impair the functions of the silver salts used in the process.

Pro-

tective colloid uses are found in the

dye industry, where gelatin tends to prevent the uneven deposition of colour, and in the manufacture of chemical compounds having a chloramine functional

group.

A

sheet of flexible jelly, containing seven parts glycerin one part gelatin, deposited on a paper or fabric back for use as a hectograph or duplicator roll, has the property of absorbing hectograph ink from a master copy and redepositing the impression about 75 times. Production of Gelatin.— Of the gelatin produced in the United States, 90% is manufactured from hide stock and the remaining 10% is from ossein. According to the U.S. department of commerce the total production is classified as follows: edible (60%to

65%);

technical

photographic

(3%-5%,);

pharmaceutical

(lS%-20%);

(lS%-20%).

hides,

any other suitable collagenous substance. materials preserved by freezing, such as fresh pork skins, must

skins, bones, sinews or

be defrosted prior to processing. Chrome leather waste or similar material which is not suitable to the production of edible gelatin may be processed for technical or industrial gelatin. The raw maexclusive of bones, water-soluble impurities. terial,

is

washed

to

remove surface

soil

and

Bones are processed somewhat differently in that, after washing, crushing and rewashing, they are subjected to countercurrent treat-

ment with mineral

acid (hydrochloric acid ). This process, known as demineralization, serves to decalcify, or leach out the calcium

phosphates, and to leave a residue consisting of bone protein (ossein).

upon the thickness or degree of comminution During this period the protein raw material swells

12 hours depending

of the stock.

two or three times its original volume. After curing, the acidulated stock is washed in running water until excess acid has been rinsed away. to about

—

Alkali Cure. Although alkaline agents ranging from caustic soda to soda ash may be used in the curing of hide or bone proteins, it is conventional practice to use saturated limewater (pH 12.0) as the curing liquor. The washed stock is placed in pits or vats along with the lime liquor and sufficient hydrated lime to maintain saturation. Temperatures are maintained under 75° F. (23.89° C.) and occasional agitation is effected by use of poles or other mechanical means. The curing time may be from three to five weeks, depending upon the thickness of the stock and its type. When curing is completed, the limed stock is washed with water until excess lime is removed. Then this washing is continued with dilute mineral acid until the external areas are acidic. Washing with pure water is then resumed until the whole lot is approximately neutral.

—

Extraction. The cured and washed stock is placed in extracand covered with hot water. Several extractions are

tion kettles

consecutive lots of water. A series of 8 to 12 extrac"runs" or "cooks" may be made, each extraction being somewhat hotter than the preceding one; i.e., 110° F. (43.33° €.), 120° F, (48.89° C), 130° F. (54.44° C.), etc., until the boiling point is reached. Since the extraction depends upon the conversion of collagen to gelatin by hydrolysis, care must be exercised to avoid excessive hydrolytic breakdown of the gelatin. Highest test gelatin is extracted at the lower temperatures whereas use of higher temperatures produces the lower testing gelatins. At the end of each run all possible grease is removed by skimming. Each run of liquor is then removed prior to the addition of fresh water for the subsequent extraction. These liquors, known as "light" because of low solids {2%, to 4%) content, are then allowed to settle for a short time, after which more grease may be skimmed. The various runs are then combined according to the quality of gelatin desired and are processed through filtering equipment whereby grease and foreign suspended material are removed. Active carbon is sometimes used to minimize high colour. The light liquors, which are sparkling clear and almost water-white, are then continuously evaporated until the increased viscosity makes further evaporation impractical. This situation is reached at concentrations of 8% to

made with tions,

12%

in high-test liquors

Most

and of

15%

to

20%

film type evaporators tend to break

in low-test liquors.

down

the jelly strength

allowed to concentrate the liquors beyond certain limits. If necessary the heavy liquors from the evaporators may be filtered again and bleached depending upon the quality de-

of gelatin

if

sired.

COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURE OF GELATIN Preparation of Raw Stock.— The raw material may be Raw

This concentrated raw material may be processed directly as is other raw stock, or it may be dried and stored. From this preliminary treatment the stock is put in "cure," which is either acid or alkaline depending upon the ultimate use to which the gelatin is Acid curing results in gelatin possessing somewhat to be put. higher jelly strength but lower viscosity than alkaline curing. Acid Cure. In this method the washed hydrated stock is immersed in cold dilute mineral acid (pH 1.5-3.0) and held for 8 to

Following the evaporating stage the usual drying procedure is based upon the characteristic jelling property of the protein. Heavy liquors are run onto a wide endless belt which conveys the gelatin through a refrigerated chamber. The resultant stiff jelly is placed on metal nets and blown with cold air until it has developed a skin. Hot air is then used to finish the drying process and the final clear sheets are comminuted as required. Other methods of drying, making use of sprays, hot rolls, etc., may be employed. All equipment in the manufacture of gelatin should be so constructed as to avoid contamination by heaxfy metals. Aluminum for acid-cure processes

and nickel or

stainless steel for either acid

or alkali processes are preferred materials of construction.

Certain grades of technical gelatin for industrial use can be processed in equipment made from iron. Extremely pure grades can be made by dialysis (q.v.). but this procedure is not commercially practical. Properties. The protein gelatin, as manufactured, may be

—

;

:

:

GELDER—GELDERL.\XD

xiettMits.

aiOepc AdiK: imrities

idUepfor-

::

iceoied

l~: solve

(aiSN XaC „- .1

CoKcntialf: cold as

nH

:

GILDER. -AiRT

DE

A-jrxT

aad is Ae ydSes and

:i.5f

vl^ipO^;

1645-I"27>,l>wch painter, sad stent hfe Hie there «x-

!t>^5.

glyuaJB vil

_

.

: -

-d

^

c^ -

a givaB gdatiii

TheisoeLe

:

c

fran acid- oc

i

:~ pate e^c.

Any

-_- decboooci fradire oi

~

Strang te^^lQnr.r^

300= F. .:-:

opoo

-

i:

GELDERL.OTD

z

i

;

-

-

-

-

-;-

".'--;/- rer

-f

:

rr:

^ --.--:

\,

aideh--

^_:

;

;

.;

;

:

of his

r--

n K- Gx ^ TSe Netberwes: -v Utrecht and ^

Zuider Zee

'.

northeast

Pop,U960«st.M,266._,rtic«» of Gekl»iand OMth ITssel is a fonnely giadated

;rr-.-y.

Two

ionns oi

:

re ;

.;.

.

.

:

f

i.^jth of this li»e the sofl - portion 19 divided by

inc

river-cIay

:;.^>c: into two distinct re::,oc >a..c;. c: the 'Gc.ce:>c the Veluwe on the west and the so-called .-Xchterhoek on the Mtj the larger part of which is formed by the former countship of Zotphoi (the GraafschapV In this last region the ground slopes downward from southeast to northwest liil to 26 ft.^ and is mt»sected by se\-eial paiaDel streams that flow into the I.Tssel. S-sici-

sol. i'S'-F.

gions

rial

have beei preserve, now mainly arable land; dominant although many rotches of wood ha\-e been Fanning is mixed, with dairv-. meat-packing and leather

hills

^nrres are

eastern part has textile works, in particular at the Oude ITssel are a number ot foundries. The old town of Zutphen (on the IJssel^ and Doetinchem are the chief markets and shopfring centres and have some industries. The hill plateau of the Veluw^e wiest of the IJsseJ is separated from :

J

The

Wlnterswijk.

.\lcttig

the Utrecht glacial ridge by the GeJderse Xallei. which forms the boundary- between the two provinces. This extends from the Rhine alemg the Grift, and along the Lunterse and the Bame\-eldse Beek. both tributaries of the Eem Utrecht 1. to the IJsselmeer. .Ml o\-er the Veluwe are heaths, scantily culti\-ated. but there are also woods, especially fir and beech. .4 large part of the Veluwe In the south the \"eJuw-e hills stretch is used for miliiar>- purposes. 1

along the Rhine with a rather steep slope, and the wooded part is The town of .\mhem v^.r.V the pro\-incial a residential area. It has important capital, is picturesquely situated on this slope. industries (cellulose, artificial silk, metal works, etc. 1. The other also laree centre of the Veluwe is .Ajjeldoom on the eastern border,

with industries including a large number of laundries. The %-alley of the IJssel. the Gelderse Vallei and the northern

;

GELDERLAND

54

border of the Veluwe are under mixed farming, especially poultry eggs and chickens are the most important exports. Barneveld is a centre of this trade and around Harderwijk ducks are raised.

These

districts also

have

light industries; e.g., bicycles at Dieren,

furniture at Xijkerk and artificial silk at Ede.

The southern division of the province is watered by the Rhine, Waal and the Maas (Meuse) and has a level clay soil, with the higher levels along the rivers and lower lying and somewhat swampy central parts. In the east are some isolated hills and a sandy, wooded stretch south of Nijmegen. The area between the Rhine and the Waal and watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe. the

This has a denser population, occupied with mixed farming, vegetable growing and orchards (cherries and apples). Along the

many brick factories. Some of the smaller old market towns, such as Culemborg and Tiel, also have industries. The largest town is Nijmegen; it was an important centre in Roman and Carolingian times and now has several industries (electrotechnical, shoe, textile and chemical factories). It also has a Roman Catholic university. (H. J. Ke.) rivers are

—

History. The history of the province of Gelderland begins with that of the countship of Gelre the Gueldre or Guelders of French and older English writers. There is a legend that a certain

—

Wichard of Pont killed a dragon which shouted "Gellre, Gellre" during the fight and that Wichard therefore gave the name Gelre to the town which he founded c. a.d. 900 on the site of modern Geldern in the Land of North Rhine-WestphaUa. In fact the earliest traceable ancestor of the counts of Gelre was Gerardus, surnamed Flamens. who was one of the potentates ruling over the territory between the Rhine and the Meuse rivers in the 1 1 th century. Originally established at Wassenberg castle on the Roer river, he later set himself up at the castle of Gelre on the Niers. His direct descendants acquired during the 11th and 12th centuries parts of the later Gelderland; i.e., the areas of Betuwe and Veluwe. Gerardus IV (c. 1131) married Ermengarde, daughter of Otto; count of Zutphen; and when the male line of the counts of Zutphen became extinct about 1190, Zutphen fell to the Wassenberg-Gelre family, who thus under Otto I (count from )

(

through the purchase of smaller estates and titles; river traffic and industry helped to develop the towns, which moreover were capable and willing to assist the count financially; and river tolls brought the count a new source of income. Also Reinald IPs first marriage, to Sophia, heiress of Mechelen (Mechlin), improved his financial position; and his second marriage, to Eleanor, sister of Edward III of England, gave him greater prorninence among the Netherlands rulers and led to his playing a between England and France.

German king Louis

role in the

Hundred Years' War

He had good who

relations with the

him to the dignity of a duke in 1339. Reinald's early death in 1343 was a misfortune to Gelre, because he left only two infant sons, Reinald III and Edward, who after 1350 disputed each other's claim, supported by facthe Bavarian,

raised

towns made their influence felt as as duke, but in Aug. 1371 he died. As his brother Reinald III died in the following December, the male line of the house of Wassenberg then became extinct. After some years of warfare with other pretenders, William of Jijlich, son of Reinald II's daughter Maria, acquired the duchy (1377-1402). His rule was a period of peace and quiet for Gelre, interrupted only by minor wars with Brabant, which brought Gelre some small territorial gains. William's power, however, was greater than his predecessors' because in 1393 he succeeded his father in Jiilich. A consequence of the succession was that political and economic relations with the Rhineland and with Westphalia became more important to Gelre than those with the western territories of the Netherlands; but William maintained good relations with England as well and visited London in 1388. He was succeeded by his brother Reinald IV (1402-23). During the latter's reign discontent arose among the nobihty and the towns, which united to acquire more influence in the government ( 1418) so that the duke had to grant concessions. To these can be traced the origin of the later "estates" of Gelre, which developed during the tions of the nobility, while the well.

In 1361

Edward was recognized

,

1182 to 1207) obtained an important position among the dynasts Low Countries. The counts of Gelre, as they now called themselves, had laid the foundation for a territorial power which, through the control of the larger rivers, Rhine, Waal, Meuse and IJssel, was to play an important role in the later middle ages. The geographical position of their territory dictated the ex-

15th century into a representative body. When Reinald IV died childless (1423), Gelre and Zutphen fell to his great nephew, Arnold of Egmond (d. 1473), who was chosen by the nobihty and the towns as their ruler, but who was never enfeoffed with these territories by the German king Sigismund. The king enfeoffed instead another member of the family, Adolf of Berg, with Gelre, Zutphen and Jiilich, but Adolf could lay hands only on Jiilich. Beside the prolonged war caused by this dispute, Arnold's reign was characterized by the ever-growing influence of the towns and nobility, because the duke was in permanent financial

ternal policy of the counts during the following centuries: they to the interests of the Holy Roman empire and

difiiculties

through unfortunate wars.

pansionist

pohcy of Philip

to expansion in the direction of Brabant,

was

of the

were committed

to the north, in the direction of the

of Utrecht.

At home, they sought

Limburg and Liege and,

"upper diocese" of the bishops and

to consolidate the juridical

pohtical system 9f their dominions.

Under Otto

his son

Gerardus

V

territory to Gelre did not materialize, because John I of Brabant it a threat to his communications with the Rhineland,

considered

especially with Cologne.

In the

Good, duke of Burgundy, Gelre, provoking confusion and continuous change of side and sharpening the differences between Arnold and the mafelt in

jority of his subjects, threat.

(1207-29) and his grandson Otto II ( 1229-71 ) this policy developed. Otto II's most important gain was the imperial town of Nijmegen, with its environs, which was enfeoffed to him by the German king William of Holland and which linked the northern parts of the countship with the southern part round Gelre and Roermond. Otto II's reign moreover witnessed a notable development of the towns: Arnhem, Nijmegen, Zutphen, Roermond and other smaller towns received their first charters from him. Otto II's son Reinald I (1271-1326) married Irmingard, the heiress of Limburg, but the possibility of adding this important I,

War

of the

Limburg Succession,

which he had the support of the city of Cologne, John defeated Reinald near Worringen (June 5, 1288) and thus acquired the duchy of Limburg. This put an end to the southward expansion of Gelre. The consequences of the defeat bore heavily on Gelre, and in

only the acquisition of the jus de non evocando (whereby the count's subjects were exempted from being brought before tribunals outside his jurisdiction) in 1310 gave the countship more independence. Not till Reinald II's reign (1326-43 did the situation improve. The territory was then enlarged and consolidated )

In this period also the ex-

(g.v.) the

who

did not at once recognize the Burdundian

Finally, after a reversal of alliances led

by the

originally

pro-Burgundian town of Nijmegen, a clearly anti-Burgundian movement arose, which not only defended the independence of Gelre, but at the same time accelerated the development of the "estates" as representatives and defenders of the unity of the country. In 1465 Arnold was taken prisoner by his son Adolf, who was then still pro-Burgundian. As soon, however, as Adolf was in power he, too, turned against Burgundy. Then Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, intervened, captured Adolf and freed Arnold (1471), from whom he took the duchy in pawn; and in 1473, after having subdued Nijmegen, Charles occupied Gelre. On Charles's death, however, in 1477, the people of Gelre ousted the hated Burgundians and put the government into the hands of Adolf's sister, Catherine, who was to rule first in the name of the imprisoned Adolf. Adolf died the same year and she ruled in the name of his son, the infant Charles of Egmond who in 1492 assumed the government himself, after having been ransomed from the French by his subjects. In these years 1477-92 the territory of Gelre had to be defended against the attempts of Maximilian of Austria, husband of Charles the Hold's daughter Mary of Burgundy, to conquer it. These failed chiefly because of the resistance of the towns and of the nobility,

who

in this period

acquired so

much

government that by 1500 they formed part of

it

influence in the

almost by pre-

GELDNER—GELLIUS reign of Charles of Egmond (1492-1538) was prolonged war against the Holy Roman emperor claimed Gelre as part of his Burgundian inheritance.

scriptive right. filled

by a

Charles V,

The

who

Charles at his captain, Martin van Rossum, the duke even tempoand emperor the with successfully battled outset the Overijssel; but his sucrarily occupied Friesland, Groningen and was duke of Berg and cessor, Wilham the Rich of Jiilich, who also

Supported by

had to cede Cleves, could not keep up the unequal fight and in 1543 country had sufGelre to Charles V by the treaty of Venlo. The declined. fered much and the economy of the towns had After 1543 Gelre formed part of the Burgundian-Habsburg of the hereditary lands. It revolted at the same time as the rest Netheriands against Philip II of Spain, joined the Union of Utrecht and until 1795 formed part of the republic of the United

(1579) Netheriands within the repubhc. Like the other inland provinces, and economically than Holland it was of less importance politically area, with little industry. agricultural an mainly was it and Zeeland vested in the After the abjuration of Philip II, sovereignty was were stad"estates" of Gelderiand, and the princes of Orange with more authority in Gelderiand than in Holland. In ;

holders—

and 1672 the province was temporarily occupied by Louis XIV; capital, ducal the Geldern, including part, in 1713 the southeastern fell to

Prussia.

BiBLiOGR.'U'HY.— Gouda Quint, Bibliographie tot de geschiedenis van ZutGelderiand (1910-42) W. Jappe Alberts, De Staten van Gelre en phen 2 vol (1950-56); E. W. de Vries, De Opkomst van Zutphen (W. J.Al.) (1960) J.E. A. L. Struick, Gf/reeni/afcjfcMrg (1960). ;

;

GELDNER, KARL FRIEDRICH

(1852-1929), German

edited the Avesta and translated the Rigveda into German, was born on Dec. 17, 1852, in Saalfeld, Thuringia. Geldner studied at a number of universities, but received his doctorate and his "habilitation" at Tubingen. His first work was a brilliant

who

"Uber die Metrik des jungeren Avesta" (1877). After teaching at Beriin and elsewhere he became professor of Sanskrit his death at Marburg university where he stayed from 1907 until on Feb. 5, 1929. Geldner was a champion of the essentially Indian character' of the Rigveda and its relatively late date against those who championed its Indo-European nature and a hoary age before

essay,

Aryan migration combined the native the

In both the Avesta and Rigveda he and Indians with EuroHe is best known in the Iranian and

to India.

traditions of Parsees

pean philological methods. Indian fields for this method.

;

on

by his lovable personaHty, won him influence and friends, many of them of high rank. His Fabeln und Erzdhlungen 1 746-48 which made his name, were modeled on La Fontaine, but he drew on his own childhood observation of nature and later experience of urban Their charm was well brought out later by D. N. society. (

)

,

Gellert also wrote unsuccessful Chodowiecki's illustrations. comedies and a conventionally sentimental novel, Das Leben der schwedischen Grdfin von G. (1748). His Geistichen Oden und Lieder (1757), though he himself felt etc., that they were inferior to the hymns of Luther, Paul Gerhardt, time well at a church the served and their day in were unequalled

natural religion was considered worthy of a man of as Father and Creator, was his favourite theme; God, intellect. and doubt has been thrown on his Christology. Nevertheless he is

when only

best

known

hymn

to English-speaking readers as the author of the Easter His hymns were set to music by C. P. E.

"Jesus Lives!"

Bach and Beethoven among

others.

He

died in Leipzig, Dec. 13,

1769.

Bibliography.— Sam(KcA« Schriften, 10 vol. (1769-74) selection, Eng. with introduction, in F. Muncker, Die Bremer Beitrdge (1899); Briefe, ed. by K. Blanck trans, of fables, etc., by J. A. Murke (1851) ^^- Ki-)

See the obituary by E. Sieg in Zeitschrijt fur Indologie

und

Iranistik,

(R. N. F.)

Limburg, Netherlands, GELEEN, Pop. (1960 est.) 31,120 11 mi. N.N.E. of Maastricht by road. (mun.). The town is an important coal-mining centre and manuIt is factures coke, chemicals, fertilizers, concrete and textiles. served by rail, bus and air lines. The tower of the oldest Roman Catholic church dates from the 13th century, the sheriffs' house from 1567 and the Hermitage (where the last hermit died in 1912) a town

in the province of

(L. J. A.

from 1699.

M.

B.)

the last Vandal king of Africa (a.d. 530-534), was the son of Gelaris and the great-grandson of Gaiseric {q.v.). He deposed his pro-Roman cousin Hilderic, probably in 530, disregarding the protests of the eastern Roman emperor Justinian I.

GELIMER,

In Sept. 533 an east Roman expeditionary force led by Belisarius {q.v.) landed in Africa, defeated the Vandal army 10 mi. from Carthage and occupied the city. Gelimer mishandled the campaign and was defeated again at Tricamaron, 20 mi. W. of Carthage. He fled to Numidia, but surrendered in March 534. He was sent See also to Constantinople and given an estate in Galatia. (E. A. T.) Vandals. ..

GELLERT, CHRISTLA.N FURCHTEGOTT

(1715and of hymns which combined religious feeling with the rationahsm of the Enhghtenment. He was born at Hainichen, Saxony, July 4, 1715,

German

poet, author of

;

(1921).

in Welsh tradition, was the trusted hound given his son-in-law Prince Llewellyn the Great of to by King John Wales. Being left one day in 1205 to guard his master's infant Llewelson, he killed a huge wolf which tried to attack the child.

GELLERT,

stained lyn 'returning to find the baby missing and Gellert's muzzle and with blood, assumed that the dog had destroyed his son beneath unharmed lying child the found stabbed him. He later him. The the overturned cradle, with the wolf's corpse beside on Mt. buried honourably be to Gellert caused prince remorseful the place Beddgelert; i.e., grave of Gelert. now with the historical Prince Llewellyn, version of an ancient Indian folktale recounted in

Snowdon and named

This story, associated

a late Welsh the Sanskrit Panchatantra. The legend many European countries, and also

is

Buddhist tradition.

is

found

in

in various

Persian,

forms

in

Hebrew and (C-

S.

He.)

GELLIGAER, an urban district in the Caerphilly parhamensouth Wales tary divisibn of Glamorgan, Wales, in the heari of the district is of the town chief The 34,572. (1961) Pop. coal fields. Bargoed, about 16 mi. N. of Cardiff by road, which contains a large park. Gelligaer takes its name from the Roman fort which public

northwest of the 8th-century parish church of St. Cattwg and fort 780 ft. above sea level. Many of the relics found when the Cardiff. in Wales of Museum National in the was excavated are Llancaiach Charles I stayed at the 16th-century manor house of 1645. in Glamorgan visited when he The three coal mining valleys of Taff- Bargoed, Deri and Rhymthe ney lie within the district which is bounded on the east by Glamorgan and Monriver Rhymney, there the boundary between mouthshire, and on the west by the river Taff Bargoed. Besides coal mines there are automobile and rubber works. (b. c. a.d. 130), Latin author, who comGELLIUS, Nodes Atticae in which are preserved entitled miscellany posed a many fragments of lost works. He is an interesting source of

lies

7:1-8(1929).

1769),

and eduson of a pastor, one of a family of 13 and food, clothing He studied at Leipzig, and becation were not easily acquired. came Privatdozent there in 1745, and in 1751 professor, lecturing poetry, rhetoric and ethics. His lectures and writings, enforced

;

Gelderiand formed part of the Batavian repubhc from 1795 to 1810 1806, of Louis Bonaparte's kingdom of Holland from 1806 to and of the French empire from 1810 to 1813. In 1814 it became a Venlo province of the kingdom of the Netherlands. The towns of and Roermond are now part of the province of Limburg.

philologist

55

famous verse

fables

is

AULUS

information about the knowledge and studies of his own day. Both in Rome, where he received instruction in literature (grammatica) and rhetoric, and in Athens, where he studied philosophy, men. He his teachers and friends included many disUnguished appointed a judge in private cases in Rome. It was in Athens,

was

of during the long winter evenings, that he began his practice excerpting from authors, and after his return to Rome he continued this work which led to the publication of his Nodes Atticae. Written partly for the benefit of his children, it comprised 20 books. The beginning of the preface and the end of the last book are lost and of the eighth book only the chapter headings have survived. the niost It is a miscellany with no systematic order touching on diverse matters of language, Uterature, dialectic, philosophy, arith-

:

GELMIREZ—GEM

56

geometry, antiquities, law, history and other subjects. aim was to provide interesting but not exacting reading. He seems to have been a modest and amiable man. He had neither a profound mind nor much critical power, but he was a diligent and accurate student whose delight was in books and learning. BiBLiocRAPHY. Edition bv C. Hosius, "Teubner Series," 2 vol. (1903); The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, with Eng. trans., "Loeb Series," 2 vol. (1927-28); H. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays on Subjects Connected With Latin Literature and Scholarship, pp. 248-76 (1885). , (G. B.A. F.) (c. 1068-c. 1139), bishop and archGELMIREZ, bishop of Santiago de Compostela, was the most forceful personality produced by medieval Galicia. His career is described in the Historia Compostellana, written by his order to record for posterity his labours to advance the fame of the shrine he ruled. Diego was consecrated bishop of Compostela in 1101 and then devoted himself remorselessly to extending his ecclesiastical and temporal influence. In 1120 CalLxtus II promoted him archbishop and appointed him papal legate in Spain. Diego's ambition, arrogance and single-mindedness involved him both in bitter ecclesimetic,

Gellius'

—

DIEGO

astical

quarrels

and

in

the civil strife which characterized the

minority of Alfonso VII of Castile. On several occasions he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the queen mother Urraca, or the burgesses of Santiago, who found him a tyrannical overlord. Diego Gelmirez was not an attractive character, but as administrator, financier

and rebuilder of

his cathedral

he did

much to His own

develop the reputation of Santiago as a pilgrim shrine. wealth and influence were based on it. He reformed what had previously been a lax diocese and, at the Council of Compostela (1124), caused the Peace and Truce of God to be proclaimed for the first time in Castile. In civil war he showed himself to be a

competant military commander, and, to defeat Moorish naval attacks on Galicia, he organized a small fleet the first in medieval Castile. Diego's inordinate desire to extend his power, however, caused Honorius II, the successor of Calixtus II (d. 1124), to deprive him of his legateship and incurred the distrust of his former protege, Alfonso VII, who managed, by devious methods, to lay hands on some of Diego's great wealth. His influence had, therefore, considerably declined when he died, probably in 1139, but he was to remain as the presiding genius of medieval Santiago. See Anselm Gordon Biggs, Diego Gelmirez, First Archbishop of Com-

—

postela (1949).

(P. E. R.)

GELON,

son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela (491^85 B.C.) and of Syracuse (485-478 B.C.). On the death of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 ), Gelon, who had been his cavalry commander, succeeded him. Early in his rule he became involved in inconclusive hostilities with Carthage. He appealed to the Spartans

Commercial supplies are collected in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia. The roots and underground stems are dug up in the autumn, washed and dried. The plant was first described in 1640 but was not used medicinally family Oleaceae.

Three alkaloids have been isolated in crystalline state, gelsemine, gelsemicine and sempervirine. All three have similar pharmacologic properties, gelsemicine being the most potent and the most toxic. Gelsemium depresses the motor nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord, resulting in generalized muscular weakness. Death from action of this drug is caused by respiratory failure resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles. The drug is little used medicinally, though formerly it was used in treating various neuralgic conditions.

in

any way, however,

to the true jasmine,

which

is

a

member

of the

city

and inland port of

Germany which after partition of the nation following World War was in the Land (state) of North Rhine-Westphalia in the Fed-

Republic of Germany. Pop. (1961) 382,689. In the mid-19th century Gelsenkirchen was a village with less than 1,000 inhabitants, but because of its favourable location on the Rhine-Herne canal, it developed as a Ruhr mining and industrial town and was chartered in 1875. The neighbouring towns of Buer and Horst were amalgamated with Gelsenkirchen in 1928. Buer, north of the eral

Emscher

which bisects the

river

city, is

surrounded by a 1,000-ac.

green belt. The moated castles (Schloss Berge, Schloss Horst [restored baroque] and Haus Liittinghof ) survived heavy bombing of the

war when more than a

third of Gelsenkirchen's public buildings

The Hans Sachs house and Buer town hall are the seats of the municipal administration. The city possesses a museum, a zoological garden, several public gardens and two racecourses. The Institute of Hygiene for the Ruhr is situated there. The railway connecting Hamburg with the south and Cologne with were destroyed.

the east, the Cologne-Berlin Autobahn and two federal highways pass through the town. To the south is the large conglomeration of mines which have made Gelsenkirchen one of the largest coalmining and coking centres of Germany. Its large-scale industry includes steelworks, foundries, chemical plants, armature works, glass and clothing factories. (P. Z.) GEM, a mineral used for adornment. The true gem stone is a product of nature and is often referred to as a natural gem to distinguish it from synthetic gems and artificial gems. These terms are discussed at greater length in a later part of this article which is divided into the following main sections I.

History 1. Introduction 2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

Crete Greece

Greco-Phoenician and Greco-Persian Etruria

10.

Roman Gems Late Roman Period

11.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

12.

Gem Gem

Natural 1.

2.

3.

Gems

Gem

Minerals Colour Colour Improvement

Brilliancy Identification of

6.

Trade

Synthetic 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Gems

Gems

Methods

of Producing Synthetic Gems Verneuil or Flame-Fusion Process Corundum (Rubies and Sapphires)

Identification Spinel Rutile (Titania)

7.

Emerald

8.

Diamonds

IV. Imitation

Gems I.

1.

Gems

Cutting Imitations

5.

4.

III.

Engraving

7.

13. II.

Gem

Mesopotamia Egypt

S, 9.

GELSEMTUM

funnel-shaped, fragrant yellow flowers. It is native to the southeastern United States, where it is known as wild, yellow or Carolina jasmine and is grown as an ornamental; it is not related

an industrial

II

him to carry the war into Africa, but no help was sent and the plan was dropped. In 485, taking advantage of an appeal by the gamoroi (conservative landowners) of Syracuse, who had been driven out by the people, he made himself master of Syracuse, leaving his brother Hieron to control Gela. Under Gelon Syracuse

five large,

(V. E.)

GELSENKIRCHEN,

to help

grew rapidly in population and power. He conquered Sicilian Euboea and Megara Hyblaea, selling their common people into slavery and bringing the oligarchs to Syracuse, which was further swollen by new drafts from Gela and Camarina. Mercenaries were recruited widely and a powerful fleet built up. Gelon controlled the Greek and Sicel communities of east Sicily and was firmly linked by marriage with Theron, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigento, q.v.). When the Carthaginians invaded Sicily in 480 Theron appealed to Gelon, who was primarily responsible for the decisive Greek victory of Himera (see Sicily: History). He celebrated the victory by lavish dedications at Delphi, Olympia and Syracuse, and was popular among the Greeks, He died in 478. See T.J. Dunbabin, 7"/-ptian influence, but from the 6th centur>' B.C. onward both the Greek style and Greek subjects were adopted. The archaic Greek style prevailed in the Phoenician stones throughout the 5th century and into the 4th, long after a freer style had been introduced in Greece itself a phenomenon familiar from Carthaginian coins. The shape of stone used is regularly the scarab and the favourite material green jasper. The representations consist chiefly of the favourite Greek t>-pes of youths and men. and of mythological creatures. Fantastic combinations of heads and masks probably

—

had significance as a means of averting

evil.

GEM

Plate

(Ceylon). Effect of the star in the sapphire at Precious stones. Top row. lelt and right: sapphires, or blue corundum Botchrysoberyl, or cat s-eye (Brazil) the ieft is caused by mineral inclusions and cavities within the stone; centre: emerald, of South Africa) tom row. left to right: ruby, the red flem variety of corundum (Burma) diamond (Republic or green beryl (Colombia) .

;

;

amethyst and citrine (both from Brazil). Precious and semiprecious stones. Top row: two forms of gem quartz (left) aquaCalifornia) Second row lelt to right: golden or yellow beryl (Brazil); kunzite, a form of soodumeno (U.S., Bottow row: two of the colour varieties of marine, or blue beryl (Brazil); peridot, a gem olivine (Red Sea area). topaz (both from Brazil) ;

VARIETIES OF CUT AND POLISHED GEM STONES STONES FROM THE COLLECTIONS OF WALTEO

C.

BLATT, SI. LOUIS. MO., AND WILLIAM V. SCHMIDT. HEW YORK CITY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. H. SERARO

PHOTOGRAPHS BY JOHN

©

I

Plate

GEM

II

Rough emerald

crystal

(Colombia)

Top left: Yellow orthoolase. a gem feldspar (Madagascar); top right: apatite (Mexico); centre left: topaz (Brazil); centre: labradorite, a plagioolase feldspar (Car^ada) bottom left: peridot olivine (U.S., New ;

Mexico); bottom right: microcline (U.S., Virginia)

Moonstone, a feldspar (Ceylon)

W"^

Black opal (Australia)

GEM

Plate

\ III

GEM

Plate IV

Natural pearls (Persian Gulf). The pearl is an organic concretion formed within the shell of a mollusk

^*Ji^^'r

Cut and polished jade

a large opaque piece (Baltic sea a fossil resin of extinct coniferous trees

Amber, translucent droplets and coast, Poland). of

the

Amber

is

"

^T^Sg

in

various shades of green

(Burma)

Eocene period

•../)

^

f,\ im Toj> Polished opaque stones. ,ni mmi,i[.il' in-m matt rial (Italy cent/t^ row. left ro ni^hl serpentine (Burma) bloodstone, or heliotrope, a gum quart; (Indlaj; malachite (Rliodesia); bottom row, left to right: tiger's-eye (Republic South Africa); carnelian, dyed, a form of chalcedony (Brazil); blue turquoise (Iran) .

,'tl

,

)

;

:

;

of

OPAQUE CUT STONES AND ORGANIC GEM SUBSTANCES (TOP LEFT)

FROM DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY; H. GERARD ENCVCLOP>CDI A BRITANMCA. INC.

PtlOTOSRAPHS BY JOHN

©

(OTHERS)

FROM THE COLLECTIONS OF WALTER

C,

BUATT AND WILLIAM

V.

SCHMIDT

GEM

BY COURTESY

OF

(FIRST

ROW,

LEFT)

1

MUSEUM, LONDON, (SECOND ROW, HIGH ROW. CENTREj KUNSTH1ST0RISCHES MU'

E

T NEWEl L COLLECTION; (FIflST ROW, HIGH E FOUHTH ROW, LEFT »ND RIGHT) THE METROPOLIT

GEMS:

3000 B.C.

SECOND ROW

Plate

LEFT AND CENTRE, THIRD ROW. LEFT AND RIGH' NEW fORK. (THIRD ROW, CENTREj THE MUSEUM

AT.

TO THE 19TH CENTURY

First row: (plaster impressions) Contest scene; Akkadian cylinder seal, 1st Persian seal of Darius, chalcedony; c. 500 B.C. Second half of 3rd millennium. row: (actual size, plaster impressions) Woman playing harp, rock crystal; Greek, 2nd half of 5th century B.C. Satyr dancing, agate; Greek, late 6th century B.C. Youth and woman, burned carnelian; Greek, 2nd half of 5th century B.C. Third row: (actual size, plaster impressions) Portrait of Philetairos,

Y

TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH BOSTON- (FOURTH

OF FINE ARTS,

A.D.

chalcedony sprinkled with jasper; Hellenistic. Two-horse chariot, chalcedony; Girl writing, chalcedony; Greek, late 5th century B.C. Greek, c. 400 B.C. Fourth row: (actual size, plaster impressions except left and centre) Bacchic Mars and Venus with Cupid, onyx cameo; scene, sardonyx cameo; Roman. Jason and Chiron, inscribed Kromos, Renaissance, middle of 16th century. carnelian; 19th century

Plate

\'1

GEM

ANCIENT GEMS AND THEIR MATERIALS 1. Carnelian. 2. Sard. 3. Chalcedony. 4. Plasma. 5. Nicolo. 6. Moss agate. 7. Banded agate. 8. Peridot. 9. Heliotrope. 10. Black jasper. 11. Green jasper. 12. Red jasper. 13. Yellow jasper. 14. Rock crystal. 15 and 20. Amethyst. 16 and 17. Garnet. 18 and 30. Glass pastes. 19. Hematite. 21. Beryl. 22. Emerald. 23. Topa; 24. Sardonyx, 25. Turquoise. 26. Lapis lazuli. 27. Onyx. 28. Porphyry. 29. Serpentine. 31. Steatite. 1, Italic. 2nd century B.C.: 2, 4, 5, 7. 8. 9. 12-18. 20. 21. 23. 28. Roman. 1st century B.C. to 2nd century A.D.; 3, 6. 11. Greek. 6th-5th century B.C.; 10. 22, 24. 18-19lh century A.D.; 19, Hittite. 2nd millennium B.C.; 25. 30, Hellenistic, 3rd-lst century B.C.; 26. Ephthalite (North Indian). 5th-6th century A.D.; 27. 29. 31 MInoan. 3rd-2nd millennium B.C.: 8, 24, 25. 30 are cameos and the rest intaglio seals

GEM The Greco-Persian gems illustrate the influence of Greek art the east. In Persia the gems of purely Persian style are followed

in in

and the first half of the 4th century b.c. which Persian and Greek elements commingled. They were evidently made by Greeks for Persians. The subjects were taken from the daily Hfe of the Persian nobles, preferably contests of Persians and Greeks, or hunting scenes, or single figures of Persian nobles or ladies. Animals were also favourite subjects. These representations were executed in a broad, spirited style, A rectangular chiefly on chalcedony stones of scaraboid form. popular. also side was faceted one with shape Etruscan gems made their appearance toward the 8. Etruria. end of the 6th century b.c and remained in vogue until the 4th. They closely copied Greek styles, forms and subjects. At times their execution was excellent, but there is always a certain dryness and stiffness which serve to distinguish even their best products from pure Greek work. The shape used is invariably that of the scarab, worked often with minute care, while to the Greek artist the backs of the engraved gems were of secondary interest. Moreover, the edge of the base on which the beetle stands, which in the Greek examples is left plain, is ornamented in the Etruscan gems, the second half of the Sth

by gems

in

—

except in the earliest period and in the more careless specimens. By far the commonest material is the carnelian. The subjects

chosen are chiefly taken from Greek mythology. Homeric and Theban heroes predominate (Peleus, Achilles, Odysseus, Ajax, Tydeus and Kapaneus). Inscriptions sometimes occur; they do not, as in the Greek gems, give the name of the owner or of the

59

which occurred only occasionally in former periods, enjoyed great popularity. The Roman enthusiasm for this wealth of beautiful stones can be gauged from the remarks of Pliny, who declared that some gems are considered "beyond any price and even beyond human estimation, so that to many men one gem suffices for the contemplation of all nature." Cameos continued in use throughout this period, chiefly of The favourite subjects were sardonyx, onyx and glass paste. portraits and mythological scenes. Among the portraits are valuable representations of emperors and princes. Signatures of artists are found rather frequently on both the intaglios and cameos. In fact, by far the majority of ancient gem cutters

known by name belong

distinguished artist

the imperial seal ring of Augustus. Other well-known names Gnaios, Aspasios, Eutyches, Aulos, Apollonios and Agathangelos. (See Roman Art.) 10. Late Roman Period. By the 2nd century a.d. the art of gem engraving was on the decline. Of the large number of gems of

made

—

that period which have survived very few have any artistic value. hasty, careless workmanship and the repre-

The majority show

sentations are lifeless and monotonous. The shape of the gems used is always the ringstone and the materials are very much the same as those in use during the preceding period. Nicolo and

jasper

became

The same

distinguishing characteristic

is

that

it

is

roughly worked with

evidently merely for decorative effect, which is heightened by the brilHant polish. Hercules, Silenus and animals drill,

were popular subjects.

Roman Gems.—The

Etruscan scarabs were superseded in b.c. by ringstones in which two styles can be distinguished, according as they imitate Etruscan or Hellenistic art. There are no great artistic achievements among them, but they are nevertheless of interest in that they form an 9.

Italy in the 3rd

and 2nd centuries

important source of knowledge for the Roman art of the earlier republican period. In the 1st century B.C. the two styles became merged, with Greek elements predominating and growing gradually into the classicist style of the Augustan age. Engraved gems enjoyed a great popularity in

Rome

during the

and early imperial periods, as evidenced not only from the large number of examples which have survived but also from literary sources. Gem collecting, became a passionate purWealthy men vied with one another in procuring fine specisuit. mens and paid enormous prices for them. The keenness of this rivalry can be gauged by the story that the senator Nonius was exiled from Rome because he refused to give a certain gem (valued Public-spirited men, after at 20,000 sesterces) to Mark Antony. having formed their collections, would deposit them in the temples for all to enjoy. Scaurus, the son-in-law of Sulla, is said to have been the first Roman to have a collection of gems. Julius Caesar was an eager and discriminating collector and deposited as many as six separate collections in the temple of Venus Genetrix. The

late republican

style of the representations

is

that of the classicist art of the early

imperial period encountered in other contemporary products. Its dominant characteristic is a quiet, cold elegance. The subjects

have a wide range comprising mythological and everyday themes, including portraits of distinguished men, copies and adaptations of famous statues, symbols and grylli fantastic combinations of heads and figures, probably with superstitious import. The prevalent form throughout is the ringstone. The variety of stones used is large, for at this time of Roman world dominion and increased commercial facilities a wide range of stones could be obtained from The commonest were the carnelian, sard, all parts of the empire. sardonyx, chalcedony and amethyst; especially fine engravings are often found on garnets, hyacinths, beryls, topazes and peridots, more rarely on emeralds and sapphires. The nicolo and red jasper,

—

of

supposed

is

noticeable in the early Christian and

The commonest materials were hematite and More important artistically are the Sasanian gems (3rd to

jasper.

the round

common, probably on account

deterioration

At the end of the Sth century another class of scarab became prevalent, lasting until the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. It

The

specially

magical properties. Gnostic gems.

was

it is

are

artist but of the figure represented.

not confined to Etruria but occurred also elsewhere in Italy.

The most known from Pliny,

to early imperial times.

was Dioskourides, who,

7th century a.d.) which indeed represent the last important product yet found of gem engraving in the ancient worid. The representations are a mixture of oriental traditions and late Roman forms.

Especially fine are some of the portraits. In north India the Hephthalites (White Huns) estabHshed a civilization in the latter part of the Sth century a.d. which lasted until about shortly after a.d. 540. That they too practised the art of gem engraving was ascertained by the discovery of a stone with the portrait of an Indian king. 11.

Middle Ages and Modern Times.

(G.

M.

A. R.)

—After the period of the

early middle ages in which the goldsmiths preferred to re-employ antique cameos, Roman gem engraving flourished with renewed

vigour in France from the 13th century onward. But only in the Renaissance did stonecutting on a larger scale become significant again, especially in Italy during the period around 1800 when ancient models were copied as faithfully as possible. The bestknown gem cutters, who frequently signed their works in Greek

were the Tyrolese family Pichler, Johann Lorenz Marchant and Edward Burch. The preponderance of cameos at the French court at that time dictated jewelry fashion in the whole of Europe. Of decisive significance for the history of 12. Gem Cutting. modern jewelry was the kind of cutting known as faceting, which produces brilliancy by refraction and reflection of light (see also section Brilliancy below). Until the late middle ages gems of all kinds were cut either en cabochon {i.e., rounded, usually with a flat underside), or, especially for purposes of incrustation, into flat or

Roman

letters,

Natter, Nathaniel

—

platelets.

The first attempts at cutting and faceting were aimed at improving the appearance of the stone by covering natural flaws. Proper cutting depends upon a detailed knowledge of the crystal structure of the stone; moreover, it was only in the ISth century that the abrasive property of diamond was discovered and used (nothing else will cut diamond). After this was discovered the and polishing diamonds and other gems was developed, probably in France and the Netherlands first. The rose cut (described below) was developed in the 17th century, probably art of cutting

by the gem cutters of Amsterdam and Antwerp.

The

brilliant cut,

the general favourite for diamonds, is said to have been employed for the first time by the Venetian gem cutter Vincenzo

now

Peruzzi around 1700.

In modern gem cutting, the cabochon method continues to be used for opaque, translucent and some transparent stones, as opal.

GEM

6o

> \

GEM The play of colours characteristic of opal and labradorite is caused by the interference of light waves reflected from succesIt is analogous to the coloured resive layers within the stone. Similarly, the asterism flections from thin films of oil on water. and sapphires and the chatoyancy of cat's-eye, satin spar and tiger's-eye are structure phenomena. Asterism in the ruby and sapphire is produced by minute inclu-

of star rubies

sions oriented with respect to the hexagonal crystal structure of Chatoyancy, a single the mineral; hence, the six-pointed star.

which moves across the surface of the stone as its is produced by the parallel orientation of inThe flashes of red and blue which one observes on clusions. properly cut diamonds, zircons, rutile, sphenes and demantoid garnets when held in a beam of parallel light are called fire. Like the rainbow, fire is caused by dispersion (see Light). As recovered from the earth, few gem stones are attractive. Only after the gem cutter has given the stone proper proportions and a high polish to emphasize its pleasing characteristics may it be

band of

light

position

is

changed,

gem. All types of cutting are classified in three general cabochon (curved surfaces); faceted (flat surfaces); and carved, either cameo (relief) or intaglio (engraved). The styles and methods of cutting are described above (see also Seals). Proper treatment often improves 3. Colour Improvement. the colour of a gem. This was practised in India centuries ago by heating faintly coloured chalcedony to produce the attractive yellow-red of carnelian. Similarly, amethystine to smoky-coloured quartz may be changed to the yellow citrine, which then is comcalled a

categories:

—

monly but improperly sold as topaz. The colours of many amethysts and aquamarines and some rubies and tourmalines are the result of heat treatment.

Zircon, when mined, is commonly reddish-brown. Many zircons develop a fine blue colour when heated in a reducing atmosphere at 900° C. to 1,000° C; an occasional stone becomes red or green,

others

Practically

colourless.

all

of the zircons marketed are

the result of heat treatment. X-rays, cathode rays, radium emanations and cyclotron bombardment induce many colour changes in gems. Of these, the production of a green colour in diamonds by radium or cyclotron

This green colour is only be removed by heating the diamond at 900° C. Diamonds treated with radium develop a similar green colour and also a secondary radioactivity, which persists for years and serves the most important.

bombardment

is

skin deep, and

may

them from diamonds treated in the cyclotron. Nearly any colour can be produced in chalcedony, agate and onyx by staining with appropriate chemicals or dyes. Agates were first dyed in the Idar-Oberstein district, Germany, in the early part of the 19th century by soaking them in sugar or honey solutions to distinguish

and subsequently placing them in concentrated sulfuric acid. The acid chars the absorbed sugar to carbon, staining the various layers of agate from light brown to black, depending on their porosity. The nonporous layers remain colourless, accentuating the banded structure of the agate.

Red hues are commonly produced by ferric oxide; greens by chromium and nickel compounds; blue by ferric ferrocyanide. Solutions of other inorganic compounds and organic dyes may be Practically

used.

all

agate and onyx of

gem

quality have been

is

—

This depends upon the amount of incident light from the surface and the interior of the stone. light reflected by surfaces with equal polish varies

Brilliancy.

4.

reflected

The amount

of

with the indices of refraction of the gem. The index of refraction of rock crystal (quartz) is 1.55; sapphire 1.76; zircon 1.95; and diamond 2.42. The percentage of normally incident light reflected from the polished surfaces of these gems is roughly in the

which enters the stone will be twice totally reflected by the back facets, and will emerge The stone will appear to have a silvered at the front surface.

gem has been properly

cut, the light

The amount of totaUy reflected light increases with the index of refraction and, therefore, a greater amount of light will be reflected from the interior of the diamond than from any other back.

natural gem; hence,

—Uncut gem stones may be

identi-

crystal form, hardness, cleavage, fracture, structure or chemical tests. When cut, many of these properties are not visible,

by

or their determination would damage the gem, though, under the microscope, minute cleavages or fractures and the presence of characteristic inclusions and their distribution may give evidence as to the stone's identity.

However, a positive

identification

is

made

only after one or more of the physical constants have been determined. In most instances, the determination of the density (specific gravity) and the index of refraction will suffice. Various methods of determining density are described under the The Jolly balance is unsatisfactory, except for article Density. the larger stones. Accurate determinations can be made on very small stones by suspending the gem in water from the arm of a chemical balance in a spiral coil at the end of a fine wire. The index of refraction can be conveniently measured by the method of total reflection. Several small, hand-sized refractometers have been specially designed for this purpose. They consist of either a hemisphere or prism of high-index glass, upon which the gem is placed. A beam of light is directed from the undersurface toward the gem. The totally reflected rays fall upon a calibrated ground-glass scale. A numerical value is directly read which is the refractive index of the gem. It is essential that the film of air between the high-index glass and the gem be displaced by a liquid the refractive index of which is greater than that of the

gem.

A

solution of sulfur in methylene iodide with a refractive

index of 1.793 is commonly used. Diamond, titanite, zircon, rutile and some garnets have greater indices than this liquid and, consequently, cannot be differentiated by this method. A determination of the density and refractive index will give a positive identification of an unknown gem, except in those rare instances, such as ruby and almandite, where the values are the for both gems. However, almandite crystallizes in the cubic system and hence is optically isotropic (singly refractive), while ruby is hexagonal and anisotropic (doubly refractive). Two convenient instruments, the polariscope and the dichroscope, were designed for differentiating gems on the basis of these optical properties. Their use in the determination of gems is discussed under the article Crystallography: Optical Crystallography. It has been noted that the refractive indices of diamond, titanite, zircon, rutile and some garnets cannot be determined on the refractometer. However, because garnet and diamond are optically isotropic, and zircon and titanite are strongly anisotropic a positive determination can be made by using the polariscope in conjunc-

same

tion with density determinations.

Of

all

the diagnostic properties the determination of the index is the most useful and, at the same time, the most

of refraction

readily determined. Satisfactory readings may often be obtained from the curved surfaces of a cabochon-cut stone by carefully adjusting the position of the stone on the refractometer so that

the point of contact with the high-index glass is at the optical centre of the instrument. Because of their nearly indestructible character, 6. Trade. gems are sold and resold from generation to generation. The available supply is not greatly affected by the production of newly mined

—

any year. However, as with other luxury items, demand markedly with business conditions. Hence, price variations are determined largely by demand. Science and modern industrial processes have had but slight inIn the gem-cutting centres fluence on the gem-cutting industry. Knowledge of Europe, the family is still the basic business unit. and skills are passed on from father to son, and the traditions of the guild survive in many forms. The fine craftsman combines

gems

in

both mechanical and

artistic skills.

The Gemmological Association

ratio of 1:1.5:2:4. If a

Identification of Gems.

5.

fied

fluctuates

artificially coloured.

that

6i

it is

the most brilliant.

of Great Britain (1931)

and the

Gemological Institute of America (1931) instituted courses of study based on a scientific approach to gemology. The American Gem society (1934) was organized to maintain and raise professional standards and to promote education and research in its The Gemmological Association of Australia (1946) was field. established for similar purposes. These organizations were founded in the retail trade

with which their efforts are primarily concerned,

GEM

62

but their influence extends to the producers, manufacturers and

m. SYNTHETIC GEMS

—

1. Methods of Producing Synthetic Gems. In the U.S. the Federal Trade commission has restricted the use of the adjective

synthetic

when applied to gem stones to manufactured materials same chemical, physical and optical properties as

that possess the

To

the naturally occurring stone.

In the earliest recorded attempts to produce gems, natural stones were planted in the ground in the hope that they would either reproduce or grow larger. Later, the alchemists attempted to imitate the processes of nature. Microscopic cr>'stals of rubies were produced in 1SS7 by Marc Antoine Augustin Gaudin by fusing alum to which a Httle chromium sulfate was added to give the proper red colour. Edmond Fremy and Charles Feil in 1878 produced crj'stals from which small gem stones were cut by fusing aluminum oxide (AloO,) and lead oxide (PbO). In 1895 Michaud fused fragments of natural rubies to produce larger stones known as reconstructed rubies. For a short time this was a commercially successful process. The method of August Victor Lewis Vemeuil (1902) of producing synthetic rubies and sapphires by an ox>'hydrogen flame was highly successful and is used today with only slight modification.

This process is also kno\^Ti as the flame-fusion method and is used to produce not only rubies and sapphires but also variously coloured svTithetic spinels ("MgO.Al.^Oa), rutile (^titania TiOo) and the imitation gem, strontium titanate. Chr\'soberyl (BeO.AloOs) crs-stals large enough to cut into gems have also been made by this process, but it has not been commercially successful. Jaeger and H. Espig of the I. G. Farbenindustrie. Bitterfeld, Ger., sj-nthesized emerald (3BeO,Al203.6SiOo in 1930 and made cr>-stals, by fusion, large enough to be cut into small gems. The same year Cairol F. Chatham of San Francisco, Calif., also s>Tithesized emerald, and in 1935 succeeded in producing crystals large enough to be cut and marketed. Because of its greater value, many attempts have been made to synthesize diamond. It was generally accepted prior to the 1930s that several of the experimenters had made diamond. Of these, J. B. Hannay (1880) in England, Henri Moissan (1893) in France and Sir William Crookes (1906) in England were most widely credited with success. Hannay heated organic material with water in sealed glass tubes. Moissan dissolved carbon in molten iron in an electric furnace and plunged the molten iron into a brine solu)

The cooling and shrinking of the outside layer while the inwas still molten created terrific pressures which supposedly produced diamonds in the interior. Crookes exploded cordite containing excess carbon in a cylinder and momentarily attained calculated pressures of 100,000 lb. per square inch at a temperature tion.

terior

In attempts to duplicate the processes no diamonds have ever been produced. Microscopic crj'stals of metallic carbides that resemble diamond in many ways have been obtained and identified

modem

tists.

scientific

methods not available

89 1, produced and identified SiC hardest known crystaL 1

The

to those earlier scien-

Edward G. Acheson, while attempting

to make diamonds in (carborundum), the second

diamonds were produced by the General N.Y. The discoverj- was announced in Feb. 1955. (See Diamond: Synthetic Diamonds.) 2. Verneuil or Flame-Fusion Process. Originally developed to manufacture SN-nthetic rubies and sapphires, this method with first

Electric

is

sifts

mass of alumina is built up low heat and a high rate of powder

start the operation a sintered fire-clay support using a

on a

The flame temperature is raised, the rate of powder flow adjusted and the sintered mass lowered at the proper rate until the spine at the base of the boule grows. By controlling the powder flow and the rate of lowering the boule the boule begins to form with a mushroomlike top. When the desired diameter is reached flame characteristics and the rate of powder feed and boule lowering are adjusted to produce a boule of uniform diamflow.

The temperature of the upper surface of the boule is held above the melting point, which for colourless sapphire is

eter.

just

2,030° C.

To

boule growth the continuous attention of the operOnce started, the boule growth proceeds under automatic control and one operator can attend several furnaces. When a boule reaches the desired size, normally 150-200 carats, the operator shuts off the furnace and allows the boule to cooL During the cooling process the boule develops internal strains ator

initiate

is

required.

which would eventually cause the boule to crack. These are reheved by splitting the boule longitudinally, which is induced by snapping off the elongated stem of the boule. Some residual strain which is not disadvantageous for gem and most industrial uses is left in the half-boule developed by splitting. Strain-free whole boules may be produced by annealing at 1,950° C. The strain develops during coohng because the outer surface cools faster than the interior, and causes considerable loss from cracking during the manufacturing process. Most successful boule growth takes place when the principal axis of the crystal lies 60° from the vertical a.xis. For many scientific and technical uses it is desirable to have boules oriented cr>'stallographically. In the U.S., the Linde Air Products company developed the use of an oriented seed cr>'stal on which boule growth was started. The boule then has the same cr>'Stallographic orientation as the seed cr>'stal.

The company

synthetic

company

at Schenectady.

—

only slight modifications is used to produce spinel, rutile titania) and strontium titanate. an imitation gem. It consists essentially of an inverted oxj'hydrogen torch which opens into a ceramic muffle 1

and forms the "boule" on a support which can be lowered as the boule grows.

For the formation of a clear single crystal boule it is essential to start with a highly purified alumina. This is prepared by repeated crystallization of ammonium alum and subsequent calcination which leaves pure alumina AI2O3). The alumina is placed in the container which has a fine sieve at the base. When the (

also

developed a semiautomatic process of making rods by continuing the uniform growth of the spine at the base of the boule. Rods 18 in. long and 0.1-2.0 in. in diameter are commercially available. They are ground to uniform diameters and flame polished in an oxj'hydrogen flame. Short mushroomlike boules up to 4 in. in diameter are also grown from which circular transparent disks up to 0.2 in. thick are cut and poUshed. 3. Corundum (Rubies and Sapphires). Prior to 1940 all synthetic boules were made in S^^'itzerland, Germany and France. For several years after the discovery of the process of manufacture all of the production was used for gem stones. S\'nthetic ruby was the chief product and was produced by adding chromium sulfate to the purified alum before calcining (at 1,000° C. in fused quartz dishes, yielding an intimate mixture of aluminum and chromium o.xide. Five per cent of Cr203 gives a pale-pink boule and 6% a deep-red boule. The higher the percentage of chromium o.xide the more dilficult it is to control boule growth and the greater the loss from boules cracking on cooling. Blue sapphire was produced by adding iron and titanium, green by cobalt and yellow by nickel and magnesium oxides. Various other colours were produced from mixtures of these oxides. Star rubies and sapphires, first developed in the L'.S. in 1947, are made by adding 1% of titanium o.xide to the starting powder and forming the boules in the usual manner. The boules are then heat treated at temperatures between 1.100° C. and 1,500° C. depending on the colour of the "star" to be made. The titanium oxide develops small needlelike crystals of rutile (TiOo) which are oriented along the hexagonal cr>-stal planes within the boule similar to the same needlelike cr\'stals in natural "stars." After cutting en cabochon with the principal crj'stal axis normal to the base

—

of 5,100° C.

by

tapped by the mechanically actuated hammer, the dowTi into the enclosed chamber. Ox>'gen passes into this chamber and carries the finely di\'ided alumina down to the tip of the torch, where it burns with' the hydrogen which enters the larger tube which encloses the central tube. The oxygen carries the fine alumina particles into the intense heat of the central part of the flame where they fuse and fall on the molten upper surface of the boule as droplets. container

alumina

wholesalers.

)

GEM gem has a centred six-ray star. The synthetic gems and more distinctly developed stars than the natural sharper have the finished

crystals.

—

It is very difficult to distinguish between 4. Identification. sapphires, natural colourless sapphires and synthetic colourless but this determination is rarely necessary because these stones have little value. The natural crystals have microscopic irregularly shaped gas and liquid inclusions while the synthetic gems

spherical gas bubbles. The cut synthetic gems show microscopic cracks along and normal to the intersection of facets. Coloured gems may be differentiated under the microscope by characteristics of the pigmentation inherent in the

may have minute usually

processes of growth in addition to the above features present in the colourless gems. Synthetic coloured boules are purer than the coloured natural The only inclusions seen in synthetics are spherical gas stones.

Under

63

with diamond powder. They are made in all colours by adding appropriate pigments. The popular "aquamarine" blue is made by adding small amounts of cobalt, nickel, and titanium and vanadium oxides.

The problem

Because it is singly refractive, spinel is preferred for some indusbut for most the greater hardness of sapphire is desirable. Synthetic rutile, first produced in 1948 6. Rutile (Titania).

trial uses,

—

by the Verneuil

gem

Occasionally, especially in blue sapphire, this banding is visible to the unaided eye. In cut stones they should not be confused with the polishing striations on the surface of the facets often visible

Some natural stones show straight parallel twinning striaoften in a hexagonal pattern in three directions, which may be confused with the structure lines of synthetics. On examining faceted gems, reflections from the facets hide the It is usually necessary to rotate interior features of the stone. the stone under the microscope and view it in several directions facets. tions,

before evidence of the true nature of the stone is found. About 1920 the industrial use of synthetic rubies and sapphires began to be of more importance than the gem use when they began to replace the natural stones for jewel bearings in watches and By 1935 synthetics had replaced natural electrical instruments.

Every household jewels in both Europe and the United States. electric meter had at least two bearings jeweled with synthetics. Although colourless sapphire is easier to grow, ruby is preferred for industrial jewels because of the greater ease in handling it. The Linde Air Products company pioneered in the U.S. in other

which take advantage of the superior hardness of AloOg, second only to diamond. Colourless sapphire rods were introduced as thread guides in the textile industry, followed by the sapphire stylus for phonograph needles. Drilled blanks are used

industrial uses

as orifices for injection nozzles in oil-fired furnaces because they Small spherical resist wear and maintain a constant diameter.

far superior to the natural crystals as a

is

natural rutile

fied

Structure lines are only seen when viewing the stones nearly parallel to their plane, and can be followed by focusing the microscope down into the interior of the stone. Unlike polishing striations they are continuous beneath adjacent

process,

dark in colour and was only occasionsynthetic boules have a faint tinge of yellow colour, but may be produced in nearly any colour by the addition of appropriate colorants. The pure titanium oxide used in the flame-fusion process is prepared by calcining hydrolyzed titanium tetrachloride at 500° C. in an oxygen atmosphere for

gem because

several hours.

under the microscope.

is

clusions.

Synthetic stones show curved lines parallel to the upper growth surface of the boule. They represent uneven distribution of pigmentation caused by minor fluctuations in the rate of growth.

rutile needles in "stars."

gem

gems are usually red

natural

sapphires, while the synthetic have only spherical gas bubble in-

bubbles of microscopic the microscope, natural stones show irregular cavities filled with gas or liquid inclusions with both often present in the same cavity. Impurities such as iron or titanium oxide may be segregated in hexagonal plates or elongated needles respectively.

and

between natural and synthetic

not a popular or or blue in colour and have irregular cavities with liquid or gas inclusions and microscopic crystalline inclusions similar to those of natural rubies and

The

valuable one.

ally cut as a

size

of differentiating

spinels rarely arises because the natural

The furnace

is

stone.

is

The pure

the same as that used in the manufacture of syn-

and spinel although it is sometimes modia third outer tube through which oxygen passes. The single crystal boules are tetragonal with the principal axis parallel to the boule axis. They have a square cross section similar thetic rubies, sapphires

by adding

to the spinel boules, but rarely exceed 100 carats in weight. When removed from the furnace they are black in colour and semiconduc-

some titanium is still unoxidized. On heating in an oxygen atmosphere, oxygen is slowly absorbed, the colour decreases until only a faint yellow tinge is left and the boules become nonconductors. Because synthetic rutile has a higher index of refraction and greater dispersion than diamond, cut gem stones are more brilliant and show more fire. Its double refraction coj, = 2.616, ej, = 2.903 tors of electricity because

exceeds that of any other known substance. Nearly all the titania boules produced are used for cutting into gem stones. They can be readily distinguished from diamond because of the strong double refraction and the prismatic flashes of red and blue due to the The hardness, 6.5, is much inferior to the strong dispersion.

diamond.

—The

details of the Chatham process for synthea closely guarded secret. From the character of the crystals it is thought that the process depends on fusing appropriate chemicals under pressure in the presence of water. Only a 7.

Emerald.

sizing emerald

is

small percentage of the emeralds made are suitable for cutting into gems, but several hundred carats are marketed annually. Synthetic emeralds may be distinguished from the natural gems because they fluoresce with a deep red colour under ultraviolet rays while natural

emeralds do not. 8.

—

Diamonds. No synthetic diamonds suitable for gems have Not only is the possible production of crystals suitable

been made.

metal spheres in ball-point

for gems fraught with serious technical difficulties, but experience indicates that the public will not buy such synthetic gems unless

Other industrial uses of sapphire take advantage of its high diconstant for electronic devices and of its high melting point for heat resistant windows. Because sapphire transmits not only visible light but ultraviolet and infrared (heat) waves with little absorption loss, it has been used in optical systems needing such characteristics. It resists corrosion by both alkalis and acids. The combination of these properties in a single material has made possible the development of many specialized scientific and technical instruments for high temperature and pressure control and

they are cheap in price. For industrial purposes, quality and perfection of crystal growth are not important because a major market for abrasive grits and powder is available which needs only the superior hardness of the

balls of clear sapphire are superior to

pens.

electric

regulation. 5.

Spinel.

At the time diamond was first synthesized, abrasive and powder sold for $3 per carat (nearly $7,000 per pound). The better qualities of synthetic diamond are suitable for wheel dressers and for the manufacture of diamond drill bits used in the mining and oil industries.

diamond.

diamond

grits

IV.

— Spinel boules have a square cross section with round

corners, but otherwise are like AI.2O3 boules in manufacture, size and appearance although they do not develop internal stresses dur-

Spinel has a hardness on Mohs' scale of 8 (AI2O3 has a hardness of 9; diamond, 10), which gives it adequate durability for gem stone use. Spinels are easier to cut and polish than synthetic rubies and sapphires which can only be worked

ing manufacture.

Prior to

World War

IMITATION GEMS II

most imitation gems were made from

which was usually a special high-lead glass. The word paste was applied to such glasses because the components of the mixture silica, lead oxide, potassium carbonate, borax and arsenic oxide with appropriate pigmenting materials were mixed wet to ensure a thorough and even distribution of each. glass,

—

—

GEM CUTTING— GEMINIANI

64

These glasses were softer than ordinary or crown glass, but had a higher index of refraction and dispersion that gave them greater brilliancy and fire. The cheaper imitations were pressed or

molded gems, but on the better qualities the facets were cut and Molded glass imitations can be identified with a hand lens because the edges between the facets are rounded while cut polished.

glass has sharp edges.

Glass imitations can be readily identified because they are singly and the index of refraction and specific gravity, both of which vary with the composition of the glass, are unlike those of the gems they imitate. Most gem stones are doubly refractive. Usually small spherical bubbles are visible in the interior of glass imitations when examined with a lens. Because of the inferior hardness, glass is easily scratched with a file. This test can be applied along the girdle where it, will do httle damage. Because glass is a poorer heat conductor than natural gems it feels warmer to the touch. Glass imitations that have been worn show under the lens fine scratches on the facets and small conchoidal chips along the edges between the facets. refractive,

The finer qualities of imitation gems are made from variously coloured synthetic sapphires or spinels. The superior hardness of these materials makes them much more durable than glass. A new imitation of the diamond was introduced in 1955 that closely resembles diamond in all properties except hardness. Strontium produced

by the Verneuil process has an index diamond is 2.42. Like diamond it is singly refractive. It has considerably more dispersion that is not noticeable to the layman but which to the trained observer serves to distinguish it from the diamond. Its hardness of only 5.5 as against 10 for a diamond keeps it from being a serious competitor of the diamond as a gem stone. Before World War II most costume jewelry was made with glass imitations. After World War II glass was displaced by the many newly developed plastics, which are of two kinds. Thermosetting plastics, such as Bakelite, permanently harden when molded and will not soften on reheating. Thermoplastics, such as Lucite and Plexiglas, soften on heating and can be molded and remolded. With proper pigmenting agents both types of plastics can be given any desired colour. Plastic jewelry can be readily identified because it is light in weight and is easily scratched with a knife. Because of their cheapness and easy workability the many new plastics profoundly changed the market for the cheaper forms of titanate

in boules

of refraction of 2.40 while

jewelry.

See also references under

"Gem"

in the

Index volume. (C. B. Sn.)

Bibliography.

—General:

R.

M.

Pearl, Popular Gemology (1948) of the World, 5th ed. (1948) A. C.

R. M. Shipley, Famous Diamonds Austin and M. Mercer, The Story of Diamonds, 3rd ed. (1948)

;

;

Pazzini,

Le

pietre preciose nella Storia della

Medicina

—

e nella

;

A.

Leggenda

(1939); H. Barth, Das Geschmeide Schmuck und Edelsteinkunde, 2 vol. (no date); K. Schlossmacher, Edelsteine und Perlen (1954); Michael Weinstein, The World of Jewel Stones (1958) Marcus Baerwald and Tom Mahoney, The Story of Jewelry (I960). History: Mesopotamia: H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals (1939) and Stratified Cylinder Seals From the Diyala Region (1955); E. Porada, Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections, vol. i. The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library (1948) P. Amiet, La Glyptique mesopotamienne archaique (1961). Anatolia: D. G. Hogarth, Hittite Seals (1920) (still valuable for stamp seals). Egypt: F. Petrie, "Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty," Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth Memoir, p. 24, pi. xii, fig. 3-7, and pi. xviii-xxix; P. E. Newberry, Egyptian Antiquities, Scarabs, an Introduction to the Study of Egyptian Seals and Signet Rings (1906); H. R. Hall, Catalogue of Egyptian Scarabs, Etc., in the British Museum, vol. i (1913) G. Brunton, Qati and Badari (1927-30). Crete and Mycenae: A. J. Evans, Scripla Minoa (1909) and The Palace of Minos at Knossos, vol. i-iv (1921-35) F. Matz, Die friihkretischen Siegel (1928) V. E. G. Kenna, Cretan Seals, With a Catalogue of the Minoan Gems in the Ashmolean ;

;

;

;

Museum

Postclassical Gems: 0. M. Dalton, Catalogue of the Post-Classical the British Museum (1915) H. Wentzel, "Mittelalterliche Gemmen," in Zeitschrift des deutschen Vereins fiir Kunstwissenschaft, vol. viii (1941), "Mittelalter und Antike im Spiegel kleiner Kunstwerke des

Gems in

;

13.Jahrhunderts," in Studier Tilldgnade Henrik Cornell (1950) E. Kris Eichler, Die Kameen im Kunsthistorischen Museum in Wien E. Kris, Meister und Meisterwerke der Steinschneidekunst in (1927) der italienischen Renaissance (1929). (Er. St.) Natural Gems: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Les Six voyages de JeanBaptiste Tavernier (1676), Eng. trans, by John Phillips (1677), is the first comprehensive account of the gem industry. Robert Boyle, An Essay About the Origin and Virtues of Gems (1672), and David Jeffries, A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls, 2nd ed. (1751), are also of historical importance. Max Bauer, Edelsteinkunde (1909), revised by Karl H. Schlossmacher (1932), is the most detailed work on gems. L. J. Spencer, A Key to Precious Stones (1937), G. F. Herbert Smith, Gemstones, 9th ed. (1940), E. H. Kraus and C. B. Slawson, Gems and Gem Materials, 5th ed. (1947), are comprehensive texts. H. P. Whitlock, The Story of the Gems (1936), is a popular but authoritative work on the more important gems. G. F. Kunz, The Curious Lore of Precious Stones (1913), The Magic of Jewels and Charms (1915) and Shakespeare and Precious Stones (1916), and C. W. Cooper, The Precious Stones of the Bible (1924) contain much interesting information. J. Escard, Les Pierres precieuses (1914) and H. Michel, Die kunstlichen Edelsteine (1926) are authoritative. The Minerals Yearbook, U.S. Bureau of Mines, includes a chapter on gem stones giving world-wide annual production figures on gems. A comprehensive survey of the diamond industry appears annually in the Jewelers' Circular-Keystone. Synthetic Gems: H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. Caron, "Memoire sur I'apatite, La wagnerite et quelques especes artificielles de phosphates metaUiques," Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, vol. xlvii, p. 985 (1858); A. Gaudin, "Sur la production de quelques pierres precieuses artificielles," Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, vol. Lxix, p. 1342 (1869); P. Hautefeuille and A. Perrey, "Sur les combinaisons silicatees de la glucine," Ann. Chim. (Phys.), 6 series, vol. xx, p. 447 (1890); C. Friedel, "Sur I'existence du diamant dans le fer meteorique de Canon Diablo," Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, vol. cxv, p. 1037 (1892) A. Verneuil, "Production artificielle du rubis par fusion," Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, vol. cxxxv, p. 791 (1902), "Sur la nature des oxydes qui colorent le saphir oriental," Institut de France, Academie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, vol. cli, A. J. Moses, "Some Tests Upon the Synthetic Sapphires p. 1063 (1910) of Verneuil," Amer. J. Sci., vol. Ixx, p. 271 (Oct. 19'l0) I. H. Levin, "Synthesis of Precious Stones," /. Industr. Engng. Chem., vol. v, no. 6, 495-500 (June 1913); G. Wild, Praktikum der Edelsteinkunde pp. O. (1936). (C. B. Sn.) Jee Gem. ;

and F.

;

;

;

;

GEM CUTTING: GEMINI

(the Twins) is the third sign in the zodiac (g.v.), a constellation of stars denoted by the symbol The Egyptians

X

•

symbolized this constellation as a couple of young goats; the Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously said to be Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo or Triptolemus and lasion; the Arabians used a pair of peacocks. The two brightest stars in Gemini are known as Castor and Pollux; Pollux (/? Geminorum) is slightly brighter than Castor (a Geminorum). Castor is a remarkable multiple system consisting of at least six stars. The two brightest members are each spectroscopically double and the faint, distant component (Castor C) is an orange-coloured dwarf eclipsing system in which the two stars revolve about each other roughly once every 19 hours. The system of Castor is about 45 light-years from the sun, and its two brightest stars form an interesting double for a small telescope. Pollux is a yellow giant approximately 35 light-years from the sun. There are two bright variable stars in the constellation: the Cepheid variable, f Geminorum, whose light varies in a period of about ten days, and the red irregular variable star, rj Geminorum. At the time of its discovery (1930) the planet Pluto was in the neighbourhood of the star 6 Geminorum. See also Star.

GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO

(c.

1687-1762), Italian com-

poser, violinist, writer on musical performance

and a leading

figure

;

(1960).

Gems: A. Furtwanglcr, Antike Gemmen, vol. i-iii (1900), the fullest and best general account of the subject; M. N. H. StoryMaskelyne, The Marlborough Gems (1870) J. D. Beazley, The Lewes House Collection of Ancient Gems (1920); G. M. A. Richter, Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1920) H. B. Walters, Catalogue of Engraved Gems and Cameos in the British Museum (1926). For a list of 16th- to 18th-century publications of gem collections, see A. Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen, vol. iii, pp. 402 ff. Sassanian Gems: P. Horn and G. Steindorff, Sassanidische Sieeelsteine (1891). Classical

;

;

18th-century music. Born at Lucca about 1687, he held posts in his native city and in Naples before going to England in 1714. In London he soon established himself as an exceptionally brilliant performer. His opus 1 sonatas for violin and continue were published in 1716 and were widely regarded as being on the same musical level as those of Corelli, under whom Geminiani may in early

have studied. They were, however, considered to be almost unplayable because of their technical difficulty. He later pubhshed further solo and trio sonatas but was chiefly noted for his concerti grossi, of

which

his

opus

2

and opus

3 sets

became extremely popu-

GEMISTUS PLETHO— GENE up to the Geminiani spent He died in Dublin in Sept. 1762. periods in Paris and Dublin. The Art of Playing on the Violin which of works, theoretical His (1731) is the most important, had considerable circulation and influence in 18th-century England and remain an important source of information on the performance of late baroque music. Geminiani's music has an intensity and nervous energy unusual at the period. He was particularly fond of textural richness and his string lar in

England and held

a place in the concert repertory

early years of the 19th century.

writing

is

Later in his

life

always effective and highly idiomatic.

GEMISTUS PLETHO, GEORGE

(S. J. Sa.)

1355-1452), the leading scholar and philosopher of the last century of the Byzantine empire, is chiefly notable for his influence upon the Renaissance (c.

prinin western Europe and for the attempt that he made in his cipal work, the Laws (Nomoi), to establish a new polytheistic religion based upon Platonic and Neoplatonic principles, which, He he hoped, would supersede both Christianity and Islam. was born and trained in Constantinople but spent the most important years of. his life in Mistra, then an important citadel in the

Peloponnese.

During the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438-39), which, deproposed union between the Greek and Roman Churches, he attended as lay adviser to the Greek delegation, he fired the humanists with new interest in Plato (who had spite his hostility to the

been ignored in the west during the middle ages because of the preoccupation with Aristotle) and inspired Cosimo de' Medici with the project of founding the Platonic Academy of Florence. More momentously, in his talks with the astronomer Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli and others and by his Excerpts From Strabo, Pletho introduced the Geography of Strabo to the west (where it had hitherto been unknown) and led the way to the overthrow of

65

saw a chromosome; he talked instead of hypothetical entities that (See Mendel, he called "units," "factors" and "characters." Gregor Johann.) The method of reappearance of diverse characters in successive generations, following crosses between two contrasting parental types, was found by Mendel to conform to certain laws, of "segregation" and "random assortment" (see Heredity; Genetics). According to these laws the characters must be determined by definite units that persist, multiply and enter into various combinations, from generation to generation, without themselves becoming changed thereby. Later in the 1 9th century, though Mendel's laws were forgotten, microscopic observations of chromosomes led several biologists independently to the conclusion that these are transmitted as self-reproducing units, or rather as collections

of units of diverse kinds, both in the process of multiplication of cells occurring during development and also in heredity. Soon after

when Mendel's laws were chromosomes are

1900,

tained that the

rediscovered, evidence was obin some way closely associated

with the Mendelian units, or genes. And gradually, through a comprehensive series of studies, beginning with those of T. H. Morgan and his students, on normal and abnormal hereditary transmission,

coupled with observations of the chromosomes and chromosome parts in question, the case for this conclusion became convincingly established (see Cytology). Relation of Genes to Chromosomes. Chromosomes are in reality exceedingly fine, relatively long filaments that are almost

—

Ptolemy's erroneous geographical theories. He thus greatly affected the Renaissance conception of the configuration of the earth and so played an important, if indirect, role in the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, who cites Strabo among his

but during cell division each filament coils up into a dense helix, becomes covered by a gelatinous matrix and assumes the compact sausagelike shape formerly thought of as characteristic of a chromosome. The filament itself, or chromonema, consists of or contains hundreds or thousands of diverse genes connected in single file, in a given order, either directly attached to one another or possibly joined together by a fine fibre. Before each ordinary cell division (mitosis) each filament has doubled, by virtue of the reproduction of each gene

principal authorities.

within

Besides the Laws, Pletho composed orations, two memoirs advocating social and economic reform for the defense of the Peloponnese, numerous excerpts from ancient Greek authors and essays on the differences between Plato and Aristotle, on Zoroaster, on the Oracula Chaldaica and on astronomy, music, history, rhetoric, the Nearly all his writing virtues and various theological subjects.

two

is

marked by passionate devotion

its

to

Greece and a desire to restore

ancient glory.

—

Bibliography. C. Alexandre, Plethon: Trjiiti des lots (1858); S. Lampros, Palaiologeia kai Peloponnesiaka, 3-4 (1926-30) J. P. Migne, ;

Patrologia Graeca, clx (1866) Fran-nchronous machines was introduced

oscillations set in 1928.

first

By

the 1950s almost every steam-turbine-driven generator with a rating above 20,000 kw. was hydrogen cooled. An

innovation of 1952 was to make the armature conductors hollow so that they could be cooled by blowing hydrogen through them.

—

FIG. 1. ELEMENTARY DC. GENERATOR WITH ONE-TURN ARMATURE COIL AND TWO COMMUTATOR BARS

GENERATOR, ELECTRIC Place the thumb, the

ing's right-hand rule.

75

and the

first finger,

^^r,.

second finger of the right hand mutually at right angles, thereby forming the axes of a three-co-ordinate system. Now, while pointing the first finger toward the right in the direction of the magnetic

N

pole, turn the

hand

thumb points upmoves in front of the

until the

lines

from the

ward

in the direction the left-hand coil side

N

pole face. Then the second finger points into the page as the direction of the generated voltage in the left-hand side of the coil. The right-hand coil side moves downward in front of the S pole

through magnetic lines directed from right to left, so the voltage generated in that coil side is directed out of the page. The righthand brush is the positive one since it is the one toward which the voltage generated in a coil side acts. The time variation (wave form) of the voltage between brushes in fig. 1 depends upon the length of the air gap, the contour of the

by

pole face and the percentage of the armature surface covered

D.C. voltmeter between brushes in fig. I would read the average value of the voltage. This would probably be more than one-half the maximum voltage, although the exact value would depend upon the wave form. The voltmeter reading would increase in direct proportion if the speed of rotation were increased. The current in the field circuit could be changed by adjusting the setting of the field rheostat shown. Increasing the field current would increase the voltmeter reading, not in direct proportion with the current but in direct proportion with the number of magnetic lines. Starting with zero current, as the current is increased, the

number

of lines at

in-

first

As higher values of of increase of lines becomes less than

creases approximately in direct proportion.

current are reached, the rate

that of the current because of magnetic saturation in steel. If the brushes in fig. 1 were shifted 90° from the position shown,

brush would make contact with a coil side while the side moves from the centre of one pole to the centre of the other. The voltage between brushes would be alternating with an average value of zero, as would be proved by a zero reading on a D.C. voltmeter. Ring Winding. If the one-turn coil of fig. 1 were replaced by a coil of more turns wound in the slots and the coil ends connected to the commutator bars, the voltage between brushes would be increased in proportion with the number of turns. For most applia

—

cations of D.C. generators it is desired that the percentage variation with time of the voltage delivered froin the brushes be small. The one-coil generator of fig. 1 would have too great variaTo reduce the variation, the number tion for most applications.

and commutator bars is increased. An doing this was with a ring winding such as that shown in fig. 2. This winding has four sections and there are four commutator bars. Here the number of magnetic lines linking a section varies from zero when the centre turn of a section is opposite the centre of a pole to a maximum when the centre turn is opposite a brush. The

means

early

of coils

voltage generated in a section

and zero

in the

in the

the voltage

A'

in

is

a

maximum

of

in the first position

second position.

The voltages The voltage in

mum. The

wave forms.

four sections have identical is zero when that in A

section A' is

a

maximum when

voltage in section B'

the voltage in B'

is

a

is

zero

maximum when

that

when

that in

that in

B

is

zero,

is

A

in

is

B a

is

a

and

maxi-

zero,

and

maximum.

However, the voltages in A and A' differ in time pfosition from those in B and B' by the time for one-quarter revolution. Note In that circuit the that the four sections form a closed circuit. voltage of A is always equal to and opposed to that of A', and the voltage of B is always equal to and opposed to that of B'. As a result, no current flows in the windings when no external connections are

FIG.

2.

— RING

WINDING FOR

D.C.

GENERATOR

A

a pole face.

made

to the brushes.

shown, two commutator bars touch one brush and the other two touch the other. Then section A is short-circuited by one brush and section A' is short-circuited by the other. At this instant the voltage between brushes is that of section B in one path and that of section B' in the other path. As the armature turns on beyond this position, coil A comes under the influence of the S pole, its voltage reverses from the previous direction and now adds to that of section B' in the right-hand path. At the same time section A' comes under the influence of the N pole, its voltage reverses from the previous direction and it now adds to that of section B in sition

As rotation continues the transfer of sections from one path to another continues. By using more winding sections and more commutator bars than are shown in fig. 2, the percentage time variation in the voltage between brushes can be

the left-hand path.

reduced to a relatively small value. When a load (a conducting element)

is

connected between

current drawn divides equally between the two paths, entering the armature at the negative brush and As a winding section is being leaving it at the positive brush. transferred from a path on one side of a brush to a path on the

brushes

in fig. 2, the total

other side, the current in it reverses direction. This reversal occurs during the time a section is short-circuited by a brush, an inAlthough the generated terval called the time of commutation. voltage in a section becomes zero and then reverses during the time of commutation, the current in the section does not become zero

and reverse simultaneously.

The

self-inductance

(electrical in-

ertia) of the section causes the current to decrease more slowly to zero than the voltage does. After the current in the section has become zero, the reversed

generated voltage causes the current to increase in the reversed diThis rate of growth is limited by the self-inductance of rection. the section. If, by the end of the time of commutation, the current in a section has not had time to reverse to a magnitude equal to that of the current in the path in which it is inserted, a spark occurs between a brush and the commutator bar from which it has just

Some sparking can be tolerated, but excessive parted contact. sparking causes objectionable heating and pitting of the commutator bars. Most modern D.C. generators have one or more interpoles (commutating poles), which are located midway between the main poles. The winding on an interpole is connected in series with a lead from a brush in order that the number of magnetic lines passing from the interpole to the armature will vary in approxiThe locain the armature coils. such that its magnetic lines generate a voltThe age in an armature coil during the time of commutation. direction of the voltage is that required to reduce the current in mate proportion with the current tion of an interpole

is

are concerned.

and then establish it in the reverse direction. economic and mechanical reasons, the ring winding has been superseded by the drum winding. In fig. 3 are represented the form and the connections of coils in a lap type of drum winding. One coil with sides numbered 1 and 10, respectively, is placed so that side 1 occupies the upper half of one slot

voltage between brushes varies from a minimum at one poarmature to a maximum at another position. When the armature has turned about one-eighth revolution from the po-

and side 10 occupies the lower half of another four slot pitches distant. This coil may consist of one or more turns of insulated copper wire taped together as shown. The ends of the coil are

During the part of a revolution that the brushes are in contact with the commutator bars that they touch in fig. 2, the voltages of sections A and B add in one path between the brushes, and the voltages of sections A' and B' add to an exactly equal value in the other path. Hence there are two paths in parallel as far as the brushes

The

sition of the

a coil to zero

Drum Winding.— For

GENERATOR, ELECTRIC

76

excited generator

by using

it

to send current

through the

field

wind-

ing.

4 are represented the connections of a shunt-type selfNormally no load is connected to the leads coming from the brushes until the voltage has been adjusted to a desired value. With the switch in the field winding circuit open and the armature driven at rated speed, it is assumed that the residual magnetic lines are from left to right as indicated by M^ and that the low voltage between brushes has the polarity indicated. When the switch is closed, current out of the positive brush flows through the field winding in such a direction as to produce In

fig.

excited generator.

an increased number of magnetic lines. This increase causes an increase in the voltage between brushes, which in turn causes a further increase of current. Saturation in the steel in the magnetic circuit prevents the voltage from increasing indefinitely. The value attained can be varied over a wide range by varying the reFROM

C. L DAWES, -ELtCTRlCAL HILL BOOK COMPANY

— LAP

FIG. 3.

E

ti

u

l

% EE

OL

B

1

^

3

RC

BY

ED

sistance of the field rheostat.

COURTESY OF MCCBA

WINDING ON ARMATURE OF DC. GENERATOR

connected to adjacent commutator bars. A second coil with sides 3 and 12 is displaced one slot pitch from the first with connections to the commutator being advanced by one bar. With this arrangement of coils continued around the armature a closed winding results, having as many commutator bars as there are coils. The ends of each coil connect to adjacent commutator bars. With a drum winding the number of magnetic lines linking a coil

numbered

is

a

maximum when

of a pole.

the centre of the coil

all

is

zero.

lines

is

if

is

a

maximum,

zero and

The maximum number

those entering or leaving a pole

the resistance

opposite the centre

At that instant the rate of change of

the generated voltage

would be

is

When

may

be only slightly greater than that with no current When the resistance is zero, the voltage is in the field winding. likely to be of the order of 50% above rated value. The value of field current required to produce rated voltage is likely to be of the order of S% of the current rating of the generator. If in fig. 4 the connections of the field windings to the brushes the voltage

of lines

the span of a coil

is

equal to the distance from the centre of one pole to the centre of the next. The number of hnes linking a coil is zero when the centre of the coil is midway between the centres of two adjacent poles. At that instant the rate of change of lines is a maximum and the generated voltage is a maximum. Self-Excited Generators. The generator of fig. 1 is separately excited since its field winding receives current from a source other than the armature terminals. Although the source is represented here as a battery, most separately excited generators receive their field current from a smaller D.C. generator known as an exciter. An exciter is often mounted on a shaft extension from the generator, both being driven by the same prime mover. After current has been sent through the field winding of a D.C. generator and then removed, some residual magnetic lines remain in the magnetic circuit. As a result, when the generator is driven

—

may be of the order of 5% of the appears between the armature terminals. This used to produce a build-up to a higher value in a self-

ONNECTIONS OF A SERIES-WOUND

at rated speed a voltage that

rated

voltage

voltage

is

D.C.

GENERATOR

were to be interchanged and if the switch were closed, the current would flow in the field windings in such a direction as to reduce the number of magnetic hnes below the residual value. As a result the voltage

would reduce.

Consider a shunt generator that is being driven at rated speed with the field rheostat set so that rated voltage is obtained between brushes when no current is being drawn by a load. Under that condition the only current delivered by the brushes is that to the This is obtained equally from the various paths in field windings. the armature winding. When a load is connected it draws additional current from the brushes, and the currents in the armature winding paths increase. These currents cause a magnetic action that in turn causes a reduction (usually small) in the

number

of

magnetic hnes and a corresponding reduction in the voltage produced in the winding. In addition, some of the voltage produced is used in sending the current through the resistance of the winding. These two factors cause the voltage between brushes to be reduced below its value when no load is connected. This reduction

FIG. 4.

— CONNECTIONS OF A

SHUNT-WOUND GENERATOR

in voltage causes a reduction in the field current and a further reduction in the number of magnetic lines. Hence the voltage reduces more than it would have if the generator had been separately With a given load current being delivered, it would be excited. possible to bring the voltage back to its no-load value by cutting resistance out of the field rheostat. Because the percentage variations in its output voltage are rather great when changes in the

GENERATOR, ELECTRIC that extend flanges

by

beyond the

steel wire.

77

slots at

each end are held

The commutator

is

made

down on the end number of cop-

of a

per segments, insulated from each other and from the spider and clamping flanges by pasted mica flakes. In small machines the ends of the armature coils may be connected directly to the segments. In large machines the ends are connected to risers which are copper strips extending outward from the segments.

The

field structure is

composed

of a steel ring to the inside of

which are bolted the main and the commutating poles. The main poles are built up of steel laminations, thicker than those in the armature core. The lower portion of the pole is broadened to spread the magnetic lines over most of the armature surface. Above the pole shoe and around the pole core are placed the field coils.

The shunt

field coils, consisting of a large

number

of turns

of insulated wire, are usually connected in series with a field The series field coils, consisting rheostat between the brushes.

of a few turns of

heavy copf)er wire, are usually supported with

the shunt coils.

— CONNECTIONS

FIG. 6.

loati

Graphitized carbon brushes are used with an area such that the normal current density is about 40 amp. per square inch. These are arranged in axial rows, one row for each main pole, equally spaced around the commutator periphery. The brushes fit into metal brush holders and are held against the commutator by spring pressure. The holders are bolted -to brackets that are supported

OF CUMULATIVE COMPOUND DC. GENERATOR

current occur, a shunt generator

is

best suited to applications

where the load current required is nearly constant. The connections of a series D.C. generator are shown in fig. S. Here, if there is no connected load there is no current in the field

Under

winding. speed,

the

that condition, with the generator driven at rated magnetic lines cause the voltage between

residual

brushes to be about 5% of rated value. If a load is connected, the current drawn flows through the field winding and produces a magnetic action to cause voltage build-up just as in a shunt generator.

Because all the load current flows through it, the series winding needs fewer turns and a larger cross section of wire than the shunt winding to deliver an equal rated voltage at rated speed. The output voltage of a series generator varies from a low value with a small load current to rated value when rated current is delivered. Since most applications require a generator whose voltage output is nearly constant, regardless of the amount of current delivered, the series generator is not widely used. A cumulative compound D.C. generator has both a shunt and a series field winding, connected as in fig. 6. With the proper connections of the shunt winding to the brushes, the generator builds up with no load connected, just as a shunt generator does. The rheo-

can be adjusted so that rated voltage is obtained. When a is connected, the current drawn through the series field winding causes a magnetic action that may increase the number of magnetic lines and consequently the voltage between lines to the load, even though the magnetic action of the current in the armature windings tends to reduce the number of magnetic lines, and some of the voltage produced in the armature windings is used in sending

stat

load

current through the resistance of the armature and series field windings. If the magnetic action of the series field winding is

enough

to cause a rise in the voltage

load current occurs.

is

As a

between brushes when the

increased, a rise in the shunt field winding current

result the voltage rises

more than

it

would have

if

no

current had occurred. If the voltage delivered to a load by a generator is greater when rated current is being delivered than with no current, the generator is overcompound. If the magnetic action of the series field winding is such

change

in the

shunt

field

is equal to that with no compound. D.C. Generator Construction. A typical armature for a D.C. generator has a shaft on which are mounted two spiders, one to support the armature core and the other the commutator. The core is built up of thin steel laminations, insulated from each other and held together by end flanges. In the slots in the core are placed copper conductors which are insulated from the core with treated fabric or paper materials, or pasted mica flakes, and held in the slots by insulating wedges. The portions of the conductors

that the voltage delivered at rated current

current, the generator

is

flat

—

The centrifugal forces present limit the permisspeeds of an armature and a commutator to about 10,000 and 6,000 ft. per minute, respectively. The terminal voltage is limited by the commutator segment width and the permisMechanical construction limits sible voltage between segments. the minimum segment width to about 0.1 in. The average voltage

by a brush yoke. sible peripheral

between segments is limited to about 20 v. by the sensitivity of the commutator to arcing between brushes at times of sudden load About 2,000 v. from one commutator is the current changes. highest value obtained in normal designs. When higher voltages are needed, two or more commutators are connected in series. D.C. generators are built in capacities up to 300 kw. at 12 v. for electroplating, 5,000 kw. at 600 v. and 240 r.p.m. for industrial power, 1,500 kw. at 1,500 v. and 400 r.p.m. for railways, and 100 kw. at 15,000 v. for radio transmitters. EflEiciencies range as high as 94% on the largest units.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT GENERATORS Let the two commutator bars of fig. 1 be replaced by two continuous rings mounted side by side on, but insulated from, the shaft that rotates the armature coil. Let one end of the coil be attached With to one ring and the other end be attached to the other ring. this arrangement the voltage between rings is alternating and can be obtained externally between brushes riding one on each ring. It is generators are constructed in this manner. cheaper to brace and insulate the armature winding when the ar-

Few modern

mature structure is stationary and the field poles are rotated. Windings on the poles are attached to collector rings mounted on and insulated from the shaft and separately excited with direct current from an exciter connected to brushes that ride on the rings. In an A.C. generator it is desired that the wave form of voltage produced be a sine wave. This can be approximated closely by shaping the contour of the pole pieces and by the proper connections of the armature coils. Most A.C. generators are of the threephase type with three armature terminals. The armature windings are divided into three distinct sections that generate voltages that The magnitude of the are one-third cycle apart in time phase. voltage produced can be varied by varying the field current, usually by means of a rheostat in the exciter field circuit. Let the voltage

be set at rated value when no current is being delivered by the armature. Now let a load be connected that draws equal currents from the three terminals. The magnetic action of the currents depends upon the nature of the connected load. If it has a lagging power factor, such as is characteristic of induction motors, This rethe action is to reduce the number of magnetic lines. duction, plus the fact that some voltage is used in sending the current through the windings, causes a decrease in the voltage between a pair of terminals. If the load has a leading power

GENERATOR, ELECTRIC

78 factor, the lines

magnetic action may increase the number of magnetic to cause an increase in the voltage between termi-

enough

nals.

Steam-Turbine-Driven Generators.

—High turbine

so that the rotating part (rotor) is long compared with its diameter. rigid, large rotors are usually made from solid steel

To make them

forgings. In European practice, only the rotor body is made from a forging, and the separate, laminated teeth are inserted in doveThe field windings are concentric tailed slots cut in this body.

with mica and laid in deep radial ends are usually held in place by shrunk-on retaining rings of forged nonmagnetic steel. Fans attached to the end of the rotor blow the cooling medium air or hydrogen ^along the rotor surface and out through radial ducts Small channels are provided in the stationary portion (stator). below the rotor slots, or adjacent to the slot walls, through which the cooling medium is driven, leaving the rotor through radial openings. When air is used for cooling, about 100 cu.ft. per minute are required for each kilowatt of loss, or about 200,000 cu.ft. per minute for a 100,000-kva. generator of 98% efficiency. To prevent excessive dirt accumulation, large generators are completely enclosed and the air is recirculated after passing through coils of strip copper, insulated

The

coil

—

—

finned water tube coolers.

Hydrogen has seven times greater thermal conductivity and 30% lower surface temperature drop for a given transfer rate than air and permits about 25% greater output rating for a given machine. The lower density of hydrogen reduces the windage loss to about 10% of that with arr and yields about 1% gain in the generator efficiency. Automatic devices control the hydrogen pressure and purity, replacing gas lost by leakage to avoid a possible explosion by admixture of air. Shaft seals hold the loss of hydrogen to

low values, usually by means of lubricating

oil

pumped through

and hydrogen being continuously removed by a pumping system through which the oil the small shaft clearance, the entrapped air

is

steam-turbine-driven generator has a

cylindrical

rotor used on slower speed generators. eflSciency

requires high speed, and high speed produces centrifugal stresses that make it necessar>' to construct a generator with a large output

slots in the rotor.

A

or

non-

salient pole rotor, in contrast to the salient (or projecting) pole

—

A.C. Generators. Both horizontal machines are used as water-wheel-driven A.C. generators. In the vertical shaft machine, the weight of the rotor and the downward thrust of the water are carried by a thrust bearing at the upper end of the shaft, while guide bearings above and below hold the rotor in a central position. A thrust bearing carries a load of about 400 lb. per square inch and is cooled by oil. The field structure is usually revolved inside the stationary armaThe armature frame ordinarily is built up of ture structure. welded steel plates. As a water wheel may attain nearly double normal speed before the water can be shut off after a full load is dropped, the generator rotor must pass severe overspeed tests.

Water-Wheel-Driven

and

A

vertical shaft

pilot exciter at the top supplies the field current of the

exciter

below

it.

That

main

in turn supplies the field current of the

As water may leak through closed turbine gates, brakes are provided to stop and hold the rotor when it is taken out of service. These are mounted below the rotor. The generator is cooled by air drawn in between the poles from the ends and blown generator.

out through radial ducts in the stator. In Europe, and to an increasing extent in the U.S., amortisseur windings are used. These consist of copper bars passing through slots in the pole faces and solidly connected by short-circuiting If a momentary oversupply of water to the rings at both ends. wheel should cause the generator frequency to tend to exceed that of the system with

which

it is

connected, currents are induced in

the windings in a direction to produce braking action on the rotor.

momentary undersupply of water should cause the generator frequency to tend to be less than that of the system, the induced currents produce an accelerating force on the rotor. Water-wheel-driven generators, except for small ones, have a If a

full-load efficiency ranging

from

95%

to

The Kaplan

98%.

pro-

peller turbine with adjustable pitch blades yields higher generator

circulated.

speeds in low-head installations than was feasible with fixed blade turbines. These turbines have runaway speeds that may be as

The

great as

ings

is

stator frame that supports the segmental armature punch-

usually built up of steel plates and ribs welded together.

280%

of rated speed.

Water-wheel generators are so constructed as

to

make

the in-

Machines are sometimes made with split frames, or with separate inner and outer frames, to facilitate shipment. The outside of the frame is covered with steel sheeting. The interior space ser\'es as a ventilating passage. The armature punchings are of 2% to 4% silicon steel, 0.025 in. or less in thickness and insulated from each other by thin paper or enamel. Because of the great core length, armature windings usually are made of half coils or bars that are

ertia of the rotating structure high.

soldered together at the ends after insertion in the slots. To reduce the eddy current losses in them, the armature conductors are made of several insulated strands transposed at regular intervals

windings (unless the poles are solid). Most of them operate at low speeds and have cast-iron spiders and bolted poles. Some are made with the revolving field structure outside the stationary armature to increase the inertia or flywheel effect. Since the engine torque varies during a revolution, it produces oscillations above and below the uniform speed desired, a phenomenon known

throughout the length of the core so that each strand occupies each of the possible positions in a slot for equal portions of the length.

Armature winding insulation usually is made of mica flakes cemented to paper tape or sheets, a number of layers being taped or wrapped on the conductors and bonded with varnish. The varnish solvent is removed later by vacuum treating and baking processes. Asphalt-base varnishes are commonly used. A layer of asbestos tape and conducting varnish is applied to coil exteriors to prevent damage from electrical discharges that might otherwise occur between a coil surface and slot edges.

Armature

end connections must be well braced to withstand the forces that may act on them when a short circuit occurs on the system supplied from the generator. The force beween two adjacent coil ends is proportional to the square of the current in the coils. The not unusual short-circuit current of 10 times normal value results in 100 times the normal force. The magnitude of the short-circuit current is limited not only by resistance of the winding but also by what is called its reactance. High reactance is undesirable insofar as it affects the change in generator voltage with change in armature current, but it is necessary to hold shortcircuit currents to values that can be tolerated. Armature slots are very deep in proportion to their width to increase the reactance and to provide large cooling surfaces. coil

The high

inertia

is

necessary

to reduce to a value that can be tolerated the fluctuations in the speed that accompany sudden changes in the load or the water

supply.

—This

Engine-Driven A.C. Generators.

t)^e of machine

is

similar to a water-wheel generator. The main differences are that engine-driven generators have horizontal shafts and amortisseur

as "hunting."

When

a generator operates alone, hunting

may

cause flickering

of connected lights or undesirable surges in the speeds of con-

nected motors. When two or more generators are in parallel, it may be that one engine is accelerating at an instant when another is decelerating; and this may cause a large interchange of current

between the generators. In an extreme case, continued parallel operation sible

may be imposbecause of the tripping of overcurrent devices in the con-

necting circuits.

—

Special Types of Generators. Although the homopolar genwas the first developed and is the only one that generates direct current without a commutator, it is of no commercial importance because it costs more and has a lower efficiency than a commutator machine of equal rating. A generator with permanent magnet field poles has some application in measuring speed, for control purposes and as a magneto for an ignition system. On the automobile, a special type of D.C. generator or control is required so that sufficient current is delivered at low driving

erator

.

GENESIS

79

duces the proper polarity at the armature terminals. If the car is stopped and then started in the opposite direction, the commutator shifts the brushes to the other extreme position, and the generator produces the same polarity at the armature terminals as

and payment of tithes to Melchizedek of Salem (itiv), and of Abraham's narrowly averted sacrifice of his son Isaac in the land of Moriah (xxii). Both Isaac and his son Jacob retained their connections with the land from which Abraham came by taking their wives from among their kindred there, Jacob spending many years in the home of his father-in-law, Laban, with Leah and Rachel, the two sisters whom he married (xxviii-xxxi). Here special interest attaches to the story of Jacob's dream at Bethel when he left home (xxviii), and his encounter with the divine assailant by the ford of Jabbok on his return (xxxii, 22-32). Ch. xxxvii-1 tell the immortal story of Joseph, who by his dreams incurred the jealousy and hatred of his brothers, who sold him as a slave into Egypt (xxxvii), where his moral integrity once more Subsebrought trouble and imprisonment upon him (xxxix). quently his skill in interpreting dreams (xl) brought him before Pharaoh (xli), who was so impressed by Joseph's interpretations of his own dreams that he promoted him to high office in the state and entrusted important aspects of the administration of the land to him. There follows the story of the coming of Joseph's brothers to Egypt to seek food in a time of famine, and of Joseph's magnanimous forgiveness of their former callous conduct toward him, and the subsequent descent of his father Jacob and the whole famThis leads on to the ily to Kve in the land of Goshen (xliii-xlvii). story of the oppression in Egypt, with which Exodus opens, and the subsequent deliverance under Moses and the establishment of

before.

the covenant of Sinai.

speeds and yet not too third-brush generators

much made

is

delivered at high speeds.

Early

a differential magnetizing effect of the armature current to limit it to a permissible value. Modern generators have only two brushes and have a regulator that automatically limits the voltage and current output to perHowever, even the most efficient small D.C. missible values. use

of

generators proved incapable of meeting the demand of many added electrical accessories, and by the 1960s automotive manufacturers were resorting to A.C. generators coupled with converters to provide direct current for ignition and battery charging (see

Automobile: System

Electrical

Modem

Automobiles: Mechanical Operation:

)

A D.C. generator mounted under a railway car and belt-connected to a wheel axle is subjected not only to a wide range of speeds but also to a reversal of rotation when the direction of One type of generator for this applicacar travel is reversed. tion has the brushes attached to a rigging that will permit the brushes to be shifted through an arc equal to that from the centre of one pole to that of another. When the car is moved in one direction, the friction between them causes the commutator to shift the brushes to one extreme position at which the generator pro-

an induction motor, when connected to A.C. lines, is driven by a prime mover in the direction it would rotate if the prime mover were not connected, but faster than its synchronous speed, it becomes an induction generator and delivers electrical energy This type of generator has only limited applications to the lines. since another source of A.C. energy is always required. Bibliography. James R. Eaton, Beginning, Electricity (1952); E. A. Loew, Direct and Alternating Currents, 3rd ed. (1946); R. G. H. Cotton, Kloeffler et al., Direct-Current Machinery, rev. ed. (1948) Design of Electrical Machinery (1934); G. V. Mueller, AlternatingCurrent Machines (19S2) M. G. Say and E. N. Pink, Performance and (G. V. M.) Design of Alternating-Current Machines (1936). GENESIS, the name of the first book of the Old Testament, derives its title from the Septuagint rendering of ii, 4; "This is In the Hebrew the book of the genesis of heaven and earth." Bible it is called Bereshith, which is its first word and means "in Genesis is the first of the five books of the the beginning." Pentateuch, commonly called the five books of Moses. Beginning with the creation of the world, these books trace the history of the Hebrews down to the time of the death of Moses. Contents. The book of Genesis falls into two main parts, i-xi and xii-1. Of these the first deals with the primeval period and the second with the patriarchal period; the second may be divided again into xii-xxxvi, dealing with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and xxxvii-1, teUing the story of Joseph, but containing the close of If

—

;

;

—

the story of Jacob.

erates

is evidence that material from a variety of mainly in the poetical passolder sources has been preserved though some of these may have existed in oral form only ages {see Pentateuch). Some Scandinavian scholars reject the theory of written sources, and hold that the traditions were orally pre-

guished, but there

served until the composition of the present book. It is more important to consider the purpose for which the book in its present form was compiled. From whatever source or sources the compiler drew his material, he wished to set forth the beginnings of the history of his own people in terms of the

purpose of

God

God created man for his own fellowship and to obey his and only through that obedience could the fellowship be mainTo miss this through concentration on all the details of tained. the story, which are often characterized as naive, and on the etiwill,

;

may

it, is to miss the author's not recounted merely as an event of the past but as something to be understood only in the Much light of what the author beUeved to be the purpose of God. tradiBabylonian with links Genesis has of chapters early in the

ological motifs that real aim.

The

be traced in

story of the flood

Yet more significant makes of it. The puerilities lonian authors.

and the stories of Abraham's rescue of Lot and his (xviii, 16-35) fellow captives from the hands of Chedorlaomer and his confed-

In the story of creation and the than in their

meaning.

and proceed to tell of the beginnings of civilization and the moral degeneration of mankind to the time of Noah (iv-vi, 8), when God's patience was exhausted and the flood was sent to destroy all men except for the family of Noah, who was divinely led The divito prepare the ark in which they escaped (vi, 9-ixj. sions of the human race and the confusion of languages which came as a punishment of the overweening pride of men in building the tower of Babel (x-xi) are next described. Ch. xii-xxxvi tell the story of the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, starting from Abraham's departure from his home in Haran (Harran) and his journey to Canaan with his nephew Lot (xii), and recounting the wanderings of the patriarchs. Of particular interest are the stories of the separation of Abraham and Lot, the latter's settling in the wicked city of Sodom (xiii), the subsequent destruction of Sodom and the neighbouring cities (xix) despite Abraham's noble plea for them to be spared

for the world.

flood, his interest is less in the "facts" of the story

tions.

(i-iii),

—

—

Ch. i-xi open with an account of the creation of the world by the origin of sin in the serpent's temptation of Adam through his wife to eat of the forbidden fruit in the garden of Eden

God and

—

Sources and Purpose. Since the 18th century much attention has been paid to the evidences of older sources drawn on by the compiler of Genesis, and the reasons for rejecting the tradition that Moses was its author. Three main sources have been distin-

and the conception of God

Gone

is

is

is

the quite, different use the author

of the Babylonian stories disappear, is quite other than that of the Baby-

the polytheism, and the author's under-

standing of the purpose of the only God who figures in his story dominates his work. This is clearly brought out in the major elements of the story on which attention is concentrated. After the flood the author's interest is limited first to the family of Shem, then to the family of Abraham and finally to the family of

who is renamed Israel (xxxii, 28). Yet the reader is reminded that there is a wider world to which Israel belongs, includ-

Jacob,

Abraham all the nations of the earth known to the author. called to leave his father's house not merely to receive the promise of the land of Canaan but in order that in him all the families ing is

of the earth should bless themselves xxvi, 4; xxviii,

words

14).

It

(xii, 3; cf. xviii,

18; xxii, 18;

would be reading too much into these

to find here the conception of the universal sharing of the

Abraham. Nevertheless there is the imphcit thought that Abraham's obedience to the will of God gave him a universal significance, and his separation from his own people is linked with his meaning for all peoples. faith of

GENESIS

8o The

full

meaning of the author's limitation of the story

to

Jacob

weight must be given to the genuine contemporary to belong to these biblical stories, one must be careful not to go beyond their evidence. If the ancient traditions preserved the memory of obsolete customs, the presumption is strong that they contained true memories in other respects. This

While

does not appear until the book of Exodus is reached, when the sojourn in Egypt becomes the prelude to the deliverance whereby God reveals his saving power and his compassion, leading to the covenant, whereby Israel pledges herself in gratitude to give him that obedience which alone could

colour

give her universal significance.

the

in the next stage of his narrative

Historical Value.

—That the prepatriarchal section cannot be in-

and

(in

means

man and woman are created together after all the beasts; man is created before the beasts and woman after), and within what now appears to be the single account of the flood first,

in the second,

(in

some places a

sevens).

is taken into the ark and unclean creatures but clean creatures in

single pair of all species

in others a single pair of

Though

traditions of a universal flood are found

among

impossible to suppose that the whole earth was covered with water to a depth that submerged all the mountains (see Flood [in Religion and Myth] ). On the other hand it can scarcely be doubted that the flood story rests on the memory of some dreadful devastation by water. Archaeological expeditions other peoples,

it is

have revealed deep deposits believed to be the result of flood in some Babylonian cities, and these have been hailed as confirmation of the biblical story. Yet corresponding layers were not found in neighbouring cities, and at Kish evidence that the Babylonian flood story was already known have been found beneath the "flood" But it is quite insufficient to dismiss these stories as hislayer. torically worthless and based on older Babylonian texts. The compiler of Genesis included

The

them

to serve his religious purpose.

stories of the patriarchs are of a different literary genre.

Yet they cannot be treated

as strictly historical.

For instance,

that they can be treated as authentic history in

modern scholarly sense. The fact that Genesis relates two stories of Abraham's passing off his wife as his sister (xii, 10 ff.

stance, discrepancies

the

mean

does not

treated as literal history

is beyond question. There are, for between the two accounts of creation

full

now known

XX,

1

and

ff.)

a similar story of Isaac

(xxvi, 6

ff.)

probably

that a single story has been differently assigned, rather

than that the patriarchs made a practice of this behaviour. Thus, though there is probably a real historical element in the stories, it cannot be recovered with security. There is but one passage which sets Abraham in the current of world history, and this abounds in problems. Ch. xiv relates the story of the war between Amraphel and his allies and the king of Sodom and his allies. Amraphel has often been identified with Hammurabi, king of Babylon, so this passage has been used to date the period of Abraham. The biblical chronology would seem to place Abraham in the 21st century B.C., and when Hammurabi was assigned the date 2123-2081 B.C. (as in the Cambridge Ancient History, vol.

i,

2nd

ed., p. 154,

1924), this seemed to

tie in nicely.

now known from royal synchronisms in the Mari texts that Hammurabi belonged to the 18th or 17th century B.C. Moreover, three or four contemporary kings bore the name Hammurabi. Further, the equation of the name Amraphel with Hammurabi is But

it is

very

difficult

and

is

generally given up.

to date the period of

Abraham

It is

securely.

therefore impossible

Many

scholars believe

that the general conditions reflected in the stories about

best answer those of the 19th century B.C. that ch. xiv

is

It

him would

should be added

believed not to be derived from any of the main The common view that prevailed early in the

there are references to the Philistines in Genesis (xxi, 32, 34; xxvi,

sources of Genesis.

1, 8, 14, IS, 18); yet the Philistine incursion into Palestine did not take place until after the latest possible date for the age of the patriarchs. This does not mean that these stories preserve no historical memories. Many scholars have regarded them as personifications of tribal histories. It is possible that some such elements are found in the stories. In ch. xxxiv Shechem is a

20th century that it was a late document is no longer held, however, and many scholars would date it in the time of David. The story of Joseph may reasonably be held to preserve more There is clear evidence of acquaintreliable historical memories. ance with Egyptian life and customs. The incident of Joseph and Potiphar's wife (xxxix, 7 ff.) is often compared with the parallel Egyptian, story of the Two Brothers, but the one is not necessarily derived from the other. It is not hard to suppose that more than one woman may have been guilty of a similar seductive attempt. The rise of a Semite to high office under the Pharaoh is not improbable, even though there is no independent confirmation of this particular incident. Joseph's immovable integrity in prosperity or adversity and his magnanimity toward his brothers make this one of the great stories of the world, and there is no reason Difficulty arises in atto doubt that it rests on actual history. tempting to determine the period in which Joseph lived. The biblical chronology would place him long before the time of the Hyksos rulers of Egypt, but many scholars think he should be dated in Hyksos times. In that age it would have been little honour to give Joseph the daughter of the priest of On to wife (xli, 45), since the Hyksos rulers did not respect Ra, the god whose principal temple was at On, or Heliopolis. Other features of the story are hard to connect with this age, and it has been argued that the period of the heretic Pharaoh Ikhnaton (q.v.) •would best fit the conditions. This Pharaoh had broken with the Theban priesthood, which had provided many of the chief officers of state, and he would therefore be glad to avail himself of a He exalted the sun-god to be the sole god skilled administrator. whose worship was permitted in Egypt, and worshiped him under the name Aton, whose symbol was the sun disk, so that in no other age would it be a higher honour to marry the daughter of the

person, and frequently in the Old Testament tribes such as the

Midianites, the Ammonites, the Edomites are spoken of under the names of their eponymous ancestors, Midian, Ammon, Edom. The patriarchal stories as a whole cannot be so treated, however. Abraham has always resisted the efforts to dissolve him into a less colourful Isaac cannot be equated with any Jacob, the immediate ancestor of the tribes of Israel and their eponymous ancestor under his alternative .name of Istribe,

known

and the tribe.

rael, is a less exalted character than Abraham, and it is hard to escape the conclusion that personal stories as well as tribal tradi-

have been drawn on. Excavations at Mesopotamian sites, and especially at Nuzi, have contributed much to bring about the greater respect for these stories that has come to be general. Customs which figure in these stories but which were obsolete at the time when the stories are believed to have been written down are known to have prevailed in the 2nd millennium B.C. (i.e., in the age of the patriarchs) in the Mesopotamia from which the patriarchs are said to have come. From Nuzi there are examples of the adoption of slaves or freeborn persons by childless people, like Abraham's adoption of Eliezer (xv, 3). There, as in the case of Eliezer, the adopted son gave place to the true son if one should subsequently be born. In Nuzi marriage contracts it was often laid down that if the wife should prove childless she must provide her husband with a slave wife to take her place. This custom again is reflected in the bibtions

lical stories. Further, in Nuzi if the legal wife should subsequently bear a child, he must take precedence over the slave's child, as was the case with Isaac. It is there laid down, however, that the

must not be expelled. This sheds light on Abraham's reluctance to expel his slave wife Hagar and their son Ishmael

slave's child

until he is divinely told to do so. Rachel's theft of her father's household gods or teraphim (xxxi, 19) is illuminated by the same Nuzi texts, in which the possession of such images carried the title

to the inheritance of the father's property.

priest of On.

—

Characteristics. Attention has been drawn above to the broad purpose of the compiler of Genesis, and it has been linked with the total purpose of the compilation of the Pentateuch, of which It must be recognized, however, this book forms the first part. that a great variety of interests of the compiler have dictated Reference his choice of some of the materia! and his use of it. has been made to the etiological motifs which may be traced in many passages. While these must not overshadow the larger aims

GENESIS of the compiler, they should not be overlooked. tion of

woman

to

man, the

origin of sin

The subordina-

and of woman's pains

in

childbirth, the reason for the variety of languages in the world, the

source of the diversity of trades and professions, the explanation of the avoidance of the eating of "the sinew of the hip which is

upon the hollow of the thigh"

Cxxxii, 32), all figure in this

book.

8i

profound spiritual teaching, and these chapters are not to be dismissed as childish tales. The simplicity of their form should not distract attention from their depth of penetration, which is the more surprising when their great antiquity is remembered. The religion of the patriarchs is presented in simple terms. They offer sacrifice, but never employ any priest. In passages is

The author is much interested in sacred sites, and records a number of theophanies, or divine appearances to men, whereby sites which were marked by shrines where the Israelites later worThe most notable of these is shiped acquired their sanctity.

ascribed to the latest of the sources of the Pentateuch, which are believed to have a priestly origin, no reference is made to sac-

where Jacob had his vision of the ladder reaching up to (xxviii, 12) and where God appeared to him again on his Other sites where Isreturn from Paddan-aram (xxxv, 9 ff. ). raelite sanctuaries were later found which figure in the stories of the patriarchs are Shechem (xii, 6 ff. ), Beersheba (xxi, 31 ff.), Hebron (xiii, 18) and Mizpah (xxxi, 49). Here again, therefore, an etiological element may be found. A number of blessings are recorded in Genesis, and it is clear that much significance was attached to them. Noah pronounces a curse on Canaan and a blessing on Shem and Japheth (ix, 25 ff.), Abraham blesses Melchizedek (xiv, 19 ff.), Rebekah's family pronounces a blessing on her (xxiv, 60), Isaac blesses Jacob (xxvii, 27 ff.) and then pronounces what is probably to be understood as a curse on Esau (xxvii, 39-40), and Jacob blesses the sons of Joseph (xlviii, 15-16). All of these are in poetical form, and may well be ancient fragments which have been preserved. More important than these is the blessing pronounced by Jacob (ch. xlix which contains oracles on all of the tribes. Some of them are marked by plays on words and some by tribal emblems. Neither motif is found uniformly, and some oracles have both and some neither. It is probable that the individual parts come from various sources, and it may be that all are not of the same age. Some parts are certainly very ancient, and this is probably especially true in the case of the oracles on Reuben and on Simeon and Levi. Religious Teaching. In the story of creation and of the garden of Eden man is represented as created by God for fellowship in obedience to him. By disobedience the fellowship was broken, and it is significant that Adam hid himself from God before he was expelled from the garden. Here in this very early story is found a deep understanding of the character of sin and a clear recognition that rrian's truest well-being is to be found in doing the will of God. Adam's inner awareness of his disobedience isolates him from God before his punishment falls upon him. His sin is therefore no less against himself than it is against God. His sinful act is sometimes interpreted in terms of sexual experience and the tree of knowledge explained as marital intercourse. In the first account of creation, however, God's command to man is to be. fruitful and multiply, and in the second God is at pains to provide him with a suitable partner. It is hard to suppose, therefore, that marital intercourse was thought to be sinful. The forbidden tree is symbolic not of one particular

be valid before it was ordained by God and offered by the duly In other passages, however, sacrifices appointed priesthood. offered by the patriarchs figure. The places which appear in the stories are often marked by sacred trees (at Hebron, xiii, 18; xiv, 13; xviii, 1; at Beersheba, xxi, i3; at Shechem, xxxv, 4; at Bethel, xxxv, 8), wells or springs (at Kadesh, xiv, 7, where Enmishpat means "spring of judgment"; at Beersheba, xxi, 29 ff.) or stones (at Bethel, xxviii, 11 ff.). This has led to the supposition that the religion of the patriarchs may be described as animism, according to which these sacred objects were believed to be Such a inhabited by numina which gave them their sanctity. view is quite inadequate, and it fails to take account of the intimate

Bethel,

heaven

)

,

—

act of disobedience but of all disobedience to the will of also

God

(see

into

the

Adam and Eve; Eden).

The

following

stories

contain

penetrating

insights

nature of sin. Cain's jealousy of Abel leads to murder and then to Cain's awareness that the hand of every man would be against him. It should not, however, be forgotten that Cain's sin was not merely against God and himself but also against Abel. A man may therefore suffer for the sin of another, and not alone for his own

The

is further brought out in the spread like a canker through society until God saw that all the imagination of man's heart was evil, and nothing but destruction was adequate to deal with it. Yet even here divine justice was tempered with mercy, and the family of Noah was spared not wholly for its own righteousness, as can be seen from Noah's conduct after the flood, but in order that it might preserve the species for a new day of opportunity. Here is the beginning of the conception of the remnant, which became so fruitful in later prophetic teaching. The story of the tower of Babel shows how human pride recoils

sin.

antisocial nature of sin

subsequent chapters.

It

—

in curse

him

upon men,

Lot his cupidity blinds Sodom. In all of this there

as later in the story of

to his folly in choosing to live in

rifice in

This

the time of the patriarchs.

is

believed to be due

to the fact that in the eyes of the priestly writer no sacrifice could

Abraham and God, which is understood by animism. The quality of the religion is not to be hmited by concentration on the places where sacrifice was offered. It is predominantly a personal religion, consisting not in rites and ceremonies but in a fellowship which leads to exalted character. This is particularly fellowship between, for instance, quite untypical of

what

is

manifest in the case of Abraham, despite the stories of his deThe story of his projected ception in the matter of his wife. sacrifice of Isaac (ch. xxii) is sometimes thought to have a double etiological motif, to explain both why human sacrifice was not demanded by Israel's religion (though there were periods of her history when such sacrifices were offered, under the influence of

neighbouring peoples) and why the Temple site was sacred. is, however, no certainty that Abraham's sacrifice actually took place on the Temple mount, and the story is not merely that of a man who almost offered his son and learned that God did

There

not really want such sacrifices. did not withhold from

Abraham

It

is

shown

in

addition that

God what was most

precious to him, not because he was making an agonized appeal for some personal advantage, as Mesha did when he offered his son (II Kings iii, 27), but in order to express his obedience to God. Abraham's magnanimity toward Lot in allowing the younger man his choice of country when the two separated (xiii, 8 ff.); his

noble intercession for

Sodom and Gomorrah

(xviii,

22

ff.),

which

not to be missed through concentration on the characteristic oriental bargaining which provides the form of the intercession; his unwillingness to accept any personal profit from his rescue of all reveal a character of Lot and his fellow captives (xiv, 22 ff. singular exaltation, especially in the setting of the times in which

is

)

—

he lived.

Of contemporary Canaanite religion there is considerable knowledge through the recovery of the Ras Shamra texts, and it presents a very different picture from the religion of the patriarchs as reflected in Genesis. W. F. Albright, basing himself on these texts and other sources of knowledge of Canaanite religion in the 2nd millennium B.C., speaks of "the extremely low level of Canaanite religion, which inherited a relatively very primitive mythology and had adopted some of the most demoralizing cultic practices then existing in the

Near East.

.

.

.

The

brutality

of Canaanite mythology, both in the tablets of Ugarit and in the later epitome of Philo Bybhus, passes belief" (in Studies in the

History of Culture, pp. 28 ff.; 1942 ). It is not from this source that the character of Abraham, as portrayed in the Bible, is to be explained.

On

the other hand,

if

the ideals of the compiler rather than

the character of an individual of the remote past are reflected in

Genesis,

less

it

is

difficult

to explain

why Jacob

is

portrayed in

exalted terms, despite the fact that he was believed to be

the father of the 12 sons

In him are less pleasant

from

whom

traits.

the tribes of Israel sprang.

His taking advantage of his

;

GENET—GENETICS

82

brother, Esau (xxv, 29 ff.); his deception of his father (xxvii, 5 ff.); his outwitting of Laban, his father-in-law (xxx, 25 ff.);

God for his own advantage (xxviii, 20 ff.), put him on a much lower level, and it is hard to suppose that the compiler was not aware of this. Jacob's disappointments and sorrows are the recompense he receives. Chastened perhaps by these, but also transformed by his spiritual struggle at the ford of Jabbok (xxxii, 22 ff.), he rises above his earlier self, though he never attains to the loftiness of Abraham. Nor are the founders

aux £tats-Unis," Revue d'histoire moderne,

For their treatment of Joseph they clearly stand condemned (ch. xxxvii). Moreover, the treachery of Simeon and Levi at Shechem (ch. xxxiv) brings upon them the condemnation of their father, and is generally believed to have been the direct cause of the scattering in Israel which stands as a curse on these two tribes in the blessing of Jacob (xlix, S-7). Throughout, the comthe

book.

piler is using his material as the vehicle of his

teaching rather

than reflecting his ideals in his portrayal of his characters. Reference has been made to the lofty teaching inherent in "The Lord was with Joseph" (xxxix, 2, 21) the story of Joseph. is given as the reason why Joseph came through his misfortunes but he

is

also presented as a

man who was

faithful to his father's

GENET,

any of the catlike carnivores of the genus Genetta,

belonging to the family Viverridae. Its many species are chiefly African, but some, e.g., the common genet (G. genetta), occur also in southern Europe and along It eastern Mediterranean. combines the features of a weasel and a cat. The fur is thickly spotted with black and has a dark

the

streak along the back, while the tail,

which

is

nearly as long as the is ringed

body (about 20 in.), with black and white.

A

mainly arboreal animal, the frequents the banks of streams and feeds on small mammals and birds. It differs from genet

the

closely

iq.v.') in

related

office.

Text of the J. Spurrell, Notes on the Hebrew (1887); Commentary on the Hebrew text by J. Skinner, 2nd ed. (1910) in International Critical Commentary; Eng. trans, with commentary by S. R. Driver (1904; 12th ed. by G. R. Driver, 1926) in Westminster Commentaries, by W. H. Bennett (n.d.) in Century Bible, by H. E. Ryle (1914) in Cambridge Bible and by C. A. Simpson in Interpreter's Bible, vol. i, pp. 437-829 (1952) German trans, with commentary by H. Gunkel, Sth ed. (1922). See also S. H. Hooke, In The Beginning (1947) in Clarendon Bible; G. von Rad, Genesis (1953; Eng. trans. 1961). For analysis of pre-Deuteronomic elements of (jenesis see C. A. Simpson, Early Traditions of Israel (H. H. Ro.) (1948). of

Genesis

;

EDMOND CHARLES

(1763-1834), French dipGENET, lomat who during the French Revolution tried to bring the United States into the war against England, was born at Versailles on Jan. 8, 1763. He was the son of the head of the translation department at the ministry of foreign affairs, Edme Jacques Genet, whom he succeeded in that post in 1781. When the department was suppressed in 1788 he was appointed secretary of the French legation to Russia under Louis Philippe, comte de Segur. The outbreak of the Revolution in France caused Segur's departure, and on Oct. II, 1789, Genet was made charge d'affaires. His enthusiasm for the Revolution then antagonized Catherine the Great, who slighted him continually, forbade him to appear in court and finally expelled him from Russia (July 1792). On Nov. 14, 1792, Genet was appointed ambassador to Holland by the Girondin ministry, of which he was regarded as a supporter. In April 1793, however, the ministry transferred him to the United States as charge

odour of the

Instructed to raise money to set against the U.S. debt to France or at least to obtain credit for purchasing supplies if military aid under the Franco-U.S. alliance of 1778 was not forthcoming. Genet

behaved too impetuously. Hailed as "Citizen" Genet by Americans who favoured the French cause, Ke conspired with those who opposed Washington's policy of neutrality. His efforts to bring the United States into the war and his highhanded arming of privateers operate against the British brought relations between the U.S. and France to the brink of war and risked the loss Washington asked for of France's sole source of credit abroad. Genet's recall in August and the French Committee of PubUc Safety agreed. Genet, unwilling to face this Jacobin committee, chose instead to settle in the United States, where he married the daughter of George Clinton, governor of New York, and became He devoted himself to farming until his death at a U.S. citizen. in U.S. ports to

Schodack, N.Y., on July

14, 1834.

See P. Mantoux, "Le Comity de salut public

et la

mission de Genet

a

W.

SUSCHnZKY

civet.

AFRICAN GENET (GENETTA) (J. E. Hl.; X.) heredity and variation, was of the scientific study William Bateson in 1906, although its origins are

GENETICS, so

named hy

traced chiefly to the discovery, about 40 years earlier, by Gregor Johann Mendel (q.v.) of the first general laws of heredity.

INTRODUCTION

—

History. Even before Mendel's time experimental attempts to analyze the process of biological inheritance had been made by studying the offspring of hybrids between varieties of plants that differed in well-marked traits. Some indications had already been found that certain parental characters, such as seed colour, reappeared as separable traits in the descendants of hybrids. But the crucial demonstration of the hereditary mechanism was the result of the carefully planned breeding experiments of Mendel, first reported in 1865 and published the following year. These epochal experiments revealed that the hereditary material that passes from parents to offspring is particulate in nature and consists of an

During the organization of living units, now known as genes. period 1856-65 Mendel formulated some simple statistical rules describing the transmission of these units in the garden pea, but his observations lay unremarked until 1900, when they were confirmed by several biologists working independently. Since that time the chief principle that Mendel discovered has been found to be of general validity in all forms of life, from viruses to man. It has been shown that the system of Mendelian heredity, which is primarily responsible for the continuity of living substance through reproduction, is based on a multiplicity of different genes, which separate and recombine as they pass from generation to generation.

Beginning about 1910 additional principles of heredity were by the work of T. H. Morgan q.v. and others. These, with the principle chscovered by Mendel, formed the groundwork for the modern theory of the gene. Nature and Significance of Genes.^Genes are arranged in established, chiefly

d'affaires.

is

a faint trace of the characteristic

Bibliography.— G.

Book

civets

mere depression and contains only

rose to high nobility of character no less than to All of -this and much more gives to the book of

Genesis a profound religious quality, and sets before its readers ideals of character and of faith which are still of high value. See also Bible.

true

that the anal pouch

God and who high

(1909-10).

.\iii

(A. So.)

his bargaining with

of the 12 tribes depicted in a way that leads to the supposition that they and Abraham reflected the ideals of the compiler of

vol.

(

)

system of visible bodies, the chromosomes, within the nucleus of each cell, including the sex cells, which convey the assortment of genes to the offspring. In the offspring, the genes interacting with each other and with factors from the environment are thought to determine the course of development and the specific characters of individuals. Each gene appears to linear order in the

produce a replica of itself when chromosomes replicate at each cell division during growth and reproduction, but occasionally a descendent gene, as judged by its effects, shows a discontinuous difference from the parent gene and reproduces in the new form. This change in a gene is known as mutation. It is the elementary step in the origination of the variety of gene forms, or alleles, that is found among the members of most crossbred populations It is this variety that is sifted by of animals, plants and men.

GENETICS

from processes of development initiated and modulated by the genotype, which sets limits or ranges to the responses that the individual m-akes to its environment. The diversity of phenotypes that arises from the interactions between a given genotype

evolutionary forces such as natural selection to produce the changes in the hereditary constitution of a population. Genes may be considered to be primary living elements endowed with capacities for self-reproduction, mutabihty and ability to influence development in specific ways. Genetics may thus be more simply defined as the study of genes in reproduction, heredity, develop-

result

ment and evolution. See Gene; Chromosome. Applications of Genetics. Although the principles of ge-

herited

netics appear to be coextensive with living matter, their consequences assume human or economic values that vary with different

tions.

—

forms of

life.

Thus human genetics

is

especially concerned with

the interplay of hereditary and environmental factors in determining the physical and mental characters of man, with the effects of heredity on diseases, abnormalities and special abihties and with

the biological differentiation of interbreeding groups of man, such as races or subgroups separated by geographic or cultural factors

such as language, religion or tradition.

and the variety of environments called the

(see

General Views.

— Before discussing any

of the special

problems

necessary to understand the sense in which the terms "heredity" and "hereditary" are used in genetics. An esit

is

was that performed by the Danish biWilhelm Johannsen, who first pointed out in 1909 the distinction between "genotype" and "phenotype," a distinction that has proved to be of fundamental importance in genetics. Johannsen, by analyzing results of his breeding experiments with populations of bean plants, discriminated betwe'en two sources of sential act of clarification

ologist

variation in such characters as seed weight. Individual bean plants reproduce by self-fertilization; therefore

such offspring are identical in heredity, forming a "pure line." Continued selective breeding of variants mithin a pure line (e.g., planting the heaviest or the lightest seeds) resulted in no change in the average weight of seeds such differences were thus not due to differences in heredity. Selection applied to a mixed population, including seeds from different pure lines, was quickly effective in separating lines characterized by different seed weights. Variation of the first kind, i.e., within a pure line, was called phenotypic; of the second kind, i.e., between pyre lines, was called genotypic. The terms are defined as follows: the genotype of an individual is its genetic constitution, the assortment of genes received from all

;

the parents; the phenotype is its appearance, the sum total of all the characteristics of the individual, external and internal, structural, physiological

The importance

and behavioural. of the distinction

which

it

may

exist has been Thus, what is in-

to phenotypes (by influencing the ways in which development takes place), phenotypes do not influence genotypes. New hereditary variations, which make new modes or levels of response to

organisms (bacterial genetics and genetics of fungi, of viruses and of protozoa) has assumed special importance (1) as an applied science concerned with control of pathogenic and parasitic forms, with the utilization of microorganisms in fermentation and with production of antibiotics and of accessory food factors; and (2 as an avenue of approach to the understanding of such fundamental processes as mutation and the manner of effect of genes on

of genetics

in

of reaction of that genotype.

Heredity may consequently be viewed as the repetition in organisms related by descent of genotypic patterns of metabohsm and development. This repetition depends, in essence, on the selfreproduction of hereditary elements. In this view, all structures and activities of organisms are due to their heredity, and all at the same time are due to responses to their environments. It is implicit in this view that while genotypes give rise to genotypes (by replication and transmission of genes to offspring)

and

metabolic processes.

norm

is the genotype with its norm of reaction, the capacity to respond during development to a range of environmental condi-

Medical genetics is especially concerned with the influence of heredity on conditions of medical importance, and eugenics (q.v.) with means for the eradication of deleterious genes and for the improvement of human genotypes. Animal breeding (q.v.) and plant breeding (q.v.) utilize genetic principles in programs for improvement of livestock and useful plants. Genetics of micro-

)

83

environment possible, are due to changes in the genotype and are not effects, as was once thought, of changes in the phenotype.

The

known as the inheritance of acquired characters Lamarckism), became obsolete with the proof of the exist-

latter idea,

ence of self-reproducing units, genes, changes in which are due to a random process, mutation. Mutation gives rise to a variety of gene forms, which in the course of sexual reproduction are shuffled and recombined in all possible ways. The variety of genotypes thus engendered in the is winnowed, in the course of generations, by the variety of natural environments in which the species has lived. Existing genotypes, therefore, have been formed by natural selection acting

species

upon arrays

have the two fundamental properties

of genes which

of self-reproduction and mutability.

The Study may be

—The

problems with which genetics Transmission Genetics is the analytical study of the mechanisms by which genes reproduce, segregate and recombine; of their spatial arrangements in the chromosomes; and of the occasional cases in which selfreproducing elements are transmitted outside of the nucleus (cytoplasmic inheritance). Physiological Genetics, which includes phenogenetics, or developmental genetics, is concerned with the causal relations between genes and the specific characters, chemideals

cal,

of Genetics.

discussed under three main heads.

or

physiological

morphological, that arise

during growth,

metabolism and differentiation of living individuals. Population Genetics is concerned with the arrangements of genes in populations and with the forces such as mutation and natural selection that tend to change the arrays of hereditary variety, leading to formation of races, subspecies, species and other natural categories. Since the main purpose of population genetics is to analyze the processes by which evolution occurs, it is sometimes called evolutionary genetics.

TRANSMISSION GENETICS by which genes are transmitted to descendants the behaviour of these elements during reproduction, namely during meiosis and fertilization (see Cytology). of Mendel. As indicated earlier, the existence The First

The

principles

all relate to is

that the genotype

is

deter-

mined by ancestry alone and is kept constant in different conditions and throughout life by the generally faithful reproduction of the genes in all cells of the individual; it can be revealed only by breeding tests or by a record of ancestry. The phenotype, however, is jointly determined by the intrinsic factors received from the parents and by the continuous response of the developing individual to the extrinsic sources of food and energy; it can be The processes of metabolism, revealed by direct examination. growth and development require continuous adjustment of hving individuals to their environments. The phenotype is the outcome of this interplay between the intrinsic and extrinsic factors; it changes with age, state of nutrition and health and is influenced by conditions such as light, heat and other factors of the physical It follows that "characters," as such, are

that occur in alternative forms (such as white or coloured flowers, Each of these alternatall or dwarf stems, etc.) in different races. tive forms bred true to its own type, and since the pea plant reproduced by self-fertilization, it could be assumed that all the descendants of a single plant (known as a pure line) receive the same heredity and exhibit only the variations due to variable environmental factors such as temperature, amount of water, ferIn crosses between different pure lines, however, tilizer, etc.

Mendel found

environment. not inherited; they

—

Law

mechanism of hereditary transmission was first demonstrated by Mendel. He collected from seedsmen varieties of the garden pea (Pisum sativum) differing in colour of flowers, height, form and colour of seeds and other sharply different characters of the

that the

first

generation plants (known as Fj) respecific char-

sembled only one of the parents with respect to a

—

GENETICS

84 which he termed the dominant character. centrating on one character, length of stems,

acter,

pea plant with a dwarf one and (Fj) were tall. However, when the self-fertilization, three out of four plants (known as F2) were tall and Mendel designated the tall character tall

For example, conMendel crossed a

found that

all

the progeny

Fj plants produced seed by of these second-generation one out of four was dwarf.

as dominant and the dwarf character as recessive. Mendel's actual results for the seven pairs of alternatives that he studied are shown in Table I (although the

actual ratios given vary somewhat, within the laws of probability the ratio can be said to be | dominants to ^ recessives).

Table

I.

Fi Results for Seven Alternative Characters (Mendel)

;

GENETICS Linkage and Crossing Over of Genes.

—The

period imme-

diately following the rediscovery of Mendel's principles saw the confirmation of his general theory by the results of experiments

and observations on a wide variety of animals and plants, including man. In the decade 1910-20 several new principles were discovered, chiefly through the work of T. H. Morgan and his coworkers C. B. Bridges, A. H. Sturtevant and H. J. Muller. The first new principle came to light through the discovery of exceptions to the principle of independent assortment. In experimental breeding of the small pomace or vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster (often called a fruit fly), it was found that certain genes tended to remain associated in the progeny more frequently in the same combinations in which they had been present in the parents. In the following example, based on early experiments, S represents the gene determining the normal condition of body bristles, and i is its allele determining a reduction in body bristles (spineless) D stands for the gene causing a triangular thickening (delta) at the junction of certain wing veins, and d is its allele determining Thus, a fruit fly homozygous for spined the normal condition. and delta characters (SSDD) crossed with one homozygous for spineless and nondelta characters (ssdd) gives rise to Fj progeny whose outward characters are spined and delta (but whose genotype, of course, is SsDd, one parent having contributed gametes bearing the alleles SD, and the other, gametes bearing sd). The Fi progeny, being heterozygous for both characters, produces gametes SD, sD, Sd and sd, as assumed by Mendel, but not in equal numbers as called for by his theory. The combinations SD and sd always exceed the new combinations Sd and sD. In fact the Fj males produce only SD- and irf-bearing gametes, and no recombinaThese results led to the supposition that tions sD and Sd at all. 5 and D are linked together in some common element that holds them in association. In Fj females, however, this association is only partial, and the linkage is occasionally broken so that recombination gametes sD and Sd are occasionally formed. These ;

breaks in the linkage, resulting in recombination, are called crossovers, and the process of exchange, crossing over. In many animals and plants crossing over occurs in both sexes its failure to occur in males was a special feature of the species of Drosophila that greatly facilitated the detection of hnkage. Thus in D. melanogaster four groups of linked genes were found, corresponding to the four pairs of chromosomes in the species. This finding led to the discovery of a

new

general principle, the limita-

which states that the number of linkage groups is equal to the number of pairs of chromosomes. This has been confirmed for many species. Only genes belonging to Members different linkage groups show independent assortment. of the same linkage group that undergo recombination by crossing over also eventually enter into all possible combinations, but this tion of the linkage groups,

process

is

retarded in numbers of generations by the associations

between linked genes.

A

third

new

principle

was discovered when

it

was found that is a measure

the frequency of recombination between linked genes

of the relative "distance" (actually per cent of recombination)

between genes in the linkage group. Linked genes that infrequently recombine by crossing over are assumed to be closer together than genes that recombine more frequently. By use of these relations, as determined from breeding experiments, linkige "maps" are constructed indicating the order in which the genes are arranged. The data for Drosophila and a number of other species in which many genes can be identified and studied together can be reconciled only by assuming a linear order so that for adjacent genes the per cent of recombination between A and B and between B and C gives the relative distance between A and C. This is the principle of linear arrangement of the genes in the linkage group. It appears to be of general apphcation. Each linkage group has been found to be associated with one specific chromosome within which the genes of that group are physically located. Proof of this association was first obtained for the sex chromosomes, which were shown to carry a linkage group showing sex-linked transmission, as described below. But first it will be necessary to outline the manner in which sex is determined.

85

Sex Determination.

— In most animals and

in

some dioecious

plants (in which male and female gametes are produced by different individuals) males and females differ in the chromosome In Drosophila complement that they receive at fertilization.

melanogaster, for example, the female has a pair of rod-shaped

chromosomes known

as sex

chromosomes, or

X

chromosomes,

in

addition to three other pairs of chromosomes known as autosomes. The male has only one rod-shaped X chromosome, its unequal chromosome, having a different shape, which partner, known as a

Y

and followed in transmission. When the gametes are formed each egg receives an X chromosome (and one of each pair of autosomes) while half of the sperm receive an X and half receive a Y chromosome (in addition to one of each pair of autosomes). The sex of the offspring is normally determined at fertiUzation by the type of sperm that (by chance) enters the egg, as shown in Table IV. allows

it

to be identified

—

GENETICS

86

mitted directly from mother to daughter instead of following the usual pathway from mother to sons only. He found in such cases that the two X chromosomes of the mother, each containing the recessive allele, had failed to disjoin (exhibited nondisjunction) at the reduction division (meiosis) and both had entered one egg. When such an egg was fertilized by a sperm bearing a Y chromoindividual was formed, which was a normal female some, an having the sex-linked alleles of the mother. The exceptional behaviour of the sex-linked genes was thus accounted for by the exceptional behaviour of the sex chromosomes. Subsequently genetical and cytological studies of other aberrations in chromosome structure and behaviour in many species of animals and plants confirmed the general theory that each linkage group is carried in a specific one of the pairs of chromosomes. The amount of recombination between genes also corresponds

XXY

roughly to their distance from each other in the physical structure of the chromosome, although apparent distance is affected by local structural peculiarities in the chromosome that influence the probability of crossing over in that region {see Cytology). The proof

chromosomes consist of a linearly arranged succession, or was facilitated by the discovery that members of each of two different pairs of chromosomes may occasionally break and reciprocally exchange parts, a process known as reciprothat

thread, of genes

When this occurs, for example, between chromosomes II and III in Drosophila, some genes of linkage group II then show linkage with some genes of linkage group III. Investigation of many cases of this kind, and of other chromosomal cal translocation.

aberrations that occur rarely as spontaneous mutations or may be induced by radiations and other agencies, permits construction of cytological maps showing the location and spatial order of genes

(gene loci) in the chromosome. Such maps are summary statements of experimentally acquired knowledge of the physical basis of inheritance and are available only for those few species that have been extensively studied for many generations; e.g., some species of Drosophila and cultivated plants, especially Indian corn, tomatoes and some cereals. Among mammals, partial maps exist for some of the 20 chromosomes of the house mouse, while for man only a few of the 2i different chromosomes (paired in body cells) are represented at present by partial maps. Recent Work. Later experiments have been concerned with

—

attempts to study the finer structure of the genetic system. Specially designed breeding experiments in which hundreds, thousands or millions of progeny may be observed have succeeded in detecting rare events that would be missed in the smaller samples hitherto employed. In this work the huge populations available for observation in lower organisms such as filamentous fungi, bacteria, yeasts and viruses have been especially useful. Both in these and in higher forms it has been found that genes, as functional units in heredity and metabolism, may be resolved into smaller elements by recombination (crossing over) that occurs within the gene at rates, in general, much lower than those that are characteristic of crossing over between different genes. Tens or hundreds of these separately mutable and recombinable elements, known as sites of mutation, or recons, have been shown to exist within a single

curs and upon which heredity depends may be considered to be This the replication of each gene to produce a copy of itself.

occurs when, during replica of itself,

cell

division, each

chromosome produces

a

and the repUcates then separate, each going into

a daughter cell. In this process each element in the chromosome assembles from the materials already present in the cell those materials out of which a copy of itself is formed. This is referred to as self-reproduction and may be regarded as the primary property of the gene, on which all other properties of the cell depend. This process of the synthesis of replicates must occur continuously during multiplication of microorganisms and during the growth and differentiation of multicellular organisms. Subsequently the genes are active in the synthetic processes of the cell that result in the production of specific metabolites, and especially with Proof that specific genes specific proteins such as the enzymes. are concerned in the synthesis of specific proteins has been obtained from observations of differences in protein structure in individuals with different forms of the same gene (alleles), one of which has arisen from the other by mutation. It must be pointed out here that, in general, specific information on what genes do can be obtained only for such genes as have undergone mutation to produce two different forms that can be compared. In other words, one can know only differences in genes

and in gene activities, not genes themselves, except by inference from observations of the above kind. The nature of the elementary change in a gene that occurs when it mutates is also unknown. Mutation may be described in formal terms as the miscopying of a gene when a replicate is formed, and it has been speculated that this may involve the assembly of the parts of the molecular structure in a different order, or pattern, from the original. The change, whatever its nature, is such that it may be retained in future replications, since mutations that do not entirely prevent gene replication may become part of the gene constitution of descendants.

Determination of Metabolic Processes.

— Comparisons

of

on metabohc processes of mutant genes with those of their normal alleles has shown that individual genes exercise controlling influences on specific pathways by which metabolites are synthesized or broken down. In microorganisms one step in the synthesis of an essential amino acid such as arginine fails to occur when a specific mutant is substituted for its normal allele; another step in the same synthesis fails in the presence of another mutant. effects

Many

instances of the control of separate sequential steps in a by separately mutable genes have followed the pattern

synthesis

"p"—»"a"—»"b"—>"c"—»"s," in which the conversion of a precursor "p" into a compound "a" fails in the presence of a mutant a, step "a" to "b" fails in the presence of a mutant b, etc. In the presence of a mutant unable to carry out the step "c"^"s," the synthesis of the substance "s" fails even though all preceding steps have occurred normally. Similar metabolic pathways in higher organisms have been shown to be controlled by specific genes. In man, for example, the disease phenylketonuria, which results in mental deficiency, occurs in individuals homozygous for a certain recessive gene, in the presence

of

of which the oxidative conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine

elements within the total genetic map of an organism is of the order of millions rather than, as previously estimated, of the order of hundreds or thousands. Attempts are now being made to correlate these ultimate units with the molecular structure of the chromosome, which consists of deoxyribonucleic acid combined with protein {see Gene; Nucleic Acids).

does not occur, with the result that phenylalanine accumulates in the blood and is excreted in large quantities in the urine. It was the latter peculiarity that led to the discovery of this hereditary Failure of the same metabolic step may be responsible disease.

functional gene.

It

now

appears, therefore, that the

number

PHYSIOLOGICAL GENETICS The chief question with which physiological genetics is concerned is how genes act as regulators of the processes of life as they occur within each individual, first in the cells and then (in multicellular animals and plants) in the tissues and organs whose integrated activities constitute the individual. Before discussing the action of genes in metabolism and in controlling processes of growth and development, some general features of gene activity must be considered.

Gene Activity.

The primary

act

by which reproduction

oc-

homozygotes to develop normal quantities and skin; overloading of the body with phenylalanine in early fife may be responsible for the mental defect that accompanies the disease. The actual mechanism by which mutant genes block individual steps in metabolic pathways is unknown, but it is thought to involve deficiency of the mutant in producing an enzyme responsible Similarly, by extension, it has for catalyzing the step that fails. been supposed that genes e.xercise control over metabolism through effecting the production of specific enzymes, each enzyme receiving Different gene alleles are known also its specificity from a gene. for the failure of such

of dark pigment in the hair

to affect the production of specific antigens, as in the case of the

ABO

blood groups in man.

Control by a gene of the structure of

—

GENETICS the hemoglobin molecule in man has been shown to occur through controlling the order in which amino acids are assembled to form

As a

the polypeptide chains of this protein.

other recent

work

and

result of this

the view has gained currency that the ultimate

control of the phenotype

is

vested in the structure of deoxyribo-

which act as a code specifying the {See Genetics, Human; Gene; Blood

nucleic acid, variations in

synthesis of proteins.

Groups.) Although

it

clear that

is

many metaboUc processes and by genes known through

activities of cells are controlled

basic their

mutant forms, the manner in which control is exercised and which the actions of the multiplicity of genes are integrated at present unknown.

Determination of Form.

in is

POPULATION GENETICS Within any group of organisms the occurrence of mutation gives variety of alleles

If sexual crossing

combination in

all

is

A^A^,

A",

.

.

.

A^; B^^B^,

.

.

.

B^;

etc.

possible, the alleles will be subject to re-

possible ways, which in time will produce an

array of genotypes.

which all combinations of Departures from random mating, such as the self-fertilization method found in many of the flowering plants, can also be treated by gene-frequency methods. In fact the first proposition stated in these terms was that derived by Mendel to express the change in the frequencies of genotypes under the system of continuous self-fertilization that obtains normally in peas. Starting with a population of heterozygotes Aa, or a single such heterozygote, he showed that the proportion of heterozygotes would be reduced in each generation of self-fertOization as shown in Table V.

lation

is

a bisexual crossbreeding one in

sexual partners are equally probable.

Table

—

The study of the actions of genes forms that development takes in higher plants and animals has revealed that this problem is even more complex than the foregoing. Chief progress has been made by studying mutant genes with very drastic disruptive effects on early development, resulting in abnormalities and often death of the homozygotes before maturity. Mutations with the latter effect, known as lethals, have been identified and studied in experimental cultures of plants, Drosophila, birds and mammals, especially the laboratory mouse. In some cases mutant genes have been found to exert their effects through controlling the production of growth hormones in both plants and animals; others have been found to affect particular developmental sequences by which differentiation of certain parts, such as brain and spinal cord in vertebrates, depend on influences emanating from earlier events, known as inductive sequences {see Embryology, Experimental). A feature of general interest is that in higher organisms with a complex development a mutation of a single gene produces a widespread spectrum of effects in many parts of the body, without obvious developmental relations to each other. Such manifold effects of genes, to which the term pleiotropy has been given, indicates that most such effects are secondary results of alterations of events in early development. The first, or primary, effects of such genes, or in fact of any gene, are entirely unknown. Finally, in higher forms the effects of genotype on phenotype occur through the interaction of many genes. Changes in single genes affect the phenotype through altering the balance, or equilibrium, among developmental processes that have evolved under the action of natural selection. in controlling the

rise to a

87

Population genetics

is

concerned with the

factors that influence the frequencies of genotypes in populations

and with the genetic structure of populations. A population, as used here, consists of the members of a group that, by ability to The most interbreed, have access to a common pool of genes. inclusive unit of population is the species within which the potential fertility of all matings makes possible the circulation of genes throughout the species. More restricted population units are geographic races or subspecies and local mating communities (known as isolates, or demes) these units are limited in area or numbers by natural conditions, or, in the case of man, additionally by cultural factors such as language, custom or rehgion. The development of theory in population genetics was stimulated by consideration of evolution as the process by which the genotypes of populations change with time, chiefly under the influence of natural selection, and by the needs of practical plant and animal breeders seeking to improve varieties by artificial selection and other means depending on manipulation of genotypes. This section deals with the general principles of population genetics; for a more advanced statistical discussion, see Genetics OF Populations. Gene Frequency and Random Mating. In general, methods have been based on the use of gene frequency (the relative ;

—

proportion of different genes) for analyzing events in populations reproducing by random mating, which means that the model popu-

Generations

V.

Reduction of Proportion of Heterozygotes in a Self-Fertilizing Population

GENETICS,

88

This will assume greater importance as population becomes smaller, leading to possible accidental reduction of genotypic variety by loss of certain alleles and fixation of others the offspring. size

as homozygotes.

Changes caused by any one or more of these primary causes will give the opportunity for change in the relative frequency of different alleles and thus tend to change the gene pool of the population. Since evolutionary changes may be considered as those that alter the gene pools of populations, the four causes

above may

be referred to as the primary evolutionary forces of mutation, migration, selection and random genetic drift. Deleterious Genes in a Population. Observations of populations of random-breeding plants and animals in nature, beginning with those of the Russian biologist S. S. Chetverikov in 1926 on Drosophila melanogaster, disclosed that wild populations do in

—

Most

The maintenance in populations of to certain diseases). such genes at frequencies above that due to mutation pressure results in the population structure known as balanced polymorphism. An example is the occurrence in many human populations inhabiting malarial areas of three genotypes with respect to a gene for a sickle-cell anemia; 55 (normal), 5.s (healthy carriers) (homozygotes having the usually fatal anemia). In spite and munity

w

lethal effects, the sickle allele s occurs in high frequencies, of certain African populations being heterozygotes who may, because of the i allele, be more resistant than the normal genotype its

40%

to malaria.

Heterozygotes would thus contribute genes

(half

them lethals) disproportionately to succeeding generations. This polymorphism would be balanced as long as the selective of

advantage of heterozygotes remained

in equilibrium

with other

The loss of this advantage (for example evolutionary forces. by elimination of malaria) would result for a time in transient polymorphism, during which the lethal allele would be declining in frequency until a new equilibrium was reached. The Role of Natural Selection. In general it may be said that the genetic structures of Mendelian populations are formed under the influence of natural selection acting on the genotypic

—

Interactions among variety due to mutation and recombination. the primary evolutionary forces affecting gene frequencies have

Wright, who pointed out that a is one in which a population is divided into more or less isolated mating groups, or demes. The gene frequencies in such groups may drift apart owing to accidents of sampling, and this random process may offer

been especially evaluated by

S,

condition favourable for evolutionary change

opportunities for natural selection to act in further diversifying the groups. According to Wright, natural selection in large ran-

dom-mating populations operates on the net effects of the genes all combinations; where the population consists of partially isolated subgroups, natural selection operates on the genetic system of the group as a whole, and this provides a condition for con-

in

tinuous evolutionary change.

of the species.

new mutations and are thus exposed promptly to natural selection, which acts on the whole genotypes of the pure lines and preserves those adapted to the given environment. In populations reproducing by self-fertilLzation,

Bibliography. E,

W,

homozygous

—General:

Sinnott, L, C,

Dunn

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

SOVIET GENETICS The basic theory of genetics, as outlined in this article, has been developed and tested by research carried out in various parts of the world, including the Soviet Union before 1948, In that year, however, a statement issued by the Communist party of the U.S,S,R. declared the theory of the gene to be in conflict with the party line and declared as official the conception of heredity contained in the writings of the Russian horticulturist I. V. Michurin as interpreted by the Soviet agronomist T. D. Lysenko. Heredity, according to Lysenko and his followers, can be deliberately changed in desired directions by modifying conditions the parents; by grafting or vegetative hybridization in the case of plants; by blood transfusions in animals; and by hybridization, or crossing, often between distant species. A prominent feature of the official Soviet view is the revival of two 19th-century ideas: the inheritance of acquired of the environment of

characters (Lamarck) and the hypothesis of pangenesis (Darwin). latter assumed that each part of the body contributed repreBodily sentative particles (pangenes) to the reproductive cells.

The

changes recorded in the pangenes could thus be passed on to descendants. The discoveries of genetics that had rendered the above ideas untenable were referred to by the Communist party as MendelismWeismannism-Morganism and were declared to be unacceptable by Soviet biologists. It is believed that Lysenko's views prevailed within the party because his methods appeared to offer hope of more rapid progress in improving domestic animals and especially crop plants than the methods of genotypic selection but the rela;

and practical arguments in causing the declaration of 1948 are not clear. In any event the science of genetics was outlawed, and Michurinism, resting on assumptions about heredity that are either unproved or disproved, became the guiding line in Soviet biology. tive influences of political, scientific

See also references under "Genetics" in the Index volume.

—

T, D, Lysenko (ed,), The Science of Biology Today Russian, 1948; the English translation contains Lysenko's report of July 13, 1948, before the V, L Lenin Academy of Agricultural Science and the debate that ensued) J, S, Huxley, Heredity East and West (1949); J, D, Bernal, "The Biological Controversy in the Soviet Union and Its Implications," Modern Quarterly, 4:203-217 (1949); John Langdon-Davies, Russia Puts the Clock Back (1949); Conway Zirkle, Death of a Science in Russia (1949) David Joravsky, (L. C. D.) Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, 1917-1932 (1961).

BiBUOGRAPHY.

(orig,

in

;

;

Populations reproducing by clonal (asexual) reproduction are subject to change chiefly by mutation and thus natural selection operates on the genotype as a whole. If some recombination between clones is possible, for example by parasexual methods such as transduction, transformation or mitotic recombination, these will supplement mutation as sources of variety on which natural selection acts and will tend to increase the evolutionary plasticity

are quickly resolved to

5th ed, (1958); L. H. Snyder and P, R, David, The Principles of Heredity, 5th ed, (1957) J, A. Peters (ed,), Classic Papers in Genetics (1959); L, C, Dunn (ed.), Genetics in the 20th Century (1951); The Birth of Genetics, pub. by Brooklyn Bot. Gardens (1950); C. D. Darlington and K, Mather, Genes, Plants and People (1950); R. C. Punnett, "Earlv Days of Genetics," Heredity, 4:1-10 (1950) R. Sager and F. Ryan, Cellular Heredity (1961). Advanced: R, Goldschmidt, Theoretical Genetics (1955) E, Hadorn, Developmental Genetics and Lethal Factors (1961) C, B, Anfinsen, Jr., The Molecular Basis of Evolution (1959) F, Jacob, P, Schaeffer and Elie WoUraan, Microbial Genetics (1960); G, Pontecorvo, Trends in Genetic Analysis (1958); R, P, Wagner and W, M, Mitchell, Metabolism and Genetics (1955); B, Glass and W. D, McElroy (eds,), The Chemical Basis of Heredity (1957) T, H, Morgan, The Theory of the Gene (1928); T, Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species (1951); C, D, Darlington, The Evolution of Genetic Systems, 2nd ed, (1958); R, A, Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (1930) H, J, Muller, Studies in Genetics (1962),

individuals are

fact consist of a great variety of genotypes. heterozygotes for recessive alleles, many of which, as shown by the American geneticist T, Dobzhansky, have lethal or deleterious Observations of experimental populaeffects when homozygous. tions bred in confinement in the laboratory showed that such deleterious genes may be retained in the population because of their favourable effects when heterozygous (e.g., conferring im-

of

HUMAN

states

E, Altenburg, Genetics, rev, ed, (1957); and T, Dobzhansky, Principles of Genetics,

GENETICS, HUMAN. mission in

Genetics;

man

are the

Heredity),

The

basic principles of gene trans-

as those in other organisms {see Their study in man requires special

same

techniques because breeding in man cannot be controlled as it is in domestic and experimental plants and animals. Contrary to a widespread opinion, data on many generations are not required to study the mode of transmission of a hereditary character in man; appropriate statistical techniques enable the geneticist to determine the pattern of inheritance by using data from only the statistical

parents and their offspring.

With these techniques it has been enormous array of biological char-

possible to demonstrate that an acters of

man

linked genes.

are due to dominant or recessive autosomal or sexAs in other organisms it has been shown that ap-

parently the same character

may

be due

to

any one of two or more

,

GENETICS, Furthermore,

different genes.

many

mechanism

are

the result of a

(For detailed information on

complex interaction of many genes. the genetic

traits

of inheritance of specific traits in

man, see

the works cited in the Bibliography, below.) Inheritance of Physical Traits. From the microscopic egg through the entire hfe span of the multicellular adult, genes direct the development and function of every part of man's body. Actually all human traits result from the complex interplay of heredity

—

and environment the genes carry the potentiahty of various traits, and the environment, in the broadest sense, acts to allow or sup;

press their full expression. Some traits are considerably influenced by environmental conditions; e.g., the full expression of body build depends on nutrition, exercise and training. Other features appear to be relatively independent of the environment; e.g., blood groups are present or absent, but they are not modified by other factors. Examples of blood groups will serve as illustrations of simple

inheritance in man.

The

best

known

of the blood groups, the

determined by a series of three alleles (alternative forms of a gene /^, /^ and i, sometimes labeled simply A, B and 0. The Hence, genetically, individuals first two are each dominant to i. of blood group A may be 1^1^ or IH, while those of blood group B may be /^/b or I^i. There is no dominance relation between /A and /B (they are said to be codominant hence the heterozygote /A/" is of group AB. Blood group Knowledge is genetically ii. of the pattern of inheritance of the blood groups is used in cases of disputed parentage, for identification and as an aid in deter-

ABO,

is

)

)

;

mining the identity or nonidentity of twins. -There are many other blood group systems that occur with an appreciable frequency in at least one of the races of man. All are inherited via systems of alleles that generally show codominance. All may on occasion cause transfusion reactions, but, with the exception of the ABO and the Rhesus (Rh) blood groups, do so Incompatibility between mother and child for Rh blood rarely. type is the most frequent cause of hemolytic disease of the newOccasionally inblood groups or for one of the other blood group systems may also cause hemolytic disease All of the blood of the newborn {see also Fetal Disorders). groups may be used as aids in determining the identicalness of blood twins, but, for technical reasons, only the Rh and groups (in addition to the ABO) are regularly used in medico-

born ("Rh disease" or erythroblastosis compatibility of the parents for the

fetalis).

ABO

MN

{See Blood Groups.) Inheritance of General and Special Abilities

legal disputes.

—

Studies of

heredity usually are concerned with discrete, easily recWith certain important exceptions these ognizable characters. characters generally involve changes in a person's physiology or morphology that make him diseased or abnormal (see Inborn ErThe important exceptions are the rors of Metabolism, below).

human

blood types and serum factors already mentioned, changes in which may have little or no effect on a person's well-being. The situation is very different when characters such as height, skin pigmentation, intelligence (however defined) and specific These, and traits like them, vary by abilities are considered. imperceptible gradations over a wide range of values. The specialist refers to such traits as continuous variables or quantitative characters. They are within the "normal" limits of variation and (However, disconare inherited via complex genetic patterns.

such as dwarfs or giants, albinos and idiots, also exist extreme variations may be transmitted by sim.ple patterns of inheritance.) The details of the pattern of inheritance are not known for any of the quantitative characters because: first, many different genes, each with only a small effect, are operable; and, second, these characters respond readily to tinuities,

for these characters; these

variations in the environment, which

may mask

HUMAN

89

(at least in the present U.S. society), as well as for resistance or

susceptibility to various diseases.

indicate that, at least in

some

Somewhat complicated analyses

families, heredity plays an

important

determining musical and other special abilities; these studies, which have only just begun to be explored, are discussed in T. Dobzhansky's Mankind Evolving (1962). Use of Twins in Genetic Studies. Twins (identical and frarole

in

—

be used to determine the presence of a genetic component in the causation of a character, particularly when the Identical twins arise from a genetic component is complex. single fertilized egg (zygote) and consequently are called monozygotic twins (MZ). Identical twins are genetically alike; hence, ternal)

may

between them are due to environmental differences to may have been subjected before or after birth, or at Fraternal twins arise from two fertilized eggs (two zygotes); hence, they are referred to as dizygotic twins (DZ). They are no more similar genetically than are ordinary brothers and sisters. Differences between dizygotic twins, therefore, are due to genetic as well as to environmental causes, and to the same extent as they are between ordinary brothers and sisters. Accordingly, if a genetic factor of importance is concerned in the causadifferences

which they both times.

tion of a character or in the determination of susceptibility to a disease, one would expect identical twins to be more often alike

(concordant) than fraternal twins. All such work presupposes careful determination of the zygosity of the twins as well as careful design of other aspects of the investigation. Studies of twins have uncovered a genetic component in the deparalytic poliomyelitis and tuberexamples of infectious diseases; schizophrenia, as an example of a mental illness; and spina bifida (opening in the spine) as an example of a morphological character.

termination of susceptibility to

:

culosis, as

incidence of twins, as well as the relative frequencies of It is hkely twins, varies among the races of man. that heredity plays some role in determining these differences. Studies in Sweden and England indicate that mothers who have twins are no more likely to have twin births in subsehad

The

MZ

and

DZ

MZ

quent pregnancies than are mothers who have not yet had twins. Both studies also agree that about 1 in 22 births after the birth of a set of DZ twins results in twins. Heredity is probably not the entire explanation for this increased tendency to have twins, because it is known that the frequency of DZ twins increases with

maternal age and with increasing birth order. Births.)

{See

Multiple

—

Genes change in man and probably for the same reasons. Special statistical techniques and surveys, in place of experimentation, are required to measure mutation rates in man. In essence the procedures (originated by J. B. S. Haldane) rest upon the reasonable assumption that genes that are lost because they effect early death, sterility or reduced fertility of the organisms carrying them can remain in constant proportions in the population from generation to generation only if they are replaced by mutation or some other source. The methodology is difficult and subject to many sources of error often beyond the control of the investigator. Neverthe-

Gene Changes (Mutations) in Man.

as in other organisms,

reason to believe that the estimates are of the right order of magnitude. Data from some studies of the spontaneous mutation rate of specific genes in man are shown in the table. These rates are of the same order of magnitude as those determined for laboratory organisms under circumstances permitting more accurate estimates. It is worth noting that in man, as in other less there is

organisms, over 90% of mutations are harmful. Various agents called mutagens have been shown to increase the mutation rate in experimental organisms. It is likely that they do

the genetic effects

person genetically disposed to stoutness may, if starved, be considerably thinner than a well-nourished person genetically disposed to slimness). Most information concerning the part played by heredity in intelligence, personality, height and other such characters has been derived from studies of twins and their siblings {see below). Such studies have indicated a heritable basis for intelligence, various (e.g., a

personality traits, tendencies to homosexuality and to criminality

Spontaneous Mutation Rates for Some Specific Genes in

Man

—

GENETICS,

90

so in man also. For obvious reasons it is virtually impossible to obtain direct evidence of such effects in man, but convincing indirect evidence is available to indicate that radiation and various chemicals cause mutations in man as in other organisms. Theoretical calculations by H. J. Muller and others indicate that the average human being is heterozygous ("hybrid") for about eight mutations, each of

which when homozygous

(

"pure") would

cause a genetic death. Any increase in mutation rate can serve only to increase "our load of mutations," as Muller has called it, and thus in the long run increase the number of genetic deaths. (See Mutation R.-^dmtion Biological Effects. Inborn Errors of Metabolism. In 1908 Sir Archibald Garrod :

;

)

—

postulated that a hereditary disease characterized by the abnormal accumulation of a product of metabolism resulted from the hereditary lack of an enzyme that normally removed the product; he referred to such genetic effects as "inborn errors of metabolism." He assumed that a specific gene caused a change in the nature of Sir Archibald's hj-pothesis has been amply confirmed for many hereditary changes in man and in experimental organisms plants as well as animals. The subject is vast and cannot be elaborated here: details may be found in the various

a specific enzyme.

—

sources mentioned in the bibliography. Three hereditary diseases, phenylketonuria, galactosemia and sickle-cell anemia, will serve as illustrations.

Phenylketonuria.

—Phenylketonuria

is

HUMAN An

gene causing Hb-S causes another type of hemoHb-C migrates even more slowly than Hb-S in an electric field, but it does not cause ceils to sickle. Persons homozygous for the gene causing Hb-C suffer an anemia known as Hb-C anemia; those heterozygous for Hb-S and Hb-C suffer from an anemia known as sickle-C disease. The three hemoglobins Hb-A, Hb-S and Hb-C~) have been shown to differ in the protein (globin) portion and not in the allele of the

globin to appear,

namely Hb-C,

(

"heme" (iron-containing) portion

The

of the molecule.

globin of

hemoglobin consists of two long chains of amino acids, the socalled alpha a and beta jS chains, each represented twice. The a chain is composed of 141 amino acid molecules: the (3 chain, of 146; hence, globin has 574 amino acids in it. The problem was to find which of these amino acids differed among the three hemo(

(

)

)

globins.

V. M. Ingram showed that Hb-S and Hb-C each differed from Hb-A in a change in only one amino acid out of a total of 146 in the /3 chain. The a chains are unchanged.

The

effect of the

mutations

for a glutamic acid molecule in

is

the substitution in

Hb-A, and

in

Hb-C

Hb-S

of valine

the substitution

same glutamic acid molecule of Hb-A, It is remarkable that exactly the same glutamic acid residue is substituted in each case and that the two mutations appear to be alleles. These substitutions of amino acids in a chain of amino acids leading to of lysine for the

inherited as a recessive

Genetics: Physiological Genetics). Individuals with this disease are mentally deficient and suffer other handicaps. They do not reproduce. Each apparently normal parent of an disease (see

affected child carries the gene in single dose

and each has contributed the gene

(i.e., is

to the child

heterozygous),

who

carries

it

in

Affected children lack an double dose (i.e., is homozj'gous). enzyme necessary to convert the essential amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine: accordingly they accumulate abnormally high concentrations of L-phenylalanine in the blood and abnormally high concentrations of its breakdown products notably phenylpyruvic acid) in the urine. The mental deficiency and other difficulties associated with this disease can be prevented if the children are placed on a phenylalanine-free diet shortly after birth. This leads to the important generalization, amply supported by other evidence, that inherited disorders can be controlled. Galactosemia. Galactosemia, Uke phenylketonuria, is inherited as a recessive disease. Children homozygous for this gene cannot digest the sugar galactose, which occurs in milk and other foods. When infants with this disease are fed milk, they vomit, become lethargic and fail to gain weight: in severe cases, death occurs. Those who survive, unless properly treated, are dwarfed, malnourished and mentally deficient. It has been demonstrated that these children are deficient in an enzyme />-galactose-uridyltransferase necessary for one step in the conversion of galactose to glucose. Affected children accumulate high concentrations of the precursor of this step (galactose-l-phosphate). If galactosemic children are given a diet free of galactose, all the symptoms of the disease are prevented from occurring. It is important to note, however, that the treatment of hereditary diseases does not change the gene: hence, the descendants of a successfully treated individual will inherit the gene unchanged. Sickle-Cell Anemia. Probably the most impressive demonstration of gene action in man concerns the effect of genes on the structure of the hemoglobin of the red blood cells. Several mutations are known to affect the chemical composition of hemoglobin. The changed hemoglobin is detected by its different rate of migration in an electric field from that of normal adult hemoglobin. The latter is referred to as Hb-A. A mutation is known that changes the hemoglobin so that it not only migrates more slowly than Hb-A but also causes the cells to assume bizarre shapes called sickle) if the oxygen concentration is reduced. The changed hemoglobin is known as Hb-S and occurs almost exclusively in Negroes. Persons homozygous for this gene are said to suffer from sickle-cell anemia (see also Anemia); those heterozygous for the gene are usually healthy, but have red blood cells that can be caused to sickle in greatly reduced oxygen concentrations (they are said to have the sickle-ceU trait). (

—

FROM

A.

MOURANT, "THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS" FIG.

1.

DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD GROUP GENE

B

IN

EUROPE

(

)

—

(

protein formation coincide with the suggestion that the function is to determine the amino acid sequence in proteins. Other Disorders. In addition to the cases already discussed, many other diseases have been shown to have a hereditary basis. Some of these assert themselves in infancy, hke the diseases already mentioned. In Wilson's disease, caused by a recessive gene, copper taken up in food is improperly metabolized and is deposited in nervous and other tissues, giving rise to diverse nervous disorders. Also caused by a recessive gene are cystinuria, which sometimes leads to kidney damage, and Fanconi's syndrome, which affects bone formation and results in stunted growth and other sequelae. Many malformations are genetically determined (see

of genes

—

Monster).

On the other hand, many inherited disorders become apparent only in later years. These include certain nervous diseases such as Huntington's chorea and schizophrenia (g.v.). muscular disorders such as muscular dystrophy, defects of the circulatory system, some kinds of cancer (g.v.) and many of the afflictions of old age. The onset of the expression of these disorders varies widely. For a discussion of the well-known bleeding disease that apinbred royal families of Europe and its mode of inHemophilia; for various forms of heritable dwarfism, including achondroplasia, see Dwarfism and Gigantism. See also Metabolism, Diseases of; Blood, Disorders of; Chil-

peared

in the

heritance, see

GENETICS, DREN, Diseases of; Muscles, Diseases of. Detection of Heterozygotes for Recessive Alleles.

— Mendel

defined recessive characters as those that become latent in the heterozygote; i.e., withdrawing or entirely disappearing in the hy-

The

brids.

modern techniques, however, has demonstrated

use of

that recessive characters do not entirely disappear in the heterozygote. Thus in phenylketonuria the average heterozygote does

not convert phenylalanine to tyrosine as rapidly as persons who do not carry the gene. Similarly the average heterozygote for the gene leading to galactosemia has a lower concentration of the enzyme ^-galactose-uridyl-transferase than those who do not have the gene.

This phenomenon, i.e., detectable changes in persons heterozygous for a recessive gene, has been demonstrated many times. It is likely that all heterozygotes are different from homozygotes. This provides an opportunity for selection to affect heterozygotes differently from either homozygote and adds another dimension to the problem of gene frequencies in populations. Population Genetics. Man is one of the

—

animals.

The study

most variable of an attempt to underhas demonstrated that the

of population genetics

is

stand the basis for this variabihty. It several races of man differ from each other in the frequencies with which various genes occur among them and that only rarely is a

gene present in one race entirely absent from another race. The best-known examples of racial differences in gene frequencies occur among the blood groups. (See Blood Groups; Blood: Individuality of

Human

Blood; Heredity.)

note that the distribution of gene frequencies follows a regular geographic pattern even within a race. Thus as one moves east across Europe the frequency of gene /^ (or B) It is of interest to

Similarly as one {or A) decreases. Europe the frequency of the gene D (Rh positive)

increases while that oi I^

moves

east in

increases.

Variation in' gene frequency means variation in the frequency with which genetically determined or genetically influenced conIt has already been menditions occur in different populations. tioned that sickle-cell anemia is essentially confined to Negroes; The similarly phenylketonuria is essentially absent in Negroes.

Rh allele d among orientals explains the virtual absence of Rh-caused hemolytic disease of the newborn among these peoples. If the frequencies of certain genes in two original populations and in a third population composed of a mixture of the original two are known, it is possible to estimate the proportion of genes rarity of the

The American derived from each of the original populations. Negro population is a mixed population, being formed of genes from the Negro populations of Africa and from European whites who mated with Negro slaves and their descendants. A study in-

PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES

m ^

SO-SS

35-40

3«-3S

0!S-3O

ODD

'5-30

HUMAN PtRCENTAGE FflEQUENCIES Rh NEGATIVE (d) Rh POSITIVE fOf

UNDER

d

m

80'SS

91

GENETICS OF POPULATIONS

92

Gene Frequency.

of the genetics of popu-

ylo

A-^

its

+

4*

13

Let

+

i' 188?

is

autosomal gene and

'A 15«^

—The basic concept

that of gene frequency.

represent a particular array of alleles. Let (x„,A^A^-\y^AiAn Zm^2'42) represent the array of genotypes and their relative frequencies («„, -|- y„, 2,„ = 1) in mature males and assume a similar array with subscript / in mature females. The frequencies of gene A^ in gametes of males and females respectively

lations

+

+

= [«,„ Since (Vty^], 9; = [xj (V)yf]. equal inheritance of autosomal genes from both parents, the gene frequencies become the same in males and females in the In symbols, q„ = q^ = {^) {q' „ using next generation. ' B.C.,

group, either by reason of their exceptional endowment as children or on the basis of exceptional accomplishment as adults, is unquesIt is, tionably greater than that for the population in general.

however, impossible to say with any certainty whether this is due to superior heredity or to superior environment. What must always be borne in mind is that in all places and at all times men John Bunyan's of genius have arisen from all ranks of society. father was a poor tinker; the father of Pierre Simon Laplace was a farmer of limited means. A place in Who's Who is by no means reserved from father to son.

See also Gifted Children; Intelligence; Prodigy; Psychological Tests and Measurements; Roman Religion, Bibliography. G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer, 2nd ed.; F. Gallon, Hereditary Genius (i86q) C. Lombroso, Men of

—

;

Genius, Eng. trans. (1891) Genius, vol. i-iv (1925-47) /.Q. (1942).

;

;

L. M. Terman et at.. Genetic Studies of L. S. HoUingworth, Children Above 180 (F. L. G.; J. W. Gs.)

GENK, of the

a mining town in the Campine, the fiat sandy expanses Limbourg province in northeast Belgium. Pop. 1961 est.) (

48,345.

A

Genk developed

village of Celtic origin,

after the dis-

covery of coal in 1901. Three large collieries (Winterslag, Waterschei and Zwartberg) profoundly changed the appearance of the town, and modern houses, churches and a coal port on the Albert canal were constructed. Part of the countryside however remained untouched and is frequently visited by painters, writers and tourists who are especially interested in the Bokrijk open-air museum with its old Campine dwellings furnished in 19th-century Beside coal mining (yearly output 4,000,000 tons), coal style. wagons and heavy mining apparatus are made. Gravel, sand and the natural gas known as grisou (14,000,000 cu.m. annually) are (R. M. An.) also extracted. , , ,

GENLIS, STEPHANIE FELICITE DU CREST DE SAINT- AUBIN, Comtesse de 1746-1830), a prolific and, in (

her day, immensely successful French writer of educational books,

and literary studies, and memChampcery. near Autun in Jan. 1746, and went to live in Paris in 1758. Beautiful, brilliant, gay and kindhearted, she became a centre of literarj' life. She was a friend of Rousseau. Talleyrand, Chateaubriand, and was called "enchantress" by Napoleon. At 16 she married Charles Briilart, comte de Genlis (later marquis de Sillery ), and both entered the service of the duke and duchess of Chartres (later of Orleans). For 12 years governess to their sons and daughter, and adored by all the family, Stephanie was secretly the duke's mistress and his lifelong friend. Her educational methods were progressive study was lightened by play acting, visual aids and physical exercise. Of liberal views. she welcomed the French Revolution but she was too moderate and had to flee; in 1793, the year in which both her husband and lover were guillotined, she lived in Switzerland, and later in Hamburg and Berlin. Under Napoleon, she returned to France with a

plays, romances, histories, religious oirs,

was born

at

—

:

(

)

in 1830,

Wyndham, Madame

(T. L. J.)

de Genlis (1958).

GENNADIUS

II (original name Georgios Scholarios) (c. 1400-c. 1468), patriarch of Constantinople, was one of the most Received into favour learned Byzantine statesmen of his time. by the emperor Manuel II Palaeologus, Georgios became one of the most intimate counselors of the next emperor, John VIII, and was appointed president of the supreme court. At the Council of

Ferrara-Florence (1438-39), he was a partisan of reunion between the Greek Church and the Roman. On his return to Constantinople he changed his policy, and from 1443 he was a leading opponent of reunion. About 1449 he became a monk and took the name Gennadius. After the Turks had taken Constantinople Five years later, (1453), he was elected patriarch (c. 1454). however, because of disagreements with the Turkish authorities and within the church, he retired to the monastery of St. John the Baptist, near Serrai, where he died c. 1468. An Aristotelian in philosophy, he opposed the Platonism of Gemistos Pletho and admired St. Thomas Aquinas and other Latin scholastics. The difference between his earlier and later views on reunion with Rome led some scholars in the 17th and 18th centuries to suppose that Georgios and Gennadius were two distinct persons. His works were published by J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. clx (1866).

GENOA capital of

(Ital. Genova, Genova province,

the greatest port of Italy

Fr.

Genes, Ger. and

anc.

Genua),

chief city of the region of Liguria,

and the probable birthplace of Christo-

the head of the Gulf of Genoa, 156 km. 97 mi. S. of Milan by road. Genoa occupies an amphitheatre on the coastal slope of the Ligurian Apennines between the Polce-

pher Columbus, (

lies at

)

vera river to the west and the Bisagno river to the east. Greater Genoa, established in 1926, extends along the coast for about 15 mi. between Voltri and Nervi and northward about 6 mi. to PontePop. (1951) 648,078; (1961 est.) 770,214. Area 91 decimo.

The

sq.mi.

origin of the

name Genoa

is

sometimes

identified

with the Roman god Janus (q.v., whence janua, "gate"), and the port constitutes a major gateway not only to the industrial north of Italy and the Po valley but also (through the Alpine tunnels) to much of central Europe. Architectural Features. The old town lies between the water front and the main thoroughfare, which, under various names, leads southeast from the main railway station to the Piazza de FerThe newer quarters occupy the higher rari, the central square.

—

north and east. The main architectural features of medieval churches, with their striped facades of black and white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces; a modern note is struck by the skyscrapers in the city centre. On the water front the great lighthouse, called the Lanterna, rises

ground

to the

Genoa

are

380

ft.;

its

behind

it

the city of yellow stone stretches

up into the

Genoa has long been known as la superba gorges of the hills. ("the proud"). Among the older churches are Sta. Maria di Castello (11th-century), built on the site of the Roman castle in the Romanesque style with later Gothic additions; SS. Cosma e Damiano, 11thcentury Romanesque; S. Donato, also Romanesque (1189), with a polygonal campanile and a beautiful interior; S. Giovanni di Pre 13th-century), with an apse at each end and a campanile with five spires; S. Agostino (1260), a Romanesque church with a fine campanile; and S. Stefano. Romanesque with a tower belonging to (

Matteo, the ancient church of the Doria building with the characteristic Genoese black and white fa(;ade, founded in 1126. The interior dates from 1543, when it was remodeled by Giovanni Montorsoli (1507-63). who designed the tomb of Andrea Doria in the crypt. The small square in front of the church is surrounded by mansions of the Doria family in 13th-century Genoese style. The cathedral of S. Lorenzo (1100-15), although originally

an earlier building. family,

is

a small

S.

Romanesque

Romanesque, was so much altered that it also presents aspects of Gothic and Renaissance styles. The interior 1307) is carried on the columns of an earlier church, and the nave is covered with a (

GENOA erected in 1567 to the designs of the architect Galeazzo It contains the chapel of St. John the Baptist (q.v.). (1465), in which are relics of the saint brought from Palestine during the crusades and notable statues of the Madonna and St. John by Andrea Sansovino (q.v.; 1460-1529). In the cathedral

dome

Alessi

an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino, captured by the Caesarea in Palestine in 1101 and corresponding to descriptions of the holy grail. It was long regarded as a hoUowedout emerald of matchless value (whence the alternative name Tazza di Smeraldo), but it is actually a remarkable piece of ancient glass; some Genoese assert that glass was substituted for emerald when the bowl was removed to Paris by Napoleon I. Nearby on the southern side of the Piazza de Ferrari is the baroque Jesuit church of S. Ambrogio, of late 16th-century date and with a richly decorated interior that includes an altarpiece by P. P. Rubens treasury

is

Genoese

at

and a painting of the Assumption by Guido Reni. One of the largest churches in the city is the sumptuous domed basilica of SS. Annunziata, restored after damage by bombardment in World War II, its interior richly adorned with coloured marble and 17thcentury frescoes. S. Siro, a church rebuilt in the 11th century by the Benedictines on the site of the Roman fort, was restored and enlarged at the end of the 16th century and contains frescoes an inscription marks the spot where by G. B. Carlone 1592-1677 (

)

;

"destroyed the serpent basilisk" in 580. Sta. Maria di Carignano in the south of the city was designed by G. Alessi in Renaissance style as a small edition of St. Peter's at Rome; it contains statues by Pierre Puget {q.v.; 1622-94) and the highest gallery of its dome commands an excellent view.

St. Siro

The palaces of the Genoese patricians are famous for their sumptuous architecture and their artistic collections. Many of them were built in the latter half of the 16th century by Alessi, whose imposing style displays great ingenuity in using a limited Several of the villas on the outskirts site to the best advantage. are also his work. The Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent palaces, chief among which is the Palazzo Rosso, named for its red colour. After damage in World War II, it was repaired and reopened

in 1961.

Opposite

is

the contrasting white Palazzo

Both these palaces were presented to the city by the Marchesa Maria Brignole-Sale, duchess of Galliera (died 1889), and contain priceless art treasures, including two important picNearby the Palazzo Municipale, formerly Doriature galleries. Tursi (1564), stands on a sloping site, with a magnificent courtyard and a marble stairway leading to the spacious council chamber. In adjacent rooms are preserved autographed letters of Columbus and the Guarnieri violin (1742) of Niccolo Paganini Near the Via Garibaldi iq.v.), who was also a native of Genoa. Bianco.

is

the Palazzo Spinola (16th century), housing the National galIts period interior conveys a clear idea of an 18th-century

lery.

In the Via Balbi are the Durazzo Pallavicini and Balbi-Senarega palaces, both by Genoa's greatest baroque architect Bartolomeo Bianco (1590-1657). The Palazzo dell' Universita, built in the first half of the 17th century, is Bianco's finest work; it was designed as a Jesuit college and has been occupied by the university since 1803. Just west of the main railway station is the

Genoese home.

105

Palazzo Doria Pamphily (Palazzo del Principe), bought by Andrea Doria in 1521 and with frescoes by Perino del Vaga (q.v.; 1500-47). The Palazzo Ducale, the former residence of the doges but now the law courts, was modernized after a fire in 1777. The Gothic Palazzo di S. Giorgio, begun in 1260, has been restored and is occupied by the port authority. Christopher Columbus is reputed to have been baptized in S. Stefano; his supposed birthplace near that church was demolished di Cristoforo Colombo (house of Columbus) (1700) occupies the site of another where he is said to have resided. The marble statue (1862) of Columbus, in the square fronting the main railway station, shows him leaning on an anchor with a figure representing America kneeling at his feet. The patriot Giuseppe Mazzini (q.v.), also a Genoese, was born at 13 Via Lomellini,

and the casa

a museum of the Risorgimento. His tomb is in the Staglieno cemetery, 2^ km. (1^ mi.) N., which covers nearly 400 ac. and contains an astonishing collection of modern sepulchral monuments. At Quarto dei Mille, 8 km. (5 mi.) S.E. on the road to Pisa, a monument commemorates the start of Giuseppe Garibaldi (q.v.) on his expedition with "the thousand" in 1860. From the Piazza de Ferrari, which is the business centre, the wide Via Venti Settembre slopes southeast, famed for its elegant By the Via Dante stands the Porta Soprana (1155), an shops. imposing gateway of the old city wall. The Via Roma leads northeast to the Piazza Corvetto with its bronze equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. North of this square is the Villetta di Negro, a hillside public garden with a marble statue (1882) of Mazzini and busts of famous citizens, and south of it the other main park, the Spianata dell' Acquasola. From the square may be reached the thoroughfare called the Circonvallazione a Monte, which for about three miles follows avenues along the hills at the back of the

now

town and affords excellent views. The centre of the university, which was founded in 1471, is the palace in the Via Balbi, but the great number of students necessitates the distribution of

many

faculties in other parts of the city.

Other institutions include the academy of arts, the Mazzinian institute for the study of the Risorgimento, the Chiossone Japanese museum, the naval and maritime museum at Pegli (11 km., or 7 mi. W.) and the museums of archaeology and natural history. Communications. Genoa is cramped between the sea and the Apennine foothills and was for centuries surrounded by walls. The older parts have thus become a confusion of narrow streets and lanes (caruggi), with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Much of the city is inaccessible to automobiles and trucks and many important streets have To unite some quarters and to improve aclittle room for traffic. cess to the harbour a number of road tunnels (gailerie) have been built, and with the same object the lower course of the Bisagno Communication with the hill suburbs river has been covered in. and between different levels in the city is facilitated by three funicular railways and several elevators. Local passenger trafiic is mostly by bus and trolley bus. A coastal railway and a coastal road (Via AureUa) pass through Genoa westward to Nice, France (also a motorway as far as Savona), and southeastward to La Spezia, Leghorn (Livorno) and Rome. The Polcevera valley northward carries the main roads and railway through the Giovi pass to Turin and Milan and also

—

the

express

motorway

BY COURTESY OF ITALIAN STATE TOURIST OFFICE

PANORAMIC VIEW OF GENOA. CHIEF PORT OF

ITALY.

SHOWING A PORTION OF THE HARBOUR AT RIGHT

(auto-

Regular shipping services connect with most major ports, and there is an air service between Genoa and Rome. The inner harbour is protected by the Molo Vecchio or the Old mole (13th century) and has numerous quays. The new harbour extends westward past the suburb of Geneva Sampierdarena to the mouth of the Polcevera river and covers a total of more than 1 ,300

strada) to Milan.

GENOA

io6 ac, including about 75

Trade and Industry. cator

(

warehouses and 12^ mi. of quays able

ac. of

to accommodate more than

1

50 ships.

— The ancient saying Genuensis, ergo mer-

"a Genoese, therefore a merchant"

)

epitomizes Genoa's age-

old prominence in maritime and commercial affairs, and the great power wielded by the famous Banco di S. Giorgio from the 15th to the 18th century is recalled by the observation of the French historian Jules Michelet that Genoa was a bank before it was a city. Genoa is the outlet for the agricultural products of northern Italy ("olive oil. wine, macaroni, cheese, fruits, rice and flowers) and also for the finished products of the manufacturing industries. Its main imports are fuels and raw materials (coal. coke, petroleum, iron ore,

and greatly exceed exports. Traditional crafts of the province include filigree and gold and silver inlay work, especially at Campo Ligure: the weaving of velvets and damasks in the neighbourhood of Chiavari (45 km., or 28 mi. E.S.E. and at Zoagli nearby: the manufacture of tower clocks at Recco. 21 km. (13 mi.) E.S.E. lacemaking in Rapallo and district: and furniture making at Chiavari. An important concentration of manufacturing industry exists in the suburbs west of Genoa (Genova Sampierdarena. Cornighano Ligure, Sestri Ponente, Pra, Voltri) and in the Polcevera valley Rivarolo Ligure, Bolzaneto, San Quirico, Pontedecimo). The principal activities are iron and steel making; shipbuilding and heaw industry (locomotives, marine engines, raQroad shops) the manufacture of munitions, chemicals, fertilizers, cement. textUes, paper, soap and rope: canning, brewing, tanning, flour and cotton milling and the refining of oil cotton, wool, hides, metals

and

grain")

I

;

(

:

and sugar.

Genova Province, with an area of 708 sq.mi.. has a coast that extends from the city westward to Cogoleto (27 km. or 17 mi,) and eastward to Bracco (66 km., or 41 mi.). It thus contains a large stretch of the Italian part of the Ri\nera (q.v.); popular seaside resorts include Nervi, Portofino, Santa Margherita Ligure and Rapallo. all on the picturesque coast east of Genoa. Inland the Ligurian Apennines rise to about 5.500 ft., their slopes covered with olive trees, firs, pines and scrub.' The mild winter climate encourages the cultivation of olives, vines, vegetables and fruits (especially peaches); the growing of flowers for export is of importance.

There

is

some dairy farming and

slate

and building (X.)

stone are quarried.

HISTORY Archaeologists have found no trace of settlement in Genoa prior to the 5th century B.C.. but their earliest findings already indicate a more advanced civilization than that of the rural and mountainous hinterland. What probably began as a Ligurian village on the

Sarzano hill overlooking the natural port (today Molo Vecchio) prospered through contacts with the Etruscans and the Greeks. During the Second Punic War. in the 3rd century B.C., it was wrecked by the Carthaginians and rebuilt by the Romans. As a road junction, a military port and a market of the Ligurians. Genoa became a flourishing though not outstanding Roman municipium. An episcopal see was installed in the commercial suburb which was slowly growing at the foot of Sarzano and along the shore. After the fall of the Roman empire the Ostrogoths protected the Genoese Jews, and when the Lombards conquered the interior of northern Italy in the 6th century a.d. the archbishop of Milan took shelter Milanese refugees formed a new suburb on the S. in Genoa. Andrea hill, but growth was arrested when Rothari, the Lombard king, conquered the town and razed its walls (c. 641). For three centuries Genoa existed in comparative obscurity as a fishing and agrarian centre with little trade. The Middle Ages. By the 10th century, however, the general demographic and economic upswing of Europe brought fresh opportunity and enabled the Genoese to answer the challenge of Muslim raids vigorously. A Fatimid fleet stormed and sacked the town (934 or 935), but the Genoese raised their walls anew and counterattacked under the leadership of their bishop and of the local viscounts. Jointly with the Pisans, they gradually purged Corsica and Sardinia of Saracen marauders; and in 1088, together with other Italian soldiers and sailors, in an enterprise foreshadowing the crusades, they attacked Mahdia, the Zirid capital on the

—

African coast and an important centre of trade, captured the town and extorted from its ruler an indemnity and exemption from tolls. For some time, meanwhile. Genoese merchant ships had been trading briskly in the western Mediterranean and calUng at Palestinian seaports.

Before 1100 a voluntary association (compagna) of all citizens contribute arms, capital or labour to the life of the community generated the independent commune of Genoa. The Holy Roman emperor was still the overlord, and the bishop the honorary president of the commune, but for all practical purposes the executive power was vested in a number of "consuls" yearly

who would

by a popular assembly (see Commune [Medieval] ). The ruling class, sharing with the consuls the government of the city, consisted chiefly of petty noblemen and of afHuent bourgeois. elected

Maritime commerce was the dominant activity. During the 12th and 1 3th centuries Genoa played a leading role in the commercial It became a town of revolution that Europe was undergoing. about 100.000 inhabitants, a naval power dealing on equal terms with the greatest monarchies and a commercial centre rivaled only by Venice in the Levant trade and competing with other Itahan towns in trade with western Europe. Eastern spices, dyestuffs and medicaments, western cloth and metals, African wool, skins, coral and gold were the main articles of a very diversified international commerce. Banking and shipbuilding flourished, and the local textile industry made a good start. At the same time, the Genoese brought all of Liguria. most of Corsica and northern Sardinia under their direct or indirect control and founded self-governing commercial colonies all around the Mediterranean coast. Many of these colonies were the result of Genoese participation in the crusades (Guglielmo Embriaco of Genoa was especially notable for conveying to Jerusalem the siege machines that helped to capture that city) and of shorter campaigns by the Genoese alone in Spain. Africa and the Levant, but some were set up by peaceful penetration and diplomatic bargainThey ranged in size from indi\adual buildings to walled ing. suburbs of towns and. eventually, entire islands or districts of coastal land.

Genoese enwas amply compensated by Genoa's alliance with the Byzantine empire under the treaty of Xinfeo (1261), which paved the way for a great expansion in the Black sea. Pera (modern Beyoglu), the Genoese independent suburb

The

collapse of the crusaders' states, with their

claves, in the late 13th century

of Constantinople, gradually outstripped the Byzantine capital in economic development if not in artistic or intellectual achievements, and Caffa (modern Feodosiya) became the capital of a

broad stretch of the Crimean coast ruled by the Genoese. .Aegean islands became independent Genoese principalities.

Many

Throughout this period internal political strife in Genoa was ahnost incessant, but it did not seriously hamper the progress of the community.

The

state

was managed

as a business affair, to

—

Spinola, Fieschi. Griand, so far as it was not incompatible, to maldi, Doria, etc. Before the end of the the advantage of the whole population. 12th century, competition for the oflfice of consul became so bitter

the

common

profit of the ruling families

—

that an alternative was sought by inviting someone from outsicle to be podesta or chief magistrate for a year at a time, but this form of government likewise failed to pacify the factions or to

cope with the growing political ambitions of the middle class, and in the second half of the 13th century the yearly podesta was superseded by native "captains of the people" governing with unIn 1257 limited tenure and with the support of the guilds. Guglielmo Boccanegra. who was not a nobleman, was made capThenceforward, though the richer citizens maintained their tain. economic and political lead, noble birth alone was no longer a The Hving standard of the guarantee of pohtical supremacy. entire population, including fresh immigrants, constantly improved. Municipal and family pride led to the construction of magnificent buildings in stone, the wharves and the light tower were given

were paved, bridges were built by public There were subscription and some fine churches were erected. special

also

care,

many

streets

schools,

some

commercial subjects

(it

specializing in the humanities, others in

was

in

Genoa

that double-entry book-

,

;

GENOA keeping and, later, maritime insurance were first developed) and a growing number of Genoese citizens went abroad to study in the universities. The influx of refugees

from southern France

after the Albi-

gensian crusade stimulated the growth of a Genoese school of lyric poets, writing first in Provencal, then in the local vernacular. The town government moreover sponsored the writing of historical annals (by Caffaro, lacopo Doria and others). There were prominent jurists (such as Sinibaldo Fieschi, later Pope Innocent IV), hagiographers (archbishop lacopo da Varagine), lexicographers

(Giovanni Balbi) and map makers (Giovanni di Mauro da CaThe brothers Ugolino and Vadino rignano and many others). Vivaldi in 1291 tried to reach the far east by sailing through the a daring, though unStrait of Gibraltar and proceeding westward Benedetto Zaccaria was one of the greatest successful venture.

—

admirals, businessmen and diplomats of his time. Genoa's political zenith was marked by a crushing naval victory over the Pisans at Meloria (1284) and a less decisive one over the Venetians at Curzola (1298), followed by other successful encounters. At the same period, maritime trade reached its peak: in 1293, sources indicate a total value for incoming and outgoing

wares of almost 4,000,000 Genoese pounds— roughly seven times as much as the income of the French monarchy had been under Philip II Augustus.

During the 14th and ISth centuries, however, the whole of Europe was in a profound material and moral crisis. This was sharpened in Genoa by the irrepressible individualism of the citiin the zens. There still was progress in certain fields, for instance banking the Bank of silk industry and in both private and public San Giorgio, in particular, pioneered in the development of jointstock companies and in colonial expansion through chartered comThis progress, however, was not enough to offset the panies. decadence of Mediterranean trade and the decline of the populaMoreover, while splendid Renaissance mansions in the town tion. and villas in the surrounding country emphasized the growing difference between the very rich and the very poor, class and party struggle kept the government in perpetual turmoil; and public :

finances were ruined by war. The election of native doges after the Venetian model, beginning with that of Simone Boccanegra in 1339, was a vain attempt to solve the political problem.

had frustrating results. The colMongol army, but caught the plague and transmitted the Black Death ig.v.) to Genoa in 1346. The war of Chioggia (g.v.), which brought Venice almost to its knees, ended in a Venetian victory through exhaustion (137980). After emerging from a period of French domination (13941409), Genoa passed under Milanese overiordship in 1421, and a diplomatic shift by the duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, made worthless the Genoese naval victory over the Aragonese at Ponza (1435). This provoked a successful rising against the Corsica Visconti, but Genoa could no longer be a great power. was in perennial revolt Sardinia was overrun by the Aragonese the Levant colonies, which had become virtually independent of the motherland, were conquered by the Egyptians or the Turks. Only the mainland domain (that is, Liguria proper) was success-

Even mihtary

victories often

onists of Caffa repulsed a powerful

;

fully held.

The

16th, 17th

and 18th Centuries.

— Having

accepted the

overiordship of Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan in 1488, Genoa was to be involved in the troubles that ensued when the French king Louis XII began to pursue his claims to the duchy of Milan

In the interval, however, Christopher Columbus (born in 1451) had followed the example set by the Vivaldi brothers of seeking a westward route to the Indies and had discovered America for the Spaniards; he assigned one-tenth of his own income from the discovery to the Bank of San Giorgio for The Spanish conthe relief of taxation on foodstuffs in Genoa. (1499).

in

Genoa

107

but ensured that it would be a privileged exploiter of the vast Spanish empire. The result was a partial economic recovery in By chartering ships and extending the 16th and 17th centuries. loans to Spain and to other foreign powers, by daring speculations

exchange and by shrewd management of foreign investfamiUes amassed great fortunes. They generally lived parsimoniously, but often spent lavishly in building houses and endowing charitable institutions. It was still possible for commoners to wax richer and gain admission into the ranks of the privileged aristocracy. In the 1 7th century there was a brief period of splendid painting by the Genoese school represented by such masters as Bernardo Strozzi and Alessandro Magnasco. Genoa was heavily bombarded by the French in May 16S4, during the Franco-Spanish war over Luxembourg, and was occupied by the Austrians in 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession (the Austrians were expelled by a popular insurrection, begun accidentally when an unknown urchin, traditionally known As the fortunes as Balilla, threw a stone at an insolent officer). of Spain and Italy decUned, Genoa's did so likewise; by the mid18th century trade had sunk to its lowest level, and the Bank of San Giorgio was in dire financial straits. In 1768, by the treaty of Versailles, the republic ceded to France its last overseas possession,

in foreign

ments,

many Genoese

Corsica.

—

Later History. In Wars the republic saw

the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic In its neutrality violated by both sides.

1797, under Bonaparte's pressure, it was transformed into an Ligurian republic, under a French protectorate. The long siege which Gen. Andre Massena had to sustain in Genoa "equalitarian"

1800 inflicted great sufferings on the population. Annexation France in 1805 brought only temporary economic relief, as the British blockade of the continental ports stifled what was left of maritime trade; and amid the blessings of liberty and equality many people longed for the old municipal republic. Lord William Bentinck's empty promise that the repubUc should be restored stimulated the Genoese to revolt against the defeated armies of Napoleon (April 1814), but the allies already had agreed to yield Genoa to the kingdom of Sardinia Piedmont under the house of Savoy whose constant goal for three centuries had been to acquire the town by armed force, by diplomacy, or by promoting conspiracies against the republican government. In Nov. 1814 the congress of Vienna ratified this agreement. Though the Genoese bitterly resented the authoritarian regime of the house of Savoy, they had everything to gain from union with a large and thriving hinterland. The merchant marine rapidly revived, and Genoese trade blossomed anew, not only in its traditional haunts of the Mediterranean and in the Black sea, but

in

to

—

—

and in America. Heavy industry had a promTemporary and permanent emigration to Argentina,

also in the far east ising start.

Uruguay and Brazil tempted and rewarded men from all walks of Genoa nevertheless remained a hotbed of republican and life. radical opposition, whose last violent expression was a revolt against the armistice concluded in 1848 between King Charles Gradually, however, the Albert and the victorious Austrians. longing for a local republic gave way to the dream of an Italian republic, such as the Genoese Giuseppe Mazzini envisaged. When Mazzini's plans proved unfeasible, the Genoese accepted the idea of a united kingdom of Italy under the liberalized Savoy dynasty. They gave more than their share to all the battles for independ-

and most particularly to Garibaldi's Sicihan venture, which sailed from nearby Quarto in 1860. The unification of Italy further broadened the scope of Genoese Genoa, then Italy's greatest commercial port, vied with activity. Marseilles for supremacy in the Mediterranean and competed with the ports of the North sea for the trade of Switzeriand and central

ence,

in the latter declined somewhat the difference was counterbalanced by the

Europe; and when Genoa's share in the 20th century

nection was reinforced in the 16th century when Andrea Doria (q.v.) transferred his service from Francis I of France to the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, who was also king of Spain. Andrea

The ever-increasing trade flowing to and from northern Italy. university, into which pre-existing institutions of higher learning had been fused in 1803, became especially distinguished for its

who restored his town to orderly government under biennial doges and an oligarchy of the old and new noble merchants by the

In the cultural teaching on economic and maritime subjects. sphere, 19th-century Genoa experienced a musical awakening, highlighted by the construction of the Cario Felice opera house and

Doria,

constitution of 1528,

made Genoa

politically a satellite of

Spain

GENOA—GENOCIDE

io8 by the later

and composer; and

acti\aty of Niccolo Paganini, violinist

won some

reputation in the world of literature through the

journalism and fiction of A. G. Barrili and L. A. Vassallo

(

Gando-

lin).

Genoa, which harboured a significant underground opposition to Fascism, suffered heavily in World War 11 from Allied naval and air attacks and from German occupation until, shortly before the final German collapse, local resistance forces liberated the town. See also references under "Genoa" in the Index volume. BiBiiOGRAPHY. For a general survey see V. A. Vitale, Breviario di storia di Cenova (1955). The series of Annates Januenses, ed. by L. T. Belgrano and C. Imperiale (1890-1926), provides a continuous contemporary account of the period between 1099 and 1294. The Liber Jtirium in the series Monumenta Hisloriae Patriae (1854-57) and the Nolai Liguri dei secoli XII e XIII (1938are important collections of ) medieval documents. Periodical publications include the Atti della

—

Societa Ligure di Storia Palria (1858the Giornale Ligustico di ) archeologia, storia e belle arti (1874—95), the Giornale storico e letterario della Liguria (1900-43); and the Bollettino Ligustico per la storia e la cultura regionale (1949). For particular aspects see E. H, Byrne, Genoese Shipping in the 12th and 13th centuries (1930) R. S. Lopez, Storia delle Colonie genovesi net Mediterraneo (1938) and, with I. \V. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World (1955); R. Doehaerd, Les Relations commerciales entre Genes, le Belgique et I'Outremont aux Xllle et XlVe sii'cles (1941) and, with C. Kerremans, Les Relations commerciales entre Genes, la Belgique et I'Outremont 1400-1440 (1952); G. Giacchero, Storia economica del Settecento genovese (1951); E. Bach, La Cite de Genes au Xlle siecle (1955); P. Revelli, // Genovese (1951); A. L. Rodgers, Industrial Geography of the Port of Geneva (1960). (R. S. L.) ;

;

GENOA, CONFERENCE OF

(April

lO-May

19.

1922),

was proposed in Jan. 1922 by David Lloyd George, the British prime minister, at the Cannes meeting of the supreme council of the Allies (see Cannes, Conference of). Lloyd George argued that a scheme for European economic reconstruction must include Russia. Aristide Briand. the French prime minister, accepted the idea because at the same time Lloyd George offered a British guarantee to France in the event of unprovoked German aggression on French soil. Lloyd George, however, warned Briand that Great Britain would not be willing to incur militar>' commitments in central and eastern Europe. On Jan. 6 the supreme council unanimously voted a resolution summoning to Genoa an economic and financial conference as "an urgent and essential step toward the economic reconstruction of central and eastern Europe." Accused in French parliament of having accepted a diminution of the rights of France under the treaty of Versailles. Briand resigned on Jan. 12 and was succeeded by RajTnond Poincare. Since the plan of the Genoa conference had been accepted. Poincare could not reject it altogether, but he sought to interpret the agenda in the narrowest sense and to hedge the participation of Soviet Russia with the fullest possible restrictions. The Genoa conference was preceded by a not too cordial meeting

between Poincare and Lloyd George at Boulogne (Feb. 25), a meeting of Allied economic experts in London March 20-28 and two other preliminary meetings of regional character, one between the members of the little entente in Belgrade and another in Warsaw between Poland, Latvia. Estonia and Finland. The parties represented in Warsaw subsequently conferred in Riga with Soviet (

representatives.

In

of the peace treaties

all

)

the three regional conferences the sanctity

was

reaffirmed.

Representatives of Great Britain, of the British self-governing dominions and of 29 European states, including not only the Allies and former neutrals, but all the former Central Powers except Turkey, were represented at the conference. The invitation to Genoa was accepted with alacrity by the Soviet government, whose delegation w'as headed by Georgi V. Chicherin. the people's commissar for foreign affairs. The United States declined to take part on two grounds: that it would not be possible to prevent the conference from trenching on political questions and that the economic recover.' of Russia depended less on international action than on the internal policy of the So\net government. The conference, solemnly opened at the Palazzo San Giorgio, set up four commissions: the first to examine "conditions under which foreign enterprise and capital could be enlisted for the restoration of Russia," as well as the settlement "of past obli-

gations"; the other three to deal respectively with financial, eco-

These three

nomic and transport provisions.

latter

commissions

reported before the conference came to an end, but their reports were bound to remain academic unless the first commission achieved positive results. It soon appeared that the labours of the first commission were fruitless because the French and the Belgians insisted on the integral repayment of prewar loans accorded to Russia as well as on integral restitution of foreign-owned private property in Russia. Both of these demands were refused by the Soviet delegation. all

The negotiations were dramatically interrupted by the signature on April 16, by Chicherin and Walter Rathenau, the German foreign minister, of a separate treaty by which, in the

at Rapallo.

published text, the two parties mutually renounced all reparation claims and decided to resume normal diplomatic and consular relations (see Rapallo, Treaty of). This separate Soviet-German treaty damaged the general prospect of the conference by the fear it

instilled into the Allies.

It

appeared as the

a Soviet-German alliance directed against the lations of the treaty of Versailles

was

first

step toward

territorial

and other peace

stipu-

treaties.

In

prospect of success for a general treaty of nonaggression which Lloyd George suggested on April 25. But the conference actually broke down through the Franco-Belgian insistence on repayment of loans to and investthese circumstances there

ments

The Genoa conference was quickly wound up by to a mixed commission of experts, who duly The Hague from June 26 to July 20, 1922; but it also

in Russia.

remitting

met

little

at

its

agenda

foundered on the rock of

foreign-owned private property

in

Russia. Bibliography. British Blue Book, Papers Relating to International Economic Conference, Genoa, April-May 1922, Cmd. 1667 (1922); French Yellow Book, Documents diplomaliques: Conference economique Internationale de Genes (1922) British Blue Book, Papers Respecting Negotiations for an Anglo-French Pact, Cmd. 2169 (1924). (K. Sm.)

—

;

GENOCIDE. gin,

is

spired

Raphael Lemkin. a U.S. scholar of Polish oricredited with having coined the term "genocide." He in-

and promoted action on the international plane

genocide.

The word,

meaning meaning killing.

the Greek genos suffix cide

as he explained,

is

race, nation or

The

to

outlaw

a hybrid consisting of

realities of

and the Latin European hfe in the

tribe;

years 1933—45. Lemkin said, called for the formulation of a legal concept of destruction of human groups. (See Anti-Semitism.) In 1946. under the impact of the crimes which had been revealed in the Niirnberg and other war crimes trials, the general assembly of the United Nations affirmed "that genocide is a crime under international law which the civilized world condemns, and for the commission of which principals and accomplices are punishable."

Two

years later, on Dec. 9, 1948. the general assembly approved the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime Twelve of Genocide, which went into effect on Jan. 12, 1951.

years after

come

its

adoption by the general assembly, 64 states had be-

parties to the convention.

In the words of the International Court of Justice, the convention "was manifestly adopted for a purely humanitarian and It is indeed difficult to imagine a convention civilizing purpose. that might have this dual character to a greater degree, since its object on the one hand is to safeguard the very existence of certain human groups and on the other to confirm and endorse the most elementarj' principles of morahty." In the convention the contracting states confirmed that genocide, whether committed in time of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law which they undertake to prevent and to punish. The fact that genocide is a crime irrespective of whether it is committed in time of peace or in time of war, distinguishes the idea of "genocide" from that of "crimes against humanity" under the 1945 charter of the international military tribunal (the "Niirnberg tribunal" tried the major European war criminals) as interpreted by

which

that tribunal.

Certain inhuman acts are international crimes, i.e., crimes against humanity, only when committed in execution of. or in connection with crimes against peace, or war crimes. Under the definition of genocide, however, the connection with war and crimes committed

;

GENOVESI—GENTIAN and during a war, is not required. In the concomniitted with vention, genocide means any of the following acts ethnical, racial national, part, a in or whole intent to destroy, in of the group; (2) or religious group, as such: (1 ) killing members group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the conditions of life calcu(3) deliberately inflicting on the group or in part lated to bring about its physical destruction in whole prevent births within the (4) imposing measures intended to another group; (5) forcibly transferring children of the group to

in preparation of

Conspiracy, direct and public incitement, and attempt to commit genocide and complicity in genocide are also made punishPerpetrators shall be punished, whether they are constituable.

109

GENRE PAINTING has primarily to do with a type of subbut the proper application of the term is limited also by the {See also Still-Life PaintIn genre painting, intimate scenes and subjects from oring.) dinary daily life are dealt with. The elimination of imaginative

ject,

painter's attitude toward the subject.

content focuses attention upon the shrewd observation of types, costumes and settings and upon the beauty and appropriateness of colour, form and texture. In true genre painting such subjective qualities as the dramatic, historical, ceremonial, satirical, didactic, romantic, sentimental and religious should be reduced to a mini-

group.

mum. (Characteristic works by Jan Steen, Honore Daumier, Thomas Rowlandson and William Hogarth would thus be too

tionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals. They shall be tried by a competent tribunal of the state in the

satirical

which the act was committed "or by such internasuch tional penal tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to of such jurisdiction the accepted have shall parties as contracting territory of

tribunal."

During the decade after the convention went into effect the endeavours to provide for an international criminal jurisdiction had not materialized. It is one of the results of the convention that the parties to it have removed any doubt that genocide, even if perpetrated by a government in its own territory, is not an internal matter of the state concerned ("a matter essentially within the domestic jurisdiction") but a matter of international concern. Any contracting state can call upon United Nations organs to inter-

vene and

such action under the charter of the United Na-

to take

tions as they consider appropriate for the prevention

and sup-

pression of acts of genocide. Bibliography. Nehemiah Robinson, The Genocide Convention, has comprehensive bibliography (1960); General Assembly resolutions 96 (I) Dec. 11, 1946, 180 (II) Nov. 21, 1947, and 260 (III) Dec. 9, 1948;_ "Reservations to the Convention on Genocide, Advisory Opinion," International Court of Justice, Reports 1951, p. IS (1951) R. Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, pp. 79-95 (1944), "Genocide as a Crime under International Law," UN Bulletin 4:70-1 (Jan. 15, 1948), American Journal of International Law, vol. 41, p. 145 (1947); E. Schwelb, "Crimes Against Humanity," British Yearbook of International Law,

—

;

(E. Sb.)

vol. 23, p. 178 (1946).

GENOVESI, ANTONIO

(1712-1769), Italian philosopher and economist who proposed reforms in the kingdom of Naples in a spirit that sought to combine the ideas of the Enhghtenment with an extremely radical Christianity, was born at Castiglione, near Salerno, on Nov. 1, 1712. Ordained priest in 1737, he went to Naples in 1738 and was in 1741 appointed to teach metaphysics His Disciplinarum metaphysicarum elethe university there. menta (1743-52) incurred some suspicion of heresy, and in 1748 he decided not to publish the companion work on theology (his In treatises on logic and on physics had both appeared in 1745). in

1753, however, he dedicated his Discorso sopra alcuni trattati in cui si tratta del vera fine delle lettere to the d'agricoltura influential Bartolomeo Intieri, with the result that in 1754, when Intieri founded at Naples the first European chair of "commerce .

.

and mechanics"

.

{i.e.,

political

economy), he stipulated that Ge-

novesi should be its first occupant. Thenceforward Genovesi wrote and lectured mainly in Italian instead of Latin. His subsequent publications included Meditazioni filosofiche sidla religione e sulla morale (1758), Lettere accademiche (1764) and, most important of all, Delle Iczioni di commercio (1765; new ed., 1768), the first Italian work on his subject. Genovesi died in Naples on Sept. 23, 1769.

metaphysics Genovesi took much from Leibnizian monHis theory of knowledge was largely empiricist. His mercantilist system of economics is distinguished by his remarkable analysis of demand, by his high valuation of labour and by his efIn the forts to reconcile protectionism with free competition. political field his contention that ecclesiastical authority should be strictly limited to spiritual matters and that the state should dispossess the clergy and religious orders of their lands was most welcome to Bernardo Tanucci's "enlightened" administration in

For

his

adism.

Naples. G. Monti, Due ^randi See E. Gambini, Antonio Genovesi (1910) A. Tisi, II Pensiero religiose d'Anriformatori del settecento (1926) tonio Genovesi (1932). ;

;

or didactic to be called genre, while those of Francis Wheatley, George Morland and J. H. Fragonard would be too

sentimental and those of J. F. Millet too romantic. In Europe, genre painting does not begin clearly to emerge until the late middle ages, when illuminated calendars showing the occupations appropriate to the months or seasons are found in manuscript

books

{see

Illuminated Manuscripts).

These

little

genre pictures give intimate glimpses of the life of the time. Soon the taste for genre became so keen that Petrus Christus, Pieter Aertsen and Pieter Brueghel painted scenes in shops and kitchens occasionally thinly disguised as religious subjects. The greatest home of genre painting was indeed 17th-century Holland, when Adriaen van Ostade, Gerard Dou, Gabriel Metsu, Jan Vermeer,

Among later Pieter de Hooch and Gerard Terborch flourished. exponents are J. B. S. Chardin in France and Pietro Longhi in Although in modern times colour photography has pracItaly. tically usurped the place of genre painting, the term might include interiors by Jean fidouard Vuillard and Pierre Bonnard, leaders of the French Intimiste school, and similar works by Henri Matisse. (D.L. Fr.) botanically Gentiana, a large genus of herbaceous The genus plants belonging to the family Gentianaceae {q.v.). comprises about 400 species, most of them perennial plants with

GENTIAN,

tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the northern hemisphere, but also in New Zealand and South America. The majority of species are remarkable for the deep or brilliant blue colour of their

yellow, white or,

more

blossoms, comparatively few having the last are almost

rarely, red flowers;

exclusively found in the Andes. The leaves are opposite, entire,

smooth and often strongly

flowers have a persistent four- to five-lobed calyx and a four- to five-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with ribbed.

The

rolled back or contiguous and funnel shaped. The fruit when ripe separates into two valves and contains numerous small seeds. About 60 species occur in North America, widely distributed throughout the continent, but most numerous in the Rocky mounOf about 18 species found from the Great Plains tain region. eastward, among the best known are the fringed gentian {G. crinita), one of the most beautiful American wild flowers; the

two stigmas, either separate and

closed or bottle gentian (G. andrewsii), the commonest species; the downy gentian (G. piiberula), of the prairie region; and the extends southstiff gentian or agueweed (G. quingtie folia), which ward to Florida. Of the many Rocky mountain species, those with fringed flowers, as G. elegans and G. barbellata, are among the most conspicuous. Representative of the 12 or more species found in California and northward in the coastal mountains are the single-flowered gentian (G. simplex), with slightly fringed flowers, and the explorer's gentian (G. calycosa), which throughout the summer forms sheets of intense blue in alpine meadows from California to British Columbia and eastward to Montana.

There are ten species of gentian native to Great Britain.

Three

are perennials belonging to the genus Gentiana, while seven, all of which are annuals or biennials, are credited to the genus Gentianella, a name preferred by British botanists for annual and biennial gentians but not widely accepted in the United

of

them

States.

Of the perennial species the marsh gentian {Gentiana pneumonanthe), also called the Calathian violet, is six to nine inches

no

GENTIANACEAE

is rather rare from Cumberland to Dorspring gentian {G. verna) and the small gentian (G. nivalis) are much lower plants, have bright blue flowers and are more widely distributed throughout the British Isles. The annual or biennial gentians of the genus Gentianella com-

The

high, has blue flowers and setshire.

(Gentiana popular favourite, but the Andean genus Lagenanthus, with showy scarlet tubular

The

Several preparations obtained from the root of Gentiana lutea are used in medicine to stimulate the alimentary tract, thus improving digestion. The chief of these is compound gentian tincture, comprising 100 g. of powdered gentian root, 40 g. of bitter

orange peel and 10 alcohol and water.

g.

cardamom seed, mi.xed with glycerin, Germany and France other species of

of

In

gentian, notably G. purpurea, G. punctata and G. pannonica, are

sometimes permitted substitutes of G.

lutea.

G. lutea is a large handsome plant three or four feet high, growing in open grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany, extending as far east as Bosnia and Asia Minor. It has large, oval, strongly ribbed leaves and dense whorls of conspicuous yellow Its use in medicine is of very ancient date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from whom the name Gentiana is supposed to be derived. During the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient in counterpoisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus), a German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of

flowers.

wounds. is tough and flexible, scarcely branched and of a brownish colour and spongy texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The bitter principle, known as gendilating

root

tianin, is a glucoside, soluble in

composed

into glucose

mineral acids.

water and alcohol.

It

can be de-

and gentiopicrin by the action of dilute

It is not precipitated

by tannin

or subacetate of

A solution of caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution, and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has been added loses its bitterness in a few days. lead.

Gentian root also contains gentianic acid, which is inert and tasteIt forms pale yellow, silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or ether but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline solutions. This substance is also called gentianin, gentisin less.

and

gentisic acid.

The

12% to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar which fact advantage has long been taken in

root also contains

called gentianose, of

Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial Enzianbranntwein. The use of this spirit, especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic

by some species of gentian, the roots of which

may have

been indiscriminately collected with it, but it is quite it may be due to the contamination of the root by that of hellebore (Veratrum album), a poisonous plant growing at the same altitude and having leaves extremely similar in appearance and size to those of G. lutea. See also Veratrum; Helle-

possible that

bore.

GENTIANACEAE,

(N. Tr.)

some of the meadows and moors.

the gentian family, includes

most beautiful flowering plants

of woodlands,

virtually

species in 80 genera

;

unknown. 1,000

mostly tem-

perate or montane in

conti-

all

nents except Africa, with epicentres in the Alps, Himalayas, western North America and the Andes mostly annual or perennial herbs of erect tufted habit by the repeatedly dichotomous branching. Less frequent growth forms include vines (Cuban genus ;

Goeppertia and Asiatic Crawfurrhizomatous perennials (Menyanthes, etc.") water lilylike

dia). J.

HORACE MCFARLAND CO

FRINGED

,

(GENTIANA

GENTIAl

(Nympkoides,

aquatics

weedy

etc.),

short-lived annuals (Cen-

taurium, Hoppea, etc.), heathlike subshrubs Enicostema) and shrubs attaining a height of 12 ft. or more {Macrocarpaea, Symbolanthus). Rock gardeners value low, clump-forming alpines (Gentiana acaidis, bavarica, etc.) displaying large bell-shaped t

flowers of intense shades of blue.

The leaves are generally in two-ranked opposite pairs, smooth and shining, the margins without teeth, rarely in whorls (Curtia and Eraser a) or trifoliate (Menyanthes). Reduced scalelike leaves occur in anomalous genera of slender nongreen saprophytes Burman-

(Voyria, etc.); these are often confused with species of

The

niaceae.

may be fives

inflorescence

densely spicate

true gentians).

The

(

is

generally cymose, but the flowers

Cotttoubea spicata

)

or even solitary

(

some

flowers are perfect and regular with parts in

(less often in fours), the pistil bicarpellate

Menyanthes and

allies).

The

sepals

(uniloculate in

generally form

a

tubular

Chorisepalum they are separate. The corolla varies widely but is plaited or smooth, and most often bell shaped, funnelform or salverform, or sometimes rotate (British genus Chlora). Yellow is the primitive flower colour, retained in Gentiana lutea, but more numerous are species that have evolved with hues from pale blue to ultramarine. The throat is frequently provided with fringed scales, nectaries, appendages or colour streaks (nectar guides). Stamens, which equal calyx, but in the primitive neotropical genus

number but alternate with the corolla segments, are inserted at various levels on the tube, the slender filaments bearing delicate

in

by longitudinal

In CenExceptional variation in pollen grains occurs among genera but this character is evidently not closely correlated with any other floral character although it has been used unsatisfactorily in support of phylogenies. Gelatinous pollen is produced in Gentiatm parryi and others, where the orientation of the anthers may vary between the closed gentian type and those species with open corollas. The style, which may be short to long, undivided or bilobed, usually terminates in a distinct stigma. Placentation is parietal. The superior ovary contains numerous anatropous (or half-anatropous) ovules; these mature into minute seeds, each provided with copious endosperm versatile

anthers

that

taurium the stamens

in

spirit called

properties possessed

is

The family contains about

CRINITA)

especially the perennials.

The

inches long,

the felwort

found throughout Great Britain; G. anglica, confined to southern England, has purple flowers and is only three to five inches high; G. uliginosa, a low annual, rare in Pembroke and Glanmorgan; and G. germanica, a biennial, with blue flowers, rather common on calcareous grasslands throughout Great Britain. Some of these, but more especially the much finer species from North America, the Himalayas, Burma, Tibet, China and Japan, are much cultivated for ornament in England, where over 150 species are known. Less than 50 of these are much grown in the United States, where the climate is far less suited to gentians than is that of England. None of them is particularly easy to grow, and many of them need the specialized conditions of scree or moraine in the rock gardens. All require coolness and moisture,

gentian

a

is

flowers four to five and a half

(G. amarella), often called autumn gentian, which has dull purple flowers and is widely distributed; G. campestris, two to nine inches high, with blue or white flowers and prise

fringed

crinita)

dehisce

coil tightly

which the small embryo Insect pollination

species

(i.e.,

is

is

after

slits.

flowering.

embedded.

general in the family.

Both oligotropic

obligate to specific insects), for example, Gentiana

subgenus Cydostigma where such long-tongued Lepidoptera as the diurnal hawk moths are vectors, and facultative species (i.e., nonobligate), for example, Gentiana lutea where the nectar is accesAlthough Centaurium and sible to all visitors, are recognized. Chlora are nectarless, they are visited by Lepidoptera; perhaps here the twisting of the stamens, which are easily intercepted by

Dimorphism obtains in MenyanNymphoides and some true gentians. It has been observed the dimorphic Menyanthes that when only long-styled flowers

the insect, aids in pollination. thes, in

occur

in a

marsh, ripe

fruits fail to

be produced.

7

;

GENTILE—GENTILE DA FABRIANO Bitter principles are widespread in the vegetative parts, espein cially in the rhizomes and roots, and have fostered their use

medicine;

e.g., in

Gentiana lutea and others.

See Gentian. (J. A. En.)

GENTILE, GIOVANNI

(1875-1944)- Italian philosopher and politician, was born at Castelvetrano (Trapani) on May 30, 1875. He studied literature and philosophy at the University of Pisa and, after a series of university appointments, became in 191 professor of the history of philosophy in the University of Rome. From 1903 to 1922 he collaborated with Benedetto Croce in editing the periodical La Critica. Though he soon developed a philosophy of his own, he remained a friend of Croce until 1924, when they disagreed over fascism. As minister of education in the Fascist government from Oct. 1922 to July 1924, Gentile carried out an organic reform of Italian education; and as president of two commissions for the reform of the constitution he contributed to laying Later, the foundations of the Fascist corporate state (1925). though he was made president of the supreme council of education (1926-28), a member of the Fascist grand council (1925-29) and president of various cultural institutions, his political influence steadily declined. From 1925 to 1943 he planned and edited the

After Sept. 8, 1943, he adhered to the at Salo and was made the presiHe was killed in Florence by dent of the Accadem.ia d'ltalia. anti-Fascist partisans on April 15, 1944. Gentile's philosophy is an extreme form of monistic idealism.

Enciclopedia Italiana. Fascist

government established

denies the existence of individual minds and of any distinction between theory and practice, subject and object, past and present. Mind is the absolute, and education is the process of revelation of the absolute. In this sense education is always self-education and

He

ultimately identical with philosophy. Gentile's interest in eduand his warm and forceful style of writing explain his great popularity among teachers and educational reformers before 1935.

is

cation

Later his pupils went their own ways their views continued to be expressed in the Giornale critico delta filosofia italiana, founded by Gentile in 1920. Among Gentile's numerous works, which Include editions of Giordano Bruno, Tommaso Campanella, G. B. Vico, Vincenzo Cuoco, Antonio Rosmini, Vincenzo Gioberti and Spinoza (with a commentary) and a translation of Kant's Kritik der reinen Ver;

nunjt, are;

La

filosofia di

GENTILE,

a person who is not Jewish. The word stems from Hebrew term goi, which means "a nation," and was applied both to the Hebrews and to any other nation. The plural, goyyim, the

especially with the definite article, ha-goyyim, "the nations," is used in the Hebrew Bible in the sense of the nations of the world

are not Hebrews. The translations of the Bible into Latin rendered goyyim with gentes (sing, gens) or gentiles, the latter beIn general, modern usage has ing an adjectival form of gens. been to reserve the term gentile to the single individual, though occasionally "the gentiles" means the nations; this is the case In postbiblical Hebrew the in English translations of the Bible. term goi lost its national application and became instead a term Since in the western world such an for an individual non-Jew. individual was usually a Christian, loose usage among Jews often equates gentile and Christian; strict usage, however, should recognize that a Muslim or a Buddhist would also be termed a gentile. The Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), regarding themselves as the true Hebrews, use the term gentile for (S. Sl.) a person, including even a Jew, who is not a Mormon.

who

DA

FABRIANO (c 1370-1427), Italian painter, GENTILE was the first great Umbrian master. He was born at Fabriano and about 141 1 went to Venice, where by order of the doge and senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of the palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that they granted him a pension for life and accorded him the privilege of wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. These paintings, which influenced the development of Venetian art, are unfortunately no longer extant. About 1420 Gentile went to Florence, where in 1423 he painted an "Adoration of the Magi" for the church of Sta. Trinita, which his best is preserved in the Ufiizi at Florence and is considered work now extant. Another fine example of his work is a "Madonna and Child" (1425), the central panel of an altarpiece, in Buckingham palace, London. The wings of this altarpiece are in the Utfizi. Gentile attained a wide reputation, and was engaged to paint pictures for various churches, more particularly Brescia, Siena, Perugia and Orvieto. In 1427 he was called to Rome by Pope Martin V to adorn the church of St. John Lateran with frescoes. Michelangelo said of him that his works resembled his name, meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet joyousness, and show a

Marx

(1899) Dal Genovesial Galluppi (1903), a volume of the Storia ;

detla filosofia italiana ; II modernismo (1909); Bernardino Telesio (1911); / problemi della scolasil pensiero italiano ( 1913) dialettica della riforma hegeliano (1913); Somniario di pedagogia come scienza filosofica, two volumes (1913-14); Teoria

tica e

La

generate dello spirito

come

atto

pure (1916; Eng. trans.. Theory of Mind as Pure Act, 1922); / fondamenti della filosofia del diritto (1916); Sistema di logica come teoria del conoscere (1917-

Le origini della filosofia contemporanea in Italia, four volumes (1917-23); // problemo scolastico del dopoguerra (1920) 23

)

;

;

La

educazione dell' riforma (1920; Eng. trans., The Reform of Education, 1923); Studi sul Rinascimento (1923); Bertrando

Spaventa (1924); II fascismo al governo della sciiola (1924) Che cosa k il fascismo (1925); Manzoni e Leopardi (1928); La filosofia dell' arte (1931); Memorie italiane (1936); and La mia religione (1943). (A. D. Mo.)

III

;

ADORATION OF THE MAGI' BY GENTILE DA FABRIANO.

IN

THE UFFIZI GALLERY, FLORENCE

GENTILESCHI—GENTLEMAN

112

naive delight in splendour and in gold ornaments. GENTILESCHI, the family name of two Italian painters: Orazio GENTILESCHI (c. 1562-C. 1647) 's commonly named Orazio Lomi de' Gentileschi. He was bom in Pisa and studied under his half brother Aurelio Lomi. He afterward went to Rome

and painted frescoes

in Sta. Maria Maggiore, in the Lateran and in Niccolo in Carcere; he was associated with the landscape painter Agostino Tassi, executing the figures for the landscapes of this S.

Among his best works are: "The Circumcision" in the church of Gesu at Ancona; "The Madonna and St. Clara" in the Casa Rosei at Fabriano; "The Annunciation" in S. Siro, Genoa; "The Finding of Moses" in the Prado, Madrid; "SS. Cecilia and Valerian" in the Brera, Milan; a "Flight Into Egypt" in the Louvre, Paris, and another in the Belvedere, Vienna; and "Joseph and Potiphar's Wife" at Hampton Court. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at the invitation of Charles I, being employed in the palace at Greenwich. Van Dyck included him in his porHis works generally are strong traits of a hundred illustrious men. in shadow and positive in colour. He died in England about 1647. Artemisia Gentileschi (1597-after 1651), Orazio's daughter, studied first under Guido Reni, acquired much renown for portrait painting and considerably excelled her father's fame. She was a beautiful and elegant woman; her likeness, painted by her own hand, is to be seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is "Judith and Holofernes," Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Conn., certainly a work of singular energy. She went to England about 1638 and painted many portraits there. Artemisia refused an offer of marriage from Agostino Tassi and married Pier Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, however, to use her own surname. She settled in Naples, to which she returned from England, and was commissioned to paint three pictures for the cathedral of Pozartist.

zuoli.

Her

style

was

violent, characterized

GENTILI, ALBERICO

by

brilliant colour.

(1552-1608), Italian jurist who has great claims to be considered the founder of the science of international law, was born on Jan. 14, 1552, at San Ginesio, Macerata, Italy. After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the University of Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he returned to San Ginesio and was entrusted with the task of recasting its statutes. In 1579, however, as a result of his Protestant opinions, he was obliged to flee, first to Carniola in Austria and then to England. By the autumn of 15S0 he had reached Oxford, and shortly afterward was qualified to teach by being admitted to the same degree which he had taken at Perugia. His lectures on Roman law soon became famous. The dialogues, disputations and commentaries which he then published in rapid succession established his position as a civil lawyer and secured his appointment in 1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, by his application of the old learning to the new questions suggested by modern international relations that Gentili produced his most lasting results. In 1584 he was consulted by the government as to the proper course to be pursued with Bernardino de Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in plotting against Elizabeth I. Shortly afterward he developed his opinion on this question into a book, the De le^ationibus libri tres (1585). In 1588 Alberico published in London the De jure belli coinmentatio prima. A second and a third Commentatio followed, and the whole of this material, with many additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, Prussia, in 1598 as the De jure belli libri tres. It was doubtless in consequence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili became henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice, resided chiefly in London and left his Oxford work to be partly discharged by a deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, and in 1605 was appointed standing counsel to the king of Spain. He died on June 19, 1608, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate. His notes of the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously published in 1 6 13 at Hanau as Hispanicae advocationis libri duo. This was in accordance with his last wishes; but his direction that the remainder of his manuscripts should be burned was not complied with. Fifteen volumes of them found their way, in 1805, from Amsterdam to the Bodleian library at Oxford. In contrast with earlier writers who had dealt with various in-

and with submission to the decisions examined as a whole the relations of states one another and attempted the solution of the problems involved

ternational questions singly of the church, Gentili to

principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome. He used the reasonings both of the civil and of the canon law, combined them with the Jus Naturae and identified this with the consent of the majority of nations, by which historical precedents were to be criticized and, when this appeared to be necessary, set

by

aside.

His writings have

many

His style is prolix, obscure and but a comparison of the De jure belli with the treatises of Pierino Belli, Dominico Soto or even Balthasar Ayala shows that he greatly improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fullness with which he worked out points of detail, but also by clearly separating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the subject upon a foundation independent of theological differences. A comparison of the same work with the De jure belli ac pads (1625) of Hugo Grotius, moreover, reveals the latter's indebtedness to Gentili not only for much of his illustrative erudition but also for what is commendable in his method and arrangement. The principal works on international law by Gentili have been republished and translated in the "Classics of Internationa! Law Series" on behalf of the Division of International Law of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: De legationibus libri tres, two volumes, English translation by G. J. Laing, introduction by E. Nys (1924); De jure belli libri tres, two volumes, English to the

faults.

modern reader pedantic

;

translation by J. C. Rolfe, introduction by C. Phillipson (1933); and Hispanicae advocationis libri duo, two volumes, English translation and introduction by F. F.Abbott (1921). (T. E. Hd. X.) ;

GENTILI, LUIGI

(Aloysius

Bonaventura Francesco

Italian Roman Catholic missionary to England, was born in Rome on July 14, 1801, the son of a Roman lawyer. As a young advocate, Gentili showed strong social ambitions, especially among the aristocratic English colony in Rome, and taught languages privately with notable success. But he suddenly abandoned society to join Antonio Rosmini-Serbati {q.v. ) in 1830 in his new Institute of Charity, which trained priests dedicated to special duties. In 1835 Gentili went to England, at the request of Bishop P. A. Baines, to assist in organizing the new Roman Catholic college at Prior Park, near Bath. Later (1840) he went to Leicestershire, to undertake missionary work in the district surrounding Grace Dieu, which Ambrose Phillipps had made the focus of a Roman Catholic revival. Through Phillipps, Gentili became acquainted with the leaders of the Tractarian movement at Oxford. Gentili's great gifts as a preacher led to demands for his

Camillus Gentili) (1S01-1S48),

services

all

over England, particularly

in the

new

industrial cities,

which contained large numbers of Irish immigrants. In 1846 he was appointed an itinerant missionary, to work in England and Ireland. On a mission in the Dublin slums in 184S he contracted cholera and died on Sept. 28 of that year. In addition to bringing the Rosminians to England and Wales, Gentili was responsible for introducing in England such popular devotions as the Stations of the Cross and the Forty Hours exposition of the Blessed Sacrament. See D. R. Gwynn, Father Luigi Gentili and His Mission {1801-1848) (D. G.)

(I9SI).

GENTLEMAN,

English history a man entitled to bear arms but not included in the nobility. In its original and strict sense the term denoted a man of good family, deriving from the Latin word gentilis and invariably translated in English-Latin docin

For most of the middle ages, when the basic was between nobiles, i.e. the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, barons, knights, esquires or freemen, and ignobiles, i.e. villeins; citizens and burgesses, the word "gentleman" was roughly equivalent to nobilis and there was, in this respect, no distinction between the great earl and the humble freeman. Even as late as 1400 the term still had only the sense of generosus and

uments

as generosus.

social distinction

could not be used as a personal description denoting rank or title of a class. Yet after 1413 it was increasingly so used; and the list of landowners in 1431, printed in Feudal Aids, contains, besides knights, esquires, yeomen and husbandmen, a fair number who are classed as "gentilrnan." quality, or as the

.

— ;

GENTOFTE—GENTZ The immediate cause

of this

was probably the statute

I

Henry

V cap. V (1413) which required that in all original writs of action personal appeals and indictments which involved the process of outlawry (g.v.), the "estate, degree or mystery" of the defendant must be stated. More widespread influences were also at work the profound economic changes of the 14th and 15th centuries, caused partly by the Black Death, made it increasingly difficult and unattractive for the younger sons of the nobility to settle on the land and they tended to seek their fortunes abroad in the

French wars, or to become dependents of the court or some great Such men often chose to describe themselves as noble house. gentlemen. By the 16th century the "gentry" were officially regarded as constituting a distinct order. At the same time the badge of this distinction came to be thought of as the heralds' recognition of This view, which was quite unhistorical, had never had occasion to

the right to bear arms.

many gentlemen

for

of long descent

GENTZ, FRIEDRICH

came under the influence of Immanuel Kant. He entered the Prussian civil service in Berlin in 1785, but only reached the position of counselor in the war office (1793). This slowness in advancement was because of his opposition to civil-service routine

also

and

to middle-class standards

ciety,

Sought after as an indication of social status, the term gentleman retained a certain value as an index of rank and afifluence until the early 19th century, but by 1900, under the influence of the political, economic and social changes of the Victorian era, the word had acquired a variety of usages and meanings which fully On the one hand reflected the complexity of English society. "gentlemen" could be a mere synonym of "men"— used at pubUc places and occasions to distinguish male persons from females; on the other, acceptance by "society" as a gentleman still re-

ciples

retail trade.

however, the modern "gentleman"

is

necessarily, well-bred or well

The

a "gentle

man"

is

found

in

off.

well

mannered rather than,

idea of the gentleman as

Chaucer's Wife of Bath's Tale:

Loke who that is most vertuous alway Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay To do the gentil dedes that he can And take him for the gretest gentilman. perhaps, its highest expression in Richard Steele, who 1714 that "the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them." In this sense, too, the word gentleman is obviously incapable of strict definition, for "to behave like a gentleman" may mean little or much, according to the person by whom the phrase is used, but at least the rebuke "you're no gentleman" would be generally It gained,

wrote

in

understood. Bibliography.

— William

Harrison, Description 0) England, books ii England, ed. by F. J. Furnivall, 4 vol. (18771908) Richard Brathwait, The English Gentleman (1630), The English Gentlewoman (1631); John Selden, Titles of Honour (1672); A. Smythe-Palmer, The Ideal of a Gentleman (1908) Sir Harold Nicol(W. A. P.; X.) son. Good Behaviour (1955).

and

iii,

in Shakespere's

;

;

GENTOFTE,

suburb of Copenhagen, Den., with is a separate township, developed from the three farm villages of Gentofte, Vangede and Ordrup and the fishing village of Skovshoved. Pop. (1960) It is on the railway line from Copenhagen to Elsinore. 88,308. Gentofte was the site of three royal castles; Ibstrup (demolished 1761;, Bemstorff (summer residence of Christian IX) and Chara residential

a coast line along the

Sound

of about 4 mi.,

(1764-1832), German political jour-

famous for his writings against the principles of the French Revolution and Napoleon and as the confidential adviser of Metternich, was born in Breslau on May 2, 1764. His father's family came from the Neumark district of Brandenburg, his mother was of pure Huguenot descent through the families of Ancillon and Naude. Gentz went to Berlin as early as 1779, when his father was appointed director-general of the Prussian mint; was sent to school at the famous Joachimsthaler Gymnasium ; and then read law for two years at Konigsberg university, where he

after."

In England this view, though much weakened by the social upheavals produced by two world wars, to some extent prevailed preserved, cherished and typified in the rigid distinction on the In general, cricket field between "gentlemen" and "players."

is

(L- P- Go.)

nalist,

much

and

The former mansion Oeregaard

lottenlund (Frederick VIII). now a topographical museum.

assume coat armour and never did, became firmly rooted. The result was the extinction, in England, of the identification of gentry with nobility, for since it was held that a gentleman bore arms, in it followed that anyone who bore arms was a gentleman, and the fluid social conditions of the 16th and 17th centuries many acquired the right to bear arms who were ignobiles. Hence the term "nobleman" came to be reserved for members of the peerage, while anyone who could afford, as William Harrison {Description and of England, 1577) put it, to "live without manual labour, thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman" could "for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by heralds ... and [be] reputed for a gentleman ever

quired an income derived from sources other than manual labour

113

of life

— an

attitude which

to the philosophical tenets of the later

owed

Enlightenment and

to theories of natural law.

Gentz hailed the outbreak of the French Revolution and sought little later it in his first pubhcation (1790); but only a discussions with Wilhelm von Humboldt and an interest in Montesquieu, English jurisprudence and Kant's legal theories led him to adopt Burke's condemnation of the Revolution. His translation of Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1793), with his commentaries on it, established GenU as a European celebrity and made him realize that he was destined to be a writer on political matters. Without going through a conversion, but rather on the basis of his unchanged theories of state and soto justify

Gentz henceforth fought against the Revolutionary prinand gradually formulated his own highly conservative con-

ception of the state (1798-99). He rejected the concepts of the sovereignty of the people, of the rights of man, of the right to resist and of political liberty and equahty— as well as the general trend toward reform which he had championed as late as 1797 in Prusa Sendschreiben at Frederick William Ill's accession to the

In these years (1794-97) Gentz translated and commore antirevblutionary works, such as those and Francois d'lvernois; he Pan, Mallet du of J. J. J. Mounier also founded the Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift, which however expired after one year (1795). In 1799-1800 there foUowed— with the financial support of the Prussian government— two years' issues of the Historisches Jotirnal, in which Gentz brought German political journalism to its first summit, thanks not least to GenU aroused a great stir, as he exhis own excellent style. pounded not only the dynamics of the Revolution, subject to its own laws, but also its successive phases, its end in the coup d'etat strongly of 18 Brumaire (1799) and its social aspects, of which he 1800-01, in when, attention more even aroused disapproved. He sian throne.

mented on

several

he denounced the projects of an "eternal" peace and even justified the war against Revolutionary France Napoleon Bonaparte's mihtarist policy had turned Gentz, the pacifist opponent of the principles of the Revolution, into a herald of the struggle for the restoration of the basic political order of Europe and the balance :

of power,

which France had destroyed.

Gentz's pohtical realism remained consistent and uncompromising: he did not scruple to denounce the Prussian policy of neutrality; he demanded that the rivalry between Prussia and Austria be overcome; and he praised England as the shield of Europe's liberty. By this attitude he forfeited his special position As he did not want to give up his self-chosen task in Prussia. of political journalism

now he had

to face a crisis

his private as well as his public life

to settle in

Weimar had

failed,

(1801-02).

which threatened After an attempt

he was recommended to Vienna by

the Austrian minister in Berlin, Philipp Stadion. He had underrated the strength of the opposition against his entering the Austrian service, but he eventually received the empty title of an

imperial and royal privy counselor and a pension from the Austrian government, which thus gave him the social background and the material security needed for free activity as a political writer (Sept. 1802).

A

brief visit to

London, where he was received with honour

—

GENUS— GEOCHEMISTRY

114

(Nov.-Dec. 1802), decided Gentz's future career. As he was looked upon as a private person in Vienna and was under no obligations with respect either to his foreign connections or to any oath of office, he worked in Vienna from 1803 onward as a free-lance agent of anti-Napoleonic European politics. He therefore could and did accept the financial support which was granted him, particularly by England, in return for his work.

Though Gentz,

despite his

numerous memoranda, could not

di-

rectly influence Austria's foreign policy, his influence in Vienna

was

still

considerable.

among diplomats and

However,

his

anti-Napoleonic agitation

high society in Vienna, which culminated in the writings later published as Fragmente aiis der neitesten Geschichte des politischen Gleichgewichts in Europa ("Fragments in

Concerning the Recent History of the Political Equilibrium in Europe"), was brought to an end in ISOS when the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz obliged him to withdraw to Bohemia and then Finally, after witnessing the collapse of Prussia in to Dresden. 1806, he went in anguish into exile at Prague or at Teplitz to organize, together with like-minded friends, the spiritual and political resistance against Napoleon and to reflect on the reconstruction of Germany and Europe. Some time passed before Stadion called Gentz back to Vienna for the composition of the war manifesto in 1809. Not the least of the reasons for this delay was the fact that Gentz, to whom German nationalism was quite uncongenial, fell in only reluctantly with Stadion's plan of making Austria the spearhead of a German rising against Napoleon. Thus Gentz was hit all the harder by the collapse of Austria's struggle for liberation and his forced return into exile in Bohemia (Nov. 1809). He sensed the hof)elessness of his fight on the continent and sought to escape to England (1809-10). When he failed in this, he revised his opinion about war and came closer to Metternich's policy of expedients, which was indeed no less anti-Napoleonic than Gentz's old line (see Metternich). This led to a limitation of his political activities and to a loosening of his connections with England (1810-11). Though Metternich had ordered him to Vienna in Oct. 1810, he did not appoint Gentz to an office in the state chancellery; instead he asked his advice privately in matters of publicity and finance. For Gentz the wars of liberation that led to the downfall of Napoleon were certainly no occasion for national enthusiasm (this is evident from his celebrated war manifesto of 1813) he sounded notes of triumph only for the restoration of political order in Europe. For the sake of this order and in Austria's interests, he objected to France's being reduced to a second-rate power, to the restoration of the Bourbons in the place of Napoleon (husband of an Austrian archduchess) and to the nationalistic "misuse The of superior force" at the second peace of Paris (1815). Prussians then began the defamation of GenLz as a "time-serving" politician whose shallow pacifism might deprive Germany of the ;

derstood his now somewhat emphatic Austrianism only in the sense of an all-European federative order and solidarity; and therefore he equated national movements with the will to dissolve the bonds of law and order. He considered the demands of early German liberalism as a menacing revolutionary declaration. Two of his countermeasures were always to be remembered against the matter of political censorship as laid Carlsbad decrees (q.v.); and his definition of article 13 of the German federal constitution, on the establishment of for which he explicitly condemned any interpretation state diets congruent with the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. The revolutionary upheavals of 1830 did nothing to alter Gentz's attitude. Even so, a deeper understanding of revolutionary events prompted him to speak against military intervention and to take into consideration the spirit of the age. Metternich then withdrew

him

his initiative in

:

down

in the

—

his favour

from Gentz.

The "chevaher de Gentz"

(as he

was

a Swedish knighthood of the Order of the

called with reference to

North Star bestowed on

1804) died, a commoner, in Vienna on June 9, 1832. Defamation by nationalists and liberals followed him beyond the grave.

him

in

It unjustly dwelled on the weaknesses of his character, as his fight against the revolutionary principles was not understood and his historical merits were not appreciated.

—

Bibliography. P. R. Sweet, Defender of the Old Order (1941); A. Haesler, Die Vertragslehre bei F. von Gentz (1943) G. Mann, Secretary of Europe, Eng. trans. (1946) H. Rumpel, Friedrich Gentz (1957). For earlier works and for Gentz's own writings see F. M. Kircheisen, "Die Schriften von und iiber F. von Gentz," and F. C. Wittichen, "Zur Gentz-Bibliographie," in Mitteilungen des Instituts fiir Osterreichische (H. E. Ru.) Geschichlsforschung, 27 (1906). ;

;

GENUS, a category of classification ranking between the family group of structurally sometimes consisting of an isolated species showing unusual differentiation (monotypic genus, as Rhoeo discolor). Thus the species of roses collectively form the genus Rosa, of horses and zebras, the genus Equus. The genus name is the first word of a binomial scientific name and is always capitalized. See Species. (J. M. Bl.) GENY, FRANCOIS (1861-1959), French jurist and author of the movement for libre recherche scientifique, was bom at A university Baccarat, Meurthe-et-Moselle, on Dec. 17, 1861. law teacher, he was appointed in 1901 professor of civil law and, in 1919, dean of the faculty of law at the University of Nancy; this In 1930 he became corresponding office he occupied until 1925. member of the Academie des Sciences, Morales et Politiques.

and the

species, used in biology to include a

or phylogenetically related species, or

a turning point in his

In his principal publications, Methode d' interpretation et sources en droit prive positij (1899) and Science et Technique en droit prive positif, four volumes (1915-24), Geny demonstrated the inadequacy of the traditional methods of interpreting the French codes, which assumed that the legislator had provided a solution to every legal question even if it resulted from developments which could not have been anticipated. According to Geny, whenever positive law, written or unwritten, does not yield the answer, the courts are free to make new rules, but must proceed by means

Henceforth he was to be Metternich's indispensable collaborator on basic questions of foreign policy and on all matters concerning the German Bund or federation. Gentz acted as secre-

of scientific research into the social reality and ideology upon which all law must rest. Geny then developed a theory of law which explains that law results from applying juristic techniques

fruits of victory.

The congress

of

the diplomats of

Vienna (q.v.), at which Gentz's familiarity with Europe enabled him to officiate in rriasterly

fashion as the principal secretary,

marked

life.

tary-general

at

Metternich's side at

the

congresses

Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona and even

of

more

Aix-la-

actively

and Vienna (1819-20). His unchanged status as a private person remained in glaring contradiction to these highly creditable performances, but Francis I's antipathy to him precluded him from oSice, even though the title of court counselor extraordinary had been bestowed on him in 1813. Gentz owed his growing influence exclusively to Metternich's favour and to the effect of his own personality. He was able to maintain an appropriate style of life chiefly because Metternich arranged that, from the end of 1812 onward, he should conduct confidential correspondence with the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia, for which they paid him a high remuneration.

at the ministerial conferences in Carlsbad

Because of his opposition to the national and liberal movements Gentz was regarded as leader of political reaction. His He unpolitical creed, however, had not changed since 1 798-99. after 1815

(constrtdts) to the data (donnes) of science. This theory has exercised considerable 'influence on modern legal philosophy in many countries and particularly in France, where the emphasis laid by Geny on the creative nature of the judicial function has liberalized the interpretation of codified law and helped to raise the status of the judiciary. Portions of Geny's work were published in English in the Modern Legal Philosophy or constructions

Series.

Geny

died at

See Science of Legal

Nancy on Dec.

16, 1959.

Method and The Theory

i

of Justice (1921). (J. U.)

GEOCHEMISTRY. Geochemistry is the study of the chemVictor M. Goldschmidt formulated the three istry of the earth. tasks of geochemistry as follows; (1) to establish the terrestrial abundance relationships of elements; (2) to account for the terrestrial distribution of elements in the geochemical spheres, for instance, in minerals and rocks of the lithosphere and in natural prod-

j

—

GEOCHEMISTRY laws governing the ucts of various kinds; and (3) to detect the anabundance relationships and the distribution of elements. Still evolution chemical the of study the is geochemistry of task other of the earth.

was the first to use the name geochemout a program for research. K. G. Bischof and J. Roth discussed extensively the field and problems of geochemistry in books published in 1847-54 and 1879-93, respectively. Vemadsky and A. E. F. W. Clarke and H. S. Washington, V. L. Fersman, G. von Hevesy, Ida and W. Noddack and P. Niggli C. F. Schonbein, in 1838,

istry.

He also mapped

were among the scientists who contributed toward the making of modern geochemistry. From the 1930s, there developed a worldallied

commonly believed to be glass meteorites, make a fourth group. The constituents of the meteorites are called meteorite minerals, and many of them are identical with the minerals found in terrestrial rocks of a corresponding chemical composition. Several meteorite minerals have no terrestrial counterparts. The most important meteorite minerals are kamacite and taenite (both nickel-iron) olivine, clinoenstatite-clinohypersthene, dioptektites,

;

and quartz.

Table

B. Crystallization of

Phase of stones

5.

The Ocean

Hot Springs

rV. Geochemistry of the Atmosphere

Composition Rain Water V. Geochemistry of the Biosphere Animals 1. Composition of Plants and Organisms 2. Accumulation of Elements in 1.

2.

3.

Photosynthesis

6.

Geochemical Activity of Bacteria Marine Biocycle Anthroposphere

7.

Bioliths

4. 5.

VI. Geochemical Evolution of the Earth 1. Evolution of the Lithosphere 2. Evolution of the Atmosphere 3. Evolution of the Hydrosphere A. Evolution of the Biosphere 1.

CHEMISTRY OF THE EARTH

A. Meteorites

and Geochemistry

Meteoritics, or the science of cosmic matter captured by the about the properties and composition

earth, supplies information

Because the meteorites are believed by be fragments from the interior of a broken planet comparable with the earth in size and in general physical-chemical properties, they are used to give evidence of the internal structure of the earth and of the general geochemical character and abundance of the elements. The meteorites are chiefly composed

of nonterrestrial matter.

many

to

of three phases

—metal,

silicate

and

.

.

27S6

.

2.90

.

1. 10

.

.

Ti02

.

H2O

.

99.98

0.2s 0.17 O.IS 0.59 97.10

FejOs.

Table 11.— Average

Ground Water

4.

3.

0.71

of geochemical importance. of irons, the metal phase of

is

basis of computation of the relative terrestrial

Rocks

Surface Water Mineral Springs and Closed Basins

0.63

.

Silicate

13.25' 0.50 (NiO) 0.03 (CoO) 46.26 3-45 0.51 0.38

Table I acstones and the sihcate phase of stones are presented in Patterson. and C. Brown cording to H. The average chemical composition of all meteorites serves as a

Migration in the Lithosphere Geochemistry of the Hydrosphere 2.

88.58 10.69

.

The chemistry of the meteorites The average chemical composition

2.

1.

.

*From FeO and

Rock-Making Minerals

of

.

SiOi AI2OJ Cr20>

90.78 8.S9

Total

Magma

Metamorphism

Fe Ni Co

NaiO KjO P

Chemical Differentiation of Rock Melts 3. The Reaction Series 4. Residua! Melts and Solutions 5. Volcanic Emanations C. The Exogenic (Minor) Cycle 1. Weathering of Rocks 2. Geochemical Classification of Sediments 3. Chemistry of the Exogenic Cycle D. The Major Cycle

III.

Irons

Metal

CaO

2.

1.

Average Chemical Composition of Meteorites (In weight percentage)

MnO MgO

Chemistry of the Earth A. Meteorites and Geochemistry B. Abundance and Origin of Elements 1. Abundance of Elements 2. Origin of Elements C. Geochemical Structure of the Earth D. Distribution of Elements Geochemistry of the Lithosphere A. Crystal Chemistry 1. Co-ordination of Particles 2. Replacement of Elements 1.

I.

Constituent

are also disto understanding the geochemistry of the earth's crust article are: of this sections various The cussed in Petrology.

and plagioclase

;

in the various

Further discussion of theories and concepts involved in the study of geochemistry will be found in the articles Crystallography and Mineralogy. Crystallization processes which are basic

II.

enstatite-hypersthene

and, as accessory constituents, troilite and oldhamite (sulfides), schreibersite (phosphide), cohenite (carbide), graphite (silicates)

cal sciences.

I.

augite,

side-hedenbergite,

branches of the science which is closely to physics, chemistry, astrophysics, geology and the biologi-

wide interest

115

sulfide.

According to the predominance of the metal or the silicate phase, the meteorites are divided into three principal groups irons The (siderites), stony-irons (siderolites) and stones (aerolites). :

and cosmic abun-

Cttemical Composition of All Meteorites*

—

GEOCHEMISTRY

ii6 Table

III.

Chemical Composition of the Uppermost Lithosphere (In weight pcrcentagci

GEOCHEXnSTRY

II'

n^-n

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£: £ ofcci :f xz-

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—AsuBoaaicE

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j^jjjiiiiui>rniiiiiigifa

"

'

3C uar

ra»^,

Ae

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^ a

sE-.i

ari

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sod

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off

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D. UssoBBHinaMS at'EssaEsnrs 011

xiiUJ

imillUBT-

If

A.

GEOCHEMISTRY

ii8 will

be distributed among them Their dis-

GRANITIC Shell Silicate crust

in fixed proportions.

iASALTic Shell

studied by means of meteorites and the separation of metal, sulfide and silicate phases tribution

is

ECLOGITE Shell

peridotitic

Three oxygen and sulfur their mutual affinity relationships, and the affinity of other

in ore-smelting furnaces.

elements

—

—

Shell

iron,

SULFIDE-OXlDE

elements for them' are largely re-

__ ferrosporic Shell Shell (Chalcosphere)

sponsible for the distribution of the elements in the core, the mantle

and the

Table Yll.—Typical Oxyphile

crust.

Elements

In Goldschmidt's geochemical

H

classification the elements are di-

vided

into

three

The

groups.

main

affinity

siderophile

ele-

ments are preferentially enriched the nickel-iron core (siderosphere), the chalcophile elements in the sulfide-oxide shell (chalin

cosphere) and the lithophile ele-

ments

the

in

(lithosphere).

silicate

crust

The most

typical

Central core

Nickel-Iron

CORE Siderosphere)

elements of the atmosphere are called atmophile elements and those typical

of the

biosphere,

biophile elements,

Thermochemical

considera-

tions indicate that lithophile ele-

ments have higher formation

free energy of

than does bivalent iron, while the elements with lower energy of formation of oxide are siderophile or chalcophile.

of

oxide

Several

exceptions

to

this rule indicate that the distri-

6,371

6,371

BY courtesy of KALERVO RflNKAMA

—

Fig. 3. INTERNAL CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

(A) (B)

Hypothesis of H. S. Washington; M. Goidschmidt. Numbers

of V.

refer to depths in kilometres

bution is controlled also by isomorphic substitution, served distribution of the elements between metal

Li

Be

GEOCHEMISTRY Co-ordination of Particles.

1.

—The most

fundamental fea-

the particles ture of a crystal structure is the co-ordination of of one kind particles of arrangement and number the i.e., present, neighsurrounding a given particle of another kind as its nearest The co-ordination is different for different particles and bours. structures, each particle attempting to occupy the co-ordination results into which it fits best. A proper and fitting co-ordination structure. stable and in a particles the between bonds strong in

An

ill-fitting

and unsuitable co-ordination causes an unstable strucZr[Si04]

zircon ture, e.g., the co-ordination of the Zr-*+ ion in the

119

diadochic substitution.

Complete diadochy usually requires a

close

similarity in ionization potential. The degree of diadochy depends on crystal structure. Finally, ionic charge affects the substitution.

The charges may be stitution,

or

the

ion

— Mg^

important Fe^ lower -1-

similar, as in the

substitution

may have

-1-

sub-

0^~ K+-Ba2+-Sr2-l{e.g.,

-OH--F-; Ca2+-Na+) or higher {e.g., — Pb2 + charge than the ion to be replaced. If the charges are dif)

ferent, the electrostatic neutrality of the structure will be disturbed. Consequently, it must be re-established, for instance, by the simultaneous substitution of another ion in the structure, as in

not well suited to the space requirements of the ion and causes an unstable structure that is readily disintegrated by the action of alpha radiation (metamict alteration). In an essentially ionic structure, the co-ordination of the catanions, ion, that is, the number and arrangement of the surrounding

the substitution of Ca2-t-A13+ by Na+Si*+ in the plagioclase feldspars {see Feldspar), or by the introduction of balancing ions outside the regular framework of the structure, or by leaving a struc-

depends largely on the cation/anion radius ratio. In the important rock-making minerals, oxygen is the principal anion, and such minare in fact aggregates of big oxygen ions whose interstices are

lates the

structure

is

erals

filled

up with the

cations.

of importance.

fig.

4, in

The

which the

co-ordination

is

variable, as illustrated in

cations, arranged according to their size, are

plotted against the co-ordination number. The black areas indicate the the approximate abundance of the co-ordinations of the ions in illustrate area of the size in the differences The lithosphere. upper the fact that for big cations the co-ordination number is less definite because of the great size of the cation. Because the crystal structures of almost all important minerals are known, they form a convenient basis for the classification of structural classification of the complicated silicate particularly useful, and for the silicates the type of linkage of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra present in their structures In nesosilicates the separate is a natural basis of classification.

A

minerals.

minerals

Diadochic substitution in common rock-making minerals regumanner of occurrence of almost all elements in the upper lithosphere and is of particular importance for the geochemistry Some trace elements may form indeof the trace elements. RADIUS pendent minerals that are among kX

For instance, in quartz, SiOo, oxygen makes up 98.7% by volume and silicon, only 1.3%. Consequently consideration of the coordination number of the cations with respect to oxygen in minerals is

tural position vacant.

is

tetrahedral [Si04] groupings do not share any oxygen atoms with neighbouring silicon-oxygen tetrahedra. In sorosilicates the separate groups of tetrahedra share one or more corners with neighbouring tetrahedra of the same group. The sorosilicates may consist

Cb+

rocks,

among

sulfur

in

sulfide

minerals, phosphorus

in

apatite

and monazite and

Theirs is a dispersed Some occurrence. elements, such as lead and boron, are intermediate. Three types of diadochy regulate the dispersed

riched.

manner

manner

of

of occurrence of the trace namely camouflage,

elements,

when

a trace element diadochi-

of

thosilicate

Mg2[Si04]

Fe2[Si04]

positions of the

Mg2+

with magnesium orthosilicate ions occupying the structural Between these two extremes all inter-

(fayalite),

(forsterite), the ions.

Yt^+

mediate types of solid solutions occur in minerals. Isomorphism and related phenomena are of high importance in geochemistry. If atoms and ions instead of compounds are considered, such atoms or ions occurring in a given structure are called diadochic (from the Greek diadochos, "successor") if they are capable of replacing each Consequently, other, each occupying the position of the other. forsterite and fayalite are isomorphic, but the Mg^-t- and reunions in their structures are diadochic. Diadochy may be complete or partial.

As a general

rule,

an ion

may

replace another ion diadochically

the difference in the size of their radii does not exceed approximately 15% of the radius of the ion to be replaced. Temperature affects the degree of diadochy; high temperature generally favours

if

valence;

similar

common

element

capturing,

trace element replaces a element with a lower

structure;

Deviations from the ideal composition are partly a result of structural defects, but their main reason is the presence of impurities, either as mechanically admixed substances or in solid solution (in fixed positions or filling empty spaces in the structure) The solute may not belong to the structure of the in the mineral. solvent, as in the case of the occurrence of helium in beryl, or it forms a complete isomorphic (from the Greek isos, "equal," and morphe, "form") series with the solvent, as does ferrous or-

common

cally replaces a

the phyllosilicates there are infinite sheets of the tetrahedra, and in the tectosilicates there are continuous frameworks of linked

idealized.

fluo-

barium and vanadium, seldom, if ever, form independent minerals except in rocks in which they happen to be very strongly en-

when a

—

others,

rine in fluorite. Other trace element, for instance, manganese,

of [SIoOt] double tetrahedra, five tetrahedra in an open group, rings olf three or six tetrahedra. The inosilicates are composed of In infinite chains or double chains of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

tetrahedra sharing all four oxygen atoms with neighbouring tetrahedra. {See also Co-ordination Compounds.) Because minerals are rarely 2. Replacement of Elements. pure compounds, the chemical formulas usually given for them are

of

constituents

accessory

the

valence and

captured in the

is

and admission, when a trace element replaces a com-

mon

element of higher valence.

Examples

are,

substitution

manium

among

of

in

(camouflage),

others, the

silicon

silicate

of

by

ger-

minerals

potassium by

—

GEOCHEMISTRY

I20 Table VIII.

Average Mineralogical Composition of Igneous Rocks (Id weight percentage)

Mineral

GEOCHEMISTRY Enstatite will crystalcrystallization of forsterite and enstatite. in its structure lize before augite because of the absence of Ca-+

and the ensuing higher stability thereof. The separation of the amphiboles after the pyroxenes may be explained by differences differences of the in the Si-0 framework, chiefly by the linkage Mg-+ ions. Micas crystallize after hornblende because the mica structure is still weaker and more unstable than the amphibole

K+

Also, the

structure.

ion

is

rather loosely

bound

in the struc-

In alkalic rocks, the sequence of separation may be entirely formed. different, particularly when certain nepheline syenites are The light constituents may then be the first minerals to separate. After the close of the 4. Residual Melts and Solutions. main stage of crystallization residual solutions will often remain Pegthat are rich in hyperfusible constituents, especially water. ture.

—

matites are produced during the differentiation of these liquors. Pegmatites of granites and nepheline syenites, or of the last rocks comto form during the main stage of crystallization, are rather mon. Elements too scarce to make independent minerals and the those of ionic size unsuitable for their being incorporated in

rock-making minerals become gradually concentrated in the magSuch elements matic residues and separate in the pegmatites.

among others, lithium, beryllium, boron, fluorine, rubidium, Uracesium, niobium, tantalum, uranium and the lanthanoids. nium, niobium, tantalum and a part of the lanthanoids are predominantly concentrated in granite pegmatites, whereas other lanthanoids, zirconium and often thorium are enriched in the The pegmatites may be divided nepheline syenite pegmatites.

are,

relationships of

chemically according to the abundance and potassium versus aluminum. In agpaitic pegmatites

sodium

Na

-f

K
Ai, while in plumasitic pegmatites are from locations of occurrences of type specimens in Iceland and California respectively). The different pegmatites have dif-

Na

-|-

ferent typical minerals. Strictly speaking, the formation of pegmatites

marks the end

of

magmatic crystallization. No sharp boundary can be established between the pegmatitic stage and the ensuing pneumatolytic and hydrothermal stages. When a superheated aqueous solution containing dissolved silicates and other substances crystallizes at a temperature higher than the critical temperature of water vapour If (374.5° C), the deposits formed are called pneumatolytic.

121

form volcanic subUmates around the craters and vents. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and native and combined sulfur are the quantitatively most important constituents of the emanations, but notable local and areal changes in their constituSome of the constituents derive from the tion are observed. magma (juvenile constituents), while others come from the earth's surface (superficial constituents) or from the atmosphere (meteThe temperature of the emanations and the oric constituents). time elapsed since the start of the volcanic activity also affect the composition of the emanations. Geochemically, the volcanic emanations are of high importance because of their character as products of the degassing of the earth. They affect essentially the manner of occurrence and the geochemiSuch elements as chlorine, sulfur cal cycle of many elements. and boron (all abundant in volcanic emanations) are directly supplied to the atmosphere and hydrosphere by volcanic emanations and will participate in geochemical processes on the earth's surface. C.

The upper

The Exogenic (Minor) Cycle

lithosphere

is

the seat of

numerous geochemical proc-

chemical composition both locally and areally. parts All matter on the surface of the earth and in the uppermost migration, of the lithosphere participates in a slow complicated strucor cycle, that causes more or less pronounced changes in the New rocks with new ture and chemical composition of rocks. The migration of matter properties are produced in this cycle.

esses that affect

its

minor consists of the exogenic (the product of outside forces), or and cycle taking place under the direct influence of atmospheric hydrospheric agents and the major cycle, a material part of which lithosphere. is confined to the uppermost levels of the In the exogenic cycle the elements behave differently, depending on their individual properties and in accordance with laws that rock differ basically from the rules valid for the crystallization of

The

melts.

migration, consequently, yields products whose for-

mation cannot be explained by the laws of magmatic crystallizaThe exogenic cycle starts with solid crystalline rocks and tion. ends in sedimentary rocks. It forms a part of the major cycle. Unlike the major cycle, which is closed, the exogenic cycle, taking for place only in one direction, is largely open and is closed only sedimentary rocks. For all other rocks this cycle is irreversible.

is temperature lower than the critical temperathe minerals and rocks ture, formed are hydrothermal. Alkali feldspars, micas, quartz

crystallization

SEDIMENTS

and characteristic minerals containing rare elements are the chief minerals formed during the peg-

matitic stage; mineral veins are

among pneu-

the most important

matolytic and hydrothermal deposits. Many heavy metals separate in the veins

bodies.

ore

and may form

The

veins contain

many

sulfophile elements either in the native state or as oxides,

TRANSPORTATION AND SORTING

sulfides, selenides, tellurides, ar-

senides,

antimonides and various

sulfosalts.

After deposition of

most of their metallic constituents the dilute hydrothermal solutions may deposit quartz and zeolites and minerals containing volatile constituents such as boron compounds and carbon dioxide, if

Volcanic Emanations.

IGNEOUS ROCKS ANATEXIS OR REMELTING

—

In volcanoes the volatile constituents of the magmas escape as volcanic emanations into the at-

mosphere, dissolve

in

water, and

WEATHERING

MIGMATITES OR MIXED ROCKS

these are present in the

solutions. 5.

MIGMATITIZATION

ROCK MELT FROM

K.

HANKAMA ASD

T.

G.

SAHAMA, "GEOCHEMISTRY." THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

Fig.

6.

—THE MAJOR CYCLE OF MATTER

GEOCHEMISTRY

122 The course schematized

of the exogenic cycle as a part of the

major cycle

is

weathering of rocks, transportation of products formed during weathering, and redeposition It consists of the

in fig. 6.

new surroundings. These processes are in respects similar to a gigantic semiquantitative chemical rock analysis involving separations on a large scale. Because of its role of material, usually in

many

and concentrating agent for many elements, the of importance for the manner of their occurrence in- the uppermost lithosphere and on the surface of the earth. 1. Weathering of Rocks. Rock weathering consists of a number of physical and chemical processes that gradually break down as a separating

exogenic cycle

is

—

the fresh solid rocks into an aggregate of loose material, a part of which is dissolved or changed chemically, while another part re-

mains unchanged. The principal agents of physical (mechanical) weathering are changes in temperature and the action of frost and of crystallizing salts. Chemical weathering is caused by the action of rain, surface and ground water and of the solids and gases dissolved therein. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, humic complexes, ammonia and chlorides are the most important chemically active agents in natural waters. The chemical processes taking place during weathering are rather complicated. Oxidation, reduction and action of carbon dioxide are geochemically important

weathering processes.

The rock-making minerals are of different stability against weathering, the mafic minerals decomposing more rapidly than the felsic minerals. The stability series of the rock-making minerals proposed by

S.

S.

Goldich

is

exceedingly similar to the reaction

the stability increasing from olivine and calcic plagioclase to quartz. series

(fig.

The

s),

solid products of

completed weathering include substances

that are stable under conditions existing on the earth's surface.

Clay minerals, the hydroxides of ferric iron and aluminum, and their derivatives are the most abundant weathering products. The loose weathering residues and products are .transported and sorted by the action of wind, flowing water, ice and organisms, and a number of chemically and physically different continental and marine sediments are thereby formed. Sorting is according to particle size but includes also chemical separation. In the course of time, deposited loose sediments may change by consolidation, recrystallization and chemical processes in diagenesis (g.v.)\ thus a sedimentary rock is formed. Several sediments and their derivatives also form from the remains of organisms, such as calcareous mud. peat and guano; and limestone, coal and phosphorite formed from them through diagenesis or decay and incoalation. They are

known as biogenic sediments. 2. Geochemical Classification of Sediments. According to their manner of deposition the sediments may be divided into

—

and chemical sediments. For geochemical purposes another classification is used that based on geochemical principles first proposed by Goldschmidt (see fig. 7). The residua consist of chemically undecomposed weathering residues, such as sands and gravels. The hydrolyzates consist physical (mechanical

)

—

partly of undecomposed, partly of hydrolytically decomposed matter. Clays are the foremost representatives of hydrolyzates. The crystalline clay minerals are the

They

are characterized

by

dominant constituents of

clays.

their capacity of exchanging their cat-

ions (anions) for other cations (anions)

from aqueous

solutions.

Igneous

Rocks

The

oxidates form by oxidation of

into

Mn3+

Fe-+ into Fe^+ and of Mn^-land consist chiefly of hydroxides of the two metals. Iron and manganese ores of sedimentary origin belong to this group. The reducites, the opposites of oxidates, are formed in strongly reducing surroundings. Coal and petroleum, and muds and clays containing sulfides and carbonaceous matter are reThe precipitates form by inorganic precipitation from ducites. aqueous solutions. Deposits of inorganically precipitated calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are examples of precipitates. The evaporites are deposited from aqueous solutions as a result of evaporation of the solvent. crystallized

from sea water.

They include extensive salt beds The bioliths, or biogenic sediments,

often occur together with other sediments, e.g., biogenic calcium carbonate may occur along with inorganically precipitated calcium carbonate. Because the sedimentation processes are continuous, sediments and their derivatives usually are mixtures belonging to two or three groups, and, consequently, the geochemical division of sediments is not categorical. 3. Chemistry of the Exogenic Cycle. The total quantity of

—

rocks decomposed and of sediments formed during the geological history of the earth is of great geochemical importance. The length of the time during which the exogenic agents have operated on the earth's surface is approximately 3.5 X 10^ years (3,500,-

000,000 yr.). Goldschmidt estimated, on the basis of the sodium content of sea water, that 160 kg. igneous rock for each square centimetre of the earth's surface have yielded a total of 169.6 kg.cm."^ (minimum value) of sediments. The argillaceous (clayey) and arenaceous (sandy) sediments are, quantitatively, the most important sediments produced. Another estimate based on the radioactivity of potassium gave 6,462 kg.cm."^ (maximum value) for the total quantity of weathered igneous rock. The igneous rocks are formed by endogenic (produced by internal forces) differentiation deep under the earth's surface. Another kind of differentiation, called the exogenic differentiation, takes place on the surface and is intimately connected with the exogenic cycle of matter. Some elements become strongly enriched in certain types of sediments, even though a high degree of separation is not always reached. For many elements the exogenic differentiation is the most powerful concentrating and enriching agent. For instance, silicon and zirconium are concentrated in sandstones; aluminum, potassium and boron in shales; calcium, magnesium and carbon in limestones; iron, manganese and barium in oxidates; and sodium, chlorine, magnesium and sulfur in evaporites.

There are several factors of prime importance for the exogenic Because most phenomena of the exogenic cycle are characterized by the presence of water, the physical and chemical properties of water are significant, such as the hydrogen ion concentration (pn). In most natural waters the pH is between 6 and 8. The changes in pH play an important role in the precipitation and mobilization of many elements in aqueous solutions, such as in the separation of iron and aluminum. Because many elements occur in two or more oxidation states, oxidation and reduction are geochemically important processes. The presence of molecular oxygen and of reducing biogenic matter in the exogenic cycle indicates that here both oxidation and reduction occur in their geochemically most important surroundings. Along with the pH, the differences in the degree of oxidation or reduction cause many enrichment processes and the separation even of chemically closely related elements, such as sulfur and selenium. Iron, manganese and cobalt are often precipitated as a differentiation.

Many elements, such as may become oxidized to complex

result of exogenic oxidation reactions. sulfur, selenium

V

Residua

^

V

Hydrol- Oxidates yzates

Si

ADAPTED FROM PRESS

K.

RANKAMA AND

Al (Si)(Fe)(K) T.

G.

9 Precip-

V Evaporites

itates Fe

Mn

Ca

Mg

Na lK)(Ca)lMgi

SAMAMA, "GEOCHEMISTRY." THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

7.— geochemical classification and chemical characteristics OF sediments formed during weathering, transportation and sedimentation Fig.

and chromium,

anions that are readily transported in solution. Other elements become enriched under highly reducing conditions. For instance, descending weathering solutions from ore bodies deposit copper, silver and other metals as sulfides in reducing areas below the water table. Many rare elements are concentrated in bioliths in the original reducing environments. Biochemical processes may participate or dominate in the creation of oxidizing or reducing environments. Molecular oxygen liberated by green plants in photosynthesis is responsible for the highly oxidizing conditions on

.

GEOCHEMISTRY matter the earth's surface. On«the other hand, decaying biogenic creates reducing conditions. In the exogenic cycle the two extremes of the oxidizing and reducing conditions are represented by the highly oxidized residua

and the strongly reducing bituminous sediments and their derivaDuring weak metamorphism, the degree of oxidation often tives. remains unchanged, and a high degree of oxidation in rocks may

With the higher grades of metamorphism, reduction will gradually take place and leads back to the reducing conditions of the rock melts. During weathering a part of the chemically decomposed material going into solution is present as colloidal particles. A group of afford proof of their superficial origin.

called geochemical sorption largely governs the propersuch particles in sediments and the distribution of elements

phenomena ties of

sorption of ions by colloidal partiof high geochemical importance, for example, in the concentration of many elements (such as potassium) in clays.

among various sediments. The cles

is

Goldschmidt did show that a number of phenomena connected with the distribution of elements between sea water and sediments may be explained by considering the ionic potential of elements, For instance, that is, the charge of an ion divided by its radius. preferential adsorption of potassium in argillaceous sediments and preferential migration of sodium to the sea are in accordance with the lower ionic potential of potassium. The fixation of potassium in hydrolyzates may, however, be explained, according to C. S.

K+ ion in the structure of montGoldschmidt divided the elements on potential into three groups, which become

Ross, by the incorporation of the morillonite, a clay mineral.

the basis of their ionic

separated

from one another during sedimentation

in

the

sea.

revised the division and gave a physical explanation to the phenomenon by means of the rules governing hydrogen and hydroxyl bonds in hydroxides. The cations with low ionic potential and ionic bonds in their hydroxides (e.g., the alkali metals)

Wickman

The

generally remain in ionic solution.

cations with intermediate

and hydroxyl bonds in their hydroxides, such as aluminum, uranium and tantalum, are readily hydrolyzed and preThe cipitate as hydroxides which are deposited in hydrolyzates. cations with the highest ionization potential form complex anions with oxygen, and these remain usually in solution. Nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorus, among others, belong to this group. Their complex anions have hydrogen bonds.

ionic potential

D.

The Major Cycle

Along with the differentiation by crystallization of rock melts and the cycle of weathering, transportation and sedimentation, processes of still another kind take place in the uppermost lithosphere which cannot be included in either endogenic or exogenic differentiation. These processes, occurring at deeper levels in the crust, tend in part to distribute the elements among various rocks, but their essential role is in the opposite direction, inasmuch as they tend to level off the chemical differences already produced.

The endogenic and the endogenic cycle of matter. exogenic cycles together form the major cycle. The processes of the endogenic cycle start from sedimentary or igneous rocks and produce gradually a rock melt. These processes are largely, perhaps almost entirely, based on reactions taking place It is possible that the major cycle actually is the in the solid state.

They form

most important process

in the

of the

major cycle

exogenic, the major cycle

is

The sediments and the sedimentary rocks formed from them by diagenesis may reparticipate in the exogenic cycle but may also be removed from immediate contact with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere by continuing deposition of sediments or by tectonic movements. If that is the case, they will depart from the exogenic cycle and, in the course of time, will take part in metamorphic processes. Metamorphism is the physical 1. Metamorphism of Rocks. and chemical adjustment of rocks to conditions existing at the deeper levels of the upper lithosphere. Metamorphic changes are essential for the endogenic processes and may consist of purely mechanical (kinetic) metamorphism, or purely thermal metamorphism, or metasomatism, which is the introduction or removal of material by magmatic gases (pneumatolytic metamorphism), solutions (hydrothermal metamorphism) or molten rock (migmatiti-

produced.

—

zation in part).

lization.

Complex

controlling conditions cause regional

metamor-

Because of the complexity of the reacting system, chemical changes involved in metamorphism are usually complicated. When environmental conditions change, the minerals participating strucin a metamorphic reaction may become unstable and their tures will be gradually torn down, ion by ion. Disorder is thereby created, but finally new structures different from the old ones will

With reference to stability and composition, the new structures are adapted to new conditions. All these reactions may take place in a liquid phase, called the intergranular film, but structures may also react with one another in the solid state, whereby the form.

make new

ions are simply rearranged to

structures.

But some

ions are always present that are not strictly and rigidly bound to any structure but form a separate phase, called the dispersed phase. is the condition of all chemical It may be a gas, or a liquid or rocks. place in take reactions that ions temporarily detached from their original structural positions. Even in solid-state reactions the ions make up the new structure

The presence

of a dispersed phase

through a dispersed phase. A process called migmatitization may set in with progressing regional metamorphism to produce migmatites, or mixed rocks, through the migration of the readily mobile elements, such as the alkali metals, and the intrusion of molten rock material into preThe migmatites predominate in the deepest parts e.xisting rocks. of mountain chains. The boundary of the zone of migmatitization

chemical modeling of the upper

Unlike the

plete remelting. Thereby a rock melt is produced, and its crystallization, the starting phase of the major cycle, will set in. The most

is

presented in

closed for

all

fig. 6.

participating rocks.

The

is

far-reaching

mean

true igneous rocks of juvenile origin must be distinguished from the quasi-igneous rocks that are partly or totally composed of remelted material. On the earth's surface, the rocks

in

The

participate in the exogenic cycle

both the

phism over wide areas under the combined influence of elevated temperature, variable pressure and high shearing stress, and plutonic metamorphism, which is the deep-seated regional metamorphism at high temperatures and pressures, often accompanied by strong deformation and augmented by injection or infiltration of molten rock or by incipient remelting. At a still greater depth, plutonic metamorphism merges into truly plutonic phenomena. Near the surface, regional metamorphism becomes gradually replaced by kinetic metamorphism. Deformation promotes and accelerates the chemical reactions incorporated in metamorphism.

hydrosphere, particularly the oceans, however, represents a considerable leak in the cycle because of the (at least) semipermanent accumulation of many elements in sea water and in ocean-bottom sediments. The major cycle begins with molten rock and ultimately winds up with a regenerated rock melt. The melt, on cooling, will crystallize in the form of plutonic or volcanic rocks, according to the level of the seat of crystallization in the lithosphere.

All these processes cause changes in

mineralogy and chemistry of the rocks affected. Some metamorphic changes are termed autometamorphism when they constitute reactions between a rock and the residual solutions from its crystal-

Many granites and associated called the migmatite front. rocks are believed to have formed by migmatitization (granitizaMetamorphism may, however, still increase in strength tion). causing the partial remelting (anatexis) of rocks, followed by corn-

lithosphere.

The course

123

whereby sediments are ultimately

and thorough metamorphic changes

consequently

the rebirth, or palingenesis, of rocks.

Regional metamorphism is the most common and petrologically most important form of metamorphism. It may consist solely of changes that do not affect the bulk chemical composition of the metamorphosed rock. This is isochemical or internal metamorphism. It may also consist of substantial addition or removal of the

This is allochemical or metasomatic metamorphism, and the bulk chemical composition will change. Wholesale diffusion probably is important for the transfer of

material. it

matter

in

metamorphism, but

diffusion in the solid state, accordis insufficient to explain long-dis-

ing to laboratory experiments,

—

GEOCHEMISTRY

124

tance transport of matter. Migration through liquid and gaseous phases is also possible, and it appears that surface phenomena

importance in controlling

in the intergranular film are of great

metasomatic metamorphism. Metasomatic changes often pronouncedly

chemical

affect the

The substances introduced may consist of calcium, iron with magnesium and silicon, boron,

composition of rocks.

of fresh water, 4.5 kg, of continental ice and 0.003 kg. of water vapour. The absolute amount and relative proportions of the difBecause the bulk of ferent kinds of water change continuously. all water present in the hydrosphere consists of sea water, it is appropriate to state that the composition of the hydrosphere equals the composition of ocean water. Natural waters in their various

hthium, fluorine, chlorine, sulfur, silicon, tin and carbon dioxide, and the metasomatic changes are accordingly called alkali metasomatism, etc. These processes are little investigated quantitatively, but sometimes amounts of elements calculated in millions of tons are known to have been introduced or removed. The endogenic migration 2. Migration in the Lithosphere.

formed by the mineral, water (HoOi, but they are never pure because they contain a number of dissolved gases and solids and particulate matter. 1. Ground Water Ground water is. essentially, of atmospheric (meteoric) origin. When the meteoric waters that contain ox>'gen, carbon dioxide and small amounts of dissolved substances derived from the atmosphere enter soil and rock, they incorporate

of matter in the lithosphere is characterized by its selecti\'ity this means that under given conditions certain elements are able to mi-

The ground water charged with carbon

the alkali metals,

—

:

more readily than others. The elements with high atomic numbers are. in fact, relatively readily mobilized and become enriched in granites and in low-temperature assemblages in general, that is, in rocks and minerals that may be assumed to have formed grate

through a rather notable circulation and migration of matter. Migration is of importance in molding the chemical composition of the uppermost lithosphere. There is e\"idence of a global migration affecting many elements. During this migration, the elements become di\ided into two groups. The granitophile elements are known to be especially enriched in both igneous and quasi-igneous granites. They endeavour to concentrate in the outermost parts of The granitophobe elements, on the other hand, are the crust. pushed down toward the basaltic substratum. Granitization (or the formation of granite by migration, anatexis and palingenesis is one of the key processes in the geochemistry' of metamorphism. P. Eskola proposed that granitization is caused )

by

a fluid, called the granitic ichor

and of the melts

residual melts

and consisting of truly juvenile

first to

become squeezed out durThe chief

ing the partial remelting of already solidified rocks.

constituents of the ichor are silicon, aluminum, sodium and poThe tassium; oxj-gen and hydrox>i ions also migrate therein.

ichor rises slowly into the superposed rocks gi\"ing

But

or graniteUke composition. solutions

and

it

is

them

a granitic

probable that both pore

The mometamorphism and granitization is a The Fe-- and Mg-- ions are ven,'

ionic diffusion participate in granitization.

bility of ions during regional

function of ionic radius. mobile and become concentrated in the so-called basic front, the precursor of the fronts of migmatitization and granitization. All gradations probably exist, from juvenile granites to metasomatic and palingenetic granites. The formation of sihcic and other rocks by metasomatic processes implies some loss of sig-

nificance for the classic theorj- of differentiation by crj'Stallization. This theor>', however, is important as the basis of estimation of

the mobility of elements in metasomatic metamorphism.

See also

Metamorphism; Metasom.atism.

m. GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE HYDROSPHERE The

lithosphere

hydrosphere water.

The

;

is

partly covered

by

a water blanket called the is

covered by

salt-water bodies, the oceans, with a total

volume of

as

much

as 70.8'^ of the earth's surface

1.370.323 X 10* km.^ and a mass of 14.060 X lo^" g.. make by far the greatest and most important part of the hydrosphere. Salt water also occurs in some isolated areas on all continents, gathering in depressions to

make

alkaline or salt lakes.

present in the soil as ground water and in the pores of rocks as hygroscopic water. It flows to the surface of the earth as spring water, fills the ponds and lake basins, and flows in rivers and streams as surface water. The permanent fields of snow, the glaciers, inland ice and permanent ice at high altitudes all consist of frozen water. Ground water, mixed with juvenile water, that is, water that has never been to the surface, enters the volcanic emanations and hot springs. The ca\-ities of rocks and minerals contain salt solutions that may be of primary magmatic origin, while other solutions consist of meteoric water trapped in the rocks. According to Goldschmidt's estimate there are for every square

Fresh water

is

centimetre of the earth's surface 27S.11 kg. of sea water, o.i kg.

states are actually rocks

the soluble inorganic and organic gases, liquids and solids available.

dioxide and ox>-gen

is

a

Bicarbonates, sulfates and chlorides of the alkaline-earth and alkali metals are the chief constituents of ground water. Its chemical composition is constantly changed by the action of several physical and chemical agents and ranges from that of nearly pure rain water to that found in mineral wells

powerful weathering agent.

springs. Another kind of ground water, called connate water, contains substances that were present in solution at the lime of deposition of the sediment beds soaked with such a water. Sulfates and carbonates are the most important constituents of

and

spring water, whereas chloride

is

usually less important.

Some

may

be rich in silica. Calcium is the most abundant cation, and consequently spring and well waters are hard. Their chemical composition and salinity depend on local conditions. 2. Surface Water. Admixture of rain water, surface water and ground water from elsewhere rapidly changes the chemical composition of the spring water flowing to lakes and rivers. Precipitation, solution and pollution by sewage and industrial waste waters spring waters

—

will afi'ect the

composition of river water, in small rivers in par-

Weathering products and the remaining original constituents of rain water are carried by rivers in their water. The amount of the weathering products varies according to the climate and the chemical composition and physical properties of rocks and Carbonates dominate in river water soils in the catchment area. and are much in excess over sulfates and chlorides, and calcium Sulfates and chlorides tend to prevail is the principal cation. In tropical regions the in waters from arid and semiarid regions. salinity of river water is remarkably low and the dissolved solids are rich in silicon, the element essenually removed in lateritic weathering (see B.auxite; L.\terite». With dissolved and colticular.

loidal inorganic substances, surface waters contain dissolved gases,

chiefly nitrogen,

carbon dioxide and ox>-gen, and a number of

organic substances. River waters may be di\nded into two major groups carbonate and sulfate. The former are the more common of the two. (See Table IX.) While calcium preponderates among the carious in

—

fresh waters, its content in the salts of sea water is rather low, and sodium predominates. Furthermore, carbonate and sulfate predominate among the anions in fresh-water salts, while chloride preponderates in sea-water salts. These differences result from the precipitation of calcium as carbonate and sulfate in lakes and seas and from incorporation of calcium carbonate in shells and skeletons by marine organisms. Removal of the compounds accounts for the relarive enrichment of sodium and chlorine in sea water. T.\BLE IX.

Average Chemical Composition of Dissolved Solids in Lake, River and Sea Waters I

Constituent

In weight percentage

—

:

GEOCHEMISTRY 3.

Mineral Springs and Hot Springs.—Waters

springs

and hot springs

differ

in mineral

from ordinary well and spring waters

result in either concentration or composition, or both, chiefly as a chloride. of local conditions. These waters may be classified into

carbonate and acid waters as the main t>-pes. Furthermore, there are silicate, borate, nitrate, sulfide, phosphate and mixed waters. Many mineral waters contain dissolved gases, such sulfate,

carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen and inert gases. Natural brines of high salinity may contain salts dissolved from salt beds by percolating waters, salt solutions associated with peSome trace elements are troleum deposits, or connate waters. present in mineral waters, partly derived from volcanic emanations and partly leached out from surrounding rocks; the therapeutic value of mineral waters is largely caused by their presence.

as

Juvenile waters or those of deep-seated magmatic origin are usually characterized by a notable content of hea\-y elements, but in waters originating above the water table or upper level of ground water (i.e., superficial or vadose waters.i such elements commonly are totally or almost totally absent. Other differences also exist in Hot the chemical composition of juvenile and vadose waters. springs represent the closing stage of thermal activity in volcanic

regions

;

theirs

is

largely surface water.

—

In semiarid and arid regions, the soluble weathering products remain in the soil or are transported to depressions. If the rate of evaporation is too rapid to allow the ac4.

Closed Basins.

cumulation of any considerable body of water, great quantities of dissolved matter are deposited in the depressions and finally form alkaline or salt lakes, or even dry salt beds usually consisting of sodium, magnesium and calcium as sulfates, and of some bicarbonate. The basins devoid of an outlet receive water by rivers and streams. In the continental areas of such internal drainage, permanent reservoirs are formed that contain water concentrated by evaporation of incoming water and with a composition entirely

from the composition of sea water. Many salt lakes are in a semisolid state, and the composition of their brines varies The salt and alkaline lakes are according to local conditions. divided, according to the dominant ion. into lakes with chloride waters, characterized mainly by sodium chloride; bittern lakes rich different

salts sulfate lakes and carbonate and bicarbonate In general, alkaline lakes are cormected with volcanic areas, and saline lakes, with sedimentar>' rocks. 5. The Ocean. Sea water contains dissolved salts that have escaped adsorption during the cycle of dissolved substances, and precipitation and crj-stallization during the histor>- of the ocean.

in

magnesium

;

;

lakes.

—

More than 50 elements have been detected in sea water or marine organisms, and it is probable that all elements are found Table X. Ion

Major

Constitiients of Sea

Water

in in

125

amounts of atmospheric gases are dissolved the dissolved gases

is

made

therein.

of oxygen, nitrogen

The bulk

of

and carbon dioxide

and bicarbonate ions). Sea water is normally alkaline with a pH between 7.5 and 8.4, but variations also occur in pH caused, for instance, by biological acti\ity. Regional changes are obser^-ed in the composition of sea water and are mainly connected with biological activity; for instance, the Antarctic ocean is rich in nitrate and the Pacific ocean (chiefly as carbonate

Furthermore, there e-xists a close connection between the content of phosphate and nitrate and the extent of biological activity in the sea. The total quantity of carbon dioxide in sea water per square centimetre of the earth's surface is 50 times as high as the quantity of carbon dio.xide in the atmosphere. The four forms of carbon

in silicate.

dioxide in the sea. namely, free carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions and the undissociated H0CO3 molecules, form All these forms are in equilibrium with one a buffer system. another and with the hydrogen ions present in solution, as

—

GEOCHEMISTRY

126

mixture of gases and vapours extending up to approximately i,6oo km. (1594 mi.) above the earth's surface and is in contact with the lithosphere and the hydrosphere. Air is present in the spaces between soil particles, in pores of rocks, and is dissolved in water. The lower limit of the atmosphere is determined by the depth of caves, mines and bore holes. In volcanoes the atmospheric gases are mixed with volcanic emanations. The gases in the cavities in rocks and minerals, occluded gases, petroligenic natural gas and the gases dissolved in the water of mineral springs and thermal springs all add to the atmosphere. Biochemical processes produce great quantities of gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. 1.

Composition.

—The atmosphere consists of four concentric

layers without sharp boundaries.

from sea

sphere, extends

The lowermost

layer, the tropo-

level to approximately 11

km. (6.8 mi.)

convection region, and the atmospheric phenomena take place there. The next overlying layer is called the stratosphere, and the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause. The stratosphere extends to an average altitude of 50 km. (31 mi.). In its upper reaches exists a high-temperature region, sometimes called the ozonosphere, caused by a concentration of ozone, which absorbs at

middle latitudes.

It is the

Above the stratosphere is the ionosphere, which extends to about 600-700 km. (373-435 mi.) above sea level. The ionosphere is characterized by free electrical

ultraviolet radiation of the sun.

charges.

and

Some

of the gas particles in the ionosphere dissociate into

by the action of ultraviolet radiation. Furthermore, oxygen and nitrogen molecules dissociate into atoms. The temperature in the ionosphere is very high (2,200° C. at the height of 650 km. or 404 mi.). The outermost layer of the atmosphere is called the exosphere and is occupied by relatively freely moving gas particles. It is believed that the earth's atmosphere is almost entirely of secondary origin and has been produced, like the hydrosphere, by volcanic emanations escaping from the lithosphere during the geological evolution of the earth. The first supply of free atmospheric oxygen formed in the photochemical decomposition of water vapour in the upper atmosphere, while the bulk was derived from water in photosynthesis by chlorophyll-bearing plants. The total mass of the atfnosphere is 51.3 X 10-" g. The average composition of dry air from the troposphere is presented ions

free electrons

Ozone content increases with height while radon and the content of water vapour varies from 0.02% to 4% by weight. The

in

Table XI.

(a gaseous radioelement) content decreases with height,

composition of the stratosphere is similar to the composition of Other constituents of the atmosphere are carbon monoxide, considerable amounts of which may be present in city air; formaldehyde; nitrogen oxides N2O, NOo and N2O5; hydrogen peroxide; heavy waters and DgO; tritium, sulfur oxides SOg and SO3; hydrogen sulfide; ammonia; iodine; methane; and radionuclides released by nuclear fission. These constituents originate in photochemical, electrochemical, biochemical and nuclear reactions, or are liberated in volcanic emanations or by the industrial activity of man. The composition of the atmosphere changes continuously because of the addition and removal of various substances. For example, helium actually slowly escapes from the atmosphere, as indicated by the fact that the amount of the isotope the troposphere.

HDO

atmosphere is much less than the amount generated by the alpha-decay of natural radionuclides during the geological history of the earth. He-* present in the

Table XI.

Average Composition of Dry Air From the Troposphere Compound

—

GEOCHEMISTRY in the

produced coral reefs

Chalk

biosphere by photosynthesis.

show profuse

biological activity.

and

cliffs

All carbon deposited

in the bioliths is collected from the atmosphere containing 0.03% carbon dioxide by volume, and there are mineral deposits of economic importance that are products of migration and concentra-

tion of elements in the biosphere.

The green chlorophyll-bearing plants synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water united

in photosynthesis.

The compounds synthesized are oxidized in living systems by piration which is the main source of energy in animals. The biophile 1. Composition of Plants and Animals. ments listed in Table VI are those occurring typically in the

—

res-

ele-

bio-

Apart from the biophile elements proper, all those present organisms are called biological elements. They vary considerably in importance, amount and distribution in the organisms. Some are basic elements present in all living matter, while others occur only in certain organisms. Among the basic elements, oxygen is essential for animals, nitrogen and carbon for plants, and hydrogen and oxygen (as water) for all hfe. Approximately 60 elements are known to occur in the biosphere. Combined, they sphere. in

form

all

biological matter

which

is

composed

chiefly of water,

carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, or fats and fatlike substances. The biological elements have a number of important functions in Some (carbon and nitrogen) are found in the the organisms. framework of plant and animal tissue. Others occur in shells and skeletons (calcium, magnesium, silicon, fluorine and phosphorus), as energy-exchange elements (hydrogen, oxygen), as electrolytes in cell liquors (sodium, potassium and chlorine as chloride), as catalysts in oxidation-reduction reactions (iron

and osmotic regulators

and copper, among others) and as enzyme activators (calcium, magnesium and cobalt) Some elements may be replaced by others The in their functions, such as calcium by strontium or barium. .

function of some elements is still unknown. The presence or absence of an element in organisms depends Some elements are temprimarily on its physiologic functions. porary constituents, while others are essential for the normal evo-

and functions of the organism.

lution

The requirements

essential elements even of closely related species ent.

Some

just accumulate in orgahisms

beyond

may all

be

as to differ-

physiologic

Some nonessential elements may become requirements, if any. concentrated in plants because of the defective selection power of the plants, which often cannot distinguish between essential eletheir nonessential fellow travelers. classification of the biological elements according to their

ments and

The

presented in Table XII. The primary inthe bulk of all living matter. They are In essential constituents of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. lipids and proteins, some other invariable elements are always content in organisms variable elements

present.

Among

is

make up

the variable elements,

some

are found in rela-

tively high concentrations in certain species but are absent in other, even related, species. Plants and animals also differ notably in their composition.

In general, the average chemical composition

Table XIII.

127 Average Total Composition (In per cent of dry weight)

GEOCHEMISTRY

128 similar concentration of elements

is

obser\'ed in the ashes of

many

from old forests. Sometimes, as in the case of boron and manganese, the accumulation is biological and takes place in the living plant, but the concentration during decay of plants, as in those

is geochemically more important. In this instance the rare elements present in the subsoil are taken up by soil solutions, enter the plants through the roots and are deposited at the

biogenic matter

sites of strongest evaporation, especially in the leaves.

In leaves turning yellow and withering the content of most of the trace elements decreases. The readily soluble compounds of the major nutrients are leached away by rain water, while the sparingly soluble or insoluble compounds of the rare elements, such as hydroxides and protein and humic complexes, are retained, partly by adsorption, in the

humus

layer.

By

such simple physical processes as

recurrent evaporation and filtration the plants will finally cause the concentration of many elements in the topmost layers of forest soils.

The physical nature of the process is the reason why enrichment independent of the chemical and geochemical properties of elements. Among others, silver, gold, zinc, thallium, germanium, tin, lead, cobalt and nickel become enriched in humus soils. The concentration principle, called the Goldschmidt enrichment principle, explains the concentration of elements in coal ashes in a similar way. The degree of enrichment depends on the plant species. is

—

Prospecting. Many plants are able to become accommodated according to the chemical composition of their substratum, that is, by concentrating certain elements (gold, zinc, copper and others) from soil above or near ore bodies. The ability of plants to indicate the chemical composition of soil is applied to prospecting for metal ores (geobotanical prospecting). The enrichment phenomena are also used for this purpose (biogeochemical prospecting). Compared with plants, animals appear to be able to concentrate only a limited number of trace elements copper, vanadium, manganese, bromine and iodine. The absence of certain essential elements (cobalt, iron and copper) in the soil may cause regional deficiency diseases in plants, in grazing animals, and even in man. The accumulation of toxic elements, such as arsenic and selenium, by plants may also result in pathological conditions.

—

3.

tions

Photosynthesis.-^Most of the energy needed in the funcof organisms is produced by respiration which is the slow

oxidation of organic matter. The ultimate principal products of oxidation are carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The rate of decomposition is high enough to destroy all biogenic matter in ap-

proximately 20 years, except for the fact that a corresponding quantity of matter is concurrently synthesized. This decomposition and regeneration forms a part of the geochemical cycles of the elements present in biogenic matter. The biochemical process by which organic compounds are formed from carbon dioxide and water is called photosynthesis (q.v.). It takes place under the action of sunlight and is the fundamental biochemical process. From the first photosynthetic products a number of fats, proteins, nucleoproteins, pigments, enzymes, vitamins, cellulose and other substances are produced. They are oxidized and decomposed before or after the death of the plant. Photosynthesis is an important part in the cycle of oxygen. All oxygen present in the hydrosphere and atmosphere has repeatedly circulated in the cycle from the atmosphere through the biosphere into the hydrosphere and back during the time of existence of chlorophyll-bearing plants on the earth. 4.

cally

Geochemical Activity active

agents,

bacteria

of Bacteria.

—Among biogeochemi-

importance in the Their high rate of multiplication and great physiological activity cause their participation in chemical reactions invohnng considerable amounts of matter. They affect principally the geochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. They are responsible for many changes in the pH of sediments and in the creation of reducing surroundings. Such surroundings favour the reduction or hydrogenation of organic matter and the formation and preservation of reduced substances, such as the petroleum hydrocarbons. The acids produced by bacteria may dissolve calcium carbonate and other inorganic constituents of sediments, and consequently bacteria affect are

of

biosphere and the adjoining geospheres.

great

the cycles of calcium and other elements. Other bacteria favour the precipitatiori of calcium carbonate and thereby preserve calcareous sediments. Some are able to attack several inorganic substances and almost any kind of organic matter; for instance,

and nitrate-reducing bacteria are usually abundant in marine sediments. Some are capable of fixing free atmospheric nitrogen, others liberate nitrogen from nitrites and nitrates, and still others oxidize ammonia to nitrites and nitrates. Some species produce carbon monoxide, others methane or higher hydrocarbons, while others utilize methane in their metabolic processes. Bacteria may create en\aronments harmful to other forms of life, but they also serve as sources of food and producers of plant nutrients. They are active in rock weathering and may be operative in the formation of sedimentary iron and manganese deposits. 5. Marine Biocycle. The biosphere and the hydrosphere are closely connected biochemically because water is essential for all The marine biocycle is the most important part of the biolife. sphere. Sea water is an especially suitable nutrient for algae, but the content of dissolved phosphate and nitrite regulates marine plant life and consequently affects animal life in the sea as well. The distribution of animals in the sea is also governed by the salinsulfate-

—

ity of sea water.

Plants are the most important consumers of marine inorganic matter and form the supply of food for animal life in the sea. There is a constant life cycle between plants and animals and between the formation and decay of biogenic matter. Changes in chemical composition are produced by the growth and decay of marine organisms. The degree of enrichment of the elements by marine organisms is variable. Nitrogen and phosphorus have the highest degree of enrichment, but the content of carbon, silicon, fluorine, iron and copper is also considerably affected by biological activity. 6.

Anthroposphere.

governed by

man

is

—The part of the biosphere inhabited and

called the anthroposphere.

It

is

increasingly

Man

causes changes in the geochemical cycles of the elements and disturbs the natural balance in the uppermost geospheres. Artificial inorganic and organic compounds, minerals active chemically.

and rocks are produced

in the

anthroposphere as are metals, such as

aluminum and magnesium, that never existed in the native state in the earth. The atmosphere and the hydrosphere are used as sources of raw materials. Many chemical processes in the biosphere are steered and controlled by man. Noble metals tend to accumulate in the anthroposphere, and new heavy radioactive elements are made artificially by man. The geochemical cycle of carbon, of all elements, is the one that is most strongly affected by the industrial activities of man, 7.

Bioliths.

—The sediments formed by the geochemical activity

of the biosphere are called bioliths. They are divided into caustobioliths Gr. kaiistikos, "capable of burning") which are combusti(

,

and acaustobioliths, which are incombustible. Carbonate, phosphate and siliceous sediments, among others, are acaustobioliths. The caustobioliths consist of humites.liptobioliths and sapropelites, which all are carbonaceous sediments containing native carbon or its oxidizable compounds. Some sulfur deposits of bacterial origin are also included. This group contains all solid, liquid and gaseous sediments used as fuel and is of great technical importance. The humites and liptobioliths are predominantly products of land and marsh vegetation, but the sapropelites contain decay products of many water organisms. The nature of the bioliths formed depends on the presence or absence of oxygen. If an adequate supply of oxygen is present, the decay of biogenic matter will produce carbon dioxide, water, sulfates and nitrogen, nitrates or ammonia. No solid carbon residue (coal) is produced, and only the resins and waxes of low reactivity may remain as liptobioliths. If the supply of oxygen is inadequate, the decomposition is incomplete, and small amounts of carbon-bearing substances will form. If ox>'gen is deficient at the start and completely absent later during the decomposition, peat will form. Peat is a topical humite sediment of vegetal origin, and humus is the final product of peat formation. If no oxygen is present at all, putrefaction will take place, and sapropel or foul mud and sapropelites are formed as its final prodble,

GEOCHEMISTRY They

ucts.

are typically lacustrine or marine sediments formed in Putrefaction is a kind of slow distillation in which

stagnant water.

and waxes are converted into methane and other hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and many organic compounds. The formation of sapropel affects the cycle of many sulfophile elements by precipitating them as sulfides. If the chemical decomposition of organic matter under reducing conditions is carried still further, petroleum will form proteins, fats, oils

as the final product.

Humus.

—During

some accumu-

the decomposition of biogenic matter

residues are resistant to the action of microorganisms and late, causing the formation of substances called humus.

The

for-

mation of humus involves the removal, from their cycles, of a part of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium and other elements which are made available for plants; consequently the forIt is a highly complex mation of humus regulates plant life. mixture of amorphous organic substances which contains some inorganic compounds of phosphorus, sulfur, iron, calcium and magnesium. It is also in a state of constant decomposition and forms a The colloidal humus-bearing solutions are of colloidal system. importance in weathering because of their dissolving action on detrital minerals; iron and manganese, for instance, are brought into solution as humic complexes. Humus is an important mother substance of coal. Various types called water humus form under water

and may be converted into peat. Soil. Humus also plays an essential part in the formation of soil. Soils, composed of a mixture of inorganic and organic substances, support the continental plant life. Their general character depends on the nature of the weathering of their substratum, climate, relief, biological activity arid time. Physical, chemical and Quartz, clay biological processes are active in their formation.

—

minerals, limonite, hematite and some carbonate and sulfate minmost important mineralogical constituents of soils.

erals are the

129

Many trace elements are Few, if any, of the petroleum constituents of petroleum ashes. hydrocarbons are unsaturated, and all are optically active. The chemical composition of the crude oils varies according to the

as metalorganic porphyrin complexes.

substances from which they were formed. The mother substance of petroleum consists of plant and animal remains in near-shore marine sapropelic sediments. The remains are partly of marine origin, partly carried to the sea by rivers and deposited under essentially anaerobic conditions. During the formation of petroleum, bacterial action occurred along with the

work

of physical, chemical

and geological factors. The highly reducing environment favoured the hydrogenation of organic matter and the. preservation of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Later changes in the composition of petroleum probably were caused by radioactivity. Brines related to petroleum both geologically and genetically occur in connection with most petroleum deposits. Ozocerite and asphalt are often found together with petroleum and are regarded as solid oxidation and polymerization products of the crudes. Ozocerite is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons. Some asphalts are remarkably rich in nickel and vanadium. Natural gases are either inorganic gases connected with igneous produced by carbonization in the biosphere (marsh gas and gases from coal mines ) and gases connected with petroleum

activity, gases

deposits, or the natural gases proper. tains the

most

Petroligenic natural gas con-

volatile constituents of

petroleum deposits and

is

concentrated in the uppermost parts of the oil-bearing beds. Most of its constituents are of biogenic origin. The chief constituents Niof petroligenic natural gas are highly volatile hydrocarbons. trogen, oxygen, carbon

monoxide and

dioxide,

hydrogen

sulfide,

helium and hydrogen in varying amounts are its normal constituents; radon and argon are sometimes present. Petroligenic natural gases are divided into hydrocarbon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and helium types. Many of the rich nitrogen gases are rich in helium

Organic matter greatly affects the physical properties and fertility The humic complexes are by far their most important of soil. organic constituents. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, phosphates and Ammonia is sulfates form during decomposition of soil humus.

also.

gradually converted into nitrates. These compounds greatly influence the fertility of soil and form a supply of elements essential {See also Soil.) for the synthesis of organic substances by plants. Sapropel (q.v.) and peat Coal, Petroleum and Other Products.

The study of the chemical evolution of the earth is one of the main tasks of geochemistry. For performing this task, the results

—

are accumulations lignite

and the

from which coal

is

formed.

brown coal or most important between peat and

Peat,

different varieties of coal are the

humite sediments. There is no sharp distinction During coalification, which finally produces anthracite, the coal. carbon content increases, but the content of hydrogen, nitrogen and, especially, oxygen, decreases by the formation and escape of carbon dioxide, water, methane and nitrogen. The coals are divided into humic coals and sapropelic coals according to their origin. Various transitions exist between the sapropelic coals and from them to oil shales and humic coals. The coals are essentially colloidal substances consisting of highly complex compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Other more important constituents Sulfides of iron, lead, include nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. copper, zinc, nickel and other metals are incidental constituents of coal. Silicon, aluminum and iron are the principal constituents of coal ashes, in which many trace elements are concentrated. The chemical composition of the plant material changes continuously after its deposition, and peat, brown coal, coal and anthracite represent different stages of incoalation or coal formation. ess

is

materially accelerated

The proc-

by elevated temperatures.

Waxes, resins, fats and oils are able to resist chemical decompoand may become concentrated to make liptobioliths. They

See also Biochemistry. VI.

GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

of cosmochemistry, or chemistry of the universe, are particularly helpful, partly because of the role of geochemistry as a chapter in universal planetary chemistry and partly because of the close re-

lationships that link nuclear physics, physical chemistry

and

as-

trophysics together.

Traditional dogmatic geochemical speculation has dealt with the formation of a once totally molten earth largely according to the processes taking place in ore-smelting furnaces. This dogma, however, was slowly giving ground by the 19SOs, and by the 1960s considerable evidence indicated that the earth and other planets were formed by condensation and accumulation from a dust cloud at low temperatures. H. C. Urey developed the new approach in

on the basis of thermodynamic considerations. early stages of the primordial evolution of the earth are usually referred to as the astronomical time in the earth's history. detail, largely

The

The

geological time started

the exogenic processes

first

when a

stable crust

had formed and

started thereon.

According to Urey, the final accumulation of the earth took place, at a temperature of approximately 0° C, from small planetesimals containing metallic iron, carbon, iron carbide, titanium sulfide. A gas phase had mainly been lost high-temperature stage, and only small amounts of hydrogen, nitrogen, inert gases, water vapour, methane

nitride

during

and some ferrous the

previous,

were

The

iron core of the earth

accumu-

sition

and hydrogen

are also responsible for the characteristic properties of sapropel

lated slowly during the geological history of the earth from an almost uniform mixture of metallic iron and silicates. Consequently, the earth was not molten at the time of the accumulation of its

and sapropelic coals, and of some peats. Liptobioliths include resin, wax and spore coals and fossil amber or succinite. Petroleum is a complex mixture of liquid hydrocarbons in which The a number of gaseous and solid hydrocarbons are dissolved. crude oils also contain small amounts of numerous organic compounds of nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and some hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Many metals, notably nickel, vanadium, lead and iron, are present in petroleum, perhaps

sulfide

left.

materials.

See also Cosmogony. the 1. Evolution of

—

Lithosphere. The lithosphere was formed by the separation of the iron and silicate phases and by fractional crystallization in the silicate shell. This differentiation Crystallization caused the arrangement of the siliis still going on.

;

GEOCHRONOLOGY

I30

cate shell according to the specific gravity of the crystallizing phases. The silicic magmas of low specific gravity and the aqueous Heavy atoms actually residual solutions tend to rise upward.

should become concentrated in the lower levels of the lithosphere, but pneumatolytic and hydrothermal mineralization and metamorphism counteract the differentiation phenomena and concentrate these vertical

atoms

in the

movement

uppermost parts of the lithosphere.

The

of the phases of different specific gravity also

explains the present distribution of the elements in the upper lithosphere. The modification of the surface layer by endogenic and

exogenic processes started with the formation of a stable solid crust. During the earliest phase of geological history volcanic and plutonic activity probably took place on a larger scale than they ever did later. The exogenic cycle has grown in activity with the formation of the hydrosphere and the evolution of an atmosphere containing oxygen. Metamorphic and metasomatic processes are active in the present modification of the composition of the upper Metasomatic processes lithosphere, just as they were before. which involve the introduction of new substances into rock (see Metasomatism) tend to equalize the composition, while exogenic processes cause a chemical differentiation. At present, differentiation predominates over equalization in the earth as a whole. Crys-

and differentiation by crystallization still cause chemical and light granitic magmas still wander upward through the crust. The primary distribution of the elements in the various layers of the upper lithosphere may originally have been uniform in all parts of the globe, but at present there are many instances of an inhomogeneity in the upper lithosphere, in particular, among the granites which appear to be the more deficient in certain trace elements the greater their age. A secular migration of the elements on a tallization

dissimilarity in the upper lithosphere,

global scale

mogeneity. tiation

is

may

take place in the crust causing the chemical inho-

The explanation of

the global migration and differen-

the continuous self-repeating granitization that

is

believed

to take place in connection with the mountain-building processes.

The

granitization also enhances the silicic character of the upper-

most layers of the lithosphere.

Evolution of the Atmosphere

There is much evidence to and hydrosphere of the earth are of secondary origin. It is unlikely that the primordial atmosphere contained free oxygen. According to Urey the primitive reducing atmosphere contained water vapour, hydrogen, ammonia, methane and some hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen escaped from the gravitational field of the earth, and water was photochemically decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen in the upper levels of the atmosphere. The oxygen formed was consumed in the gradual oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen and water, and of methane to carbon dioxide and water. Finally an excess of free atmospheric oxygen was formed, and an oxidizing atmosphere appeared, perhaps about 2.

indicate that the present atmosphere

700,000,000 or 800,000,000 years ago. The formation of free oxygen is, geochemically, the most important step in the evolution of the atmosphere. Most or all free oxygen present in the atmosphere has been gradually produced from water by photosynthesis taking place in chlorophyll-bearing plants. The small initial supply of oxygen required by plants to make respiration possible was probably a product of the photochemical dissociation of water vapour.

Carbon dioxide, like the bulk of water, was gradually added to the atmosphere by volcanic emanations, but its content has not remained stable. At the present time much carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere as a result of various activities in the anthroposphere. The content of carbon dioxide is bound to increase until the regulating mechanism (i.e., equilibrium between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere) becomes active. All carbon dioxide is finally bound in carbonates during weathering, and chances are small that it will ever be completely released by endogenic processes. Similarly, nitrogen also may be largely juvenile, and its supply has increased by nitrogen released from rocks during weathering. The inert gases are released into the atmosphere by volcanic emanations and weathering of rocks. Helium and argon are constantly produced by radioactive decay. Hydrogen and helium still escape from the uppermost levels of the atmosphere. 3. Evolution of the Hydrosphere. ^The present hydrosphere

—

of secondary origin as is the atmosphere. The primeval hydrosphere must have been much smaller than the present hydrosphere. It is possible that the amount of water in the hydrosphere is still increasing. Even though much water is removed by weathering and sedimentation, it is, at least partly, returned during the slow verti-

is

migration of matter in the upper lithosphere. Much water is given off by the volcanoes, but this water is probably largely of meteoric origin. Changes have occurred in the chemical composition of the oceans during the geological evolution. Many substances, partly produced by rock weathering, accumulate constantly in the ocean. Vast amounts of volatile substances released by volcanic activity are finally transported into the sea. It is possible that all material deposited in the abyssal regions is permanently lost to the cycle. 4. Evolution of the Biosphere. It is likely that life started cal

vapour

—

soon after the earth had cooled to a proper temperature and that it covered the earth in a geologically short time. The oldest trace of biological activity is finely disseminated biogenic carbon in slates in Manitoba with an approximate age of 2.55 X 10^ years. It appears that vast amounts of complex prebiological organic compounds were synthesized during the reducing stage in the atmospheric evolution in thermochemical, photochemical and electrochemical reactions. Life probably started during the change Plant of the reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing atmosphere. life probably could not start until there was some free oxygen in the atmosphere. A landmark in the development of animals is the appearance of the first calcareous skeletons in the Cambrian, about 500,000,000 years ago. The formation of animals is one of the most important processes in the evolution of the biosphere. The anthroposphere as a powerful geochemical agent has been operative but a few hundred years. The geochemical evolution of the earth did not stop with the formation of a solid crust, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Actually, the evolution has continued throughout the geological history of the earth, and new stages have been added, such as the formation of the biosphere. The earth is changeable chemically, and its geochemical evolution still continues. See also Earth. Bibliography. F. W. Clarke, The Data of Geochemistry, Sth ed., K. Rankama and T. G. SaU.S. Geological Survey Bull. 770 (1924) hama. Geochemistry, with bibliography (1952) B. Mason, Principles of Geochemistry, 2nd ed. (1958) A. A. Saukow, Geochemie (1953) V. M. Goldschmidt, Geochemistry, with bibliography, ed. by A. Muir (1954) K. Rankama, Isotope Geology, with bibliography (1954) H. H. Nininger. Out of the Sky (1952) S. Glasstone, Sourcebook on Atomic Energy (1950) B. Gutenberg (ed.), Internal Constitution of the Earth, 2nd ed.

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1951); C. W. Stillwell, Crystal Chemistry, "International Chemical Series" (1938); R. C. Evans, An Introduction to Crystal Chemistry (1939) L. Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1948) C. Palache, H. Herman and C. Fron;

;

The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edwin Salisbury Dana, 7th ed., vol. i (1944), vol. ii (1951) H. Strunz, Mineralogische Tabellen, 2nd ed. (1949) F. J. Turner and J. Verhoogen, Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology (1951); T. F. W. Barth, Theoretical Petrology (1952); W. Eitel, The Physical Chemistry of the Silicates del.

;

;

F. J. Pettijohn, Sedimentary Rocks, "Harper's Geoscience 2nd ed. (1957) H. Ramberg, The Origin of Metamorphic and Metasomatic Rocks (1952) H. U. Sverdrup, M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming, The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology (1942) K. Kalle, Der Stoghaus'halt des Meeres (1943) G. P. Kuiper (ed.). The Atmospheres of the Earth and Planets, rev. ed. (1952); H. C. Urey, The K. Scharrer. Biochemie der Spurenelemente (1941) Planets: Their Origin and Development (1952). (K. R.) a term first used by the geologist H. S. Williams in 1893 to designate studies in which the geological time scale in absolute time is applied to the evolution of the earth and its inhabitants. The term came to include the various methods of absolute dating in terms of years of those periods of time which precede historical records, thus comprising human prehistory as well as the whole geological past (see Geology: Historical Geol-

(1954);

Series,"

;

;

;

;

;

GEOCHRONOLOGY,

ogy: Absolute Dates). Geochronological methods in use in the second half of the 20th century included the following: Tree-ring analysis or dendrochronology (g.v.). a method which u.ses the cycle of the year as expressed in the formation of growth rings of wood. This method is applicable only in climates with pronounced seasonal fluctuations and areas covering historic and

:

GEODE— GEODESY prehistoric phases, especially in

North America.

Its range is

about

3,000 years. (a Swedish word meaning "layer") analysis, that is, analannual layers of deposition by melting glaciers, is a method which relies mainly on the annual cycle and. to a lesser extent, on the sunspot cycle and precession of the equinoxes. Cycles of duraGeological deposits tion shorter than one year are also involved. of a rhythmic character, such as the layers formed by melt waters of the Pleistocene ice sheets, depend in thickness on the weather

Varve

ysis of

conditions of any particular year; hence cross identification of sequences of varves is possible. The method applies mainly to the last 15,000 years, i.e., to the postglacial period, but it has been used also in earlier geological periods right back to Pre-Cambrian {See Varve Analysis.) times. The radiocarbon method relies on the radioactive disintegration of carbon-14 (C^*), an isotope of carbon created in the atmosphere under the influence of cosmic rays. A constant concentration which is present in living organic matter disintegrates at a constant rate with a half-life period (time required for onehalf the initial number of atoms to decay) of about 5,600 years. The content of C^* found in dead organic matter thus gives an indication of its approximate age, the method being applied to

about the last 30,000 years. {See Radiocarbon Dating.) The per cent of equilibrium method is confined to the study of deep-sea cores and covers about 300,000 years. It relies on the rate of disintegration of radium precipitated in deep-sea sediments. The solar radiation method approximately covers the Pleistocene period and with it the Old Stone Age of man. It is based on the comparison of geological evidence for climatic fluctuations within the Pleistocene period with the fluctuations of solar radiation received at various degrees of latitude in the summer half and the winter half of the year. It extends over a period of about 1.

000.000 years.

all

GEODESY.

Geodesy, one of the oldest sciences of the world, Its scientific mission has both scientific and practical purposes. is to determine the size and shape of the earth and, in co-operation with other sciences, to study the internal structure of the earth. The practical task of geodesy is to carry out the measurements and computations needed for making accurate and reliable maps of the earth's surface.

This article

is

divided into the following sections

Objectives Early History

I.

II.

Ellipsoidal

III.

Era of Geodesy

Geoidal Era of Geodesy

IV. V. VI. VII. VIII.

Modern Arc-Measuring Methods Physical Geodesy

Methods and Achievements of Physical Geodesy Measuring Instruments Used in Geodesy

IX.

Isostasy

X. XI.

Variation of Latitude International Geodetic Organizations

The most important practical objective of geodesy is the determination of the exact co-ordinates of control points on the When two co-ordinates of a control point are earth's surface. known, for instance, addition,

its

its

geographic latitude and longitude and, in

elevation above sea level, the exact position of this

point on the earth's surface

is

known.

In mapping large areas,

such as a whole state or country, not only the curvature of the earth but also its flattening must be considered. The English usage of the word geodesy includes all the measurements, computations and objectives mentioned above. A reliable control-point system is a prerequisite for accurate maps. It may be compared with a skeleton which has to be covered with flesh and blood, i.e., by a fiUing-in of details. The fiUingLn process also belongs to the domain of geodesy, though an essential part of this w'ork can be done on the basis of aerial pic-

by the methods of photogrammetry {q.v.). The elevations and of other measured points are obtained by precise trigonometric or barometric leveling, methods which are discussed in the article Surveying. tures,

—

this term comprises methods based on estiGeological methods mated time rates of sedimentation, denudation, erosion, weathering and chemical changes in minerals. Geological methods can be

applied to

131

of the control points

geological epochs but are, on the whole, not very I.

OBJECTIVES

reliable.

Uranium and other radioactivity methods take advantage of the disintegration of certain radioactive minerals with long half lives. The commonest methods rely on the accumulation of lead or helium, or both, formed by the disintegration of uranium. They have been applied to all geological periods before the Pleistocene and, in a modified form, to estimate the age of the earth's crust Other methods use the change of rubidium into stron-

as a whole.

Analyses of the relative abundance of strontium isotopes have given ages of 3,400,000,000 (samples from Minnesota) up to 4,500,000.000 (St. Paul Rocks; margin of error 25%). For archaeological applications see Archaeology The Materials of Archaeology. See also Cosmic Rays; Isotope: Naturally Occurring Radiotium, and of potassium into argon.

:

active Isotopes. See F. E. Zeuner, Dating the Past, 4th ed. (1958).

(F. E. Z.)

GEODE, a

hollow nodule of stone formed in sedimentary rock and having walls lined with crystals, among which calcite and quartz are the commonest. Other not uncommon minerals are dolomite, chalcedony, barite and celestite. Exterior surfaces of geodes are usually irregular. The wall minerals may have been deposited by circulating waters as the enclosing sediments became lithified or subsequent thereto. A common method of origin of the cavities of geodes is by deposition of materials from solution along structural and fracture surfaces of shells, thus producing enlargement of original shell cavities and at the same time or subsequently lining the cavities with crystalline materials.

have formed from

Geode

cavities of this origin are

shells of brachiopods. crinoids

known

to

and others.

If wall materials of geodes are more resistant to weathering than the enclosing rocks, the geodes are released and remain after the enclosing rocks have disappeared. If the opposite is the case, the

minerals lining the cavities disappear and only cavities remain.

Geodes range in diameter.

size

from very small

more (W. H. Tl.)

to ten inches or

in

may seem

easy to determine control points on the earth's surface merely by making astronomical observations of the latitude and longitude at these points, this method is not satisfactory because astronomical observations are not sufficiently accurate, the highest accuracy obtained by the astronomic method being of the order 0'.'2 to 0'!i (arc seconds), or 6 to 9 m. along the earth's surface. Furthermore, serious errors will be caused by the irregularities of the earth's figure, to which the astronomical

Although

it

observations refer.

The

earth's figure

is

that of a surface called the geoid, which

over the sea is the average sea level and under the continents the imaginary continuation of sea level. The visible and invisible mass anomalies of the earth cause essential irregularities to the geoid and bring about essential errors, sometimes exceeding a mile, when distances between control points are determined astronomically. Because of these facts we must use as a reference surface a regular mathematical surface that fits the geoid as closely as possiThis surface is an ellipsoid of revolution called a reference ble. Its surface is in some areas below, in other regions The angle of tilt between the ellipsoid surface geoid. the above, and geoid surface, or between the normal of ellipsoid and the normal of geoid, or plumb line, is called the deflection of the vertiellipsoid.

cal,

or deflection of

plumb

line.

is an equipotential or level that over its entire extent the the fact by characterized surface, This potential function so-called potential function is constant. the earth is a result of the effect of the gravitational attraction of mass, combined with the effect caused by the rotation of the earth about its axis. Since, if air masses are disregarded, there are at the oceans no masses above the sea level, mean sea level is a part

Mathematically speaking the geoid

of the geoid surface.

In the continental areas the geoid

is

an

imaginary sea-level surface defined by spirit level. If small sealevel canals were dug into the interior of the continents or if openended pipes, like inverted siphons, were run from the land out into

GEODESY

132

the ocean, the surface sought would be defineci physically at various points by the level of the water in these canals or pipes.

To get a system of geodetic control points it is necessary to have the geodetic datum for these points. The geodetic datum is completely determined when we know five quantities: the geographic latitude 4> and longitude X of the initial point of the geodetic datum, a direction (azimuth A of the direction between the initial point and some other control point) and finally the equator radius, a, and the flattening, /, of the reference ellipsoid. In other words, we need a point from which to compute, a direction in which to compute and a surface along which to compute. co-ordinates of any control point

The

computed

in this

geodetic

system are comparable with one another. Their accuracy depends on the accuracy of the astronomical and geodetic measurements. If only one of these five quantities changes, the whole geodetic system will also change. Until recent decades most countries had their

own

initial

point of geodetic

datum

;

therefore their geodetic

systems were, of course, different even if they used the same reference ellipsoid. One problem in geodesy is to obtain sufficiently accurate dimenAnother difficulty appears in sions for the reference ellipsoid. converting the existing geodetic systems to one world system. A third difficulty is caused by the fact that all geodetic observations have to be referred to the geoid, but the computation of the coordinates must be carried out along the reference ellipsoid. To get rid of this "dualism" we have to know the distance, A^, called warping or undulation of the geoid or the geoid distance, and the tilt

between these two surfaces

at the initial points of all these

It is also difficult to get the geodetic

geodetic systems.

datum by

not constant but is affected by geological changes which raise or lower the continents and the

precise leveling since the sea level

is

ocean beds.

n.

EARLY HISTORY

It is surprising that ancient civilized peoples,

lonians and Egyptians,

who were

such as the Baby-

interested in astronomy did not

shape should deduce from several phenomena. The earth's shadow during the moon's ecUpse has the shape of a circular arc, a shape that only a spherical earth can cause. The stars, while south in meridian, appear much higher in the sky when viewed from Alexandria than from Athens. When a ship approaches port, one first sees the masts and only later the hull. But the significance of these phenomena dawned on mankind only slowly. The co-ordinates of latitude and longitude were used at the suggestion of Hipparchus (ft. 146-127 B.C.). Because the world realize that the earth is a sphere, since its spherical

have been easy

known

to

to the ancients

was long

in the east-west direction

from

Spain to Persia and relatively short in the north-south direction from the Alps to north Africa, longitude was counted in the eastwest direction, latitude in the north-south direction. Still, Homer, in approximately 900-800 B.C., thought that the earth was a convex disk surrounded by the Oceanus stream. According to the other Greeks of that time the earth plate was supported by four elephants standing on a big turtle. But what supported the turtle they could not say. The philosopher Pythagoras (fl. 532 B.C.) was perhaps the first who thought the earth to be a sphere. Hipparchus and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) came to the same conclusion. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 192 B.C.), however, is considered the founder of geodesy because he was the man who first

measured the

To determine

size of the earth, assuming that it was a sphere. the earth ellipsoid it is necessary to solve two

problems, one geodetic and the other astronomical. The length, /, of an arc along the earth's surface must be measured in some direction. In the astronomical problem the central angle, v, corresponding to the measured arc, must be measured. By the aid of I and V the earth radius R can be obtained from the elementary formula l.2TrR = v° ;36o°, or from R = l/v, if v is given in radians. The longer the measured arc and the more accurate the astronomical observations, the more accurately R can be obtained. Earlier the arcs / were measured at, or at least close to, the meridian directions, because v was relatively easy to determine in the northsouth direction.

it

With the advent became possible

of accurate time signals

and perfected clocks

to determine the geographic longitude as ac-

curately as the latitude, and arcs in any direction could be measured with equal accuracy. This astrogeodetic method was used by Eratosthenes. He knew that in upper Egypt in Syene, now called Aswan, on the Nile, the sun shone at noon in mid-summer vertically down into a well. His measurements showed that in Alexandria the direction of the sunbeams at the same time of the year at noon made with the vertical

Supposing that direction an angle 36o°/so or 7.2° (see fig. i). Syene and Alexandria were at the same meridian, he concluded that the centre angle iij between Syene and Alexandria was 7.2°. As to the measurement of the arc I he was told that a camel caravan needed 50 days to travel from Alexandria to Syene. Assuming that the rather constant speed of camels was 100 stadia a day, the distance between Alexandria and Syene would be 5,000 stadia and the length of the whole meridian circle 50 times larger. So he obtained for a meridian circle the length 250,000 stadia. If the Attic stade, 185 metres, were used, the length of the whole This meridian was, according to Eratosthenes, 46,250,000 m. value is 16% too large, because the real length of the meridian by the definition of metre is, or at least used to be, 40,000,000 m. Fig. I also indicates how, by using the same principle, the U.S. army map service (F. W. Hough) determined the value for the equatorial radius of the earth as 6,378,260 m., using also the 100° long arc (central angle v-;,^ Tornio, Fin.-Cape Town, S.Af., and the best available measuring instruments. Considering that Ale.xandria and Syene are not at the same meridian, that the sun 2,200 years ago at noon in mid-summer could ,

not shine in a vertical direction into the well of Syene, and that the measurement of the arc using the camel as a measuring instrument was certainly not accurate, it is surprising that EratosHe deserves full credit, thenes's result was not more in error. Modern however, because his method was right in principle. geodesists follow the same principle but make the astronomical observations with fine observation instruments and measure the length of the arc by triangulation. This important method was conceived by the Dutch scientist, Willebrord Snell (Snellius), in 1615.

The second known determination of the earth's radius was done by Poseidonius (c. 135-50 B.C.), who measured the distance between Rhodus and Alexandria on the basis of the time a boat needed to sail from Alexandria to Rhodus. The corresponding central angle was measured astronomically. He realized that the star Canopus was on the horizon when seen from Rhodus island at the same time that the sunbeams in Alexandria made an angle of 7.5'^

with the horizon.

Conse-

the central angle was, according to his observations, quently,

The radius value obtained 7.5°. by him was 1 1 % too large. Nine hundred years passed before the next measurement of the earth's dimensions was carried out

at

suggestion

the

caliph Abdullah al

786-S33)

of

Mamun

the

to

made an

relatively

alexandria^-

^/^/

^^i.

1

equator

(a.d.

the Zinjar plateau

at

The Arabs measurement of the length of the arc by using wooden rods. They also made close

,

/

Baghdad.

actual

accurate astronomical

tween the different length units 1°

1 1 1

Using these

1.

—THE

Cape Town ARC-MEASURING

METHOD

According to the Arabs the following relation be

observations.

1

FIG.

= mi

= = =

4,000 ell 24 in. in. 6 barley seeds barley seed = 3.526 ell

exist:

170

units, the

10,359 km., only

3.6%

mm.

(according to SneU)

Arabs obtained the meridian quadrant of too long.

—

GEODESY ELLIPSOIDAL ERA OF GEODESY

III.

A new

133

epoch began

in

geodesy with the use of triangulation.

idea of triangulation was apparently conceived by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe before the end of the i6th century and was used by him to establish a geodetic connection between Ven

The

Island and the main islands of Denmark. Triangulation was developed as a science, however, by Snell, who also first used it for measuring the dimensions of the earth. The triangle chain of Snell had 33 triangles and rendered for the meridian quadrant a value as much too small (3.4%) as that of the Arabs was too large. The triangulation of Jean Picard (1620-82), which extended from Paris to north i?2 and consisted of 13 triangles, is methodically importamt because in it the telescope was first used for astronomical observations and logarithm tables were used in computing the results. Picard also measured by wooden rods a base line in the modern sense of this term. This measurement was significant also in that Sir Isaac Newton, when deriving his law of gravitation in 1665-66, used the equator radius value obtained by Picard. The idea of triangulation is to measure only the angles of consecutive triangles. If in addition, as in fig. 2(A), the length of one side, B1B2, of one triangle has been measured, all sides of the other triangles can be computed from the sine theorem. The tri-

angulation points are chosen on hilltops and mountains so that the neighbouring points A, C, D, E can be seen from point B and thus

them can be measured. When the length of known, the distance between any point (e.g., between A and F) can be computed along the reference ellipsoid, and thus all points of the triangulation can be referred to the same geodetic system. Triangulation can have the shape of a triangle chain as shown in fig. 2(A); or that of an "envelope chain" (fig. 2[B]), much used in the United States; also a triangle net as shown in fig. the angles between

the sides

is

One

side of a triangle is obtained directly by measuring the In principle, one base base Hne as accurately as possible. Because of line for every triangulation system would be sufficient. the impossibility of avoiding errors in observation, several base lines, each at an interval of 200 to 300 mi., are measured. Then an field

adjustment computation is made to take care of the observation errors. For instance, the sum of the angles of every triangle must be 180° + «; e is a small quantity called the spherical excess of caused by the sphericity of the earth. In a similar way, for every measured base line, computation of its length along the triangles beginning from another base line the triangle in question and

is

must give exactly the same length as the measurement itself gives. When computing a closed loop of triangles it is necessary to get for the beginning point its original co-ordinates.

So

in triangula-

numerous conditions that the observations must the angle control, side control, base-hne control and co-

tion there are satisfy:

ordinate control.

All these will be handled in the geodetic adjust-

ment computation based on the means that the observations have

to be corrected so that the

of the squares of the corrections

is

a

of the adjustment computation

is

to eliminate the discrepancy in

"least

square" method, which

minimum.

sum

The main purpose

same co-ordinates will be arrived at for any of the triangulation points, regardless of which the triangulation net so that exactly the

way they have been computed from the initial point. This does not mean, however, that the errors themselves have been eliminated. The observation errors exist but their effect has been made

Fig. 2.

—THE

PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION

(A) single triangulation chain, (B) "envelope" chain, (C) triangulation net

necessary only to determine the radius of the sphere. The new era, the ellipsoidal era, began with the theoretical studies of Newton and his contemporary Christiaan Huygens. The physical proofs of the sphericity of the earth had so far been proofs of its general rotundity. In the Ptolemaic astronomy it had seemed natural to assume for reasons usually of a metaphysical sort that the earth was an exact sphere; but with the growing convic-

—

was true and that the earth roand with the advance in mechanical knowlNewton and Huygens, it seemed natural to

tion that the Copernican system tates about its axis,

edge due chiefly to

think of the earth as an oblate spheroid flattened at the poles. There was also the experimental evidence of the astronomer Jean Richer (1630-1696), who found that his clock, regulated to keep

time at Paris, lost 2^ min. a day at Cayenne in South America, where he had been sent to make observations. But the arguments from theory and the evidence of Richer's clock, confirmed by the experience of other observers, seemed to be contradicted by the work of Jean Dominique Cassini and his son Jacques, in France. If the earth is an oblate spheroid, the length of a degree of latitude must increase from the equator to the pole, but the Cassinis, continuing the arc of Picard north to

Dunkerque and south to the boundary of Spain, came to the oppoThey divided the measured arc into two parts, site conclusion. one northward, the other southward of Paris. The length of a meridian degree north of Paris was 111,017 m., or 265 m. shorter than one south of Paris (111,282 m.).

This suggested either a In any case,

as harmless as possible.

prolate (egg-shaped) earth or errors in observation.

The best results can be obtained, however, only when the observation errors are as small as possible. Therefore, in triangulation much attention is given' to the accuracy of the measurements.

their observations contradicted the idea of a flattened earth.

For instance, the angles of every triangle are measured not once or twice but as

many

as 24 times.

measured several times and by

Similarly the base lines are

different

measuring wires

to reduce

the observation error.

Methods of

triangulation have been so perfected that the ac-

curacy of the base lines is from 1:2,000,000 to 1:4,000,000 of the length of the base line. The period from Eratosthenes to Picard may be called the spherical era of geodesy, because the earth was thought to be a sphere. The geodetic problem was then relatively simple. It was

It may seem strange that the length of the meridian degree is longer at the pole than it is at lower latitudes and at the equator. One might think that the reverse would be true, because the pole radius is shorter than the equator radius. Fig. 3 shows, however,

why

the length of a meridian degree increases with the latitude.

The

central angles v at the equator

radius

E

ECi

and pole are equal, but the

(radius of curvature) of the meridian

AE

at the

equa-

shorter than the radius of curvature PCo at the pole P. Consequently, the meridian degree PB at the pole is longer than

tor

is

the meridian degree the equator radius ture

ECi and PC2.

EA

ED

at the equator.

are quite different

The

pole radius

from the

PD

and

radii of curva-

:

GEODESY

134

Because of the Cassinis' results a heated controversy began between the French and British scientists. The British scientists (the "earth fiatteners") claimed that the rotating earth must be The flattened as Newton and Huygens had theoretically shown. Frenchmen, particularly the Cassinis, defended their own measurement and continued to believe the earth to be egg-shaped. To settle this controversy, the French Academy of Sciences in 1735 sent an expedition led by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de la Condamine, to a section of the Spanish province of Peru (which later became Ecuador) to measure the length of a meridian degree close to the equator. Another expedition in 1736, under P. L. M. de Maupertuis, was sent to Lapland to make a similar measurement near the Arctic circle. According to the resulting measurements the length of a meridian degree in Peru is 56,734 toise (French fathom); in Paris 57,060 toise; and in Lapland, 57,422 toise. The meridian degree was found to be longer the farther away from the equator the observations were carried out. These results showed irrefutably that the Cassinis were wrong and that the earth is flattened. The measurements in Peru and Lapland gave for the flattening the value 1 1213, quite far from the value

1

The

1297.0, used since 1924. general opinion of the geodesists

was that the meridian arc measured by the Maupertuis expedition was not as long as the measurement indicated. The control measurements of the Swedish Geodetic Institute (Svanberg) in 1804, in fact, showed that the error was relatively large, according to him, 226 toise or 441 m. In 1928, the Finnish geodesist-, Y. Leinberg, discovered that Maupertuis' measurement accumulated a number of errors Unfortunately, all Maupertuis' errors were that totaled 393 m. effected in the same direction, but it was fortunate that they gave him too long a meridian arc. Had his measurement been 441 m. too short, the problem concerning the shape of the earth might not yet have been solved definitely. 18th Century. During the 18th century there were numerous measurements of arcs. The trigonometric survey of England was begun in 1783, primarily to establish geodetic connection between Greenwich and Paris. More important, however, was In 1791 the French national asthe French arc measurement. sembly accepted a new length unit replacing the toise. This unit was called a metre, by definition 1 10,000,000 part of the meridian quadrant from equator to pole along the Paris meridian. To get the length of this unit, additional accurate observations were needed. Therefore, a new arc measurement between Dunkerque and Barcelona, Spain, was carried out by Pierre Frangois Mechain and Jean Baptiste Delambre in 1792-98. Their pubhcation in three volumes. Base du systime

—

:

metrique decimal (1806-10), in which the measurements carried out in France and Peru were applied, gave for the length of a metre the following value: i metre = 443.296 Paris lines; i Fig.

3.

TWEEN

=6

toise

—THE

RELATIONSHIP BEMERIDIAN DEGREE AND

LATITUDE

feet

Paris lines.

= 72

The

and metre

toise

443.296,

or

I

is

inches = 864 ratio

between

therefore 864

toise

=

1.9490363

Later arc measurements, however, showed that the metre does not correspond to its definition. In fact, the meridian quadrant of the international ellipsoid is 10,002,288.3 m- The metre is consequently 0.02% "too short." The following table

metres.

may

be used for reference:

Fundamental Elements

o=semimajor 6

e*

/

=

= =

of the International Ellipsoid of Reference

=6,378,388 metres semiminor axis (polar radius) = 6,356,911.946 m. Derived Quantities axis (equatorial radius)

a'

square of eccentricity ellipticity (flattening)

-b' =

=

Length of quadrant of the equator

= =

0.006,722,670,022

1/297

=

0.003,367,003,367

10,019,148.4 m.

Length of quadrant of the meridian = 10,002,288.3 m. Area of the ellipsoid = 510,100,934 sq.km. Volume of the ellipsoid = 1,083,319,780,000 cu.km. Radius of sphere having same area as ellipsoid = 6,371,227.7 m. Radius of sphere having same volume as ellipsoid = 6,371,221.3 m.

Mass of the ellipsoid = 5.988 X lO'" metric tons. 19th Century. Of great significance were the arc measurements carried out in the 19th century by the survey of India under the leadership of the English surveyors general such as Sir George Everest, Sir Andrew Waugh and Sir Sidney Burrard; other scientists included G. H. Pratt, Sir George Airy and, later,

—

F. deGraaff

Hunter.

In fact, this geodetic work

made

India the

birthplace of isostasy {see below) and yielded detailed shape of the geoid over an area covering nearly all of India.

During the

ellipsoidal era,

several geodesists

which lasted to the 20th century,

computed reasonable values

for the dimensions

In addition, the late 18th and early 19th centuries brought to geodesy, through the genius of 18-yearold K. F. Gauss (1795) and of A. M. Legendre (1806), development of the important adjustment computation as well as the The 19th definition of the metre and a prehminary value for it. century introduced the methodologically basic triangulation work of the reference eUipsoid.

Gauss and F. W. Bessel; the mathematical basis (Stokes' formula) of physical geodesy; and the international co-operation required for the development of geodesy. of

IV.

GEOIDAL ERA OF GEODESY

The period

after 1900 can be called the geoidal era, because after time it was possible to start the determination of the detailed shape of the geoid and its accurate dimensions to replace the apDuring this proximations provided by the reference ellipsoid. geoidal era new instruments for geodetic, astronomical and gravimetric measurements were devised; the international ellipsoid and international gravity formula to be used in geodetic and gravimetric studies were adopted; extensive isostatic studies of basic significance to physical geodesy were carried out; several longrange triangulations were made; and electronic, celestial and gravimetric methods were applied to geodesy. In the 19th century, when every country was satisfied with a control-point system of its own, the problems of geodesy were not too complicated. If a country were not too large, any reasonable reference ellipsoid could be used, since the effect of possible errors on its dimensions was quite small and not significant in this

practical

mapping work.

The

reliability of the

co-ordinates of

the control points depended mainly on the accuracy of the astroRelatively nomical, triangulation and traverse measurements.

simple adjustment computation eliminated any inner discrepancy of the geodetic system in question. It did not matter how much the geodetic systems of different countries disagreed with one anAs late as 1947, for instance, the differences of the coother. ordinates of the same control point amounted to 95 m. between the Danish and Swedish systems, 250 m. between the Danish and

German systems, 171 m. between the Danish and Norwegian systems and 191 m. between the English and French systems. The exact extent of differences among the geodetic systems of the various continents and ocean islands in the 19th century is not known. They may have been as great as 5 mi. or more. World Geodetic System. By mid- 20th century it was clear that such confusion could not be allowed to continue. The demands of hydrographic surveying and aviation made it of basic importance that the co-ordinates of the different countries and continents be under the same system, that the existing geodetic systems, even across the oceans, be converted as accurately as It did not matter possible to a single world geodetic system. where the initial point of the world geodetic datum was located. To standardize a world geodetic system the following would be necessary: (i) a common scale or yardstick throughout the world; (2) new arc measurements along the continents and across the oceans; (3) exact localizing of these arcs on the reference ellipsoid; (4) more accurate dimensions of the reference ellipsoid; (5) extremely accurate values of the geoid distances A'' and the deflections of the vertical components J and tj at the initial points of

—

the different geodetic systems.

As shown

in fig. 4,

N

is

the dis-

GEODESY tance between the reference ellipsoid and the geoid at a given point. The tilt of the geoid is given by the angles f the deviation between the plumb line and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid (dotted line) measured in a north-south plane, and rj, the deviation measured in ,

an east-west plane (perpendicular to the diagram,

fig. 4,

and so not

shown).

common

If scale is easy to understand. the length unit obtained by the base-Hne measurements is different in the various countries and on different continents, the computed geodesic lines to be used in the world-wide computations will not be comparable with one another and will cause systematic errors. Because of this fact it is necessary to measure in the different countries, or at least on every continent, one accurate standard base line on which to calibrate the wires or tapes to be used in

The

the

significance of a

measurement of the

field

base

The

lines.

light-interference

method, invented by the Finnish astronomer Y. Vaisala, and put into practice by the Finnish Geodetic institute, supplies the needed standard base

lines.

The United Nations' Regional Cartographic Conference

for

Asia and the Far East in Mussoorie, India, in Feb. 1955, recommended to the governments of the Asian countries "that a few standard base lines in this region should be established by the Vaisala

method

for assuring the uniform scale in

for calibrating invar tapes

all

and other equipment."

networks and

The

relative

accuracy of the standard base lines of Nummela, Fin., and Buenos Aires, Arg., measured by T. J. Kukkamaki (1948) and T. B. Honkasalo (1953) are 1:17,000,000 and 1:9,000,000, or approximately o.i in. per 25 mi. The Geodimeter. -Designed by E. Bergstrand and developed in Sweden, the United States and Germany, this instrument is based on Armand Fizeau's method for measuring the velocity of light. Instead of using a toothed wheel as the modulator and the human eye as the detector, the geodimeter apphes a Kerr cell as the modulating unit and a photomultipher tube as the detecting

—

unit.

To measure

distances the transmitter of the geodimeter sends impulses at a modulating frequency of 10 mc. The impulses are reflected back from a target and are then detected in the If the distance between photomultiplier tube of the receiver. transmitting and target points is an integral amount of quarters a special null detector of modulated light waves (about 7.5 m.

light

)

which can be obtained by alternating the modulating frequency to apply a new unit of measurement. If only one frequency is used the distance must be accurate to ±7.5 m. In practice, however, another frequency deviating 1% from the main frequency is used when the distance must be known only to ±750 m. The instrumental accuracy is mainly dependent on the frequency, which is accurate to i or 2 parts in 10,000,000. The practical accuracy is a function of the velocity of light waves in vacuo and of the propagation anomalies caused by changing atmospheric conditions. These can be determined with an accuracy of about 1:1,000,000. To measure the exact dimensions of the reference eOipsoid more and longer geodetic yardsticks (i.e., accurately measured arcs in indicates zero,

different parts of the world) are imperative.

Up

to the late

1950s

the classic triangulation method had been commonly used for On the basis of astronomical observations of latithis purpose. tude and longitude at or near the end points of these yardsticks,

we can

locate the arcs approximately at the right places

on the

This astrogeodetic method can be used on the In fact, the mathematicians of the U.S. army map continents. service in 1956 computed new dimensions for the reference ellipsoid on the basis of the long arcs: Tornio, Fin.-Cape Town, S.Af.; Alaska-Chile; one meridian arc and one longitudinal arc in mainland U.S.; and one Eurasian arc, Atlantic coast-Siberia.

earth's surface.

V.

MODERN ARC-MEASURING METHODS

method cannot operate over the new methods were needed to connect the continents with Two modern methods of measuring one another geodetically. Since the old triangulation

oceans,

have been applied: the electronic and the celestial. Electronic Method. In the electronic method

—

135

Hiran, Loran)

is

it

know

only the velocity of light

:

ment plane

The for broadcasting the electromagnetic impulses. flies in loops over approximately the middle of line

air-

AB.

give the time which elapses when the imfrom the airplane to the ground station and back. From this time the distance from station A to airplane as well as the distance from station B to airplane can be computed. The

The Shoran readings pulses travel

sum

of these distances

plane

is

from the

different

is

depending on how far the

vertical plane through the line

AB.

air-

Every read-

combined distance v4-airplane-5. These values, reduced to the minimum distance, supply the distance between the ground stations A and B. Celestial Method. Four celestial methods have been developed: the rocket-star, solar eclipse, occupation and moon camera. Rocket-Star. This is a triangulation method invented and developed by Y. Vaisala in 1946. In this method a rocket is launched in an accurately vertical direction to a certain elevation {e.g., 200 km.) and the neighbouring stars are photographed simultaneously from several observatories or other observation points. By measuring the small angular distances between the images of the stars and the rocket, the direction of the rocket from the observation points can be accurately computed. If the rocket were launched to an elevation of several hundred kilometres it would be possible to find distances across the oceans, and for triangulation on the ing gives a single value for the

—

—

continents.

The advantage

of the rocket-star

method

lies in

the large

tri-

angles which can be used.

—

This once popular method was developed in Solar Eclipse. 1943 by I. Bonsdorff, director of the Finnish Geodetic institute. It is based on the scheme of the Polish astronomer T. Banachiewic and is used for measuring distances across the oceans. The method With sound-film is simple although technical difficulties appear. techniques photographs are made at two stations, A and B (each on different continents), as the totality of the eclipse begins and ends. The exact time, t, elapsing between the beginning

(and end) of the totality at A and B is measured from the film, which also contains the tracks of the time signals and chronometer ticks. The time, t, renders with relatively high accuracy the distance between the stations, if the distance of the moon at For that purpose at the observation time is known accurately. least two observation stations, B and C, must be located on the same continent and their distance must have been measured by triangulation.

moon, on the

The known distance BC gives the distance of basis of which the unknown distance AB across

the the

ocean can be computed. For intercontinental geodetic ties this method was applied during the total solar eclipses in 1945, i947i 1948, 1954 and 1955. Unfortunately conditions were so capricious that only once -a cloudy sky too often hindered the observations

—

—

was it possible to compute the distance across the Atlantic by this method. The accuracy of this tie, according to Kukkamaki's publication, is of the order of 80 m. An essential part of this error was brought about by the irregularity of the moon's topography. Enthusiasm for this method has waned since total solar eclipses occur rather seldom, and because of the often inconvenient locations of the observation stations, which are determined by the path of the moon's shadow. Also the irregularity of the moon's limb (outline) decreases the accuracy of the observations, and too frequently "heavenly sabotage" destroys the work of the expedition.

—

In this method the moments during which, a star Occultation. disappears behind the moon's limb and emerges from behind it are observed. As in the solar eclipse method, the distance between the observation points can be computed assuming that the distance of the moon is known. This method also can be applied only relatively seldom, though

method. (Shoran,

necessary to

and relatively short triangulation chains for calibrating the equipment which measures the long distances. Lines up to 880 km. have been measured with a relative accuracy of 1 120,000. Shoran measurements need two ground stations, A and B, and one or more air-borne stations which carry the transmitting equip-

Moon Camera.

—The

more frequently than

moon camera method,

the solar eclipse

invented by Wil-

GEODESY

136

liam Markowitz at the U.S. Naval observatory, photographs the moon together with the neighbouring stars from observatories on different continents. The moon camera is so constructed that the moon's limb and the neighbouring stars are held stationary during the exposure of the film. The small angular distances of the distinct points of the moon's limb from the neighbouring stars, meas-

ured from the film, give the direction to the moon from the observation points. In theory two complete observations of the

moon

suffice.

Analytically considered, two complete obser\'ations

unknowns have to be found. Considered geometrically, each observation gives a line of sight along which the station Hes. Two lines of sight, well separated in direction, will intersect in a point which locates the station. In practice, the use of the moon in the solution of astronomical and geodetic problems is rather difficult from the standpoints of both computation and observation. What is measured is the displacegive four quantities, and only three

ment

of the

moon from

a calculated position.

The moon, how-

may be displaced for reasons other than that due to the displacement of the station from the centre of the earth. In order ever,

unknowns involved numerous obser\'ations must Moreover, the moon must be observed over a large portion of its orbit, and at each station it must be observed in different parts of the sky. Before mid-20th centuPi- this had not been feasible because of the restrictions involved in determining to separate all the

be made.

moon

the position of the

accurately.

The

geocentric co-ordinates of these points can. according to Markowitz. be computed, the geocentric radius R with the accuracy of about 40 m. The variation of R with the latitude and longitude of the observ'ation points gives the general' shape of the earth with

the mentioned accuracy

if

a

sufficient

number

of observation

Twenty astronomical

observatories of different continents agreed to co-operate during the International Geophysical

points exist.

Year 1957-1958

The

to

apply this method on a world-wide

moon methods

scale.

moon

is used one triangulation point of this celestial triangulation. They help in determining the size and general shape of the earth. All t>'pes of arc-measuring methods render the length / of an arc of a great circle of the earth, which is necessary in determining the

three

are similar in that the

as

equatorial radius

The

a.

determined also by other astronomical methods utilizing the observed mechanical effects produced by the earth's equatorial protuberance, i.e., by the flattening / of the reference ellipsoid can be

polar flattening of the earth. This equatorial bulge produces periodic perturbations in the moon's perigee and of the node of its orbit on the ecliptic. The moon in turn acts on the equatorial bulge of the earth and produces the greater part of the slow dis-

placement of the equinoxes known as precession; the sun contributes a fairly large part of the obser\'ed precession and the planets the small remainder. From any one of the effects mentioned the flattening of the earth may be deduced. Although there

methods the

are theoretical difficulties in

all

duced from the precession

as satisfactory as any;

of the

flattening de-

agrees substantially with the flattening, 1:297, of the international ellipsoid. The flattening deduced by the other lunar methods tends to come out a trifle greater than this. The application of these different methods can reduce the errors in calculating the earth's dimenis

it

sions.

and general shape of the earth even if its structure is unknown. In this respect geometrical geodesy has had considerable success and has supplied reference ellipsoids that are not too different from the actual geoid.

In the classic computations of the dimensions of the reference geodesy played an important role. It had been necessary to make the astronomically observed latitude, longitude and azimuth as representative as possible. In other words, in analyzing the astrogeodetic deflection of the vertical components, ^ and 77, we must consider not only the effect of the visible topographic features but also the invisible compensating masses of the earth, and thus consider the internal structure of the earth's crust and of the layers under it. J. F. Hayford's ellipsoid, although based entirely on arc measurements made within the United States, ellipsoid physical

was

adopted

sufficiently accurate to be

in

1924 as the international

ellipsoid because he used the topographic-isostatic reduction,

the

method of physical geodesy.

A

similar case

i.e.,

was W. A. Heis-

kanen's derivation of the equator value 978.049 cm. per second per second of the international gravity formula. Gravity Anomalies. The main tool of physical geodesy is, however, the gravimetric method. The advantage of this method lies in its use of only one quantity, the gravity anomalies. To get the gravity anomalies it is necessary to reduce in some way the obser\-ed gravity from the observation point to sea level. Depending on the reduction method used, different values are obtained for sea-level gravity g^,. Since the earth rotates around its axis and, in addition, is flattened, the g,, values are smallest at the equator and increase with latitude. The gravity anomalies seem to have a relation not only to latitude but to longitude as well. Therefore, several scientists have derived gravity formulas assuming that the earth is a triaxial elUpsoid instead of an ellipsoid of revolution; in other words, the equator and the parallel circles are eUipses instead of circles. According to them the long axis of the equator would be close to longitudes 0° and iSo°; the short axis close to longitudes +90° and —90°. The difference between the large and small semiaxes of the equator is about 120 m. The triaxiality of the earth is quite difficult to explain geophysically, and even the increasing use of gra\dmetric methods had not completely proved its existence. It appeared that this problem would best be solved and in exact form when the detailed shape of the geoid had been determined gravimetrically. From the geoid map of the world it would be easy to see whether the real geoid is closer to the triaxial ellipsoid or to the ellipsoid of

—

—

—

revolution.

The

physical basis of physical geodesy

disturbing masses

Am

lies in

the fact that the

result in the geoid distances

N,

the de-

components J and rj, and the gravity anomalies Ag = go — y, where g^ is the obser\'ed gravity reduced to sea level and 7 is obtained from the international gravity

flection

of

the vertical

formula. s'm^' to find a universal method which could be used everywhere in the world. This method will be rendered by physical geodesy. All these celestial

vertical,

J.

Because the geoid (as an equipotential surface)

is al-

GEOID

VL PHYSICAL GEODESY There is a difference between geometrical geodesy and physical geodesy. Triangulation, either in the classic or the modern sense, with astronomical observations (i.e., the arc-measuring method), is

spoken of

as geometrical

geodesy because

the structure of the earth's interior. tions on.

it does not consider Solely astronomical observa-

and triangulation along, the earth's surface give the

size

—

THE INFLUENCES OF SURFACE IRREGULARITIES UPON THE SHAPE OF THE GEOID Fig. 4.

GEODESY

one another directly either by triangulation or by some other method. When the arcs used in the determination of the dimensions of the earth are relatively short as compared with the radius of the earth, the error brought about by the deflections of the vertical at the end points of the arcs used can amount to hundreds of

Ellipsoid

-,

137

metres.

If,

for instance, the

vertical at the

unknown

relative deflection of the

end points of an arc 3 the radius of the earth

is

only

4", the error in the obtained radius of the earth will be not less

FIG.

5.

—

THE RELATIONSHIP OF MASS ANOMALIES AND GRAVITY ANOMALIES

ways perpendicular to the plumb line, the geoid under the mountains must be above the ellipsoid, and at the oceans it must be below the ellipsoid, if we assume that the mass surplus of the mountains and mass deficiency of the oceans are real and not isostatically compensated. Fig. 5 also shows that the invisible mass anomalies Aw,

+

or deficiency ( ), bring about the and the deflection comgravity anomalies Ag, geoid distances ponents ^ and T]. In these figures the quantities A'' and J as comsurplus

(-F-1--I-

pared with the

)

N

size of the earth

have been exaggerated greatly to

the picture more clear. In fact, the largest A''-values are less than 1 :64,ooo part of the radius (6,400,000 m.) of the earth, in other words, less than one inch on a sphere of one mile radius.

make

Vn. METHODS

PHYSICAL GEODESY

holds that the shape of the geoid can be determined if the gravity anomahes in the neighbourhood of the computation point are known rather well and those

around the world are known in broader terms. The Vening Meinesz formulas indicate that in this

of the geoid

,

(dotted line). the geoid is reference ellipsoid,

ellipsoid

under

AB, where the

gives too large a radius R^; arc

Through the

MENSIONS OF THE REFERENCE

mined accurately, considering the

the arc

is

to be converted

R-^',

is

above the

the correct value

is

el-

can be reduced and a better result achieved. The whole effect of the quantities |i, ^o ^-fd ^3, however, can be eliminated only if they are known and considered. Then both arcs AB and BC give the real radius R,, of the ellipsoid. To put it more mathematically, the curvature of the geoid along the measured arc is obtained instead of the curvature of the mathematical reference ellipsoid as is the case when the deflections of the vertical ^ are not known. The gravimetric method supplies these quantities ^.

98°

32'

in

30'.'506,

absolute deflections of the vertical at the end points of the arcs, if

D|.

LIPSOID

BC, where the geoid

gives too small a radius

lipsoid,

central angle

azimuth to Waldo 75° 28' 14''S2. Beginning at this initial point the latitude 4>, longitude X and azimuth A are computed geodetically along the chosen reference elUpsoid. The astronomical quantities (/)', X' and A' are referred to the geoid, the quantities (p, X and

(solid

—

arc

The

lation of the United States the initial point is Kansas, latitude 39° 13' 26r686; longitude

and the deflections of the vertical ^j, ^2 and ^3, it is easy to Fig. 6. THE RELATIONSHIP get wrong dimensions for the VERTICAL DEFLECTIONS AND

The

to be able to locahze the arcs at the right places on the ellipsoid to

initial

line)

earth

dimensions of the earth it is necessary not only to know the length of the yardsticks, but also

points cover large areas as in the United States, Europe, the U.S.S.R. or India, use of the area method is preferable. One of the astrogeodetic points of the triangulation will be chosen as the

putation of the radius of curvature of the earth. Because of the

N

As the examples show, in using measured arcs for checking the

—

case the deflection of the vertical

warping

are not used.

of the ellipsoid corresponding to the measured arcs must be deter-

The mathematical basis of physical geodesy is the Stokes' function, as set forth by Sir George Stokes in 1849, and its derivatives, developed by F. A. Vening Meinesz in 1928. The Stokes' function

—

meridian arc Cape Town-Tornio, the ^-component is —10" and at the northern end, about +2", neglect of these deflections will produce an error in the radius of the earth, computed by aid of this 100° long arc, of about 220 m. if other astrogeodetic points

be computed.

AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF

components also can be computed. Computations. Fig. 6 shows how the irregular form of the geoid will interfere in the com-

If longer measured arcs are available, the error than 372 m. caused by the neglected deflections of the vertical is smaller. If, for instance, in South Africa close to the southern end of the

8.-THE

RELATIONSHIP BEthe errors THE DEFLECTION OF THE tion crroTS. The larger VERTICAL ^ AT INITIAL POINT AND are, the greater is w; w = GEOID DISTANCES N means that the error is zero. FIG.

TVKEEN

:

;

GEODESY

138 If the undulation

Nn

at the initial point of the geodetic

or can be guessed, then the warping be computed with the aid of the obtained ^is

known

N

datum

of the geoid can

and

7?-values,

along

has sufficient astronomical points. If this is combined with the gravimetric method the A^-values can be interpolated even when only a few points are available. In checking the dimensions of the reference ellipsoid based on the arc-measuring chain,

if it

min, or ^rj- = min, or 2(?~ V'> = rnin. have been used, depending on whether the arc has been measured in the direction of the meridian, or perpendicular This method is accurate if the to it, or in some other direction. measured arcs are long, but not if they are short, or if the astrogeodetic points used cover an area where the real deflections of the For invertical are systematically either negative or positive. stance, in Europe the criterion 2(P i?^) = min cannot be used because the average value of J in that area is of the order -I-5" and the average r; of the order +2" to +s"The Gravimetric Method. The gravimetric method makes it possible to obtain essentially more accurate dimensions for the reference ellipsoid merely by making extremely accurate astronomical observations at or in the neighbourhood of the end points of the measured arc. In addition the deflections of the vertical components f „ and tjj, at both end points of the arc or close to them the arc measurements, the criteria 2?"

=

+

+

—

On

can be computed gravimetrically.

the other hand some arbi-

trary values have been chosen for the astrogeodetic deflection of the vertical

components J^ and r;„ (e.g., zero) at one end (initial) computed along the arc J^ and r/^ at the other The computed quantities ^3, r;^ depend on the refer-

point of the arc and

end point.

ence eUipsoid used, while J^, t]^ are nearly independent of it. If the differences (Jj,— tjo) and (rig—rta) at both end points of the arc are nearly equal, the reference ellipsoid used is correct. If there

a difference, say, of 10", the

is

ellipsoid

must be corrected

dimensions of the reference

so that this difference disappears.

Needless to say, if at, or close to, the end point of every measured arc accurate astronomical observations and the best local gravity survey have been carried out, these can be used for checking the dimensions of the earth. By the least square method the different measured arcs of this kind will give, together, the best correction to the equator value of the reference elUpsoid used. In the area method, of course, the same criterion is used. The astrogeodetic points to be used must be as far as possible from the initial point but not too close to the boundary of the gravimetrically surveyed areas. The detailed gravity field must be available, say, to 500

km. from the computation point

to get reli-

able gravimetric deflections of the vertical.

The

deflections of the vertical average less than 5"; the values

over 10" are exceptional.

They have been found

for the

most part

mountainous regions, and in quite a few cases on islands also, and even in lowlands where abnormally light or abnormally heavy disturbing layers are close to the computation point and to the earth's surface. For instance, in flat land in the neighbourhood of Moscow deflections of even 8" exist. Similarly in south Finland, in the Aland Islands, between Finland and Sweden, the deflection is 9", and close to Columbus, 0., also in level land, deflections of 10" have been found. Among the largest measured deflections of the vertical are the ^- and ?; -values found in the Puerto Rican area (43", according to D. Rice) and in certain of the British islands in the Pacific (54", according to William Kaula). The relative deflections of the vertical on the south and north coasts of these islands differ as much as about 50". When the distance between such stations is only about 50 mi., this distance, if computed from the astronomical co-ordinates, can have an error of i mi. or 1:50 of the whole distance. Since it is impossible to determine beforehand where the deflections of the vertical exist, it is impossible to use the astronomical co-ordinates as control points of any maps. If the gravimetric $g and jjg are known the astronomical quantities ', y and A' can be converted to the geodetic quantities 4>, X and r) from the formulas in

= = A = X

0'

— £» —

sec

(p

A' —rit tan

X'

7jg

values 4>, X and A give the distances and azimuths along the ellipsoid. This is the principle of the astrogravimetric method for determination of the co-ordinates of the control points. Another example of this principle concerns the western part of

The obtained

the boundary between the United States and Canada, which is the 49th parallel of latitude. For reasons of convenience this parallel

was defined astronomically, and the result showed that one boundis about 8" north of where a geodetic determination

ing station

it, and another station less than 100 mi. away is about 6" south. The greatest relative error between two adjacent stations is about 7" in a distance of 20 mi., which means an error in the direction from one station to the other, as inferred from the latitudes, of about 35 ft. per mile. When the quantities A^, |j and r)g are known they can be used to (i) compute the distances along the reference ellipsoid between the astronomic points where ^g and -qg have been computed; (2) convert the existing geodetic systems to a single world geodetic system; (3) obtain with greater accuracy the dimensions of the earth; (4) check the accuracy of superlong triangulation, which greatly needs checking, especially where the triangulation chains were measured under difficult conditions, e.g., the chain from Alaska to Chile; (5) reduce the geodetic base lines from the geoid to the ellipsoid; (6) compute the error caused by the deflections of the vertical at the triangulation points which in high mountains can be more than 2"; and (7) draft world maps for the geoid distances N, another set of world maps for the deflection of the vertical component Ij and a third set for r]g. These maps have an exceptionally practical geodetic significance; they are also important for geophysics since there is always

would have placed

a close relation between the A^, ^g structure of the earth.

By

and

Tj^-values

and the internal

the 1960s several areas, including large parts of the United

Canada and South had been so well covered by gravity station nets that rehable The enorvalues, particularly for ^g and -qg could be obtained. mous progress in this respect was possible because of the following: (i) the invention of very fast, accurate gravimeters which can in three minutes measure a gravity value with 20 to 50 times more accuracy than had been possible to get in two days with pendulum observations; (2) the invention of the Vening Meinesz pendulum States, Europe, India, the U.S.S.R., Argentina,

Africa,

apparatus for gravity observations at sea; (3

)

the invention of the

underwater gravimeter for measuring gravity in the shallow shelf areas which cover about 7% of the ocean areas; (4) the interest of the oil companies in carrying out detailed gravity surveys for exploration purposes and universities conducting surveys for scientific

purposes.

Vni.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS USED IN GEODESY

For longitude observations in the astronomical part of geodesy the transit instrument has been in general use for a long time. Those used at mid-2oth century ordinarily were provided with a self-recording micrometer and were used in conjunction with a

For latitude determination the same transit, with and the zenith telescope iq.v.) are used almost uniFor determination of azimuth and triangulation angles,

chronograph.

broken

axis,

versally.

modern theodolite is used; this instrument is more accurate than the ordinary surveyor's theodolite but does not differ essentially. In addition, accurate chronometers, crystal clocks and radio receivers are needed for measuring the observation time and taking time signals. The accuracy of the astronomical observations, if the

observations are

made on two

or three nights at the

same

point,

The are of the order o''i5 in latitude and o''20 in longitude. standard error of the measurement of one angle in triangulation varies between

0'.'3

and

2'.'5

in different countries.

Bars and rods were used earlier for the base-Hne measurements but they were inconvenient. The measurement went slowly and the accuracy was not high regardless of how carefully the observations were made. By mid-20th century bases were measured with tapes or wires made from invar alloy. The coefficient of the temperature expansion of invar is so small (of the order io~^/°C.) that the temperature need not be determined with high accuracy. The wires and tapes must be calibrated before and after the field

GEODESY at the standard base lines described

That can best be done

work.

In principle, the instruments for precise leveling are the same as the usual engineering leveling instruments but are, of course, much more accurate. The development of geodesy as a science closely followed the development of geodetic instruments, as the instruments became handier, more accurate and more rapid, the geodetic observations became more accurate and more convenient. In modern physical geodesy gravity observations are of basic significance, therefore gravimetric measuring instruments and methods are most important. Gravimetric observations are either In absolute measurement it is necessary to absolute or relative. measure the actual gravity that exists at the observation point. In the relative observation it is necessary to measure only the difference or ratio between the gravity go at the base station and the

gravity g at the field stations. When the base-station gravity g,, known, the difference (g -go) or ratio g/go will give the gravity g at the field stations. Pendulum Apparatus. Until about 1935 the pendulum ap-

is

—

paratus was used almost exclusively in gravity observations. Its principle is simple. If the length / and period T of the pendulum can be measured the gravity g can be obtained from the formula is

relatively easy to determine, but the

measurement of the

In addition the length / varies with temperature and other atmospheric conditions. Therefore, absolute gravity observations at one point take many months, and in spite of the utmost care the accuracy is relatively low, rarely more than 3 to 4 mgal. (in geophysics unit g has been length of the

named

As the Vening Meinesz pendulum opened the oceans to gravibegan a new era in the gravity survey of the continents. Oil companies, universities and geodetic institutes around the world were competing to carry out regional and local gravity surveys that by the latter 1950s covered an essential part of the continental surfaces. Gravimeters, however, must be calibrated, preferably at the base stations, by measuring them several times by an accurate pendulum. Gravimeters considered best for geodetic purposes (Worden, Norgaard gravimeters) have large range (as great as 5,000 mgal.), high accuracy and small weight. Gravity observations throughout the world can be used for computing geoid distances and deflections of the vertical only if they all refer to the same world gravimetric system, regardless of which system it is. Until the latter 1950s all gravity anomaUes were computed by the Potsdam system. The absolute gravity observations of this system were done at Pendulum hall, Potsdam, Ger., in 1900-03. The observed gravity value was g = 98i,274 gal. which,

nietric survey, gravimeters

earlier.

T

139

pendulum

/

involves difficulties.

the "gal" [after Galileo];

i

milligal [mgal.]

=0.001

gal

=

In relative gravity observations it is necessary to measure only the period T of the pendulum at the base station and the field stations, assuming that / has not changed between the observations. The formula, g:go= To^iTS, gives the gravity g if Tf, and T have been measured at the base and field

according to later observations, appeared to be about 1 5 mgal. too high. The error did no harm since the value is used to obtain gravity differences in the formula, Ag = g — 7. If g is 15 mgal. too large, then 7 is also 15 mgal. too large and Ag remains the same. Gravity values can be best changed to the same system if scientists use the same type of gravimeters and air transportation and carry out gravity observations at national gravity-base stations. Such a conversion was made over a ten-year period (1947-57), Particularly by the University of Wisconsin group under G. P. Woollard. This group occupied more than 3,000 base stations all over the world and integrated the essential part of the gravity data with the world gravimetric system, in most cases with an accuracy higher than i mgal.

o.ooi cm. /sec. /sec).

stations

and go

is

known.

Pendulum apparatus needs

stable support in order to give the

In the Netherlands, where the land is not stable, Vening Meinesz, after running into difficulties in his gravity measurements, developed in 1923 a pendulum apparatus that could be used not only there but on the oceans as well. Two pendulums of equal length are allowed to swing in the same vertical plane but in different phase angles. By the use of a certain hypobest observational results.

pendulum, the phase of which at any instant is the difference betw-een the phases of the two pendulums at that instant, the disturbing effect of the horizontal acceleration of the support can be eliminated. When the apparatus was supported in gimbals in a submarine 30 to 50 m. below sea level, it was possible to eliminate the effect of the horizontal acceleration of the submarine and so to measure gravity on the open sea. The accuracy of these observations is of the order 2 to 3 mgal. or sufficient for thorough studies of thetical

the oceans, particularly since the east-west velocity of the vessel which is not known accurately because of the ocean currents can

cause an error (Eotvos effect

)

of 3 to 4 mgal.

Vening Meinesz measured about 900 stations along different oceans. Later, British, French, Soviet, Italian and Spanish scienHowever, the greater part of tists continued these observations. the sea observations between 1945 and 1955 were carried out by Columbia university. New York, under the leadership of W. MauMore than 4,000 ocean rice Ewing and John Lamar Worzel. points were observed. Gravity surveys at sea are of basic significance from the geodetic point of view, since without them no application of the Stokes or the Vening Meinesz formulas to geodetic purposes would be possible. Gravimeters. Pendulum observations take much time and the results are not very accurate; therefore, various types of gravimeters were devised in the different countries, particularly in the U.S. They are ingenious instruments, working essentially on the principle of the spring balance, and are so accurate that in a few minutes the gravity difference can be read with an accuracy of 0.02 mgal., which is 50 times higher than that obtained earlier by pendulum observations of two days.

—

IX.

ISOSTASY

The mountains, valleys and oceans make it apparent that the earth is not in hydrostatic equihbrium. But the earth is, in broad terms, in isostatic equilibrium in that, beginning from a certain depth in the earth's interior, the surface units are under the same pressure whether they are beneath mountain, lowland or ocean. The depth of the uppermost surfaces is known as the depth of compensation and

this

type of equilibrium

is

called isostasy, at the

This suggestion of the U.S. geologist, C. E. Dutton, in 1889. isostatic equilibrium is only possible if the mountains are not absolute mass surplus areas nor the oceans absolute mass deficiency areas. In other words, the mean density of the earth's crust must be smaller under the mountains, and larger under the oceans than under the lowlands. The man who first glimpsed the idea of isostatic equilibrium was Leonardo da Vinci, that many-sided genius of the Renaissance Pierre Bouguer and R. J. Boscovich came to the same conera. clusion much later (iSth century). The principle of isostatic equilibrium was, however, developed in a scientific sense in India, where triangulation with astronomical observations was carried out close to the Himalayan mountains before 1850. The difference between latitudes computed geodetically and observed astronomically at the same point was smaller than the mass surplus of the mountains of Asia would indicate. The observed difference of the deflection of the vertical at the Kaliana and Kalianpur stations was only S'.'24 but the value computed from the topographic masses was 15'.'88. Therefore, J. H. Pratt in 1854 surmised that the mean density of the crust under the mountains of Asia must be smaller than in the lowlands to compensate the attraction of the mass of the mountains of Asia to the plumb-line direction. The astronomer G. B. Airy came to a similar conclusion in 1855, although he explained the isostatic equilibrium in a different way. Pratt's isostatic assumption was that mountains rose from the subcrustal area after the manner of fermenting dough, the density of which would be smaller as it rose higher. Airy, on the contrary, reasoned that the high mountains of Asia had sunk in the substratum and would float as timber or icebergs float. The smaller density of the earth's crust under the mountains would, according to Pratt, compensate the effect of the topographic masses and cause the equihbrium. According to Airy the light root formations of the mountains have the same effect.

—

GEODESY

140

Pratt contended that if the earth were completely fluid, no mountains or valleys or ocean basins would be possible. But as the earth's crust began to form and gradually grow thicker, contractions and expansions might have taken place in some of its parts which would depress and elevate corresponding areas of the surface. Airy thought that there could be no other support than that afforded by the downward projection of a portion of the earth's light crust into the denser lava; and that this downward projection was of an extent to balance the projection above the lava; in much the same manner, when logs float upon the water and the upper surface of one is observed to be higher than that of the others, one assumes that its lower surface lies lower in the water

than does that of the other logs. The isostatic assumptions of Pratt and Airy were completely contradictory; although both were able to explain the discrepancy between the observed and the computed deflections of the vertical

and gravity anomalies on the basis of the topography. Both theories have found defenders. The ideas of Pratt were developed in detail by the U.S. scientists, J. F. Hayford and William Bowie. According to them the compensation is complete and local, i.e., every mountain, hill, valley and island is isostatically compensated, however large or small it may be. This assumption was used for practical reasons to make the mathematical computations as simHayford and Bowie computed needed formulas ple as possible. and tables for the topographic isostatic correction of the deflections of the vertical and gravity anomalies corresponding to different values of the depth of compensation, D. Every different value of

as 100 or 200 km. hori(1931 and 1940) the needed tables for this regional theory according to different T- (normal thickness of the earth's crust) and /^-values. Therefore by the the Pratt-Hayford, the Airy1950s three different systems Heiskanen and the Vening Meinesz existed for the isostatic study

cal) at the observation points.

(and deflections of the verti-

When computing

different sets of

gravity anomalies, corresponding to different values D,

it

is

pos-

which Z>-value is closest to the real structure of the earth's interior. Computations along these lines carried out by different scientists showed that D is close to 100 km. In geodetic computations the value 11 3.7 km. obtained by Hayford has been sible to discuss

used.

He computed

zontal distance R.

—

—

of the earth's structure.

on the basis of gravity material of different and oceans have shown that 85% to 90% of the mass deficiency of the oceans and mass surplus of the high mountains is isostatically compensated. Isostatic equilibrium is the rule. Areas such as small ocean islands, the belts of negative gravity anomahes and the postglacial land uplift regions where the isostatic equilibrium is not complete are exceptions. Since isostatic Isostatic studies

countries, continents

equilibrium prevails the geoid distances A^ are rather small. Under the leadership of Heiskanen and under the contract of the Cambridge Research centre of the U.S. air force, the geoid com-

puted in 1951-57 at Ohio State university on the basis of large gravity material of 35 countries revealed that the A^-values seldom exceed ±50 m. Without the isostatic compensation A'' would in some cases even exceed 1,000 m., making the geoid studies more

(W. A. Hn.)

diflicult.

—

D renders different gravity anomalies

much

horizontal direction as well, to as

X.

VARIATION OF LATITUDE

The astronomical latitude of every observation point is variable, caused by a displacement of the axis of rotation in the body of the earth. There is in every body, however irregular in shape, an axis of figure, the axis about which the moment of inertia is a maximum. If for any reason the axis of figure and the axis of rotation do not coincide, the pole of the axis of rotation will describe in the body a closed curve about the pole of the axis figure. For a nearly spherical body like the earth, the axis of rotation wiU retain in space a nearly invariable direction.

The

body was by Leonhard Euler. With Euler's theorems in mind astronomers sought to detect by observation a possible variation first

general rule of variations for a rigid rotating

stated (1744)

From

the geophysical point of view, the Pratt-Hayford assump-

seem suitable; therefore, W. A. Heiskanen made a computations (1924, 1931 and 1938) based on Airy's assumption. Heiskanen's method rendered for the normal thickness of the earth's crust an average value close to 30 km. Of course, according to the Airy-Heiskanen system, the actual thickness, T, of the earth's crust is the function of the topography. The higher the topography, the deeper is the root formation; the deeper the ocean, the thicker is the antiroot of heavy material under the ocean (see fig. 9). The light root formation (density

but succeeded only in reaching the conclusion that

tion did not

in latitude,

series of

any such existed, it must be small. Finally about 1881, S. C. Chandler undertook a careful study apart from any preconceived theory, basing it both on observations of his own and a study of old records, notably those of Greenwich observatory. At about the same time, the reality of a change in latitude due to a motion of the pole was proved by simultaneous latitude observations in Berlin, Ger., and Honolulu, Hawaii, places differing in longitude by almost 180°. It was found that an increase in latitude in one oc-

if

curred simultaneously with an approximately equal decrease at the other. This could not have resulted from local conditions or

from incorrect

star locations, but

of the pole of rotation

which

in

must have been due

to a

motion

approaching one place receded

from the other. Chandler found that the motion of the pole of rotation about the pole of figure required about 14 months, whereas Euler's theory had led astronomers to expect a lo-month period. Simon Newcomb's explanation, published in 1895, showed that Euler's theory was based on an ideal body absolutely unyielding and unchangeFig.

».

The principle of isostatic compensation

2.67) compensates the mass surplus of the mountains and the heavy antiroot (density 3.27) compensates the mass deficiency of

the ocean. Using the density difference 0.6, the real thickness of the earth's crust is 5.5 km. greater for every kilometre of mountain elevation and 3.7 km. less under the oceans for every kilometre of ocean depth. In this way, the underboundary of the earth's crust, also called the Mohorovicic discontinuity, is in a way an exaggerated mirror picture of the real topography. For practical reasons it has been assumed in both theories that compensation is complete and local, but in fact, this is not so. Small hills or tiny valleys or islands cannot be in complete isostatic equilibrium. Therefore, Vening Meinesz developed the theory of

regional isostatic compensation. This modification of Airy's flotation theory claims that every topographical feature has an isostatic effect not only in the vertical direction under it but in the

able in shape, a thing unknown in nature. The elastic yielding of the earth and the mobility of the ocean water lengthen the period from 10 months to 14. There is also a motion of the pole of ro-

body of the earth because the pole of figure itself undergoes a displacement due to seasonal variations in barometric pressure, snow load, etc. The period of these seasonal changes is obviously one year. The amplitudes of both the annual and the 14-month variations are of the order of magnitude of C.'l. The quantities sought are small and difficult to measure, but it appears that both components of the polar motion are subject to unpredictable changes. Since the maximum deviation of the pole from its mean position is about 0'.'3, which is small in comparison with the usual deflections of the vertical, the reduction of the observed astronomical latitudes to some more or less conventional mean value is not a vital matter (It should be noted that the motion in ordinary geodetic work. The interest of of the pole affects longitudes and azimuths also.) tation in the

GEOFFREY

F. A. Vening Meinesz, Gravity Observations at Sea, vol. (1923-48), "A Formula Expressing the Deflection of the Plumb ," Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. v. Wet. Line in the Gravity Anomalies (1927), and "Tables for Regional and Local Isostatic Reduction (Airy System) for Gravity Values," Publ. Netherl. Geod. Comm. (1941). Textbooks: G. Bomford, Geodesy (1952) William Bowie, Isostasy F. A. Vening Meinesz and W. A. Heiskanen, Earth and Its (1927) Gravity Field (1957). Monthly Serial Publications: Bulletin geodesique (1922 et seq.) Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Geophysical Supplement (1922 et seq.) Travaux de la Section de giodhie de I'Union geodesique {1922); V erhandlungen der Internaet geophysique Internationale (W. A. Hn.) tionalen Erdmessung (various dates to 1914). no. 18 (1948)

the subject is more on the astronomical and geophysical side. The International Geodetic association in 1899 organized an International Latitude service with six special latitude observa-

on parallel 39° 08'; three have remained in continuous The advantage of having them in the same latitude is that all may use the same stars and uncertainties in the star places do not affect the conclusions. The observations may in fact be used to correct the star places. operation.

;

;

;

;

INTERNATIONAL GEODETIC ORGANIZATIONS

In 1862 the Central European Geodetic association (Mitteleuropdische Gradmessung) was organized on the initiative of Gen. Johann Baeyer of Prussia. Its first general conference was held

GEOFFREY

1S64 with representatives of 13 states or countries, many of states later united into the German empire. General conferences at intervals of three years were arranged, with a perma-

them German

Gradmessung). England and the United States were represented at the general conference in 1883 at which matters of world-wide interest, such as a common prime meridian and an international time system, were discussed. In 1886 the name International Geodetic association {Internationale Erdmessung) was chosen to indicate a convention was still wider scope, and a definite international adopted providing for contributions from the member nations. F. R. Helmert, director of the Geodetic institute at Potsdam, Ger., exerted a powerful and beneficent influence on the work of the association (Europdische

at

The headquarters, or bureau, of the The outbreak of World War

Potsdam.

Geophysical union consists of seven semi-independent tions, the largest of which, the International Association of Geodesy, took over the work of the former International Geodetic The work of the International Latitude service was association. taken over jointly by the section of geodesy and the International Astronomical union, since the subject was of interest to both organizations. The general assembly of the union meets every three years.

the initiative of

I.

Bonsdorff the Baltic Geodetic commission

1924 at Helsinki, Fin. It included representatives of eight nations bordering on the Baltic sea and dealt with geodetic problems of common interest to them. The triangulation carried out by this commission around the Baltic sea is extremely in

accurate, the closure error of this nearly 3,000-km.-long triangulation being only 2.5

m. or

1

:

any earlier (W. D. La.)

1,200,000, unparalleled in

studies.

See also International Geophysical Year.

—

Bibliography. International Association of Geodesy, Bibliographte Geodesique Internationale, vol. i-vii (1928-51). History: G. B. Airy, "On the Computation of the Effect of the Attraction of Mountain Masses as Disturbing the Apparent Astronomical Latitude of Stations in Geodetic Surveys," Phil. Trans. B. 145, (1855) J. H. Pratt, "On the Attraction of the Himalaya Mountains and of the Elevated Regions Beyond Upon Plumb-Line in India," ibid. (1855) G. G. Stokes, "Variation of Gravity and the Surface of the Earth," ;

also resembled his father in having to atone for great misdeeds; hence his foundation of the abbeys of La Trinite in Vendome 1028) and of L'Esviere in Angers (1040). He died at Angers on Nov. 14, 1060. He had repudiated Agnes (c. 1050) and left no children, so that Anjou passed to the elder of his nephews, Geoffrey (

the Bearded. See C. Port, Dictionnaire historique, giographique de Maine-et-Loire, 3 vol. (1874-78),; L. Halphen, Le au XI' siecle (1906).

Phil. Trans., 8:672

(184Q). General: William Bowie, Investigations of Gravity and Isostasy C. E. Dutton, "On Some of the Greater Problems of Physical (191 7) Geology," Bull. Wash. Phil. Soc, B. 11 (1889) J. F. Hayford, The Figure of the Earth and Isostasy (igog), and Supplementary Investigation in igog of the Figure of the Earth and Isostasy (1910) J. F. ;

;

;

Hayford and William Bowie, The Effect of Topography and Isostatic Compensation Upon the Intensity of Gravity (1910) W. A. Heiskanen, ;

"New on I

Isostatic Tables for the Reduction of Gravity Values Calculated the Basis of Airy's Hypothesis," Publ. isostat. int. Ass. Geod. of

AG,

2 (193S), and "On the World Geodetic System," ibid., no. 39 W. D. Lambert and F. W. Darling; "Tables for Determining the

no.

(1951)

;

Form

of the Geoid and its Indirect Effect on Gravity," U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, spec. publ. no. 199 (1936) L. Tanni, "On the Continental Undulations of the Geoid," Publ. isostat. int. Ass. Geod., ;

et

biographique

Comte

d' Anjou

(J- Le.)

GEOFFREY

Plantagenet (1113-1151), count of Anjou from 1129 and the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings of England, was born on Aug. 24, 1113, the son of Fulk V the Young of Anjou (see Fulk, king of Jerusalem) and of Eremburge de la Fleche, heiress of Maine. He was called le Bel because of his good looks and Plantagenet allegedly because he wore a sprig of broom (geOn June 17, 1128, at Le Mans, he nista or genet) in his helmet. was married to Matilda (g.v.), daughter of Henry I of England and widow of the Holy Roman emperor Henry V. In 1 1 2 9 he took over the government of Anjou, Maine and Touraine when his father went to Palestine to marry the heiress of Jerusalem. Subsequently he had to undertake a long struggle to secure part of his wife's inheritance against Stephen of Blois and Eustace IV of Boulogne, but he eventually triumphed over these rivals and was crowned duke of Normandy at Rouen in 1144. He also had to suppress risings by malcontent Angevin nobles. Geoffrey died on Sept. 7, 1151, and was buried in the cathedral at Le Mans, where a splendid plaque of champleve enamel from his tomb is still preserved. By his marriage with Matilda he had three sons: Henry, the future Henry II (g.v.) of England; Geoffrey (1134-57); and William (1136-63).

—

;

Cambridge

On

V

He

prevented the

associa-

On

(Guilhem)

policy of expansion over neighbouring lordships. His victory at Nouy (Aug. 21, 1044) gave the Angevins possession of Touraine; and from about 1048 he succeeded annexing a large part of Maine.

holding of the general conference planned for 19 15, leaving that of 1912 in Hamburg the last held by the organization. In igig the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics was organized at Brussels, Belg., in connection with the newly created International Research council. The International Geodetic and

was established

of William

for the fiefs of Loudunois and Saintonge, so that Fulk had to take up arms for Wilham. Continually troublesome, Geoffrey even tried to take possession of Anjou during Fulk's last pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but on his return Fulk finally forced him to make peace, pardoning him only after great humiliation (1039). Having succeeded Fulk in 1040, Geoffrey pursued his father's

association reI

Anjou from

of

Jan. 1, 1032, he married Agnes, the Great, duke of Aquitaine. In the interests of her children by William the Great, Geoffrey then attacked the latter's son by an earlier marriage, William the Fat, who had succeeded to Aquitaine and who was Fulk Nerra's suzerain Geoffrey's half-sister Adela.

widow

nent committee directing the affairs of the organization between conferences. At the next conference (1S67) in recognition of a widening scope, the name was changed to European Geodetic as-

mained

Martel (1006-1060), count

1040, was born on Oct. 14, 1006, the son of Fulk {q.v.) Nerra and Hildegarde of Lorraine. During his father's lifetime he was recognized as suzerain by Fulk the Gosling, count of Vendome, son of

in

sociation.

;

i-iv

tories, all

XI.

141

Bibliography. C. Port, Dictionnaire historique, giographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire, i vol. (1874-78) K. Norgate, England Under the Angevin Kings, vol. i (1887) L. Halphen and R. Poupardin B. Chartrou, L' Anjou de (eds.), Chroniques des comtes d' Anjou (1913) (J- Le.) 1109 a 1151 (1928). (1158-1 186), duke of Brittany and earl of Rich;

;

;

GEOFFREY

fourth, but third surviving, son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born on Sept. 23, 1158. In 1166, in furtherance of his father's policy of extending and consolidating Angevin power in France, he was betrothed to Constance, daughter

mond,

and heir of Conan IV, duke of Brittany. At the same time, Duke Conan was forced to surrender to Henry II for Geoffrey's use the whole duchy of Brittany except the county of Guingamp. Geoffrey received the homage of the Breton nobles in 1169, and in 1173 he

GEOFFREY—GEOFFRIN

142 joined the rebellion against

Henry

II led

by

his eldest brother,

Henry, the "Young King," and supported by the rulers of France, Scotland and Flanders. He submitted to his father at Michaelmas, 1174, and was sent back to Brittany, where he proceeded to recover lost ducal estates and subdue rebelUous barons. He and Constance were married in 1181. From then until his death he fought against both his brother Richard and his father (toward whom he behaved atrociously), largely for possession of Anjou. In 1185 he issued an "assize" at Rennes regularizing the succession to military He died about Aug. 19, 1186, at Paris, either of fiefs in Brittany. illness or in a tournament, lea\ing a daughter, Eleanor, and a posthumous son, Arthur I, (G. W. S. B,) of Monmouth (d, 1155), medieval chronicler and, later, bishop of St, Asaph, whose major work, the Historia regitm Bntan?nae, brought the figure of Arthur iq.v.) into European literature. In three passages of the Historia regiim Britanniae, Geoffrey describes himself as "Galfridus Monemutensis," and since there is no evidence that he had any ecclesiastical con-

GEOFFREY

nections with

Monmouth,

the use of the epithet

is

almost certainly

due to the fact that he originally came from this town. Because of his partiaUty toward the Bretons and the fact that his father's name was apparently Arturus (a name used at that period among the Bretons but not among the Welsh), it has been inferred that he was of Breton descent. He appears as witness to a number of documents relating to the monastic establishments of Osney and Godstow in Oxford during the period 1129-51, sometimes in conjunction with Walter, the archdeacon of Oxford, In 1 151, he appears in a Godstow document as "bishop of St. Asaph," although his consecration did not take place until February, Walter was described by a contemporary as an "outstanding rhetorician," and Geoffrey alleges that the Historia was translated from a "very old book in the British tongue" brought by Walter from Brittany, This statement seems a pure fabrication, but it is clear that Geoffrey was for most of his Ufe an Oxford cleric, closely connected with Walter the archdeacon and sharing with him a taste for letters. It has been plausibly conjectured that he was an Augustinian canon in the secular college of St. George, Oxford, of which Walter was provost. He appears as a witness in a document of 1153, and this is the last record of him. The Welsh chronicles allege that he died in 1155. The signature used by Geoffrey in the Oxford documents "Gal:

fridus Arturus," suggests that his father's

name was Arthur, but

was chaplain to Robert, count of Flanand brother of Uchtryd, archdeacon and later bishop of Llandaff, together with the further assertion that Uchtryd provided Geoffrey with his early education, is derived from the Gwentian Brut, a document which seems to have been largely forged by lolo Morganwg (1746-1826), and which, even if it were the view that this Arthur ders,

genuine, could not be earlier than the 16th century. The Historia regitm Britanniae was pubhshed at

and

Uther Pendragon, leads up to the account of Ar-

his brother

thur's conquests, the culminating point of the work.

After Arthur,

the fortunes of the Britons dechne, until finally in the reign of Cadwallader the land is devastated by a great plague and the king

emigrate to Armorica, leaving the land conquered by the Saxons, In Armorica, Cadwallader receives the divine command to go to Rome and enter reUgion and The Britons will eventually it is foretold that he will die a saint. return to Britain after long ages, bearing with them the relics of Cadwallader, Chapters 106-111 introduce the prophet Merlin who predicts, in an obscure and apocalyptic manner, the future political history of Britain. These chapters were first published separately, before 1136, and dedicated to Alexander, bishop of Lincoln. They gave rise to the genre of political prophecies attributed to Merlin, which enjoyed an enormous vogue in the middle ages. At some unascertained date, but probably between the end of 1148 and the beginning of 1151, Geoffrey produced a poem in ornate Latin hexameters, the Vita Merlini, which portrays a Merlin w'hose adventures are based on genuine Celtic material about a madman with a gift for divination and which ends with a highly classicized account of Avalon (q.v.). Denounced from the first by sober historians hke William of Newburgh (q.v.), Geoffrey's fictional histor>' nevertheless had an enormous influence on later chroniclers. Romanticized versions in the vernacular, the so-called Bruts (see Wage and Layamon), were in circulation from c. 1150, Writers of the later middle ages such as Ranulf Higden, Robert Fabyan. Raphael Hohnshed (gq.v.), Warner (Albion's England, 1586) and Michael Drayton (Polyolbion, 1613-22) gave the material a wide currency; and indeed Geoffrey's influence grew as the middle ages waned, and was at its greatest after the accession of the Tudors, It provided themes for writers in the 17th and ISth centuries, although in the 19th, under the influence of the romantic revival, Kterary artists generally abandoned "the British kings" and turned to such frankly romantic authorities as Sir Thomas Malory (q.v.) and French prose romance tradition (see Arthurian Legend) for their themes and treat-

and

his surviving subjects

to be

ment of ancient

British legend.

—The

Historia and the Vita Merlini are edited in of E. Faral's La legende arthiirienne (1929). Other editions of the Historia are those by .A. Griscom (1929) and J. Hammer, Historia There is an English regitm Britanniae: a Variant Version (1951). translation of the Historia by L. Paton, History of the Kings of Britain, Everyman Series (1912), and a separate edition of the Vita Merlini by

Bibliography.

vol.

iii

Parry (1925). The best short study is by J. J. Parry and R. A. Caldwell, in The History of Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, pp. 72-93 (1959). See also E. Faral, La legende arthurienne, vol. ii (1920); J. S. P. Tatlock, The Legendary History of Britain (1950), For biography see J. E, Lloyd, in the English Historical Review, vol, On the Merlin prophecies see P. Zumthor, Ivii, pp, 460-468 (1942), Merlin le prophete (1943) on the v-ariant version published by Hammer see R. A. Caldwell in Bulletin Bibliographiqite de la Societi Arthurienne, 9 (1957) Caldwell reeards this version simply as an early draft. On the later fortunes of the Historia see R. H. Fletcher, The Arthurian Material in the Chronicles (1906) and Roberta F. Brinkley, (F, Wh,) Arthurian Literature in the 17th Century (1932), J. J.

;

some date between the death of Henry I of England (Dec, 1135) and Jan, 1139, when Henry of Huntingdon saw "the great book of Geoffrey Arthur" at the abbey of Le Bee, It was one of the most popular books of the middle ages, although its historical value is almost nil. For its influence on later writers see Arthurian Legend; Layamon; Merlin; Wage, Robert. The work, based on the so-called chronicle of Nennius and a certain amount of native Welsh tradition, the latter freely handled and grossly distorted, owes much to classical models, while the history of Israel, as recounted in the Old Testament, seems clearly to have influenced the general plan. The story begins with the settlement of Britain by Brutus, the great-grandson of Aeneas the Trojan, and by another Trojan, Corineus, the eponjTnous founder of Cornwall, The giants inhabiting Britain are exterminated by these two, Corineus destroying Goemagol (Gogmagog), Then follow the reigns of the early kings down to the Roman conquest here are found such famous episodes as those of Locrin and Sabrina mentioned in Milton's masque Camus), the founding of Bath by Bladud. of :

(

;

GEOFFREY

1320), French chronicler and was probably born in Paris, of a middle-class family, and is said to have written La Chronique metrique de Philippe le Bel, or Chronique rimee. This work, numbering 7,924 Hnes. concerns the history of France from 1300 to 1316; it deals harshly with the king's counselors and even with the king himself. Geoffrey also wrote a number of poems, notably "Les Avisements pour le ray Lays." The Chronique was pubhshed by A. Buchon in his Collection des Chroniques, tome ix 1827) it has also been printed in the Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France and republished, with(M, Pac.) textual notes, by A, Diverres (1956),

of Paris

(d.

c.

clerk of the royal administration,

(

;

GEOFFRIN, MARIE THERESE 1777), a

Frenchwoman who played

Rodet)

(1699French literde Tencin, was born

(nee

a leading part in

Mme

ary and

artistic

by Leir (Lear), and the division of Leir's kingdom between the two ungrateful daughters. The story of the Saxon in-

in Paris

on June

during the reign of the wicked usurper Vortigern, of the successful resistance to the Saxons by Vortimer, and of the restoration of the rightful line, followed by the great reigns of Aurelius

died in 1750, In her salon, rue Saint-Honore, she received persons of high quality, but it was not till 1 748 that she became a power in Parisian

Leicester filtration

Hfe after the death of She married, on July 19, 1713, Pierre 2, 1699,

Fran(;ois Geoffrin. a rich

the national guard,

who

manufacturer and heutenant colonel of

GEOFFROY—GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE

At the beginning of the winter of 1792 he returned to his studies and in March of the following year Daubenton, through the interest of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, procured him the office of subkeeper and assistant demonstrator of the Cabinet d'Histoire Naturelle du Roi, vacant by the resignation of B. G. E. Lacepede. By a law passed in June 1793, Geoffroy was appointed one of the 12 professors of the newly constituted Museum National d'Histoire

two dinners a week, one on Monday for other artists, and one on Wednesday for the encyclopaedists and men of letters. Her friends included D'Alembert, Marmontel (who lived in the same house) Morellet, La Harpe and Stanislaus Poniasociety and started her

in Paris,

,

She received many foreigners of distinction, David Hume and Horace Walpole among others. Walpole spent much time in her society before he was finally attached to Mme du Deffand, and She speaks of her in his letters as a model of common sense. towski.

was an experienced hostess,

Naturelle, being assigned the chair of zoology.

in effective control of discussion, yet

only intervening in the general conversation when necessary with witty anecdotes, maxims or bons mots. She was both mother and mentor to her guests, many of whom were indebted to her generosity for substantial help. Although her aim appears to have been to have the Encyclopidie in conversation and action around her, her advanced views did not prevent her from observing the forms of religion, and she was extremely displeased with any of her

who

incurred open disgrace. Geoffrin rarely left the city, so that in 1766 at the age of 67 to visit the king, Her exStanislaus Poniatowski, was a great event in her life. periences induced a sensible gratitude that she had been born "Prangaise" and "particuliere." She died in Paris on Oct. 6, 1777. friends

A

devoted Parisian, her journey to Poland

Mme

—

Bibliography. Correspondance inedite du roi Stanislas Auguste Poniatowski et de Madame Geoffrin, ed. by the comte de Mouy (1875) P. de Segur, Le Royaume de la rue Saint-Honore, Madame Geoffrin et A. Tornezy, Un Bureau d'esprit au XVIIT siecle: le sa tille (1897) Janet Aldis, Madame Geoffrin, Her salon de Madame Geoffrin (1895) Salon and Her Times, 1750-1777, 2d ed., (1906) E. Pilon, Le salon de Madame Geoffrin et le sentimentalisme philosophique (1904); Helen Clergne, The Salon: a Study of French Society and Personalities in the (R- Ni.) Eighteenth Century (1907). ;

;

;

;

GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRAN9OIS

(1672-1731), French chemist, whose name is best known in connection with his tables of affinities (tables des rapports), which he presented to the French Academy in 1718and 1720. Born in Paris on Feb. 13, 1672, he was first an apothecary and afterward practised medicine. After studying at Montpellier he accompanied Marshal Tallard on his embassy to London in 1698 and thence traveled to Holland and Returning to Paris he became professor of chemistry at Italy. the Jardin du Roi and of pharmacy and medicine at the College de France, and dean of the faculty of medicine. on Jan. 6, 1731.

He

died in Paris

prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents, and they retained their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the profounder conceptions introduced by C. L. Berthollet. Another of his papers dealt with the delusions of the philosopher's stone, but nevertheless he believed that iron could be artificially formed in the combustion of vegetable matter. Geoffrey's Tractatus de materia medica, published posthumously

The

in

1

tables of affinities

were

lists,

In the same year

he began a menagerie there. In 1794 through the introduction of A. H. Tessier he entered into correspondence with Georges Cuvier. After Cuvier's appointment as assistant at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, he and Geoffroy wrote five memoirs on natural history, one of which, on the classification of mammals, puts forward the idea of the subordination of characters upon which Cuvier based his zoological system. It was in a paper on lemurs entitled "Histoire des Maids,

ou singes de Madagascar," written in 1795, that Geoffroy first gave expression to his \'iews on "the unity of organic composition," the influence of which is perceptible in all his subsequent writings; nature, he observes, has only one plan of construction, the same in principle, but varied in its accessory parts. In 1798 Geoffroy was a member of Napoleon's military-scien-

expedition to Egypt, and on the fall of Alexandria to the British in Aug. 1801, he took part in resisting the British claim Eariy in Jan. 1802 Geoffroy to the collections of the expedition. tific

returned to his usual work in Paris. He was elected a member In March of the of the Academie des Sciences in Sept. 1807. following year the emperor selected him to obtain collections from the museums of Portugal, and in the face of considerable oppo-

from the British he eventually was successful in retaining In 1809, the year after the collections permanently for France. his return to France, he was made professor of zoology at the sition

Faculty of Sciences at Paris, and from that period devoted himmore exclusively than before to anatomical study. In 1818 he published the first part of his celebrated Philosophie anatomigue, the second volume of which (1822), and subsequent memoirs account for the formation of monstrosities on the principle self

of arrest of development, and of the attraction of similar parts. When, in 1830, (Geoffroy proceeded to apply to the invertebrates his views as to the unity of animal composition, he found a vigorous in Georges Cuvier, and the discussion between them, continued up to the time of the death of the latter, soon attracted Geoffroy, a synthe attention of scientists throughout Europe. thesist, contended, in accordance with his theory of unity of plan

opponent

composition, that all animals are formed of the same elements, in the same number, and with the same connections; homologous parts, however they differ in form and size, must remain associated in the same invariable order. He held that if one organ takes on an excess of development, it is at the expense of some other part; and he maintained that, since nature takes no in organic

leaps, even organs that are superfluous in any given species, they have played an important part in other species of the same family, are retained as rudiments testifying to the permanence of the general plan of creation. It was his conviction that, owing to the conditions of life, the same forms had not been perpetuated

sudden

74 1, was long celebrated.

younger (1685-1752), was also an apothecary and chemist who, having a considerable knowledge of botany, devoted himself especially to His brother Claude Joseph, known

143

as Geoffroy the

the study of the essential oils in plants.

GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ETIENNE

(17721844), French naturalist whose law of compensation, or balancing of growth, had much influence on contemporary thought, was born He was originally at fitampes, Seine-et-Oise, on April 15, 1772. intended for the church, and studied natural philosophy under M. J. Brisson at the College de Navarre in Paris. In 1788 he obtained a canonry of the chapter of Ste. Croix at fitampes, and also a benefice. His preference, however, was for science, so he took up residence at the College du Cardinal Lemoine in Paris, where he studied law and became the pupil and friend of the mineralogist abbe R. J. Haiiy. Taking his law degree in 1790, Geoffroy began medical studies under A. F. de Fourcroy at the Jardin du Roi and His studies were L. J. M. Daubenton at the College de France. interrupted in Aug. 1792 when Haiiy and all the professors of the College du Cardinal Lemoine and of the College de Navarre were arrested by the Revolutionists as priests. Geoffroy had some harrowing experiences when he attempted to save their Uves.

if

since the origin of existing species are

all

things, although

becoming modified.

it

was not

Cuvier,

his belief that

who was an

ana-

observer of facts, admitted only the prevalence of "laws of coexistence" or "harmony" in animal organs, and maintained the absolute invariability of species, which he declared had been created with a regard to the circumstances in which they were lytical

placed, each organ contrived with a view to the function it had to the fulfill, thus putting, in Geoffroy's consideration, the effect for In July 1840 Geoffroy became blind. He resigned his cause. 1844. chair at the museum in 1841, and died at Paris on June 19, SaintSee Vie, travaux, et doctrine scientifique d'Etienne Geoffroy Hilaire, par son fih M. Isidore Geoffroy Sainl-Hilaire (1847), to which is appended a list of Geoffroy's works.

GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ISIDORE

(180S-

1861), French zoologist distinguished for his work on anatomical abnormalities in man and animals, was a son of fitienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (9.1;.), born on Dec. 16, 1805, at the Jardin des

—

GEOGRAPHY

144 Plantes, Paris, where he spent

most of

In 1824 he joined his father at the

d'Histoire Naturelle

as assistant naturalist, and after taking his M.D. in 1829 taught zoology at the Athenee from 1830 to 1833, The end of his first year's course was interrupted by the outbreak of the July revolution, with fighting close to the Jardin des Plantes in the street that bears his family name. He was elected a member of the Academie des Sciences, Paris, in 1S33, and in 1837 acted as deputy for his father at the Faculte des Sciences, Paris; the following year he was sent to Bordeaux to organize a similar faculty there. Subse-

quently he became successively inspector of the Academy of Paris (1840); professor at the museum (1841); a member of the royal council for public instruction (1845); and in 1850 professor of zoology in the Faculte des Sciences, Paris.

He

took an active interest in general natural history, teratology

and applied zoology, and wrote numerous memoirs in various scientific publications. He died in Paris on Nov. 10. 1S61. His more important works include Histoire generale et particuliere des anomalies de I'organisation cliez I'liomvie et les animaitx,

Essais de zoologie geiierale 1840) Vie ( 1832 di.tienne Geogroy Saint-Hilaire (1847); and Histoire naturelle generate des regnes organiques, three volumes (1854-60). See R, Knox, Great Artists and Great Anatomists (1852). (Ed. He.)

three volumes

)

{

;

GEOGRAPHY (ARTICLES

ON). The

:

.

.

.

nature of geog-

discussed in Geogr.^phv. which surveys the histOPv- of geographical exploration; the geographical theories of the ancients: the work of such pioneers of scientific geography

raphy as a discipline

is

Humboldt and Ritter; the fields of professional specialization won general recognition, and the deviant theories. As Geography explains, the scope of the subject is so broad that

as

that have

it

many topics that constitute the core of other disMany articles written by specialists in these separate

touches on

ciplines.

surveys the history and techniques of map making, from world of the ancients to the various types of cartographiThe reader interested in modern maps cal projection now in use. of distribution will find examples in such articles as Climate and Climatology; Ocean and Oceanography; Tides; Tropical

Map

his life.

Museum

the

flat

Storm.

Among are

GEOGRAPHY.

main sections: I.

II.

Introduction Progress of Geographic Exploration A. Mediterranean Region 1. Egyptians and Phoenicians

B.

For example, Europe in its section on physical geography mentions the Paris basin, the broad lowland crossed by the Seine river; a section of France is devoted to the geography of the Paris basin; Paris of detail increases as the size of the area diminishes.

C.

Natural Resources,

2.

Greeks

3.

Romans

Norsemen Asian and African Land Journeys

D. Opening of the Oceans 1. Portuguese 2. Spanish 3. \'oyages by Other Europeans E. Search lor the Southland

gives additional detail.

fishing industry, discussed in a subdivision of

Monroe Doctrine; Land Re-

form. Geopolitics describes an application of political geography that is generally regarded by geographers as pseudoscientific, but has had a powerful impact on the contemporary world. The science of ecology, which investigates the relationship of plants, animals and human beings to their environment, has made These are discussed in significant contributions to geography. Population Ecology; Ecology, Animal; Ecology, Human; a section of Plants and Plant Science; and sections on human ecology in Sociology and Anthropology, The relationship between geography and ethnology in various areas of the world is discussed in Races of Mankind, A historical perspective on this subject is presented in Migration, which traces the origin of the connection between various racial groups and the lands with which they are now identified. Comparative population figures for U.S. cities are given in tables in the state articles. Readers interested in a specific area or aspect of geography should first consult the Index, which provides information on material throughout the set. Another useful tool is the .Atlas section in the Index volume, with its own index. This article is divided into the following

areas of study thus have implications of a geographic nature. In the articles on continents and their subdivisions, the degree

The geographical areas of a general nature to which articles are devoted include .\rctic. The; Ant.'^rctica; Pacific Islands; Melanesia; Polynesia; etc. Articles on oceans, mountains, rivers, lakes, marshes, grasslands, etc., offer additional perspectives. There are also articles on various geographical terms Atlas; Delta; Desert; Latitlde and Longitltje; etc., and biographies of geographers, explorers and travelers who have contributed to geographic knowledge. The article Natural Resources gives a world survey, in terms of natural regions, of vegetation, soil, animal products, water supply and minerals. This broad picture is supplemented by separate articles on major raw materials and industries. For example, the

the articles on various aspects of political geography

Spheres of Influence;

F. Exploration of the Pacific III.

Completing the Continental Outlines A. The .\rctic B. Antarctic Exploration C. Inner .\sia D. Africa E. Australia F. The .\mericas

rV. Problems of Measurement V. Development of Geographic Concepts 1. Geographic Ideas of the Greeks 2. Ideas of the Romans 3.

Muslim Geographers

4.

Revival of 16th-18th Centuries

Kant Humboldt and Ritter VI. Geography .\fter Humboldt and Ritter A. The Main Stream: Geography as Chorographic Science 5. 6.

is

represented also by the article Fisheries. Regional distribution of basic materials is analyzed in articles

on the continents and in such articles as Petroleum; Iron and Steel Industry; Wheat; Cotton; Forests and Forestry; etc. Commerce, History of analyzes the relationship between factors of geography and commerce. Trade. International emphasizes contemporary problems and data. There are also articles on Shipping Routes and Trade Routes. Zoogeography divides the world into zoological regions and traces, in text and maps, the spread of animals throughout the world in the course of the evolutionary process. Population geography is discussed in the articles on nations, In the fields of urban and states, cities, etc.. and in Population, settlement geography, articles of special interest are

ciology;

Among

Urban

So-

City Planning; Regional Planning,

may

be of interest to the student of military geography, in addition to the articles on wars, battles and campaigns, are Mountain Warfare; Intelligence, Military and Political; Strategy. the articles that

1.

2.

3.

French Tradition of Regional Studies 20lh-Century Developments Surveys and Inventories

Spatial Interchange From the Main Stream 1. Science of Relationships 2. Study of Landscape 3. Geopolitics Geography in the 20th Century h. Scope B. Subdivisions of Geography 4.

B. Deviants

VH.

1.

2.

3.

Population Geography Settlement Geography

Urban Geography Geography Economic Geography Physical Geography

4. Political 5.

6. 7.

Biogeography

8.

Military Geography

9.

Techniques of Geographic Study Cartography

10.

GEOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION

I.

which the characteristics Geography is It is of particular places on the earth's surface are examined. concerned with the arrangement of things and with the associations of things that distinguish one area from another. It is concerned with the connections and movements between areas. The that field of learning in

face of the earth is made up of many different kinds of features, each the momentary result of an ongoing process. A process is a sequence of changes, systematically related as in a chain of cause and effect. There are physical and chemical processes developing the forms of the land surface, the shapes of the ocean basins,

the differing characteristics of water and climate. There are biotic processes by which plants and animals spread over the earth in complex areal relation to the physical features and to each other. And there are economic, social and political processes by which mankind occupies the world's lands. As a result of all these processes the face of the earth is marked geography seeks to interpret the significance of likenesses

off into distinctive areas;

and

dif-

places in terms of causes and consequences. In ancient and medieval times geographers could do no more than identify and describe the features that gave distinctive char-

ferences

among

Writers of geography, to be sure, speculated regarding cause and effect processes, sometimes with amazing insight. They made the first attempts to measure things and to place them on maps. During the great age of exploration which began about 1500, the methods of mapping were greatly acter to different countries.

the continental outlines were plotted with everincreasing accuracy; the rivers appeared in more and more detail; the positions of mountain ranges were established by survey rather

developed:

than guesswork. Furnished with all these new data, geographers about the middle of the i8th century started to define broadly homogeneous regions in terms of physical make-up, or in what

were conceived to be the major characteristic associations of plants and animals, or in terms of the economic Ufe, or in terms of the political organization of national territories. As man's understanding of the world increased, more and more attention was given to systematic studies that is, to those features ;

that were systematically related to each other because they

were

Geography has sometimes been the result of a single process. called the mother of sciences, since many fields of learning that started with observations of the actual face of the earth turned to the study of specific processes wherever they might be located. These new disciplines were defined by the subjects they investigated. Some of the processes at work on the surface of the earth,

notably the physical and chemical ones, were reproduced under laboratory conditions where they could be examined in isolation

from the environments of particular

places.

From

these studies

there resulted a great increase in the understanding of cause and effect relations, and numerous fundamental principles were formulated to describe the ideal or theoretical sequences of change.

In

the biotic processes were examined under controlled conditions, and such important concepts were developed as those a similar

way

of evolution

and natural

selection.

The

social sciences, too,

have

sought to understand the theoretical sequences of economic, social and political change as these sequences were presumed to go on when isolated from the disturbing circumstances of actual places. Since the so-called cultural processes could not be isolated in laboratories, they were isolated symbolically by such phrases as "other things being equal."

Modern geography

starts with the understandings

provided by

Unlike these other fields, geography cannot be defined by its subject matter, for anything that is unevenly distributed over the surface of the earth can be examined profitRather geography is a point of ably by geographical methods. view, a system of procedures. It makes three kinds of contribution to understanding: (i) it extends the findings of the systemthe systematic sciences.

by observing the differences between the theoretical operation of a process and the actual operation as modified by the conditions of the total environment of a particular place; (2) it

atic sciences

provides a method of testing the validity of concepts developed by the systematic sciences; and (3) it provides a realistic analysis of the conditions of particular places and so aids in the clarifica-

145

tion of the issues involved in all kinds of policy decisions. Obviously a large amount of geographic work is done by persons not identified professionally as geographers. Scholars in the vari-

ous systematic fields do not fail to concern themselves with the applications of their theoretical understandings to the study of conditions in particular situations, and such applications usually involve geographic work. When an economist examines the eco-

nomic conditions of a country and prescribes remedial measures designed to provide for more production, he is involved in part with the geographic point of view. When a businessman studies the advantages or disadvantages of a specific location for his factory or his retail store, or when he plans for the more efficient operation of a system of transportation or of a marketing organization, he is working in part with geographic data. Professional geographers can offer certain concepts and methods derived from experience in the analysis of the significance of areal differences on the earth. They play a role similar to that of the professional historian. Many persons who are not historians write accounts of the sequences of events that are called history; but such persons would be severely criticized if they failed to make expert use of historical method. Professional geographers encourage nongeographers to apply geographic concepts and to make use

condemn the inexpert much work of a geoother fields, by businessmen

of acceptable geographic method, but they use of concepts or method. Unfortunately

is done by scholars in and engineers, in a way that reveals an ignorance of the concepts of modern geography and that makes crude and imprecise use of (P- E. J.) geographic method.

graphic nature

II.

PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION

Exploration, in one form or another, has always been a major concern of geography. Geographic exploration was started long before the beginning of recorded history. As eariy as it was possible to communicate ideas or experiences, some of these ideas must have been concerned with the nature of the face of the earth, the human habitat. Even if the purpose was to describe the characterisrics and arrangement of hunting grounds, or the strange things observed in distant lands, the result was geography of a sort. At first the chief effort was to gather and present facts about places; later the effort was organized around systems of facts, groups of facts related to single processes. Geography was concerned also with the perfecting of methods for selecting and measuring facts. The first phases of this work have been completed: no part of the earth today can be said to be completely unknown; of in no part of a map can the cartographer safely draw pictures Martian monsters or spouting whales. But knowledge of places There are vast areas of the earth that are is a relative matter. not mapped precisely, and the characteristics of many areas are not sufficiently well known to provide a basis for making practical

application of geography. The new exploration is no longer concerned with continental outlines; rather it is concerned with filling in those outlines with precise detail relevant to the economic, social, pohtical or military problems with which mankind is faced.

A.

Mediterranean Region

Geographic exploration, insofar as its record has been handed as a part of the stream of occidental culture, had its beginnings in the Mediterranean. Even the names Europe, Asia and Africa were first applied to the three shores of the eastern Mediterranean, later to be extended as the geographic horizons were

down

widened. 1.

Egyptians and Phoenicians.

—The Egyptians had explored

and conquered large tracts of land before the 14th century B.C., both southward up the Nile and northeastward to the borders of Assyria; but the first seagoing explorers seem to have been the Phoenicians, who made Sidon a commercial port as eariy as 1400 The merchant advenB.C. and later raised Tyre to equal fame. turers of Tyre and Sidon explored the whole coast of the Mediterranean, founding the colony of Carthage before 800 B.C. They and other colonizers on the shores of the Iberian peninsula sailed northward along the Atlantic coast, probably trading with Cornwall for tin, and to the south, going far along the west coast of

-

GEOGRAPHY

146 Africa.

With

the support of

Egypt they traded also on the Red and ivory, probably on the coast

sea, reaching lands yielding gold

of Africa or Arabia.

It is

probable that they also reached India

from the Red sea. Herodotus heard in Egypt that in the days of King Necho (600 B.C.) a Phoenician fleet, sent from the Red sea southward along the African coast, had returned to Egypt by the Pillars of Hercules. Herodotus was the earhest of the Greek travelers to give a full and trustworthy narrative of his peregrinations in Asia as far as Persia, in Egypt and north Africa, on the Black sea coasts as far as the Caucasus, and in Italy {c. 464-447 B.C.). 2. Greeks. The maritime trade of the Greek city-states and their colonies became more important than that of the Phoenicians soon after the 5th century B.C. Greek ships sailed beyond the Mediterranean, opening up the Black sea on the east and the borders of

—

the Atlantic on the west.

Massilia (on the site of the

modem

Marseilles) was a colony of Greeks from Phocaea, and thence a voyage of great importance was made by Pytheas about 330 B.C. His own narrative is lost and the facts have to be gathered from references by Strabo 300 years later to criticisms of the voyage in lost books of the Greek geographers. Pytheas was probably the first navigator to fix the position of the lands he reached by crude astronomical observations, and he seems to have been a keen observer of places and people. He coasted the Bay of Biscay and the east of Britain as far as Orkney, where he heard a report of Thule, a more northern land, and a confused hint of the arctic region. On a later voyage he coasted along the east side of the North sea and probably entered the Baltic. During the same years the conquests of Alexander the Great opened to the Greek world a knowledge of the continent of Asia as far as the northern plain of India, and his general Nearchus conducted a fleet from the mouth of the Indus to the Persian gulf. This was the first voyage in the Indian ocean to be described in a manner comparable with the record of the land journey of Xenophon a century earlier, when, after the death of Cyrus, he led the 10,000 from Mesopotamia across the plateau of Armenia to the Black sea. In the following centuries the Ptolemies, Greek kings of Egypt, encouraged exploration, and about 115 B.C. Eudoxus of Cyzicus under their auspices explored the Arabian sea; he planned to circumnavigate

Africa but could not get support for so daring a project. 3. Romans. The rise and extension of the Roman empire involved scouting expeditions before and surveys after the conquest of each province of the lands bordering on the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia and Africa. Conquering generals described the tribes they subdued and the regions they occupied, and Julius Caesar

—

won renown as a writer no less than as a fighter. Each province of the empire was bound to Rome by the causeways which still form the skeleton of the road map of Europe. Pliny and Seneca say that Nero (about a.d. 60) sent two centurions to follow up the Nile from Egypt,

and they were stopped by great marshes, probably those of the Sudan, about latitude 19° N. The practical advantages of discovery appealed to the Roman mentality more powerfully than did the abstract theories which fascinated the Greeks; for example, Hippalus, who, about a.d. 79, learned from the Arabs of the regular seasonal changes of the monsoons, made these winds strvt him as the means of establishing a trade route between the Red sea and India across the open ocean, whereas earlier navigators had had to hug the coast. Trade along this route continued to develop, and a century later Pausanias makes it appear

communication had even been opened up with China. In the time of Justinian (483-565) two Nestorian monks made the journey from Constantinople overland to China and on their return introduced the first silkworms into the Mediterranean lands. After the fall of the Roman empire and the incursion of barbarians from the north, a wave of Arab domination surged over the Asiatic and African provinces and swept far into the southern peninsulas of Europe. The geographical learning of the Greeks and Romans enshrined in the writings of Ptolemy of Alexandria (fl. A.D. 150) passed to the Arabs and was forgotten in Christian Europe, where the conception of the globe degenerated to that of that direct

a

disk with Jerusalem at the centre.

The Arabs trading with and the east coast of Africa acquired a sound knowledge of the Indian ocean and a fair idea of the interior of Africa flat

India, China

before the year 1000. Among the well-known geographical writers of this period were Abu Zaid, al-Masudi, Istakhri and Idrisi. B.

Norsemen

Meanwhile the Norsemen from the fjords of Scandinavia were harrying the coasts of northern Europe and even making their way into the Mediterranean. Othar of Helgeland discovered the North cape and, rounding it, proceeded as far as the White sea in the middle of the 9th century. Later he visited the court of Alfred the Great, and it was the English king who first reduced. to writing the discoveries of the earliest polar explorer

and introduced to summer. Late in the 9th century Iceland was colonized from Norway, and in 982 Eric the

literature the midnight sun of the arctic

Red, sailing westward, discovered Greenland; soon afterward his son Leif Ericson, sailing thence to the southwest, came on a new

which he named Vinland, and was thus the reach America. land,

C.

first

European

to

Asian and African Land Journeys

The domination of central Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific by the Mongol emperors made very long overland journeys practicable at the close of the middle ages, and Venetian merchants had thus estabUshed contact with China before Marco Polo set out in

271 for Cambaluc (approximate site of modern Peking), the capiof Kublai Khan. The story of his 17 years' sojourn in the far east and of his journeyings by land and sea in central Asia, China, the Malay archipelago and India was the greatest work on travel of the middle ages, and for the first time it made the venerable 1

tal

civilization

and the

rich products of the orient familiar to the peo-

Many

ple of Europe.

of his statements were derided by contemporaries, but his substantial veracity and rem.arkable powers of observation have been vindicated by modern travelers and

Missionaries, whose activity increased as that of the crusaders diminished, pushed far afield in Asia, and their records contain some grains of geographical value among a vast quantity of superstitious and ignorant chaff. One only need be mentioned here. Friar Odoric of Pordenone, who, early in the 14th century,

students.

Malay

visited India, the

was the

European

archipelago, China and Tibet, where he

to enter

Lhasa, not yet a forbidden city. Ibn Batutah, was the greatest of the Arabian travelers who left accounts of their journeys. Between 1325 and 1355 he explored Arabia and Persia and spent eight years in the service of the Mogul ruler of Delhi, going on to China and the Malay archipelago. He also visited the East African coast as far south as Mombasa and Kilwa and crossed the desert from the Red sea to Syene on the Nile; finally he explored West Africa by land, reaching Tombouctou (Timbuktu) and the Niger. Many travelers in the early part of the 15th century made notable journeys throughout the mainland of Asia and the eastern archipelago, impelled by the growing demand for the silks, spices and other valuable products of the tropics. From Spain Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo journeyed to the court of Timur at Samarkand; from Italy Niccolo de' Conti later in the century spent 25 years in the far east, reaching China, Java and Sumatra. first

A Muslim contemporary,

D. Opening of the Oceans

Long voyages

out of sight of land began in the 15th century

compass had become general. As had been prepared to guide navigators from port to port, and they were quite accurate with regard to the Mediterranean coasts. But whereas latitude could be measured with fair accuracy by the use of the astrolabe, the measurement of longitude remained a matter of guesswork. The first voyages into the open oceans originated in Portugal and after the use of the magnetic

early as the 13th century portolano charts

Spain.

Portuguese

—A

large amount of geographical data was colby Prince Henry the Navigator, and under his auspices the earliest great voyages were undertaken. The first objective of the Portuguese was the exploration of the African coast, with the hope that eventually a way would be found to reach India by sea. The Azores, 800 mi. out in the open Atlantic, were rediscovered and settled in 1432, while successive expeditions stimu1.

lected in Portugal

GEOGRAPHY by the prince crept by degrees along the Sahara coast to the fertile lands beyond; in 1462, after his death, they reached Sierra Leone and a few years later explored the whole Guinea coast. Then discovery became rapid. In 1481 the equator was crossed, in 1482 Diogo Cam passed the mouth of the Congo, and in 1488 Bartholomeu Diaz de Novaes, by a splendid effort, fetched a wide sweep far out of sight of land and reached Mossel bay. In returning he saw the southern point of Africa and named the Cape This was the greatest landmark in the history of exof Storms. lated

of Portugal, seeing the wealth of the Indies within his grasp, changed the name to Cape of Good Hope, and Vasco da Gama (g.v.) realized the hope in 1498 by sailing round the cape to the Arab port of Mombasa, whence with the aid of ploration.

The king

Luis local pilots he reached India and fulfilled the dream of ages. Vaz de Camoes, who himself made the voyage half a century later, celebrated the achievement in his epic poem, Os Lusiadas. Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli as early as 1474 had 2. Spanish. pointed out from Ptolemy's maps that the east coast of Asia might be reached more easily by sailing due west than by going south and Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa then east and north. who had much experience of navigating the Atlantic and had sailed to Iceland, became possessed with the idea of making this voyage. He spent many years in the endeavour to find a patron, and in 1492 had almost persuaded the king of England and the king of Spain to embark on the enterprise; the king of England hesitated the longer, and Columbus with Spanish ships made an easy passage from the Azores to the islands which he named the West Indies.

—

Following a suggestion of the pope, a meridian line running north and south through the middle of the Atlantic was fixed by treaty between Spain and Portugal, the former country agreeing to restrict exploration to the western hemisphere so marked out and the Columbus, after other latter country to the eastern hemisphere. voyages to the West Indies, died in 1506 in the belief that he had reached the islands off the coast of Asia. The merchants of Bristol had often sent their ships several weeks' sail to the westward into the Atlantic in search of legendary islands; in 1497 John Cabot, no doubt inspired by the success of Columbus, persevered until he found the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, thus repeating the old Norse discovery of North America and, though the quest was not then pursued, pegging out a claim to England's oldest colony. The companions of Columbus continued to cruise among the West Indies and quickly traced out the shores of the Spanish Main to the south, and the hmits of the Caribbean sea to west and north. In 1513 Vasco Nufiez de Balboa caught the first glimpse of an inaccessible ocean to the west from "a peak in Darien" and recognized that Asia was still far off. In 1500 Vicente Pinzon, sent from Spain to explore the coast southward from the Orinoco, first sighted land near Pernambuco and, following it northward round Cape Sao Roque, discovered the mouth of the Amazon. His shipmate Amerigo Vespucci, a clever man who took part in several voyages of discovery, described this voyage, and by a curious chance his Christian name in its latinized form was attached forever to the continents of America. By making a westward sweep in a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, Pedro Alvares Cabral lit on the coast of Brazil in the same year. The Spaniards, realizing that America was a solid obstacle between Europe and Asia, pushed forward to discover a passage to the south. In 1516 Juan Diaz de Solis reached the Rio de la Plata, which seemed to offer a way through. Four years later Ferdinand Magellan showed that it was only an estuary, and, proceeding southward, he found and passed through the tortuous strait which Persevering bears his name, so piercing the barrier of America. in face of every difficulty which could befall an explorer, he pushed on across the incredible breadth of the Pacific. Although he met his death in the Philippine Islands in 1521, his ship the "Vittoria" under Juan Sebastian del Cano with a handful of sur\'ivors returned to Spain in 1522 by the Cape of Good Hope after the first Among his rewards Del Cano received the circumnavigation. world as his crest with the proud motto Primus circumdidisti me. 3. Voyages by Other Europeans. The Spanish and Portuguese between them soon completed the rough outlines of Africa and the two Americas. But the 16th century saw their maritime

—

147

power challenged by the enterprise of France, England and the Netherlands, whose sailors disregarded alike papal bulls and private agreements between Spain and Portugal. These other Europeans established their claim to a share in the new world and in the sea French fishermen following in the track of routes to the east. Cabot early began to frequent the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and the king of France in 1524 sent out Giovanni da Verrazano, a Florentine, who explored the coast of North America between the lands discovered by Cabot in the north and by the Spaniards in the south. He found no way through, and ten years later a French expedition under Jacques Cartier set out to search the Gulf of St. for a way to the far east. In a second voyage in 1535 Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence to the present site of Montreal and, although only the name of Lachine rapids remains of this attempt to reach China that way, he spent two years in the effort

Lawrence

French colony of Canada. I saw a wave of enthusiasm for discovery sweep over England, rousing sailors, soldiers, merchants, parsons, philosophers, poets and politicians to vie with each other in promoting expeditions overseas for the glory of their country and The gallants of the court were ever their own fame and profit. ready to command the expeditions for which the shrewd City merchants found the means, while quiet scholars like Richard Hakluyt to start the

Queen Elizabeth

promoted the work by recording the great deeds of eariier as well Hakluyt's The Principall Navigaas contemporary adventurers. and, tions, first published in 1589., is to this day delightful reading, supplemented by Hakluytiis Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes, published in 1625, forms the only record of many great expedi-

On the continent similar compilations such as those of the Giovanni Battista Ramusio (1583-1613) and the splendidly played illustrated Dutch volumes of Theodore de Bry (1590-1634) tions.

Italian

a similar stimulating part.

In England as elsewhere at

first

the

object was to find a westward route to the far east. Richard Chanfarther cellor tried for a northeast passage, and though he got no opened up and Moscow land to on by went sea he White than the direct trade with Russia, leading to the formation of the Muscovy company, the first of many chartered companies for exploration

and trade. In 1576 Martin Frobisher made a spirited attempt to find a northwest passage to China and reached the coast of Labrador at its northern extremity. John Davis, one of the greatest arctic explorers of all time, took up the quest in 1585, and in successive years he navigated the broad strait which bears his name to 72° N., finding open sea to the northward and hope of an ultimate passage westward. Francis Drake, setting out to trace a route from the other side, made the second circumnavigation of the world in 1577-80, He passed the Strait of Magellan, after which he was blown southward to 56° S., and satisfied himself that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans met south of Tierra del Fuego. Drake pro-

ceeded northward and explored the Pacific coast of North America to 48° in vain search of a passage to the east. Eventually he returned by the Philippines and the Cape of Good Hope. Thomas Cavendish repeated this voyage in 1586-88, adding to the confidence with which long voyages were undertaken, and Richard Hawkins, though less fortunate, again showed the English flag in the Pacific before the end of the century.

Walter Raleigh, Humphrey Gilbert and many more took part in Queen exploring the North American Atlantic coast, and in 1600 which Elizabeth I granted a charter to the East India company, way for the initiated direct trade with India and prepared the Spanish exploration from the Pacific British empire in the east. partly no ports of Spain's American possessions was renewed, Alvaro In discoveries. 1567 English anticipate to order in doubt Mendana de Neyra, sailing from Callao, crossed the Pacific and de in discovered the Solomon Islands. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa Magellan of Strait the surveyed and Callao from 1579 went south what with a view to fortifying it and so holding for the Spaniards

The Dutch they then supposed to be the only entry to the Pacific. made many attempts to find a northern passage to China in the Willem Barents, after discoverlast decade of the i6th century. on the north coast of Novaya icebound was ing Spitsbergen, Zemlya, and after wintering there made a heroic journey by boat along the coast, on which he died; his crew returned safely in 1597.

GEOGRAPHY

148

In the 17th century the search for a northern passage to the far still went on. The work of Davis was followed by that of Henr>- Hudson, who in 1607 reached a latitude of 81° N. in the Spitsbergen region; in 1610 he discovered the inland sea now east

known

as Hudson bay. William Baffin came later, reaching about 77° 45' N. in 1616 and naming Smith sound to the north of the great bay called after him at the end of Davis strait. A charter for the Hudson's Bay company was granted in 1670.

Search for the Southland

E.

A

belief in a southern continent surrounding the pole and extending into middle and even low latitudes had found expression

on maps since the time of the early Greek geographers. Magellan believed that Tierra del Fuego was a part of this great land mass. Many explorers were drawn by the magnet of this illusion into the unknown parts of the great oceans. Pedro Fernandez de Quiros and Luis Vaez de Torres were sent out in 1605 by the viceroy of Peru to take possession of the supposed southern continent; on reaching the New Hebrides Quiros believed he had gained his goal and took possession with great ceremony of "Australia del Espiritu Santo," the first appearance of the name "Australia" on the map. In returning Torres passed through the strait which bears his name, discovering the northern end of Austraha and exploring part of the coast of

New

Guinea.

The great period of Dutch voyages began with the formation of the Dutch East India company in 1602, though Dutch merchant adventurers, sailing by the Cape of Good Hope, were active on the coast of Japan by 1600 and soon after were successful rivals to the Portuguese already established in India and the Malay archipelago. The company in 16 14 determined to find a way into the Pacific south of the Strait of

Magellan and sent out Jacob Lemaire "Eendracht" and Willem Schouten in the "Hoom." These ships passed south of Tierra del Fuego, proving that it was not part in the

of a southern continent,

named

Staten

Land

(not recognizing

it

as

an island) and saw and named Cape Horn on Jan. 29, 1616. Lemaire and Schouten crossed the Pacific, sailed along the north coast of New Guinea and reached the Moluccas. Other Dutch mariners working from the north discovered the west coast of Australia, still supposed to be a projection of a vast southern continent. Dirk Hartog reaching 26° S. on that coast in 1616. Antonio van Diemen, governor of the Netherlands Indies, resolved in 1642 to explore the coast of the southern continent and sent Abel Janszoon Tasman to carry out the task. Tasman's voyage was the greatest, contribution to exploration since Magellan. He sailed westward across the Indian ocean to Mauritius, then in a great sweep southward and eastward he came on high land which he named after Van Diemen, though it is now known as Tasmania. Sailing farther east he came on the west coast of another lofty land which he named Staten Land, believing it to be part of the southern continent continuous with Schouten's Staten Land off South America. It was really New Zealand. He sailed on to the Fiji Islands and returned along the north coast of New Britain and New Guinea to Batavia. In 1644 he went out again with three ships, when he explored in some detail the south coast of New Guinea and the north and west coasts of Austraha, which he called New Holland. In 1699 William Dampier, a noted buccaneer in his early days, made an important voyage in H.M.S. "Roebuck" along the west and north of Australia and the north of New Guinea, rediscovering and naming New Britain. His voyages were remarkable for his extraordinarily keen observations of natural

phenomena; ploration.

in some respects he was the pioneer of scientific The Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen in 1721 and

Frenchman

J.

ex-

the

Bouvet de Lozier in 1739 set out expressly to discover and annex the southland, and the latter took an ice-clad islet of the South Atlantic to be part of it. B. C.

F.

Exploration of the Pacific

By

the middle of the 18th century the methods of navigation had greatly improved, and the introduction of the quadrant gave

new

precision to determinations of latitude. The great bugbear of long voyages was scurvy (q.v.), supposed to be an inevitable result of life on board the small craft of those days and often fatal to the

larger part of the crew.

In the second half of the i8th century geographers in Europe secured a more systematic system of exploration in which adventure, though still encountered, was subordinated to research. Already in the first year of the century the astronomer Edmund Halley had been sent in command of a British warship to the South Atlantic in order to study the variation of the compass. In 1764 John Byron was sent on a circumnavigation voyage for discovery. On his return a larger expedition was dispatched under Samuel Wallis and Philip Carteret; it was absent from 1766 to 1769, discovering Tahiti and many other islands in the Pacific. A French expedition under L. A. de Bougainville followed, and for half a century there was keen rivalry between France and Great Britain in the Pacific. scientific

A new

era in exploration, which raised British maritime enter-

prise to a unique place in the eyes of the world,

was introduced with the three great voyages of James Cook. The first of these voyages, from 1768 to 1771, was undertaken in part to observe the transit of Venus of 1769 from a suitable place in the Pacific. This mission was carried out and much more was accomphshed. Many island groups in the Pacific were discovered. New Zealand was

from the southland, and much of the east coast of Australia was surveyed with amazing accuracy. It was on Cook's second voyage of 1772 to 1775 that the chronometer was

identified as separate

first used, which for the first time permitted the accurate determination of longitude. Cook sailed far to the south of the Antarctic circle and proved beyond doubt that habitable land did not exist to the south of the known continents. Perhaps the greatest result of this voyage, however, was the proof that scurvy was preventable by proper diet. The third voyage, started in 1776, had the objective of seeking a northern passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Cook surveyed the northern part of the Pacific coast of North America and, after passing through Bering strait, pushed northward to 70° N., where he was stopped by ice. In these three voyages Cook not only had sailed completely around the world but had covered more than 140° of latitude. On retiring to Hawaii for the winter Cook was killed by natives in 1779. Cook's voyage around the antarctic continent was supplemented by a great Russian expedition under Fabian von Bellingshausen in 1819-21, and by a group of hardy American and British sealers

in the first third of the 19th century, chief among them James Weddell, who in 1823 reached 74° 15' S. in the sea named after him, and John Biscoe, who in 1831-32 made a complete circum-

navigation, discovering the most southerly land so far known. Port Jackson, the present Sydney, was founded as the first settlement in Austraha in 1788, and the coasts were explored by such

daring boat travelers as Matthew Fhnders and George Bass, the latter proving that Tasmania was an island in 1798. Cook was followed on the west coast of North America in 1792-94 by

George Vancouver, who extended northward from Cape Mendocino the work of Spanish explorers and made exact surveys along the coast. The French expedition of J. F. de Galaup, comte de la Perouse, in two ships spent the years 1785 to 1788 in crossing and recrossing the widest part of the Pacific the expedition never returned, and many efforts were made to discover its fate, the most extensive being that made by A. R. J. de Bruni, chevalier ;

d'Entrecasteaux in 1791-93.

lU.

COMPLETING THE CONTINENTAL OUTLINES

The 18th century saw

the completion of the great task of outUning the continental shores. Even those of the Arctic ocean had been traced out by Russian travelers such as Vitus Bering (by birth a Dane), Semen Dezhnev and S. Chelyuskin, whose name remains on the most northerly cape of the old world. The Spaniards had made known the broad lines of the geography of South America, Central America and the southern part of North America, the central and northern portions of which had been penetrated in all directions by French and British pioneers. The interior of Australia remained totally unknown, as were the arctic regions north of 80° N. and the antarctic south of the polar circle. In the old world Asia had been traversed in all directions, although large areas remained unvisited between the trade routes and the tracks of explorers. China was mapped by Jesuit missionaries in

GEOGRAPHY of India the early years of the century, and the accurate mapping was under way before its close. Africa was the least known of the despaircontinents, and the French geographer J. B. B. d'Anville, tradition ing of reconciling the conflicting accounts drawn from and the stories of Arab traders, who had undoubtedly penetrated which had far into the interior, swept the map clear of all features

not been seen by European travelers and left a blank of "unexplored territory" within the coast line from Morocco and Abyssinia on the north to Cape Colony and Natal on the south. James Bruce explored the Blue Nile from its source in Abyssinia to its junction with the White Nile, and before his death a strong effort was made in England by the founding of the African association, which enabled John Ledyard to make a great journey across the

Sudan from

and Mungo Park

east to west

to trace

much

of the

Scientific geography was powerfully adcourse of the Niger. vanced by the measurement of arcs of the meridian near Quito on the equator by a French commission under C. M. de la Condamine

in

1735^3 and

in

Lapland under

P. L.

M.

de Maupertuis in 1736.

seems probable that the first to sight the coast of the antarctic continent was an expedition under the command of the U.S. naval officer Charies Wilkes, in 1840. A French expedition under J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville also sighted land at about the same time in the sector south of Australia. A year later a British expedition under James Clark Ross discovered the south-running coast of Victoria Land, with its two great volcanoes, Erebus and Terror, and the

It

great ice barrier that bears his name. The antarctic seas remained largely unvisited, except for a southward dash by the "Challenger" of in 1874, until Scottish and Norwegian whalers went in search new whaling grounds in 1892-95. Scientific expeditions equipped' mainly by private enterprise, under the inspiration of the Inter-

national Geographical congress of 1895, went out from Belgium under Adrien de Geriache in 1897, spending the antarctic night for the first time drifting in the pack ice south of South America; and from London under C. E. Borchgrevink in the "Southern Cross," spending the winter upon the antarctic cbnrinent for the

These were succeeded by four simultaneous 1901-04. The British naUonal expedirion in the "Discovery," under Robert F. Scott of the Royal Navy, initiated antarctic sledging, taking advantage of Nansen's first

time in 1898-99.

and purely

A.

The

Arctic

Only a few outstanding expeditions to the arcHc in the 19th and 20th centuries can be mentioned among the hundreds that Sir John Ross in 1818 carried out important work in that area. reached the mouth of Smith sound beyond Bafifin bay, and, seeking a northwest passage, his nephew James Clark Ross reached the Sir John north magnetic pole on Boothia peninsula in 1831. FrankUn set out in 1845, lured by the fatal fascination of the passage, and when he failed to return there began the rush of arctic exploration known as the Franklin search. Out of much that was weak, foolish and incompetent in direction there arose in execution heroes and geniuses such as Sir Francis Leopold McClintock, who developed the method of man-hauled sledging and stood out among those who explored the coasts and channels of the arctic archipelago. Americans vied with British in the search, and a high place must be given to Elisha Kent Kane, who in 1853 pushed through Smith sound, some of his parties reaching 80° N. In 1873 Karl Weyprecht and Julius Payer on an Austrian expedition In 1875 the last of the olddiscovered Franz Josef Land. fashioned British naval polar expeditions in two ships with hundreds of men was sent out under Sir George Nares to reach the north pole. It failed to get through Smith sound, but Albert H. Markham in a sledge journey pushed on to 83° 20' N. In 1878

Baron A. E. Nordenskiold in the Swedish ship "Vega" made the long-sought northeast passage along the coast of Siberia and circumnavigated Europe and Asia. In 1882 a series of circumpolar stations for scientific observations was set up by international agreement; the honour of occupying the most northerly point fell to the United States expedition under A. W. Greely, and B. Lockwood got to 83° 24' N. Fridtjof Nansen from his base J.

in

1888 crossed the interior of Greenland for the

first

time, and

skis and inventing new devices for camping and cooking revolutionized polar travel. Five years later by a still more daring and original plan he drifted in the "Fram" across the Arctic ocean and got to 86° 13' N. In 1903-06 Roald Amundsen, another Norwegian, in the "Gjoa" was the first to carry a ship through the half-forgotten northwest passage. Invaluable work

by traveling on

was done by American, Italian, British and especially Danish explorers, including Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, Knud Rasmussen and Lauge Koch in northern Greenland. Robert E. Peary, who had been engaged in polar exploration since 1886, was the first to reach the north pole in 1909. During the 1920s the first air flights to the pole were made. In 1926 Richard E. Byrd flew to the pole from Spitsbergen and returned there. A few days later Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth with the Italian pilot Umberto Nobile flew in the dirigible "Norge" from Spitsbergen across the pole to Alaska.

After Worid

War

II

numerous weather

stations

were

established permanently in the arctic regions, and flights to the vicinity of the pole occurred frequently. See also Arctic, The.

B.

antarctic regions were explored for the last time by sailing by three expeditions in the period between 1838 and 1843.

The ships

Antarctic Exploration

149

scientific expeditions in

methods, and penetrated far into the frozen continent. The German expedition under Erich von Drygalski in the "Gauss," the Swedish expedition under Otto Nordenskjold in the "Antarctic" and the private Scottish national expedition under W. S. Bruce in the "Scotia" were all commanded by men of science and did valuable scientific work. In 1907-09 Ernest H. Shackleton in a private expedition in the "Nimrod" succeeded, by the innovation of using ponies for transport, in getting to within 97 geographical miles of the south pole and turned only because his provisions were exhausted, while other

much

Mt. Erebus and reached the magnetic pole. On "Terra Nova" expedition sucJan. ceeded in reaching the pole by Shackleton's route only to find that he had been anticipated by a month (Dec. 14, 1911) by Roald Amundsen, who had made a dash on skis with dog sledges from a more easterly base. Meanwhile an Australian expedition under Douglas Mawson, with J. K. Davis in command of the "Aurora," explored a great stretch of coast from George V Coast to Queen Mary Coast and penetrated far into the icy interior. After the addition of air flights and air photography to the techniques of exploration, the antarctic continent was revisited and its character became better known. Among the numerous

parties climbed

17, 1912, Scott in the great

expeditions sent out for scientific purposes after 1920, the three expeditions under the command of Richard E. Byrd were especially important. The basic purposes were to gather climatic data, to increase the

the

mapping

knowledge of antarctic geology and

of the coast line.

The

first

to

complete

expedition of 1928-30 vast amount of meteor-

was followed by a second in 1933-35. A ological data was gathered, and the coast-line mapping was considerably advanced. A third expedition in 1 939-41 established two bases on opposite sides of the continent and carried out numerous exploratory flights back and forth between these bases. The British Graham Land expedition of 1934-37 also brought back important

new maps and

Thereafter exploration of

observations.

the interior continued; the International Geophysical year (q.v.) See also of 1957-58 was a great srimulus to antarctic studies.

Antarctica. C.

Inner Asia

In Asia three great areas remained practically unexplored well These were Arabia, the mountains and tablelands north and east of India and the deserts of central Asia

into the 19th century.

beyond them. The northern half of Arabia was traversed in many directions by European travelers, prominent among them W. G. Palgrave in the middle of the century, followed by Charles Doughty, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, C. Huber, Gertrude Bell and T. E. Lawrence. To the north of India the great effort was to Most of the work penetrate the Himalayas and explore Tibet. was done by officers of the survey of India, such as George Everest, Sir Richard and Henry Strachey and H. H. Godwin-Austen. Private explorers also had their part foremost among them were :

GEOGRAPHY

I50

Hue and Joseph Gabet, who reached Lhasa from China in an expedition of 1844-46; the great botanist Joseph D. Hooker, who explored Sikkim in 1848-49; mountaineers, including the three brothers Hermann, Adolf and Robert von Schlagintweit in 1854-57, W. M. (later Baron) Conway, Douglas Freshfield, the duke of the Abruzzi, F. de Filippi, William Hunter Workman and Fanny Bullock Workman. Finally the many attempts to climb the world's highest mountain, Mt. Everest, culminated in the successful British expedition under the French missionaries fivariste

John Hunt

in 1953.

In central Asia north of the great plateau Russian travelers visited the khanates of

Bukhara and Samarkand, and many

scien-

expeditions ranged the vast spaces. Chief among them were those of Nikolai Prjevalsky, who between 1870 and 1885 traversed nearly the whole breadth of the continent and defined the great system of internal drainage and its mountain rampart. His work tific

was supplemented and extended by many of his countrymen and by the Swedish scholar Sven Hedin from 1894 onward. Francis Younghusband and other British ofiicers made great journeys in the deserts of Gobi and Takla Makan, and the in a high degree

remains of ancient cities attracted the archaeological survey of which Aurel Stein made important journeys. Of great

India, for

E. Australia Australia was almost completely explored by white settlers under their own governments within the 19th centurj'. Matthew Flinders was the

around Australia, the coast of which he laid down in 1801-03. The eastern mountain chain shut off the first settlers in New South Wales from the west, but when the range was crossed rivers were found flowing inland and a vague theory of a great inland sea attracted explorers. John Oxley traced part of the Lachlan river in 1817, the fine pastures of the Darling Downs were discovered in 1827, and the Murray river was followed to the sea in 1829-30. The search for new pastures was the main motive for discovery until after 1850, when prospective first

new gold

fields became a rival lure. The formation of the Swan River settlement in 1829 and of Adelaide in 1836 gave new points of attack on the interior, and in 1840 E. J. Eyre traveled on foot round the shore of the Great Australian bight which separated them. In 1844 Ludwig Leichhardt made a splendid journey of

3,000 mi. across tropical Australia from east to west, including the southern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and in the following year Charles Sturt, leaving the east coast farther south, penetrated to the very centre of the continent. John McDouall Stuart suc-

ceeded

in crossing the continent

from south to north in 1862 after was afterward followed by In 1860-61 Robert O'Hara Burke and

two abortive attempts, and

pedition of 1903 to

an overland telegraph line. William John Wills crossed the continent with the aid of camels but perished on the return, a calamity which drew many expedi-

Pumpelly, in which such outstanding scholars as William Morris Davis and Ellsworth Huntington took part.

D. Africa Africa had been left at the end of the 18th century with the map of its interior a blank, the lower course of the Nile, the middle of the Niger and the mouths of the Congo and Zambezi re-

maining as openings to the mysteries of the interior. The Niger was traced to its mouth at an early date, and between 1822 and 1827 Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton made difficult journeys in the Sahara and Sudan and discovered Lake Chad for the African association. In 1849 DaVid Livingstone, the greatest of all African travelers, began his missionary journeys from Cape Colony and explored the Kalahari desert, discovering the salt Lake Ngami. Convinced that mission work was of little use until the continent was opened up, he spent the rest of his life in settling the puzzling hydrography of central Africa. He traced the course of the Zambezi by 1855. Later he pushed his way northward, discovering Lake Nyasa and exploring Lake Tanganyika, and at the time of his death in 1873 he was intently following the northwardflowing Lualaba in the hope that it would prove to be the ultimate source of the Nile. The Nile problem, under the encouragement of the Royal Geographical society, attracted many scientific and adventurous ex-

Richard Burton and J. H. Speke in 1858 discovered the Nyanza (Lake Victoria) on the high plateau under the equator, collecting the headwaters which issued from it as the White Nile; and pushing southward they reached Lake Tanganyika in the Great Rift which cleaves Africa from north to south. In 1864 Samuel Baker, exploring the Sudan, discovered the Albert Nyanza, another feeder of the Nile. Details of the geography of the Sudan were worked out by scientific men such as Gerhard Rohlfs, Georg Schweinfurth and Wilhelm Junker between 1860 and 1875. H. M. Stanley, a newspaper correspondent who had been sent out by the New York Herald to "find Livingstone" in 1871, found also that he himself was a born explorer, and in a magnificent journey lasting from 1874 to 1877 he crossed Africa from east to west, proving that Livingstone's Lualaba ran not to the Nile but to the Congo and following that huge equatorial river to the sea. The formation of the Congo Free State under the king plorers.

vast Victoria

of the Belgians led to the rapid exploration of the Congo basin, by Belgian officers, and the launching of a German colonial policy in 1884 brought many German explorers and men of science largely

and western Africa. In the extension of spheres of most of the geographical problems of the once "dark continent" were solved before the end of the century, French officers (Gen. Louis Lyautey prominent among them) completing our knowledge of the western Sahara and Sudan. into eastern

influence

his route

tions into the wilderness to learn their fate.

From 1874 for more than 30 years Western Australia was the scene of exploration in search of pasture and of gold, beginning with the journeys of John Forrest, A. C. and F. T. Gregory, P. E. Warburton and Ernest Giles and culminating in the great 5,000-mi. march of David Carnegie in 1895. Journeys of pure scientific research were also made, foremost among them those of Baldwin Spencer. (H. R. Ml.; P.E.J.) F.

The Americas

The geographic exploration of the Americas, which resulted in the filling in of the continental outhnes with information about the rivers, the mountains, the climate and vegetation and the native peoples, was for the most part carried out by missionaries, gold seekers, fur trappers and adventurers. In any case, they were mostly persons who did not write books. As a result the history of geographic exploration usually omits reference to the Americas. Yet the bandeiras of Brazil, those bands of explorers that visited the remotest parts of the interior of South America during the i6th and 17th centuries, and the Spanish expeditions that pushed out from the chief centres of colonial settlement into the unknown, seeking Indians to Christianize or gold to carry back home or good land to settle on all these were also explorers who gradually reduced the areas on maps that had to be labeled "unknown." Francisco de Orellana, the Spaniard who was the first European to travel the length of the Amazon, deserves as much of a place among the world's explorers as is accorded to the discoverers of the Nile sources. In North America, the first Europeans to push across the great interior were Spanish missionaries

—

southwest and French missionaries and fur trappers in the There were many pioneers from the English colonies along the eastern seaboard who pushed westward. Some of these, such as Daniel Boone, are well known, but there were many others whose names are not recorded. After the United States had acquired a vast territory west of the Mississippi as a result of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, a number of exploring parties and surveys were dispatched to report on conditions in the area between the settled part of the country and the Pacific coast. Some of these expeditions were sent out by the army, some by such civilian agencies of the government as the geographical and geological survey. One of the earliest of in the

east

and north.

these was the e.xpedition headed by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, which reached the mouth of the Columbia river in 1805. Other exploring parties were headed by Zebulon Pike, John C.

Fremont and Stephen H. Long. In 1878 John Wesley Powell, who 1869 had been the first European to descend the Colorado river

in

j

!

to sail

significance in the history of United States geography

was the excentral Asia under the leadership of Raphael

j

|

I

'

GEOGRAPHY through the Grand canyon, published a report on the arid region of western United States, the result of many years of painstaking geographical work. He was perhaps the last of the explorers and also the first of the field men who undertook to prepare inventories of the quality

and potential uses of the

land.

See also articles on the continents and biographies of explorers. IV.

PROBLEMS OF MEASUREMENT

In the development of geography attention was directed at first nature of the observable features that gave distinctive character to particular countries. From the Greeks on, however, geogto the

raphers have been seeking for more precise ways of measuring When Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the things. earth in 250 B.C. {see below) he understood the theory of meas-

urement but

his instruments of observation

more accurate means

were poor. New and from time to

of observation were invented

made The measurement of

time: the astrolabe, the cross-staff and the sextant in turn the identification of latitude

more

exact.

longitude could be no more than crude guesswork until John Harrison invented the first practical chronometer in the middle of the 18th century. (See also Latitude and Longitude.) But the 20th

century has been the era of "gadgetry" and after World War II there was a major advance in the instruments of measurement. Among new instruments of the century are the gyrocompass, the navigational computer, the gravimeter, and chronometers that do not vary as much as a second in thousands of years.

Sooner or later there had to be adopted a standard unit of linear measurement. Yet it was not until 1791 that a comprehensive decimal system was outlined. The metre, the measure of length on which the system is based, was defined as one ten-millionth part of the distance from the equator to the north pole. At that time Subsequently this was this distance was calculated to be 39.37 in. found to be a little short and the definition was revised; for a detailed discussion of this problem see Weights and Measures The Metric System. The Cassinis (Giovanni Domenico, 1625-1712; Jacques, 1677They 1756) completed the first geodetic survey of a country. measured a base line on the beach near Dunkerque in France and then ran a grid of triangulation across France to the Mediterranean shore, thus for the first time making possible the accurate measure:

of the area of the country. The Cassinis insisted that the earth was a perfect sphere. To disprove this concept the French Academy of Sciences sent expeditions to Peru and to Lapland to

ment

measure the arc of the meridian near the equator and at high latitudes. Before the middle of the 18th century it was proved that the earth was an oblate spheroid, bulging slightly at the equator. In the 1960s, however, observations of the orbits of man-made satellites

provided data for further refinements

in this

understand-

was then seen that the earth is slightly pear-shaped, being relatively broad and flat in the southern hemisphere and pointed at the north pole. These departures from a perfect sphere would

ing.

It

Geographic Measurement

Continent

151

GEOGRAPHY

152

try as developed in that country for the measurement of land, and he introduced the geometry of lines to Greek thought. His disciple Anaximander (fl. 6th century B.C.) made a map of the world based

on information obtained from sailors in Miletus. One of the fundamental problems with which the Greek geographers wrestled was the form and size of the earth. Before the time of Homer (goo b.c.) the earth had been conceived as a flat disk surrounded by the river Oceanus. Anaximander offered the concept of the earth as a cylindrical mass suspended in a spherical universe. It was Aristotle, however, who first demonstrated the sphericity of the earth by noting: (i) that all matter tended to fall together toward a common centre; (2) that the earth threw a circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse; and (3 that as one traveled from north to south familiar stars disappeared and new ones came above the horizon. Eratosthenes of Alexandria (c. 276-c. 192 b.c.) calculated the circumference of the earth. He learned of a deep well located at Syene (now Aswan) in Egypt which was completely illuminated by the sun at the summer solstice. Assuming this place to be on the tropic, and assuming Alexandria to be directly north of Syene, he measured the zenith distance of the sun at the latter place at Reckoning the distance between the two places to the solstice. be about 500 geographical miles, he arrived at a figure for the whole circumference of the earth which was within 16% of the figure which is known to be correct. The Greek geographers, like most of the Greek philosophers, were great behevers in the concept of symmetry. Herodotus (c. 484-425 B.C.), who was both a geographer and a historian, held to the view that the inhabitable lands were not circular but were longer from east to west than they were broad from north to south, from which is derived the modern designation of longitude and I

latitude.

He

followed the principle of symmetry to

fill

in the ar-

rangement of lands and the courses of rivers beyond the limits reached by explorers. He insisted that the Nile must flow from west to east before turning north in order to balance the Danube, which flows from west to east before turning south. He also named the three continents that border the eastern Mediterranean on the northern side, Europe; on the eastern side, Asia; and on the southern side, .Africa. The geographical and historical ideas that Herodotus accumulated were derived from the critical examination of a vast number of documents and also from extensive and arduous travels and field obser\'ations. :

The first geographer to divide the surface of the earth into zones based on latitude (known as kUmatii) was Parmenides {c. 450

He

conceived of a torrid zone that was too hot to be intwo frigid zones that were too cold, and two intermediate temperate zones that constituted the inhabitable earth. Aristotle developed the idea of zones of climate and defined the temperate zone as extending from the tropics to the polar circle. Purely on the basis of theor>' he assumed the existence of a southB.C.).

habitable,

temperate zone corresponding to the known world of the Greeks. He, too, believed that the torrid zone was too hot to be inhabitable and that people who lived too close to the equator had been burned black by the sun.

The word ''geography" was probably first used by Eratosthenes. The writing of geography, under whatever name, was greatly stimulated by the e.xpansion of Greek culture, partly through the estabhshment of colonies of Greeks around the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black sea, and partly through the conquests of Alexander the Great, who extended Greek horizons eastward to India.

—

2. Ideas of the Romans Unlike the Greeks, the Romans were primarily concerned with practical questions. The first of the encyclopaedic descriptive works dealing with the geography of coun-

came from the Roman geographers. The one whose works known is Strabo (c. 64 b.c.-a.d. 20). His 17 volumes describing the whole of the known world, and supported in considerable part by his own field observations, are like a handbook for the guidance of military commanders or public administrators. This work set a pattern for encyclopaedic geographic writing which has

tries

are best

been followed ever since. Claudius Ptolemaus, known as Ptolemy, was a mathematician.

astronomer and geographer who lived in Alexandria between a.d. 127 and 141 or 151, In his great work on geography (c. 150-160) he brought together the results of Greek geographical learning. He attempted to provide the data on latitude and longitude by which maps might be constructed, but unfortunately he discarded the estimate of the earth's circumference made by Eratosthenes in favour of a much less accurate one offered by another Greek geographer. He adopted a suggestion of Hipparchus that the equator be divided into 360 parts (later known as degrees). Ptolemy recognized the difference between treatments of the world as a whole, of parts of the world or regions, and of localities; for these different kinds of writings he used the terms "geography," the treatment of the world as a whole; "chorography," the treatment of parts of the earth; and "topography," the treat-

ment

of small localities in detail.

—

Muslim Geographers. The dark age of geography began before the fall of the Roman empire. It resulted in part from the completion of Roman conquests and in part from the rise of Chris3.

A

narrow interpretation of the Scriptures led certain ecdeny the sphericity of the earth and any of the geographical concepts based on it. Greek science gave way to widespread ignorance and bigotry. Many of the Greek writings, and especially the works of Ptolemy, were translated into Arabic and tested by new observations over a wide area. Such travehng merchants as Ibn Haukal in the 10th century, and Ibn Batutah in the 14th century journeyed far beyond the Umits reached by the Greeks. Ibn Batutah (130468) went far to the south along the east coast of Africa to a place nearly 10° S. of the equator. He found the temperatures on the equator more moderate than those farther to the north. The idea of uninhabitable torrid zones which appears in the book by Aristotle was thrown in doubt. Yet so simple and persuasive is the idea that the world's climates can be properly grouped in just three zones and that these zones have some effect on the way people live in them that even in the mid-20th century it was still

tianity.

clesiastics to

being taught in the schools. This oversimplification has been the cause of much obscurity regarding the relation of man to climate. The Muslim scholars did much not only to preserve and criticize Greek learning but also to add new knowledge and new concepts of

own. The works in historical geography of al-Biruni, alBaladhuri and especially of Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) reach new standards in accuracy of observation and in interpretation of the relations of people to the land. It is apparent, too, that the Muslim geographers had started to formulate ideas concerning the uplift of mountains by folding and the erosion of slopes by running water, and also of the great amounts of time which these processes require. Such advanced ideas were developed by field men, by great travelers; for example, Ibn Batutah, during 30 years of travel, is estimated to have covered 75,000 mi., ranging as far east as India and the Malay archipelago. The Muslims, however, contributed nothing to the progress of cartography. 4. Revival of 16th-18th Centuries ^WhOe the Muslim geographers were making their contributions to the development of geographic thought, the geographic horizons in Christian Europe remained narrow. Roger Bacon, writing in the 13th centurv' and generally credited with originating the modern scientific method, described Ethiopia in terms which Ptolemy would have considered naive and careless and which were based on information as much as 1.500 years old. Geographic horizons were reopened in Europe first as a result of the crusades and then of the discoveries of the Portuguese and Spanish expeditions. The revival of geographic thought is recorded in the works of several scholars during the i6th, 17th and 18th centuries. The first of these was Petrus .Apianus (Peter Bienewitz), whose book published in 1524 went back to Ptolemy for its inspiration. Gerardus Mercator (Gerhard Kremer) (1512-94) was a student of .Apianus and later established a geographical institute at Louvain, where he worked on the development of his well-known projection. Sebastian Miinster in 1544 published a descriptive book that followed the example of Strabo. But not until Philipp Cluver (1580-1622) and Bernhardus Varenius (Bernhard Varen) (1622-50) wrote their monumental geographical treatises was the their

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-

:

accepted stawriaid i lyied die fiist seoe^ a lexnaikabte deeiee of obsenred phenocrT geograplieis of bajtr _---_idatioaaliips of thini;

mand HaOey ptoc-

r

theory of the trade of hsit CD die eaitl die earhr igth cent - ' wriang, brinemg tc;:t

'^

-

cenuB^ pfajTBkal geoz.-^.::. wofks of Fbitippe Boaciie -

use of contour iioes

:

'

(i;66>and-J.iLFcv. of Chzriesufwa. Sii (i7a^»; in fiiiiain ra liai; and :r —r 7 puhikalioii of _' r r. ----::. ^it t die period ,'

m

inf linting

wwk;

Laplace. A. Ctivier.

wilHj—

—

Kant

';

r.-t:

'

'

-

- -;

.

:"

the inieilcc'ui5.

;.:::

:;

G

;

.-^-

-

77i-

—

-t

he lec-ured

lee of these ideas and so to stand otn of geogiapinc thoq^dL It is lemaikabfe that geogiapfay al : great a ddx. to two scfaidais TJwwti': at the same time, bodi in GennanT. i same oty, Berim. Th^weieinmac;

--.

^ - ;

i^vsd

laoD:

—

badtgramds and in thdr appnndi t.: :oldt hty" his edocatiaB vidi the p'-^ :

Jt strrn^bting

contacis «dih leacht:

-^parity for careftd, dse: \z--'~ V T la OoDOg BIS eaiiT 205 ^r ilvi Jie made a gpnloeinil and hota-Ilaljr. IhcB for five jear5(1799-li: :

~

t

.

ja acga>8iher; jdier.

ice 01

Ce^zal America, amasang a -vast am : .: dataregawfagthecwtrieh heit^tci of 60, !lKimboidt tra vded into cfnfn^ his hie, hoaever, he «as ejrears great works the art imiil of his tiare.i tion of the pl^acal gwigi iqi iy of the Paris and BeiliD. hved altemaiely .'

«

:

'.-aaiy

of nature,

isUegeog" i ijiematical i-tS of

(in tiie sense

-^

'

:

::

dai ge^eraiiy.

.ir-j.

and (5)

-

1

:

areas ac::::.--r tries:

i '

;

--

characterisric;

-

-

:

-

:

:

-'

-^

;,.:-; 14; ctKDiner-•:::-= of cotm-

theotogk.^l ;i r

iisixibiition

01 rej;zi;:;S6.

Humboldt and

canary

'.:.- z

study: thirt reser

coir

rep:

the ma'.r

~~'--'.

;;

t r

Rittet< :t'

•:.

m

Qambaldt''5 great UM li il ii- Fades 2. Broad Stratigraphic Patterns B. Paleontology and the Scale. of Time 1. Records Earlier Than Paleozoic 2. Logic of the Time Chart 3. Developments in Life Through Geologic

is

;

Waves

1.

lithosphere

Information on sea floors is building up rapidly through use of echo sounding, magnetic measurement and other methods of study. Greatest depths of the oceans exceed lo.Soo m. (more than 35.000 If all surface irregularities could be leveled off, the sea would ft.). be universal with a depth of almost 2.5 km. (about 1.5 mi.). The continental surfaces vary widely in height and configuration Asia, the highest and most rugged, has average height about i.ooo m.

U.

in .\rid

3.

The

and bedrock.

part of the earth.

A.

Regions Net Results of Erosive Processes

all

and

its

near relatives; and lime-

continents, consist largely of the

one mineral calcite. Many rocks have a more complex mineralogy, and in some the mineral particles are so minute they can be identified only through highly specialized techniques. For example, several clay minerals important in rocks known as shales or claystones cannot be resolved by the most powerful optical

Time

Absolute Dates C. Geologic Mapping 4.

rv. Development of the Science A. Formative Stage B. 1 8th -Century Advances C. Strides in the 19th Century D. Progress in the 20th Century I.

quantity many hundreds of miles, fuUy three-fourths of the gaseous matter, by weight, is in a zone 15 km. (about 9 mi.) thick directly above the earth's surface. The great bulk of water making the hydrosphere is in the interconnecting ocean basins covering nearly 71% of the earth's surface; but water is widely distributed on the lands also, in streams and lakes and as ground water filling

Glacier Ice

C. Principles of Sedimentation

2.

its summit nearly 9,000 m. (29,028 ft.) above sea level, would appear to scale on a globe with a diameter of 40 cm. (16 in.) as a projection only 0.3 mm. (0.012 in.) high. The visible part of the earth consists of three spherical envelopes; atmosphere, hydrosphere and hthosphere. Though gases of the atmosphere extend outward in detectable

are relatively small; Mt. Everest, with

GENERAL VIEW OF THE EARTH

Geodetic studies have determined that the earth has the form of an oblate spheroid with polar radius about 21.6

km. (13.4 mi.) shorter than the equatorial radius. The circumference following the equator measures a httle over 40,000 km. (about 24,900 mi.). ReUef features of the surface, large from the human viewpoint.

microscopes. Under exceptional conditions mineral substances grow into nearly perfect crystals that have distinctive external forms. Silicon dioxide forms clear cr\'stals of quartz that are hexagonal

prisms with terminations shaped as pyramids iron sulfide forms perfect cubes of pyrite. the faces marked with parallel lines. But when a substance crystalUzes in bulk, crowding of grains growing from neighbouring centres prevents formation of recognizable cr>'stals, though each mineral is formed with its peculiar internal atomic structure. Modern laboratories have varied and highly effective devices for working out the mineral content of rock materials. Standard equipment is the petrographic microscope, constructed for viewing thin sections of rock that are ground uniformly to about .001 in. thick. No matter how fine the grain, ;

.

;

GEOLOGY so long as the rock determined by their

is

crystalline its essential minerals can be

peculiar optical properties as revealed in Opaque minerals, under high magnification.

transmitted light such as those with a high content of metallic elements, require a different technique that uses reflected light from polished surfaces this kind of microscopic analysis has particular application to metallic ore minerals. Another device exposes mineral grains to X-rays which, on emerging, outline on a photographic film a pattern that represents the atomic structure peculiar to a given min-

Substances such as the clays are made up of particles minute they are submicroscopic in relation to ordinary petrographic microscopes; but these particles become clearly visible under the electron microscope, which gives images with diameters enlarged by a factor of tens of thousands. The several clay mineral species.

so

erals are identified also by a technique known as thermoanalysis which takes advantage of pronounced differences in thermal properties. The instrument used in the analysis automatically draws a graph recognized as peculiar to a given mineral composition. Analytical chemistry plays a major role in the study of minerals aiid rocks. An exact quantitative analysis is a valuable supplement to other techniques, and for many specimens the chemical examRocks with glassy texture have no ination plays a major role. atomic organization and therefore give no response to microscopic Natural glasses are common in rocks of volcanic origin. study. In many such specimens small mineral grains scattered through a glassy groundmass can be recognized under a microscope, giving information to supplement the chemical study; but the quantitative analysis is of first importance. Thousands of such analyses made by reliable laboratories are on record for comparative study. Comparing the composition of a glassy specimen with compositions of crystalUne rocks whose minerals are known will give much

essential information.

Spectroscopic study of rock specimens is an important recent development, and a complex instrument known as the mass spectrometer is used in an increasing number of petrographic laboratories. This device detects the presence of elements in extremely small quantities; it also isolates and measures quantitatively the several isotopes of elements such as lead and carbon. The mass spectrograph is indispensable in analyses used for determining ages of minerals on the basis of progressive atomic changes in such elements as uranium and thorium. (See also Mass Spectroscopy.

)

The Earth's

—The term

which geologists comfrom a speculative concept, once widely held, that our globe was once a molten mass which slowly cooled and solidified from the surface downward, and that the major part of the volume is still molten, below a comparatively thin shell of solid rock. This latter view is now untenable, whether or not the earth passed through a molten stage; but, as explained later, we are convinced that an outer part of the earth, no more than a few tens of kilometres thick, differs in physical properties from deeper zones (see Geochemistry; Earthquake), though the change is not marked by passage from solid to fluid materials. It is convenient, therefore, to keep the term crust for the distinctive outer zone. The rocks of the earth's crust are exposed to view only on continents and islands, which comprise about 30% of the earth's surface. The known rocks are divisible into three main groups: igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten matter called magma; sedimentary rocks, those made up of fragments derived from pre-existing rocks, of materials precipitated from solution or of organic products; and metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in composition, texture and internal structure. 2. Igneous Rocks. The igneous rocks are formed as either 1.

monly apply

Crust.

crust,

to the outer part of the solid earth, is inherited

—

extrusive or intrusive masses.

Extrusive rocks are products of

volcanic action; they appear at the surface as molten lavas which in sheets and harden, or they are made up of fragments, and small, blown from vents by violent gaseous explosions. Intrusive rocks have formed by slow cooling of molten masses below the earth's surface; many such bodies are now exposed to view because long-continued erosion has removed the older rock

spread large

cover.

163

Some

of these bodies doubtless were reservoirs that sup-

phed volcanoes

The grain the mode of

in the past.

size or texture of igneous rocks is closely related to

origin. Lavas generally are fine grained, even glassy, because rapid loss of heat, with resulting solidification, allowed But the same little or no opportunity for mineral grains to grow. kind of magma, under a cover of soUd rock thousands of feet thick, has lost heat very slowly; accordingly the grains have had, from the human point of view, long ages for growth, and the reExamples are ordinary granites, sultant rock is coarse grained. in which all grains of the essential minerals can be distinguished with the unaided eye. A rock with similar chemical composition that formed in a lava flow may have a uniform appearance, with no distinguishable grains; but magnification up to 50 or 100 times under a petrographic microscope may reveal a texture and mineral

composition strikingly

known

as rhyolite,

is

that

like

of the granite.

said to have aphanitic

(i.e.,

Such a rock,

invisible) texture.

In a general way the textures of igneous rocks vary according Deep-seated the depth at which the bodies were formed. (abyssal or plutonic) bodies are coarse grained; intrusive bodies that cooled at shallower depths (hypabyssal masses) generally have medium to fine grains; and extrusive rocks are fine grained There are, however, some complexities in this general to glassy. Many sheets of rhyolitic lava have large and well-formed rule. crystals of feldspar and quartz isolated in an aphanitic groundto

mass; the rock is called rhyolite porphyry, and the crystals are Presumably these formed in a quiescent magma body underground, part of which was erupted in a volcanic outphenocrysts.

break, whereupon the

magma

enclosing the crystals cooled quickly

Porphyritic texture is common also bodies of intrusive rock, of both the shallow- and deep-zone types; in such rocks the groundmass has visible grains which are much smaller than the enclosed phenocrysts. The contrasting grain size in all porphyries suggests an abrupt change in physicalchemical conditions while the parent bodies were forming. to

form rock with

fine grain.

in

Exposed intrusive bodies are most numerous in great mountain zones for two reasons ( i ) the mountain belts have been zones of major deformation, and abundant evidence indicates that igneous action is favoured by crustal disturbance; and (2) great ;

uplifts in

mountain

belts

have

set

the stage for erosion to the

depths at which plutonic masses have formed. Logically the best displays of large intrusive bodies are found not in youthful for chains such as the Alps, but in much older mountain units example, the Riesengebirge of Germany where the deep cores have been exposed by erosion through long ages. Bodies of intrusive rock are classified according to their locations, sizes and shapes. The general term pluton is used for any large intrusive body. An abyssal mass of major size is appropri-

—

ately called a batholith

(literally

"deep stone").

—

Commonly,

such a body is exposed over an area measuring hundreds or even thousands of square miles; the Coast rarrge batholith of British Columbia is more than 1,000 mi. long. These large bodies are not simple units with uniform structure and texture; they are complex assemblages of crosscutting and intertwined masses that indicate a long and varied history of development, with recurrent episodes.

The major

to the associated

batholiths

mountain

commonly

belts.

are elongate parallel Intrusive bodies formed at

shallow or intermediate depths have varied sizes and forms; most common are dikes, which are tabular, elongate bodies that cut across the enclosing rocks, and sills, generally similar in form to dikes but emplaced parallel to pre-existing layers of sedimentary or volcanic rocks. Sizes of both dikes and sills have a wide range. Some measure only a few feet in greatest dimension of exposure;

northern England the Cleveland dike, essentially vertical, more than 100 mi. and the Whin sill, nearly horizontal, extends fully 80 mi., with an average thickness about go ft. Knowledge of intrusive igneous bodies has been built up slowly by comparative studies, some in regions where erosion has brought to light only the masses that developed at shallow depths, others in profoundly eroded belts where "only the bones of the extinct

but is

in

traced

mountains" can be seen. Beneath growing mountain chains around the Pacific ocean igneous intrusive action is doubtless now in

GEOLOGY

164

beyond the range of direct observation. Study of extrusive activity and the resulting rocks is more favourable. Active volcanic centres are widely distributed, and some of these progress, though

The behaviour of Vesuvius are under continuous observation. and other Mediterranean volcanoes has been watched through

many

centuries;

and well-equipped

scientific stations

have been

operation for some decades at a number of active centres. Study of active volcanoes is supplemented by observations made on great volumes of older volcanic products which, because they in

accumulated on the earth's surface, are much more accessible than the intrusive bodies which have come into view only through chance exposure by erosion. Volcanic materials are erupted through openings of two general types central vents and long fissures. Around a central vent, which is essentially a great vertical pipe, products of eruption are built up to form a cone which may grow into a high mountain with a crater at its top; well-known examples are Vesuvius in Italy, Mayon in the Philippine Islands and Fujiyama in Japan. Two kinds of products issue from a vent: fragments known as ash and cinders, which are blasted violently upward by gaseous explosions; and lava or liquid rock, which commonly breaks through the side of the cone and spreads beyond its base. In a fissure eruption, lava wells upward and pours outward along an opening miles or even tens of miles in length. An eruption of this kind was observed in Iceland in 1785. Ancient outpourings of molten rock, in part along great fissures, built up widespread lava fields to form plateaus thousands of square miles in area; outstanding e.xamples are in the Deccan region of India, the Columbia plateau of northwestern United States and the Parana basin of South America. Commonly the outflow along a fissure has become obstructed except at a few favoured points where central eruptions have built up cones along a nearly straight line. The Hawaiian Islands, each constructed by long-continued volcanic eruptions, are arranged along a line that probably represents a great zone of weakness in the floor of the Pacific ocean. Old volcanic rocks, exposed haphazardly and without relation to vents from which they issued, are distinguished from intrusive rocks by several criteria. Quantities of gas escape freely from molten lava, and in late stages of cooling the gas, expanding under compression in the stiffening fluid, forms rounded openings or vesicles in the upper part of a flow. These vesicles, many of which in old flows have been filled with minerals deposited from solution, ser\'e to distinguish the flow from a sill which may be similar in general form. Moreover, most assemblages of volcanic rocks contain an abundance of distinctive fragmental products of explosive action and associated glassy materials. In volcanic rocks the chemical composition, matching that of known intrusive bodies, ranges between wide limits. Silica, the most distinctive ingredient, varies from about 40% to more than 75%. The high-silica rocks are generally light coloured and their excess of silica is expressed in abundant grains of quartz. Low-silica rocks range in colour from gray to brown and nearly black; they are rich in minerals containing iron and magnesium. Intermediate types are numerous, representing a complete gradation between the low-silica and high-siUca rocks. Granite and its near relatives in chemical and mineral composition are commonly grouped as granitic rocks; they are predominant in the continents. Basalt, accepted as typical of the low-silica rocks, appears to be predominant in ocean floors. Basaltic flows that have built up wide plateaus in several continents have remarkably uniform composition. According to a favoured concept these lavas have risen from a zone of dark, heavy rock that extends continuously from the ocean floors beneath the granitic rocks in all the continents. Igneous rocks yield minerals that are important economically, others that have large scientific value. The most reliable determinations of age are obtained by analysis of certain minerals, notably those containing uranium, that have been sealed in igneous

—

bodies since their formation. From these analyses the oldest igneous masses are known to be more than 2,000,000,000 years old. Such quantitative determinations are in accord with much quahtative evidence in the geologic record, all testifying to the vast length of geologic time.

—

3. Sedimentary Rocks. Rock materials exposed to air and moisture are subject to continual change, both physical and chemical. Bedrock is broken into pieces, large and small, which are moved by running water and other agents to lower ground and spread in sheets over lake bottoms, flood plains and sea floors. Dissolved matter is carried to seas and other water bodies and some of it is precipitated either chemically or by the action of

organisms. The deposited material becomes compacted and in time much of it is cemented into firm rock. Generally the process of deposition is not continuous but sporadic, and sheets of material representing separate episodes come to form distinct layers of rock. As a result the sedimentary rocks are stratified; the individual layers are beds or strata. Large parts of every continental mass are covered with sedimentary rocks that represent deposits formed during many periods of the earth's history.

A FROM

^

'

B

LONGWELL ANO FLINT,

—

In part these bedded rocks are nearly

^

"INTRODUCTION

TO

-^

C

PHYSICAL

GEOLOCT"

TEXTURES OF ROCKS MAGNrFlED ABOUT EIGHT TIMES. (A) DIORITE I. (CRYSTALLINE IGNEOUS ROCK); (Bl SANDSTONE; (C) PHYLLITE (METAMORPHOSED SHALE) FIG.

horizontal, as they were originally; but in large areas, particularly in

mountain

belts,

they show various degrees of deformation.

The

principal kinds of sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, sandstone,

limestone and dolomite. Conglomerate, made up of fragments derived from older rocks, more less rounded by wear and ranging in size from boulders (diameters inter25 cm. or more) down to pebbles (minimal diameters 2 mm.) stices generally are filled with sediments of finer grain, more or less firmly cemented. Sandstone, consisting of sand grains (diameters 2 to t^ mm.), predominantly quartz. Interstices generally hold stU! finer particles and cementing material. ^ Siltstone, consisting chiefly of silt particles (diameters 1^ to jjl mm.) more or less well cemented. Shale, consisting chiefly of clay arranged in thin layers or laminae. If lamination is lacking, the term claystone is appropriate. Limestone, made up of mineral grains consisting chiefly of the mineral calcite. Commonly has numerous fragments of shells, microscopic or larger, from marine animals. Dolomite, similar to limestone, but has a high content of magnesium. siltstone. shale,

or

;

Although the kinds of rock

listed

above are most important

many others are recognized, some of large Among these are beds of common salt, gypsum,

quantitatively, tical value.

pracphos-

phate and iron oxide. Coal, in extensive beds, has developed from plant materials accumulated in swampy areas and later buried under large thicknesses of ordinary sediments. 4.

Metamorphic

Rocks.

— Metamorphism

means

literally

transformation, and logically the term might be applied to any profound change. In geology the meaning is restricted; it does not include the decay of rock materials exposed to the weather,

nor the fusion of rocks by igneous processes. Metamorphic rocks have been developed from earlier igneous and sedimentar>' rocks by heat and pressure, at some depth and most effectively in the Resultant changes are in texture, in mingreat mountain zones. Survival eral composition and in structural features of the rock. of some characteristics of the original rock indicates that fusion has not played an essential part in the change.

Two general kinds of metamorphic effects are recognized: (i) dynamic metamorphism resulting from strong compression, perhaps aided by some increase in temperature from friction; and (2) thermal metamorphism caused by high temperature in rocks adEffects are accentuated to intrusive igneous bodies. through introduction of elements by fluids that move from a molten mass into the surrounding rock. Susceptibility of different rocks to either type of metamorphism varies greatly. Thus

jacent

GEOLOGY Pennsylvania, coal in

much

strongly crumpled beds was changed to anthracite, a type of coal

ment

in

part of the Appalachian

mountain belt

in

from which nearly all volatile matter has been expelled; but the shale beds adjacent to this coal are unchanged except for the crumpling. By contrast, in a more strongly deformed belt in Rhode Island coal has been changed into graphite, and in the enclosing shale beds shearing has developed thin cleavage plates lined with flakes of mica. Near an intrusive igneous mass in South Africa shale was altered to hornfels, a hard metamorphic rock studded with crystals of minerals that grew during the period of Beds of sandstone alongside the altered shale high temperature. are unchanged except for firmer cementation of the quartz grains. Extreme metamorphism in some mountain zones has resulted from combined dynamic and thermal effects. Fluids rising from deep-seated plutons have combined with rock material in deformed sedimentary rocks, and the resultant product is indistinguishable from granite that has crystallized from magma. To some extent, therefore, granitic rocks may be a product of metamorphic as well as igneous processes.

is

Many

of the metamorphic rocks consist of flaky minerals, such

mica and

chlorite, set in parallel

arrangement.

These minerals

cause the rock to split into thin sheets, and the rocks are said to De foliated (fig.

i[C]

).

The commonest kinds phyllite, schist

and

metamorphic rock are slate, Marble and quartzite are nonfoliated

of foliated

gneiss.

metamorphic rocks. Slate, a rock with remarkably plane cleavage cutting across folded beds of the original rock and dividing it into thin plates. Surfaces of the plates are lustrous, but no minerals are distinguishable without high magnification. Phyllite, an exceptionally lustrous rock representing a higher stage of metamorphism than slate. The cleavage plates commonly are wrinkled 3r sharply bent. Schist, a well-foliated rock in which the fJaky minerals, usually mica Dr chlorite, are plainly visible. Quartz is abundant, and many schists ire studded with garnets. Gneiss, a coarse-grained rock with imperfect foliation. Granite gneiss is a strongly banded rock with the mineral composition of granite. Marble, recrystallized hmestone, wholly granular. Dolomite marble is recrystallized dolomite. Either rock may be studded with minerals formed from impurities. Quartzite, formed from quartz sandstone by complete filling of all spaces between grains with quartz.

B.

of

165 it

by circuitous routes

gravity, aided

by

all

solar energy, strives to establish equilibrium

by

reduce continents to featureless plains; the other set, within the by forming mountain chains and broad upwarps. The processes of uplift are given special attention in a later section. Weathering and erosion merit further discussion earth, rejuvenates the lands

here. 1.

Weathering.

— Blocks

of stone in walls of very old build-

many have

irregular surfaces from spalling and some are visibly crumbhng. Bedrock in the hills has been exposed to weather vastly longer and shows much greater change unless it is situated where running water or some other agent Such a carries away the products of decay as they are formed. ings are discoloured,

situation

is

a nearly vertical

cliff

with a stream near

as a rule even there blocks of rock, fallen

its

from the

base; but

cliff

and

in

various stages of decay, form great heaps of sUde-rock. Nearly level fields back from the cliff normally have a cover of soil which, as shown by careful study, was produced by decay of the underlying bedrock. Commonly the blanket of soil is several feet or

from

altered bedrock.

former seas suggests clearly that the present mountains, plateaus and other landscape features owe their beginning to widespread uplift. Evidence that these features are being steadily modified is compelling, though parts of this evidence become clear only with special study. Engineers charged with the problem of controlling the flow and checking channels for navigation in large streams supply convincing quantitative data. Even casual observers of the Colorado river in the Grand canyon of Arizona are impressed with the amount of visible sediment in the stream, espe-

partly chemical.

Measurements show

the hydrologic cycle,

irregularities

Land forms are features of slow but continuous development. Wide distribution on the lands of sedimentary rocks that had their

cially at flood stage.

is

on the earth's surface. At the present rate of erosion, which is reasonably well known, the continents would be worn to sea level within a small fraction of the time that has elapsed since life on the lands began. This suggests strongly that the work of erosion is opposed by another process; and there is abundant evidence that the lands have been elevated repeatedly, on a large scale. Therefore the landscapes of today represent a stage in the conflict between two sets of forces: one set strives to leveling out

a gradation

origin in

This continuous move-

which performs a vast amount of work. Water and air react with rock materials, changing them chemically and breaking them into small pieces; this complex action is weathering. Running water moves the loose rock debris and in the process causes further breakup of bedrock. At high altitudes and in polar regions snow is compacted into masses of ice, which move slowly downslope as glaciers and add their energy to that of running water in wearing down the land. Water makes its way underground and slowly moves seaward, dissolving rock material as it goes. Winds and waves join the attack on the lands. All these activities are included in the composite process of erosion, which sculptures the continents in Thus great detail and tends to reduce them toward sea level.

even tens of feet thick

Geomorphology

2).

(fig.

of water between sea and land

Changes

soil

;

and an

artificial shaft

penetrating

downward through decayed rock

it

reveals

into un-

rock through weathering are partly mechanical, In regions that have cold seasons an effective mechanical agent is frost wedging. Water penetrates crevices in rock, and expansion in freezing, repeated time after time, displaces grains and even large blocks. Growing roots of plants produce simflar effects, but rooted plants can grow only where chemin

that the river carries

an average of n.ooo tons per hour, or nearly 100,000,000 tons per year. This annual load, most of it brought from the Rocky mountains and the high plateau country, has over long period built an immense delta at the head of the Gulf of California. Many other great rivers, such as the Mississippi, the Amazon, the Niger, the Nile, the Ganges and the Hwang Ho, are carrying vast quantities of rock matter from continents to seas, as indicated by their large and growing deltas. Countless smaller streams that flow directly into the sea swell the total mass of transported sediment, much of which does not go into construction of deltas but is spread widely on sea floors by action of waves and currents. Moreover the water flowing into the seas carries a great total load that is invisible, dissolved from rocks on the lands. The ultimate forces responsible for wearing down land masses are solar energy and gravity. Heat from the sun evaporates sea water; and, using the atmosphere as its agent, the solar heat causes circulation of water vapour, part of which is precipitated as rain and snow on the lands. The water returns toward the sea, past a given point

3.

'i

Component of gravity

FROM

Fig.

LONGWELL AND 2.

—THE

FLINT,

-INTRODUCTION

TO

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE POWERED BY SOLAR HEAT AND GRAVITY

action has made food available to them. The most effective chemical reagent is water that carries in solution carbon dioxide, Rain a gas universally present in the air in minute quantities. carries some of the gas to the ground, and hence much of the water that comes in contact with rocks is a weak solution of carbonic acid, which reacts slowly with some of the minerals. ical

1

GEOLOGY

66

Feldspars, the chief minerals in granitic rock, eventually yield Clay is a comis the basic material in ordinary soils.

the stream bed breaks and wears the particles themselves, but the constant abrasion also wears the bedrock floor. Moreover much

plex mixture of sihcate minerals, in themselves a large field for study. Potassium carbonate, another product of weathered feldOnce a soil with a plant spar, is a nourishing food for plants.

of the bedrock is divided into blocks by intersecting joints, and many such blocks are loosened and chslodged by the force of the

clay Which

cover

is

started the chemical

breakdown of underlying bedrock

is

accelerated because decaying plant tissues supply carbonic acid to Soils are best

percolating water.

developed under warm, humid

and the accompanying chemdecay of bedrock. In arctic and desert lands chemical weathering is weak, plants are few, soils are generally poor and nearly unaltered bedrock is exposed over large areas. (See Soil Erosion AND Conservation.) Large daily variations in temperature, especially pronounced in deserts, were once credited with effective breaking of ejcposed bedrock. According to this concept expansion from heating during the day, followed by contraction from rapid cooUng at night, climates, which favour plant growth

ical

would explain the separation of thin

slabs

from

large blocks of

rock at the surface. This view has been discredited by careful experiments with use of an electric heating and cooling device equipped with automatic control. Thousands of alternations between temperatures considerably higher and lower than those measured in deserts have failed to produce in samples of rock any fractures detectable even under high magnification. Study of thin shells that separate from rock exposed to the weather reveals as a common cause of the separation the slow development The of clay minerals, which involves an increase in volume. outer surface of exposed rock dries rapidly after wetting; but

moisture that penetrates into minor crevices stays until some decay is started, and the resultant swelling causes flakes to spall off. Separation of successive thin shells from massive rock such as granite is called exfoliation. This is a common form of weathering in regions that have moderate rainfall. 2. Erosion by Running Water. Rain water falling on a sloping field that has been freshly plowed may wash away quan-

—

No

is perfectly even, and the water, becomes concentrated along local sags in the surface of the field, where stream channels are developed. If

tities

of

soil.

controlled

by

area of ground

gravity,

is of short duration only a few nearly parallel chandevelop, separated by wide, ungullied areas; but if hard

the rainfall nels

may

rainfall

is

prolonged, or

if

the field

is

left

undisturbed through

first formed start and grow longer headward; these tributaries in turn become branched, and the process continues until the entire surface is covered with a network of steep-walled gullies. As water con-

successive rains, channels tributary to those

tinues to flow the gullies are in general continuously deepened.

But cutting down of a main channel may be checked where it crosses from the plowed area into a meadow protected by sod; this

channel cannot then carry away

all

the sediment delivered

it by tributary gullies, and the excess material is deposited at bottom of the main stream to form a widening alluvial flat. With continued growth the alluvial deposit may extend backward

into

the

into the lower reaches of tributaries, thus decreasing their gra-

dients

and limiting

their

power

to cut

down and

to carry sediment.

Gullies in the higher parts of the slope retain their vigour longest.

Every land area with abundant

moderate precipitation has an integrated drainage system. In the Alps, a mountain mass that was uplifted late in geologic history, a network of deep valleys directs the drainage toward the four points of the compass into four principal streams: northward into the Rhine; westward into the Rhone; southward into the Po; and eastward into the Danube. Each of these major streams has a wide lower valley floored with alluvium which extends downstream to a large and growing delta. Upstream the valley is narrower, with higher and steeper sides; and in the mountains each large tributary is a deep gorge, many with nearly vertical sides. The gradient of the stream bed near the delta is only a few inches per mile; upstream it steepens progressively, and many of the mountain tributaries are raging torrents with stretches of rapids and some vertical falls. Such a stream is actively deepening its valley, though it is floored with bedrock. The swift water is armed with sediment ranging in size from sand grains to coarse rubble; scrubbing of this material over or

swift stream to

become part

of the abrading load.

Study of numerous stream valleys in various stages of growth reveals a general progression in development of form, both longiNearly all large rivers flow into tudinally and in cross section. the sea, and sea level limits the depth to which they can cut. In any segment of a valley that is far above sea level the energy of the stream is used mainly in cutting down to establish a graded profile, an ideal slope on which the stream can transport its load The large of sediment without either cutting or depositing. rivers that receive drainage from the western Alps are essentially at grade in their lower courses but in the high mountain country the profiles are excessively steep, downcutting is active and valWhen the profile in a considerable leys are deep and narrow. segment of a valley approaches the graded form the stream, deflected from one side to the other, erodes laterally to make the valley floor much wider than the stream channel. This tendency ;

to cut laterally

is

of course present at earlier stages in valley de-

velopment but so long as active downcutting continues the stream is not at a given level long enough for lateral erosion to be effective. After a wide, flat floor is developed the stream at high-flood stage spreads beyond its normal channel and deposits sediment to form a flood plain, which grows in width as the widening of the ;

valley continues.

On

a well-developed flood plain the sluggish

stream, diverted laterally by small obstacles, characteristically

develops a sequence of wide, looping bends, or meanders,

many

which impinge against the valley sides. Deepening of a valley does not end abruptly with the formation of a flood plain. Slow downcutting continues; and with lateral shifting of the stream, remnants of earlier valley floors may be of

preserved as terraces. Commonly these terraces are at different heights on opposite sides of a valley, each being the only remaining part of a former floor. On the other hand some paired terraces, well above the present stream, suggest recent rejuvenation of the stream by uplift of the land or by lowering of sea level. Such terraces in the Mississippi valley probably indicate downcutting by the stream caused by subtraction of water from the seas in formation of the present icecaps of the polar regions; the river has regraded its valley to the lower sea level. Lateral cutting by mature streams has been an important factor But the general lowerin the planing down of wide land masses. ing of a land surface is begun as soon as the surface is occupied

by a network of functional stream channels. Streams in the Alps, aided by glaciers, have removed the vast quantity of rock matethat once occupied the vacant spaces of the present valleys. Moreover, the divides between adjacent valleys are being reduced slowly as material is eroded from the opposed slopes. Some wide and high continental areas are not fully covered with stream channels because of deficient rainfall. Permanent streams that cross the Colorado plateau in western United States receive most of their water supply in the Rocky mountains to the east and north and valleys cut into the plateau by these streams are deep, steep-walled canyons that have few large tributaries. Erosion is proceeding far more rapidly in the Alps than in the Colorado plateau. Many arid regions have no drainage to the sea; examples are the Dead sea basin, areas in central and western AustraUa and The Dead sea dethe Great basin of western United States. pression is far below sea level and is being filled slowly with sediments brought in chiefly by the Jordan river, which has its source The Great basin, like other regions in mountains to the north. with interior drainage, receives many streams, some from mountain blocks within its area, others from bordering highlands. Sediments eroded from the high areas are filUng the many separate depressions. The tendency is for some depressions, as they are rial

;

over into lower areas; ultimately the entire region be reduced nearly to a featureless plain well above sea level unless crustal movements or a change in climate may interrupt

filled, to spill

will

the present trend. 3.

Erosion by Mass Movements.

—Transport

of rock debris

;

GEOLOGY not confined to channels of active streams. of gravity exerts a pull which results in large-scale migration of soil, broken rock and even large masses Abrupt landslides are the most familiar and specof bedrock. Every year large numbers tacular example of such movement. the Alps, the Himalayas, of slides occur in mountainous country

on land surfaces

On every

slope a

is

component

—

Rocky mountains and other belts of steep topography; the sliding masses range in volume from a few square yards to a cubic

the

Some large slides, starting without any warning and moving at high speed, have overwhelmed towns and caused Commonly a sliding mass blocks a large other catastrophes. stream to form a lake, thus complicating the routine of erosive action. In a region subject to strong earthquakes, a sharp shock often has started a number of landslides involving masses that mile or more.

probably were nearing the point of release. Chronic landslides, which move slowly and intermittently on steep slopes, are more common than the catastrophic kind. Masses of soil and broken rock move partly by slow flowage, partly by slipping over a firmer basement. In cold seasons such masses may be frozen and practically stationary; thawing in spring causes saturation with water and renewed flowage or sliding on a lubricated base.

Differential

movement

creates a

hummocky

surface

growing on the slope are tilted at various angles and Chronic shdes represent all gradations locally they are uprooted. between regular landsliding and imperceptibly slow downslope movement known as creep, which operates on every slope covered with loose, weathered material. Even soil covered with close-knit sod creeps downslope, as indicated by slow but persistent tilting of poles, gravestones and other objects set into the ground on forest trees

167

depth are assured a steady flow (fig. 3). a zone of varied thickness known as the zone of aeration because air enters openings after water from the surface settles to the zone of permanent saturation. Weathering is active in the zone of aeration, where air is in contact with rock materials that usually are wet with water bearing carbonic acid from plants. Freezing and thawing of shallow ground water, together with its lubricating effect in soil, play an essential part wells sunk

Above

in

below

this

the water table

is

movement by creep. Thus ground water has

a major role in weathering and in mass the chief agent in delivering to streams vast quanMasses of dripstone formed tities of dissolved mineral matter. in many caverns represent local and incidental deposition from the

wasting and

is

dissolved load in transit. 5.

Erosion by Glacier

Ice.

— In some high mountains

is

too slow to be seen directly

;

but accurate instrumental measure-

ments record speeds ranging from a few inches

masses.

Erosion by Grottnd Water.

—

Of the average annual preon all land areas about 25% runs off directly down slopes into stream channels; a considerable part evaporates; the remainder, half or more of the total, sinks into the ground where The weathit brings about many physical and chemical changes. ering processes produce soluble substances which are carried by percolating ground water, some to be deposited in open spaces in bedrock, more to be dehvered to streams and carried eventually 4.

cipitation

to the sea.

A

considerable fraction of the total load carried by

rivers is invisible, in dissolved

form.

One common

ingredient,

is sodium chloride, famihar as common another is calcium carbonate, an important part of which is derived from limestone bedrock, another part from decomposed feldspar minerals. Ordinary limestone and dolomite underUe great areas of every continent. Under humid cUmates with warm seasons the ground water, charged with carbon dioxide supphed mainly by vegetation, dissolves vast quantities of these carbonate rocks. In Yugoslavia, Kentucky and many other large areas the subsurface solution has had profound effects on topog-

usually in small amount, salt;

Roofs of caverns have collapsed to form large numbers of steep-walled sinks; streams, large and small, have been drawn into a network of caverns, leaving dry valleys formed at an earlier stage. Remnants of collapsed cavern roofs known as natural raphy.

common feature. A landscape dominated by the efground-water solution is said to have karst topography, from a region in Yugoslavia where such effects are prominent. Whether or not the bedrock of a region is highly soluble, ground water plays a major part in weathering and erosion. It provides the perennial supply for stream flow; immediate surface runoff causes flash floods, whereas the trickling of water from soil and from openings in bedrock continues at a nearly uniform rate. After a period of rainfall the water settles along openings to the water table, a more or less definite surface, higher under hills than under lowlands, at the top of .the zone of permanent saturation;

bridges are a fects of

to several tens of

At temperate latitudes the lower end of a glacier is feet per day.

at fairly high altitude

AlU'i;-'/

mass movement on land' surfaces are comprised under the general term mass wasting. All such movements tend to bring loose rock material within reach of streams, which In high continue the transport to lower ground or to the sea. country the cutting of deep valleys by streams creates steep slopes on which mass movements are especially effective. Thus stream erosion and mass wasting co-operate in the wearing down of land several forms of

in

a critical thickness masses of ice move under their own weight by solid flow; such a moving mass is a glacier. In the Alps, the Himalayas, the Coast range of British Columbia and many other mountain chains the high valleys are filled with glaciers, some of them tens of miles long. Movement of a glacier down its valley

ZONE OF SATURATION

U,/'/'

hillsides.

The

and

Aclarge parts of the arctic regions snowfall exceeds melting. cumulating snow becomes compressed into ice; and on reaching

FROM TO

LONGWELL AND

PHYSICAL

FLINT

'INTRODUCTION

GEOLOGY"

—

3. DIAGRAM Fig. WATER ZONES

OF

GROUND-

determined

by the balance between rates of movement and of melting. Some glaciers in northwestern Canada flow directly into the sea.

Green-

land and Antarctica have enormous icecaps in which flowage is radially

become separated from the margins and

outward;

drift

away

great

masses

as icebergs.

Information about glaciers as erosive agents comes from study

by observations in valleys from which glacier ice has almost or entirely vanished. At the lower end of a vigorous valley glacier a ridge, or complex group of This end moraine is made up ridges, extends across the valley. chiefly of coarse rubble containing many blocks of rock with one or more faces smoothed and scratched. Similar blocks are frozen in the ice exposed at the glacier front; evidently the morainal ridge was built up slowly by accumulation of rubble as the ice released it by melting along a front that has varied Uttle in position through a long period. Water in streams of meltwater issuing from the glacier is gray-white and has been called glacier milk it of active glaciers supplemented

;

carries in suspension quantities of silt-size particles

made

of fresh

rock ground up by abrasion as the lower surface of the glacier, armed with blocks of rock, grinds over the valley floor. Moraines on top of the glacier are formed of rubble gathered from the valley walls partly as a result of lateral grinding action by the moving ice.

The

features of a valley recently cleared of glacier ice testify Areas of bedrock on the floor are

to vigorous erosive action.

marked with grooves and scratches generally parallel Rugged surfaces, both on the walls and on the floor, represent forcible removal of blocks bounded by The cross section of the valley suggests a wide U in conjoints. trast to the V form of a mountain valley fashioned by a stream. Lateral erosion by the moving ice caused widening by removing not only the points of spurs that normally jut into a main valley

polished and

to the axis of the valley.

between tributaries but also considerable parts of the tributary Walls of the glaciated valley are remarkably steep and valleys. straight and are marked by numerous high falls from tributary streams that would normally join the main stream at grade but now are in hanging valleys (fig. 4). The head of the ice-freed valley has the form of a wide semicircular amphitheatre (cirque), caused by continual plucking action as ice forming in the snow field became part of the moving glacier. At a divide from which two or more glaciers moved in different directions, the growing cirques have partly intersected to form a sharp, jagged ridge. The Matter-

GEOLOGY

i68

horn is a pyramid-shaped mass that has survived destruction between cirques slowly growing together; and numerous similar peaks in the high Swiss Alps testify to the magnitude of erosion by glaciation of that mountain mass. Although the number of glaciers now in the Alps exceeds 1,200, formerly there were many more and the existing glaciers were much longer than now, as indicated by the glaciated forms of valleys and the abundance of characteristic glacial deposits extending many miles below the present terminal moraines. Long and careful study in the Alps has determined that the valleys were fashioned by stream erosion; onset of a cooler world cUmate brought development of glaciers that reached to a low level in all Alpine valleys; and increased temperatures have reduced the glaciers to their present status. This general history apphes to high mountain valleys in both the northern and southern hemispheres. ;

FROM LONGW£LL AND FLINT,

Fig.

4.

"INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

— FEATURES

IN

GLACIATED MOUNTAINS

have conspicuous wave-cut surfaces on resistant bedrock, terminating inland against unmistakable sea chffs and remnants of beaches. Like streams, waves require tools for effective cutting.

Blocks

dislodged from cliffs by direct impact of the water are then used for abrasion, together with rock fragments brought from the land

by streams and shifted along shore by currents. High cUffs commonly are undercut by wave action, and eventually the overhanging parts collapse, to be broken up completely. Some more resistant parts of the bedrock are bypassed temporarily and stand above water as isolated stacks. 7. Erosion in Arid Regions. No sharp demarcation can be made between climates classed as arid and humid; but by a com-

—

mon definition, regions with less than 25 cm. (10 in.) average annual precipitation are arid. In these regions the surface of the ground is dry much of the time, there is httle or no protective vegetation and strong winds are an effective eroding agent. Coarse particles swept along the ground have sandblast action, wearing and poHshing facets on loose stones and on bedrock. Window glass exposed to such storms quickly becomes frosted, and unprotected wooden telephone poles are within a short time worn through near the base. Finer particles are carried away in great quantities and to large distances; during and following strong windstorms in the deserts of north Africa, appreciable amounts of dust settle on decks of ships in the Mediterranean and even in countries of southern Europe. In grazing and farming regions classed as semiarid, strong winds carry away vast quantities of During soU, particularly during periods of exceptional drought. the early 1930s a wide belt east of the Rocky mountains in the United States lost much valuable topsoil in windstorms known as black blizzards, which carried dust as far east as the Atlantic seaboard.

deep, steep- walled fjords in Norway, British Columbia, New Zealand and some other lands are valleys fashioned by glaciers and

The

now occupied by the Study of modern

sea.

glaciers has brought realization that at the time of maximum glaciation in the Alps great ice sheets covered wide areas of continents within the temperate zones. In Europe an icecap extended from the Arctic ocean to central Germany, and the British Isles were covered with ice; in North America all of Canada and the northern part of the United States were glaci-

Much

ated.

the bedrock action.

of the soil was removed from the glaciated areas, and was polished, grooved and locally eroded by plucking

Wide

were mantled with and unend moraines, and the

belts marginal to the ice sheets

characteristic glacial deposits, including the unassorted

deposited under the ice and in down by meltwater flowing from the icecaps during stages of their growth and decay. stratified

till

stratified drift laid

—

6. Erosion by Waves. The assault on shore areas by storm waves can be observed at margins of large lakes; and effects of sea waves on open coasts are much more pronounced. Historical records show that wave erosion has made appreciable inroads in

some

coastal areas;

Yorkshire coast 3 mi. since the

many

villages.

for example, along a 30-mi. stretch of the

in eastern

England waves have cut inland 2^

to

Roman occupation, sweeping away the sites of On the other hand some stretches of British and

other coasts have been extended seaward through deposition by currents, waves and streams. Whether wave work is effective in reducing a land area depends on exposure of a shore to prevailing

storm winds, kind of bedrock, depth of water near shore, location and direction of currents, relation to streams that carry large volumes of sediment and other variables. So long as sea level remains constant the extent to which wave erosion can advance inland is hmited. Wave motion extends to a moderate depth known as wave base, and in the lower part of the layer of agitated water there is little energy. As storm waves plane inland, energy is absorbed by friction on the wave-cut platform. Hence with each advance the abihty to erode decreases and the eroded surface slopes upward to an intersection with sea level. If sea level rises slowly, as it did while the great ice sheets of the past were melting, the extent to which waves can plane inland is increased. Northern lands that have been elevated since the ice vanished (see below)

Although abrasion by wind-blown sand is important locally, the work of the wind is in transportation of rock materials broken up by other agents. In contrast to running water, wind (See carries quantities of sediment from lower to higher ground. also Desert; Dune; Wind Erosion and Deposition.) 8. Net Results of Erosive Processes. Each of the eroding agents surface water, ground water, glacier ice, wave action and wind is fashioning distinctive landscape features. These land forms are ephemeral, slowly but constantly changing, and the tendency is toward gradual lowering of the lands. The ideal result if erosion on lands continued without interruption would be reduction of every continent to a low, featureless surface, or peneplain; and by wave action such surfaces might eventually be brought below sea level. Profound effects of erosion are widespread. Very old mountain chains have been brought to low or moderate altitudes; examples are the Caledonian chains of Scandinavia and Britain, the mountains of eastern Australia and the Appalachian belt of eastern North America. Still older chains have been entirely destroyed and only their roots remain as evidence (see below). In each continent wide surfaces that bevel indiscriminately across resistant and weak bedrock represent close approaches to peneplains; but these surfaces have been uplifted and are now being dissected by streams. The forces causing uplift have been persistent, and erosion keeps refashioning land forms that never are brought to completion. chief

—

— —

C. Principles of

An

Sedimentation

understanding of sedimentary rocks

is

all-important in geol-

and sediments now being deposited provide the essential key. The sedimentary processes are a vast and complex subject for study; kinds of materials are numerous, they are worked on by-' ogy,

several kinds of agents, the environments of deposition are diverse and many of them hidden from direct view. Many investigators

are devoting their attention to problems of sedimentation not only by systematic field observations but also in special laboratories

equipped with devices for mechanical and chemical analyses. Attack on difficult aspects of the study is made increasingly effective by co-operative pooling of information won by workers in a number of disciplines; for example, soil scientists; engineers concerned with problems of flood control, reclamation and water-power de-

GEOLOGY velopment; well drillers interested in kinds of material encountered by their tools; companies laying transoceanic cables; and biologists studying the various habitats of organisms that hve in swamps, on lake bottoms or at different depths on the sea floor. On the basis of environment of deposition sediments are broadly assigned to the three categories: terrestrial, those laid down on the lands; marine, those deposited on sea floors though they may have come from the lands; and mixed terrestrial-marine, those deposited in transitional environments such as deltas, marine estuaries and areas between high and low tide. In each major group the sediments are further described as clastic (consisting of rock fragments) and chemical (formed either as inorganic precipitates Further or at least in part through the agency of organisms). classifications recognize the particular environments of deposition on land or in the sea, and the several agents that emplace the

Lakes and swamps, with their peculiar kinds of sedimentary accumulations, are especially numerous in the wide continental areas The unthat were covered with glacier ice in the recent past. assorted deposits

—

Terrestrial Sedimen.ts. Running water is the chief agent for transporting and sorting clastic sediments on land, and vast Bars of sand and deposits are accumulating in stream valleys. gravel in stream channels are a familiar example; but such feaFar more tures are ephemeral, shifting with successive floods. important are deposits on flood plains. Maximum loads are carried by a stream at flood stage in large floods the sediment-laden water spreads beyond the channel, velocity of flow is much decreased and a layer of sediment, chiefly sand, silt and clay, is In a major valley, such as spread over the nearly level plain. that of the Amazon, the Mississippi or the Hwang Ho, flood waters cover a belt tens of miles wide; over much of the area the water, nearly stationary, is present for days or even weeks until the finest clay particles may settle out. Although flood-plain sediments are chiefly fine grained, gravel and coarse sand included locally may represent lateral migration of the channel in the growth and shiftTributaries that enter from hilly country coming of meanders. monly mix coarse deposits with finer sediments of the main valley. In general the grain size of sediments along a large stream valley Abundant gravel in headwater decreases steadily downstream. areas has angular fragments, many of boulder size. These become smoothed and reduced in diameter by abrasion in transport; careful measurements show a constant increase in average roundness and decrease in average size of grain with distance of travel. The prospective goal of these stream-borne particles is the sea; but there are long delays for quantities of sediment spread over a flood plain. A stream in its slow lateral migration across its valley eventually cuts into these temporary deposits and carries them farther; but they are subject to the chance of redeposition on the wider plain farther downstream. Moreover below a critical point along the course of every major stream the flood plain is steadily building up, burying older deposits to increasing depth, because the stream must adjust its grade to increasing length as the delta grows seaward. The Mississippi river once entered the 1.

;

present mouth;

has deposited flood-plain sediments hundreds of feet thick to maintain a slope of a few inches per mile as the delta front migrates southward. The profiles of many streams are mterrupted by lakes in their paths. Thus the Rhone river flows into the Lake of Geneva, in its

it

suspended load and flows out a clear stream. Eventually the lake will be filled with sediment into which the river will then cut to establish a normal grade. Deposits Switzerland, deposits

its

in lakes generally are coarse

grained near the margins, progres-

though preponderant contributions by a large stream make the pattern asymmetric. Known lakes represent various stages in fiUing by sedimentation; and some old lake deposits have been well exposed to view by erosion. Chemical deposition of calcium carbonate and other mineral substances ocsively finer grained inward,

curs in the interior parts of

some

lands with deficient rainfall. stages of filling with sediments

lake basins, especially those in In humid regions lakes in the last

become swamps

in

which accumu-

Ireland, Scotland

may form beds of peat like those common in and many other lands. Formation of peat, an

early stage in the

development of

lating plant materials

of the plant substances in

sediments, followed

coal, has required

swampy

accumulation

basins protected from detrital

by complex biochemical changes.

(till)

formed by the

ice

and the

stratified drift

down by meltwater from

the icecaps are described briefly above in connection with erosion by glaciers. Other types of unstratified rock waste that are widespread on the lands are the

laid

moving by creep, landsliding and other forms of mass wasting, and residual material on low, flat areas where intensive weathering is in progress but there is no appreciable movement. In some tropical countries the deeply weathered residuum has a materials

pronounced red colour from concentration of ferric oxide (see Laterite). Distinctive fine-grained sediment accumulated by wind action In wide areas of China such material, wholly is called loess. spread over hilly country without regard for topogsilt size or smaller, in large part unweathered and with angular shape. Apparently this material was Similar carried by winds from the arid regions of central Asia.

unstratified,

sediments.

sea far north of

169

raphy.

The

is

grains are of

many parts of the Rhine and Mississippi valleys may have had its source on barren plains formed by fine sediments washed from melting icecaps. Another common kind of wind deposit is dune sand, abundant in arid regions but widespread also near sandy shores of seas and large lakes, where a constant supply of sand is provided by the action of waves and currents. Great deltas pro2. Mixed Terrestrial-Marine Deposits vide the most imposing visible exhibits of waste products moved from lands to seas. Exposed surfaces of the Ganges (Ganga)Brahmaputra and Nile deltas measure about 50,000 sq.mi. 129,500 sq.km.) and 9,200 sq.mi. (23,900 sq.km.) respectively; that of the Hwang Ho is much larger; and if to these is added the surface area

loess in

—

(

the deltas of the Amazon, Orinoco, Mississippi, Colorado, Yukon, Indus, Volga, Po, Rhone, Rhine and other comparable streams, the total is over 386,100 sq.mi. (1,000,000 sq.km.). As all large delta surfaces slope gently outward underwater, areas at the bases of marine deltas combine to make a total several times Rates at which several great that of the exposed delta plains. deltas are growing seaward are estimated from frequent measurement of sediments delivered by their streams and from repeated checks on positions of shore lines. The amount of sediment added of

about 2,000,000 tons per day. Locally the exposed surface has grown seaward several miles within 50 years; but in situations exposed to storm waves the Precise geodetic work has detershore line has been cut back. mined that in much of its area the delta is subsiding at rates of two or three metres per century, a movement that is partly or wholly compensated by continued upbuilding. Data from deep wells drilled for oil, supplemented by geophysical studies, indicate that at a maximum the total thickness of the deltaic deposits exto the Mississippi delta averages

ceeds 36,000 ft. (11,000 m.); presumably, therefore, crustal subsidence has proceeded as the delta grew. Streams in crossing their deltas branch into distributary channels

fanhke pattern. Because of imareas and even lakes between Sediments in large deltas are predomithe Mississippi delta the percentage of

which diverge outward

perfect drainage there are

in a

swampy

adjacent distributaries. nantly fine grained; in clay is high and generally the largest grains are of coarse-sand In parts of size, though scattered small pebbles are reported. the deposit, sand, silt and clay are mingled in complex fashion because at flood stage the muddy water of the stream mixes with

sea water and salt causes flocculation of the clay, which in sinking carries coarser particles with it. Moreover the distributaries continually change their courses, carrying sand and silt into swampy areas to be mixed with clay and decaying vegetable matter. With outward growth of the delta plain, stream deposits of continental type come to overlie marine sediments; later subsidence or a rise in sea level may result in marine deposition over the continental

This constant interplay makes deltaic sediments extremely complex. Most small streams that enter the sea cannot build deltas because waves and currents sweep away the sediments as fast as they are delivered. In some situations areas between the limits of high

beds.

:

GEOLOGY

lyo

—

—

and low tides the littoral zone acquire a mixture of continental and marine deposits. Along some coasts strong waves breaking on a sandy bottom heap the sand into an offshore bar which may grow into an extensive barrier island. Long lagoons protected by such barriers accumulate sediments from the land, as well as sediments brought in by waves during exceptional storms. Another environment for mixture of land and sea deposits is provided by estuaries in which the water changes from salt to fresh with the rise and fall of the tides. 3. Marine Sediments. Marine basins occupy much more than half the earth's surface, and their situations lower than the lands have made them the receptacles of sediments through long ages. Sediments washed from the lands are continually being spread over

—

sea floors, supplementing vast deposits of directly marine origin. These processes are for the most part concealed from direct human observation. Effective and rapidly improving methods of study-

ages

when vast

present.

As the

continuous profile of the floor beneath a vessel moving at its norUntil the second half of the 20th centurj' devices used for collecting bottom samples penetrated to very shallow depths and either mixed the sediments indiscriminately or caused Coring cylinders distortion and compaction of individual layers. were developed that have recovered cores up to 23 m. (75 ft.) long in which the layers of sediment are essentially undisturbed. Large numbers of such samples, taken at various depths and representing a wide range in distance from land, are studied in laboratories to determine the physical and chemical compositions of the sediments, thickness and arrangement of layers, content of organic remains and other significant facts. Marine sediments commonly are classified according to their depth below sea level, and also according to their origin. Three depth zones are recognized in the first classification: the shallow or neritic zone, the deep or bathyal zone and the very deep or abyssal zone. These subdivisions are in general those recognized on a profile from a continental margin into an ocean basin. Continents and large islands are bordered by comparatively shallow water on a shelf which slopes gently outward to a depth ranging from 100 to 200 m, (325 to 650 ft.); sediments of this shelf are classed as neritic. At the outer edge of the shelf the slope steepens appreciably on the continental slope, which extends to the deep ocean floor; sediments of this slope are bathyal, and those of the ocean floor are abyssal. A classification according to source of sediments is as follows I. Derived from lands and contributed by A. Streams B. C.

Wave

erosion of coasts

Winds

D. Floating II.

As

Formed

ice

in the sea

by

A. Shells and skeletons of marine animals and plants B. Chemical precipitation in. Fragmental material erupted by volcanoes IV. Particles of meteorites from outside the earth the shelf seas border continents and islands, a large part of

is made up of clastic materials derived from Generally these materials become well sorted according to size; waves agitate the sediments near shore and currents separate fine particles from coarse and carry them to depths below wave action. In a simple system the coarse materials, spread out near shore, would grade seaward into silt and clay. Actually the movements of sea water are extremely complex because of coastal irregularities, varied directions of storm winds, uneven bottom topography, proximity of great ocean currents and other variables. Accordingly the coarse sediments are carried out much farther in some places than in others. Moreover sea level has not remained fixed and on the gently sloping shelf a moderate shift in the water level results in a large shift of the shore line. During the glacial

the neritic sediments the lands.

level shifted gradually,

up

ft.)

in ice sheets

lower than at

downward and upward

Transatlantic cables have been broken by such sliding masses; and studies indicate. that swift currents generated by the sliding carr>' currents

mal speed.

90 m. (300

;

loads of clay,

geologic

as

ably much of this material is carried out by sliding of loose, water-saturated sediments on the unstable sloping surfaces.

Ocean and Oceanography), but their value in geology a brief summary here. The techniques most essential in

study of sea floors are those for determining depths and for bottom sampling. Until well into the 20th century both these operations were slow and inaccurate and the resulting scattered observations gave little basis for reliable conclusions. The development of equipment for echo sounding made it possible to obtain an accurate

much

with growth and wasting of icecaps, shore lines migrated tens of miles on the wide shelves. As a result coarse clastic sediments were deposited far out at times of maximum glaciation, to be covered with fine-grained deposits when waning glacier ice restored the higher sea level. Great quantities of land-derived clastic sediments are spread beyond the shelves onto the continental slopes and parts of the deep ocean floors. Recent geophysical work has determined that thick deposits lie on these floors at the bases of the slopes prob-

ing marine sedimentation belong in the field of oceanography (see justifies

quantities of water were locked

on lands sea level was as

silt

and sand

far out

on the ocean

floors.

These

move along the bottom because the exceptional loads of sediments make them turbidity currents, much heavier than the clear water above.

Of the sediments with marine origin an overwhelming percentis contributed by animals and plants, for the most part small floating or swimming forms, many of them microscopic or nearly so. In tropical and temperate zones the surface waters teem with myriads of these organisms, some of which form shells of calcium carbonate (commonly called lime), others of silica, extracted from The discarded shells settle to the ocean floors and sea water. age

In warm regions the calcareous shells are predominant, and great expanses of the ocean This deposit is absent floors are covered with calcareous ooze. from the deeper parts of ocean basins, however, because the cold slowly build a deposit over wide areas.

water at great depth, containing much carbon dioxide, dissolves Siliceous ooze, the slowly settling flakes of calcium carbonafe. much less soluble, covers large areas in deep oceans; but in wide tracts the siliceous particles are mingled with fine clay, probably supplied by winds carrying dust from lands or from volcanic erupThrough oxidation the clay has acquired a distinctive red tions. colour. The red-clay deposits in deep oceans contain more particles of meteorites than are found elsewhere, probably because accumulation of the clay is so slow the meteoritic materials are relatively concentrated and conditions on the ocean floors protect these materials from rapid chemical decay. Some cores brought up from deep ocean floors, far from land, consist chiefly of clastic materials, including fairly coarse sand,

with only a thin cover of ooze or of red clay. Probably the clastic sediments were derived by sliding from a continental slope and carried far out by turbidity currents. Marine organisms are abundant over the continental shelves, but generally the organic materials are masked by clastic sediments that accumulate more rapidly in most parts of the neritic zone. But there are notable exceptions to this general rule. Along some low coasts that are protected from sediment-laden currents the shells of mollusks and other large shelled animals accumulate In coastal belts of southern Florida and the in widespread layers.

Bahama

Islands such accumulations are being cemented rapidly

into firm rock.

On

shelves in the tropical zone corals and other

reef-forming animals are building immense calcareous deposits, many of them near coasts. Calcareous ooze also is forming on some shelf areas from which clastic sediments are diverted. Pre-

around coasts of some low-latitude islands is explained as the result of oversaturation on loss of carbon dioxide through increase of temperature or lowering of pressure. The neritic sediments are of particular interest in geology, becipitation of lime

cause in large part the marine sedimentary rocks now exposed on land have features that indicate their origin in the shelf zone. Some rocks exposed in mountain belts, however, have characteristics peculiar to sediments in deeper parts of the oceans. 4. Conversion of Sediments to Sedimentary Rocks. Ce-

—

mentation and compaction convert deposits of loose clastic sediments and soft oozes into firm rocks, some of them as strong as granite. Layers of clay and fine silt become compacted more and more under the weight of overlying beds, and much water in the

>

—

GEOLOGY original

mud

is

Calcareous ooze loses excess water

expelled.

same way, and slow

the

in

crystallization of the carbonate minerals

produces firm limestone and dolomite. Water moving through pores between sand grains and pebbles in the coarser clastic layers slowly deposits dissolved mineral matter, such as calcium carbonate, which binds the particles together; layers of sand become sandstone, those made of larger particles pebbles to boulders become conglomerate. In the change from loose sediment to strong rock many distinctive features are preserved: tracks of

—

animals made on muddy surfaces; forms of ripples molded in loose sand beneath oscillating waves; cracks formed on muddy surfaces from drying; and, particularly important, shells and bones of animals and tissues and impressions of plants which give reliable information on the environments under which the sediments were laid

down.

D. Structural Geology

—

Geometric study of rocks recognizes primary structures those acquired in the genesis of a rock mass and secondary structures Familiarity with primary that result from later deformation. features is essential for effective study of deformed masses. The many significant features in sedimentary rocks make them especially valuable for detecting and evaluating later changes in form. Of outstanding importance is the nearly horizontal attitude of true sedimentary beds when they are deposited; such beds that now have steep attitudes clearly record later distortion. In many belts of strong disturbance the beds have been overturned, even completely inverted, as shown by positions of animal tracks, plant roots, mild cracks and other features that mark tops of sedimentary layers. Volcanic rocks also have distinctive features, such as vesicles in the upper parts of lava sheets, which give them value in

—

structural studies.

Such studies

may

result in purely

factual descriptions of de-

171

Folds occur in a more or less regular sequence of upbends or anticUnes and downbends or synclines. In major mountain chains folding has affected belts tens of miles wide and hundreds of miles long; individual folds are continuous for tens of miles and the largest measure several miles between crests of adjacent anticlines. Folds of smaller scale are superimposed on the sides or limbs of the major folds. The general pattern may be imitated in miniature by placing a stack of cloths or of thin paper sheets on a table and compressing from opposite edges. Folding can occur only in

layered rocks and is best developed in thick sections of sedimentary beds, although some volcanic rocks consisting of lava flows and beds of volcanic ash also are strongly folded. This kind of

deformation indicates large-scale compression. Joints, or breaks along which no perceptible movement has occurred, are present in nearly all large exposures of bedrock. Only in exceptional places can quarrymen find good stone sufficiently free from joints to provide perfect monoliths 50 to 100 ft. long. In igneous rocks many joints have formed by contraction on cooling. Joints cutting rocks of all kinds probably have resulted from stresses set up by warping, folding and other deformation. Faults are breaks in bedrock along which displacement has ocAbrupt slips on active faults curred parallel to the fractures. cause earthquakes such movements on a given fault may occur at ;

intervals of years or tens of years to relieve stresses that build

Dimensions of faults range from inches to hundreds amounts of displacement vary widely. The San Andreas fault in CaUfornia on which movement caused the earthquake of 1906 can be traced at the surface nearly 1,000 km. (600 mi.); displacement in 1906 was horizontal, as much as 21 ft. roads and fences were sharply offset to that extent. Earlier

up slowly.

of miles, and

—

movements account for a total displacement of many miles. On some other faults the displacement has been chiefly vertical, producing a high cliff or scarp. Most faults are inclined, some steeply, others at a low angle. If displacement is relatively downward on the side toward which the break

LlMESTONE

moved

is

inclined, the fault

is

called

upward, the fault is reverse. Reverse faults with low angles of inclination and large Such displacement are called thrust faults, or simply thrusts. faults commonly are associated with folds in mountain belts. The that is, movement on great majority of known faults are dead normal;

if

that side has

relatively

—

them apparently ceased long MILES BY

COURTESY OF U.S.

—

5. (A) FOLDED MARINE STRATA IN WESTERN VIRGINIA; (B) STRATA SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINIA. FOLDED AND SLICED BY THRUST FAULTS

FTG. IN

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

formed rocks; but a broad view of the subject considers possible causes of deformation, and inquires into the structure of entire continents and of the earth as a whole. 1. Evidence of Crustal Movements Within historic time abrupt and large-scale displacements of bedrock have occurred. In iSgg part of the Alaskan coast was raised instantaneously as much as 14.5 m. (47 ft.) the movement was attended by a major earthquake. Other extensive breaks in bedrock, coinciding with earthquakes, have been recorded in Chile, California, Japan, Italy and many other lands. Movements of another kind, slow and affecting wide areas, are revealed in evidence partly historic and partly older. Marks made at high-tide level along the Norwegian coast more than a century ago are now several feet above the reach of tides. Uplift of Scandinavia has been long continued, as shown by a succession of wide benches bearing marks of shore lines, the highest about 275 m. (goo ft.) above present sea level. Evidence of similar broad uplift is conspicuous in Newfoundland, and in Canada along the St. Lawrence river and around Hudson bay. A movement of this kind, involving gradual bending of a wide surface, is known as crustal warping. Ancient warping at many dates is recorded in broad bending, both upward and downward, of sedimentary beds; the structural evidence remains though the land surface that must have been deformed has been destroyed by erosion. In addition to broad warps, the principal kinds of struc;

tural features that record

deformation are

cleavage and unconformities.

folds, joints,

faults,

ago.

Cleavage has been developed in many large masses of rock under high compressive stress. In nearly all large mountain belts shale Cleavage, in closely folded beds has been transformed into slate. cutting sharply across the original bedding, divides the slate In many zones into thin plates with remarkably plane surfaces. of extreme deformation the slate has passed into lustrous phylUte, or even into mica schist, in which the cleavage surfaces commonly are much crumpled. Many old crustal movements are recorded by interruptions in sequences of sedimentary beds. For example in the walls of the Grand canyon of Arizona a thick section of beds containing fossils of marine animals is almost horizontal; but the base of the section rests on the edges of tilted older beds, some of which also yield marine fossils. A general succession of events is clearly indicated: the older beds were deposited on a sea floor; they were deformed, lifted above the sea and partly destroyed by erosion; the region later subsided, a new section of marine beds was laid down and the present land was formed by widespread uplift but with little deformation of the younger beds. The two sequences of beds are unconformable, and because of the angular divergence they are Many unconsaid to be separated by an angular unconformity. formities represent interruptions in sedimentation by broad jvarping movements that left the older beds essentially horizontal; successive sequences of beds then have no perceptible angular divergence, though the surface separating them may represent a long history of erosion. Discordant contacts between masses of rock result also from large-scale faulting and from igneous intrusion; but the term unconformity is applied only to a relation that involves erosion and deposition of layered rocks, either sedimentary or volcanic in origin.

GEOLOGY

172 Mountain Structure.

—

Kinds and structure of rock masses mountain lands are highly varied; but in every great mountain belt exceptionally thick sedimentary sections have been deformed by folding and faulting. Erosion has truncated folds over wide areas and exposed complete sections of the beds, which have maximum total thicknesses as great as 10 to 13 km. (6 to 8 mi.). The beds, consisting of conglomerate, sandstone, shale and limestone, are largely of marine origin as shown by included fossils, and in considerable part the sediments resemble modern deposits in shallow water and at moderate depths; therefore the basins of deposition must have subsided slowly while the sediments accumulated. In many places the marine beds intertongue laterally with coarse littoral and deltaic deposits. As this relationship extends 2.

exposed

in

through large thicknesses, the lands that supplied the clastic sediments must have been rising while the sedimentary basins were sinking. Therefore the site of a mountain belt was a zone of disturbance for a long time before the mountains were formed. Lavas and other volcanic materials commonly are included with sediments in parts of the section. Generally the zone of subsidence and sedimentation marking the early stages of mountain history was situated near the margin of a continental mass. Much of the clastic sediment, however, has come from land on the seaward side, as shown by the direction of Thus in parts of the gradation from coarse to fine materials. Appalachian mountains coarse-grained sediments grade westward through shale to limestone. The land that supplied pebbles, sand, and silt lay east of the present coast, and perhaps consisted of

generally similar structure and the heights of the belts increase with decreasing age; examples representing four dates in a long

span of time are the northwest Highlands of Scotland, the Appalachian chain, the

Rocky mountains and

arcs in the Pacific basin

and

the Alps.

Some

island

|

Caribbean region appear to Therefore orogeny has been

in the

|

be mountain units now growing. continuous or recurrent through much of geologic time. The cause and the mechanism of orogeny and of broad warping movements that repeatedly have lifted and depressed continental areas are matters of much interest and active study; but the subject is too involved and speculative for treatment here. Some physical principles involved in the history of persistent mountain uplifts merit brief attention.

Balance in the Earth's Crust.

j

|

—Old mountain

units such South Africa, and the Rocky mountains of Colorado have been brought to subdued relief by erosion but have regained much of the lost altitude by repeated upwarping. This behaviour is generally similar to that of an iceberg which, though its emerged portion is subject to continuous melting, maintains much of its height by buoyant rise of the greater mass under water. The comparison is a reminder that rocks exposed in the continents are on the average appreciably less dense than the basaltic rocks common in the ocean floors. Though wide continental surfaces have been submerged repeatedly, the resulting 3.

as the Appalachian chain, the ranges of

^Ol-C^Nf

ISLANDS

islands in a chain similar to the present island arcs of the Carib-

bean region and many parts of the Pacific basin.

Modern

island

arcs are in zones of volcanic activity, with products similar to volcanic rocks found in the

The

deformed sections of mountain

belts.

areas of thick sedimentary sections vary in width but generally

In the Appalachian mountains the total section of beds is six to eight times as thick as the section of the same age in the wide Mississippi valley region diTherefore before deformation occurred the rectly to the west.

are no wider than the mountain belt.

base of the thick section curved gently downward in the form of a broad trough, the result of slow subsidence as the sediments accumulated. Because of this troughlike form the area of thick sediments is called a geosyncline a downbending of global scale and the long period of sedimentary accumulation before the development of mountain structure is referred to as the geosynclinal

—

—

FROM LONGWeiL AND FLINT, "INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

—

MAJOR FEATURES OF RELIEF ON A SEGMENT OF THE EARTH, WITH FIG. 6. VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED ABOUT EIGHT TIMES all known evidence indicates that continents and deep ocean floors never have exchanged places. Therefore a favoured concept regards the continents as the upper surfaces of crustal plates with comparatively low density that are buoyed up on a subcrust of higher density; high mountain chains logically represent thickened parts of the continental plates

seas have been shallow;

(fig. 6).

This concept

is

strongly supported by geophysical data related Elastic waves traveling from an

stage.

to tlie study of earthquakes.

Deformation of a large belt to form mountain structure is called In a general way orogeny, literally the genesis of mountains. orogeny has followed the geosynclinal stage; but the history has

earthquake centre or from the location of a large artificial explosion move at higher speeds through basaltic rocks than through the granitic rocks common in continental masses. Instrumental records of these waves at many stations indicate that the average thickness of continental plates is 25 to 40 km. and that beneath a high mountain unit such as the Alps the thickness is 60 km. or more. Thus the large irregularities of the earth's surface are not haphazard but are controlled by gravity; the general state of balance

been complex in every great mountain unit. Within parts of the Appalachian belt angular unconformities record repeated deformation, erosion that beveled the resulting folds and faults, then continued subsidence and sedimentation. But a final paroxysm of deformation ended the geosynclinal stage, mountainous topography became the rule and later history has been a contest between erosion and renewed uplift. Apparently the Alps and related mountain units, which aie much younger than the Appalachians and Urals, are in an early stage of their history following deformation of the geosynclinal deposits. Erosion has proceeded far enough to reveal spectacular effects of folding and faulting. Great folds, overturned toward the north, have repeated the beds in complex further repetition has resulted from low-angle thrust on which great slices of the deformed rock, piled one above another, have been moved many miles northward. Similar structure is found in older mountain belts, where erosion has exposed also great masses of metamorphic rock and large intrusive bodies of granitic rock emplaced during the orogeny. Sites of the oldest great mountain units are in present lowlands, and are recognized in elongate belts of contorted and faulted sedimentary rocks, much metamorphosed, partly engulfed in large granitic batholiths. Such "roots" of mountains are con.spicuous in parts of Canada, Fennoscandia, Siberia, central Africa and Brazil, in areas that through long ages have been above sea level, subject to weathering and erosion. Other well-known mountain belts, forming a sequence from old to comparatively young, have fashion; faults

between segments of the crust that

differ in

density

is

called

isostasy (equal standing).

The concept of isostatic balance is in accord with the behaviour of areas that were covered with icecaps during the Great Ice Age, or Pleistocene epoch. Since the ice disappeared the glaciated areas have been warped upward, as shown by elevated shore lines; in Scandinavia and Canada the highest marine terraces are hundreds of feet above sea level and probably much more uplift occurred while the wasting ice kept the sea from contact with the land. Presumably the icecaps, many thousands of feet thick, disturbed the isostatic balance and caused downwarping; this may have involved slow flowage of rock materials, at great depth, outward from the loaded areas. Wasting of the ice has brought readjustment and rise of land surfaces toward preglacial levels. E.

Economic Geology

civilization is heavily dependent are obtained from the earth's crust and therefore have a prominent Although the term place in the study and practice of geology. mineral ordinarily suggests solid substances, water also is a mineral resource of primary importance. A major part of the water supply

The minerals on which our

-

GEOLOGY

Plate I

BY COURTESY OF (TOP LEFT| US GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, PHOTO BY T. A. JAG6AR, JR.; (TOP RIGHT, CENTRE CEHTRE LEFT) LONGWELL AND FLINT, " NTRODU CT ION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY," (CENTRE RIGHT) LONGWELL, "PRINCIPLES OF GEOMORPKOLOGY"; (BOTTOM RIGHT) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA t

CENTRE RIGHT) JOHN WILEY a SONS, l\C KNOPF AND FLINT, 'PHYSICAL GEOLOGY." (BOTTOM

LEFT,

LEFTj

THORNBURY,

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS Top

Two

(foreground and in background at left) on the floor of the great pit Halennaumau. Kilauea volcano. Hawaii Top right : Slaty cleavage which developed nearly parallel to a plane bisecting a sharp fold in beds of shale Centre left: Slide-rock on a slope below a cliff in the Northwest Territories, left:

"lakes" of

Canada Centre right: Exfoliation

fluid lava

tures and rainfall. left:

New Zealand Bottom right: Stream meandering meanders

of granite

in

a climate

with moderate tempera-

Sierra Nevada, California

Upland surface almost completely dissected by a network of The Lammerlaws. near Otago, streams, though some flat divides remain.

Bottom

persist,

some

as

oxbow

on lakes.

its

flood

plain.

Koyukuk

river,

Forms Alaska

of

cut-off

Plate

GEOLOGY

II

FROM (TOP LEFT) LONGWELt AND FLINT, "INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. (TOP RiCHT) THJRSBY COURTESY OF (TCP LEFT TOP RIGHT. CENTRE LEFT) JOHN WILEY S SONS. INC. FROM (CENTRE RIGHT. BOTTOM LEFT) MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY. INC. BURT -PRINCIPLES OF GEOMORPHOLOSY ." (CENTRE LEFT) FLINT. "GLACIAL AND PLEISTOCENE GECLOGY": (CENTBE LEFli BRADFORD WASHBURN PH0TCGB4P" BLACKWELDER; ELIOT RIGHTi (BOTTOM -GEOLOGY-; ALLISON. EMMONS, THlEL. STAUFFER

EROSION BY GLACIERS AND OTHER AGENTS Top

left: Part of rubble heap and scar

range, (left)

Wyoming. 1925.

Resulting

made by

landslide in Gros Ventre

lake extends

three

miles upstream

now right: Cavities in limestone caused by ground water solution and exposed in a stone quarry the of moraines Lateral Centre left: Valley glacier and tributaries. Barnard glacier, branches become medial moraines of the main glacier. Alaska

Top

Centre right: Rugged topography in the Swiss Alps between valley glaciers which head in cirques. Sharp peaks are called horns Bottom left: Bedrock polished and grooved by a vanished glacier. Boulders were left when the ice melted. Lucerne. Switzerland Bottom right: Till exposed in road cut, east slope of the Sierra Nevada Largest blocks, range. California. three to four feet long

enclosed

in

fine-grained

matrix, are

GEOLOGY

Plate III

FROM {TOP LEFT. TCP RIGHT) THORNBURY, PRINCIPLES OF G EOM ORPHOLOG Y " {CENTRE RIGHT) tONGWELL. BY COURTESY OF (ALL EXl.tPT lENTRE LtFT, JOHN WILEY a SONS. INC. "INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL KNOPF AND FLINT. "PHYSICAL GEOLOGY." {BOTTOM LEFT) DUNBAR AND RODGERS. "PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY," {BOTTOM RIGHT) LOWGWELL AND FLINT. REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION OF THE CONTROLLER H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE PHOTOGRAPH SURVEY GEOLOGY"; (CENTRE LEFT) CROWN COPYRIGHT: GEOLOGICAL ,

ERODED AND DEFORMED BEDROCK Top

left: Platform cut by waves across steeply inclined sedimentary beds

Remnant projecting above platform forms a and exposed at low tide. stack at high tide. Aberystwyth, Wales Top right: Cliff formed on horizontal beds of weak chalk by active wave erosion. View at low tide. Sussex, England Centre left: Even terrace, cut by waves on resistant rock, shows by its position 100 ft. above sea level that the land was uplifted in recent times.

Islay, Inner

Hebrides, Scotland

Centre right: Two

sets of vertical

joints,

nearly at right angles, cutting

Drummond Island, Michigan horizontal beds of limestone. Bottom left: Original top of a bed clearly indicated by pattern of filled mudcracks

in

shale.

Maryland

right: Strata in overturned folds along Buffels river, Cape ranges. Union of South Africa

Bottom

GEOLOGY

Plate IV

6Y COURTESY OF (TOP LEFT. TOP RIGHT. CENTRE LEFT, CENTRE B1GHH JOHN W;Lf> PHYSICAL GCOLCGY." (CENTRE RIGHT) DUNBAR, "HISTORICAL GEOLOGY"; (TOP LEFT N.Y.

LEFT. Ti:P R'GHT, CEN'RE LEFT) LONGWELL AND FLINT. "INTRODUCTION TO (BOTTOM LEFT) SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION; (BOTTOM RIGHT) THE AMERICAN

MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,

RECORDS Top left: Strip mining of a soft coal bed 60 Wyoming Top right: A-nguiar unconformity between two The Miocene beds were

to

90

ft

thick.

IN

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Wyodak

marine algae in Cambrian limestone, polished by glacier ice. Saratoga, New York Alberta, left: Forms of two trilobites on a slab of Cambrian shale.

Centre right: Part exposed on

sets

of

sedimentary beds.

tilted from an original horizontal attitude and beveled by erosion before the Pleistocene gravels were deposited. Nevada Centre left: Paleoioic strata about 4.000 ft. thick. Grand Canyon, Arizona. The inner gorge, in granitic rocks, is 1.000 ft. deep

Sofrom

of a large reef of

a surface

Canada

Bottom time.

right: Fossil

fish

Southwestern

on a slab of shale formed

Wyoming

in

a lake

durmg Eocene

—

GEOLOGY

173

developed for private, public and industrial use is obtained directly or indirectly from underground sources; even streams and lakes used in systems of water supply receive their steady replenishment from ground water. Therefore some knowledge of the kinds

and structure of

local

bedrock

is

essential in plans for

developing, conserving and ensuring the sanitary quality of an adequate water supply, particularly for a large community. Many wide areas on the flanks of highlands are favoured with artesian conditions.

FROM LONGWELL AND FLINT, "INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

—

THREE TYPES OF OIL TRAPS. POROUS SANDSTONE IS SHOWN BY FIG. 8. DOTS. IMPERVIOUS SHALE BY PARALLEL LINES. OIL FILLS THE PORE SPACES

ROCK

economic minerals are grouped in two general cateand nonmetallic. Deposits of metallic minerals those from which are extracted common metals such as iron, copare extremely per, zinc and lead, and many that are less common Many large masses of diverse in their occurrence and origin.

IN

metalliferous ore are connected, directly or indirectly, with bodies Masses that apparently separated directly out of igneous rock.

practical in earlier exploration;

The

solid

gories: metallic

—

of

molten magmas are illustrated by the magnetic iron ores at

Some metallic ores were formed at contacts of Kiruna, Swed. igneous bodies with older rocks; others by hydrothermal action that extended from the bodies of magma far out into the adjacent older rock; still others in veins built up by crystallization from solutions that migrated outward from magmas along joints and Important metalliferous deposits of sedifaults in older rocks. mentary origin include the Clinton iron-ore beds that are widespread in the Appalachian region, and the iron ranges of the Lake Superior region. The latter deposits, the largest and richest bodies of hematite discovered by the second half of the 20th century, were enriched by circulating waters which dissolved silica and other substances, leaving a residue with a high content of iron oxide. Many other bodies of metalliferous ores, varied in origin, have been enriched by dissolving of mineral matter in the zone of aeration and redeposition below the water table.

Another type of

concentration has been performed by running water on the surface; the lighter rock materials have been washed away, and heavy substances such as gold, platinum and tin oxide have accumulated in placer deposits. (For further information on metalliferous deposits see the articles Mining, Metal; Ore Deposits; and articles on various metals and metallic ores.) Of outstanding importance among nonmetallic deposits are the mineral fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas which are rich in solar energy locked up in chemical compounds by plants and animals of past ages. Coal originated in vast swamps; plant materials, accumulated in large thickness, were compressed under the weight of sediments deposited over them, and slow chemical changes with attendant loss of gas have resulted in fuels of several grades from peat to anthracite (fig. 7). Petroleum is a product of slow chemical change in organic material, much of it contributed

—

—

pressure of Overlying sediments _^

ANTHRACITE

BACTERIAL

iyDECOMPOSlTION

Geophysical principles and techin the petroleum industry. niques for finding favourable structures also are employed extensively in the continuing search for oil. Many important discoveries have been made by drilling to depths considered im-

ment

some producing wells are as deep m. (20,000 ft.). (For further information see Geophysical Prospecting; Coal and Coal Mining; Petroleum; Gas Industry.) Other nonmetallic deposits include a large number of mineral concentrates, some of which originated as chemical precipitates in seas and lakes; prominent among these are gypsum and common as 6,000

salt.

Economic development

On the other hand, information revealed in mining operations and in the world-wide search for petroleum has contributed much to the growth of geo-

logic science.

HI.

major part of the legible history of the earth is read from sedimentary rocks, which record an order of events, changing environments, developments in animal and plant life and effects of Important supplements to the record are crustal movements. found (i) in volcanic rocks, which in many places are interlayered with and grade into sedimentary deposits; (2) in relations of intrusive igneous bodies to older and younger rocks; and (3) in surfaces resulting from erosion, some of them exhibited in present landscapes, others in large part buried under sedimentary or volcanic accumulations.

viewed

in

human

Fig.

7.

The high lights of known earth history, make a lively record of a vacillating

perspective,

contest between sea and land; the development, rise and wasting of great mountain systems the waxing, waning and shifting

away

;

of volcanic belts; and above

all

the miracle of evolving

life in

seas

and on lands, leading to modern floras and faunas and the rise of man. Relative dates through a vast lapse of time are clearly indicated in the stratigraphic record and rehable absolute dates are becoming available from geochemical studies of critical isotopes. The comprehensive study of stratified rocks is stratigraphy. The study of fossilized plants and animals with regard to their distribuThese two disciplines are completion in time is paleontology. mentary and in geologic practice they are inseparable. In the though

explanation they are here introduced separately, discussed only in their relation to stratified

fossils are

rocks.

PEAT 50 FT FROM LONGWELL

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

A

'interest of clear

IP^

of deposits in the earth's crust applies

principles of geology to practical ends.

LIGNITE 10 FT A

=-2C£JJ'~BlTUMINOUS COAL 5

A. Stratigraphy

FT.

FLINT, "INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

CONVERSION OF PLANT MATTER INTO PEAT AND THREE GRADES OF

COAL

by small marine plants and animals to sediments as they accumulated on sea floors. Oil and gas generated in the source beds have migrated into adjacent porous layers, where generally water has forced the lighter fluids into various kinds of traps, sealed by beds of shale or other impervious rock (fig. 8). Occurrence of some extensive gas deposits free from oil is explained by escape of the more mobile gas from an earlier common trap to a location under more impervious rock. Exceptionally the migrating oil and gas have come to rest in volcanic rocks, or even in metamorphic rocks that have some porosity; but nearly all oil and gas pools of commercial value are in sedimentary rocks. Geologic principles and information are important aids in the search for new producing localities and a large majority of trained geologists find employ-

Study of sedimentary rocks begins logically with consideration of materials that make up the various rock t)T3es. This aspect of the subject, sedimentary petrography, is outlined briefly under Mineralogy and Petrology, above, though only the commonest kinds of rock are listed. In a descriptive study it becomes clear that the key to an understanding of sedimentary rocks is supplied by the many kinds of sediments now accumulating this aspect of the subject is discussed above under Principles of Sedimentation. ;

The

third step in the study considers the over-all relations of the

and time and the history recorded in them; broad view of the subject is stratigraphy. A fundamental principle in the study, known as the law of superposition, is that in a sequence of layered rocks as they were laid down, any layer This seems elementary for is older than the layer next above it. rocks that have not been disturbed; but commonly in mountain zones very thick sections of strata have been overturned, even comstratified rocks in space this

GEOLOGY

174

and can be correctly understood only through beds and thus establish the sequence of deposition. Another requirement for useful interpretation of strata is recognition of physical conditions under which they were laid down. Again comparison is made with sediments now being deposited. Close matching of the diverse kinds of modern sediments with materials in sedimentary rocks representing an immense pletely inverted,

criteria that indicate tops of

span of time gives strong support to the uniformitarian principle, which states that processes now acting on the earth have operated continuously and rather uniformly through long ages. This principle, resting on world-wide inductive studies, is one of the most in geology.

fundamental

Sedimentary Facies.

— Sediments

laid down by a stream on from the unassorted till in the end moraine of a glacier. Each environment of sedimentary deposition puts its stamp on the deposits, and the distinctive marks 1.

its

flood plain are readily distinguished

are preserved in the consolidated sediments. rtiarine from terrestrial strata, partly

by

ferences and partly by contained fossils.

many

kinds

:

near-shore or

littoral

Thus we

A

littoral facies,

representing deposi-

over the great differences in physical conditions are reflected in kinds of animals and plants living in the diverse environments. In many sections of sedimentary rocks beds of sandstone are seen to grade laterally into and interfinger with beds of shale. Clearly the two types of deposit were formed at the same time; but fossil shells and other remains of animals in the two kinds of rock are very different, indicating that in the past different environments were suited to different forms of life, as is true today. Thus a given biofacies as represented by an assemblage of fossils may be recognized as in harmony with a lithofacies represented by rocks in fossils occur.

Broad Stratigraphic Patterns.

Paleontology, in its own right a broad science dealing with the remains of animals and plants preserved in rocks, is treated Its critical importance in geology at length in another article. arises from the use of fossils as time markers in stratified rocks.

Near the start of the igth century independent workers in England and in France discovered that units of sedimentary rocks can be traced over wide areas by means of distinctive fossils in each unit. In England these classical studies involved marine limestones replete with well-preserved shells of clams, cephalopods and other SECONDARY STRATA

PRIMARY STRATA

TERTIARY STRATA

QUATERNARY

ALLUVIUM

IN

VALLEY)

But marine beds are of

deposits of sand and gravel

between high and low tide, differs broadly from a distinctly marine neritic facies deposited below the lowest tides; but within the littoral zone a lagunal facies, common behind the great offshore bars of the Carolina coast, is very different from a sand-beach Morefacies that is widely developed along the Florida coasts.

2.

Paleontology and the Scale of Time

inherent physical dif-

tion

which the

B.

distinguish

grade outward into muds, which in turn may grade into limy ooze; along many coasts the sand heaped up by breaking waves to form barrier islands grades shoreward into muds rich in black carbonaceous matter from decaying plants. Each distinctive type of sedimentary deposit is a facies (from the Latin for "face" ). The term is used flexibly, in relation to broad as weU as more specific distinctions in stratified rocks.

graphic problems in these disturbed belts would be insoluble without the aid of paleontology, which plays a major role in the study and practical use of stratified rocks.

— Sedimentary

deposits of

N.W

MILES

FROM LONGWELL AND FLINT

S

E.

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOLOGY"

—

DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION ACROSS PART OF WALES AND SOUTHERN ENGLAND TO SHOW GENERAL RELATIONSHIP OF FOUR DISTINCT GROUPS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Fig. 9.

invertebrates, representing orders and

some

families

common

in

present-day seas but strikingly different from any known species Moreover some of the fossil species were or genera now living. found only in single beds or a few successive beds and those ranging through somewhat greater thicknesses were seen to be replaced Such changes seem commonin higher beds by different species. place under present concepts of evolution; but the discoverers ;

accepted the facts merely as a rule of thumb to aid in classifying and mapping the thick sections of sedimentary rocks. Within a few decades the work of field classification had progressed widely in Britain and continental Europe and was under way in North America and other continents. The pioneering stages of the study made most rapid strides in Britain, and accordingly many of the widely accepted terms used in stratigraphic classification are of In its general structure the southern part of British origin.

Great Britain is rather ideal for an over-all view of the stratigraphic sequence; the bedrock is tilted downward to the southeast and long-continued erosion has exposed the strata in general sequence, with progressively older units toward the northwest (fig. 9).

{See also Paleontology.)

fossil-bearing strata was done northwest of part of England, where the structure is simple and fossils are fairly abundant. Farther northwest the beds are much folded and faulted, and fossils are scarce in some thick units.

past ages, as of the present, are endlessly complex; but from detailed studies in all continents a few outstanding patterns emerge.

The early work on London in the central

Each continent has at least one wide lowland that has been repeatedly invaded by seas and is now mantled with marine strata, These little deformed and with small or moderate total thickness. areas are known as stable platforms; examples are the central part of European Russia, central Siberia, a large part of the Sahara, central and southern Brazil, the central United States and Canada, northern and northwestern Australia. On each of these wide regions the encroaching seas left nearly level beds of limestone, shale

Pioneer workers recognized that the deformed strata in western England and in Wales are much older than the beds with simpler structure farther east; and in a first crude classification the deformed rocks of the western sector were designated Primary, the

and clean quartz sandstone.

Erosion following withdrawals of seas

made irregular surfaces on which the next succeeding strata were laid down unconformably but without angular discordance. The on each platform averages at most a few thousands of feet thick but represents a long span of time. Along one margin of each platform, however, deposits of the same general age are much thicker, more varied in character and strongly deformed. Thus the strata of the Russian platform thicken eastward into the Ural mountains, and the little-deformed beds that are widely exposed in the Mississippi valley pass into the folded, faulted and far thicker sections of the Appalachian mountains. These deformed belts went through eventful gcosyndinal histories that culminated in mountain-making disturbances. On the broad platforms the distinctive stratigraphic units can be traced widely and their relations to each other are generally clear. In the geosynclinal belts the relations are more complex because conditions of sedimentation were locally turbulent and deformation has broken the continuity of beds. Many stratitotal deposit

next-youngest series Secondary.

The pioneers saw, furthermore,

that a distinctive thick sequence in southeast England overlies the Secondary sequence and generally has been less tilted; this third major group was called Tertiary. In more recent years the latest

deposits of the region, largely unconsojidated alluvium above the Tertiary rocks, were grouped under the designation Quaternary. But meanwhile research on the older fossil-bearing rocks found that the assemblages of fossil forms are progressively more primitive downward in the total sequence, and three eras were recog-

names based on the comparative biologic records. The Primary rocks were assigned to the Paleozoic (ancient-life) era; the Secondary rocks to the Mesozoic (medieval-life) era; and all younger rocks to the Cenozoic (recent-life) era.

nized, with

of stratigraphic research spread widely; large France, Switzerland and Germany were studied and mapped, and subdivisions of the eras gradually took form. In Britain the Paleozoic era was first divided into five periods, each represented by a system of rocks deposited during the time interval. The two oldest of the Paleozoic periods and corresponding systems, named Cambrian and Silurian, had their t>-pes in deformed rocks

The contagion

areas

in

.

GEOLOGY Wales and the names are of Welsh derivation; the third, Devowas named for a section of the rocks in Devonshire; the fourth was called Carboniferous because the section includes widespread beds of coal the fifth is not well represented in Britain, and of Perm its name, Permian, is based on a section in the province some in European Russia. Continued research showed the need for of

nian,

;

revisions of the plan for Paleozoic subdivisions.

The

Silurian

was disproportionately complex, and the terms Lower and Upper Silurian came into use. Eventually Ordovician, another term derived from Wales, was substituted for Lower Silurian, and this usage has met general approval. Likewise Carboniferous was split into Lower and Upper divisions, a usage still followed in many countries though in the United States, and system as first defined

North America, corresponding terms are Mississippian and Pennsylvanian. Thus the Paleozoic era has come to have seven recognized subdivisions, each represented by a system of strata. The section of rocks representing the Mesozoic era, less formidable than the Paleozoic section, was divided into the three systems, Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous, each representing a period bearing the same name. The term Triassic comes from Germany, where the system is tripartite with a marine unit separating two nonmarine units. The name Jurassic recognizes a prominent development of marine strata in the Jura mountains of France and Switzerland. Cretaceous, from the Latin creta, "chalk,"' was first applied to the extensive deposits of chalk forming the prominent

generally in

on both sides of the English channel; eventually the name was applied to the entire thick sequence of strata between the Jurassic beds and those classed as Cenozoic. The Cretaceous marine is one of the greatest geologic systems, represented by thick

white

beds

cliffs

in all continents.

commonly

divided into two periods to which the old terms Tertiary and Quaternary are applied. As in human history, the records in the latest geologic

The Cenozoic

era in which

we

live is

periods are best preserved; accordingly each Cenozoic period is divided into epochs, represented by series of deposits in which fossils of species now living increase steadily in number from the oldest

epoch to the youngest.

—

Than Paleozoic. Every continent has wide exposures of rocks older than Paleozoic generally the Cambrian beds, the oldest of the Paleozoic, are unconformable on the 1.

Records Earlier

;

older rocks, which in large part are much metamorphosed and intruded by igneous bodies. No basis has been found for systematic classification of these older rocks,

which generally are lumped

to-

In many places thick sections of unmetamorphosed sedimentary rock are unconformable below Cambrian beds, but nowhere in these Pre-Cambrian sections have any distincLife tive fossils been found by continued and exhaustive search. gether as Pre-Cambrian.

existed before

Cambrian

time, but apparently the living forms were

simple and without hard parts, such as shell, bone or woody tissue, that could be readily fossilized. The most abundant Pre-Cambrian fossils are deposits of calcareous algae, primitive microscopic plants that grow in moldlike masses and precipitate from sea water calcium carbonate to build up characteristic globular structures with Trails and burrows of wormlike creatures are fine lamination.

found in the Pre-Cambrian Beltian rocks of Montana, objects resembling sponge spicules and an impression suggesting a jelly fish are reported from beds below the Cambrian in the Grand canyon, and abundant carbon, some of it metamorphosed to graphite, is disseminated through Pre-Cambrian beds in all continents. Geochemical tests of the carbon in rocks of Finland give evidence considered conclusive that the carbon is the residue of organic matter. Apparently life was abundant, at least in the later part of Pre-Cambrian time, but few if any forms had developed the ability to secrete mineral matter for protective parts. Physical processes operated in Pre-Cambrian just as in later time. The sedimentary rocks, where they have escaped metamorphism, resemble in all respects the deposits of sediments now formMarine, deltaic and terrestrial facies are clearly distinguished. movements were similar to those of later eras; thick sedimentary sections were intensely deformed, metamorphosed, intruded and in part engulfed by igneous bodies. Several successive mountain belts, all eroded to low relief, are recognized in Canada, ing.

Crustal

175

Finland and other areas with wide exposures of Pre-Cambrian rocks. Dating by radioactive minerals collected in -those old mountain zones shows that four-fifths or more of the earth's history had elapsed at the start of the Cambrian period. Boundaries between successive 2. Logic of the Time Chart. eras, periods and epochs are of course not rigidly fixed. Time runs

—

continuously; we subdivide it, for convenience only, into hours and months, into medieval and modern parts of human history and into geologic periods. If the subdivisions of the time chart had been designed in south Africa instead of Europe, doubtless there would be material differences. Rock exposures are restricted to continents, which have had varied histories of submergence, emergence and orogeny. If the Paleozoic periods had been based solely

on evidence found in Great Britain, the limited section there now classed as Permian might have been included with the CarboniferIn some areas consecutive systems are conveniently sepaous. rated by unconformities that record uplift and erosion; elsewhere, even on the same continent, rocks of these systems have no sensible physical boundaries and are distinguished only by fossil criteria in comparison with sections taken as standard. Correlation of strata from one continent to another rests in most cases on fossil evidence, which is most trustworthy where sizable groups of fossil forms are available.

Floating forms, like

some of

the tiny foraminifera, are

particularly good time markers as a given species had a brief span of life and became widely distributed by ocean currents. One of

most reliable fossils for correlation in Ordovician rocks was the graptolite, a distinctive floating animal. In later geologic time, species of fishes and other swimming forms were distributed more Most species of animals rapidly than bottom-dwelling animals. the

have been short-lived in a geologic sense, and occurrence of several identical species in widely separated fossil faunas indicates nearly contemporaneous formation of the enclosing rocks. In the 3. Developments in Life Through Geologic Time. Cambrian period the seas were populated with invertebrate animals of many kinds, all comparatively small and strikingly different from forms now living, though all major groups were represented. The dominant animal was the trilobite, a swimming arthropod. Primirive plants lived in the seas, but apparently the lands were without plants or animals. Primitive fishes appeared in

—

—

GEOLOGY

176

Ordovician time, and in the Silurian period lowly plants and ani- reasonably large scales, though many important details remain for mals made a beginning on land. In Devonian time amphibious further study. Geologic maps with scale six inches to the mile are animals developed, and the first recorded forests were made up available for a large part of Great Britain; but in all continents of primitive scale trees and large ferns. From that time on the great areas are still unexplored geologically or have been mapped land plants evolved rapidly, and the widespread coal beds of Caronly in reconnaissance fashion. Preparation of good topographic boniferous ( Pennsylvanian time are a product of lush forest base maps is a preliminary to satisfactory geologic study of an growth. The first fossils of small reptiles are found in Pennsylarea. On such a base the geologist plots boundaries of the imporvanian beds, and the Permian record shows rapid development of tant bedrock units which on the completed map are shown with larger reptilian forms. The Mesozoic era was the age of reptiles; distinguishing patterns or colours. Accurate mapping and descripdinosaurs appeared in the Triassic period, developed to huge size tion of a complex area usually requires co-operative efforts of through Jurassic time and became extinct before the era ended. students with specialized qualifications; for example, petrologists Fossils of small mammals are found in Jurassic rocks, and primito study the igneous and metamorphic rocks and paleontologists tive birds with teeth appeared during that period. Forest trees to identify critical fossils in sedimentary strata. A large organizawith modern aspect flourished in late Mesozoic time and evolved tion such as a government geological survey has personnel with profusel)' through the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic era is the age of diversified training, laboratories equipped for varied analyses and mammals; many large forms became extinct during the era. and special equipment for use in the field. A development highly useothers notably the horse, elephant, camel and several carnivores ful to field geologists is a wide coverage of air photographs, both reached their zenith in Quaternary time. The development of vertical and oblique, which serve as a guide in field study and also man began late in the Tertiary period and proceeded rapidly help in making accurate locations on maps. Many details of bedthrough the Great Ice Age (Pleistocene epoch). rock that are obscure on the ground, especially in wooded country, 4. Absolute Dates. The oldest known fossils of fishes are in are shown with remarkable clarity on vertical photographs. A Ordovician rocks; mammals first appeared late in the Triassic pe- technique known as photogeology uses photographs for constructriod; orogeny in the Alpine belt began near the start of the Cenozoic ing preliminary geologic maps, which are then checked and corera. These statements give relative dates, but how long ago in rected by geologists working on the ground. years did the events occur? Methods have been developed that A completed geologic map identifies the lithology and so far as can give the answer provided suitable materials can be found in possible the geologic age of each important unit of bedrock; it critical places. Radioactive elements, notably uranium and tho- represents also important structural details such as directions and rium, emit helium gas at a uniform rate, and the end product of degrees of inclination of strata, locations of faults and axial traces disintegration is an isotope of lead. If a uranium mineral taken of folds. Ordinarily the map is supplemented by vertical sections from fresh granite is analyzed precisely, the ratio between the ura- on which structural features seen at the surface are projected to nium and its lead isotope will give the length of time since the limited depth, thus helping users of the map to visualize the undergranite crystallized. As many as six methods of age determination ground relations. The amount of detail shown on map and sections that involve the element lead are in use. Another method uses the of course depends on the scale. Small-scale maps may represent elements potassium and argon; still another, preferred for dating the sedimentary rocks merely according to the period and system to the older Pre-Cambrian rocks, is based on strontium-rubidium rawhich they belong; e.g., Cambrian, Jurassic, Tertiary. But gentios. Large numbers of determinations have been made, most of erally each distinct lithologic unit large enough to be shown clearly them on minerals in igneous rocks. One rare occurrence of a ura- to the scale of the map is represented. A mappable unit is a fornium mineral in a marine sedimentary formation exposed in Sweden mation; ordinarily it consists dominantly of one kind of rock dates that formation exactly. The ages of most sedimentary beds conglomerate, sandstone, shale, limestone, etc. and represents an can be only approximated by dating igneous bodies older and episode in the sedimentary history of the region. One geologic younger than the beds. period may be represented on a given map by several prominent Sample values that fit into the time scale are shown in the time formations, each with distinctive physical characteristics and with chart. Many granitic bodies cutting Pre-Cambrian rocks have supcritical fossils that assign it to a lower, middle or upper position plied exceptionally good material for analyses, and in the research in the parent system. there is particular interest in exploring the earliest available record Thorough study and mapping of the bedrock in a wide region )

—

—

—

—

of the earth's history.

As the

studies continue the early frontier

pushed steadily back; within a few years the oldest determined dates increased from a little more than 2,000,000,000 to well over 3,000,000,000 years. These values of course apply to local parts of the crust and are minimal for the age of the earth itself. Because rates of radioactive disintegration are very slow the methods based on these rates are not suitable for determining dates late in the Cenozoic era. A technique was developed making use of the carbon isotope C", known as radiocarbon, small amounts of which are present in the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. Growing tissues of plants and animals incorporate carbon, and durable tissues such as wood retain measurable quantities of radiocarbon long after death of the organism, though the activity of this isotope declines at a known rate. Analyses of carefully selected materials give reliable ages up to about 40,000 years. This is

method

is used for dating events late in the Pleistocene epoch, involving the declining stages of the great ice sheets and some activities of prehistoric man. See also Geochronology.

C.

Geologic Mapping

Programs of geologic study and mapping under way in nearly all countries rest on many practical considerations such as soil conservation, water supply, flood control, development of hydroelectric power, location and recovery of economic mineral deposits. Government bureaus as well as commercial and scientific organizations are active in these geologic programs. In some European countries mapping of the surface geology has been completed to

provides a basis for reconstructing physical conditions as they changed from epoch to epoch and period to period of geologic time. Marine strata with distinctive lithologies and fossils reveal the distributions of former seas on

modern

Margins of those marine sediments into littoral or deltaic facies. Advance of a sea across a wide lowland is evident in continuous overlap of littoral and terrestrial sediments by marine deposits; overlap in the reverse order is evidence of a seas are indicated

by

retreating shore line.

lands.

lateral gradation of

Emergence

of a land for considerable time

resulted in erosion, evident in an unconformity at the base of any younger deposits. Fossil records in beds above and below a surface

of unconformity

may

indicate emergence of the land through a

short interval or during geologic periods,

Paleogeographic maps are constructed to show the distribution of seas, lands and mountain systems at given geologic dates. Such

maps cannot be accurate

in every detail, but they show with assurance the major geographic elements and a series of such maps is

helpful in tracing the evolution of continents from early Paleozoic time to the present. Some maps show, in addition to geographic outlines, the distribution of rock

masses and of major structural

elements, such as belts of folding, at given geologic dates; these maps are properly called paleogeologic maps. Such constructions help appreciably in reading the history written in rocks of the earth's crust, the chief objective of geologic study.

IV.

A number

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE

of ancient scholars did remarkably accurate reasoning

GEOLOGY about some aspects of geology, but their individual efforts led to no sustained progress. In the 5 th century b.c. the Greek philosopher Herodotus deduced from deposits on the flood plain of the is the gift of the river," and from the large number of fossil shells and beds of salt in Egypt that much of the present land had once been under the sea. A century later Aristotle voiced the same conclusion, and offered as an explanation of earthquakes and volcanism the violent escape of winds pent up within the earth. These ideas have at least the merit that they attribute

Nile that "Egypt

such phenomena to natural instead of supernatural causes. Another Grecian philosopher who had the correct scientific attitude was Eratosthenes, who in the 3rd century B.C. announced a first approximation of the earth's circumference and correctly cited the abundance of sea shells on land as proof of earlier extensions of the sea. scholars.

Similar ideas were voiced by Strabo and other Roman brilliant early views did not rest on a sohd

But these

foundation of detailed inductive study, and they were all but forgotten in the prolonged intellectual hibernation of the middle ages. The world was not yet ready for these advanced ideas. All the fundamentals had to be rediscovered during the intellectual Additional information surge that began with the Renaissance. wOl be found in biographical entries on persons referred to below. A.

Formative Stage

Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian engineer and artist (14S2-1S19), was an outstanding representative of the formative stage in geoHis views are well reasoned and clearly expressed, logic science. they concern a wide range of natural phenomena and they are based on original observations. He saw evidence that salt was being carried from lands to the sea, and concluded that "the sea would be more salt in our times than it has been at any time previously." He observed that muddy water flowing into marshy ground emerges clear, and reasoned that the sediment would in time change the marsh into dry ground. Marine shells in bedrock far from the and at high altitudes claimed his special attention. In his time a favourite doctrine, dating back to the ancient philosopher Theophrastus (4th century B.C.), held that fossils are merely imitaBut Da tive forms produced by a "plastic force" in the earth. sea

Vinci observed that fossil shells include representatives of several major groups of living marine animals; that individual shells exhibit all minute details, such as muscle scars, found in shells of

and that the rock matrix enclosing fossils consists sedimentary material identical in all respects with deposits now accumulating. He saw no escape from the conclusion that the layers in which the fossils occur represent deposits on an old sea floor. A tenacious doctrine, of his day and later, recognized that fossil shells are indeed the remains of organisms that once living forms;

of

but held they were deposited in their present positions durNoachian flood. Da Vinci exposed the fallacy of this comfortable view by pointing out the shells are not related to the surface of the land but lie in many superposed layers that are consolidated and extend underground, beneath the mountains. Da Vinci's scientific powers were far in advance of his day; but the spirit of original research that he typifies reappeared at intervals and in different lands, and finally became dominant in geology Georgius nearly three centuries after his notes were written. Agricola (1494-1555), a German who studied medicine in Italy, saw evidence that mineral veins had been deposited by rising solutions and on returning to the mining community of Joachimsthal,

lived,

ing the

Bohemia, he made a systematic study of ore deposits as

De

a basis

In the following two centuries several able men were concerned with the earth's interior, and speculations in cosmogony became popular. Descartes (15961650) published a classical diagram showing the earth with layered A structure based on the postulate of an earlier molten stage. curious feature of the diagram is the representation of vast water bodies in the earth's crust, in keeping with biblical statements about "waters under the Earth"; presumably this common concept arose for his published works,

re metallica.

from attempts to explain the source of springs, the steady flow of streams and the origin of volcanic vapours. Principles of groundwater circulation were not firmly established until the 19th century, although John Ray (1627-1705), an English scientist nearly con-

177

temporary with Descartes, published a remarkably accurate treaDescartes recognized that great tise on the mechanism of springs. dislocations of the crust had been required to produce the steep inclinations of strata in mountain regions. Though his representation of these movements appears crude from present viewpoints, at least his interpretation of inclined strata was much more astute than that taught in A. G. Werner's school of mining and geology

more than a century later. In spite of difficulties in communication, during the 17th century scholars in several countries of Europe developed geological

at Freiberg, Ger.,

modern aspect. The EngRobert Hooke (1635-1703) analyzed and discarded He the popular doctrine that fossils were "sports of Nature." demonstrated convincingly that shells in sedimentary rocks are remains of marine organisms, and expressed his conviction that Great Britain and Ireland were uplifted from former positions on the sea floor. At almost exactly the same time Nicolaus Steno

ideas that were remarkably alike in their lish physicist

(1638-86), a brilliant Dane

who

spent

was drawing similar conclusions from

much

of his life in Italy,

his observations in lands

Steno represents the high-water development of geologic thought in his century. He went far in the study and description of minerals; he understood clearly the meaning of fossils and the implication of crustal movements given by beds containing marine shells in high mountains; he saw in ancient stratified rocks the analogues of sedimentary deposits then forming (thus he was a pioneer in stating fundamentals of stratigraphy) and he recognized that running water had been

bordering the Mediterranean.

mark

in the

;

the chief agent in sculpturing landscapes.

B.

18TH-CENTURY Advances

In the 18th century there were increasing signs of maturity and co-ordination in thinking about the earth. Reliance on new field observation rather than time-honoured speculation was coming to be a basic concept. Improved evaluation of evidence was becoming possible through developments in physics, chemistry and biology. Comprehension of the real significance of sedimentary rocks was slowly dawning. French mineralogist Jean fitienne Guettard (1715-86) observed that definite bands of these rocks, each with its own pecuHarities, are disposed in a roughly concentric pattern in the Paris basin of France; with patient labour through a large part of his career he traced outcrops of these formations, which he called mineral bands, and delineated them on maps. These may be

considered the first true geologic maps, though apparently they were constructed without real appreciation of the sequence in formations and were not accompanied by sections to show the in which geologic structure. In connection with his field work he was assisted for a time by the chemist Lavoisier Guettard collected hundreds of fossils which he made accurate drawings of and described. So far as we know, however, it did not occur to

— —

that certain fossils characterized each of his mineral bands, or that the fossils were arranged in a sequence according to

him

age. in the course of field work for Auvergne region of central France, which has one of the most superb exhibits of volcanic rocks. Though he had not seen an active volcano, Guettard had read descriptions of Vesuvius and had seen specimens of its dark lava. With this background he recognized the fresh cinder cones and flows of ropy basalt that are common in the Auvergne landscapes. He identified also older flows, weathered and considerably eroded but still traceable to vents from which they issued. But still he failed to grasp the full

Guettard found another problem

his

map

in the

implication of the widespread basaltic rocks in central France. Vast quantities of the basalt, older than the cinder cones and forming extensive plateaus, cannot be connected with any visible vents.

This older basalt is in nearly horizontal sheets, some of them interbedded with layers of shale and sandstone that contain marine fossils. In accord with an interpretation common in his day Guettard concluded that basalt was formed primarily by deposition from aqueous solution and that local fusion of the primary rock by subterranean combustion of coal was responsible for the cones and Fortunately another French scientist, lava flows in Auvergne. Nicholas Desmarest (1725-1815), closely followed Guettard in

—

;

GEOLOGY

178

study of the region and compared features there with those in volcanic areas of Italy from Padua in the north to Naples in the south. By this comparative study he demonstrated that all the

Auvergne basalt

But Desmarest also made an from the present point of view. He found that granitic rocks form the basement beneath the basalts of Auvergne. and suggested that the basalt resulted from fusion of the granite. Analytic chemistry of rocks had not progressed far enough to guide him in this aspect of his problem. Not until much later was it demonstrated that granite and basalt are at opis

of igneous origin.

error that appears glaring

posite poles in a great series of igneous rocks. Some co-ordination of efforts in geologic research

had begun

in

the 18th century, but one of the major controversies in the history of the science also raged in that period. The school led by A. G.

Werner (1750-1817), known nearly all rocks were formed

as the Neptunists, maintained that

from the water of a primitive universal ocean which held in solution great quantities of mineral matter. According to this theory the first precipitate from this ocean crystallized as granite, which thus was the oldest of the rocks in the visible part of the crust; later precipitates as precipitates

formed gneiss, slate, basalt, porphyry and syenite, all of which were classed with granite as Primitive rocks, with world-wide distribution. Later the level of the ocean was lowered (by what mechanism is not made clear), and Transition rocks, including limestone and certain kinds of sandstone, were precipitated. Wherever these deposits were laid down against slopes of emerging mountains, the resulting layers were steeply inclined. As the wa-

C. Strides in

the 19th Century

The next

great advance in geologic thought and method started with discoveries made independently in England and France near

the year I SOD. William Smith, a sur\'eyor working on canals in central England, observed that in strata now classified as Jurassic any limited group of beds had the same assemblage of fossil forms, in

whatever part of England he found

it.

tinctive units could be recognized in the

relationship as a guide, he constructed units (1799)

and

later a

first

complete geologic

Higher and lower Using

same way.

dis-

this

a table of stratigraphic

map

of England, Wales and part of Scotland, accompanied by a section showing the general structure. About the same time Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, two French zoologists well trained in comparative anatomy, worked together in Guettard's old field, the Paris basin there they found that "fossils are generally the same in corresponding beds, and present tolerably marked differences in species from one group of beds to another," By use of this principle they sepa-

rated the Tertiary strata of north-central France into natural units, arranged these in chronologic sequence and described them

(1808). Three years later they represented the distribution of these units and their structural relations by a geologic map and section.

Discovery of a

vital scientific principle generally is followed

by

phenomenal progress in research. At the start of the 19th century geology was ripe for the practical application of paleontology, and the succeeding decades witnessed an amazing development of the science. Christian Leopold von Buch, one of Werner's ablest stu-

ters continued to subside, rocks called the Flotz ("flat," in contrast to the tilted Transition beds) were deposited at lower altitudes. As

dents, brought out a geologic

de

Beaumont began

of

Werner soon came

England and Wales, and maps of Scotland and Ireland, were published within 20 years. During this period the chart of geologic time divisions and systems of rocks was worked out, geological surveys were established in countries of Europe, and work begun in other continents demonstrated that the stratigraphic principle of Smith and Cuvier has world-wide application. Geology had progressed from a field of large speculation to a science building solidly on factual data. The vast field of paleontology continued its development as an ally of stratigraphy, and doubtlessly the vista into the past revealed by the study of fossOs made some contribution to biological researches on which were based the concept of evolution set forth by Darwin in 1859. At least the reverse effect was dynamic; the doctrine of evolution changed paleontology from a rule-of-thumb technique, as practised by some of its devotees,

his theory

to recognize basalt in rocks as

young

as Flotz,

provided for recurrent precipitation of basalt.

This

Wernerian theory, which now seems preposterous, was widely accepted for several decades; the author was a magnetic teacher, and students from many lands flocked to his classrooms. The first geologic map of the eastern United States, published in 1809 by

Wilham Maclure, essentially

represents the rocks in four classes that are

Werner's,

although

Secondary

is

used

instead

of

Flotz.

Geologists in the school opposed to the Neptunists were known as Plutonists because they regarded granite, basalt and rocks of several other kinds as igneous or plutonic in origin. Desmarest be-

longed to this school, but the real leader was James Hutton (172697) of Edinburgh, whose influence in shaping geologic thought grew as Werner's declined. Hutton spent much of his life making field observations and building inductive concepts which he checked by discussions with acquaintances. The contributions he made to correct understanding of igneous rocks is large but his outstanding achievement was formulation of the uniformitarian principle, which states that natural agents now at work on and within the earth have operated with general uniformity through immensely long periods of time. This principle, accepted as a basic tenet in geologic thought, is diametrically opposed to the doctrine of catastrophism commonly held in Hutton's day, according to which every major feature such as a mountain chain or a deep chasm

was formed abruptly, by catastrophic forces. This concept was taken for granted during centuries dominated by teaching that only a few thousands of years had elapsed since the earth was created. Hutton, reasoning inductively from a wealth of evidence, concluded that the earth dates from the remote past; he could see "no vestige of a beginning no prospect of an end." He recognized that erosion, which is fashioning the valleys of present landscapes, must have destroyed generations of mountains, and that in the beveled edges of folded strata we view "the ruins of an older

—

world."

Two Germans

of the 18th century. J. G. Lehmann and G. C. advanced views on the meaning of sedimentary rocks. Both realized that the older strata were formed by water action, and that they must have been nearly horizontal at the time of deposition like their modern representatives. These two workers Fiichsel. held

reasoned correctly that strata now steeply inclined indicate largedeformation a view that contrasts favourably with Werner's concept of the Transition rocks. scale

—

a similar

map of all Germany in 1824; filie map of France: an improved map

into a science with a firm philosophic foundation.

The develop-

ment of vertebrate paleontology, largely after Darwin's concept was announced, contributed a great store of favourable evidence. All aspects of physical geology

made

great progress

m

the 19th

Techniques for studying minerals and rocks were steadily improved; as an example, H. C. Sorby's development of thinsection equipment (see Petrology) was a major aid in the systematic analysis and classification of rock materials, leading to fundamental research on problems of their genesis. Swiss students cited evidence that the Alpine glaciers were once much more extensive, and Agassiz went on to demonstrate that Pleistocene icecaps covered great areas in northern Europe and North America. Study of the structure in mountain belts focused attention on the geosynclinal stage in mountain history, first pointed out by James Hall of New York and elaborated by J. D. Dana. Analysis of the complex structure of the Swiss Alps, begun by Arnold Escher von der Linth, was continued by Albert Heim and others. Charles Lapworth, B. N. Peach and John Home made their classic study in the northwest Highlands of Scotland. The systematic study of land forms was advanced and stimulated by the explorations of J. W. Powell and G. K. Gilbert in the Colorado plateau, a region with exceptional exposures of bedrock with comparatively simple structure. This brief list of distinguished workers and achievements could be amplified many times without recording the full century of accomplishment in geology, which included unspectacular but useful exploration and mapping of large areas in several continents, an appreciable start toward the eventual goal thorough geologic study of all land areas. century.

GEOLOGY, SOCIETIES D. Progress in the 20th Century During the 20th century geology has advanced at an accelerating pace; it has assured foundations, it is aided by growth of kindred sciences and it has the advantage of constantly improving techniques. The discovery of radioactivity and the rapid advances in knowledge of atomic structure have revolutionized some aspects of geologic research. B. B. Boltwood's suggestion in 1905 that lead might be the final disintegration product of uranium started developments in methods for determining ages of minerals. Several independent methods, giving results that can be checked one X-ray equipment, the against another, lead to confident values. mass spectrometer, devices for thermoanalysis and the electron microscope are used for accurate analyses that would have seemed magical to workers in the 19th century. Geophysicists, using seismic, gravimetric and magnetic equipment, detect important strucelements in the crust. of ocean floors (see Ocean and Oceanography) a highly important field in geologic research, is bringing radical tural

The survey

,

changes in some traditional concepts. See also references under "Geology" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— A. Holmes, Principles of Physical Geology (1944); R. C. Moore, Introduction to Historical Geology (1958) J. D. Dana, Manual of Mineralogy, 17th ed., rev. by C. S. Hurlbut (1959) L. V. Pirsson, Rocks and Rock Minerals, 3rd ed., rev. by A. Knopf (1947) H. R. A. Williams, F. J. Turner and C. M. Gilbert, Petrography (1954) Daly, Igneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth (1933) P. Niggli, Rocks and Mineral Deposits, Eng. trans, by R. L. Parker of Gesteine und Minerallagerstatlen (1954) A. M. Bateman, The Formation of Mineral Deposits (1951) A. I. Levorsen, Geology of Petroleum (1956) E. S. Moore, Coal (1940); P. H. Kuenen, Marine Geology (1950); T. A. F. J. Pettijohn, Jaggar, Origin and Development of Craters (1947) Sedimentary Rocks (1957) C. O. Dunbar and J. Rodgers, Principles of Stratigraphy (1957); F. E. Zeuner, Dating the Past, 4th ed. rev. (1958); R. F. Flint, Glacial and Pleistocene Geology (1957); Sir A. F. D. Adams, The Geikie, The Founders of Geology, 2nd ed. (1905) Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences (1938); A. Knopf, "Measuring Geologic Time," Sci. Mon., N.Y., 85:225-236 (Nov. 1957). See also special bibliographies at the end of articles dealing with the (C. R. L.) subdivisions of geology. ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

GEOLOGY, SOCIETIES

OF.

geological societies in the world also

This article listing selected lists geological surveys in

The surveys are agencies of government departments, though in the U.S.S.R. there is a ministry of geology. Societies are free associations of geologists, but in Communist countries they are under government supervision. In some countries there is only a geological survey and no society in some others various countries.

;

The Geological Society of Lonis a society but no survey. don, founded in 1807, is the oldest association of its kind in the world. The first International Geological congress took place there

and sessions haye been held at intervals ever since. In Britain also was founded the first government geological survey This exas a result of Charles Lyell's recommendation in 1835. ample was followed by Austria-Hungary (1849), Norway and Sweden (1858) and Italy (1868). In the U.S., the first systematic surveying was started in New York in 1824. The Massachusetts in Paris in 1878,

survey of 1830 was imitated by other states, until these schemes were taken over by the U.S. Geological survey in 1879. Africa. Egypt has a geological survey which has published reports since 1900; South Africa's survey publishes reports (1910) and its society produces transactions (1896). Surveys in other territories produce similar publications, the Republic of the (former Belgian) Congo since 1945, the countries formerly included in French Equatorial Africa (1943 ) and French West Africa

—

Ghana (1925; also memoirs Kenya (1933), Nigeria (1921), Algeria (pubhcations series, since 1885), Mozambique (1937), Federation of

(bulletin, 1938; also reports, 1946),

since 1929), in six

Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1917). Asia. China has a survey (bulletin and memoirs, 19 19) and an institute of geology (bulletin, 1956); India a survey (bulletin, 1950; memoirs, 1856) and a society (journal, 1926); Pakistan a survey (records, 1950); Japan a survey (with reports, 1922; also bulletin, 1950) and a society (journal, 1894) the Philippines also

—

;

has a society (publishing since 1947). Australasia and Oceania. In Australia there is a bureau issuing a bulletin (1932) and reports (1948) and a society issuing a

—

OF—GEOMAGNETISM

179

New Zealand has a survey which produces reports (1907) and memoirs (1928). Europe. Societies and surveys are to be found in most countries. In Austria there is a geological union with a yearbook (1850) and a society with reports (1908); in Belgium a royal geological society with annals (1874) and memoirs (1898); in Czechoslovakia an institute with bulletin (1921) and transactions (1929). Denmark has a survey (with four series of publications', 1890) and a society (transactions, 1894); France has a survey publishing a bulletin (1889) and memoirs (1893), and a society (bulletin, 1830; memoirs, 1833) the Federal Republic of Germany has an institute (yearbook, 1880) and a society (reports, 1955), and the German Democratic Republic has a service with transactions (1872). In Hungary, the survey publishes annals 1872) and the society jourjournal (1953).

—

;

(

and society bring out bulletins (1870, 1882); Norway's survey pubUshes reports (1891) and its Poland has a state institute society publishes a journal (1905). with a bulletin (1920) and a society with a yearbook (1921) Rumania an institute (annual reports, 1907; also memoirs, 1924); Spain an institute (bulletin, 1874; memoirs, 1873); Sweden a survey, (reports and bulletin, 1868) and a society (proceedings, 1872); Switzerland a commission (reports, 1899) and a society (notes, 1888); Turkey an institute (publications in five series, The United Kingdom's 1936) and a society (bulletin, 1947). survey produces reports (1896), special reports on mineral resources (1915) and a bulletin (1939); its society publishes transactions (1811), proceedings (1834), a journal (1845) and memoirs (1958). The U.S.S.R. has a ministry of geology and an institute which publishes transactions (1938) and journal (1939). North America. The Canadian survey and association publish reports (1845) and proceedings (1947) respectively. Mexico has an institute (bulletin, 1895; and annals, 1917) and a society (bulleThe United States survey publishes bulletins (1883), tin, 1905). water-supply papers (1896), professional papers (1902) and monographs (1890). The Geological Society of America pubhshes bulletins (1889) and memoirs (1934). South America. Argentina's survey publishes a bulletin (1913) and annals (1947), and its society a review (1926). Brazil and Colombia each have a survey with bulletins (1920, 1932). In Peru there is a survey (bulletin, 1945) and a society (bulletin, 1925) and in Venezuela a survey (bulletin, 1951). (Terrestrial Magnetism) is the natural magnetism of the earth and its atmosphere. The marvelous property of the magnetism of the earth and its materials has stirred man's imagination since the time of the ancients, when magnetized rocks (loadstones) created wonder and awe as a magical manifestation. Magnets were also an early industrial product of the smithy's forge, since they were made by hammering a piece of steel over an anvil while this steel gradually cooled in the geomagnetic field. The geomagnetic field is the familiar influence which directs the compass needle. {See Compass.) The compass was used for the navigation of ships in quite early times. During the period 1200 to 1600 it gradually became clear that the compass needle directed by the geomagnetic field does not in general point true north, nor does it point to the north magnetic pole instead it tends to orient These facts and itself parallel to the lines of force of the field.

nals (1871)

;

Italy's national service

;

—

—

GEOMAGNETISM

:

their understanding evolved slowly, according to Crichton Mitchell, but were firmly established by the time of the appearance of the This book De Magfirst book on terrestrial magnetism in 1600. nete, by Sir William Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth I, is

famous because it was also one of the first modern scientific treaon any subject. The geomagnetic field also bends the rays of the aurora, and changes in the field are accompanied by changes in the quality of tises written

radio transmission.

Since the mid-i930s new techniques available for the study of rock or fossil magnetism have renewed interest in geomagnetism. It has been shown that rocks today still retain some of the magnetism acquired at the time of their formation, perhaps several hundred million years ago. The new data thus made available assist It is argued that some in reconstructing the history of the earth.

GEOMAGNETISM

r8o

NORTH

--

•««„

.POLE',

/'

;

,

'

''

\\ ,'/ ,-///'^-'

—T'-u'NORTH MAGNETIC

^

GEOMAGNETISM servatories in highly

compact form measure D,

H

and

Z

with

accuracy comparable to the permanent observatory type. Special magnetic survey instruments have been designed and used aboard nonmagnetic survey ships like the "Carnegie," a famous sailing ship destroyed in 1929, and the present-day nonmaghave netic ship, the "Zarya," used by the U.S.S.R. Special devices by magalso been developed to facilitate the search for minerals These devices note netic methods of geophysical prospecting. changes in the magnetic field with distance over the earth's surface both at the ground and in aircraft aloft. Extensive surveys by air have been made over both continental and ocean areas. The geomagnetic field, as part of our natural environment, has been measured at intervals of from 5 to 20 years at some 2,000 About 80,000 observations of stations, called repeat stations. declination {D) have been made at many thousands of points. Probably several million closely spaced observations of other components of the field have been made in connection with geophysical exploration.

Studies of geomagnetism, as a global phenomenon, are faciliby special years in which magnetic observatories are operated at additional and usually less accessible locations, such tated also

as in the polar regions. Thus a small network of about 1 2 stations was added temporarOy in 1882-83, the first International Polar year, many more in 1932-33 during the second International Polar year and over 100 additional stations during the International

Geophysical year, 1957-58.

The Earth's Main Magnetic

Field.

—Contour

lines

drawn on

of the world are prepared at five- or ten-year intervals by Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union, to indicate points of equal magnetic declination, horizontal intensity, vertical intensity, inclination or dip and total intensity. By far the greater

maps

part of the magnetic field can be interpreted as due to a short strong magnet at the earth's centre, directed from the north to the

BY COURTESY

Fig.

OF

U.S.

i8i

south geomagnetic pole. This magnet is tilted at an angle of about 11.5° to the earth's axis of rotation, so fhat it lies along the geomagnetic axis intersecting the earth's surface in northwest Greenland, in the meridian 69°

W.

of Greenwich.

The approximation

to the earth's surface magnetic field, using the same magnet can be improved by moving the magnet, parallel to itself, toward a

point determined to be at about 6.5° N. latitude and 162° E. longitude in 1922. It is known that this eccentric dipole has been This has sometimes been drifting slowly westward since 1830. regarded as indicating that the earth's central metallic core, of radius about 2,900 km., does not rotate as fast as does the surface

In fact, some irregularities in the rotation of the core have been estimated. These irregularities in core motion may be communicated to the outer solid part of the earth. The changes in angular momentum of the core are adequate to explain irregularities in the rate of rotation at the earth's surface, affecting the length of the day as measured by astronomers. The strength of the hypothetical short magnet or dipole referred On the assumption of to above is about 8 X lo^s c.g.s. units.

of the earth.

uniform magnetization of the entire earth, the intensity of magnetization is about 0.08 c.g.s. unit per cubic centimetre. Such magnetization would result if a saturated steel magnet of volume 80 cc. were imbedded in every cubic metre of the earth's interior. Additional features of the main field can be represented by about 12 radially directed dipoles, each about -^ the strength of the central dipole, and located near the surface of the earth's core. The anomalies due to crustal rocks are usually associated with deposits of ferromagnetic substances. Anomalies are also caused when relatively highly magnetic igneous extrusions penetrate the weakly magnetic sedimentary rocks. The scale of these anomalies may range in cross section from a few metres to 100 km. or more. They are usually not shown on world maps because they are too small, and the number of magnetic observations are usually too

HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE

2.— world map of magnetic declination (D); lines connect points of equal variation of compass from geographic north,

1955

GEOMAGNETISM

l82

few. This fine structure of the earth's surface is about as complicated as the surface topography, to which it is usually not related. Local anomalies due to igneous intrusions or irregularities in basement rocks may range from a few hundred to several thousand gammas. Near deposits of magnetic ore values may rise to several times that of the normal magnetic field. Origin of the Geomagnetic Field. Many hypotheses have

—

been brought forward as possible explanations of the origin of the geomagnetic field. These are usually based upon the presence of ferromagnetic material in rocks, electric currents generated within the earth's interior or very tentative suggestions related to the physics of large bodies in rotation. One of the difficulties of explaining the origin of the geomagnetic field is our lack of knowledge of the earth's interior. From mathematical analysis of the surface field it appears that many of the

from sources no deeper than the outer layers of the fluid within the earth's central metallic core. According to one prevailing set of ideas the mantle and crust surrounding the core are more or less solid and cannot undergo rapid changes within a century or two. For this reason attempts are made to assign the cause of geomagnetism mainly to energy changes in the outer half of the central core. Elaborate calculations have been made showing that if the fluid motions are irregular features of the field are likely to arise

of suitable type a magnetic field originally quite small might be built up into a large one. The process is fundamentally similar to that in an ordinary dynamo. Heat necessary to move the fluid is

supposed to come from the radioactivity of uranium and other metals, and about i% of the concentration of these materials known to exist in the earth's crust might suffice. It has also been suggested many times that thermoelectric currents might arise at the junction between mantle and core. The theory of a ferromagnetic earth, originally proposed by Gilbert in 1600, seems defective because only a thin outer layer of the earth, about 20 km. thick or so, can be cool enough to be magnetic. Below 20 km. or so the rocks will be nonmagnetic because the temperature will exceed the Curie point of temperature (of the order 400° C. for some substances). The amount of magnetic materials required in this thin crust in order to explain the geomagnetic field is much greater than that found in typical surface rocks. For this and other reasons the theory of a ferromagnetic earth seems to be inadequate. If the earth's magnetic field is due to electric currents, these have to be more or less continuously generated and maintained. Otherwise once created they would decay to insignificance in the earth's core within a few tens of thousands of years. Hence it appears that while a part of the earth's magnetization arises from ferromagnetic materials in the earth's crust, it seems likely that the larger part is caused by electric currents flowing near and within the earth's central core as a consequence of the fluid motions and thermal changes taking place. Secular Variation The geomagnetic field changes continuously with time. The field components may increase or decrease locally, a httle each year for a few hundred years. For instance, from 1600 to 1800 the declination in London changed from 11° E. to 24° W. Horizontal intensity in South Africa decreased about 6,000 gammas from 1843 to 1943, or by an amount almost equal to half the present value of the geomagnetic field there ( 1 960s) Substantial changes with time also occur in other areas, often on a continental or greater scale. Changes of this kind are too localized to be explained only by motions of the magnetic poles of the earth, and are most simply explained as due to localized changes within

—

.

the earth's interior.

The central dipole term since about 1830 has also been gradually decreasing at a rate of about -rr^ annually. When the surface field of the central

dipole

subtracted from the observed surface is indicated. The pattern of the residual field somewhat resembles that for secular change in general character. This is because the additions year by year of the secular change build up or greatly modify the residual field. Both main and residual field patterns could arise from sources near the surface of the earth's central core. Since secular change

magnetic

in

field

is

a residual magnetic field

some components of

field

maybe

greater than 100

gammas

in-

crease or decrease in one year,

it is clear that a substantial residual can be built up in a few hundred years if the rate of change One possible explanation is that the permanent is maintained. magnetic field in the fluid core is linked to and participates in the motion of the electrically conducting fluid. This could give rise to a residual magnetic field undergoing continuous change in the core, the magnetic field at the surface of the core being able to penetrate the rigid mantle above so that it is observable at the

field

earth's surface.

Secular Variation in the Geologic Past Ferromagnetic by weathering and carried in rivers to the ocean, where they are aligned magnetically parallel to the geomagnetic field as they settle to the bottom. As time goes on the layer thickens and the particles become sedimentary rock. Under special and favourable circumstances the direction of the particles of rock are loosened

geomagnetic

field millions of

years in the past

may

be determined

by laboratory experiments on specimens of the rock. Annual bottom layers or varves may also develop, sometimes in glacial lakes, and from them the direction of the geomagnetic field tens of thousands of years ago may sometimes be estimated. A cooled lava bed may also indicate the direction of the geomagnetic field millions of years ago. If one accepts the results of this fossil magnetism (and many arguments have been urged favouring such acceptance, as well as many to the contrary) it appears that the geomagnetic field has undergone quite substantial changes in the past. According to some of these measurements the magnetic poles have usually remained not far removed from the earth's axis of rotation. In times earlier than 100,000,000 years ago there is some suggestive evidence of motion of the magnetic poles almost to the equator, which has caused some to speculate that the continents may have drifted and rotated relative to the axis of rotation. There are also indications from the directions of magnetization observed in ancient successive lava flows that the geomagnetic field may even have reversed at intervals of some hundreds of thousands of years. Independent checks of these conclusions have been hard to find, so that the conclusions though exciting are highly tentative. In any event, the results based upon fossil magnetism provide considerable material for interpreting the remote as well as the immediate past

of the earth.

The Solar and Lunar Daily Magnetic Variations. sides the large

— Be-

and slowly appearing secular changes there are

more rapidly appearing changes during intervals as short day or less. Of special interest is the change associated with

smaller as a

the position of the sun throughout the day, known as the solar daily magnetic variation, and a somewhat smaller similar effect as-

moon, known as the lunar magsuccessive days these variations are usually similar, since the phenomena show regular and typical features. The variations depend mainly on local time, and upon latitude and sociated with the position of the

On

netic variation.

longitude. earth's

The

on season related

The

show local features related to the There is also an important dependence

variations also

main magnetic

field.

to the position of the sun.

solar daily variation appears to be caused

electric current circulations flowing

mainly

by two major

in the sunlit portion

of the upper atmosphere, clockwise in the southern hemisphere

viewed from outside the atmosphere) and counterclockwise in moving about the earth with the sun so that their centres remain about 15° longitude ahead of the noon meridian and at about 40° of latitude from the equators. On the dark side weaker and reversed vortices can be designated. These current circulations induce weaker current systems within the earth which (as

the northern,

may

contribute as

much

as

40%

to the horizontal

the solar daily variation at ground level.

component of

In the northern hemisphere these currents produce an increase in the eastward component (F) of the magnetic field (amounting to more than 50 gammas) in the forenoon in middle latitudes and a decrease in the afternoon. The northward component (A') increases to a maximum (of somewhat higher magnitude) just before noon at the equator, undergoes little change in middle latitudes and decreases to a minimum just before noon in high latitudes. The vertical component (Z) shows little change near the equator and

.

GEOMAGNETISM high latitudes but sinlcs to a minimum just before noon in midIn the southern hemisphere these variations are die latitudes. in

-

antisymmetric in Y and Z and symmetric in A'. In the northern summer the solar daily variation in the northern hemisphere is about 50% larger in amplitude than the yearly average, this condition being repeated in the southern hemisphere about six months later. At the equinoxes the amplitude is about the same in both northern and southern hemispheres. There frequently appear day-to-day differences which may be as great as 100% in amplitude at any given station and as much as several hours in phase. The amplitude also varies with sunspot cycle and may be as much as 60% greater at sunspot maximum than at No connections between fluctuations in the sunspot minimum. variation field and weather have ever been demonstrated because

weather is primarily a local phenomenon and fluctuations in the magnetic variation are more widely manifested.

183

called the main or negative phase of the storm. There is then usually a slow recovery to a normal value in the course of a day or two. In the vertical intensity (Z) the changes are smaller, and

is

reversed in sign in low and middle latitudes. The average changes (D) are usually smaller and more localized. The daily variation of disturbance is associated with opposed In the northern hemisphere during storms current circulations. an electrojet (electric current, limited laterally) is directed westward, centred near an early morning hour meridian, near the in declination

Another electrojet is auroral zone at 6o°-7o° north latitude. similarly centred in south latitude. Roughly diametrically opposite at the other side of the polar cap a weaker eastward-directed

may be in evidence along the auroral zone. Electric currents circulate within the ionosphere completing their current The height of circuits in low latitudes and across the polar caps. current near the auroral zone has been found to be near the 100

electrojet

level; and this has been confirmed directly by rocket by J. A. Van Allen during the International Geophysical year, 1957-58. The height of the storm-time currents may be partly at the same

The solar daily variation also shows irregularities which depend upon regional anomalies of the earth's main field. Because of induced currents differences can probably be detected between effects noted over the oceans as compared with less highly electri-

km.

conducting land areas. In addition there are effects related to the position of the magnetic equator and to the general lack of symmetry of the geomagnetic field about the earth's axis of

associations with cosmic rays that

cally

rotation.

The lunar

daily magnetic variation

the earth with the apparent

is

also

These

due

to electric cur-

circuits migrate

about motion of the moon, together with

rent circuits within the ionosphere.

induced current systems flowing within the earth. Instead of the four current circulations noted for the solar daily magnetic variation, eight are noted in the lunar case, of average strength about that of the solar variations. However, the strength of current flow in the current circuits for the lunar variation is greattheir

^

est

on the sunlit side of the earth.

—

Magnetic Storms. Strong and erratic variations in geomagnetism known as magnetic storms may last for from a few hours up to During very great storms the compass direction may change by a degree or more in direction and by as much as 2,000 gammas in intensity in middle latitudes in the polar regions fluctuations in compass direction may be much greater with changes in horizontal intensity as great as 5.00° gammas in areas beneath several days.

;

intense auroral displays.

Magnetic storms often start suddenly, simultaneous to within some seconds over the entire earth. They often start soon after the onset of active solar changes, such as those related to actively changing sunspots. Marked ionospheric storms also occur at times of magnetic storms, and may seriously disrupt Polar auroras migrate to lower latitudes radio communications. and even have been seen from equatorial locations such as India and Samoa. A storm may discharge energy at the rate of more than 2,000,000,000 horsepower for a period of from one to several hours. Field changes at the rate of 10 to 20 gammas per second have been observed. Telegraphic and telephonic communication over long lines is often interrupted. Under extreme conditions electric power lines have become overloaded, and power transformers burned out by the electric currents produced in transmission lines by the magnetic field changes. Field of Magnetic Storms. Magnetic field changes minute by minute are recorded photographically as magnetograms at magnetic observatories. During magnetic storms the field changes with time are particularly irregular, complex and erratic. In spite of this, certain main systematic features are noted when departures in field from normal are averaged at a number of stations, grouped in various latitude belts around the earth. Data averaged for many storms according to time, beginning with the time of sudden commencement of a storm, provide estimates of the storm-time variation in various geographical belts. The same data averaged according to local time give an apparent diurnal effect. This daily variation varies in amplitude with storm time, more or less in unison with the average storm-time variation. The average storm shows an increase in horizontal magnetic intensity during the initial phase of the storm, followed by a much larger diminution to a minimum in about 24 hours. This minimum a minute or even

—

level,

and

It is clear from some substantial electric curand beyond the atmosphere. Some

the subject of further investigation.

is

rents flow at very high levels,

very intense storms have current patterns enduring for only a few hours, and it seems to be established that the very great magnetic storms tend to go through their initial, main and recovery phases

more rapidly. Other Forms of Magnetic Disturbance.

—In addition

to the

and magnetic storms geomagnetic phenomena include sudden commencements, bays, pulsations and solar-flare effects on the geomagnetic field known as crochets. Sudden commencements appear more or less simultaneously The sudden over the entire earth, within one minute or less. commencement consists mainly of an abrupt increase of horizontal intensity of from several to several hundred gammas, effects usually being largest in equatorial and especially in the polar reExamination of some cases from the Polar year 1932-33 gions.

daily variations

has shown that the effect can be traced or associated with a polar In equatorial regions, as in the solar electrojet, at least in part. daily magnetic variation, an added electrojet at the magnetic equator is sometimes noted on the sunlit side of the earth. In many cases the polar effects are predominant, and in others there may be a preliminary reversed impulse. In some locations, such as the magnetic equator, the average amplitude of

mencements variation.

is

In

sudden com-

closely related to the amplitude of the solar daily

some

cases, at least, polar electrojets

a fairly localized current distribution during

seem

to provide

sudden commence-

ments. Other electrojets appear in the polar regions near or along the auroral zone, where they grow to maximum strength in about an hour and then decay. These current sources produce intensifications of the geomagnetic field lasting a few hours and called magnetic bays. They are often accompanied by local blackout of radio

communications, and sometimes but not always appear fairly closely linked with auroral displays. The geomagnetic field also undergoes sinusoidal or nearly sinusoidal pulsations.

Those of higher frequency, of the order several

thousand cycles per second, originate in lightning discharges, and are propagated from northern to southern hemisphere, or vice versa, via the Unes of force of the geomagnetic field, usually being several earth radii above the earth at the highest point in the plane They are reflected successively from of the magnetic equator. northern to southern hemisphere each time they reach ground level with some reduction in frequency following each reflecThey show a diurnal variation in frequency of occurrence tion. according to universal or Greenwich time, and are believed associated with the world-wide distribution of thunderstorms. When heard as an auditory signal on radio earphones the pitch is reduced after each transmission and return from the opposite hemisphere. For this reason they have been called whistlers. They provide a means of study of regions several earth radii above the earth. Other pulsations of much lower frequency occur with periods of some seconds to several minutes. The trains of signals may last

GEOMAGNETISM

184 for minutes or for hours.

In some cases these are world-wide and be manifestations of hydromagnetic waves. In others they appear to correspond to locally intense fluctuations in the intensity or distribution of strongly localized sources such as the electrojets along the auroral zone; in fact, they sometimes precede the appearance of the electrojets of magnetic bays, and depend upon local time. Other pulsations are more frequent at certain hours of universal time, and therefore conditions favouring their occurrence

amounting

may

latter investigators attributed the results to uncertainties in the

may depend upon

permanent

the orientation of the terrestrial dipole to the

sun.

During

solar

flares

the increased

solar

radiation

augments

the electric conductivity of the region in which electric currents producing the solar and lunar daily magnetic variations flow. The resulting pulse in magnetic field, due to strengthening of the cur-

rent systems, lasts from some minutes to several hours and is called a crochet. It is accompanied by sudden ionospheric changes and by the fade-out of radio communications at some frequencies. Since crochets near the magnetic equator appear to be larger when

the solar daily magnetic variation is larger they provide statistical evidence of day-to-day fluctuations in upper air winds, on the basis

dynamo theory. Mathematical Analysis of the Field.

of the

—Mathematical analy-

has shown conclusively that the major part of the magnetic field due to causes within the earth. It may be assumed that the components of the magnetic field may be expressed to a sufiicient degree of accuracy as the appropriate derivatives of a magnetic potential expressed in terms of a spherical harmonic series {see Spherical Harmonics) of the form

sis is

F = a^

m\+El,

m\+Il, sin

sin

wX)

;

In this expres-

sion the portion containing air (and including the coefficients /) satisfy Laplace's equation everywhere outside the sphere r=a and

hence must be due to magnetic origins within that sphere. The portion containing ria (and including the coefiicients E) satisfy Laplace's equation everywhere inside the sphere r = a and hence must be due to magnetic origins outside that sphere. The magnetic elements most frequently used in mathematical analysis, evaluated at the earth's surface where r=a, are given by

X = {\/a)dV/ade = Y, E [{i:.,+ K) (/", + £".) sin mK]dPZ/dd

cos

wX+

e)dV/d\= -f) Y. [-'"(C+-E:..) ^^ »«^+ «»(C+-E:..) cos wX]P=/sin5

Z=dV/dr = t,

i;

{

[-{n+l)i:^+nE:J

[-(»+l)/:,',+«£:,]

sin

cos

m\+

wX)P:

present in the

field as well.

to within the accuracy of the observations.

This discrepancy

is

sometimes interpreted as indicating the presence of a nonpotential field, that is, one in which curl ^0. Such a field might be due to vertical electric currents flowing between the earth's surface and outer space. Magnitudes of these hypothetical currents are about 0.2 amperes per square kilometre at their maxima, 10* times as great as the normal atmospheric electric currents {see Electricity, Atmospheric). Great irregularity exists in the distribution of these currents; in some regions they are directed upward and in others downward. Their existence has not been verified by other

H

Present thought

mathematical frame;

is

inclined to regard fit

maps

them

faulty data to a

in fact, there is a trend

netic cartographers to adjust their

and polar distance, respectively.

may be

However, considerable uncertainty must be attached to the assigned magnitudes of the external field. E. H. Vestine and I. Lange in their analysis of the main field for 194S found an external part of less than 1% of the whole as did H. F. Finch and B. R. Leaton in 1957. In the more recent analyses differences appear in the values of the coefficients, accordingly as they were determined from the observations of X or of Y, which appear to be too large to be But if the earth's field is attributed to errors of observation. derivable from a. potential the two sets of coefficients should agree

rigid

m\)]F^

;

sin

(see below) there is no reason to doubt they

as mathematical results arising in attempting to

a being the radius of the earth P", the associated Legendrian of degree n and order m; the /'s and JS's, the coefficients of the particular harmonics and r and X, with d, the spherical co-ordinates,

F= -Cl/a

observations. Assumption that the external field is purely a mathematical fiction would require the admission of errors in the magnetic data amounting to about 1° in inclination and consistent with regard to sign. Since external magnetic fields are definitely present in the diurnal variation and magnetic disturbance fields

physical observations.

f; [(a/r)"+K/:., cos

-f(r/a) "(£:,, COS

radius, longitude

to several per cent of the internal field although the

so that curl

among mag-

H=

0,

thus

implicitly denying existence of the so-called nonpotential field, a

procedure used in the U.S. hydrographic office charts for 1945. Other applications have been made of potential analyses to the solar and lunar daily magnetic variations by many writers. Since the number of stations is not great enough to describe the details of the dependence of the solar daily variation upon longitude, dependence upon local time is assumed. The time variations at the available stations are expressed in amplitude and phase by Fourier series. The coefficients found are then conveniently expressed in spherical harmonics as in the case of the earth's main field, using least square methods for obtaining the best fit. It was found that both the solar and lunar daily variations originate mainly above the earth, with a minor portion, about one-third, originating within the earth. The latter is ascribed to induced earth currents, and its time phase and amplitude used in conjunction with the observed external part derived from the spherical harmonic analysis has yielded estimates of the electric conductivity deep within the earth's interior. At about 250 km. depth this comes out to about 4 X io~i^ electromagnetic unit. There is an increase with depth, as inferred from similar studies of storm data, so that values are reached as great as io~ii, near 1,000 km. depth, and about as conducting as sea water. This is much higher than the electric conductivity of surface rock, which is as low as io~^^, and much lower than copper, which is 6.1 X lo"* electromagnetic unit.

+

The sums

of the coefficients IZ,'^^", ^"d I", EZ, may be obtained by fitting either the observed values of iY or of F by least squares or some other method. If the field is derivable from a po-

X

tential the values obtained from either the or the Y data should be identical. Similarly the values of the differences (n+1)/", and -(» l)/r..+w£", may be obtained from the observations of Z. Thus, by an analysis of the observations of or V and of Z, a means is afforded for separating the field into portions due to internal and external causes by solution of simultaneous equations involving the above-mentioned sums and differ-

—

+

X

ences.

Gauss concluded from an analysis of the data available in 1835 main field was predominantly, if not entirely, of internal origin. Later analyses by A. Schmidt (188S), L. A. Bauer (1922) and F. Dyson and H. Furner (1922) showed an external field that the

The

first

satisfactory explanation of the solar daily variations

was offered by Balfour Stewart in his article in the Encyclopadia Britannica in 1878, which was a classic in geomagnetism. His ideas have been elaborated further by A. Schuster in i88g and 1908, and by S. Chapman in 1919, and it appears now certain that upper These air winds produce the solar and lunar magnetic variations. are partly a consequence of solar heating, and of tidal action {see Meteorology; Tides). These winds move electrically conducting

'

air across the lines of force of the geomagnetic field, thereby generating currents producing the daily variations. In a narrow belt above the magnetic equator the motion of the ions and electrons is such that the transmission of current is more efficient, thereby giving rise to an electrojet directed from west to east, centred near the 1 1 a.m. meridian. By firing a rocket carrying a magnetometer through this current layer, the height of the over-

(

GEOMETRES head current layer near the equator is about 95 km. At the magnetic equator the day-to-day differences in the solar daily variation are shown to depend mainly upon the size of the electrical driving forces in the E-region, and not upon day-to-day differences in electric conductivity. This is because these driving forces are shown to lift the ions upward in unison in higher

185

Electric currents induced in the face of the advancing stream effects during the initial phase of a

would provide geomagnetic

ionized regions

Later a current ring formed from the solar magnetic storm. stream at a distance of several earth radii might contribute during the main and recovery phases of the storm. It seems to be generally agreed that particles in motion along the geomagnetic field contribute to the aurora and polar dis-

theory.

turbances.

known as the F-region as predicted by the dynamo The day-to-day variability of these generating winds does

not seem to vary much with sunspot cycle. A similar but smaller effect of this kind is noted in the E-region itself. The height of the current layer responsible for the lunar daily variation is not established, but may be near the same level as for the solar case, which is the E-region. The upper more extensive F-region is less suited ordinarily to the generation of electric currents because the geomagnetic field there

is

able to seriously re-

In the denser E-region the electric current carriers collide so frequently with the gas constituents that continuous effects of the geomagnetic field are much strict the flow of

current across this

field.

reduced. It thus appears that the old Britannica theory of Stewart is confirmed both qualitatively and quantitatively, though some deThe increase tails of the explanation remain to be worked out. in the amplitude of the variations with local season is due to improved electric conductivity in the ionosphere as the apparent sun moves northward or southward, and probably also in part to the response of the upper air winds to the associated changes in heating

The changes in amplitude from one day to the next, sometimes as great as 100%, are mainly due to day-to-day changes in wind speed. The dominant influence of the sun is attested since the correlation of the yearly mean of the noon-minus-midnight action.

values of the solar daily variation is about 0.99 with the annual means of sunspots. For this reason the magnetic changes, though of interest as a part of our environment in their own right, are

continuously monitored as an index of solar activity. Actually, they seem to provide a direct measure of the X-ray and ultraviolet emission by the sun and its corona. Magnetic disturbance manifests itself over a wide range in intensity; the term magnetic storm designates the more disturbed Magnetic storms are more frequent and intense around periods. or somewhat after the maximum of each sunspot cycle, and are frequent at sunspot minimum. Various measures of magnetic and extensively studied because they are useful in predicting conditions affecting radio transmission to great distances. For instance, use is made of an international magnetic character figure C. C is 0, i or 2 according to whether or less

activity have been devised

not the photographic record or magnetogram for the day is magnetically quiet, slightly disturbed or greatly disturbed, and be-

comes the international figure when averaged for many stations. A more quantitative measure is the M-measure based on successive averaged for equatorial stations. A third measure is the 7f -index, introduced by J. Bartels, in which one of a series of numbers from one to nine is given to each three-hour interval of each day at each participating magnetic observatory, according to the departure of any element from smooth undisturbed conditions. A fourth measure is the Q-index, rather similar to the K-\ndtx, except for being based upon ranges observed during 15-minute intervals. It is found that A'-indices from o to 4 show little or no correlation with sunspots, whereas larger A'-indices are correlated. Magnetic disturbance is more marked at the equinoxes, the value being about 30% higher than at the solstices. Storms also tend to recur every 27 days, a consequence of the solar rotation period. Some sequences have persisted for as many as 17 solar day-to-day differences

in horizontal intensity

rotations.

In 1896 K. Birkeland proposed that magnetic storms and auroras were caused by solar particles penetrating the earth's atmosphere. C. Stormer computed many paths of such solar particles in the earth's neighbourhood. Chapman and Ferraro calculated the magnetic effects of solar streams near the earth, as affected by their motion and interaction with the geomagnetic field. They concluded that the earth's magnetic field would carve out a hollow in the advancing solar stream.

The polar

electrojets

show

that electrically polarized

gases appear in the auroral regions, but the

manner

in

which

this

generated is obscure. However, it seems likely that positively and negatively charged particles are maintained in a slightly separated state along both a vertical and horiin the low ionosphere. The electric field zontal direction produced can contribute substantially to the production of electric currents throughout the ionosphere during storms, and serve to raise, lower and otherwise transport the higher ionosphere as well as contribute to the motion and shifting of auroral rays. Difelectric driving force

is

ferential penetration of incoming particles, accompanied by X-rays penetrating levels of only a few tens of kilometres is undoubtedly important near the auroral zone, and possibly elsewhere as well; as a very simple partial theory of storms and disturbance the vertical polarization can produce surges of storm-time type, and horizontal polarization can produce many changes in the form of bays or of

the diurnally varying type.

In addition, there appear to be

of storm-time variation type originating in regions

fields

beyond the

atmosphere.

may

There

also be

dynamo

effects associated

with winds

in

auroral regions, due to heat transport from solar streams and the

hot solar corona.

During the International Geophysical year {q.v.) measurements earth satellites and lunar probes showed that the earth was encircled by 'Van Allen radiation belts. An intense equatorial belt about 2,000 km. above the earth is caused by high-energy An outer belt, mainly of energetic elecradiation from space.

made by

trons, is of greatest strength at about 6 earth-radii.

lines

The

electrons

undergo spiraling motions along the of force of the geomagnetic field, itself believed to be dis-

and protons

in these belts

by clouds of hot solar gases exerting a dragging action upon the field lines. The electrons and protons also drift across the field and around the earth, and may penetrate into polar regions at times. An explosion of an atomic bomb in the torted at times

ionosphere confirmed this conclusion. Solar gases also may compress or drag terrestrial field lines to produce an accelerating action upon protons and electrons. This may cause them to leave the radiation belts and penetrate into auroral regions, especially at about the observed local midnight.

See Earth Currents; Magnetism; Space Exploration; Van Allen Radiation Belts; see also references under "Geomagin the Index volume. Bibliography. S. Chapman,

netism" (1951) trial

—

S.

;

Chapman and

The

Earth's

Magnetism,

2nd

ed.

TerresBartels, Geomagnetism (1940) Electricity, ed. by J. A. Fleming (1939); E. H. J.

;

Magnetism and et al.. The Geomagnetic Field:

Its Description and Analysis, Carnegie Institution Publication 580 (1947), Description of the Earth's Main Magnetic Field and Its Secular Change, 1905-1945, Publication 578 (1947); B. M. lanovskii. Terrestrial Magnetism (1953); W. Heiskanen and F. A. Vening Meinesz, The Earth and Its Gravity Field (1958) J. W. Chamberlain, Physics of the Aurora and Airglow (1961).

Vestine

;

(E.

H, V.)

GEOMETRES, JOHN Byzantine poet,

ofiicial

(John Kykiotes) (fl. loth century), and bishop is known for his short poems

He held the post of protospatharios ("officer the guards") at the Byzantine court, and later was ordained priest, finally becoming metropolitan of Melitene in east-

in classical metre.

commanding

ern Asia Minor.

His poems, on both contemporary politics and

by considerable charm and His prose works, largely unappreciation of natural beauty. published, include a life of the Virgin Mary, consisting of a series of sermons for her feast days, and an encomium of the apple. Bibliography. Works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. 106 (1863). See also F. Scheidweiler, "Studien zu Johannes Geometres," in Byzantinische Zeitschrift 45:277-319 (1952); K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., pp. i6g, 731-737 G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica, 2nd ed., vol. i, pp. 319-320 (1897) (J. M. Hy.) (1958)religious subjects, are distinguished

—

;

:

GEOMETRIC PERIOD—GEOMETRY

i86 GEOMETRIC PERIOD,

of English

(g.v.)

Gothic (see Gothic Architecture) is usually divided, comprising roughly, the last half of the 13th century.

GEOMETRIC SOLIDS:

The incidence axioms

of projec-

geometry require that every line contain at least three points. number of points on one line is a finite number, say n 1, then every other line contains the same number of points and we say that the geometry is of order n. If the geometry is of dimension three or higher, then from the basic theory of projective geometry, it is Desarguesian and may be represented by co-ordinates from a division ring D. In a geometry of order n, the division ring contains exactly n elements. By a well-known theorem of J. H. M. Wedderburn, D must be a finite field, GF(p''), where n = p'', p being a prime. In the ^-dimensional geometry over GFip''), designated as PG(k,p''), a point has a homogeneous representation (\xq, X«i x^. are fixed elements Xxi.) where Xq, of GFip''), not all zero, and X ranges over all nonzero elements of GF{p''). The points whose co-ordinates satisfy a linear equation tive

+

If the

.

+ CiXi

C0*0

—

.

.

,

-f-f c^x^ = o not identically zero, form a subspace of

is

.

.

.

m

dimensions; those satisfying independent linear equations a subspace of k dimensions. (See Algebras [Linear]). Finite projective planes include the Desarguesian planes PG(2.p'') but there are also a number of types of non-Desarguesian k

1

—m

form

finite planes.

All

known

planes are of prime power order.

include planes described by O. Veblen and

Wedderburn

These

in a

paper

written in 1907. In these planes there is a system of co-ordinates V with « elements. In V there is an addition a b and a multipli-

+

cation ab satisfying the following conditions Vi. Addition is an Abelian group with a zero element 0; V2. (a -^ b)m = anj. -\- bm; V3. If a o, equations ax = b and xa = c have unique solutions for x; V4. There is a unit i such that ib = bi = b for every 6; xs t has a unique solution for x. Vs- lir^s, then xr

^

+

=

From V we may

construct a plane tp whose points consist of n -|- i designated as {m), running over the n elements of V and a further point ( 00 ) and also n^ finite points (x,y) with * and y running over all elements of V. The lines are: L„ con-

m

infinite points

taining the «

-|- I infinite points; for each c of F a line containing (00) and all points {x,y) with x and c;- for each b of V a line containing (m) and all points {x,y) whose co-

=

m

+

ordinates satisfy y = xm b. The above conditions imply that = /)',/) a prime, since multiplication induces automorphisms on

n

the additive group permuting nearfield

all

A

nonzero elements transitively. Veblen-Wedderburn system

the special case of a

is

in

which multiplication forms a group. The fields GFip'") are of course special cases of nearfields. Replacement of the distributive law V2, {a -\- b)m = am -\- bm, by the other distributive law F2',

m{a

-\-

b)

= ma

-f

mb,

gives the family of planes dual to the

Veblen-Wedderburn planes. The plane of order 2 (known merals

Fano plane) contains seven by the nuthen the lines are given as the columns as the

If the points are represented appropriately

points.

I,

7

2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

of the following array: 1

2

2

3

4 S

This

is

34567 45671 67123

the Desarguesian plane and

(2) the field of the residues o and

7

= =

5

and

I

(00) (0,1). 7.

=

(o),

The

line

2

It will

i

may

Here we may take

2.

= (i) 3 = (0.0). S = (1,0) 6 = (1,1) = x -\- i,ior example, contains the points 4,

4

y

be noticed that, permuting the points

7 cyclically in this order, the lines are also

This permutation

is,

GF

be co-ordinatized by

modulo

therefore, a collineation.

of a general theorem proved

by

J.

permuted This

is

i,

.

.

.

,

cyclically.

an instance

Singer, namely, that every

—

PG{k,p'^) possesses a cyclic collineation of order (g* + i i)/ i), q = p'', permuting points and hyperplanes regularly. {q

—

au

-\-

nearfield of order 9 exists b, a, b e

GF{2,), is.,

+

a,

whose elements are of the form

b residues modulo

+

3.

Addition

+

is

(02^ -|- 62) = i' school of his own, the George-Kreis, held together by the Paris,

force of his authoritarian personality.

Many famous

writers

—

in-

cluding Hofmannsthal, briefly, Karl Wolfskehl, Friedrich Gundolf and Norbert von Hellingrath belonged to it, or contributed to its journal. Blatter jiir die Kunst, founded in 1892. George died at

—

Minusio, near Locarno, Dec.

4, 1933.

George aimed to impose a new classicism on German poetry, avoiding impure rhymes and metrical irregularities. Vowels and consonants were arranged with precision to achieve harmony. The resulting symbolic poem was intended to evoke a sense of intoxication. These poetic ideals were a protest not only against the debasement of the language but also against materialism and naturalism, to which George opposed an austerity of life and a standard of poetic excellence, preaching a humanism inspired by Greece, which he hoped would be realized in a new society. His ideas, and the affectations into which they led some of his disciples, his claim of superiority and his obsession with power, were ridiculed, attacked and misused by those who misunderstood them; it is necessary to remember that George himself was strongly opposed to the political developments which his ideas are sometimes thought to reflect. It was one of his disciples. Count Claus

von Stauffenberg, who attempted

to assassinate Hitler

on July 20,

1944.

George's collected works

fill

iS volumes (Gesamtaiisgabe, 1927-

34), including five of translations and one of prose sketches. His collections of poetry, of which Hymnen (1890), Pilgerfahrten

(1891 ), Algabal (1892), Das Ja/ir der Seele (1897), Der Teppich des Lebetis mid die Lieder von Traum tend Tod (1899), Der siebente Ring (1907), Der Stern des Bitndes (1914) and Das

Reich (1928) are the most important, show his poetic and development from early doubts and searching selfexamination to complete assurance of his role as a seer and as leader of the coming new society. Personally, and spiritually, he found the fulfillment of his striving for significance in "Maximin" (Maximilian Kronberger; 1888-1904) a beautiful and gifted youth W'hom he met in Munich in 1902. After his death George claimed that he had been a god, glorifying him in his later poetry and ex-

neiie

spiritual

plaining his attitude to

him

Maximin,

in

ein

Gedenkbuch (privately

published, 1906). Selections of George's poetry have been translated into English

GEORGE, LAKE,

I

narrow lake in the eastern part Adirondack mountains, which rise more than 2,000 ft. above the lake. Prospect mountain, rising 1,705 ft. above sea level, and Black mountain, 2,732 ft. in Lake George has a maximum height, are the most prominent. depth of about 200 ft., is 317 ft. above sea level and 224 ft. above Lake Champlain, into which it has an outlet to the north through The lake is a narrow channel containing many rapids and falls. about 30 mi. long and varies in width from ;| mi. to 3 mi. It has clear water, coming from mountain brooks and submerged springs, a clean, sandy bottom and beautiful tints of green and blue. It is noted for its beautiful mountain scenery and its islands, and is a favourite summer resort. Geologists are of the opinion that Lake George is of glacial origin. Before the advent of the white man the lake was a part of the natural trail over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made their way northward to attack the Algonkins and the Hurons. During the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy in North America, and during the American Revolution, this natural pathway was still the best route of communication between New York and Canada and was of great strategic importance. Samuel de Champlain explored Lake Champlain in 1609, and at that time heard from the Indians of the beautiful lake, caUed by them Andiatarocte ("place where the lake contracts") but no records show that Champlain ever visited Lake George. The first white man to see the lake (Aug. IS, 1642) appears to have been Saint of

New York

a long,

state in the foothills of the

;

who in company with Rene Goupil and Guillaume Conture was being taken by his Mohawk Indian captors from the St. Lawrence to the town of the Mohawks. In the spring of 1646 Father Jogues, while on a half-religious, halfpolitical mission to the Mohawks, again visited the lake on the eve of the feast of Corpus Christi. He gave it the name "Lac du St. Sacrement." In 1755, Gen. Sir William Johnson renamed it Lake George in honour of George II of England. James Fenimore Cooper refers to it in his novels as Lake Horicon. Lake George was the scene of many engagements during the French and Indian War and during the Revolution. On Sept. 8, 1755! at the head of the lake. Gen. William Johnson defeated a force of about 1,400 French, Canadians and Indians under Baron Ludwig August Dieskau, who left Canada with the intention of Isaac Jogues, a Jesuit missionary,

The engagement is (later Ft. Edward). Lake George; a monument commemorating the battle was erected in 1903. Following the battle. Gen. Johnson built a fort of logs and earth on the shores of Lake George near the battlefield which he called Ft. William Henry in honour of WiUiam Henry, duke of Gloucester. In the meantime the French attacking Ft. L>Tnan

known

as the battle of

entrenched themselves at Ticonderoga. Two years later, in March 1757, the governor of Canada sent an expedition of about 1,600 men to capture the fort, but the expedition failed. In August of the same year the garrison, in desperate straits because of lack of ammunition and supplies, surrendered to the marquis de MontWhile under escort to Ft. Edward, the Indian allies of calm. Gen. Montcalm massacred or took prisoner a large part of the Gen. James Aberforce. Ft. William Henry was destroyed. crombie's large army marched from the lake to its defeat at Ticonderoga in July 175S. Lord Amherst advanced along the lake en route to Ft. Ticonderoga, which he captured in July 1759. Near the site of Ft. William Henry, Gen. Amherst later built a new fort known as Ft. George. Its ruins remain. Bibliography. H. Marvin, A Complete History of Lake George (1S53) B. C. Butler, Lake George and Lake Champlain (186S) B. F. Narrative of Events at Lake George (1868); Francis Da Costa, Parkman, History Handbook of the Northern Tour (1885) Elizabeth E. Serlve, Saratoga and Lake Champlain in History (1898); Caroline. H. Royce, The First Century of Lake Champlain {1900) W. M. Reid, Lake George and Lake Champlain (1910); F. W. Halsey, "The Historical Significance of the Hudson and Champlain Valleys," N .Y State E. T. Gillespie, "The Hist. Assoc. Proc, vol. i.x, pp. 227-236 (igio) War Path," N.Y. State Hist. Assoc. Proc, vol. x, pp. 139-155 (1911) Frederic F. Van De Water, Lake Champlain and Lake George (1946).

—

;

;

.-1

;

;

.

;

by C. M. Scott (1910) and C. N. Valhope and E. Morwitz (1943). Bibliography.

—G. Gundolf,

George (1920)

M. Bowra,

"Stefan George," in The Heritage of Symbolism (1943) R. Boehringer, Mein Bild von Stefan George (1951) C. David, Stefan George (1952) E. K. Bennett, Stefan George (1954). {H. S. R.) ;

C.

;

;

;

(G. L. F.)

GEORGETOWN,

the

capital

and

chief

port

of

British

Guiana, is on the right bank of the Demerara river at its mouth. Known during the Dutch occupation as Pop. (1960) 72,991.

GEORGE

TOWN—GEORGIA

Stabroek ("standing pool"), it was established as the seat of government of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with Berbice forming the territory of British Guiana) in 1784, its name being changed to Georgetown in 1812. The streets are wide and straight, intersecting each other at right angles, sevThe city has about 50 mi. of eral having double roadways. macadamized roads. In Main street, the finest street in Georgetown, the canal which formerly existed in the middle of its dual carriageway has been filled in to form a broad walk with seats beneath its large, overhanging trees, and with gay, tropical flowers in sunken concrete troughs on its parapets. The principal residences, standing in their own gardens, are scattered throughout the town. Most of the houses and public buildings are constructed of wood, the former generally raised on brick pillars four to ten feet from the ground, with wooden walls, jalousies and roofs in bright colours. As a consequence of two great fires in 194S and 1951, most of the buildings in the business section were rebuilt in reinforced concrete.

The

public buildings in the centre of the city containing the of-

government and the hall of the legislature, formerly were erected between 1829 and 1834. They form a handsome E-shaped, masonry block with deep porticoes and marble-paved galleries carried on cast-iron columns. The law courts, built in the 1880s, have a ground floor of concrete and iron, the upper story being of hardwood. Other public buildings include the town hall, which was designed by a Jesuit priest and built between 1887 and 1889, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, the former a great wooden building and the fices of the

called the court of policy,

latter rebuilt in reinforced concrete after a fire in 1913.

One

of

government owned and the other is run by There are two governmentthe Roman Catholic community. owned secondary schools the Queen's college for boys and the Bishops' high school for girls. There is also a government technical institute which provides basic technical education. The Royal Agricultural and Commercial society has a large reading room and the two hospitals

is

—

lending library.

Its

museum

is

chiefly

devoted to the animal

life

of the area but also contains collections of local economic, mineral

and botanical exhibits, and foreign birds and mammals. There are extensive botanical gardens to the east of the city with a small zoo containing local birds, animals and reptiles, and nurseries devoted chiefly to the raising of plants of economic importance; the collections of ferns and orchids are very fine. The gardens also contain the plots of the board of agriculture, where experimental work is carried on in the growth of sugar cane, rice, cotton, etc. Other places of interest are the sea wall and the promenade gardens in the centre of the city. There are facilities for outdoor sport and recreation including cricket, football, horse racing, rowing and swimming. The city, once malarial, has been free from the disease since 1945. A potable water supply and a sewage disposal system are maintained. Water street, the main business centre, runs parallel to the river for about two and one-half miles and contains the stores of the wholesale and retail merchants, with wharves projecting into the river. The country is connected by shipping services from Georgetown with the United Kingdom, France, the United States, Canada and other countries. There are public and private tidal berthage facilities with warehouse accommodation. The chief exports are sugar (from the country's large sugar mills), rice, tropical fruits, timber, bauxite, gold and diamonds. (E. A. As.)

GEORGE TOWN,

chief port of

of Malaysia and capital of

Penang

Malaya

in the federation

sometimes also called Penang, lies on a small triangular plain in the northeast of Penang Island. Pop. (1957) 234,903. It is the first chartered city of the Malayan federation, with a fully elected city council. Along its shores are the wharves, warehouses, business premises and banks serving Penang harbour which lies in the strait between the island and the mainland. The background of forested hills, roads lined with flowering trees and colonial-style residences, makes George Town one of the most attractive ports of Asia, with an atmosphere set by a population more Chinese and Indian than Malay, but so well settled that most of them have forgotten their immigrant origin. Its gay modern residences are occupied by successful state,

219

tin miners from the mainland, who Buddhist shrines and temples. The Chinese are of Hokien and Cantonese origin and the Indians are Tamils from south India. Fort Cornwallis, almost at the easternmost tip of George Town, is preserved for its history as an East India company outpost, acquired in 1786. The city contains a modern tin smelter run by an English company, which handles ores from Thailand and Perak and exports tin as ingots. International shipping approaches George Town from the north since the southern channel has many shallows. The port function is partly shared with Butterworth and Prai on the mainland, which cannot handle ocean-going vessels. Most of the produce and passengers, therefore, have to be ferried to George Town; (E. H. G. D.) some freight reaches the ships by lighter.

Chinese rubber planters and

have also

built spectacular

GEORGETOWN, bia, U.S..

now

formerly a city of the District of Colum-

part of the city of Washington, D.C.,

is

at the con-

and Rock creek, about 2J mi. W.N.W. of the national Capitol. The streets are old-fashioned, narrow and well shaded. On the "Heights" are many fine residences with beautiful gardens; the Georgetown Visitation Junior college, a Roman Catholic college for women, founded in 1799; and the college and the astronomical observatory (1842) of Georgetown university. Georgetown was settled late in the 1 7th century. It was laid out as a town in 1751, chartered as a city in 1789, merged in the District of Columbia in 1871, and annexed to the city of Washington In the early days of Washington it was a social centre in 1878. of some importance. The studio, for two years, of Gilbert Stuart, and "Kalorama," the residence of Joel Barlow were there. Legislation was passed by the 81st congress in 1950 to preserve the character of this section, to be known as Old Georgetown, by regulating the height, exterior design and construction of private and semipublic buildings in the area. See also Washington, D.C. is a southern state of the U.S. and youngest of the original 13 states, having been chartered as a colony in 1732 by George II of Great Britain, from whom it derived its name. With fluence of the

Potomac

river

GEORGIA

a total area of 58,876 sq.mi. (602 sq.mi. of water),

it is

the largest

and 21st in size of all the states. Until early in the 19th century it comprised nearly all the present area of Alabama and Mississippi. Its size and its agricultural and industrial prominence earned for it before 1860 the popular title of "empire state of the south." The capital has been Atlanta since 1878. The official flower is the Cherokee rose. The state bird is the brown thrasher. Georgia is bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina at the 35° parallel (north latitude) and on the south by Florida at the 30' 42' 42" parallel. It is bounded on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic ocean and on the west by Alabama. It lies between the meridians 80° 53' 15" and state east of the Mississippi river

85° 36' west longitude.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—

Physical Features. The surface of Georgia is divided into five physical zones. The most prominent of these is the coastal plain of 35,000 sq.mi. It extends from the Atlantic seacoast, which is skirted by numerous fertile semitropical islands of the Sea Islands group, northward to the fall line, which extends from Augusta through Milledgeville and Macon to Columbus. North of this line is the Piedmont plateau of rolling foothills that rise gradually in height from 500 ft., until they reach the mountains about 50 mi. N. of Atlanta, to somewhat less than 2,000 ft. Above this plateau lie three small regions, the largest of which is the Blue Ridge in the northeast (part of the Appalachian mountain system), extending south and west into Georgia to a distance of 48 and 92 mi., respectively.

In the extreme northwestern corner of the state

is

Cumberland plateau (part of the Allegheny system), represented by Lookout and Sand mountains, having an elevation of Between the two regions mentioned lies the about 2,000 ft. Great valley, extending southward to Cedartown. The Georgia mountains are part of a mountain system running from Canada to central Alabama, appearing from Virginia to Georgia in the two the

separate prongs mentioned above, with a wide valley between. The highest point in the state is Brasstown Bald (4,784 ft.), in the Blue Ridge region. The approximate mean elevation of the state

GEORGIA

220

is 600 ft. Near Atlanta, in tlie upper Piedmont plateau, is Stone mountain, probably the largest piece of exposed granite in the

world.

On the Blue Ridge mountains in the northeast comer of the state begins a water parting line, the fall line, extending southwest to Atlanta, southeast of which the waters flow into the Atlantic ocean and above which they find their way to the Gulf of Mexico. The Great valley region and most of the western portion of the Blue Ridge mountains are drained by the Etowah and the Oostanaula rivers and their tributaries, forming at Rome the Coosa, which empties into Mobile bay. The Cumberland plateau and the northwestern part of the Blue Ridge mountains constitute a part of the Tennessee basin. The principal rivers of the state are the Savannah, forming the boundary with South Carolina; the Oconee and the Ocmulgee, which unite in the south-central part of the state to

form the Altamaha; the Satilla in the southeast; and the Flint and the Chattahoochee, which unite in the southwest corner to form the Apalachicola in Florida. All except the Satilla rise in the upper Piedmont and are navigable only south of the fall line. In the southeastern part of the state is the Okefinokee swamp, covering an area of 660 sq.mi., a national wildlife sanctuary, most Much of the area in this region of the of which lies in Georgia. state is unsuitable for cultivation because of numerous marshes and swamps. Climate. The climate of Georgia is mild. Mean annual temperatures range from about 57° to 68° F. (about 14° to 20° C). January averages are about 40° in the mountains and 54° on the south coast; July averages range from about 74° to 82°. Mean

—

annual rainfall is almost 50 in. a year. Snowfall averages seven to ten inches a year in the mountains, about three in Atlanta and becomes negligible on the coastal plain. Soil. Georgia is notable for the variety of its soils, by far the greatest number being found in the upper coastal plain. The dominant pattern is in northern Georgia, loam and clay rich in decomposed limestone and calcareous shales; in the Piedmont, clays and loams, mostly of dark red colour, derived from decomposed hornblende; and in the coastal plain, gray sands and sandy loams. Vegetation. There are 250 species of trees native to the state, more than 90% of which are of commercial importance. The mountains are covered with oak and hickory varieties, with shortOther hardwoods are hemlock, leaf pine as a secondary type. maple and chestnut. Loblolly pine grows abundantly in the Piedmont, while longleaf pine is found in the western and southern portions of the state. White and red oak, yellow poplar, cherry and ash are important hardwoods throughout most of the state. The coastal area is noted for live oaks, cypresses and palmettos. Important flowering trees are magnolia, mimosa, dogwood, redbud, There are tulip and crepe myrtle, the last being nonindigenous. more species of shrubs than of trees. The most common flowering shrubs are yellow jasmine, flowering quince and arbutus, with rhododendron and laurel predominating in the mountains. The Cherokee rose bears a small white blossom with yellow centre. Spanish moss is abundant on the coast and around the streams and

—

—

swamps

of the entire coastal plain.

Animal

—

Life. There are 79 species of reptiles. Of these 40 are snakes, 23 are turtles, 13 are lizards and 3 are crocodilians.

Poisonous snakes are the rattlesnake, of which the eastern diamondback is the most noted, copperhead and cottonmouth moccasin, the last being aquatic and found largely in the coastal plain. The coral snake is rare. Of the 63 species of amphibians 35 are salamanders and 28 are frogs and toads. There are 160 species of birds that breed in Georgia and a greater number of migratory fowl. The largest family is the sparrow, of which 67 varieties have been identified. The bobwhite, or Virginia quail, is widely distributed and is the most popular game bird. Second in popularity and distribution is the dove. Marsh hens are abundant on the coast, and wild turkeys are found in the mountains and on the coast. Migrating geese and ducks are found on inland lakes, as well as on the coast. The Okefinokee swamp has many interesting and rare waterfowl, including the water turkey. Virginia deer are found m 50 counties, but the coastal counties have the largest number. The black bear is found in 13 coun-

Ware and

Charlton. Other prominent opossum, fox, raccoon, muskLess prominent are the beaver, rat, mink, otter and weasel. badger, wildcat, civet cat, mole, panther and skunk. The most popular fresh-water game fish are trout, bass, bream shad and catfish; all except the last are produced in state hatcheries for reties

being most abundant in

wildlife include the rabbit, squirrel,

stocking.

Off the coast are dolphins, porpoises, edible shrimps,

blue crabs and tidewater oysters.

Parks and Monuments.

—The

27 state parks range in area (less than 5 ac, near Irwinville) to Jekyll Island (an 11,000-ac. sea island, near Brunswick). The total acreage is in excess of 36,000. The parks are distributed throughout the state but are more numerous in the

from the Jefferson Davis Memorial park

mountain area, where Vogel State park ranks high in tourist popuNearly all state parks contain lakes or are adjacent to larity. large bodies of impounded water. The Georgia Veterans Memorial park in Crisp county borders on the 13,000-ac. Lake Blackshear. The federal government administers six areas in Georgia, the largest being the Chattahooche National forest in north Georgia (with headquarters at Gainesville), comprising 668,271 ac. Others of unusual interest are the Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield park near Marietta, the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military park in Walker and Catoosa counties, and the Ocmulgee The most important National monument (Indian) at Macon. cemetery park" is at Andersonville in Sumter county, where about 13,000 Union prisoners died in 1864.

HISTORY

—

Colonial. Georgia's formation was the result of a desire of the government to protect South Carolina from invasion by the Spaniards from Florida, and by the French from Louisiana, as well as of the desire of James Edward Oglethorpe (q.v.) to found a refuge for the persecuted Protestant sects and for the unfortuThe charter was nate but worthy indigent classes of England. granted to "the trustees for establishing the colony of Georgia in America," giving the colony a unique type of control, yet somewhat like the proprietary form. Parliament gave £10,000 to the enterprise, and the trustees encouraged the settlers to grow silk, grapes, hemp, olives and medicinal plants, for which England was dependent upon foreign countries. The sale of rum and the introduction of Negro slaves were forbidden, and severe limitations were placed on land tenure. Oglethorpe, as resident trustee, accompanied the first colonists, who settled at Savannah in 1733. The early settlers were English, German Lutherans (Salzburgers), Scottish Highlanders, Portuguese Jews, Piedmontese, Swiss and others; but the main tide of immigration came from Virginia and

British

the Carolinas after 1750. As a bulwark against the Spanish and French the colony was successful, but as an economic and philanthropic experiment it

was a failure. The industries planned for the colony did not thrive, and because sufficient labour could not be obtained, the importation of slaves was permitted, under certain conditions, in 1749. About the same time, parliament directed the trustees to end the prohibition on the sale of rum, and the restrictions on landholding were gradually removed. In 1753 the charter of the trustees expired and Georgia became a royal province, its character rapidly changing to resemble that of other southern colonies. Under the new regime the colony was so prosperous that Sir James Wright (1716-85), the last of the royal governors, declared Georgia to be "the

The people were through sympathy with

nent."

most

flourishing colony on the conti-

led to revolt against the

mother country

the other colonies rather than through any grievance of their own. The centre of revolutionary ideas was St. John's parish on the coast (settled by New Englanders, chiefly from Dorchester, Mass.) and the area north of Augusta (settled by Carolinians and Virginians). Loyalist sentiment was so strong that only 5 of the 12 parishes sent representatives to first provincial congress, which met on Jan. IS, 1775, and its delegates to the continental congress therefore did not claim seats in that assembly. Six months later all the parishes sent represent-

the

atives to another provincial congress that

The war

that followed

was a severe

met on July civil

conflict,

4,

1775.

with the

GEORGIA Loyalist and Revolutionary parties being almost equal in numbers; a large number of moderates preferred a neutral course. In 1778 the British seized Savannah, which they held until 1782, meanwhile

reviving the British civil administration, and in 1779 they captured Augusta and Sunbury; but after 1780 the Revolutionary forces were generally successful against Tories in the upcountry in bloody guerrilla fighting.

Civil affairs also

fell

into

confusion, partly While a state con-

because of a schism among the revolutionists. stitution was adopted in 1777, harmony did not prevail until 1781. Early Statehood. In the Constitutional Convention of 1787 Georgia's delegates almost invariably gave their support to measures designed to strengthen the central government. Georgia be-

—

state to ratify the federal constitution (Jan. 2, 1788), and one of the three that ratified unanimously. Afterward a series of conflicts between federal and state authority caused the growth of states' rights theories. Because of these conflicts a

came the fourth

majority of Georgians adopted the principles of the DemocraticRepublican party, and early in the 19th century the people were support of Jeffersonian ideas. supreme court with regard to Georgia's policy in the Yazoo land frauds aroused distrust of the federal government. In 1795 the legislature granted, for $500,000,

virtually

The

unanimous

in their

position of congress and of the

from the Alabama and Coosa rivers to the Mississippi river, and between 35° and 31° N. lat, (almost all the present state of Mississippi and more than half of the present state of Alabama), to four land companies, but in the following the territory extending

year a new legislature rescinded the contracts, on the ground that they had been fraudulently and corruptly made. In the meantime the U.S. senate had appointed a committee to inquire into Georgia's claim to the land in question, and as this committee pronounced that claim invalid, congress, in 1800, established a territorial government over the region. The legislature of Georgia remonstrated

but expressed a willingness to cede the land to the United States. In 1802 the cession was ratified, it being stipulated, among other things, that the United States should pay to the state $1,250,000, and should extinguish "at their own expense, for the use of Georgia, as soon as the same can be peaceably obtained on reasonable terrns." the Indian In 1824 of Georgia.

title to all

the

state

lands within the revised limits protested in vigorous terms

which the national government was was negotiated at Indian Springs by which a small and unrepresentative group of friendly (Lower) Creeks agreed to exchange their remaining lands in Georgia for $5,000,000 and equal territory beyond the Mississippi. But Pres. John Quincy Adams, convinced that this treaty was accompanied by bribery and learning that it was not confirmed by the entire Creek nation, authorized a new one, signed at Washington in 1826, by which the Creeks kept a small tract within the recognized limits of Georgia. Gov. George M. Troup (1780-1856) proceeded to execute the first treaty, and the Georgia legislature declared the second treaty illegal and unconstitutional. In reply to a communication of President Adams, early in 1827, that the United States would take strong measures against the dilatory

discharging

its

manner

in

obligation, with the result that in 1825 a treaty

to enforce its policy. Governor Troup asked his legislature to prepare to resist to the utmost any military attack that the U.S. government should think proper to make. A final treaty, in 1827, ended the Creek controversy. The controversy with federal authorities over Indian removal then focused on the Cherokees. In 1828 the legislature extended

the jurisdiction of Georgia law to the Cherokee lands lying in Andrew the northern part of the chartered limits of Georgia.

Jackson, then president, sided with Georgia, informing the Cherokees that their only alternative to submission to Georgia was emigration. Thereupon the chiefs resorted to the U.S. supreme court,

which in 1832 declared that the Cherokees formed a distinct community "in which the laws of Georgia have no force" and annulled the decision of a Georgia court that had extended its jurisdiction But the govinto the Cherokee country (Worcester v. Georgia). ernor of Georgia declared that the decision was an attempt at usurpation that would meet with determined resistance, and President Jackson refused to enforce the decree. He did, however, work for the removal of the Indians, which was effected in 1838.

Politics

221 and Slavery.

— Despite early national

political unity,

had been represented by two factions. One, led successively by William H. Crawford and George M. Troup, represented the interests of the coastal element and the upcountry slaveholding communities; the other, formed by John Clark (1766-1832 and his father Elijah, found principal support among the nonslaveholders and the frontiersmen. At the same time there was a sectional cleavage between the older communities along the coast and the newer upcountry communities, in which the latter early gained a dominant position, as a result of which the capital was removed to the upcountry, where it became fixed at Milledgeville in 1807, and in the creation of numerous counties throughout the rapidly expanding cotton belt of middle Georgia. The Troup faction, under the name of the States' Rights party, after 1832 endorsed the nullification policy of South Carolina local partisanship

)

against federal

tariff laws.

The Clark

faction, calling itself the

Union party, opposed South Carolina's conduct, but on the grounds of expediency rather than of principle. Because of its opposition to President Jackson's stand on nullification, the Troup party affiliated with the new Whig party, while the Clark party was merged into the Democratic party led by Jackson. The antislavery and nationalistic views of the Whig party during the 18S0s caused most of its members in Georgia to shift to the Democratic party.

activity of Georgia in the slavery controversy was imporPopular opinion at first opposed the Compromise of 1850 (see Compromise of 1850), and some politicians demanded Others contended that immediate secession from the union. the compromise was a great victory for the south and in a campaign on this issue secured the election of such delegates to the state convention (at Milledgeville) of 1850 that that body

The

tant.

adopted, on Dec. 10, by a vote of 237 to 19, a series of conciliatory resolutions, since known as the Georgia platform. The approval in other states of the Georgia platform in preference to the Alabama platform (see Alabama) caused a reaction in the south against secession, which was followed for a short period by a return to approximately the

former party alignment.

But

in

1854 the

rank and file of the Whigs joined the American or Know-Nothing party (g.v.), which evaded the slavery issue, while most of the Whig leaders went over to the Democrats. The Know-Nothing party was nearly destroyed by its crushing defeat in 1856, and in the next year the Democrats, by a large majority, elected as governor Joseph Emerson Brown (1821-94), who, by three successive re-elections, was continued in that ofifice until the close of the

American

Civil

Secession

War.

and the Civil War.

—The Kansas question and the

attitude of the north toward the decision in the

Dred Scott case

were arousing the south when Brown was inaugurated the first time. In his inaugural address he clearly indicated that he would favour secession in the event of any further encroachment on the On Nov. 7, following the election of Pres. part of the north. Abraham Lincoln, the governor, in a special message to the legislature,

recommended

the calling of a convention to decide the

Alexander H. Stephens and Herschel V. Johnson contended that Lincoln's election was insufficient ground for such action. On Nov. 17 the legislature passed an act directing the governor to order an election of delegates on Jan. 2, 1861, and their meeting in a convention on Jan. 16. On Jan. 19 this body passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 208 to 89. Already the 1st regiment of Georgia volunteers, under Col. Alexander Lawton (1818-96), had seized Ft. Pulaski at the mouth of the Savannah river, and Governor Brown proceeded to Augusta question of secession.

and seized the Federal arsenal there. Toward the close of 1861, however. Federal warships blockaded Georgia's ports, and early in 1862 Federal forces captured Tybee Island, Ft. Pulaski, St. Marys, Brunswick and St. Simons Island. Georgians responded freely to the call for volunteers, but when the Confederate congress, in April 1862, passed the conscript law. Governor Brown, in a correspondence with Pres. Jefferson Davis, offered serious obBrown also quarreled with Davis on other Confederate jections. policies that he considered as infringements on the rights of a sovereign state.

GEORGIA

222

In 1863 northwest Georgia' was involved in the Chattanooga campaign. In the follow'ing spring Georgia was invaded from Tennessee by a Federal army under Gen. William T. Sherman. The resistance of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and Gen. J. B. Hood proved On Nov. 15 Sherineffectual, and on Sept. 2 Atlanta was taken. man burned Atlanta and began his famous march to the sea, taking Savannah late in December. In the spring of 1865, Gen. J. H. Wilson, with a body of cavalry, entered the state from Alabama, seized Columbus and West Point on April 16, and on May 10 captured Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, near Irwinville.

Reconstruction.

— In accord with Pres. Andrew Johnson's plan

for reorganizing the southern states, a provisional governor,

James

Johnson, was appointed on June 17, 1S65, and a state convention reformed the constitution to meet the new conditions, rescinding the ordinance of secession, abolishing slavery and formally repudiating the state debt incurred in the prosecution of the war. A legislature and other officials w'ere elected in Nov. 1S65. The legislature ratified the 13th amendment on Dec. 9, and five days But both the later Charles J. Jenkins was inaugurated governor. convention and legislature incurred the suspicion and ill will of congress. Georgia was placed under military government, as part of the 3rd military district, by the Reconstruction act of

March

2,

Under the auspices of the military authorities, registration of new state convention was begun, and 95,168 Negroes and 96,333 whites were registered. The acceptance of the propoelectors for a

convention and the election of

many

conscien-

were largely the result of the influence of former Governor Brown, who was strongly convinced that the wisest course was to accept quickly what congress had offered. The convention met in Atlanta on Dec. 9, 1867, and by March 1868 had revised the constitution to meet the requirements of the Reconstruction acts. The constitution was duly adopted by popular vote, and elections were held for the choice of a goverRufus Brown Bullock, Republican, was nor and legislature. chosen governor; the senate had a majority of Republicans; and in the house of representatives, by the close vote of 76 to 74, a Republican was elected speaker. On July 21, the 14th amendment was ratified, and, as evidence of the restoration of Georgia to the Union, its congressmen were seated on July 25, 1868. tious

and

The Independent movement, later backed by the Bourbon control throughout most of

their policies.

Farmers

alliance, challenged

by 1892 the Populist threat, with its greater appeal became more serious. All factions sought the Negro vote, and political corruption was widespread. The waning of Populism at the beginning of the 20th century was accompanied by the adoption of several new measures. Virtual disfranchisement of the Negro was effected by registration requirements in 1908 ("grandfather" laws, which placed restrictions on Negroes by requiring that a registrant be "a veteran of any war" or "the descendant of a veteran"), and the convict-lease system was abolished. A state-wide prohibition law of 1907 proved unpopular, and this issue remained prominent until adoption of the 18th the period, but to

rural voters,

amendment to the U.S. constitution in 1919 brought national prohibition. Laws seeking to protect labour in the state's growing industries and reforms in educational policy, with additional ap-

propriations

adopted

for

public

schools,

in the first quarter of the

were other notable 20th century.

County Unit System and Apportionment.

— The

measures Neill act

primary elections under legal control, establishing the county unit system for determining winners in such elections. In 1920 a constitutional amendment fixed the number of first-class counties at 8 and the number in the second classification at 30, while those remaining were in the third class. First-class counties were the most populous, and each had three representatives in the legislature and cast six unit votes. The second group of 30 counties had two representatives each and was entitled to four unit votes. The remaining 122 counties were the least populous, and each had one representative and cast two unit votes. Thus first-class counties had a total of 48 votes; second-class, 120 votes; and thirdclass, 244 votes; the total of all votes being 412. Subsequently the number of counties was reduced to 159 and the total of county unit votes to 410. Since nomination in the Democratic primary in Georgia was tantamount to election, county unit voting, together with the three-class system of representation, placed political control in the hands of the smaller counties dominated by rural voters. of 1917 placed

1867.

sition to call the

Brown, Alfred H. Colquitt and John B. Gordon, stood for low taxes and limited public services and who maintained a close liaison between business and political interests. The leasing of convicts to private concerns was the most criticized of virate of Joseph E.

who

intelligent

delegates

In Sept. 1868 the Democrats in the state legislature, being assisted by some of the white Republicans, expelled the 27 Negro members and seated their defeated white contestants. In retaliation congress excluded the state's representatives

on the techni-

cality that their credentials did not state to w-hich congress they

were accredited, and, on the theory that the government of Georgia was a provisional organization, passed an act requiring ratification of the 15th amendment before Georgia's senators and representatives would be seated. The department of war then concluded that the state was still subject to military authority and placed Gen. A. H. Terry in command. With his aid and that of congressional requirements that all members of the legislature must take the test oath of nonsupport to any pretended government, i.e., the Confederacy, and that none be excluded on account of colour, a Republican majority was secured for both houses, and the 15th amendment was ratified. On July 15, 1870, Georgia was finally

This inequality of representation led in 1962 to a suit in the federal courts, the result of which was the voiding of the county unit system. A short time later the court ordered that one of the two legislative branches be apportioned on a population basis. Subsequently the 54 senate seats were reapportioned, with 23 going In 1964 the court ruled that both houses be to the urban areas. apportioned on a population basis and rejected as invalid a new constitution framed by the existing legislature. In 1964 the U.S. supreme court ruled that the Georgia apportionment for the U.S. house of representatives was unfair to urban voters and that congressional districts must be established on the basis of "equal representation for equal numbers of people."

—

lature;

Issues of Integration. In 1930 Richard B. Russell was elected governor on a platform of revamping governmental machinery to The Reorganization act of 1931 reeffect economy and efficiency. duced 102 administrative units to 18 and established a board of regents to administer the public colleges and the university. Russell was succeeded in 1933 by Eugene Talmadge, who for four years opposed most aspects of the national administration. The Roosevelt administration was popular in Georgia, however, and Eurith D. Rivers after 1937 brought the state into the orbit of the New Deal, although his failure to finance expanded state services brought Talmadge back to power four years later on a platform

a .special election

of economy.

readmitted to the union. Reconstruction in Georgia was comparatively moderate, largely because a number of conservatives under the leadership of former Governor Brown supported the Reconstruction policy of congress. The election of 1870 gave the Democrats a majority in the legis-

Governor Bullock, fearing impeachment, resigned, and at James M. Smith was chosen to fill the unexpired term. After that the control of the Democrats was complete. Georgia, however, did not frame its home-rule constitution until 1877, when the threat of further military intervention had

ended.

—

Post-Reconstruction. The history of Georgia since Reconstruction has been one of nominal social and economic progress, with the state firmly Democratic in politics until 1964. The 18year interval following 1872 was dominated by the Bourbon trium-

He now attacked the more subtle effects of the New Deal, and the promotion of social equality for all races, and launched a white supremacy offensive. He caused the dismissal of several university-system officials thought to be advocating mixing of the races in public colleges and schools, the dismissals in turn causing the colleges to lose accreditation. Ellis Gibbs Arnall defeated him in 1942 and introduced a program of reform, restored college accreditation, lowered the voting age to 18, abolished the poll tax and promoted the adoption of a new constitution in 1945,

Plate

GEORGIA

Br COURTESY OF (TOP LEFT) GEORGIA POWER CO., (BOTTOM LEFT) EWING GALLOWAY

(TOP RIGHT)

GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, (CENTRE LEFT. BOTTOM RIGHT) SAVANNAH CHAMBER OF LOMMERCE: PHOTOGRAPH

VIEWS OF GEORGIA Top

left: Cloudland

Canyon State park

in

the

Cumberland range, north-

west section of the state Top right: Atlanta, showing the state capitol building in the foreground. It was built in 1885-89 and patterned after the national capitol

Centre left: Marble bench at Savannah marking the first camp site, in 1733, of James E. Oglethorpe (1696-1785), founder of the Georgia

colony

Bottom

left: Marble cutting near Tate in northern Georgia.

This quarry

worked in 1884 Bottom right: Owens-Thomas house at Savannah, built in 1816-19. It one of the finest U.S. examples of the regency period of is considered was

first

architecture

I

GEORGIA

Plate II

8r COURTESY OF (TOP LEFT) GEORGIA DEPARTMENT Of PHOTOGRAPH, (CENTRE LEFTj CAROLYN CARTER

TTOM LEFT, BOTTOM RIGHT) SAVANNAH CHAMBER OF COMMERCE;

SCENES Top

left: Fort Pulaski National trance to the Savannah river.

monument

IN

on Cockspur Island at the enIts capture by Federal troops in 1862 successfully demonstrated for the first lime the effectiveness of cannon fire on masonry walls Top right: The old governor's mansion at MiHedgeville. built in 1838. now the residence of the president of the Woman's College of Georgia

GEORGIA Centre left: Glade shoals near Gainesville

in the foothills of the Blue Ridge range, northeastern Georgia left: Pirates' house near the Savannah waterfront. In the 18th century seamen were shangha*""' from there for sailing ships through an underground tunnel c^nnectir^ ti:e house with ths waterfront Bottom right: Old harbour light {1852) at the foot of Emmett park in Savannah, near the Savannah river

Bottom

GEORGIA embracing approximately 50 changes. In the Democratic primary of July 1946, Eugene Talmadge, backed by rural voters and supported by some industrialists, again received the nomination for governor under the county unit system, although losing the popular vote to James V. Carmichael. In the following November he was formally elected governor without opposition, but he died before his inauguration. The general assembly convened in January and according to law canvassed the election returns to find that about 700 write-in votes had been cast for the governor-elect's son, Herman E. Talmadge, whom they then declared governor. Because the constitution of 1945 was not clear ori the question of succession in such a case, confusion folArnall and the lieutenant governor-elect, Melvin E. lowed. Thompson, each claimed the succession on different legal grounds. Arnall was forcibly ejected from the governor's mansion by Tal-

madge

partisans,

who

held the capitol for 67 days.

On March

16

supreme court ruled in favour of Thompson, but in the special primary of 1948 young Talmadge won over Thompson in a county unit vote of 312 to 98, the popular vote being Talmadge,

the state

$15.

During

his administration

legislative

endorsement of

Gov. Eugene Talmadge had obtained

his plans to give the governor, function-

ing along with the state auditor as the budget committee,

announced

its

decision that segregation in public schools

was un-

constitutional.

In

November an amendment was

ratified enabling the state to

abolish public education but granting subsidies to private schools. Marvin Griffin in the meantime campaigned for governor on the

Talmadge position of continued segregation and was

elected.

In

the way for administrative movement led by Governor

abuses, which in turn crystallized a Arnall to weaken the powers of the

governor and to improve administrative efficiency. Arnall's proposals to make the board of regents, board of education, board of pardons and paroles, game and fish commission, and public service commission constitutional agencies were ratified by the people in 1943. The constitution of 1945 continued this trend toward cutting down the powers of the governor and effecting

The 1877 constitution placed severe limitations on finance, taxation and debt, although amended many times to meet requirements of changing circumstances. In June 1937, 26 constitutional amendments were ratified, liberalizing the powers of the legislature, particularly with respect to the state's co-operating in the program of the New Deal. A clause limiting the debt of minor civil division to 7% of the assessed valuation of its property was amended 135 times before 1945. The new constitution raised the limit to 10%, but the additional debt had to be approved by a majority vote, as against a two-thirds vote in the old conA significant new stitution, and had to be paid in five years. a

provision required that all tax moneys for state purposes be paid into the state treasury and that appropriations be made by the The legislature to departments and agencies in specific sums.

new provision removed

determined

total annual

placed the closing of public schools to prevent inteThe board of regents was given similar power to close public colleges. Early in 1961 two Negro students were admitted with police protection to the University of Georgia

under a federal court order. In the next several years seven public and two private colleges were integrated with a total of less than 40 Negro students. In the meantime the Atlanta school board, under court mandate, on Aug. 30, 1961, enrolled nine Negro students in four previously all-white high schools. Integration of the schools proceeded slowly. Carl E. Sanders was elected governor in

1962 on a platform of moderation. In 1964, with Democratic Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson supporting

the Civil Rights

bill,

candidate for the

Georgia voted for a Republican presidential time in its history.

first

in 1952.

Finances.

— In the second half

of the 20th century, Georgia's

income exceeded $300,000,000, more than 80% of it being derived from taxes that were nonexistent at the beginning The 3% general sales tax, begun in 1951, acof the century. counted for nearly 40% of the total. Motor-vehicle license taxes and gasoline taxes, begun in 1910 and 1921, respectively, provided 28%; while the income tax, introduced in 1929, accounted for slightly more than 15%. State taxes on land and real estate, once an important source of state revenue, were reduced to onefourth of a mill in 1951 and thereafter contributed only a negligible part of the state's income but remained the most important source of revenue for local government. Of the state's total income more than one-half was being spent for education; about one-quarter for highways; less than one-tenth for public health and public welfare; and less than one-tenth for all other departments. By 1950 Georgia's fixed debt had been paid off, and the state's financial position was better than at any time since 1860.

POPULATION

—

Constitutions. Georgia has had a total of eight constitutions, of 1877 having the longest continuous history although amended 301 times. In 1945 a new constitution was adopted, about 90% of which was taken from the preceding document. Revision was largely confined to form and organization although important changes were made. The amendment of 1941 increasing the governor's term from two to four years was continued in the new constitution, as was the teen-age qualification for voting (1943). The governor was made ineligible to succeed himself until four years from the date of leaving office. The membership of the state senate was increased from 52 to 54, bringing the total that

of the legislature to 259.

certain

effort

GOVERNMENT

membership

allocating

stitution so that

The administration of Gov. Ernest Vandiver, who succeeded Griffin, abandoned the previous pohcy of "massive resistance" in effect

old principle of

by highway interests to amend the new conmost of the gasoline taxes and license-tag fees would be earmarked for construction and maintenance of roads

A

succeeded

gration under local option.

the

revenue to specific objectives, a practice which at one time removed as much as 60% of all state funds from legislative control.

1955, the legislature passed a stand-by private-school law to go into effect if the court ordered a specific school to desegregate.

and

power

funds from one purpose to another. This executive subsequently exercised such power over the purse as to give him unusual control over every aspect of state government and to open to transfer

social

at

being con-

The number

minimizing the Negro vote, proved In 1950 (and again in 1952) a proposed amendment extending the county unit system to general elections was defeated by the people. In the meantime a sweeping 3% sales-tax levy enacted by the Herman Talmadge administration, most of which went largely for educational purposes, resulted in a rapid upgrading of Negro schools. What promised to prove the most serious issue since Reconstruction was provided in May 1954, when the U.S. supreme court

and aimed

all

of justices of the supreme court was increased from six to seven. Salaries of state officials in general were raised, the per diem pay of legislators being fixed at stitutional offices.

decentralization in administration.

unsatisfactory and was repealed after one year.

i

governor was added along with several new boards,

357,865; Thompson, 312,035. A federal court decision in 1945 ordered the Democratic (white) primary in Georgia open to Negro voters, causing the registration of Negroes to increase more than 700% by the end of the following year and providing new impetus to the white-supremacy issue. A reregistration act in 1949, containing literacy, character and citizenship tests,

\

223

The

office of

lieutenant

In 1760 Georgia's population was less than 10,000, with Negro slaves forming one-third of the total.

period the

number

of settlers had

By

the end of the colonial to 33,000, of whom

grown

18,000 were slaves. The state continued to grow throughout the American Revolution and by the first census in 1790 had reached 82,548, concentrated in the L-shaped corridor along the Savannah By 1800 the river and thence down the coast to the Altamaha. population had almost doubled, having increased to 162,686, 90% of the increase occurring in the up-country, where land grants had become available. The population reached 691,392 by 1840, resulting from the freeing of land by removal of Indians, free grants of the state's western lands and rapid expansion of cotton planting.

224

GEORGIA

of 1,057,286 was 44% Negro and was concentrated in the newer middle Georgia counties. In 1900 the population was 2,216,331, with 46.7% Negro and IS. 6% urban. Throughout the 20th century there was a steady decHne in the proportion of Negroes and a sharp rise in the percentage of urban

The 1860 population

inhabitants.

In 1960 the total population was 3,943,116 (an increase of 498,538 over 1950), or 67.0 persons per square mile. The entire urban population, including the urban fringe adjacent to the five Georgia: Places

GEORGIA In the second half of the 20th century a commuter's college, was created for the Atlanta area; and day colleges were authorized for Savannah, Augusta, Columbus, Brunswick, Albany, Dalton and Marietta, the last five being junior

leges.

the Georgia State college,

colleges.

Private schools include Agnes Scott college (Decatur, 1889; for college (nonsectarian; Mount Berry, 1926), Tift college (Baptist; Forsyth, 1849; for women), Emory university

women). Berry

(Methodist; near Atlanta, 1836), La Grange college (Methodist; La Grange, 1831), Mercer university (Baptist; Macon, 1833), Oglethorpe university (nonsectarian; near Atlanta, 183S), Piedmont college (Congregational; Demorest, 1897), Shorter college (Baptist; Rome, 1873), Wesleyan college (Methodist; Macon, 1836; for women), and Brenau college (nonsectarian; GainesAtlanta is the ville, 1878; for women), all for white students. largest centre in the south for the higher education of Negroes,

having five undergraduate private colleges: Spelman (Baptist; 1881; for women), Morris Brown (Methodist; 1881), Clark (Methodist; 1877), Morehouse (Baptist; 1867; for men) and Gammon Theological seminary (Methodist; 1883); Atlanta university (nonsectarian; 1867) for undergraduates and graduates; and the Atlanta School of Social Work, affiliated with Atlanta uniPaine college (Methodist; 1883) versity in 1938, for graduates. in Augusta, is the only other private college for Negroes in Georgia. Corrections and Welfare. In 1811 Georgia began construc-

—

had a number of workshops and by 1820 had inaugurated a program of penal and criminal reform unusually progressive for the times. The rapid increase of the prison population following the emancipation of the Negro in 186S, there being no Negro prisoners before emancipation, brought a reversal of the earlier policy, resulting in the tion at Milledgeville of a state penitentiary that

bulk of prisoners being leased to private businesses or assigned to county-operated chain gangs. The former practice ended in 1908. The constitution of 1945 established a board of corrections that assumed operation of a large new central penitentiary at Reidsville,

and the custom of using convicts on county roads practically

disappeared.

The Reorganization

act of 1931 brought under a single board of eleemosynary institutions, but in 1940 this board was abolished and the institutions placed under the public welfare department, though subsequently four were transferred to other departments. In 1943 the Georgia Academy for the Blind (Macon) and the Georgia School for the Deaf (Cave Spring) were transferred to the department of education, and later the tuberculosis sanitarium at Alto (later at Rome) was placed under the supervision of the board of health. In 1959 the Milledgeville State hospital, previously operated largely for the custodial care of 10,000 to 12,000 patients, was transferred to the board of health. The four institutions remaining under the department of public welfare were a training school for white boys (Milledgeville), a co-educational training school for Negro youths (Augusta) a training school for white girls (Atlanta) and a factory for the blind control

all

state

,

(Bainbridge).

THE ECONOMY

—

Agriculture. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people of Georgia until after World War II, when acceleration of mechanized farming reduced the farm population and the state underwent rapid industrialization. The most significant trend in Georgia agriculture in the second half of the 20th century was cotton, the principal money crop for 150 years, to a wide diversification. The largest cotton crop was in 1911, when 2,768,000 bales were produced on approximately 5,000,000 ac. A marked decline in cotton was noted in the early 1920s as a result of boll weevil infestation, the 1923 crop dropping to 588,000 bales. Diversification began at this point, and, after 1933, federal cropcontrol programs accelerated the movement. In the second half of the 20th century the soil-bank program had removed 380,000 ac. from production, of which only 10% was cotton; and the value of the state's corn crop in 1957 exceeded that of cotton for the first time since the American Civil War. Loss of income from cotton was more than replaced by income

away from

225

from such new crops as tobacco, peanuts, poultry, livestock and forestry products. Tobacco, grown in Georgia since colonial times, into demand for cigarettes during World War I, and by midcentury about 100,000 ac. annually were planted in southern Georgia. The state ranked first in the nation in peanut and in pimiento production, more than 500,000 ac. of peanuts being planted annually and harvested for nuts in addition to 150,000 ac. for hog grazing and other purposes. The pimiento (Spanish paprika) industry began in 1912, when a superior plant was imported from Spain and was found to be adaptable to the cotton belt. The peppers came

came

to

be grown under contract to commercial packers. The most spectacular development in Georgia agriculture was

the rapid rise of the poultry industry. While the initial emphasis in the 1920s had been on egg production, the most outstanding results were later achieved in growing broilers, production increas-

Tributaries to the broiler industry were processing and supply houses. Livestock was in the second half of the 20th century responsible for almost 40% of the state's gross farm income and 33^% of its cash income. While ranking lowest among the southern states in the number ing 126-fold.

plants, hatcheries, feed mills

of animals, Georgia played a leading role in developing herds of improved breeds, the greatest expansion being in the former cotton belt. Free range grazing in southern Georgia did not com-

Other income from diversified agriculture was in valuable peach and watermelon crops in middle and southern Georgia, respectively; apples in northeast Georgia; and pecans, produced in nearly every county in the state, with large commercial orchards in its middle and southern portions. pletely disappear until the second half of the 20th century.

Woodlands covered 24,000,000 ac, comprising two-thirds of the state's total area;

under fire-protection measures, they were one

After 1933 over 360,000 Georgia land were replanted with more than 1,000,000,000 trees, and the total annual value of raw timber and pulpwood after harvesting rose to $200,000,00a, its processed value being $800,000,000. In lumber products Georgia ranked high in the nation and produced over 70% of the nation's naval stores. Industry. The total annual value of Georgia's manufactured goods in the second half of the 20th century was more than twice that of agricultural products. More than half of the state's rural population commuted daily to urban jobs; one plant at Marietta drew its workers from 39 counties. The mill village, once common everywhere, had almost disappeared. The largest single Lumber products ranked product manufactured was textiles. second. Wood processing and wood products plants increased more than sixfold after 1935, employees in this industry quadThe newest manufacturing enterprise was rupling in number. pulpwood, which began in 1936, much of this going into the production of paper bags. About 40% of Georgia's new manufacturing plants were located in towns of fewer than 5,000 persons and of the state's greatest natural resources.

ac. of

—

raw materials, but many large national concerns also located in Georgia near urban centres and were engaged in the manufacture of a wide range of products. Minerals. The most important mineral, sedimentary kaolin, found largely in the coastal plain just south of the fall line, is used in making whiteware and as filling and coating for paper.

utilized local labour -and

—

Other products of the region are limestone, fuller's earth, portland cement and bauxite. The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont and mountain region provide granite, marble, talc, feldspar, asbestos, ochre and barite, of which granite is the most important, being used principally for monuments. The granite industry is mainly around Elberton in northeast Georgia. Marble from the Tate quarries is widely noted for its quality and beauty and is second in importance in this region. In the Paleozoic area of northwest Georgia the principal products are portland cement, crushed limestone and ochre. Metal mining is confined to Bartow, with barite, ochre and brown iron ore being the leading Small quantities of coal are mined on Lookout and products. The Dahlonega district, once famous as a Sand mountains. gold-mining region, produces only negligible quantities of this metal.

Transportation.

—Atlanta,

long an important

rail

centre for

GEORGIA—GEORGIAN LANGUAGE

226

the southeastern U.S., became a major air and motor transportaGeorgia by tion hub in the second quarter of the 20th century. the 1960s had about 50,000 mi. of surfaced highways with more than 15,000 in the state system, about 100 airports, and a motor Rail mileage was about Other means of transportation were naWgable rivers below the fall line, and ocean vessels having piers at St. Marys, Brunswick, Darien and Savannah. See also references under "Georgia" in the Index. Bibliography. The most complete bibliography of the materials of Georgia history is The Catalogue, the W. J. De Renne Georgia library, 3 vol. (1931), compiled by Leonard L. Mackall. See also Ella M. Thornton, Finding-List of Books and Pamphlets Relating to Georgia and Georgians (1928) R. P. Brooks, "A Preliminary Bibliography of vehicle registration of about 1,500,000. 5,000.

—

and white plaster colonies in

1

ceilings.

Some

700.

All of these features were

new

to the

of the earliest Georgian buildings were at

Williamsburg, capital of Virginia from 1699 to 1780; other notable examples are Independence hall, Philadelphia (1745), and King's chapel, Boston (1754). The style was foUowed after the Revolution by the Federal style, 1 780-1820. See also Baroque and PostBaroque Architecture; Georgian Styles. See

Hugh

Morrison, Early American Architecture (1952).

(Hh. M.)

GEORGIAN BAY,

the northeast section of Lake Huron, The bay lies entirely within the Canadian province of Ontario. is separated from the lake by Manitoulin Island and the Saugeen (or Bruce) peninsula.

It

is

120 mi. (193 km.) long and SI mi.

;

Georgia History," University of Georgia Bulletin, vol. x. no. 10a (1910). Works Covering All of Georgia History: E. M. Coulter, A Short History of Georgia (1933) .\manda Johnson, Georgia as Colony and State (1938) James C. Bonner, The Georgia Story (1958). Works Devoted to Special Periods or Subjects: W. B. Stevens, History of Georgia to 1798, 2 vol. (1847); C. C. Jones, Antiquities of the Southern Indians, Particularly of the Georgia Tribes (1873) Horace Montgomery (ed.), Georgians in Profile (19.i8) R. H. Shryock, Georgia and the Union in 1S50 (1926) U. B. Phillips, "Georgia and State Rights," American Historical Association Annual Report for 1901; Kenneth Coleman, American Revolution in Georgia. 1763-1789 (1958) Milton S. Heath, Constructive Liberalism: the Role of the State in Economic Development in Georgia to 1S60 (1954) T. Conn'Bryan, Confederate Georgia (1953); R. P. Brooks, The Agrarian Revolution in Georgia, 1S65-1912 (1914), Financing Government in Georgia, 18'!01944 (1946) Willard Range, A Century of Georgia Agriculture, 18501950 (1954) C. M. Thompson, Reconstruction in Georgia (1915) Alex M. Arnett, The Populist Movement in Georgia (1922) J. R. McCain, Georgia as a Proprietary Province (1917) Frederick Doveton Nichols, The Earlv Architecture of Georgia (1957) .Albert B. Saye, .4 Constitutional History of Georgia, 1732-1945 (1948) C. B. Gosnell and C. D. Anderson, The Government and Administration of Georgia (1956). Source Material May Be Found in: The Colonial Records of the State The Confederate Records of the State of Georgia of Georgia (1904-13) (1909-10) and The Georgia Historical Society Collections (1840-1916). Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

'

(Js. C. B.)

edition.

GEORGIA, STRAIT OF.

The

Strait of Georgia lies be-

tween the central east coast of Vancouver Island and the southwestern mainland of the province of British Columbia, Canada. Its length is about 140 mi., and its greatest width about 20 mi. The northern part of the strait is almost closed off by a group of islands lying northeast of the towm of Campbell River. The southern end of the strait is blocked by the San Juan Islands of Washington state. Depth of water in mid-channel is about 150 to 200 fathoms, but there are deeper, submerged valleys, and also numerous shoals which indicate the tops of submerged islands. There is a general counterclockwise movement of surface water in Georgia strait, aided by the large outflow of fresh water from the Fraser river. Tidal streams are complicated because tidal currents from Juan de Fuca strait to the southwest, and from Queen Charlotte strait to the northwest, both penetrate into Georgia strait. (J. L. R.)

GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE, the style of the

18th cen-

tury in England and in the English colonies in America. There are slight differences in usages of the term in the two countries. In England, Georgian refers to the mode in architecture and the allied arts of the reigns of

George

I,

II

and

III, extending

from 1714

The last decade of this era is often distinguished as Regency. The English Georgian style was strongly influenced by the work of the Italian Andrea Palladio (1518-1580). Introduced to England during the reign of James I in the 1620s, the Palladian style became even more admired in the 1720s under George I. Classical, formal and elegant, it esteemed "correctness" more than

to 1820.

comfort. In America, Georgian refers to the architectural style of the English colonies from about 1700 to the Revolution. Also formal and aristocratic in spirit, it was at first based on the baroque work of Sir Christopher Wren and his English followers in the late ,

Stuart period, but after 1750 it became more severely Palladian. Typically, houses were of red brick with white-painted wood trim and sliding-sash windows. Interiors had central halls, elaborately

turned stair balustrades, paneled walls painted in

warm

colours

bay is generally between 540 ft. (165 m.) at a point near the main channel leading to Lake Huron. The bay also is connected with the north channel of Lake Huron, which lies north and west of Manitouhn Island. The principal tributary rivers are the French, draining Lake Nipissing on the northeast; the (82 km.) wide.

100 and 300

ft.;

Depth of water

the

maximum

in the

depth

is

Muskoka, draining the Muskoka chain of lakes; Lake Simco; and the Nottawasaga, which enters from the south. Small boats may pass from Georgian bay to the Bay of Quinte, on Lake Ontario, by traveling through the Trent

Maganatawan;

the

the Severn, draining

Valley waterway, which includes the Trent canal built in 1918. The Georgian Bay Islands National park, at the southeastern corner of the bay, was established in 1929 and includes 30 of the bay's more than 20,000 small islands. The region is forested and

thousands of tourists

was the reached

first it

shore resorts in summer.

visit the

The bay

part of the Great Lakes seen by white men,

by way of the Ottawa and French

who

rivers in 1615.

For a discussion of origin, geologic setting, history and commerce see Great Lakes, The; Huron, Lake. (J. L. Hh.)

GEORGIAN LANGUAGE.

The Georgian language forms, together with Svanian, Mingrelian and Lazian, the southern or For the Kartvelian group of the Caucasian languages (g.v.). speakers of Svanian and Mingrelian it serves as the language of Among the Caucasian languages, literature and of instruction. only Georgian has an ancient literary tradition. The oldest inscriptions date from the 5 th century, at which time also parts of the Bible were translated from Armenian into Georgian. The lan-

guage of this period differs in some points from classical Old Georgian of the loth and nth centuries still in use in religious services. Old Georgian is somewhat difficult to understand but by no means incomprehensible to the Georgians of today; it was used in liturgy and for theological writings until the end of the Old Georgian abounds in loan words from Armenian 1 8th century. and especially from Greek; with the help of Greek the foundations were laid for a philosophical terminology. The language of me-

by Persian, stands nearer to the But only in the middle of the 19th cen-

dieval poetry, largely influenced

contemporary language.

tury did the literary language become definitively adapted to the

The vocabulary of New Georgian very extensive as compared with that of Old Georgian, every author drawing from his vernacular and even coining new expresThe dialects of modern Georgian show but slight sive words. differences, the most aberrant being those of the northeastern mountain tribes (Khevsurs, P'shavs). The phonemic system of Georgian comprises the five cardinal vowels and 28 (Old Georgian, 2 more) consonant phonemes. This system is notably simpler than that of the North Caucasian

living language of the people. is

languages;

it

shares with them

division of the stops

and

tion: voiced b, d, g, dz,

j,

some

characteristic traits, e.g., the

affricates into three

modes

voiceless with aspiration p'

,

of articulat' ,

k', ts,

ch

and voiceless glottalized p, t, k or q, ds, tch. Diphthongs were current in Old Georgian, but have been reduced to single vowels. There is no phonemic vowel length. The first syllable of the word, or in longer words frequently the antepenultimate, is marked by very slight stress. Georgian has roughly the same parts of speech as the IndoEuropean languages. The opposition between noun and verb is distinctly marked. The noun has seven cases: nominative, vocative, genitive, dative, ablative-instrumental,

terminative-adverbial

GEORGIAN LITERATURE and a special case called ergative which in seme constructions denotes the agent with a transitive verb. Because of fusion with postpositions there arose in New Georgian some secondary local cases. In Old Georgian the plural was formed in the nominative by Tlie

No.

Georgian Alphabet

227

;

GEORGIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

228 Whereas much

of Georgian ecclesiastical literature has its roots Byzantine Greek culture. Georgia's medieval romance and epic are impregnated with the civilization of Persia, blended with original elements of Caucasian folklore. Important prose romances are the Visramiani (Eng. trans. Visramiani: the Story of the Loves of Vis and Ramin, by 0. Wardrop. 1914 ). adapted in the 12th century by Sargis of T'mogA-i from an original Iranian romance going back to Parthian times, and Amiran-Darejaiiiani Eng. trans, by R. HStevenson. 195S>. a cycle of fantastic tales of adventure, attributed to Moses of Khoni. The foundations of secular poetry were laid at the same period by loane Shavt'eli and Chakhrukhadze. who respectively wrote formal odes in honour of King Da\-id II "the Builder'" (1089-1125") and Queen Tamara (11S41213). The supreme literary achievement of Georgia's golden age is Shofa Rust'aveli's epic Vep'khis-taosani (Eng. trans. The Man in the Panther's Skin, by M. S. Wardrop. 1912), in which the themes of ideal comradeship, courtly love and heroic endeavour are treated Whether Rust'aveli was in a sublime and sophisticated manner. a real personage living during the reign of Queen Tamara. or a pseudonj-m cloaking a poet of some later period, remains controversial. His poetic tradition, broken by the Mongol invasions, was renewed in the 17th century by the royal poets Teimuraz I (15S9-1663) and Archil (1647-1713). Belles-lettres revived in Georgia during the ISth centun.' with the lexicographer Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani (165S-1725), who wrote a book of fables. Dsigni sibrdzne-sitsriiisa (Eng. trans. The Book of Wisdom and Lies, by 0. Wardrop. 1S94); King Vakhtang M. (1675-1737), who founded a printing press in Tiflis and had the Georgian annals edited and completed; and his son Vakhushti (c. 1695-1772). the historian and geographer. The main poets of the period were David Guramishvili (1705-92) and Besarion Gabashvili. called Besiki (1750-91). The Russian occupation of ISOl brought Georgia into the orbit Romantic poetr>' flourished with of European intellectual life. in

(

the work of Alexander Tchavtchavadze (17S6-1846) and the Byronic IjtIcs of the youthful bard Nicholas Barat'ash\Tli (1817-45). Satirical comedy developed under the lead of Giorgi Erist'a\'i

(1811-64). founder of the modem Georgian theatre. Exponents of the realistic novel were La\Tenti Ardaziani (.1815-70) and Ilia Tchavtchavadze (1837-1907), the latter being Georgia's most distinguished ist,

man

publicist

of letters of

and poet.

modem

The

life

times,

renowned as an essay-

of the Georgian mountaineers

portrayed in the stories of Alexander Qazbegi (184893) and the ballads of Vazha Pshavela (1861-1915). Even more famous was the patriotic poet and man of letters Akaki Dseret'eli Several of Shakespeare's plays were or Tsereteli US40-1915). translated by Ivane MachabeU (1854-98). Under the tsarist regime Georgian literature often assumed a propagandist, moralistic tone. Even the romantic story Suramis tsikhe ("Suram Castle") by Daniel Tchonkadze (1830-60) conUnder the Sotains implied criticism of contemporary- serfdom. is

brilliantly

regime a number of leading writers, including the novelist Mikheil Javakhishvili and the poets Paolo lashvili and Titsian Tabidze. perished in the Stalin purge of 1937. However, poets of V dramatists such as the stature of loseb Grishash\-ili (1889Shalva Dadiani (1874-1959) and novelists such as Konstantine ) succeeded in maintai nin g a high Gamsakhurdia (1S91standard of creative originality. viet

—

BiBLiOGR.*PHV. J. Karst, Litterature georgienne chretienne (1934); A. Baramidze et al., htoriya gruzinskoi literatury, new ed. (1958); M. Tarchmsh\T]i, Geschichte der kirchlichen georgischen Literatur (1935) V. Urushadze. Anthology of Georgian Poetry, 2nd ed. (1958) D. M. Lang, Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints (1956). (D. M. L.v) ;

GEORGIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

by the Armenian S.S.R. and Turkey, and sea.

to the west

by the Black

Its area is 26,911 sq.mi.

Physical Features.

— Georgia

falls into

three main structural

movements

of the Alpine In the north is the Greater Caucasus range, in the centre a tectonic depression or trough, and in the south the mountains of Transcaucasia. All the southern flank of the Greater Caucasus range, usually regarded as the boundarj' of Europe and Asia, Although the highlies in Georgia, as far east as Mt. Diklos-Mta. est peak. Elbrus, lies just over the boundary- of the republic, many high summits are on the crest line: Shkhara, 17,063 ft., DzhangiMany of tau. 16,565 ft., Kazbek, 16,558 ft., Ushba. 15.453 ft. the peaks have extensive glaciers. Toward the west, approaching the narrow coastal strip along the Black sea, the range becomes lower. South of the main range is a series of lower ranges, usually roughly parallel to it and separated from it and from each other by deep valleys and gorges. From west to east the chief of these ranges are the Gagrinski, Bzybski. Abkhaz. Kodorski. Svanetski,

regions which originated in the vast earth folding period.

Metrelski. Lechkhumski and Rachinski. Farther east, the Suramski Kartalinski and Xakhetinski ranges are perpendicular to the

Greater Caucasus. are

many and

The

rivers,

which mostly

rise in the ice fields,

fast-flowing, the largest being the Bz>-b. Kodori,

and Rioni. flowing to the Black sea, and Arag\i. lori and Alazani. flowing to the Caspian. In the extreme northwest is the picturesque Lake Ritsa, formed by a landsUde. a popular tourist centre. The tectonic trough is di\'ided in two by a saddle formed by the Inguri. Tskhenis-Tskali

the

Kura

tributaries.

To the west is the wedge-shaped lowland of Kolkhida, the legendar>' land of the Golden Fleece. Into this level plain the Rioni and other mountain rivers bring enormous volumes of water and silt, and widespread swamps have been formed. The central part of the swamps, between the Rioni and the Khobi. has Suramski range.

been reclaimed and further reclamation took place in the 1960s. East of the Suramski saddle the trough continues as a series of high, level plains, notably those of Gori and Rusta\i. drained to the east by the Kura and its tributaries. The third region, in the south, consists of ranges and plateaus, often called the Lesser Caucasus. Much lower than the main range, it rises to 10,830 ft. The chief ranges are the Adzharo-Imeretinski in Mt. Bol x\bul. and the Trialetski. A narrow, swampy coastal plain fringes the Lesser Caucasus (see also Caucasus). The cUmate of Georgia is varied.

The western

part has the

highest rainfall of the U.S.S.R., from 40 in. a year on the coast to more than 100 in. on the mountains. The temperature regime is subtropical, with mild winters and hot summers, modified only bv the proximity of the sea and by height. Batumi has a January average of 43° F. (5.56° C. and a July average of 73° F. (22.78° )

In the Kura (q.v.) valley, a rain-shadow area, rainfall drops to under 20 in., although temperatures remain high. Rehef naturally imposes wide variaUon locally and conditions become increasingly severe with height. The great variety of relief and climate brings about a similar variety of soil and vegetation. In the Kolkhida lowland, apart from reed and grass swamp, vegetation is subtropical, with many exotics, such as palm, bamboo and eucah-ptus. The lower slopes are in dense hanoid forest of oak and beech, with

C).

creepers, especially

hy

and clematis.

Higher up

this gives

way

to

coniferous forest of Caucasian fir and some spruce; higher still are thickets of rhododendrons and azaleas with birch and juniper, which yield in turn to alpine meadow and eventually to rock and In the drier east steppe vegetation is found on the plains. ice. Soils range from bog and alluvial soils in the Kolkhida lowland to terra rossa and brown forest earths on the slopes and black earths

and chestnut

soils in the east.

(R. A. F.)

(GruzINSKAYA SOVETSK.AYA S0TSI.U.ISTICHESKAVA ReSPUBLIKA; COmmonly called Georgu, Georgian S.\kart\xlo. Russ. Gruziya). one

nation, so far as can be judged from available historical and archaeological e\ndence, represents a fusion of local, autochthonous inhabitants with tribes infiltrating

of the 15 constituent union republics of the U.S.S.R.. is in western Transcaucasia and includes the Abkhaz and Adzhar Autonomous So\-iet Socialist Republics (qq.v.) and the South Ossetian (YugoOsetinskaya) Autonomous oblast (see Ossetia). It is bounded to the north by the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. to the east by the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, to the south

from Asia Minor in remote anuquity. There has also been an admixture of Greek. Scythian. Iranian and .\rmem'an elements. The characteristic physical t>-pe is dark-haired, slim. tall, robust and athletic; fair skin, a strong growth of beard, dark eyes (about

The People.— The Georgian

30i ghu), in Gmc. they coalesced with these clusters and gave kw xw gw. These changes gave the 1 1 stop and spirant phonemes assumed Reconstructions from the individual Gmc. languages for PGmc. then indicate that some of these began to undergo further changes: b d^-g changed from spirants to stops in certain positions and x ;

changed

to

Vowels.

/;

initially.

— Besides

(stops and spirants),

the above obstruents

PIE had two other classes of phonemes: vowels and resonants. The vowel of any given root was not necessarily fixed, but varied Thus the root "sit" was alterin an alternation termed ablaut. nately *sed-, *sod-, *sd-, *sed-, or *sdd- (Eng. "sit" is from *sed-, "sat" from *sod-, "seat" from *sed-) and the root "do" was *dhe-, *dhd-, or *dh3- (Eng. "deed" is from *dhe-, "do" from *dh6-). Other vowels were a, a, i, u. The PIE resonants were i~i, u~u, ;

m~m, n~n,

l~^l,

They were

r~r.

syllabic in

some environ-

Thus *bhrt6- (Sanskrit bhrtdments, nonsyliabic in others. "borne" had syllabic r, but *bhereti (Sanskrit bhdrati "he bears") had nonsyliabic r. (Eng. "bear" is from *bhcr-, "barrow" from )

.

u~o

i~e

"

The

p

y of

yes.

;'

q

i{,

\

".

e

o

iu^eu at

au

^t k

£E

pI /'

fi^x

*~* s d~d " " w g^t

This

m

which resulted when as b~''t>,

anx 7mx changed

iiix

d~i,

g

to {x qx

of vowels vs. resonants was reshaped by a

m

of changes.

i

mnl

I

I'jx.

PIE system

n I r gave the vowels i u and Syllabic i 11 r gave the consonants the sequences um un ul ur; nonsyliabic ni n I r; nonsyliabic I u before vowels gave the consonants ;' w,

number

represents the th of thin, x the ch of German ach, j the To the above should perhaps be added long nasalized

phonemes noted

*bhor-, "burden" from *bhr-, "bier" from *bher-.)

The

— f-were the stops

b d g in some (This type of alterna-

environments, the spirants t d^f"^ others. tion is not unusual; it occurs, for example, in modern Spanish.) The distribution seems to have been: all were stops after nasal

though after vowels they continued to form diphthongs {ei ai oi, eu au ou). The resulting vowels and diphthongs then developed as follows: t

e

3

a

or^u

t

ei

e

I

e

' of monads, his docto

dogma

:

harmony and his acceptance of this as the possible worlds affected the thought of the whole of the

trine of pre-established

best of

all

century.

German

rehgious

life

was marked by a revival of pietism

under thinkers such as Philipp Jakob Spener, a re\ival which left its traces in the sphere of religious poetry. The main emphasis lay not in conformity but in the indlNidual's spiritual experience. At the same time Gottfried Arnold (1666-1714) undermined the authority of organized religion by his theory- that those whom the church called heretics were really endowed with the true basis of religious feeling.

In hterature the new ideas soon began to emerge. Mediocre though they were, the so-called "court poets," Friedrich von Canitz, Joharm von Besser and Benjamin Xeukirch, substituted the "good taste'' of Nicolas Boileau-Despreaux for the extravagance of Giambattista Marino from their midst sprang one lyric poet of high gifts, Johann Christian Giinther. In Hamburg, Barthold Heinrich Brockes, who was deeply impressed both by Wolfl&an rationalism and by English nature poetry, gave the artificiality of poetic expression its deathblow. Ubiquitous translations and imitations of the Enghsh Spectator, Taller and Guardian the socalled Moralische Wochetischriften or moral weeklies helped to regenerate literan,' taste and strove to improve the morals of the German middle classes. Indeed, one of the most marked features of German literature in the ISth centurj' was the progressive influence of English hterature; first, of Joseph Addison, Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, Alexander Pope and Lord Shaftesburv'; later, ;

—

—

of James Thomson, who nourished the rising interest in nature poetry; then, as the importance of the imagination came to be recognized, of John Milton and Edward Young. George Lillo

(and others) and Samuel Richardson exercised much eft'ect upon the growth of the domestic tragedy and the moral novel respectively, while Young's Conjectures on Original Composition

was the dominant

heralded a new epoch in German literature that was to be profoundly affected by James Macpherson's Ossian, Thomas Percy's Reliques and Shakespeare the epoch of the Sturm und Drang.

inteUectual and spiritual affairs in the 17th cen-

Laurence Sterne. Henry Fielding and Ohver Goldsmith had many

THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The Climate

factor in

the Enlightenment brought about a reaction. Its outlook reposed upon the acceptance of the primacy of reason. Man now claimed to be able to understand the universe independently of supernatural revelation by virtue of his possession of the divine gift of reason.

of Opinion.

—

If religion

and thoughts of the hereafter were uppermost

in

men's minds,

—

echoes, mainly, but not exclusively, in the sphere of the novel.

The

GERMAN LITERATURE

265 out Europe. Like his predecessor Gottsched, whom he vanquished more effectually than Bodmer had

which English influence reached Germany might be expected, Hamburg, with its important overseas commercial connections, Leipzig, the headquarters of the book trade, and Gottingen, the seat of the university founded by George II. Between 1724 and 3. The Reaction Against Rationalism. in establishGottsched succeeded Christoph critic Johann the 1740 principal centres through as

included,

done, he had unwavering faith classicism, but classic meant

in

—

German

ing in Leipzig, then the metropolis of

for him, as for his contemporary J. J.

Winckelmann, Greek art and not French pseudo-

literature

taste, literary re-

accord with French 17th-century classicism. He purified the stage by abolishing irrelevant buffoonery and provided it with a repertory largely of French origin; and, in his Kritische Dichtkunst (1730), he laid down the principles according to which good literature was to be produced and judged. Reform was necessary, but the francophile limitations of Gottsched soon encountered resistance, and important opponents arose in the Swiss scholars J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger. Basing their arguments

classicism.

on Paradise Lost, which Bodmer had translated into prose, the Swiss demanded room for the play of genius and inspiration; they insisted that the imagination should not be dominated by reason. The effects of the controversy appeared toward the middle of the century in a group of Leipzig writers of Gottsched's own school, the Bremer Beitrdger, as they are usually called after the paper in

dramatists,

forms

in

—

which they published their work. These men C. F. Gellert, the author of graceful fables and tales in verse, hymns, moralizing comedies and a sentimental novel; G. W. Rabener, a mild satirist of Saxon provincialism; the dramatist J. E. Schlegel; and a number of minor writers were in sympathy with many of the views which the Swiss critics had advocated. And in the Bremer Beitrdge there appeared anonymously in 1748 the first installment of an epic in hexameters by F. G. Klopstock, Der Messias, which the

—

author had planned while

still

at school.

Its

when

theme created a

sen-

cantos appeared, and numerous imitations were soon produced. Klopstock's sation

the

first

genius was, however, more suited to the lyric, and his odes, in which both patriotic and sentimental themes were prominent, gained

an immense reputation. He also wrote dramas on biblical and teutonic subjects. His rising interest in

Germanic antiquity, accom-

panied by the enthusiasm that

was awakened in Germany for Ossian, Macpherson's James aided the growth of the so-called "bardic" movement which was led by H. W. von Gerstenberg, F. F. Kretschmann and Michael Denis, the translator of Ossian into GerF.

G.

KLOPSTOCK (1724-1803)

man

(1768-69).

Signs of growth were also noticeable elsewhere. At Halle, before Klopstock's name was known at all, two young poets, J. I.

G. Lange, wrote in rhymeless metres such as Klopstock advocated. After the middle of the century the Prussian poets who were associated with J. W. L. Gleim, J. N. Gotz and J. P. Uz, Halle, and K. W. Ramler in Berlin, cultivated mainly the anacreontic lyric and the horatian ode, Gleim acquiring fame also in the field of the patriotic lyric inspired by the campaigns of Fred-

Pyra and

S.

At the same time Friedrich von Hagedorn in Hamburg what perfection the lighter vers de societe could be brought. The Swiss anatomist Albrecht von Haller, in Die Alpen (1729), was the first who gave expression in German to the beauty and sublimity of alpine scenery and the moral purity of its inhabitants, admiring always the great wisdom of the Creator; while a Prussian officer, Ewald Christian von Kleist, author of Der

erick II.

showed

to

FrUhling 1749), wrote admirable sentimental nature poetry. The Swiss Salomon Gessner became a Eu/opean figure with his prose (

pastoral idyls.

The Influence of Lessing.— As Klopstock had been the first modern Germany's inspired poets, so Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was the first critic who brought credit to the German name through4.

of

He

went, indeed, stiU

and asserted in his Literatrirhriefe (1759-65) axidHamburgische Dramaturgie (1767further,

68) that Shakespeare, with irregularities,

was a more

all

his

faithful

observer of the spirit of Aristotlaws than were the French

le's

knew GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM LESSING (1729

though the French and Shake-

of these laws

speare did not. It is true,

1781)

sing's

own

however, that Les-

exposition of Aristot-

theory of tragedy was full of the moral preoccupations of the Enlightenment. He looked to England and not to France for His own dramas were the regeneration of the German theatre. pioneer works in this direction. Miss Sara Sampson (1755) was a le's

on the English model; Minna von BarnGeorge Farquhar; in Emilia Galotti (1772) Lessing remolded the "tragedy of common hfe" in a form that came to be acceptable to the Sturm und Drang; and finally in Nathan der Weise (1779) he won acceptance for iambic blank verse as the medium of the higher drama. His two most promising disciples, J. F. von Cronegk and J. W. von Brawe, unfortunately died young; but another of his friends, C. F. Weisse, biirgerliches Trauerspiel

helm (1767), a comedy

in the spirit of

was the most successful playwright of his day. Lessing's name is associated with Winckelmann's in Laokoon (1766), a treatise which defines the boundaries between plastic art and poetry, and with those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and the Berlin bookseller C. F. Nicolai (gg.v.) in the famous Literaturbrieje. The last years of Lessing's life were embittered by conflict with Lutheran orthodoxy and bigotry, and his Nathan der Weise was a plea for rational understanding and toleration. Because of Lessing, German literature made a great leap forward beyond the feeble achievements of the first half of the century. The time of the fumbling imitations of the French drama was over and German literature could hold up its head among its European neighbours. The domestic tragedy, its plot centred upon the problem of class distinction, foreshadowed plays involving marked political and social criticism in the Sturm und Drang period, while Nathan was an important forerunner in style and content of the "drama of ideas" of Weimar classicism, and Minna has remained unsurpassed in the field of comedy. Lessing's theoretical work, with its wide range of interest, its pugnacity and its convincing argumentation, placed criticism in the forefront of Uterary Germany. His sharp rejection of descriptive poetry and his insistence that, whereas painting is restricted to a affairs in

single

moment

in time,

poetry deals with a succession of moments

and should be concerned with action, exercised a great effect upon the writing of the next generation, while his attack upon the literary authority of France prepared the way both for a greater attention to English examples and for the search for native originality. To the widening of the German imagination C. M. Wieland contributed by introducing remote and exotic literary settings, largely under French inspiration. With the exception of his verse-romance Oberon 1780), his work fell into neglect; he did excellent service, however, to the development of German prose fiction with his psychological novel Agathon (1766), insisting upon the cultivation of wisdom, virtue and happiness, and with his humorous satire Die Abderiten (1774). He also translated 22 plays of ShakeWieland had a considerable following, including M. A. speare. von Thijmmel; the Austrians Aloys Blumauer and J. B. von Alxinger, who wrote travesties and epics under his influence; and K. A. Kortum, author of the most popular comic epic of the time, (

—

GERMAN LITERATURE

266

the Jobsiade (1784). The German novel owed much to the example of Agathon, but the groundwork and form were borrowed from English models; Gellert had begun by imitating Samuel Richardson in his Schwedische Grdfin and he was followed by Sophie von La Roche, A. von Knigge and J. K. A. Musaus, the

last-mentioned being, however, better

famous

known

as the author of a

Volksmdrchen (1782-86).

collection of

tionalism was spreading rapidly.

Men

like

Meanwhile

ra-

Knigge, Mendelssohn,

Zimmermann,

T. G. von Hippel, Christian Garve, J. J. Engel, as well as the educational theorists J. B. Basedow and J. H. Pestalozzi, wrote books and essays on popular philosophy which J.

G.

were as eagerly read as had been the Moralische Wochenschriften. In this context must also be mentioned the most brilliant of German 18th-century aphorists, G. C. Lichtenberg.

VI.

The

New

THE AGE OF GOETHE

Outlook

—The

period of classicism and romantiliterature, fell within the lifetime of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The age of Goethe went beyond the Enlightenment's substitution of science for religion, inasmuch as it ascribed to science only a relative position in relation to the ultimate questions of life. It insisted upon the value 1.

cism, the greatest epoch in

German

of feeling in face of the hmitations of reason.

Impulse, instinct, emotion, fancy and intuition acquired a quasi-religious significance, being regarded as the links which connected man with divine nature.

Those things which were

—

held to conflict with feeling the conventions and ordinances of social, political or religious life

must accordingly not base upon reason alone but give full scope to man's emotional charideal of the classical

was

that of the fully developed personality in which intellect and feeling

BETTMANN ARCH

JOHANN

WOLFGANG VON

(1749-1832).

PAINTING

GOETHE BY

GER-

two complementary aspects of HARD VON KUGELGEN. 1810 man's nature it came to play a paramount role as an instrument of civilization. Three phases

may

be distinguished in the evolution of this new outlook Sturm classicism, and romanticism, the first two being represented by one and the same generation of writers, the last by a new :

und Drang, generation.

Skirm und Drang.

—The youth and early manhood of Goethe be-

longed to, and profoundly affected, the movement known as Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress"), which aimed at overthrowing the cult of rationalism.

Seeds of the new growth were to be found

Klopstock, in the spiritual force of pietism and in the rising resistance to French classical taste, while the influence of Rousseau,

in

Edward Young and James Macpherson, and lated Shakespeare, originality

was

of the recently trans-

of prime importance.

Nature, genius and were the slogans of the new epoch. An increasingly

oppressive sense of dissatisfaction with the civilization of the day, because it seemed to be at loggerheads with these new subjects of belief, assailed the new generation and, being without the consolation of

normal

religious faith,

varying degrees of intensity.

it

Strain, protest, revolt, yearning, dis-

were obvious on all sides, and egotism became a dominating feature in literature and thought. The critical writings of H. W. von Gerstenberg {Brieje iiber Merkwitrdigkeiten der Litteratur, 1766-67) stressed personal feeling in matters of taste, but the chief impetus came from the illusion

oracular utterances of Johann Georg

Hamann, the "Magus im Norden," who observed that the basic verities of existence were to be apprehended through faith and the experience of the senses, emphasized the inspirational and symbolical function of language and pointed out the value of primitive poetry, such as that of the Bible. Poetry, he declared, was the mother tongue of the human race and not the product of learning and precept. His pupil was Johann Gottfried von Herder, who grasped, as no thinker before

him had done, the idea of

historical evolution. Beginning with which engendered the main current of the Sturm und Drang, he ended as a philosopher of history and religion, writing on biblical interpretation, aesthetics, history of literature and

literary criticism,

many

other fields allied to his great objective', the history of His doctrine of Humanitdt is fundamental to German

mankind.

classicism. He stressed the value of historical continuity in literature, finding therein the reason for the greatness of other htera-

which Percy's Reliques had recently drawn attention. Among many works may be mentioned his Fragmente iiber die neuere

deutsche Litteratur (1767), Kritische Walder (1769), Ober den Ursprung der Sprache (1772), contributions to Von deutscher Art und Kunst (1773), Volkslieder (1778), Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784-91). Percy's Reliques also affected the poets who, adoring Klopstock and hating Wieland, founded in 1772 the Gottingen Bund or Hain, and published their poetry in the Gottinger Musenalmanach. With the exception

age, soon to be called Hiimanitat,

should be harmoniously Because art was held to express a synthesis of these

who

case the path was not easy.

to

felt,

balanced.

those

his

itself

The

somehow to the unsatisfying realities of the world; did not, required to strive in search of nature. In either

just themselves

tures; he rejected imitation, discussed the essentials of a poetic language, explained original genius and pointed to the folk songs, ballads and romances of the middle ages as sources of inspiration,

were rejected as though partaking of blasphemy. Culture, it was

acter.

ceasing effort, like that of Faust; and this in turn projected' immense problems into the foreground. The types of character who believed they embodied nature in themselves needed to ad-

victim to Weltschmerz in of its members, like Goethe,

fell

Some

were assisted by their own practical efforts in the task of accommodating themselves to life; others, hke Herder and Schiller, by historical and philosophical studies; some, like J. M. R. Lenz, failed entirely. Nature was deified as a restlessly growing and changing thing; indeed it was called the "living garment of God" and the cult of nature completely replaced orthodox religion, No law was recognized as being above the individual conscience, and conscience must behave according to the leaching of this dynamically conceived nature. The standard outlook thus demanded un-

of the two brothers. Christian and F. L. Stolberg, the members of this coterie belonged to the peasant class or the lower bourgeoisie; J. H. Voss, the leader of the Btind and author of the famous idyl

Luise (1784), was a typical north German peasant. L. H. C. Holty J. M. Miller excelled in simple lyrics in the tone of the Volkslied. Closely associated with the Gottingen group were Matthias Claudius, a poet and prose writer of an unassuming religious char-

and

and G. A.

acter,

Biirger,

author of the famous ballad Lenore. associated with Goethe.

The Sturm und Drang was intimately

As a student in Leipzig, Goethe had written lyrics in the anacreontic vein and dramas in alexandrines; but in Strasbourg, where he continued his studies in 1 770-71, he made the acquaintance of Herder,

who

interested him in Gothic architecture, the Volkslied and Shakespeare. The pamphlet V on deutscher Art tind Kunst (1773), to which, besides Goethe and Herder, the historian Justus Moser contributed, was a kind of manifesto of the Sturm und Drang. The new ideas seemed at once to set Goethe's genius free, and from 1772 to 177S he was extraordinarily fertile in poetic ideas. His Gotz von Berlicltingen (1773), the first important drama of

the

Sturm und Drang, was followed within a year by the first novel movement. Die Leiden des jungen Werther (1774), which

of the

made

the author world famous. He dashed off Clavigo and Stella and wrote a large number of Singspiele, dramatic satires and fragments including Faust in its earliest form (the so-called Urjaust) not to mention matchless lyrics. In all forms of literature he set the fashion for his time; the Shakespearean restlessness of Gotz von Berlichingen found imitators in J. M. R. Lenz, F. M. von Klinger, J. A. Leisewitz, H. L. Wagner and Friedrich Mijller, better known as "Maler" Miiller. The dramatic literature of the Sturm und Drang was its most characteristic product; indeed, the very name of the movement was borrowed from a play by Klinger; it was inspired by the desire to present upon the stage figures of Shakespearean grandeur impelled by gigantic passions, all con-

—

—

'.

—

GERMAN LITERATURE

Before Wilhelm Meister appeared, however, German thought literature had arrived at that degree of stabihty in form and ideas essential to a great literary period. In the year of Lessing's death (1781), Immanuel Kant, the great philosopher, had published

siderations of plot, construction and form being subordinated to

character,

and

all

and

accepted au-

thority, literary, social, political

Vernunjt (Critique of Pure Reason) and this, together with his two later treatises on practical reason and judgment, placed the Germans in the front rank of philosophy. Under the influence of Kant, Schiller turned to the study of aesthetics, the first fruits of which were his wonderful philosophical lyrics,

his Kritik der reinen

The fiction of the Sturm und Drang was in its earlier stages dominated by or moral, being rejected.

Goethe's Werther, as seen in the novels of F. H. Jacobi and of M. Miller, mentioned above.

his treatises Anmut und Witrde (1793), Asthetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795) and Vber naive und sentimentalische Dichtung (1795-96). Schiller's histories (Geschichte des Abfalls der vereinigten Niederlande and Geschichte des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges) show much literary quality but scarcely entitle him to rank alongside Joharmes von Miiller, the greatest historian of the

and

J.

Later,

it

was

developed

in

a

broader and less turbulent spirit by J. J. W. Heinse, author of Ar(1787), Klinger, and K. P.Moritz,whose Anton Reiser Wilhelm ( 1 78S-90) foreshadowed

dinghello

Meister.

9ETTMANN ARCH

With the production of Die JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON Rduber (1781) by Johann Chris- SCHILLER (1759-1805) toph Friedrich von Schiller, the drama of the Sturm und Drang entered upon a new phase. Schilpredecesler's tragedy was more skilfully adapted than those of his sors to the exigencies of the theatre; it and the succeeding dramas, Fiesco and Kabale und Liebe—3.\\ three in prose— were masterpieces of high promise. In his fourth drama, Don Carlos (1787), he abandoned prose for iambic blank verse. In Swabia, however, the Sturm und Drang had also been displayed in the writings of the Other eminent dramatists irritable C. F. D. Schubart (1739-91).

were O. von Gemmingen, an imitator of Diderot; F. L. Schroder and A. W. Iffland, the two latter being the greatest actors Germany owed to the Sturm und Drang period its of their time. of this time

permanent theatres were established in these the Hofburgtheater

national theatre;

years at

Hamburg, Mannheim and Gotha, and

was founded 2.

at

Vienna

Classicism.

—

Drang theme, and

time in Germany. The years 1794-1805, when in Jena and Weimar Goethe and Schiller were united in close friendship, mark the culmination of Schiller's treatises provided the theoretical hterary classicism.

—

in his new journal Die Horen and his Musenalmanach which the two poets published their magnificent ballad poetry were its literary organs. Goethe, as director of the ducal theatre, influenced the whole dramatic production of Germany. Under his encouragement Schiller turned from philosophy to poetry and between 1 798 and his death in 1805 wrote a series of classical dramas which are Germany's greatest and which placed the German drama well ahead of that of contemporary Europe: the trilogy Wallenstein, Maria Stuart, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Die Braut von Messina, Wilhelm Tell, closing with the fragment Demetrius. To Goethe we owe the idylic epic Hermann und Dorothea. His severely classical plays Die natiirliche Tochter and Pandora are less It was chiefly because of Schiller's stimulus that important. in those years Goethe brought the first part of Faust (1808) to a basis;

conclusion.

in 1776.

was lacking

Self-discipline

the

267

movement soon exhausted

a

Sturm und

itself.

Its spirit of

as

Although acknowledged leaders of German Schiller

met

letters,

with" considerable opposition, especially

Goethe and from repre-

movement. But, apart from the two great poets, literature was in no very healthy condition; the stage was dominated by the extraordinarily popular plays of A. von Kotzebue; and there is a wide gap between Moritz's Anton Reiser or the philosophical novels which Klinger wrote in his later years and Goethe's Meister. In lyric and epic poetry, it is impossible to regard poets like the gentle F. von Matthisson, or the less inspired G. L. Kosegarten and C. A. Tiedge, as worthy of an age that produced Goethe and Schiller. Georg Forster, however, who accompanied Capt. James Cook round the world, provided a model of lucid descriptive writing. The supreme work of Goethe's latter years is Faust, Germany's

revolt always

sentatives of the once dominant rationahst

practical considerations in the writings of his last period.

In Part I greatest contribution to the hterature of the world. (1808) is set out Faust's despair, his pact with Mephistopheles and his love for Gretchen; Part II (1832) covers the magician's

ended in tragedy. In classicism is found a positive form of moral idealism. This appeared in the poetry of Goethe and Schiller, as well as in the philosophy of Kant. Freedom still remained an ideal, but the idea was of freedom within the law, the law of nature, which could be ascertained by scientific study, or the moral law, the subject of philosophy. These were not necessarily The problem of freedom was rendered acute by the in conflict. impact of the French Revolution, which German hterature genThe problem of freedom, the anerally regarded as a warning. tagonism between duty and inclination, could be resolved, Schiller believed, once morality became "second nature" and this could only be achieved through the contemplation and production of beauty. Art thus acquired an educational function and aesthetic education was one of the major objectives of classicism. Goethe added more his deCarlos Schiller turned aside from poetry to study history and philosophy; not until the very close of the century did he, under the stimulus of Goethe's The first ten years of Goethe's friendship, return to th.e drama. Ufe in Weimar were marked by his renewed friendship with Herder,

court, the winning of Helen of Troy and Faust's purificaand salvation. The doctrine of the fulfillment of life by striving and selfless activity, with the problems contained within Wilhelm Meiit, was fundamental to Goethe's mature wisdom. sters Wanderjahre, with its social utopianism and teaching of re-

whose ideal of Humanitdt was now maturing, by an interest (which was to be lifelong) in scientific research, by his public service as a minister of state and by his emotional attachment to Charlotte von Stein. He did not achieve greater clarity in his ideas until

novel Die

For Goethe a new phase

parture for

Weimar

in his

development began with

in 1775, while after

after his sojourn in Italy (1786-88).

Don

Italy was, in the first in-

In Italy he gave Iphigenie auf form, he completed Egmont like the exactly contemporary Don Carlos of Schiller, a kind of bridge from Sturm und Drang to classicism and replanned Torquato Tasso. Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, Goethe's most important novel, which had

stance, a revelation of the antique.

Tauris

its final

—

—

life at

tion

straint, offered a criticism of the rise of industriahsm.

The

tragic

W ahlverwandtschajten

(1809) had insisted upon the theme of renunciation. The autobiographical Dichtung und Wahrheit (1811-33) affirmed the causality existing within individual

development. Dramatic pieces, a periodical Vber Kunst und Altertum, scientific writings, the Italienische Reise and Campagne in Frankreich, lyrics (especially Der Westostliche Divan) of an intensely personal and philosophical kind, indicate the many-sidedness of Goethe's achievement.

Letters, diaries

and conversations

His house afford an unusually complete picture of his old age. at Weimar became a place of pilgrimage; his visitors and corre-

been originally concerned only with the theatre, had become, by the time it appeared in 1795-96, a book on the conduct of Ufe. It is an outstanding example of the Bildungsroman, or "educational" novel, a characteristic German novel form, and profoundly

spondents belonged to all countries, and his influence was widespread inside and outside Germany, Thomas Carlyle being an ardent disciple. The romantic 3. The Romantic Movement: First Phase.

affected future practitioners of the genre.

movement began

—

not so

much

as a protest against the classicism of

GERMAN LITERATURE

268

Weimar, with which many romantics were in sympathy, but as a radical extension of some of its beliefs and interests; especially, at first, its emphasis upon Greek antiquity, longed for like some lost paradise. Romanticism saw Greece and the modern age in historical and discovered unsuspected possibilities in both. Yearning was the romantic characteristic, the object of yearning being infinite and therefore unattainable. The individual ego, romanticism emphasized, mirrors actuaKty and is the only means of apprehending it; apprehension is thus subjective. Indeed, actuality has no existence independent of the individual ego, each such ego as it were creating its own actuality. The ego should, as J. G. Fichte thought, or should not, as F. D. E. Schleiermacher believed, be bound by the limits of reason. More than the intellect was involved; the emotions, the imagination, the subconscious in all its operations, even the state of ecstasy or trance, whether or not deliberately stimulated, had a part to play. The romantic poet could thus project himself into actuahty and create his own world from within the realm of the seen or the unseen, of reality or of fancy, often in a highly capricious manner; he could turn whatever he liked into poetry. The nature of individuality and its modes of approach being infinitely varied, the range of literature was immensely expanded beyond the achievements of the earher generation, and there was to be no end to the innovations made in content and style by the great wealth of hterary talents who now emerged all over Germany and from various strata of society. It was an age of new beginnings. The rising generation felt free and able to revise aU accepted representative values, not only in art and literature but in other spheres as well, the whole of contemporary civilization coming under scrutiny as war was declared upon onesidedness and limitation and the yearning to attain completeness of vision and understanding, to grasp the infinite through the finite, grew ever more powerful. Between poetry, philosophy, scholarship, music, politics and religion there was henceforth to be no separation. In the belief that completeness was equal to the sum of the infinity of individual phenomena, all things came to be perspective

seen not only in their local but also in their historical setting. Philology, with the attendant interest in medievalism and na-

came to be extremely important, and translation to be regarded as a fine art. The subconscious became a subject of serious study. The realm of the wonderful, the supernatural, the fairy world came into vogue. In religion, romantic subjectivism led to mysticism, until later a markedly Catholic tendency supervened. It was inevitable that disappointment and disillusion should result from this new brand of egotism in thought and Hterature. Friedrich Holderlin, one of Germany's greatest lyrical poets and author of the novel Hyperion (1797-99). grew up as an admirer of Schiller; he sank into despair on realizing the impossibility of his longing for an age of heroic idealism and beauty such as that of ancient Greece. The hellenic interests of the age were hnked by him with an intense patriotism. Jean Paul Friedrich Richter, tionalism,

known

as Jean Paul, was a disciple of Herder. His sentiment, ingenuity, whimsical style and la\ash detail gained for his shapeless novels a vast

degree of popularity; his sustained attention to rather than antiquity or the middle ages, and particularly to the smaller problems of life, was a new feature, and his work foreshadowed the Dorjgeschichte of later decades. His principal novels, written between 1795 and 1804, were Hesperus, Quintus Fixlein, Siebenkds, Titan and Flegel-jahre; his Vorschule der Asthetik (1804) revealed a historical grasp of literary growth

contemporary

life,

and Levana (1807) was

The

a treatise

on education.

romantic school proper was founded at Jena in 1798, appropriately near Weimar. Johann Ludwig Tieck, a leading member of the school, early developed a lifelong enthusiasm for Shakespeare and the Elizabethan and Spanish drama. Gruesome plays and fairy tales, novels and fantastic comedies full of wit and mockery were his earliest works. The short stories of his later period were more valuable. The theoretical basis of romanticism was laid down by the two brothers August Wilhelm and Friedrich Schlegel, who, accepting in great measure Schiller's aesthetic conclusions, adapted them to their own needs. These romantic critics maintained that the first duty of criticism was to understand and appreciate the right of genius to follow its natural bent was sacred. The ;

first

Herzensergiessungen eines kunstliebenden Klosterbruders (1797) by Tieck's school friend W. H. Wackenroder contained the romantic theory of art. The greatest imaginative achievement is to be found in the lyrics and fragmentary novels of Novahs (Friedrich von Hardenberg), in which Christian mysticism, romantic medievalism, and symbohsm transfer the reader into the realm of the Mdrchen; this is particularly so in Heinrich von Ofterdingen (1802). The novel was the romantic art form par excellence and was attempted by almost every one of the romantics. The universal sympathies of the movement were exemplified by many admirable translations, of which the greatest was A. W. Schlegel's translations of Shakespeare's plays (1797-1810), and by his courses of lectures at BerUn and Vienna. The critical essays and aphorisms of F. Schlegel are among the most important features of the movement; they argued that modern (or romantic) literature, as distinct from ancient (or classical), should deal with modern life in all its manifestations without any restriction, and they put forward Wilhelm Meister as the model to be followed. The literary organ of the school was the Athendum (1798-1800). J. G. Fichte and to a much greater extent F. W. J. von SchelUng were the exponents of the romantic doctrine in philosophy, while the theologian F. D. E. Schleiermacher demonstrated how vital its individuaHsm was for religious thought. 4. The Second Romantic School. The first romantic school

—

had dispersed by 1804. Two years later, however, another phase of romanticism was initiated in Heidelberg. The leaders of this second romantic school were Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim and J. J. von Gorres; their organ was the Zeitung fiir Einsiedler, or Trost-Einsamkeit and their most characteristic production the collection of Volkslieder published under the title Des Knaben ,

Wunderhorn in 1805-08. Compared with the earlier school, the Heidelberg writers were more practical; they wrote historical works, not stories of an imaginary medieval world as Novahs had done, and they collected Volkslieder and VolksbUcher. Their immediate influence on German intellectual life was consequently greater; they stimulated the interest of the German people in their history; and to them is attributed the foundation of the study of German philology and medieval hterature, the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm having been in touch with the circle in their early days. The Heidelberg poets strengthened the national and patriotic spirit they prepared the way for the rising against Napoleon, which produced an outburst of patriotic song, the chief voices being those of E. M. Arndt, K. T. Kbrner and M. von Schenkendorf. When, c. 1809, the Heidelberg school broke up and Arnim and Brentano settled in Berlin, the romantic movement followed two clearly marked lines of development, one north German, the other associated with Wiirttemberg. In the north Heinrich von Kleist, Prussia's greatest dramatic poet, created a romantic drama and short story of high poetic achievement; he was a leading writer in the patriotic movement against Napoleon. His plays, such as Amphitryon (1807), Der zerbrochene Krug (1808), Das Kathchen von Heilbronn (1810). Die Hermannsschlacht and Der Prinz von Homburg, express the belief that the only security in life is to be found in the unconscious voice of feeling and instinct. Zacharias Werner, an undisciplined and unbalanced dramatic genius, sounded depths of mysticism and fatalism. There were at the same time some elements of decadence; Friedrich de la Motte Fouque, for instance, showed how easy it was for the medieval tastes of the romantics to be satisfied with mediocre novels and plays. During the same period E. T. W. Hoffmann, a novelist of genius, cultivated a preference for a morbid supernaturahsm and gave EuroThe north German pean currency to German romanticism. romantic circle could point to one lyric poet of the first rank, the Silesian J. von Eichendorff; while A. von Chamisso, a French' imigri, developed into an outstanding German poet. Others, like Friedrich Riickert, sought new inspiration in the poetry of the east; and Wilhelm Miiller, following Byron's example, stirred up German sympathy for the oppressed Greeks and Poles. The last phase of romanticism was represented by the Swabian school. Its chitf representative, Ludwig Uhland, a disciple of the Heidelberg school, as a ballad poet was second only to Schiller in popular esteem. One might say that the mission of the Swabian ;

I

GERMAN LITERATURE of which were J. Kerner, G. Schwab, W. and, most gifted of all, E. Morike, was to preserve in both poetry and prose the romantic traditions from the disintegrating influences to which their north German contemcircle,

the chief

Waiblinger,

members

W. Hauff

(A. Gs.)

poraries were exposed in the next generation.

VII.

THE 19TH CENTURY

—

The Mood

of the Period. Goethe's death marks the end of an epoch. The literature of the 19th century is informed by a mood (^uite different from the cosmopolitan humanism so characteristic of the ISth, Goethe had been the last great representative of German classical culture; furthermore, romanticism, the movement of the generation after Goethe, was in decline; the writers who were now coming to the fore belonged to another age. Although some A. W. Schlegel, Ludwig Tieck, Clemens of the leading romantics Brentano and Eichendorff survived Goethe by a decade or more, Only the Swabian the movement as a whole had lost its impact. school clung to a romantic mode of writing. In more conservative spheres than literature, romanticism proved more tenacious and fruitful; the study of philology, of history and of law was promoted by romantic ideas. In pohtics, however, the alhance between romantic thought and the rising nationalism was forged, which was to colour German thinking for over a century. Indeed, the romantic mode of thinking, despite some violent, but ineffective, attacks 1.

— —

on

it,

permeated a wide area and

German from other European

in

many ways

differentiated

In imaginative literature, lasting than romanticism; few

thought.

Goethe proved more by his work, though the effect sometimes took the form of rebellion against his olympian predominance. The rule of conservative governments under the leadership of Metternich in Austria occasioned much frustration among Gerthe impact of

writers were unaffected

The intellectuals since it often repressed hberty of thought. dark shadows of political storms to come, the social unrest arising from the beginning of industrialization, were keenly felt; the efforts

man

of writers to prescribe solutions for these

severe censorship. political

and

It

ills

were foiled by a

had become only too evident that

cultural ideals were not being realized.

A

earlier

sense of

disillusionment with man's capacity to achieve lofty ends and a pessimistic appraisal of man's role in the universe dominated imits tone, which once had been imbued with buoyant hope or at least reflected a solidly constructive attitude. Gradually, as writers sought to free themselves from the bondage of classical and romantic thought, they struck out on new paths. 2. Grillparzer and the Drama. The greatest poet of this post-Napoleonic era, Franz Grillparzer, consciously cast his dramas in the tradition of classicism. Yet his work is of a different hue; His tragedies have it lacks self-confident vigour and assurance. as their theme weakness of will. His heroes and heroines founder because the individual's effort is of no avail against the overwhelming power of circumstance. The world cannot give contentment to man; only cultivation of his inner resources and selfabnegation are able to grant inner peace. To aspire beyond the

aginative literature and entirely changed

—

narrow orbit of individual action is

to court disaster.

In his

first

Die Ahnfrau (1817), written in trochaic metre and influenced by the popular romantic

play,

(Schicksalstrago-

fate-tragedies

dien) of Zacharias Werner, fate is

still

his

an external force; but

Das goldene

trilogy

(1822)

it

is

the combination of

character and circumstance.

Medea, the ful

in

Vliess

last

In

and most power-

play of this trilogy, cast in the

form of German classical drama, the breakdown of a marriage leads to an extreme catastrophe where both partners stand in isolation, incapable of reconciliation

FRANZ GRILLPARZER (1791-1872)

because of their burden of

guilt.

269

The dramatic action is interrupted by reflective passages which emphasize the weakness of will of the two chief characters. This element pervades Grillparzer's plays: Sappho (1819), modeled on Goethe's Torqiiato Tasso, depicts the tragedy of a poetess seeking in vain to hold her younger lover; Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen is the tragedy of a priestess' love for a young man, ended by hostile circumstances; Der Traum ; ein Leben shows This play, like his historical dramas, is the folly of ambirion. indebted to the baroque theatre. Among them, Konig Ottokars Gliick und Ende is the tragedy of a great ruler's downfall through overweening ambition, while in Ein Bruderzwist in Habsbttrg written c. 1848) untimely action is the source of evil. The failure in 1838 of his comedy Weh dem, der liigt caused Grillparzer to withdraw from the stage and public life, and three of his dramas were published only posthumously. The sombre mood of Grillparzer's dramatic work, which was matched by his own personal difficulties and disappointments, also prevails in other plays of the period, notably in those by C. D. Grabbe and Georg Biichner it invades even the popular comedies of F. Raimund, J. N. Nestroy and E. E. Niebergall. In Raimund's fairylike comedies there is an undercurrent of tragic pessimism. Nestroy, another Viennese, who ousted the more profound Raimund from the Viennese stage, even more savagely satirized ViFrom Hesse comes Niebergall's ennese middle-class society. Datterich (1841), another satirical comedy. Niebergall expresses a sense of disillusionment with high ideals which, in turn, he parodies. The heritage of classicism and romanticism appeared discredited, but no new faith had yet grown out of the resulting In the new drama, therefore, established values disillusionment. were questioned and disparaged. Grillparzer's doubts of his creative capacity and his conflicting aspirations gave rise to contradictions in his work, but they were held in check by the overriding impulse to create an almost classical form. Grabbe, however, did not aim at formal perfection the chaos of a meaningless world is stronger than the effort of the individual who strives to impose an order upon it. The tragic error of his heroes springs from the {

;

;

mistaken belief

The

inert

in their ability to control the course of history.

mass described

—Hannibal,

in realistic scenes is stronger

than the

Marius, the Hohenstaufen emperors. Napoleon whose failure was Grabbe's theme. In Don Juan und Faust (1829) he attempted to fuse two myths in a powerful confrontation of the two heroes, although the play as a whole, as algreat

men

—

For Biichner, is not very skilfully composed. world appeared meaningless; but he was a much more incisive dramatist than Grabbe, for his was a more radical vision.

ways with Grabbe,

too, the

young man, who died at 23, anticipated Marx in pamphlet Der Hessische Landbote (1834), a clarion-call for political and economic revolution, but he had been disappointed by the political ineffectiveness of would-be revolutionaries. Politics appeared a mixture of lofty ideas and ineffectual action, ruthIn his writings he wages war less tyranny and senseless suffering. against unrealizable ideals and sham rhetoric. His comedy Leonce und Lena is a satire on romantic drama and on the nebulousness of romantic ideas; Dantons Tod (1835) is a tragedy of heroic pessimism; and in the fragmentary drama Woyzzeck he exposes the exploitation of an uneducated half-idiot by the powers that be.

As

a student, this

his

In Biichner's world the individual is caught in the net of hostile social forces and his work is an indictment of the social and cosmic order. His succession of snapshot scenes anticipates 20th-century Expressionist drama, but also recalls the Sturm und Drang. Crispness of speech and stark reahsm, combined with precise historical

documentation, aUenated his age (his plays were not performed until after his death) but give his work a striking modernity. 3. Lyric Poetry. Extremes of melancholy were conveyed in the lyric verse of Nikolaus Lenau, a Hungarian by birth, whose melodious, though sometimes rather monotonous, verse speaks of Byronic discontent. From this morbid subjectivity he was able

—

to

escape

only very rarely.

and romantic poetry made

The

great

tradition

of

classical

on the whole, relatively easy for poets to achieve formal excellence, but they found it more difiicult to strike a note of their own. This is particularly true of Friedrich Riickert and August Platen-Hallermiinde, two of the most conit,

—

GERMAN LITERATURE

270

summate formal lyricists. Riickert was a scholar and poet of no mean importance, but his large output tends to obscure his genuine poetic achievement, his portrayal of the conflict between reason

and will. Bis.Kindertotenlieder (1872), his Liebesfruhling 1844) and many proverbs in alexandrines from Die Weisheit des Brah(

manen (1836-39),

a collection of didactic verse,

come

to life

by

rhythmic power. In Platen-Hallermijnde's Sonette mis Venedig (1825) the German language is skilfully adapted to what is essentially an alien verse form. His carefully chiseled verses their

symbohze his inner struggle for purity. For Eduard Morike, too, classical poetry is the model; Morike's formal excellence never grates, but is matched by his idylic and often melodious portrayal of nature and country life. His classicism has different strands. Simple lyrics in the VolksUed manner alternate with verse in classical metres. His range is limited; he deliberately turned from grand themes to find fulfillment within a restricted sphere. In Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag (1SS6)

the problems of an artist in a world basically uncongenial to art

humorous sympathy which stems from a serene rather than from a tragic view of Hfe. Nature is also the source of inspiration of Annette von Droste-Hulshoff. A powerful rhythm are portrayed with

and

a

sombre language express her apprehension of the

forces of hfe, as in

Das

irrational

Jahr (1851), but her religious feeling helped to balance her vision and gave her poetry greater maturity so that wisdom and humour rather than apprehension became the keynote. In Die Jtidenbuche, a masterly Novelle, she blended psychological reahsm with a sense of mystery. On none of the poets of this period did romanticism exert so strong an influence as on Heinrich Heine, and none attacked it so ruthlessly. His German literature remains in dispute, mainly because he dared to subject German national susceptibilities and romantic nationahsm to scathing criticism, but his Buck der Lieder (1827) is one of the best-known anthologies of love poetry. Heine geistliche

describes his dreams and yearnings, but his sense of reahsm

makes him show that they are only dreams and yearnings; he pricks the bubble of illusion by a His creation of melodious verse and of theatri-

cruel ironic twist.

Although uneven it consome of the best-known

cal effects is masterly.

the collection tains

is

in the German language, more appreciated outside Germany than within it. In later, more mature work the lyrics

often

CULVER PICTURES.

INC.

HEINRICH HEINE (1797-1856)

— poems —

Ro?nanzero (1851) and the post-

humously published his and overdramatization are gone; his poetry conveys the hopes and anguish which were so real during his last long drawnself-pity

out illness. His early Saint-Simonian belief in the "rehabihtation of the senses" had given way to a behef in God. His awareness of the perils lurking beneath the gay surface of hfe, his sense of the carnival of human existence with its masquerades, strikingly transmuted into art in his ballads. His poetry

is is

most better

known, but

his prose, Reisebilder (1826-31); Lutetia' (1S54), a collection of reports on life in France; his analysis of German intellectual hfe and history in Die Romantische Schule (1836) and Geschichte der Philosophie und Religion in Deutschland (1834) reveal him as a master of ironic prose, who, dissatisfied with the

solemnity and pretension of his Uterary predecessors, sought to convey truth by means of satire. His most effective pohtical satire is contained in his verse epic Deutschland, ein Wintermdrchen (1844), a savage attack upon his personal enemies and upon the pohtical conditions of his time. 4. Young Germany.— In 1835 an edict of the federal diet had banned Heine's writings, together with those of Ludolf Wienbarg, Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube and Theodor Mundt. Since Wienbarg's Asthetische Feldziige (1834) were dedicated to "Young Ger-

many." this name was given to these writers, supposing a movement which did not in fact exist; but the name, even if inappropriate, survived. The radicahsm of the Young Hegelians and political liberals frustrated by severe censorship and authoritarian government influenced these writers, who preached individualism. Wienbarg, in his theoretical writings, proclaimed the need for a new literature which was to deal with political and social problems.

K. F. Gutzkow criticized conventional morahty and orthodoxy in Wally die Zweiflerin (1835) and later in his drama Uriel Acosta (1846). In his later cycle of novels Die Ritter vom Geiste (1850 et seq.) he sought to create the social novel of the age. his novel

Theodor Mundt,

in his novel Madonna eine Heilige (1835), advocated a fuller conception of personal hfe, while Heinrich Laube

mainly known as theatre director; his own dramas are convenGraf Essex (1856) is written in the style of Schiller, but his novel Das junge Europa (1833-37) provides a fine analysis of social hfe. Exile was often the fate of those who dared to criticize the estabhshed political and social order. Ludwig Borne was a highly talented prose writer who went to a self-imposed exile in Paris. His Brief e aits Paris (1830-33) are valuable social documents. Two important lyric poets, Georg Herwegh and Ferdinand FreiUgrath, had to flee, one to Switzerland, the other to London. Herwegh's Gedichte eines Lebendigen (1841-43) have a strong rhetorical pattern which made them very popular. FreiUgrath's is

tional.

poems 5.

are

more vxvid

in style.

The Conservatives. The

—Other poets of

the period were con-

Emanuel Geibel, collected in Zeitstimmen (1841), Jiiniuslieder (1848) and Heroldsrufe (1871), are poUshed. but language and imagery remain conservative in pontics.

patriotic lyrics of

His popularity was extreme; "Der Mai ist gekommen" most widely known of his songs. Geibel was the leading figure of the Munich school, which had come together under the patronage of Maximilian II of "Bavaria. Of other lyrical poets Hermann Lingg, Graf Adolf Friedrich von Schack, Friedrich von Bodenstedt only Heinrich Leuthold rises beyond \'irtuosity. ventional. is

the

—

Paul Heyse, a master of formally perfect Novellen, rarely rouses the reader, since his treatment is on conventional hnes. Joseph Victor von Scheffel's verse-tale Der Trompeter von Sdckingen (1854) and his novel Ekke/iard (1855) were very popular at the time, but today their romanticism sounds unconxincing. 6. Realism and Regionalism. During this period real strength was found in realistic literature, often of regional inspiration. Poetic realism, a term coined by Otto Ludwig, has as its aim the portrayal of hfe, but only insofar as life is artistically significant and appears to possess intrinsic value. Attention is focussed on social reahty, but not, as in the later Naturalism, on its ugly, pathological side. The main concern of the realist writer is to discover positive values in everyday life without reference to transcendental ideas. The impetus to realism in literature corresponded to changes in social life; the beginning of urbanization and industrialization had become perceptible; the railways were changing the tempo of life. The development of scientific thought and the rise of technology were accompanied by a literature critical

—

of the social order

and

in revolt against idealistic classicism

Marx

and

only the best known of a host of social critics; the antirealistic philosophies of A. Schopenhauer and L. Feuerbach also show this tendency to a more sober appraisal of man's capacity. It was accompanied by positivism in many branches of intellectual inquiry which, by way of analogy, sought to apply to the study of hterature and society methods which they mistakenly believed to be those of natural science. Nonetheless, a fruitful study of sources and texts resulted which was formalized by the first important organized school of hterary history in Germany, that of Wilhelm Scherer (1841-86) who, together with his successors Erich Schmidt and Jakob Minor, estabhshed the

romanticism.

Karl

is

modern literature as an academic discipline; Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm and Karl Lachmann had already given academic respectability to German medieval studies. In the field of imaginative hterature Berthold .\uerbach was often acclaimed as the creator of the peasant Novelle, but his Schwarzwdlder Dorfgeschichten (1843-53) appear artificial compared with the masterpieces of realism. Karl Immermann, whose work was still greatly criticism of

.

—

,

GERMAN LITERATURE Der Oberhof (1839) portrays peasants work and in their countryside. The Low deeply rooted German novels Ut de Franzosentid (1859) and Ut mine Stromlid (1862-64) by Fritz Reuter are humorous and humane in conception, with a wealth of individual character made more convincing by the hvely dialect style. With Quickborn 1853), his collection of lyrical poetry, Klaus Groth became the prototype of the regional poet; his dialect clearly Hnks his work to colloquial speech and shows the roots of his poetry which, in its sincerity and simplicity, recalls the folk song. Another dialect writer was the Swiss novelist Albert Bitzius, who wrote under the pseudonym Jeremias Gotthelf A close knowledge of the life of the Swiss peasants and their problems is reflected in his novels, of which Uli der Knecht 1846) and Concerned for the Uli der Pdchter (1849) are the best known. moral welfare of the peasant community, he preaches against liberalism in politics and against the loosening of moral sanctions influenced

by

classicism, in in their

(

(

and seeks to advocate a hfe of probity based on communal responHis works convince the reader because of his shrewd insibility. sight into the mind of the peasants, his realistic assessment of their motives and his faithful description of the peasant community. In Die Schwarze Spinne (1842) the events and persons, though realistically described, assume almost symbohcal importance. Adalbert Stifter, too, drew much strength from his native Bohemian forest; some of his tales, collected in Studien (1844-50) and Biinte Steine (1853), are set there, but his language is classiFor Stifter the cal, reflecting his quest for styhstic perf-ection. world of everyday events is a symbol of emotional significance; he therefore carefully portrays it and can thus rightly be called a In Nachsommer (1857), a Bildungsroman or poetic reaUst. "pedagogical" novel influenced by Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, Stifter stresses the power of art to educate; he seeks to show how the gentle law of humane action, based on justice, simphcity, selfcontrol, restricted activity and admiration of the beautiful, is Reeffective in bringing about an exemplary life true to nature. nunciation of violence is the major theme of Witiko (1865-67), a historical novel about the growth of culture in the 12th century; humane restraint is also the message of his story Die Mappe

271

thought and writing. Some of Storm's and Keller's Noveldealt with the past, but other writers, such as Willibald Alexis, C. F. Meyer, Wilhelm Hauff, Gustav Freytag and W. H. of Riehl, made history their main theme. The stories of Alexis which Die Hosen des Herrn von Bredow (1846) are the best known torical

len

had

—

—are imbued by

a delicate sense of

humour and

a feeling for the

landscape of Brandenburg. Freytag was less successful in his historical novel Die Ahnen (1872-81 ) than in portrayal of social and economic changes of his age in Soil und Haben (1855) and in his comedy Die Journalist en (1854). Friedrich von Spielhagen describes social conditions more amply in a series of novels written

Problematische Naturen, Reih und died, Hammer und which were very popular at the time they contain political criticism, but are spoiled by their sentimentality. Wilhelm Raabe's analysis of social life is more profound. His writings appear complex; he anticipates 20th-century methods of storytelling in focusing attention not only on the story but on the way in which the story is told. He attacked the narrowness of the bourgeois philistinism and the nationalism of Bismarck's empire. His humour helped him to overcome the pessimism of his early work, of which Der Hungerpastor (1864), Abu Telfan (1868) and Der Schiiderump (1870) are striking examples. In his later work —Alte Nester (1880), Das Horn von Wanza (1881) and Stopfkuchen (1891) he depicted eccentric characters with a rich inner hfe who achieve spiritual freedom. His pessimism and humour is paralleled by Wilhelm Busch, whose laughter over human im-

after 1861

Amboss, Die Sturmflut

—

;

—

perfection savagely exposes hypocrisy and illusion. In Austria gentler moods prevailed toward the end of the century. Ferdinand von Saar and Marie Ebner von Eschenbach pro-

vided realistic accounts of both bourgeois and peasant Austrian The novelist Peter Rosegger and the dramatist Ludwig society. Anzengruber wrote about peasant life. Anzengruber's humour, as seen in his plays Der Pfarrer von Kirch f eld (1871), Der G'wissenswurm (1874) and Das vierte Gebot (1878), softens his polemical didacticism.

Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, a Swiss, through his understanding of and realism. He describes

history, achieved a rare fusion of poetry in chiseled

prose the downfall of great

men through

the lust for

meines Urgrossvaters (1841-67). The realism of Otto Ludwig has a psychological flavour. "Die Heiterethei" and "Aus dem Regen in die Traufe," the two tales

power.

his collection Thiiringer Natiiren (1857), are a humorous exploration of hfe in his native land, while in his novel Zwischen Himmel und Erde (1856) a conflict within an artisan family is explored with striking objectivity and careful character-

Pescara, are inspired by an insight into the life of the Renaissance which had been stimulated by the work of the Basel historian Jacob Burckhardt. In Der Heilige he goes further back to the days of Thomas (a) Becket. His lyrical poetry showed, like his prose, a

His Erbjorster ( 1849 is a domestic tragedy of a forester obsessed by a sense of justice who finally shoots his own daughter in mistake for the son of his enemy. While Ludwig's Shakespeare-

rare sense of form. It is symbolical poetry; his personal feelings are subordinated to the image, but his symbolism points to a lack of natural affinity with the world. The plays of Friedrich Hebbel reveal poetic realism at its most

making up

ization.

)

Studien (1871) reveals a fine understanding of dramatic art, his own Die Makkabaer (1854) is a failure. With Gottfried Keller the pinnacle of poetic realism in prose narrative is reached. The scene of his works is his native Switzerland. All his writings reveal his attempts to differentiate between those characters whose thought and conduct allow their personalities to mature and those who, ignoring the voice of nature, fail to develop their inner potentialities. Der Griine Heinrich ( 1854-74) a semiautobiographical Bildungsroman, is the story of the Uvely Keller portrays a struggle and development of a Swiss painter.

The best of his Novellen, written after 1870, such as Jitrg Jenatsch, Das Amidett, Angelo Borgia and Die Versuchung des

His work metaphysical beliefs. powerful.

is

a synthesis of psychological analysis and inner impulses drive his characters to

Deep

doom. Tragedy is inevitable since individuality by its very attempts at self-expression and self-assertion clashes with the world Of his dramas, Judith, Herodes und in which it must perish. Mariamne and Gyges und sein Ring (all between 1840 and 1856) depict the tragedy of those

romantic personality seeking to come to terms with life and shows how youthful dreams may become mutilated and how the artist's vision has to be readjusted to the demands of everyday life. Die

von Seldwyla,

a collection oi

description.

The

tyranny of petty bourgeois while in Agnes Bernauer the unusual individual, here an exthe

ceptionally sacrificed to

perfects

life.

uphold

itself

the

woman,

is

political tra-

individuality

more

likely

tragedy becomes, for assertion of

elegiac, often sentimental, tone of his earlier

less, though both his prose-tales and his poetry were permeated by his sense of the ephemerality of Romantic preoccupation with the past had stimulated his-

beautiful

The more

dition.

individuality against the inevita-

writing prevailed less and lyric

effects of

life,

)

tic

Hebbel

Magdalena (1844) showed the disastrous

Novellen (1856-74), reveals his humour at its best. He resists the flights of a romantic imagination and cautiously consolidates his appraisal of everyday life. Martin Salander (1886 is poHtical in tone and its strictures on the Uberalism of the day do not enhance its artistic value. Another important realist was Theodor Storm, whose work is stamped by the atmosphere of his native Schleswig-Holstein. In his work romantic elements were gradually subordinated to realisLeiite

who

defeat because their outraged individuahty does not allow them to compromise. In Maria

suffer

(1813-1863). HEBBEL FRiEDRicH PAINTING BY KARL RAHL

We

process of,history

In his

last play,

is

futile.

Die Nibelungen

GERMAN LITERATURE

272

(1862), he interprets an old legend in terms of his own psychoand metaphysical ideas. His lyrical poetry is sombre. Its power depends on a close identification with the growth and

logical

Theodor Fontane

more sober-minded though also more dehcately reahst writer. He was already 60 when he began his novels about life in Brandenburg. They are characterized by psychological insight and by an understanding of social problems. He uncovers the crack in the social fabric produced by decay of nature.

is

a

and urbanization. In L'adultera (1882), Irrungen, Wirrungen (1888), Frau Jenny Triebel (1892) and Effi Briest (1895) human relationships clash with society and survive or break down according to their innate strength, while in Schach von Wuthenow (1883) the weakness of the Prussian ruling class aUows us to foresee Napoleon's victory over Prussia in 1806. Fontane portrays a hmited section of Prussian life, mainly its upper class, but his power of observation is sharp, his characterization is skilful and the action is carried on by a superb handhng of conversation and by a detached and suffused irony. 7. Wagner and Nietzsche. Since Richard Wagner wrote the texts of his own operas his work also belongs to the history of literature. His operas express romantic aspiration: the distinctions between the genres are not observed and German myths and legends are popularized. At first he was hailed by Friedrich Nietzsche as successor to the Greek dramatists, but Nietzsche turned against Wagner when he forsook the pessimism of Arthur industrialization

—

Schopenhauer

for

Christianity.

subsequent attack was a violent exposure of what he believed to be Wagner's morbidNietzsche's

ity,

vulgarity

and

fanaticism.

Nietzsche was one of the harbingers of 20th-century literature. His distinction (in Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dern Geiste der Musik, 1872) between the Apollonian and Dionysiac elements of art, although criticized by classical scholars, was of considerable consequence. The view spread that classical art was not FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE (1844-1900) only calm but could also be ec-

and that the origins of Greek drama sprang from the orgiasof Dionysian reUgious mysteries. Nietzsche's emphasis on the need to Kberate his personality from the shackles static, tic

intoxication

of conventional Christian morality, his skepticism as to the valid-

and his place in society, and his prophecy of the nihiHsm to come provided an arsenal of ideas and intellectual ferment for the next generation of writers. 8. Naturalism. If Nietzsche's ecstatic, but wayward, writings provided some of the high lights for 20th-century writing, Naturahsm supplied much of its sohd base, especially for its prose. As so often in German literature, the Naturahst movement was heralded by pamphlets demanding a new manner of writing. Their keynote was scientific objecti\aty. Their principal model was femile Zola and their organs were the journals Kritische Waffengdnge (1882-84) edited by the brothers Heinrich and Julius Hart in Berlin and, in Munich, M. C. Conrad's Die Gesellsckajt (188S1902). An anthology of lyric verse, Dichtercharaktere, appeared in 1884, in which urban life was the theme. The real revolution was made by the writings of Arno Holz, who in Buck der Zeii (1886) revealed himself as the first important poet of Naturahsm. Together with Johannes Schlaf he developed, in the Sekundenstil, three tales published under the title Papa Hamlet (1889), which was to make the representation of the minutiae of life possible. Many of his poems, often cast in startlingly free rhythm, deal with the life of the poor {Armeleutepoesie). "Consistent Naturalism," in the wake of Zola, made even the smallest details of life the subject of literature; hence the preference of these writers for the pathological and even sordid. Their work started as a criticism of the Munich school in lyric verse; Holz experimented with form, ity of the artist's statements

—

substituting the natural

rhythm

of speech for the polished metre of

his

formalist

predecessors.

In drama the triumph of Naturalism was assured by Gerhart

Hauptmann's Vor Sonnenaufgang (1889), a play primarily memoits novel technique, for it is a drama without a hero and without a proper plot; Hauptmann's exposure in it of the sordid effects of alcoholism on a peasant family made it a succh de scandale. Social criticism was powerful in Die Weber, another play without a plot. It depicts the misery of the weavers and is an indictment of the dire poverty THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE caused by industriaUzation, and GERHART HAUPTMANN rable for

(I862-I946)

by the powers that be. Der Biberpeh, one of the few successful German comedies, is a satire on Prussian officialdom outwitted by the common sense of a clever washerwoman. Hauptmann's attempt to create Naturalist historical drama in Florian Geyer was adjudged a failure. Hauptmann soon found the bond of Naturahsm too constricting, although later, in Fuhrmann Hensckel, Der rote Hahn, Die Ratten and Rose Bernd, he returned to the Naturalist manner, and began to experiment with Symbohst drama in Hanneles Himmelfahrt (1894). Die versunkene Glocke is a more thorough exploration of this genre. Verse drama along more traditional lines supplants extreme reahsm as Hauptmann portrays the problems of the artist in his tolerated

His later plays did not enjoy the popularity of drama. Of his many plays some were based on German legends, others were romantic dream-plays, while in others he treated themes from classical antiquity. Hauptmann was a lonely struggles. his early social

prose-narrator of considerable force.

Emanuel Quint

The

tale

Der Narr in Christo Der Ketzer

describes a spiritual pilgrimage, while

von Soana portrays the sensual awakening of a

priest

who

forsakes

his calhng.

In the wake of Hauptmann several writers wrote in the straightforward Naturalist manner. The best known among them are Hermann Sudermann, notable for Ehre (1889") and Heimat (1893), plays criticizing middle-class morahty; and Max Halbe, whose Jugend (1893) is a drama of adolescent love. Carl Hauptmann, Uke his brother Gerhart, also turned away from Naturahsm after having written plays in this manner and in Einhart der Lachler (1907) he ciepicted the spiritual struggles of an artist. In the course of the 19th century German Uterature had increasingly abandoned an idealistic conception of man and turned to a more down-to-earth and deprecating appraisal of reality, reflecting This the rise of positivist and materialist thought in science. proved too narrow; and in consonance with the new relativist scientific cosmology of the 20th century, the artistic imagination began to portray a more complex vision of the world.

Vin.

The Turn

THE 20TH CENTURY

of the Century.

—The

rise of urban civilization, and the inadequacy of conventional methods of hterary presentation promoted a shift in consciousness for those writers and poets who felt that prevaUing Uterary traditions were no longer adequate to express new ideas. To maintain their creative freedom writers often experimented with Experiment, which in itself the traditional forms of literature. is nothing new, took different forms and produced many schools; yet they are all linked by a conscious concern with experimentation. The quest for the new reflected an endeavour to assert independIt appeared imperative to avoid ence from the Uterary past. sterility and to strike forth on new paths to vindicate the vitality of language. This experimentation was. however, built on the sohd achievement of the 19th century and emerged only slowly as the dominant force. Much of this kind of writing still had a Naturalist 1.

the increasing abuse of language

basis.

Indeed, the

first

important movement of the 20th century,

(

GERMAN LITERATURE Impressionism, which began to emerge in the last decades of the dif19th century, was closely allied to Naturalism, even though it fered from it in important respects. Hermann Bahr, a chameleonlike figure

who

tried his

hand

at

many

styles, defined its aims.

As

Impressionist painting, an attempt is made to evoke a mood by suggesting states of mind. In lyric poetry Detlev von Liliencron vivid led the way with Adjudantenritte (1883), in which brief but impressions conveyed by sound-painting and a fresher vocabulary A more powerful lyrical poet was treated a new poetic style. in

Influenced by both Impressionism and Naturalhe relies on evocation of mood impressionistic; is style his ism, through a pattern of sound, but his subject matter is often Naturalist, whether it be a frank portrayal of sex or of social distress His poetry is exuberant, but is controlled by in modern city life. the power of its rhythm and by its harmony. Dehmel's experience

Richard Dehmel.

of

life

was too earthy and vigorous

to agree with the

nebulous

Mombert (1872-1942), who styled cosmic Impressionist, although Dehmel was loosely con-

poetic speculations of Alfred

himself a

nected with the same group. The metaphysical nonsense verse of Christian Morgenstern makes him stand apart from all schools of poetry.

was Stefan George whose austere sense measured verse makes him a poet of entirely different cahbre. For him, poetry is a sacred trust, and it achieve this aim it is is the poet's task to regenerate society; to By his solemn, carefully comnecessary to regenerate poetry.

Much more

influential

of poetic mission expressed in

posed, majestic verse he aims at asserting the lofty stature of poetry which, for him, has a rehgious character. A successor to French Symbohsm, he wrote poems, which, because of their obscurity, are intelhgible only within the framework of the cycle to which they belong. George appears as a prophet and priest of an

esoteric faith; his poetry reveals his

own

spiritual struggles as well

surrounded himself with a group of disciples; to publish the poetic work of his school he founded the journal the Blatter fur die Kunst. Although he was a stern master, imperiously ruling over his followers, he attracted a group of highly talented men, among them a least two important literary critics, Friedrich Gundolf and Ernst Bertram, and one poet of rank, Kad Wolfskehl (1869-1948), who remained a loyal disciple Wolfskehl's verse develops the note of prophecy throughout. found in George, although his style is much less formalistic and His letters from exile in New Zealand, where he spent the static. last ten years of his Hfe, are a moving testimony of a European physically separated from his native culture, but re-creating it in

He

as his-jonvictions.

own mind. Hugo von Hofmannsthal, whom George had

his

tice into his circle,

was

a

most

in vain tried to en-

sensitive poet, delicately analyzing

His lyrical poetry is small in bulk and written mainly when he was very young. He was an heir to romanticism, and his poetic language is extremely melodious; but his poetry is haunted by a sense of the ephemerality of life and by an obsession with the inadequacy of language to convey feelings. In his essay Ein Brief (von Lord Chandos) (1901) he recorded his sense of inability to put into words the whole of his thought and his deepIn his early plays est emotions. his

own

sensibilities.

273

by the weight of social tradition. Conscious of the European culture, of ethical responsibihty, he conveys The many in his writings a strong awareness of moral issues. libretti he wrote for Richard Strauss introduced his work to a

mind

inhibited

heritage of

Their best joint achievement, Der Rosenkavalier (1911), presents a fehcitous fusion of literature and music.

wider public.

The

fin-de-siicle

prevails in the

the inner

mood

Hofmannsthal's early writings also

of

Schnitzler, the penetrating analyst of His characters are mainly drawn from the

work of Arthur

life of

man.

Viennese upper middle class, whose decadence he portrays. By means of an impressionist technique in his tale Leutnant Gustl (1901) he anticipated James Joyce in his use of the stream-ofconsciousness method he succeeds in conjuring up the atmosphere of Vienna before 1914. A host of less-known but talented

—

—

made Vienna a centre of literary activity. Among them Richard Beer-Hof mann ( 1 860were Hermann Bahr ( 1 863-1 934 1945), a writer of ornate poetry; Richard Schaukal (1874-1942), a highly gifted traditional lyricist; Anton Wildgans (1881-1932), a dramatist with leanings toward Naturalism and Expressionism; Felix Salten ( 1 869-1 94S), a narrator of great dehcacy; and Karl Kraus (1874-1936), a vehement critic and satirist. The most searching analysis of Austrian culture was made by Robert Musil authors

)

;

(1880-1942), whose reputation became established only after In his monumental novel Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften (1930-52) he examines with lucidity modern incertitude of mind and relentlessly exposes sham values. Another focal 2. Symbolism: Rilke and Thomas Mann. point of Austrian culture was Prague, from which many important poets and writers came: Rainer Maria Rilke, Franz Kafka, Franz Werfel, Max Brod and Gustav Meyrink. The mood informing the work of these writers is more esoteric. Rilke's abihty to create melodious verse full of imaginative power gave his highly idiosyncratic vision a compelling character. His fame was estabhshed by the lyric anthology Das Stundenbuch (1905), which describes his search for a spiritual hfe amidst a hostile urban civiHzation. Rilke's conception of God is unorthodox; his own quest for artistic fulfillment determined his vision of everything, even of God and of death. Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge (1910) 1945.

—

spiritual is an imaginative portrayal of the neurotic obsession and anguish that stem from his sense of isolation. In Neue. Gedichte (1907-08) he finds meaning in an external world exemphfied by the objects which he describes in a detached, yet often extremely perIn the Duineser Elegien (1923), a cycle of ten sonal, manner. poems, his spiritual struggles are summed up in complicated, severe

verse, while the Sonette an Orpheus (1923) are a joyful tribute to the power of poetry, of which Orpheus is the symbol, to transmute the problems of existence. His last poems are, on the whole, less reflective but

more

direct.

Through powerful images he conveys

the anguish of the poet's loneliness and the assurance which poetic creation bestows. The work of Rilke, like that of most of the great 20th-century

in the 1890s, Gestem, Der Tor und der Tod and Der Tod des Tizian, he portrays the

drew its strength from the heritage of Symbolism, but Symbolism also influenced prose-writers. The most representative of them by far was Thomas Mann, whose work became more and more an attempt to capture symbol and myth for the purpose of narration. He started, however, from a realist basis, for he gives a chnical analysis of the diseases afflicting the mind and body of modern man; but his characterizarion is more impressionist: he repeats the same impressions and makes them into leitmotivs, thus achieving considerable density and conveying the power of the

problem of the aesthete who comes to reaHze his inadequacy in

mount

written

Later dramas, e.g. life. adaptation of Jedermann and Das Salzburger (1911)

face of his

Grosse Welttheater 1922) strike a rehgious note and show indebtedness to medieval and baroque drama. His comedies convince ,

by subtle analysis of character. HUGO VON HOFMANNSTHAL (1874- Der Schwierlge (1921) is a pro1929) found study of a sophisticated

lyricists,

His masterly art of narration always remains paracomplex ideas, for his work has a distinct philosophical flavour influenced by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. His portrayal of social change and of the impact of ideology on society is penetrating, but is always an organic part of his story, so that the reader's interest does not flag. Throughout his work Thomas Mann is occupied with the status of the artist in society. In his early work art appears as the symbol of decadence, indicating a pathological overrefinement which is no longer viable but from the publication of Der Zauberberg (1924) onward the emphasis was rather on the constructive qualities of art and humanism, even though his fascination with disease and death never abated. The subconscious.

as he handles

;

2

GERMAN LITERATURE

74

ventional morahty.

(1901), a portrayal of 19th-century bourgeois society: Der Zauberberg, an investigation into the corroding intellectual diseases of

not as individuals but as abstract functions in each other's lives. Their speech is functional too. This play, like the dramas of W. Hasenclever, Paul Kornfeld, F. von Unruh, Ernst Barlach, the

:

our time;

the

tetralogy Joseph

and seine Briider (1933-43), an attempt to make myth the basis of literature; Dr. Faustus (1947), an analysis of the Ger-

man mind and

character, of the

Naziism and of the relation between genius and disease; Bekenntnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull (1922-54), a fragmentary picaresque novel parorise of

THOMAS MANN (1875-195S)

dying the progress of a rogue who In Novellen (e.g., Tonio Kroger and Tristan, 1903; Der Tod in Venedig, 1912) he treats the same themes in a masterly but most concise way. His irony, which is all-pervasive, made ambiguity a central point of his work; it allowed him, through parody, to be indebted to, and yet to be independent of, tradition, while his increasingly complex style reflects his study of the history of ideas and the complexity of mind. His work, as a whole, is a testimony of a humanist who, inspired by the example of Goethe, desired to safeguard values in the face of the forces of unreason, and who, in his later work, sought is

half-criminal, half-artist.

to point the

mind and

way toward

life,

art

and

social life. 3.

a synthesis of the conflicting forces of

society, the

citizen, that threaten to

man

of genius

and the normal

destroy the balance of man's personal and

—

Other Novelists. In his essays and philosophical prose Thomas Mann ranged over large areas of the history of

writings

thought; several of them are political. He espoused a nationalist conservatism during World War I, but after the rise of Naziism he

became the leading German champion

of liberal

democracy

in exile.

His brother Heinrich Mann, on the other hand, was always a political radical. Many of his novels are savage attacks on the social and political abuses of pre- 1914 Germany of which Professor Unrat (1905) and Der Untertan (1918) are the best known. His satire is often shrill and sensational; other novels, such as Die kleine Stadt 1910) reflect quieter moods. The chief interest of Hermann Hesse, on the other hand, is concentrated on the inner Hfe. A neoromantic, he portrays in a series of delicate novels written in the first three decades of the century (Peter Camenzind, Detnian and Der Steppenwolf are the most important) the struggles of the individual to find his path in a world hostile to sensitivity. In Narziss und Goldmtmd (1930) and Das Glasperlenspiel 1 943 ) he explores the significance of the subconscious and seeks to steer his course between the conflicting demands of the spirit and the flesh. A gentle note of resignation prevails in (

(

his writing.

first

A

romantic vision of history and contemporary life also characRicarda Huch but, hke Heinrich and Thomas Mann, she is concerned to safeguard the independence and dignity of the individual.

Expressionism.— The

anticipated Expressionism,

and O. Kokoschka, the painter, is characterized by a quest for the essence of things, for the ideas behind personality and for a spiritual meaning in life. The comedies of Carl Sternheim (1878-1942), though close to Expressionism, also displayed a strong Naturalist flavour. His criticism of middle-class attitudes was enlivened by his humour. Masse Mensch (1920) and Die sculptor,

Maschinenstiirmer (1922) by Ernst Toller are avowedly political. Although the latter play has a historical setting the Luddite riots it is Expressionist in technique. For Georg Kaiser, Expressionism was only a phase, although Gas I und II Von Morgen bis Mitternachts and Die Karaite, indictments of the contemporary social order written during and after World War I, made him the leading playwright of this movement. He had started as a Naturalist, but his later, more mature Grie.chische Dramen are con-' ceived in a traditional manner. Expressionist poetry, too, is nonreferential. The coherence of the poem does not reside in its conceptual thought, but in its musical composition. The leading experimental poets were Ernst Stadler, Georg Heym, Georg Trakl, Franz Werfel, Johannes Becher, August Stramm, Theodor Daubler, Gottfried Benn and Else Lasker-Schiiler. Three of them, Heym (1887-1912), Trakl (1887-1914) and Stadler (1883-1914), died young, yet they were

—

—

,

the leaders of the movement. Heym's apocalyptic vision of doom was portrayed in often grotesque but concentrated verse. Trakl was a gentler poet he was obsessed by a disgust with modern civilization, which he found meaningless. The world appeared to him atomistic. This is reflected in his language, where words and images are disconnected and only bound together by rhythm. Fears erupting from man's urban existence dominate his work as well as that of Ernst Stadler and August Stramm. In the poetry of Heinrich Lersch (1889-1936) these same fears are expressed in a staccato verse presenting a radical departure from accepted tradition. The early verse of Gottfried Benn (1886-19S6) was macabre because of the clinical objectivity with which he regards ;

human

suffering.

lying lyricism.

His crass

The

realistic descriptions conceal

Hans Arp (1887and Yvan GoU ) (1891-1950) also abandoned Expressionist beginnings; like Benn,

obscurity in language.

they turned to Surrealist poetry. Powerful though the impact of Expressionism as a movement was its greater figures did not stay within its orbit. Although there are Expressionist features in the work of Benn, Bertolt Brecht, Kafka, Kaiser and Werfel, their work has a distinct personal note. Franz Kafka, who only became famous after his death, in 1924, depicts the world of anxiety where the individual appears crushed by unfathomable forces. In his The great novels Der Prozess Trial) and Das Schloss The Castle), and in his tales, his heroes (

often ecstatic style of Heinrich the dominant

Mann

movement

search for justice and security, which forever elude them. A mainly grotesque humour exposes the incongruities of

human

as-

pirations and the weakness of rea-

I and the years which immediately followed Germany's defeat. Expressionism was a movement of revolt directed against traditional valuations; it aimed to convey

biguity of the situation in which

literary

Germany during World War

ideas

by means of

a

new

style.

Its

concern was with general

truth rather than with a particular situation.

It was not the psychology of the individual but the predicament of symbohc types that was explored. Emphasis was laid not on the outer world but on the inner Hfe; consequently faithful imitation of life was replaced by ecstatic evocation of states of mind. A forerunner of Expressionist drama was Frank Wedekind (1864-1918) who, on

the basis of Naturalist description, created plays full of fantastic scenes which, often by a cinematic snapshot technique, caricatured reality.

He appeared

an under-

nihilism of his later poetry takes the form of

in

its

drama was Here the characters appear

full-fledged Expressionist

Johannes Sorge's Der Bettler (1912).

(

terizes the novels of

4.

The

milestones of his work are his great novels Buddenbrooks

obsessed with sex and violently attacked con-

son, but also points to the his heroes find themselves.

amIt is

never certain whether their sense of guilt or their protest against the social and cosmic order

is

jus-

Kafka's lucid prose style makes the haunting obscurity of his images only more striking. Bertolt Brecht was Expressionist in his insistence on the distance the bettmann archive between art and reaUty and in his franz kafka (i883-i924). ecstatic manner of writing, but by hans fronius tified.

sketch

;

GERMAN LITERATURE his incisive social criticism,

look, attempted to re-create classicism in the

stem-

(

grotesque makes his writings often startling, but also attractive. 6. The Third i^ejcA. The thnA Reich disrupted the continuity of literary life in

famous Wolfskehl had the most

(

CULVER PICTURES,

sionist, followed more conventional paths in his Das Lied der Bernadette (1942), an account

later novels.

the

of

saint

In of

Lourdes, he expressed profound religious convictions. With the return 5. Post-Expressionism and Social Reality.

—

normality after the end of the period of inflation the desire to reform the world subsided and Expressionism was replaced by a new movement called Die neue Sachlichkeit An attempt at this "new objectivity" coloured novels either about the war or about society. Arnold Zweig's Der Streit um den Sergeanten Grischa to

.

and Erich Maria Remarque's

Tin

Westen nichts Neues

{All

Quiet on the Western Front; 1928) presented a harrowing indict-

Description of the social and political 1920s is found in Hans Fallada's novels, Bauern, Bonzen und Bomben 1930) and Kleiner Mann was nun (1932), as well as in the satirical verse and humorous novels of Erich Kastner. Some of the dark undercurrents of German society which came to the surface with the rise of Naziism are here

ment

of the evils of war.

Germany

in the

{

documentation written at a later date are Anna Seghers' Das siebte Kreuz 1939) and Bruno E. Werner's Die Galeere (1949). Carl Zuckmayer's abihty to convey social criticism in reahstic scenes drawn from a vivid observation of contemporary life makes Der Hauptmann von Kopenick (1931) a successful satire on Prussian society and Des Teufels General (The Devil's General; 19461 a vigorous portrayal of the predicament of German officers in World War II who were torn between their sense of duty and their awareness of the evil of the regime. Social reality was also explored by Alfred Doblin. who in his novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (1930) used the stream-of-consciousness technique for both social documentation and psychological analysis. In Herman Broch's Der Tod des Vergil (1945) this technique was used to depict the poet's reaction to his work and to the external world. In his trilogy Die Schlafwandler (1931-32) he not only depicts social changes in 20th-century Germany but seeks, by the insertion of an essay on the values of our age, to analyze the an indication of his intellectual background of our civilization strong interest in the social, political and philosophical questions which make up the bulk of his essays. Another writer with philosophical leanings, Ernst Jijnger, is concerned with the decline of bourgeois culture and the social impact of technology. He extolled the virtues of heroism in war in his w-ar diary In Stahlgewittern 1920) nonetheless he quickly became a critic of the third Reich, as is shown by his symbolical tale Auj den Marmorklippen 1939 and by his later diaries and prose. His brother Friedrich Georg Jijnger 1898shows a more developed lyrical and narrative talent. Both his poetry and his prose show mastery of form and a strong sense of tradition. This feeling for tradition also shaped the work of two other poets, Josef Weinheber and R. A. Schroder who, though quite different in outdetected.

Novels of

social

(

—

(

figures

of

emigrate, while others, like Stefan George,

to

the talent of E. G. Kolbenheyer, Friedrich Blunck and Hans Grimm was very limited. Under the rule of Hitler the life of the mind was

INC.

FRANZ WERFEL (1890-1945) man's corruption and of his yearning for a better order. Brecht's pessimistic appraisal of man, however, shows him to differ from the Expressionists' contention that man was essentially good, a belief which inspired Leonhard Frank in his choice of title for his collecFranz Werfel, tion of short stories Der Mensch ist gut (1919). whose early poetry and play, Spiegelmensch (1920), were Expres-

situation in

—

— Many authors, among them some — Heinrich and Thomas Mann, Remarque,

Germany.

chose not to return. Of those who stayed some found it impossible to publish their works, others were exterminated and their work could find only posthumous recognition. The less said about Nazi writers the better. Of its much vaunted school of blood and soil

Circle) striking parables of

)

age.

to

(

probing into human convictions makes some plays such as Mutter

(1927

modern

Catholicism forms the main source of inspiration ) and can be discerned of the work of Gertrud Le Fort 1876The work of Werner Bergengriin in the symbolism of her novels. 1892-1964) is also imbued with Catholic values. His sense of the

Conversion

ming from his Marxist ideology, gave his work a distinctive charHis sense of theatre, his acter. crowd handling of masterly scenes, his powerful evocation of the clashes of personality and his

Courage und ihre Kinder 1941) Mother Courage ajid Her Children), Der gute Mensch von Sezuan (1943; The Good Woman of Setzuan), Das Leben des Galileo Galilei (1943; Galileo) and Der Kaukasische Kreidekreis The Caucasian Chalk (1947;

275

;

(

)

smothered and Germany was cut off from the stimulus of contact with other countries. A few nonpolitical writers were able to continue publication. The autobiographical novels of Hans Carossa must be singled out for their emphasis on the need to develop curative powers within the individual by paying heed to tradition and through the development of inner resources. 7. Literature After 'World War II.— The end of World War II spelled a breakdown in social and economic life in Germany. It took some time for an organized literary life to revive. Much of the writing that first came to the fore was ephemeral and was often boosted by clever publicity. Established writers, of course, continued to publish their work, often outside Germany, and for some Posthumous publication of works time dominated the scene. which had been banned by the Nazi regime rescued important The most outstanding poet figures from neglect or oblivion. among them was Gertrud Kolmar 1894-1943? who was murdered in a Nazi annihilation camp. The powerful cadences and imagery of her verse spring from a profound emotional turbulence. Other lyric poets, too, such as Jesse Thoor, Max Hermann Neisse, Else Lasker-Schijler and Franz Baermann Steiner, became widely known only after the war. Other reputations, such as those of Kafka, were definitely established. Kafka influenced several writers of is the most important. The whom Hermann Kasack 1896war also took its toll by cutting short the lives of several writers of promise. Among them were Felix Hartlaub 1913-45), a prose writer of great sensitivity, and Wolfgang Borcherdt (1921-47) whose Draussen vor der Tiir 1946) recalls Expressionism. Of Ivrical poets who survived the war W. Bergengriin (18921964), R. A. Schroder (1878-1962), Hermann Hesse (1877-1962), H, Leifhelm, Marie Luise Kaschnitz, R. Hagelstange and F. G. sought to appeal to man's desire for spiritual Jijnger 1898harmony; others were influenced by Oskar Loerke who in his nature lyrics attempts to grasp reality in a moment of significance. Wilhelm Lehmann 1882), an older poet who became known only after the war and who continued linguistic experimentation, was another influence. This tendency to free lyric language from the shackles of convention produced almost a new tradition, that Ingeborg Bachmann 1926of unconventionahty of expression. GiJnther Eich (1907Carl Magnus Enzenberger, ), ), Walter HoUerer, Karl Krolow, Heinz Pointek are among those who try to express the chaotic experience of their age, often by way of experiments with form. Their images, metaphors and sentences are disconnected; they rely on rhythmic coherence and on association of impressions and ideas rather than on a logical and syntactical sequence. The most important poet who follows this trend of His visionary language and writing is Paul Celan (1920). Of a different his sense of aesthetic and moral values are striking. stamp is the poetry of the Austrian Christine Lavant 1915), who conveys her spiritual anguish by means of more conventional, but melodious verse. The poetry of the east German Peter Huchel 1903has a simplicity akin to that of Greek poetry, which is matched by his feeling for nature and peasant life. In drama the most important contribution after World War II came from Switzerland. Swiss literature had until then not occuCarl Spitteler, the most pied the centre of the literary stage. important Swiss poet at the turn of the century, created in Olym(

(

)

)

(

(

)

(

(

(

(

(

)

—

;

GERMAN LITERATURE

276

(1900-10) an epic in alexandrines in which ancient mythology was reset in an ideal Switzerland, the scene of a struggle between good and evil. Two other Swiss writers, Robert pischer Fruhling

Walser (1S78-19S6) and Aibin Zolhnger (1895-1941), became appreciated only after 1945. Walser was admired by Kafka for his Zollinger's tales and style; he also conveys the same anguish. lyrical poetry,

on the other hand, contain sensitive social criticism

and self-analysis. The comedies of Curt Goetz (1888-1960), though Swiss, show hardly any regional influences, but provide a polished form of entertainment enhvened by a keen wit. The two and best-known Swiss writers were Max Frisch (1911) Both of them make bold Friedrich Diarrenmatt (1921). experiments with dramatic form. Diirrenmatt's Besuch der alien Dame (1955) and Die Physiker (1962) and Frisch's Nun singen sie ivieder (1946) and Andorra 1962 are modern morality plays. Frisch's novels Stiller (1954) and Homo Faber (1957) are investi(

)

gations into the place of the intellectual in the modern world, while Diirrenmatt's tale Das Versprechen (1958) is an analysis of the mental breakdown of an individual which is symptomatic of

modern civilization. Both writers criticize the emotional sterility of modern life. Diarrenmatt also experimented with the radio play. The most important other practitioners of this new genre were Giinther Eich and Ingeborg Bachmann. The latter's Der gute Gott von Manhattan (1958) is a moving outcry against the barrenness of modern man's emothe purposelessness endemic in

tions

and

rare there

his incapacity for behef.

was no paucity of

While dramatic talent was few can claim

novelists, although

Elisabeth Langgasser's Das unauslbschliche based on the struggle between the spirit and the senses. Heinrich Boll (1917) seeks to fathom the origins of the forces molding pubhc life. In Hans okne Hiiter (1954) he analyzes the psychological problems of fatherless children in the years after World War II. His Irisches Tagebuch (1957) and Dr. Murkes Gesammeltes Schweigen (1958) show him as an accomplished humorist. Gerd Gaiser (1908) explores experimentahsm in the novel, most adventurously perhaps in Schlussball (1958). Heimito von Doderer (1896) in a series of novels, of which Die Strudlhofstiege and Die Ddrnonen (1958) are the most outstanding, depicts Austrian society on several levels. His picture of society is characterized by the wide range of portrayal and by its allusive humour and is intended to be symbolic of modern civihzation. Edzard Schaper (1908), on the other hand, takes his themes from Baltic countries and from Christian mysticism. Gunther Grass's Die Blechtrommel (1959) is a disturbing and bizarre, but vigorous satirical novel. Uwe Johnson, in Mittmassungen tiber Jakob (1959) and Das dritte Buck iiber Achim (1961), analyzes problems raised by the political division of Germany in an experimental mode. There were a number of other prose writers of talent ^such as H. E. Nossak, R. Hagelstange, Klaus Rohler, Martin Walser and Herbert Heckmann. Literary criticism also became more complex during the 20th century. The positivist study of hterature was followed by a variety of schools treating literature in the context of problems or of the history of ideas. These approaches differed; there were considerable divergences of method, all of which had their followers. W. Dilthey, F. Gundolf, J. Petersen, F. Strich and H. A. Korff are the best known among them. Common to all their aspirations was the attempt to establish a study of literature that could claim the status of a science and a tendency to see literature in a nonliterary perspective. After World War II styUstic analysis, which made the work of literature rather than the writer the focus of inquiry, emerged as the most popular school. Its leading critic was Emil Staiger. The widespread and growing complexity of literary studies helped to further both the impulse toward rationality and the high degree of consciousness which characterized imaginative hterature a consciousness which reflected the writer's need to come to terms with a more sophisticated vision of hfe than that of the writers of the past and his desire to modify the conventional picture of reaUty. (H. S. R.) real

distinction.

•Siegel (1947)

is

—

—

See also references under "German Literature" in the Index. General Companions to German Literature: H. de Boor and R. Newald, Geschichle der deuischen Literatur (1949-

BmiOGRAPHY.

); H. O. Burger (ed.), Annalen der deutschen Literatur, (19S2); 1 F. Martini, Deutsche Literaturgeschichle, 10th ed. (1960); F. Mosse, I Histoire de la litterature allemande (1959) T. Stockum and van J.

;

Dam, Geschichle der deuischen Literatur (1952-54) J. G. Robertson, A History of German Literature, rev. by E. Purdie (1959); W. ;

Stammler

(ed.), Deutsche Philologie im Aufriss, 2nd ed. (1956); G. Waterhouse, continued by H. M. Waidson, A Short History of German Literature (1959); J. Bithell, Germany: a Companion to German

Studies, 5th ed. (1955). General Collections of literatur (1882-99); H. Sammlung literarischer

Texts:

J.

Deutsche National-

Kurschner,

Kindermann et al. (eds.), Deutsche Literatur: Kunst- nnd Kulturdenkmdler in Entwick-

lungsreihen (1930 et seq.)\ Stuttgart (1843 et seg.).

Bibliothek

des

Vereins in (H. S. R.) Old and Middle High German: ]. Knight Bostock, A Handbook on Old High German Literature (1955); G. Ehrismann, Geschichle der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mitlelalters (1932-55) H. de Boor, Die deutsche Literatur von Karl der Grosse bis zum Beginn der hofischen Dichtung (770-1170) (1955) and Die hdfische Literatur. Vorbereitung, Bliitezeil, Ausklang (1170-1250), 3rd ed. (1957); C. von Kraus, Deutsche Liederdichter des 13. Jahrhunderts (1952-58); W. Stammler, Die deutsche Literatur des Mitlelalters. Verfasserlexikon (1933) J. Schwietering, Die deutsche Dichtung des Mitlelalters (1941) H. Schneider, Heldendichtung, Geistlichendichtung, Ritterdichtung (1943) H. Brinkmann, Entstehungsgeschichte des Minnesangs (1926); M. Richey, Essays on the Mediaeval Love Lyric (1943) A. Moret, Les Debuts du lyrisme en .illemagne (1951); H. Kuhn, Minnesangs Wende (1952); M. O'C. Walshe, Medieval German Literature (1962) literarischen

;

;

;

;

(W. W. Cs.) 16th and 17th Centuries: G. Miiller, Deutsche Dichtung von der Renaissance bis zum Ausgang des Barock (1930); W. Stammler, Von der Mystik zum Barock, 1400-1600, 2nd ed. with copious bibliographical information (1950); P. Hankamer, Deutsche Gegenreformation uni deutsches Barock, 2nd ed. (1947); A. Taylor, Problems in German Literary History of the 15th and 16th Centuries (1939); M. Wehrli, Deutsche Barocklyrik (1956); E. Hederer, Deutsche Dichtung des Barock (1954) R. Newald, Die deutsche Literatur vom Spdthumanismus zur Empfindsamkeit, 1570-1750 (1951); R. Stamm (ed.). Die Kunstformen des Barockzeitalters (1956); various authors, Aus der Well des Barock (1957). See also Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke des XVL und XVIL Jahrhunderts, ed. bv W. Braune (1876 et seq.). (J.R. We.; D. G. D.) The 13th Century: H. Hettner, Geschichle der deuischen Literatur im IS. Jahrhundert, 7th ed. by E. A. Boucke (1925-26); F. J. Schneider, Die deutsche Dichtung der Aufkldrungszeit, 2nd ed. (1949) and Die deutsche Dichtung der Geniezeit (1952); A. Koster, Die deutsche Literatur der Aufkldrungszeit (1925); W. H. Bruford, Germany in the 18th Century: the Social Background of the Literary Revival, 3rd ed. (1952), Theatre, Drama and Audience in Goethe's Germany, 2nd ed. (l957), and Culture and Society in Classical Weimar, 1775-1806 (1962); 0. Walzel, Deutsche Dichtung von Gottsched bis zur Gegenwart (1927); E. Ermatinger, Deutsche Dichter, 1700-1900 (1949) K. Vietor, Deutsches Dichten und Denken von der Aufkldrung bis zum Realismus (1949); H. M. Wolff, Die Weltanschauung der deutschen Aufkldrung (1949); R. Benz, Deutsches Barock. Kultur des 18. Jahrhunderts, vol. 1 R. Pascal, The German h (1949) Sturm und Drang (1953) and The German Novel (1956); H. B. I Garland, Storm and Stress (1952); F. Schultz, Klassik und Romantik ^ der Deutschen, 2nd ed. (1952); H. A. Korff, Geist der Goethezeit (1923-57) L. A. Willoughby, The Classical Age of German Literature (1926) and The Romantic Movement in Germany (1930); F. Strich, Deutsche Klassik und Romantik, 4th ed. (1949); F. Martini, Die Goethezeit (1949); W. Rehm, Griechentum und Goethezeit, 3rd ed. (1952) G. Kriiger, Die Religion der Goethezeit (1931); M. Colleville, La Renaissance du lyrisme dans la litterature allemande au xviii' siecle (1936) S. S. Prawer, German Lyric Poetry (1952) B. von Wiese, Die deutsche Lyrik (1957) and Die deutsche Tragodie von Lessing bis Hebbel, 2nd ed. (l952); W. Kayser, Geschichle der deutschen Ballade (1936); H. H. Borchardt, Der Roman der Goethezeit (1949); F. Gundolf, Shakespeare und der deutsche Geist, 11th ed. (1959); P. Grappin, La Thiorie du genie dans le preclassicisme allemand (1952); R. Haym, Die Romantische Schule, 5th ed. by 0. Walzel (1928), 6th ed. by E. Redslob, vol. 1 (1949); O. Walzel, Deutsche Romantik, 5th ed. (1923-26) P. Kluckhohn, Die deutsche Romantik (1924) J. Petersen, Die Wesensbeslimmung der deutschen Romantik (1926) R. Huch, Die Romantik, rev. ed. (1951); R. Benz, Die deutsche Romantik, 4th ed. (1940); A. Beguin, Le Romanlisme allemand (1949); E. Ruprecht, Der .iufbruch der romantischen Bewegung ( 1948) R. Tymms, German Romantic Literature (1955); B. Seuffert and A. Sauer (eds,), Deutsche Literalurdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts (1881-1924). ;

1

1

'

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(A. Gs.)

The 19th Century: Ernst .^Iker, Geschichle der deutschen Literatur von Goethes Tod bis zur Gegenwart 2nd ed. (1962); E. K. Bennett, A

German Novelle From Goethe to Thomas Mann (1934); Kampf um die Tradition (1928); G. Brandes, Hovedslromninger i del 19de aarhundredes Litteralur, vol. vi, Del unge Tyskland (Eng. trans. Main Currents in 19th-Cenlurv Literature, vol. vi, The Young Germany, 1901-05) E. M. Butler, The SaintSimonian Religion in Germany: a study of the Young German MoveHistory of the

H. Bieber, Der

;

GERMANOS—GERMANY ment (1926); W. Hbllerer, Zwischen Klassik und Moderne (1958); H. H. Houben, Jungdeutscher Sturm und Drang (1911); G. Lukacz, Deutsche Realisten des 19. Jahrhunderts (1951) W. Silz, Realism and Reality (1954); Emil Staiger, Meisterwerke der deulschen Sprache im 19. Jahrhundert, 3rd ed. (1957). The 20th Century: F. Bertaux, Panorama de la litterature allemande contemporaine (1931); J. Bithell, Modern German Literature, 3rd ed. (1959) H. Boschenstein, The German Novel, 1939-44 (1949); A. Eloesser, Modern German Literature (1933); V. Lange, Modern German Literature, 1870-1940 (1945); O. Mann and H. Friedmann, (1954), Christliche (eds.), Deutsche Literatur in 20. Jahrhundert Dichler der Gegenwart (1955) and Expressionismus (1956); F. Lennartz, Dichter und Schrijtsteller unserer Zeit (1955); H. Naumann, M. Rychner, Zur (1933); Deutsche Dichtung der Gegenwart europdischen Literatur zwischen zwei Weltkriegen (1943); R. Samuel and R. H. Thomas, Expressionism in German Life, Literature and Theatre (1939); A. Soergel, Dichtung und Dichter der Zeit (1928); W. H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis (1959); H. M. Waidson, The (H. S. R.) Modern German Novel (1959). ;

;

GERMANOS

(Loukas Strenopoulos) (1872-1951), Greek

archbishop of Thyateira and a leader of the ecumenical movement (9.11. ), was born at Delliones in eastern Thrace on Sept. 15, 1872. He was educated in Constantinople and at the theological college

and in 1900 went to Germany for further study. He returned to be a professor at Halki (1904) and was ordained priest, In 1912 later becoming also the director of the college (1907). he was made metropolitan of Seleucia, but retained his position at Halki,

Halki until 1922, when he became metropolitan of Thyateira and exarch of western and central Europe with his headquarters In 1924 he was also named special representative of in London. the patriarch of Constantinople to the archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1942 was awarded the Lambeth cross for his services to Anglican-Orthodox understanding. He played an important part in the formative years of 20th-century Christian co-operation, becoming a first president of the World Council of Churches on its establishment in 1948. His guidance helped bring the Orthodox churches into fuller association with the Western churches. (H. M. W.) He died in London, Jan. 23, 1951. at

GERMAN SILVER: see Nickel Sil\'er. GERMANTOWN, a section of Philadelphia. fore 1854

was

munities

in

a separate borough,

the

state.

It

lies

is

Pa., which beone of the most historic com-

6

mi.

N.W.

of

the

centre

of

Philadelphia and extends for more than a mile along Germantown avenue, formerly High street. Its first settlers were part of the vanguard of the great Germanic invasion of colonial Pennsylvania.

William Penn's promise that his colony would offer an asylum where men might worship God as they chose early attracted Pietists from the Rhineland, and in 1683 a group of such people, chiefly from Frankfurt and Krefeld, founded Germantown. The principal figure among them was Francis Daniel Pastorius. Germantown quickly became a prosperous settlement, developing various handicraft industries. Weaving, tanning and wagon building were especially noteworthy. On the Wissahickon creek William Rittenhouse in 1690 built the first paper mill in the British colonies. In 1738 Christopher Sauer and his son established in Germantown a printing press which became perhaps the largest in colonial America. Sauer's German Bible was the first to be printed in a European language in America. One of his employees, Jacob Bey, was the first manufacturer of printing types in the British colonies.

Germantown soon ceased to be a wholly German community, and especially after the middle of the 18th century the English influx was great. Most of the fine buildings for which Germantown avenue is famous, symmetrical stone houses characterized often by the Germantown pent roof and by inviting benches flanking the doorway, date from the middle and late 18th century. Outstanding among them is Cliveden (1763), planned by Chief Justice Benjamin Chew, an especially good example in stone of the monumental late Georgian style of the Philadelphia area. Grumblethorpe (1744) is lighter in style and a more typical Germantown home. The Morris house (1772) served as the presidential mansion of the LTnited States when the yellow fever epidemic of 1 793 drove George Washington from Philadelphia and is a graceful Pennsylvania Georgian town house. The original building of the Germantown academy (1760) still stands. From an earlier pe-

277

(1690 and later) Wyck survives, and from a later period (1798) there is Upsala, an example of the delicate Federal style Various organized groups are dedicated to the in Pennsylvania. preservation of these buildings and of whole neighbourhoods of riod

the colonial village.

On

Germantown houses figured in when Washington's continental army fought the Germantown among them in an effort to break the de-

Oct. 4, 1777, several of the

military history, battle of

fenses of British-occupied Philadelphia.

After entering Phila-

delphia late in September, British Gen. Sir William Howe had divided his army in order to attack the forts down the Delaware Thus his main force river and to maintain his communications.

than 9,000, and Washington dearmy of 11,000. He planned a complicated double envelopment, but because his flank columns consisted of militiamen the plan did not work out and the brunt of the battle had to be borne by two columns of continental troops, making virtually a head-on assault on the British centre. The attack came close to success and might have prevailed but for an unnecessary loss of time spent trying to drive a British garrison from Cliveden and a confused collision in a fog between two American columns. As it was, Washington had to retreat.

at

Germantown numbered

less

cided to attack with a reinforced

—

Bibliography. Samuel W. Pennypacker, The Settlement of Germantown, and the Beginning of German Emigration to North Atnerica (1899) N. H. Keyser, "Old Historic Germantown," in the Proceedings and Addresses of the Pennsylvania-German Society (1906); Herbert and Harry M. and Margaret B. PuUinger, Old Germantown (1926) Tinkcom and Grant Miles Simon, Historic Germantown, From the Fovnding to the Earlv Part of the Nineteenth Century: a Survey of the ;

;

German Township

(R. F.

(1955).

GERMAN VOLGA REPUBLIC

was from 1924

We.)

to 1941

one of the ten autonomous soviet socialist republics of the Russian federation and was situated between latitude 49° 50' N. and 52° N. and longitude 44° 45' E. and 48° 5' E. It was bounded west, north and east by the Saratov oblast and south and southwest by the Its area was 10,888 sq.mi., Stalingrad (now Volgograd) oblast. and it lay on both banks of the Volga river. About 27,000 German colonists were settled on the Volga river in 1760 and 1761 at the invitation of Catherine II by special manifesto. The climatic difficulties of their new environment, lack of capital, oppression by officials and attacks by Kirgiz and Kalmyks diminished their numbers by 50% in the first ten years. They were at first given special privileges, including exemption from army service, but in the mid- 19th century these privileges were annulled. About 1870 the small measure of autonomy remaining to them was canceled and the colonies broken up. When World War I broke out the German colonists were persecuted, and in Feb. 1915 an imperial ukase ordered the destruction of their settlements in frontier areas. In Feb. 1917 another ukase prescribed the transportation of the Volga Germans to Siberia. Before this was carried out the 1917 Revolution took place. In early 1918 a commission was set up at Saratov to organize Soviet rule among the Volga Germans, and at that town in June 1918 the first Soviet congress of the Volga Germans expressed a wish On Oct. 19, 1918, the Autonomous for autonomous government. German Workers' commune was created by decree, and it became Engels became the capital. Of its a republic on Feb. 20, 1924. 12 cantons, 5 had purely German inhabitants, 4 mixed GermanRussian or German-Ukrainian inhabitants and 3 were predominantly Russian or Ukrainian, By 1939 the repubhc's population was 605,542 of which 67% was German, 20% Russian and 12% Ukrainian, The republic was abolished on Sept. 24, 1941 its territory was divided between the Saratov and Stalingrad (Volgograd) oblasts and its German inhabitants deported to Siberia, (Deutschland), a country of central Europe bordering on the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Denmark. The year 1949 saw the emergence of two separate republics in Germany: the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik ;

GERMANY

Deutschland; West Germany) consisting of the area of the former three western zones of occupation; and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East (Ger-

many)

consisting

of

the

eastern

zone.

Berhn was similarly

—

GERMANY

278

divided into a western and an eastern section, East Berlin acting German Democratic Republic. The capital of the Federal Republic of Germany is Bonn. Because of its isolation, West Berlin could not become a constituent part of the Fed-

A. Federal Republic of Germany 1. Constitution and Government 2. Taxation

as the capital of the

eral

Republic of Germany but close

ties

3. 4.

were maintained between

5.

the two areas.

of

Germany

(including

West

Berlin) has

an area of 95,928 sq.mi. and a population of (1961) 56,173,184 an increase of 33% over 1939. The German Democratic Republic, referred to by the West Germans as central Germany as distinct from the eastern territories annexed by Poland, has an area of 41,815 sq.mi. and a population of 17,079,306 (1961 est.), an increase of over 9% since 1939. The former German eastern territories cover 39,370 sq.mi. and had in 1957 a population of 6,500,000, representing a decrease of one-third since 1939, and a complete change from German to Pohsh occupants. In 1945, with cities in ruins and millions of people uprooted and destitute, with the country divided in such a way that the western zones of occupation had millions of extra people to employ and feed, with foreign trade at a standstill, and with the east separated from the west and subjected to the rigorous policies of the Soviet Union, the prospects for the German people seemed to be grim indeed. Contrary to all expectations, both West and East Germany underwent a remarkable recovery, though there were great contrasts in the social and economic developments of the two portions of the country. East Germany experienced profound changes in its social and economic structure through the imposition of Communist policies and centralized and directed economic planning. It underwent a two-year plan (1949-51) and two five-year plans during the 1950s, the aims of which were to increase agricultural production and to develop the heavy industries. Population slightly decreased during the 1950s and housing construction was far below the level of West Germany. Agricultural production did not seem to have made the headway that was planned, but industrial production, with 1953 as 100, reached 136 in 1957, as compared with 146 in West Germany. This is a record of remarkable achievement in both east and west, but in the former it was accompanied by a lag in other spheres of economic

economy

in the east.

This article contains the following sections and subsections: I. Physical Geography 1. Geology 2. Geographical Regions, Relief and Drainage

II.

4.

Climate Vegetation

5.

Animal Life

The People 1.

Early Settlement Patterns

2.

Racial Characteristics

3.

Customs

Religion History A. Ancient History B. Merovingians and Carolingians C. The 10th and llth Centuries D. Germany and the Hohenstaufen, 112S-1250 E. The Rise of the Habsburgs, 1254-1493 F. The Reformation, to 1555 G. The Counter-Reformation and the Thirty Years' War H. The Empire in Decay, 1648-1721 I. The Austro-Prussian Conflicts in the 18th Century J. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Periods K. The German Confederation, 1815-66 L. The German Empire, 1866-71 and 1871-1918 M. The German Republic, 1919-33 N. The Third Reich, 1933-39 4.

III.

Justice

9.

PoUce

Defense B. German Democratic RepubUc

O.

World War

P.

Germany

II

After

World War U, 1945^9

Q. Federal Republic of Germany R. German Democratic Republic IV. Population V. Administration and Social Conditions

and Government

1.

Constitution

2.

3.

Taxation Trade Unions

4.

Wages

5.

Health and Welfare Services

6. 7.

Housing Education

8.

Justice

9. Police

10. Defense VI. The Economy A. The Background 1. Interwar Period 2. Post-1945 B. Federal RepubUc of Germany 1.

Agriculture

2.

Fisheries

3.

Forestry Industry

4.

6.

Manufacturing Industries Mining

5.

7.

Power

8.

Location of Industry

9.

Tourism Trade

10.

Finance Transport and Communications C. German Democratic Republic 11.

12. 1.

Agriculture

2.

Fisheries

3.

5.

Forestry Industry Location of Industry

6.

Mining

7.

Power

8.

Trade

9.

Finance Transport and Communications

4.

10.

I.

—

the development of two contrasted ideologies that of democracy and private enterprise in the west and a communistic regime with

3.

Housing Education

10.

growth. The divergence between West and East Germany after partition lay not only in the differences between the two sections of a country that had evolved in the closest interdependence but also in

a controlled

7.

8.

6.

The Federal Republic

Employment and Trade Unions Wages and Cost of Living Health and Welfare Services

1.

Geology

upon which

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—Germany

consists of a floor of Paleozoic rocks

unconformably the comparatively httle-disturbed beds of the Mesozoic system, while in the north German plain a covering of glacial deposits conceals the whole of the older strata from view, excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. The rocks that compose the ancient floor are thrown into folds, which in the western half of Germany run approximately from west-southwest to east-northeast. They are exposed, on the one hand, in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, and, on the other hand, in the Bohemian massif. With the latter must be included the Frankenwald, the Thiiringer Wald and the Harz. The oldest rocks, belonging to the Archean system, occur in the south, forming the Vosges and the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) in the west, and the rest

Bohemian massif, including the Erzgebirge, in consist chiefly of gneiss and schist, with granite and

greater part of the the east.

They

other eruptive rocks. Farther north, in the Hunsriick, the Taunus, the Eifel and Westerwald, the Harz and the Frankenwald, the ancient floor is composed mainly of Devonian beds. Other Paleozoic systems are, however, included in the folds. Along the northern border of the folded belt lies the coal basin of the Ruhr in West-, phalia, which is the continuation of the Belgian coal field, and bears much the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian area as the coal basin of Liege bears to the Ardennes. The Permian, as in England, is not involved in the folds which have affected the older beds, and in general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly

around the masses of ancient rocks, and one of the largest areas is

that of the Saar.

Between the old rocks of the Rhine highlands on the west and the ancient massif of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic

;

GERMANY beds extends from Hanover to Basel and from

Metz

to Bayreuth.

These beds, as the name suggests, fall into three series; the Lower Bunter sandstones, the middle shelly limestones (Muschelkalk) and the Keuper marls and sandstones. Over the greater part of central Germany the Triassic beds are free from folding and are nearly horizontal. The Triassic beds must have covered a large part of the old rock masses, but they have been preserved only where they were faulted down to a lower level. Along the southern margin of the Triassic area there is a long band of Jurassic beds dipping toward the Danube. At its eastern extremity this band is continuous with a syncline of Jurassic beds, running parallel to the western border of the Bohemian massif, but separated from it by a narrow strip of Triassic beds. Toward the north, in Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, the Triassic beds are followed by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, the latter being there the more important. As in the south of England, the lower beds of the Cretaceous are of estuarine origin and the Upper Cretaceous beds overlap the Lower, lying in the valley of the Ruhr directly upon In Saxony also the Upper Cretaceous beds the Paleozoic rocks. The Eocene rest directly upon the Paleozoic or Archean rocks. system is unknown in Germany except in the foothills of the Alps but the Oligocene and Miocene are widely spread, especially in The the northern plain and in the depression of the Danube.

Marine Miocene occurs in northwest Germany and the Miocene of the Danube valley is in part Oligocene

is

generally marine.

marine, but in central Germany it is of fluvial or lacustrine origin. The horizontal sediments of the Mesozoic that lay on the old

peneplain were gently folded or rippled by the earth movements of the Tertiary period and vale, scarp and upland have been formed through differential erosion from the three main strata of the Triassic series. Especially important in Germany is the so-called

Saxonian folding.

This affected the Mesozoic and more especially

the Cretaceous strata on the northern edge of the Hercynian land

mass, between the Rhine plateau and the Harz. This folding began Antiin the Upper Jurassic and continued through the Miocene. cUnes and synclines have been eroded to form scarped ridges and vales, some of these taking the form of an "inverted" rehef, in which the rocks of the synclines stand out as ridges with outwardfacing scarps. These folds trend from northwest to southeast and have the same direction as the faulted highland of Thuringia. The Westphalian uplands are an eroded anticline. A variety of northwest to southeast ridges, some of them with inverted relief, rising from loess-covered plains, Ues between the Leine and Weser and also on the northern border of the Harz. Vulcanicity accompanied the Tertiary earth movements and continued until the glacial period. Basalt lava flows, hke those of central France, form the Rhon and Vogelsberg in central Germany. Crater lakes, cones and residual plugs of more recent date occur

many parts of the central highlands. The trachytes of the Siebengebirge are typical. The precise age of the volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a perfect state of preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly post-Tertiary. in

The

greater part of north

deposits.

These are

Germany

is

covered by Quaternary

in part of glacial origin

and contain Scandi-

but fluvial and aeoUan deposits also occur. The occur on the northern border of the central highlands, and in the sheltered lowlands and on the river terraces in the highlands and in southern Germany. Quaternary beds also cover the floor of the broad depression through which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz and occupy a large part of the plain of the Panube. The depression of the Rhine is a trough lying between two series of faults. The broader depression of the Danube is associated with the formation of the Alps and was flooded by the sea during a part of the Miocene period. 2. Geographical Regions, Relief and Drainage The physnavian boulders

;

latter, called loess,

279

From detailed map studies on a scale of 200,000, several hundred units have been mapped and these in turn are grouped into 88 larger units which are grouped into the

basis of reference. 1

:

—

four major physical divisions of Germany the northern lowland (north German plain), the central or mid-German highlands, the scarplands and lowlands of southern Germany, and the Bavarian Alps and plateau. These divisions are used in the articles elsewhere on the individual Lander (states), to which reference should be made for further detail.

The North German

Plain.

—-This area

is flat

to the west of the

Berlin area, but to the east it consists of morainic hills less parallel to the Baltic coast and usually less than 600

more or ft.

high,

separated by wide, flat valley floors. In the western section the land is low-lying, with reclaimed coastal marshes providing rich pasture land behind which lie bogs and sandy heaths. In the eastern section (beyond and including

Luneburger Heide] ) there are two main These are the Baltic uplands (strewn over large areas with numerous lakes and patches of marsh) extending from Schleswig to East Prussia, and the Liineburg-AltmarkFlaming-Lusatian heath lands to the south. Between these two belts are marshy valley floors and the raised diluvial platforms of the Liineburg heath [see

belts of morainic hills.

old glacial rivers.

On the southern border of the plain, and bordering on the midGerman highlands to the south, there is a belt of rolling country The subsoil is largely loessic, making it very called the Borde. fertile. From prehistoric times this area has been inhabited. Running into the hills from the plain are great bays of lowland, the two biggest being the Cologne and Leipzig bays. There is a great difference between the coast of the North sea and that of the Baltic. On the former, where the sea has broken up the ranges of dunes formed in bygone times and divided them into separate islands, the mainland has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian Islands {q.v.) are being gradually washed away by the waters. There are now only seven of the East Frisian Islands, of which Norderney {q.v.) is the best known; of the North Frisian Islands, on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt {q.v.) is the most considerable. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there have been extensive inundations by the sea within the historic period, the Gulf of the Dollart having been so created after 1276. Sands surround the whole coast of the North sea to such an extent is not practicable without the aid of a rocky island, but it also has been conThe tidal range is 12 to 13 ft. siderably reduced by the sea.

that entrance to the ports pilots.

in

HeUgoland

is

Jadebusen (Jade bay) and at Bremerhaven, and 6 to

7 ft. at

Hamburg. The coast of

the Baltic, on the other hand, possesses few islands, the chief being Alsen and Fehmarn off the coast of SchleswigHolstein, and Riigen off Pomerania (Polish Pomorze). It has no extensive sands, though on the whole it is very flat it has no per;

and a great part of its coast line is covered with ice in winter which also blocks up the harbours so that navigation is ceptible tides

;

interrupted for several months of every year. The eastern coast of Schleswig-Holstein is penetrated by long embayments {Forden). coast line farther east is smooth, since the eastward drift of the currents has formed long sand spits {Nehrungen) with enclosed haffs or shallow lagoons behind them at the mouths of the

The

rivers.

The

rivers of the great lowland, the

Ems, Weser, Elbe and Oder,

are naturally navigable and need very few locks. Post-Pleistocene land sinking has brought the sea up the river mouths so that most of Germany's ports are river ports and have developed outports, as

Bremerhaven below Bremen on the Weser, Cuxhaven below the Elbe, and Warnemiinde below Rostock on the

Hamburg on

spite of

Warnow. The east-west sections of the rivers in different parts of the same low area between morainic hills have been linked together in many cases by canals, so that a system of river and canal communication crosses Germany from its eastern to its western border. This system converges upon Berlin and helps to account for the

of

phenomenal growth

ical features of

—

Germany

— rock

types, land forms, climate

and

are associated with each other in such a way as to permit the recognition of distinct physical or natural units. In

vegetation

human interference, these remain as the fixed framework human occupancy of the country. A detailed division of Germany into physical units has been undertaken by a specially appointed goverrmient authority in order to provide a standard

of the city from its insignificant position in the middle of the 17th century. The Oder from Ratibor (Raciborz) in Poland and large sections of the Havel, Spree and Saale

GERMANY

28o

THE CHIEF PHYSICAL REGIONS OF GERMANY WrTH THEIR MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS

The Elbe

are navigable.

can be navigated right up into as far as Prague. The Mid-German Highlands. This is a west-east belt of highland blocks crossed from south to north by rivers, either in gorges like that of the Rhine, or in lowland troughs, like those of the Weser and the Leine rivers. In the western half is the great rectangular block of the Rhine plateau. This is composed of predominantly impervious rocks, slates, sandstones and quartzites, though there are more productive and closely settled areas on limestone rocks and loess deposits. The plateau is crossed by the gorge of the Rhine from Bingen to Bonn and by the similar valleys

Bohemia, and

its

itself

tributary, the

Moldau (Vltava),

—

of several of

its tributaries, notably the Moselle. Between this block and the Thiiringer Wald is the comphcated zone of uplands and lowlands that is drained by the Weser and the Leine and gives easy routeways from north to south. At the southern end of this trough are the great volcanic massifs of the Rhon (3,117 ft.) and

the Vogelsberg (2,539 ft. ). The trough is itself composed of horizontal strata of the Triassic series, forming areas of wooded sandstone uplands, rolling plateaus of cultivated limestone and the

main valley troughs cutting right through. This trough connects Frankfurt am Main, Kassel, Hanover and other intermediate cities and has been a most important factor in their historical development. East of the Weser basin is the northwest-southeast Thiiringer Wald, which together with the Harz mountains beyond have long been associated with the mining of metals. The southeastern end of the Thiiringer Wald and the northeast-

em

end of the Franconian Jura and the highlands farther east (the

Erzgebirge') approach one another in the Fichfelgebirge (3,448 ft.).

Rivers radiate from this plateau. The Naab flows south between the Franconian Jura and the Bohemian plateau to the Danube, the Main flows west to the Rhine between the Thiiringer Wald and the Jura, the Saale and its tributaries flow north between the Thiiringer Wald and the Erzgebirge, while in Bohemia the Eger flows east on the south side of the Erzgebirge. Highlands trend northeastward to the Erzgebirge (4,082 ft.), which is the northern edge of the Bohemian block, as far as the sharp break by which the Elbe passes from Czechoslovakia to Germany. Beyond the Elbe the hills trend southeastward as the Riesengebirge (5,266 ft.) and

GERMANY the Sudeten, forming the northeast side of the Bohemian block. Southern Germany. This area stretches from the Vosges to the Bohemian forest (Bohmer Wald), and from the mid-German high-

—

lands in the north to the Alps in the south. The Main and are right-bank tributaries of the Rhine. Their basins are

Neckar framed

by the Swabian Jura (Schwabische Alb) and Franconian Jura (Frankische Alb) on the south and east, the Black Forest on the west and the mid-German highlands on the north. The Neckar and

to the

The Swabian and Franconian Jura

are built mainly of porous,

limestone rocks dipping southward and eastward and the drainage The Swabian Jura is higher is in many parts in deep-cut valleys. and less broken than the Franconian, and from the rawness of its winters, a large part is known as the Raube Alb. The strata of the Swabian Jura dip gradually to the left bank of the Danube, and those of the Franconian Jura to the Rednitz valley, and this is the direction of the drainage. The scarp slopes face north or north-

west and are steep and deeply dissected where they face the Neckar lowland, and present very beautiful scenery. The Bavarian Alps and Plateau. The plateau is framed on the

—

south by the Lake of Constance and the Bavarian Alps, and on the north by the Swabian-Franconian Jura and the southwest border of the Bohemian massif. It is drained by the Danube, which rises in the Black Forest and flows near the northern side of this area, following the edge of the Jura down to Regensburg, beyond which it flows beneath and parallel to the granite edge of the Bohe-

mian block and then onward past Passau. The main tributaries of the right bank are the lUer, Lech, Isar and Inn. On the left bank the Womitz, which joins the Danube at Donauworth, flows from the Franconian Jura and through the fertile lowlands of the Ries. The Altmiihl and its feeders also cross the Franconian Jura in a deep and wide valley. Linking the Danube and the Main and using the lower valley of the Altmiihl, a canal was built after 1960 from Bamberg through Niirnberg to Kelheim. Much land on the south of the Danube is poor and wooded, but some areas toward the centre and east, where the subsoil is loess, are fertile and mainly under arable farming. Strips of meadow occur along the

many

river plains.

Only the northern fringe of the Alps, from the Lake of Constance to near Hallein, is in Germany and the Austrian frontier there lies along the northernmost of the east-west ridges of the Alps; the highest point in Germany, the Zugspitze (9,720 ft.), stands on the border of the Tirol. The Bavarian Alps are of great beauty, with some exquisite mountain lakes, and, farther down the northward valleys, long lakes have been formed behind morainic dams. From Basel to Mainz the Rhine flows through a remarkable rift is the sharp western 4,898 ft. high) as far north as the latitude of Karlsruhe; recognizable again farther north is the Odenwald (about 1,700 ft.). West of the Rhine the upstanding edge is the Vosges (in France), becoming lower and smoother north of Saverne but rising again in the Hardt (highest The continuous block that once point, Donnersberg, 2,254 ft.). included the Vosges and the Black Forest was a Hercynian massif,

On

valley.

the east the upstanding edge

slope of the Black Forest (the Feldberg

'

!

flow

hills

from the

coolest areas.

are made up of rolling limestone uplands, wooded sandand cultivated plains on marls and clays. There are

in

I

In the northwest, no chain of

warmer and moister winds which

centres.

hills

The climate in these lowlands is extensive areas of fine loess. warm and dry and these lowlands are among the most fertile lands

i

occupied by low-lying plains. intercepts the

Germany, growing mainly vines and grain. The Neckar escapes Rhine south of, and the Main north of, the Odenwald. In the Neckar basin Stuttgart is the chief city. In the valley of the Main, Nijrnberg, Bamberg, Wiirzburg and Frankfurt are the chief

Main lands

1

the oceanic and continental climates of western and eastern Europe respectively. The differences in the range of temperature and the amount of rainfall throughout Germany are accentuated by the elevated plateaus and mountains in the south, while the north is

and these accordingly influence at times even the eastern Germany. The mean annual temperature of southwestern Germany is about 12°C. (53° F.), that of central Germany 9° C. (49° F.) and that of the northern plain 8° C. (47° F.). The difference in the mean annual temperature between the southwest and northwest of Germany amounts to about 2° C. (3° F.). The valley of the Rhine above Mainz has the mildest winters and the warmest summers. The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the autumn there is not much warmer. In central Germany the high plateaus of the Erzgebirge and Fichtelgebirge are the

stone

I

281

is

trough) has formed a broad valley floor with volcanic mass, the Kaiserstuhl, stands out in the middle of the plain. The banks of the rapid river have few

and the

rift (a fault

parallel sides.

A

From south, but many from Speyer northward. Bingen the Rhine flows from east to west, from the rift From valley to the gorge through the mid-German highlands. Worms through Mainz to Bingen the land is relatively low and has loess subsoil, making it one of the best agricultural parts of the country; it is especially important for vine cultivation. 3. Climate. The climate of Germany is intermediate between towns

in the

Mainz

to

—

Atlantic,

regions of

In south Germany the Bavarian plateau experiences a harsh winter and a cool summer. The warmest district is the Rhine vaOey from Karlsruhe northward, less than 300 ft. above sea level and protected by high land. The same holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and Moselle. Hence the vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts. The mean summer temperature there is 19° C. (66° F.) and upward, while the average temperature of January is above 0° C. (32° F.). The climate of northwestern Germany is oceanic, with cool summers (mean summer temperature 16° C. [61° F.]), and snow in winter remains but a short time on the ground. West of the Weser the average temperature of January exceeds 0° C. (it is about 2° C. at Cologne [Koln]). To the east it sinks to —2° C, and the Elbe is generally covered with

months of the year, as are also its tributaries. The farther one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and winter. Rain falls at all seasons, but chiefly in summer. The rainfall

ice during several

In the Eifel, greatest in the highlands of western Germany. Saueriand, Harz, Thiiringer Wald, Rhon, Vogelsberg, Spessart, the Black Forest, the Vosges, etc., the annual average rainfall is 34 in. or more, while in the intermediate altitudes of southwestern Germany and in the Erzgebirge it is about 25 to 30 in. The same

is

average obtains on the humid northwest plain of Germany as far In the low-lying, sheltered parts of as Bremen and Hamburg. western Germany it amounts to less than 25 in. In the wine dis-

Mannheim and also Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Eastern Germany as far south as the Thiiringer Wald has an annual Thunderstorms are most frequent in rainfall of only 16 to 20 in.

tricts, i.e., in

the valley of the Rhine below

in the valley of the

July.

The

soils of

Germany

are usually of low quality.

Those of the

north German lowland are predominantly sandy, though clays occur in the coasts and loams on the morainic upland. The loess In central and south Germany soils of the Bbrde are the richest. The the soils of the highlands are thin on impervious bedrock. loess of the lowlands and the limestone bedrock yield fertile loams, and loams are characteristic of wide areas of the Bavarian plateau. (R. E, Di.) More than a quarter of the whole area of 4. Vegetation.

—

Germany about

is

40%

covered with forest. About 45% of this forest is pine, beech and about 8% oak. Though plantations are ex-

tensive, there

is still

a certain

amount

of natural forest.

Beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest is found on all well-drained soils in the temperate regions, from sea level up to 2,000 ft. in the Harz mountains and 4,500 ft. in the Bavarian Alps. Associated with beech are silver fir, spruce, pine and oak. Where there is enough light and good soil the ground flora consists of dog's mercury, sweet woodruff, violets, etc; higher up in wet places it includes balsam, willow herb and monkshood; on acid soils bilberry, foxgloves and wavy hair grass are found. On poorer, lighter soils, especially in the northeast and the Palatinate, the forests are of Scots pine {Pinus sylvestris). They ascend to 4,000 ft. in the Black Forest mountains and 5,000 ft. Most of these forests are planted, often in the Bavarian Alps. also with Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), and there are many planta-

GERMANY

282

on inland sand dunes, for example, along the Rhine valley between Karlsruhe and Mainz. The plantations have a poor ground flora, but the native forests often contain juniper, bilberry and heather, mosses and lichens. Many are mixed with oak, beech and hornbeam. Extensive plantations of spruce {Picea ahies), or spruce mixture, make up 20% of the productive forest of Germany. More tolerant of extreme cold than beech, it grows as a native tree on the upper slopes of the central and southern mountain areas where it is found up to the highest limit of trees. This limit is higher in the south than it is in the north. There are vast areas of spruce in the Black Forest and the Bayerischer Wald. The oak forests on the light, sandy, acid soils of the northwest are generally mixed with birch. In the adjacent heath lands grow broom, juniper, heather, bilberry, bracken, etc. The oak forests in the west are mixed with hornbeam with a well-developed shrub layer and ground flora. The northern and eastern oak woods are mixed with pine. The two oaks found most in Germany are common oak (Quercus robiir), which occurs everywhere, and Durmast oak (Q. petraea), which occurs more in the east. Alder (Alniis glutinosa) dominates the peaty fen woods and is the characteristic tree of river valleys, often with willow and poplar where it is very wet, or oak, ash, elm and hornbeam where it is drier. Willows, poplars, elms, sweet chestnuts, walnut, maples and ash are locally common. The silver fir (Abies alba) is indigenous in the central and southern mountains, being especially abundant on the western slopes of the Black Forest. In the Thuringian forests it grows at elevations up to 2,600 ft. and in the Bavarian Alps it reaches 5,000 ft. Above the silver fir is the European larch (Larix decidua), which grows up to 6,500 ft., mixed with spruce and Arolla or Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra). Above the timber line the mountain pine {Pinus mugo) occurs as a prostrate shrub and beyond this rhododendrons (Rhododendron jerrugineum and R. hirsutum) and altions

to the north the wild boar

floor

several

pine plants.

Heath land is characteristic of the northwest with heather (Calluna vulgaris), whins, grasses, mosses and lichens where it is dry, and cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix) club mosses, sundews and cotton grass in the wetter parts. Much land from the saltings and estuarine marshes of the North sea coast has been reclaimed ,

and is now grassland. Reclamation of fens and marshes in areas where the soil contains lime has turned these into rich pasture. In places where the soil is acid, especially in the wide coastal belt, are

many bogs

The peat

containing Sphagnum, cotton grass, sUndews, etc. is often exploited as fuel or for horticultural

of those bogs

purposes. In the north German plain and in southern Bavaria sandy heaths, moors and bogs are being reclaimed. 5.

Animal

Life.

— Germany's central position

that while the fauna

Europe

is

Europe means

broadly the same as that of continental

as a whole, invasion

particular feature.

(H.-H. He.) in

The

by

species

from

all

birds illustrate this well.

directions

The

is

a

birds of

Germany are similar to those in Britain but with notable additions. The lesser gray shrike and the woodchat shrike are there although they belong more to southern and western Europe. Germany also shares a number of birds with northern and eastern Europe, such

is

European countries

established

uncommon. Germany is one of which the introduced muskrat has

not

in

itself.

The country

offers a wide variety of habitat, with the plains to the northeast, where the great bustard survives, and the pine forests to the south sheltering the capercaillie.

There are several national parks and nature reserves, protecting alpine flora and fauna, the lynx, the crane (Griis grus) and the discovery place of Neanderthal man. 11.

German

is

the

name

(Ma. Bu.)

THE PEOPLE

that has prevailed since the 8th century for

the principal Germanic stocks. Thereafter language came into prominence as a unifying characteristic of the peoples in the realm of Charlemagne. In the 9th century this common consciousness grew stronger, tending toward a separate existence in contrast to

the Slavic peoples of the east Frankish realm. Since the 10th century, following the division of the Frankish realm (843), the term

Diutisk-German has comprised the stocks of the Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, Alamanni (Swabians), Thuringians and Frisians. It is historically significant that the name and the concept of the Germans, alone in Europe, derives not from an older tribal or territorial name but from the mother tongue and has continued to exert emphasis on linguistics and civilization. 1. Early Settlement Patterns The history of the German people was decisively determined by the great migrations during the 6th to 4th centuries B.C. and by the great migration of peoples in the Christian era. Both those epochs were also linguistically characterized through two great sound-shifting processes. The first and more embracing process affected almost all Germanic languages, while the second, following the 6th and 7th centuries a.d., influenced only the middle and upper German dialects. This linguistic loosening of the stocks, did not, however, affect political and cultural development. From the manifold migrations and widespread colonizations of numerous stocks the German nation

—

arose, through the political achievernents of the Frankish kings

(above

all,

Charlemagne), of the Saxon emperors and the Hohen-

staufens.

In the Carolingian period the Germans, in order to find room for make new settlements by clearing and cultivating land hitherto virgin and unoccupied. This internal colonization was driven forward energetically into the mountains and woods by the Frisians and Saxons of lower Germany, by the Franks of middle Germany and by the Swabians and Bavarians of upper Germany. At the same time colonization of districts outside the Frankish realm by partly peaceable and partly warlike acquisition began. As the Germanic-Roman ethnic frontier could only be pushed forward to the east, settlement was renewed in regions that, once German, had been abandoned in the migration period and thereafter thinly settled by Slavs. This German settlement took place in various waves, beginning in the 8th and continuing until the 13th century. Hand in hand with the colonization went an admixture of the several peoples, which proceeded with increasing pace. The distribution of stocks found today was created at that time. The Frisians were masters of the North sea coast and of the off-lying islands, the Saxons between the Elbe and lower Rhine, and later also in eastern Germany, where they almost completely drove out the Slavs. The Franks remained in middle Germany to settle in a wide zone from the Fichtelgebirge along the Main and Rhine to the sea, and also in northern Baden and Wiirttemberg. They were the chief element in the southeastward expansion. In the growing population, began to

and the bluethroat, the nutcracker and however, noticeable that so many species of birds seen in Germany are more famUiar in the extreme east of Europe or the Balkans. These include the pygmy owl and Ural owl, Tengmalm's owl, the gray-headed and the black woodpecker, the river warbler and the icterine warbler. Much the same pattern may be seen in the mammals, especially in the smaller rodents. As compared with Britain, Germany has three kinds of dormouse, the common, fat-tailed and garden dormice, but no water vole. Three notable eastern species of mammals found in Germany are the parti-coloured bat, the suslik and the common hamster. Beaver still live in the valley of the Elbe.

the 5 th century the High German group initially the Alamanni and then the Bavarians pushed forward against the Roman lands. The Alamanni spread over Alsace and the Alps. The Bavarians in the 6th century pushed forward from Bohemia to the Danube and spread out over the south bank as far as the These stocks continue Alps, and crossed the Inn into Austria.

Roe and

to live within the borders they occupied in the Frankish period but

as the thrush nightingale

the fieldfare.

It

is,

red deer are well represented, the latter reaching finer proportions than in Britain because their true habitat is the woodlands and forests, where they get a richer food. Introduced fallow deer are also numerous. The pine forest shelters wildcats, pine martens and, in the wilder parts, wolves, and on the lower ground

—

—

a political entity. The modern German Lander have no longer any connection with individual stocks. They are arbitrary structures, dynastically formed since the 13th century, sometimes comprising fragments of several stocks (as for

neither

(states)

now forms

GERMANY instance Bavaria with part of the Swabians, Franks and Rhenish Franks) and sometimes oniy with a fraction of a single stock, as Easternward settlements were brought to a sudden in Thuringia.

end by the great mortality, through plague,

in

Germany

after

was not

The

Haujendorj (clustered

oldest

village),

and most important form is found among northern and

southern German stocks. Likewise in the oldest tradition are the detached or individual farms of the Saxon and Frisian regions and of all mountain districts. The villages arranged with the houses in a row are a colonization type, which had already begun to preIn vail in Frankish and Swabian districts under Charlemagne. the border districts

between Germans and Slavs are round a market place

circular or radial form, arranged

villages of in a defen-

wagon stockade. The oldest German form of dwelling is certainly that of the Lower Saxon house and that of the Swabian-Bavarian Einhaus, or unit house, accommodating people and livestock under the same

sive pattern rather like a

roof. Between these Einhaus regions is a wide zone of the middle and upper German farmsteads, specially notable for their rooms with stoves. The space for husbandry is specifically divided from the living quarters, an advance probably attributable to Romance influence and necessitated by the increased requirements for space posed by a more intensive mode of agriculture barns, stables and the like. There arose the Frankish layout of farm premises, with a three- or four-sided farmyard. More than two-thirds of the German settled area have this sort of farmyard. Within these groups exists a great variety of types and mixtures of dwellings. The domestic arrangements and household furniture also differ. In the north there is a close relationship with Scandinavian practice: built-in furniture, heating apparatus, shape of hearth, fire irons, type of container and the predominance of woodwork. All The very different indicate an earlier common German origin. disposition of the household furniture in the upper German house is distinct and migrated with the Franks. 2. Racial Characteristics. The Germans are not racially pure. They have in the course of their history mixed plentifully with other peoples; in southern and western Germany, in Switzerland and in Tirol with the residues of the Celts and Romance Celts who settled there in pre-Christian times; in the east beyond the Elbe and Saale, as well as in the upper Main region and in Austria, with Slavs. The least mixed were the Germans in Lower Saxony. The physical characteristics have therefore been molded from Blond hair, fair skin and lightthe many Germanic stocks. coloured eyes distinguish the true Germanic folk from the Romance peoples. As history would indicate the highest percentage of the blond type is met in middle Germany (up to 54% as against 31.8% throughout Germany and 19.79% in Austria) and of the brunet type in west and south Germany (in Germany 14.05%, in Austria 23.17%, in Switzerland 25.7%). As a people of the centre the Germans have continuously been laid open to influence by the As a peasant people, they have presurrounding populations. served the core of the race with tenacious inertia. As the founder in the middle ages of world-wide trading ventures (the Hanse, the Fuggers, the Welsers) they have shown themselves to be adaptable, The shift of industry in the 19th far-thinking and masterful.

—

—

I

I

!

;

Christian unification was completed

The Germans adopted many methods of settlement. At first the only towns were those founded by the Romans; German settlements were weak and widely scattered. By progressive division of

the

i

differences exist even now. cibly converted the Saxons.

and Slavonic influences.

\

language, whose spread was assured by Luther's translation of the Bible, the cleavage in dialect was substantially bridged, although

about 1350.

labour and concentration of the populations they agglomerated in continually larger settlements and became an increasingly urban community. The layout of the settlements shows Celtic, Romance

\

283

century considerably altered the national character. 3. Customs. The stocks were, at the time of the Frankish mastery, complete political entities differing from one another markedly in dialect and custom. They possessed their own law {see Germanic Laws, Early). In the army of the king they fought in separate groups under their own dukes and frequently led a separate political existence too. The branch duchies were split only at the end of the 12th century (Saxony, Bavaria) and in the 13th century (Swabia). After 939 the Franks came directly under the king. Through the creation of the new High German literary

—

The

by Charlemagne, who forGermans

religious unity of the

lost until the 16th century through the Reformation, the almost complete victory of which was prevented by the CounterReformation. Intellectual unity was deeply cleft thereby, though the new High German language acted as a powerful bond against

that

split.

In the mid-20th century

German

national costumes were fast

Garments from ancient graves show how the trousered costume of the Germanic and eastern peoples in Europe won the day over the southern type of cloak garment. Modern costumes are of no great age, deriving at the earliest from the fashions Notable survivals are the of the 18th and early 19th centuries. peasant costumes of the Schwalm district in Hesse, the Bijckeburg region, the Black Forest valleys and the German Alpine district. The course of Life is accompanied by customs and usages that go back to Germanic antiquity. The customs in Swabia, Westphalia and the Rhineland have survived well. The framework of disappearing.

the marriage customs is old Germanic, with the character of a family festival that is at the same time a parochial celebration (the Polterabend, the' conveyance by wagon of the bride's goods, the barring of the way, the discharge of firearms, the outriders, the

musicians, the bridal procession, the bridal dance, the "stealing" of the bride, the wedding banquet, etc.). The birth of a child is surrounded by numerous customs signifying life (the birth tree, the Gluckshaube, the preservation of the umbilical cord, the burial of the afterbirth, etc.). For the dead a wake is held, mourning is worn, a funeral feast is given, the bier is set up, etc. The joy of the pagan festivals of nature (summer solstice, the celebration of Walpurgis on the eve of May day) at the peak period

work on the land became in the course of time associated with In the dark months mummers the major feasts of the church. appear; Klaus, Krampus, Knecht Ruprecht (Santa Claus), bell Shrove Tuesday is celebrated with ringers and masked figures. of

dancing and tumbling. Christmas is the great family feast. In the pagan era the winter solstice was celebrated: the Yule feast Christianity transformed it into or feast of newly rising light. the feast of Christmas: the feast of the heavenly light, of the birth The character that it bore as a pagan feast, falling at the period for slaughtering, was retained in the Christmas fare

of Christ.

and feasting, the Christmas confectionery in special forms (loafshaped cakes, marzipan, springerle, biscuits of almonds and butter, gingerbread).

A

double amount of fodder

is

given to the cattle.

Cribs, midnight Masses, singing beneath the stars and the burning of incense are connected with the belief in the visit of the super-

natural beings during the 12 nights (wild chase, magical powers of protection, the oracle of New Year's Eve). The Christmas tree took the place of the former customary pyramid of candles about the beginning of the 19th century. The egg customs at Easter, the blessing of palms Harvest customs are tree are symbolic of growth.

and the

May

uncommonly

and include the harvest wreath, harvest festival, vintage feast, the driving of the cattle from the mountain pastures and the (H. Pl.) dedication of the church or the church fair. 4. Religion. In the Federal Republic freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Basic law (constitution). According to the rich

—

1961 census 51.1% of the population was Protestant and 41.1% Catholic. The Protestants, who are in the majority in

Roman

northern Germany -and West BerUn, are members of the Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland (Evangehcal Church in Germany or E.K.D.), an association of Evangelical-Lutheran, other Lutheran, Reformed and unified churches. Its legislative organ is the Synod with headquarters at Hanover (ecclesiastical) and Frank-

am Main (external affairs). {See also Lutheranism.) Catholics are dominant in the west and south, particularly in Bavaria. The Federal Republic has five ecclesiastical provinces, and the ofiicial representation of German Catholics is at the Bishops'

furt

Conference at Fulda. In the Democratic RepubHc

it is

estimated that

82%

of the

GERMANY

284

population is Protestant and 12% Roman Catholic. Both churches strive to be a unifying force in a divided country, and the number and organization of Catholic dioceses have remained substantially unchanged regardless of the political events that followed World War II. The charitable work of the churches is carried on by the Catholic Caritas association and the Protestant Innere Mission. During the immediate postwar years the valuable social work performed by these organizations was widespread. For languages see German Language; Germanic Languages.

For culture see German Literature and the appropriate sections Painting Gothic Architecture etc. (X.)

in

;

;

III.

HISTORY

from the time

of Thales (c. 600 B.C.) were acquainted with the amber of the north German coasts, and the traveler Pytheas (c. 300 B.C.) certainly visited Germany and may have reached the Vistula. But there seem to have been few contacts between the classical and the Germanic world before the Cimbri and Teutoni, who probably came from the Danish peninsula, invaded the Mediterranean regions and Italy itself (113101 B.C.). The distinction between Germans and Celts was not clearly recognized until the Gallic campaigns (58-51 B.C.) of Julius Caesar brought more exact knowledge. (See Germanic Peoples for an account of the prehistoric Germans.)

Classical writers

A.

Ancient History

Caesar's conquest of Gaul halted the

German

pressure on the Celts, which had virtually driven them from the eastern bank of the Rhine and had led to Ariovistus' settlements on the upper Rhine, perhaps in 71 B.C., and to extensive infiltration (attested by archaeology and by Caesar himself) on the middle and lower Rhine by the Treveri, Nervii and others. An invasion of Usipetes and Tencteri, repressed in 55 B.C., led Caesar to undertake two punitive expeditions across the Rhine in 55 and 53 B.C., neither intended to penetrate far. The province of Gaul as created by him in 51 B.C.

extended to the Rhine, which he regarded as an ethnic frontier. Augustus (31 B.c.-A.D. 14) seems at first to have held Caesar's view of the Rhine frontier, but in 12 B.C. his stepson Nero Claudius Drusus undertook what was evidently understood as a combined campaign of Gaul and Roman against the traditional enemies of both. It is not clear, however, how far Augustus intended annexation to go. Drusus himself died soon after reaching the Elbe (9 B.C.), but his work was resumed by his brother, the future

emperor Tiberius, from 8 to 7 B.C. Meanwhile the growth of a German empire under Maroboduus in the territory of the Boii was engaging Roman attention; between 7 B.C. and a.d. 4 a series of expeditions penetrated into Germany across the Danube; and in A.D. 5 Tiberius subdued the Cimbri in the Danish peninsula. A grand campaign in a.d. 6 was forestalled, however, by a revolt in Pannonia, and in a.d. 9 there was a revolt in the west under Arminius: the governor P. Quinctilius Varus perished with three legions in the battle of the Teutoburger Wald. Augustus, who

now

appreciated the insuperable difficulties of conquering a wild country with a backward political organization, bequeathed to his successors the doctrine that the Rhine and the Danube were the frontiers of the empire. Only along the North sea coast (Frisii) and in the region of the upper Weser river and Taunus mountains,

where the Chatti, the most civilized German tribe, commanded the trade route, did Rome have interests beyond the Rhine; and the campaigns of Germanicus (a.d. 14-16), described by Tacitus, are to be regarded as determined by this fact and by the need of reestablishing prestige. All garrisons across the Rhine were withdrawn under Claudius (emperor 41-54), and the Romans confined themselves to diplomatic intrigue, a method that had proved successful against Arminius (slain by his own kin in 19). A new approach to the German problem was seen under the Flavian dynasty (Vespasian, Titus and Domitian, 69-96). Roman control of the territory of the Frisians was reasserted, and the Chatti were subdued in two campaigns of Domitian (83 and 88). To shorten the line of the Rhine-Danube re-entrant, the defenses enclosing the area conquered from the Chatti up to the crest of the

Taunus were extended southward and eastward

to join the

Danube

near Regensburg, and the frontier works (limes) were improved and extended by Hadrian (emperor 117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161), bringing Roman dominion and even the outward signs of

Roman civilization up to the central German or Hercynian An accompaniment of the policy was the creation by

forest.

Domitian of the two provinces of Lower and Upper Germany, the former (carved out from Gallia Belgica) consisting of the more or less germanized tribes along the western stretches of the lower and middle Rhine, the latter comprising in the main the new conquests. Meanwhile a changed attitude to the nature of German dangers was seen in the disposition of the legionary garrisons. Whereas under Tiberius (emperor 14—37) there had been eight legions on the Rhine and five on or near the Danube, a century later the proportion was four to nine. Western and Eastern Germans Tacitus' study of the Germans, published in a.d. 98, divides them into three groups, the Ingaevones of the northwest, the Hermiones of the interior and the Istaevones of the Rhine. These names are not fitted by Taci-

—

tus into his description of individual tribes

and clearly derive from

an earlier period during which Germans had hardly penetrated across the Elbe; they prepare for the distinction, only slightly blurred by tribal migrations, between western and eastern Germans, a distinction of great importance in their subsequent relations with Rome. (For details of the distribution of tribes in Tacitus' time see Germanic Peoples.)

Most

of the individual tribal units eventually disappeared, to

be replaced by greater political units, the Saxons, the Franks and the Alamanni. These confederacies were becoming a menace to Rome in the 3rd century: in 276, Franks and Alamanni overran the whole of Gaul; and c. 260 the limes was finally abandoned. Attacks on Britain by the Saxons then began in earnest and the Litiis Saxonicum may even commemorate their settlements as well as the defense against them. Diocletian (emperor 284-305) and his successors Constantine (emperor 306-337), Julian (who was in Gaul from 355 to 360) and Valentinian (emperor 364375) encouraged campaigns and fortification, and a frontier along the Rhine was maintained, though Julian had to agree to a treaty allowing the Franks to settle in much of modern Flanders. The Marcomanni and the Quadi gave trouble to Rome under Domitian (88-89) and Nerva (97). In 167 they took advantage of a plague and a Persian war to burst the frontier and penetrate into Italy itself. They were pacified by Marcus Aurelius only after a series of exhausting campaigns lasting until his death (180). Commodus (emperor 180-192) entered into treaty with them and fortified the

These

Danube

yet

more

intensively.

tribes continued to be

dangerous neighbours to the embut their place as its principal assailants was taken in this sector by the Goths, who reached the Black sea in the second half of the 2nd century a.d. and attacked the Danube frontier in 238. A succession of emperors (one of whom, Decius, met his death at pire,

hands in 251) failed to check their forays, which extended over Greece and Asia Minor until Claudius II, surnamed Gothicus, defeated them in 269. His successor Aurelian (emperor 270-275), however, abandoned Dacia to them, and about this time the distheir

tinction

former

between Visigoths and Ostrogoths begins to appear, the Dacia, the latter still in southern Russia. Warfare and

in

Danube frontier are attested notably in the reigns of Constantine and his sons and of Valentinian I. fortification along the

The Volkerwanderung or Great Migrations.

—

Germans had empire as soldiers and as captives settled in groups for agriculture; but their permanent entry in mass was part of the great migration precipitated in Europe by the westward movement of the Huns. About 370 the' Ostrogothic kingdom was destroyed and soon after both branches of the Gothic nation requested asylum within the empire. Dissension with their hosts soon broke out, and the Romans were decisively defeated at Adrianople (modern Edirne) in 378, after which the Goths were never expelled. Under their king Alaric (c. 365-410) and his successors, the Visigoths wandered over the empire seeking lands and political privileges and sacking Rome on the way (410). By the end of the 5th century their kingdom for

two centuries been

infiltrating into the

GERMANY embraced southwestern Gaul (with its capital at Toulouse) and also most of Spain. In the early Sth century the principal general of the western Roman empire, Stihcho, himself of Vandal origin, was compelled to remove the garrisons of the Rhine for the defense of Italy, and the Rhine frontier was crossed at the end of 406 by a mLxed host of Germans who penetrated first into Spain and then into Africa, where their leader, Gaiseric, founded a kingdom at Carthage in 439.

The first half of the Sth century is marked by complicated military and diplomatic maneuvering between the rulers and generals of the eastern and western empires, the German tribes and the Huns, whose empire under Attila (434-4S3) embraced virtually It was probably not least in order to escape this Saxons and kindred tribes from the seaboard in the next generation invaded Britain, which had been denuded of its Roman troops in 410. But Attila himself was defeated by Romans and Visigoths on the Catalaunian Plains (451), and the whole Hunnish empire broke up after the defeat of his successors by all

Germany.

rule that the

tribes in the battle of the Nedao river (4SS). period the situation of German tribes in the west beFranks, Alamanni and Burgundians appear in gins to crystallize. Gaul, their areas of extensive settlement (as opposed to conquest)

eastern

German

During

this

still on the whole discernible from the linguistic frontier between German and French. In the eastern empire, the Goths revolted under Gainas in Asia Minor (399) and attempted to act But the eastern emperors as emperor-makers in Constantinople. succeeded in eliminating them; the most important incident was the emperor Zeno's transference in 488 from the Balkans to Italy of the Ostrogothic bands under Theodoric, who was to gain the mastery (489-493) over the mixed body of mercenary Germans that had already ejected the last western Roman emperor in 476.

being

This process left a vacuum in the Danube basin, subsequently remnants for filled by Slavs and Ugrians, so that only enclaves survived there of the eastern Germans. instance of the Gepidae The ancient period of German history may be said to close with the gradual extension of Frankish rule under Clovis (king 481511) and his sons. Of the great confederacies only the Saxons and Alamanni remamed in Germany, to be absorbed eventually

—

—

in the

new Germanic empire

of Charlemagne.

In Italy, Theod-

hold their ground against the generals of Justinian (emperor 518-565), under whom Africa too was regained for the eastern empire. A last phase of the Volkerwanderung was the entry of the Langobardi (Lombards) into Italy in 568. The ethnic pattern observable in the Germany of the middle

oric 's successors failed to

ages was then completed.

These

tribal

movements did not

usually involve large

numbers

given as 80,000) and the Germans came more as conquerors than as settlers. They accepted the late Roman social structure of landlord and serf, the varying relationships being regulated by individual codes of law. There is virtually no archaeology of the migrations, the vestiges even of such settling migrants as the Rhineland Franks following The long contacts with late Roman typological developments. (the total of Vandals invading Africa

Rome had had

is

their effects, not least in the conversion of the

principal tribes to Christianity,

which followed rapidly on the

mission of Ulfilas to the Goths (c. 341-c. 347). The majority of German tribes (the Franks, led to conversion by Clovis, being (C. E. S.) the notable exception) accepted Arianism. B.

When

Merovingians and Carolingians came to an end, the German Rhine had no unity, geographical or

the original western empire

tribal lands lying east of the

Divided from each other by forest or water, the German tribes were further subdivided by the varying degrees of romanizaArchaeology suggests that their tion that they had experienced. social habits followed the same general pattern, and philology confirms that, despite dialectal differences, they spoke the same language. Nevertheless, "Germania" meant nothing to them, and their drawing together to form a medieval state was not an inevi-

pohtical.

table process but the

outcome of a

dents.

Herovingian Germany

—The

series of unpredictable acci-

Franks

{.q.v.), settled

for the

285

most part in romanized Gaul, were nevertheless drawn toward the Rhineland and thus into the feuds and rapidly shifting alliances Of these interventions we of the Germans on the eastern bank. have intermittent hterary evidence from the 6th century onward. They may be said to start with the wars of Clovis, during which the Merovingian dynasty of the Salian Franks established its authority over the Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks in part of what was later to be called Austrasia. With much less success, Clovis and his successors attempted to dominate the Thuringians of central Germany and the Alamanni and Bavarians of southern Germany. The latter in particular could often look for help from the masters of Italy; and thus the Catholic Franks found that their raiding and counterraiding across the Rhine helped to emHowever, it would be folly to broil them with the Arian Goths. elevate these clashes to the rank of wars of religion; no serious attempt seems to have been made to convert the Germans rather, the intention was to exact tribute from them (in the case of the Saxons this usually took the form of cattle), to use them as merCertainly the cenaries and to trade with them when possible. spirit of tribal or national independence was unaffected, and the threat to the Rhineland remained. Meanwhile, the eastern borders of Germania became the prey of the land-seeking Slav peoples; and occasionally, as in the reign of Dagobert I, the Germans were glad enough of Merovingian help against their supplanters in the ;

In the course of the Sth century, Frankish occasions of intervention tended to increase, and chieftains were deposed or, as

east.

But this relaoccasion offered, imposed on recalcitrant tribes. tionship was too spasmodic to justify thinking that the Germans were subjected to any effective Frankish high kingship. The Rise of the Carolingians and Boniface. The Carolingian dynasty, which with papal backing supplanted the Merovingians at the end of 751, was Austrasian and drew its strength from extensive estates in the lands between the Meuse and the

—

Rhine {see Carolingians). It had grown up in the atmosphere of Rhenish prosperity and likewise of Rhenish insecurity and was directly interested, in a way in which the Merovingians had never been, in the fate of the Rhineland and the behaviour of the German peoples beyond. It also saw clearly that effective control over them would necessitate their conversion to Christianity, and hence from the earliest days of their power the Carolingian mayors of the palace supported missionary work, both Irish and Roman. The pattern of Frankish penetration was always the same small communities or churches were settled upon land newly won from forest or marsh, granted them by their Carolingian protectors. Thus, from Frisia in the north to Bavaria in the south, religious and economic penetration went hand in hand. A distinguished part was played by Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who linked the Frankish world not only with the high culture of the churches (notably York) from which they set out but also with Rome, the ultimate source of their inspiration. Chief among them were Willibrord (658-739), who worked among the Frisians and later the Thuringians, and St. Boniface (c. 673-754), the real founder of Supported by Charles Martel against the the German church. :

aristocratic Frankish clergy,

fluence of

Rome, Boniface

who perhaps

feared the growing in-

led missions into Franconia, Thuringia

and Bavaria, where he founded or restored a primitive diocesan organization.

the

In 742 he played a large part at the first council of However, all this work was a mere church.

new German

beginning: the surface of paganism had scarcely been scratched, and the north, where the Saxon tribes Uved, was untouched and But when Boniface finally left his beloved monastery of hostile.

Fulda to seek martyrdom, with a few companions, among the northern Frisians, he had made a vital and doubtless unintentional contribution to the political unification of the German peoples. All except the Saxons had now begun to pass under the yoke of

Rome. Charlemagne. ^What Boniface began Charlemagne (q.y.; see also Holy Roman Empire) took one stage further. Contemporary

—

writers were vastly impressed

by the great warrior's almost cease-

German campaigning. Both the East Frisians and the Saxons (whom archaeologists find difficulty in distinguishing) now came

less

within the orbit of his missionary enterprise, and both resented

it.

—

GERMANY

286

In the wake of the missionaries. Prankish counts and other officials into northeastern Frisia, raising contingents for the royal host and doing the other business of secular government. One unforeseen effect of this subjugation of Frisia was the crippling of the only independent sea power that could protect the Prankish and English coasts from the marauding Norsemen. As for the Rhineland, the richer it grew the more necessan,' it became to protect its hinterland, Franconia (Hesse) and Thuringia, from

moved

Saxon raids. But this was a hard task, since east of the Rhine there was no natural barrier to hold. Thus, each of Charlemagne's punitive expeditions bit deeper than its predecessor into the heart

Germany,

lea\'ing behind it bitter memories of forced converdeportations and massacre. It should not, however, be thought that Charlemagne's treatment of the Saxons sprang only from political considerations. He was as sincerely resolved to fulfill with fire and sword his missionary duty as a Christian ruler

of

sion,

as were the Saxons to resist conversion and to uphold the bloodthirsty pagan rites of their ancestors. Whenever Charlemagne's

attention was distracted to

some other part

of his dominions, the

Saxons could be counted on to revolt, to slaughter the Prankish officials and priests in their midst and to raid as far westward as they could manage, Charlemagne, in his turn, would punish the offending tribes and garrison the defense points abandoned by the Saxons. (These defense points, werls, or burgs, must have been centres for trade as well as defense, for coin hoards have often been found in their vicinity.) The most famous leader of Saxon resistance was Widukind (g.v.). Widukind, for longer than any other Saxon, succeeded in keeping together a majority of the chieftains in armed resistance to the Pranks, His diflficulty was not that they tolerated the Franks but that their own feuds were too deep and complex to permit of serious political coherence. Resistance gave the Saxons a certain sense of racial unity that never deserted them but they were not yet politicaUy united among themselves, let alone with other Germans, They continued to live, much as in the days of Tacitus, upon their estates among the forest clearings edhelingi (nobles). /ri/mgi freeman), /azzz (halffree) and unfree a hierarchized society bound to the soil and ;

(

—

Mttle interested in

common means

of action,

Widukind

finally

surrendered and was baptized the Rhineland and the East Prankish church were saved, but at the cost of most savage repression in Saxony, which is reflected in the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae. The extreme north, looking to the Baltic and enjoying Danish support, was impossible to control; but finally, in 797, Charlemagne negotiated a form of peace with the remaining Saxons, the terms of which were embodied in the Capitulare Saxonicum, a statesmanhke measure. The battle for the north continued, but Saxony as a whole was slowly becoming integrated with the other national areas of Germany under Prankish control and had become part of the great march protecting the Prankish world from Danes, Slavs and Avars, ;

In the Bavarians Charlemagne found a people as independent as the Saxons but more ci^^lized. They had commercial and dynastic contacts with Lombardy that made them (and to some extent the Alamanni of Swabia also) a southward-looking people. Italian preoccupations were, as much as anything, responsible for Charle-

magne's decision to end the spasmodic control exercised by the Pranks over the powerful Bavarian ducal dynasty of the Agilolfings and to establish a direct supers'ision. This was achieved. Bavaria was not frankified, but Carolingian rule replaced Agilolfing, and Prankish churchmen and officials (such as the counts and missi dominici) moved as freely about Bavaria, seeing to the enforcement of the royal will, as they did in Saxony, But, as northern Frisia became the Prankish march against the Danes and Saxony that against the Slavs, so did Bavaria, together with Lombardy, become the march against the Avars. Only Christianity did as much to draw the regions of Germany together as did the powerful administrative measures taken by the Pranks to weld them into a protective march against the central European threat. But it was Francia, not Germany, that was protected. The Kingdom of Louis the German. Charlemagne's successor as emperor, Louis I the Pious, was not unpopular -wnth his German subjects; on two occasions he owed his restoration to

—

power

largely to their support.

In 82S one of his sons. Louis

German, was entrusted ^ith the government of Bavaria, whence he was gradually to extend his power over all Carolingian Germany. This was the first time that the German nations had had a ruler whose authority was confined to their own lands and whose time was largely taken up with defending them from Slav penetration; but this was by no means the sum of ambition for Louis the German, who tended, like all his house, to regard the whole of Francia as a partible family inheritance of which each member, in each generation, should take for himself and his followers what he could get. Louis was thus satisfied neither with the partition treaty of Verdun (843). by which he obtained the bulk of the lands east of the Rhine together with the districts round Mainz, Worms and Speyer on the left bank, nor with that of Mersen (870) by which he and his half brother the West Prankish king Charles the Bald came to terms over Lotharingia, the middle kingdom of their nephew Lothair (see Lorraine), Under the iq.v.) the

,

dominions reached almost the proportions of On the east they were bounded by the Elbe and the Bohemian mountains; on the west, beyond the Rhine, they included the districts afterward known as Alsace and Lorraine. Ecclesiastically they included the pro\'inces of Mainz, Trier, Cologne. Salzburg and Bremen, But Charlemagne's capital at Aachen and the rich family estates in Lotharingia were never finally abandoned by either branch of the Carolingian djmasty, although the bulk of the lands that they controlled increasingly assumed the separate outlooks of Prance and of Germany, An example of this increasing separation is provided by the oaths sworn at Strasbourg in 842 by Louis and Charles, the former swearing in his latter treaty Louis's

medieval Germany.

Romance, the latter, conversely, in German; but this drifting apart is in some ways less significant than the things that still held Prance and Germany together. brother's language,

The

from Danes, Saracens and Magyars upon the Carolingian world in the 9th century did not have the effect of uniting it in resistance. Not only the Carolingians themselves but their followers also were prepared to take advantage of each other, to compromise with the enemy and to carve out even more dominions from each other's lands. The motives that led them to behave thus, however, were not so simple ceaseless external blows

that fell

as they may now at first look. So, in 887, Arnulf (q.v.^. an illegitimate son of Louis the German's son Carloman. led an army of Bavarians against Charles the Pat. in part because Charles was

not defending the Rhineland from the ravages of the Danes, in part because his aim was the full Carolingian inheritance. But Arnulf was not equally successful in defending his eastern possessions. After his death in 899 the German kingdom came under the nominal rule of his young son. Louis the Child, and in the absence of strong military leadership became the prey of the Magyar

horsemen and other invaders from the east. Rise of the Duchies. The rise of the German duchies was a direct outcome of the Carolingian decision, avoidable or not, to

—

leave defense in the hands of those who were attacked; in other words, to decentralize military command and with it. inevitably, something else of the royal authority. The new duces were not, as was once thought, appointed by the peoples concerned, nor

were they the descendants of the tribal chieftains of the postmigration period. It seems more likely that they were Carolingian counts who took the initiative in organizing defense on a local basis, without thereby seeking to shake men's loyalty to the house of Charlemagne, of which the German church was a natural champion.

All the same, their initial success established

them

in the

hearts of those whom they protected. This was particularly the case with the Saxons, whose dukes, the Liudolfings. were descended from the military commanders first sent by Louis the German to'

defend eastern Saxony. Similarly, the Swabian dukes began with a military title (duces Raetianoriim) so did the Bavarian ducal family of Liutpold. The origins of the short-lived duchy of Thuringia are less easy to determine. Franconia naturally remained the German duchy most intimately associated with the East Prankish kingship. How. in practice, the lives of the German landowning or land-renting freemen were affected by these changes is a matter largely of guesswork. Perhaps it is true that political :

GERMANY economic consequences tightened the lord-man France and elsewhere (see Feudalism). However, nothing is more striking than the variety, between region and Perhaps much more of region, of German social organization. tribal ways of local government survived the Carolingians and the Magyars than was once thought possible. (J. M. W.-H.)

insecurity and

its

relationship, as in

The 10th and 11th Centuries (911-918).—When in 911 Louis the Child, C.

Conrad

I

Franconia, the ducal families were established in the leadership

In Swabia (Alamannia), it is true, two houses hegemony; but only the church, fearing for its endowments, had an obvious interest in the future of the monarchy, its ancient protector. Against the growing authority of the dukes and the deep differences in dialect, in customs and in social structure between the tribes there stood only the Carolingian tradition of kingship but, with Charles the Simple as holder of the West Frankish kingdom, its future was uncertain and not very hopeful. Only the Lotharingians put their faith in the ancient of their tribes.

fighting for

still

;

line and did homage The other component

to Charles, its sole reigning representative.

parts of the East Frankish

kingdom did not

follow suit.

We

can only guess at the motives of the Saxon and Frankish who on Nov. 10, 911, elected Conrad, duke of the Franks, as their king at Forchheim in Franconia (see Conrad I, German king). At the opening of the 10th century the Germanic peoples settled in the lands east of the Rhine and west of the Elbe, the Saale and the Bohemian forest, rude and thinly spread though their settlements were, had to face even more savage and pagan races pressing in from farther east, especially the Magyars. The Saxons, headed by their duke Otto, of the house of the Liudolfings, were threatened by more enemies on their frontiers than any other tribe; Danes, Slavs and Magyars simultaneously harassed their homeland. A king who commanded resources farther west in Franconia might therefore prove to be of help. The Rhenish Franks on the other hand, having hitherto given their royal house, the Carolingians, to the other tribes, did not wish to abdicate from their position as the leading and kingmaking people, which gave them many material advantages. Conrad, elected by Franks and Saxons, was soon recognized also by Arnulf duke of Bavaria, and by the Swabian clans. In descent, honours and wealth, however, he was no more than the equal of To gain a lead over the dukes who had accepted him as king. them, to found a new royal house and to acquire those wonderworking attributes which the Germans venerated in their rulers long after they had been converted to Christianity, he had yet to prove himself able, lucky and successful. The reason why the tribal hosts

,

between the German kings and a few score families of magnates seemed eventually to make up the sum of political events was that, at the very foundation of the German kingdom, circumstances had long favoured those men whom birth, wealth and military success raised well above the ranks of the ordinary free members of their tribe. Their estates were cultivated in the main by half-free peasants, slaves who had risen or freemen who had sunk. The holdings of these dependents fell under the power of the lord to whom they owed service and obedience. Already they were tied to the lands on which they laboured and already they received justice for many offenses at the hands of their protectors. For many reasons ordinary freemen tended generally to lose their independence and had to commend themselves to more fortunate and powerful neighbours and thus lost their standing in the assemblies of their tribe. Everywhere except in Friesland and parts of Saxony the nobles wedged themselves between king or duke and the rank and file. They alone could become prelates of the church, and they alone could compete for the possession and enjoyment of governmental rights. Besides the dukes of the stem lands who owed nothing in their position to the crown the bulk of administrative authority, jurisdiction and command in war lay with the margraves and counts whose hold on their charges developed relations

1

j

gradually into hereditary right. The commended men and the half-free disappeared from the important functions of public life. In the assemblies of the county they could no longer be doomsmen but came only to pay dues and to receive orders, justice and

Their political role was passive.

penalties.

Those lords whose

protection was most worth having also had the largest throng of dependents and thus became more formidable to their enemies and to the remaining freemen.

last of the

East Prankish Carolingians, died without leaving a male heir, it seemed quite possible that his kingdom would break into pieces. In at least three of the four stem lands. Bavaria, Saxony and

were

287

Lordship and submission to

it

were

hereditary, and thus the horizon of the dependent classes narrowed until eventually the lord and his officials filled the place of all secular authority and

power

in their lives.

Military strength, the

possession of arms and horses, and tactical training in their use were decisive. Most dependent men were disarmed; that be-

came part of their degradation. The Accession of the Saxons. Conrad I was quite unequal According to the beliefs of conto the situation in Germany. temporaries his failure meant that his house was luckless and

—

without the prosperity-bringing virtues which belonged to true kingship. On his deathbed in 918 he therefore proposed that the crown, which in 911 had remained with the Franks, should now pass to the leading man in Saxony, the Liudolfing Henry (later Henry I (see Henry I, German king) was called the Fowler). elected by the Saxons and Franks at Fritzlar, their ancient meeting place, in 919. With a monarch of their own race the Saxons now took over the burden and the rewards of being the kingmaking people.

The

centre of gravity shifted to the east, where the

Liudolfing lands and their power lay. The transition of the crown from the Franks to the Saxons for a time enhanced the self-sufficiency of the south German tribes. The Swabians had kept away from the Fritzlar election. The

Bavarians believed that they had a better right to the Carolingian (who had been remote outsiders in the 9th century) and in 919 elected their own duke Arnulf king. They too wanted to be the royal and kingmaking people. Henry I's regime rested in the main on his own position and family demesne His in Saxony and on certain ancient royal seats in Franconia. kingship was purely military. He hoped to gather authority by waging successful frontier wars and to gain recognition in the first place by concessions rather than to insist on the sacred and priestlike status of the royal office which the church had built up At his election he refused to be anointed and in the 9th century. In settling with the consecrated by the archbishop of Mainz. Bavarians he abandoned the policy of supporting the internal opposition that the clergy offered to Duke Arnulf, a plank to which Conrad had clung. To end Arnulf's rival kingship he forinheritance than the Saxons

mally surrendered to him the most characteristic privilege and

honour of the crown the right to dispose of the region's bishoprics and abbeys. Arnulf's homage and friendship entailed no positive obligations toward Henry, and the Bavarian duke pursued his own peace with the Hungarians and expansion across tribal interests :

the Alps

—

—

as long as he lived.

From these unpromising beginnings the Saxon dynasty not only found its way back to Carolingian traditions of government but soon got far better terms in its relations with the autonomous powers of the duchies, which had gained such a start on it. However, the constitution that it bequeathed to its Salian successors was self-contradictory; while seeking to overcome the princely aristocracies of the stem lands by leaving them to themselves, the Saxon kings came to rely more and more, both for the inspiration and for the practice of government, on the prelates of the church, who were themselves recruited from the ranks of the same great families. They loaded bishoprics and abbeys with endowments and privileges and thus gradually turned the bishops and abbots into princes with interests not unlike those of their lay kinsmen. These weaknesses, however, lay concealed behind the personal ascendancy of an exceptionally tough and commanding set of rulers up Thereafter the ambiguous to the middle of the 11th century. system could not take the strain of the changes fermenting within (German society and even less the attack on its values that came from without from the reformed papacy.. The Liudolfing kings won military success, and with it they gained that respect for their personal authority which counted for

—

GERMANY

288

much at a time when the great followed only those whose star they trusted and who could reward services with the spoils of victory. In 925 Henry I brought Lotharingia back to the East Prankish connection (see Lorraine). Whoever had authority in this half French-speaking, half German-speaking region could treat the neighbouring kingdom of the West Franks as a dependent. The young Saxon dynasty thus won for itself and its successors a hegemony over the west and the southwest which lasted at least up to the middle of the 11th century. The Carohngian kings of France and the great feudatories who sought to dominate if not to ruin them became in turn petitioners and even vassals of the German court during the reign of the Ottos. The kings of Burgundy, whose suzerainty lay over the valleys of the Saone and the Rhone, the western Alps and Provence, likewise fell under the tutelage of the masters of Lotharingia. Rich in ancient towns, so

this

homeland of the Carolingians, was more and wealthier than the stem lands east of the

region, once the

thickly populated

Rhine.

What

httle international trade

came

their

way entered

the

Rhine valley through Lotharingia. The Eastern Policy of the Saxons. Greater prestige still and a claim to imperial hegemony fell to the Saxon rulers when they broke the impetus of the Hungarian invasions against which the mihtary resources and methods of western European society had almost wholly failed for several decades. In 933, after long preparations, Henry routed a Hungarian attack on Saxony and Thuringia. In 955 Otto I (g.v.; king 936-973), at the head of a force to which all the tribes had sent mounted contingents, annihilated a great Hungarian army on the Lech river near Augsburg.

—

The

battle again vindicated the efficiency of the heavily

man

skilled in fighting

armed

on horseback.

With a Saxon dynasty on the throne, Saxon nobles gained office and power with opportunities for conquest along the eastern river Otto I indeed had an frontiers and marches of their homeland. eastern policy which aimed at getting more than slaves, loot and Between 955 and 972 he founded and richly endowed an tribute. archbishopric at Magdeburg which he intended to be the metropolis of a large missionary province beyond the Elbe, among the heathen Slavs. This would have brought their tribes under German control and exploitation in the long run; but the ruthless methods of the Saxon lay lords clashed with the church's efforts at peaceful penetration. In the 10th century there was httle or no German agriFar too much forest clearcultural settlement beyond the Elbe. ing remained to be done in all the regions of western and southern Germany. The Saxon conquests up to the Oder were secured by military strongholds, called burgwards, and lasted only as long as Behind the Slav peoples of their garrisons had the upper hand. Brandenburg and Lusatia, moreover, new powers rose: the Poles under Mieszko and, to the south, the Czechs under the Premyslids received missionaries from Passau and Magdeburg without falling permanently under the political and ecclesiastical domination of Bavarians and Saxons. The heathen Elbe-Slavs, kept under by the Saxon margraves, rose in 983 when the military occupation collapsed and with it the missionary bishoprics which had been Farther founded at Oldenburg, Brandenburg and Havelberg. south the defenses of the Thuringian marches between the Saale and the middle Elbe remained in German hands, but only after a long and fierce struggle against Polish invaders early in the 11th century. The northern part of the frontier reverted to what it had been before Otto's trustees, Hermann Billung and Gero, opened their wars. Missionary enterprises directed from Bremen and Magdeburg achieved little before the 12th century. The Saxon ruling class, bishops and margraves, must bear the responsibility

for the fiasco of eastward expansion in the 10th century. prelates, too,

saw

their missions as

means

to

found

The

ecclesiastical

empires with subject dioceses and tithes on Slav soil. The tribes across the Elbe therefore remained unconverted and implacable The wars also foes, a standing menace to the nearby churches. left a legacy of savagery on both sides so that from c. 1 140 onward the substitution of German settlers for the native Slavs the common policy of both the church and the princes.

Dukes, Counts and Advocates.

— Conrad

I's

became

and Henry

I's

kingships rested on the will of the tribes or rather on that of their

It was in the first place an arrangement between the Franks and the Saxons which the Bavarian and Swabian dukes recognized at a price by acts of personal homage. But the German kings, of whatever dynasty, had to live under Frankish law. After the death of Conrad I's brother Eberhard in 939 Otto I kept the Franconian dukedom vacant and the Franconian counts henceforth stood under the immediate authority of the crown. In Saxony too Otto kept in his hands the dukedom of his ancestors. The march-duchy of the Billungs, a bulwark raised against the Danes and the northern Slav tribes, did not give that family authority over the other Saxon princes. In the south the Ottomans sought to turn the dukedoms of the stem lands into offices held of the crown as fiefs and to supplant native dynasties by aliens and members of their own clan. When even that did not stop rebeUions under the banner of tribal self-interest, they began to break up the ancient Bavarian stem land by creating a duchy in Carinthia to cut off the spearhead of Bavarian expansion southward. The first two Sahans, Conrad II (king 1024-39) and Henry III (sole king 1039-56), also bestowed vacant duchies quite freely on their own kin and on men from outside the stem boundaries. They competed against ducal power but could neither aboUsh nor replace it. In the Uth century as before, the dukes held assemblies of their folk, led the tribal host in war and en-

leaders and of the higher aristocracy.

forced peace.

The counts, who were the ordinary officers of justice in serious, criminal cases, obeyed the ducal summons, but for the most part they received their "ban," the power to do blood justice, from the king himself. their office,

The

fiefs

and indeed the

and the customary office itself,

rights attached to not only became hereditary

but also came to be treated more and more as a patrimony to which they had an inherent right against all men, king and duke included. Even so, however, a good many comital families died From out and their counties fell back into the king's hands. Otto Ill's reign (983-1002) onward it became not at all unusual

bestow these on bishoprics and certain great abbeys rather than to grant them out again to other lay magnates. The bishops, however, could not perform all the functions of the counts; in particular their holy orders forbade them to pass judgments of blood. They needed officials called advocates (Vogte; sing. Vogt) to take charge of the higher jurisdiction in the counties and franIn the 10th chises that their churches possessed by royal grant. to

and 11th centuries these advocates had to be recruited from the aristocracy, the very class whose greed for hereditary office was to be checked, because ordinary freemen could not enforce severe sentences or defend the privileges of the church against armed intrusion. Dangerous neighbours of bishoprics and abbeys in any case, the nobles as advocates and protectors of ecclesiastical possessions were anything but reliable servants of their ecclesiastical overlords. there arose in nearly all German lands, whether the ducal survived or not, powerful lines of margraves, counts and hereditary advocates who enriched themselves at the expense of the church (which meant also the crown) and in competition with one another. From the abler, more fortunate and long-hved races among these dynasts sprang the territorial princes of the later

Thus

office

12th and 13th centuries, absorbing and finally inheriting most of the rights of the original government. The king was the personal overlord of all the great. His court seat of government and it went with him on his ceaseless The German kings, even more than other medieval journeys. rulers, could only make their authority respected in the far-flung regions of their kingdom by traveling ceaselessly from duchy to duchy, from frontier to frontier. Wherever they stayed their

was the

powers of dukes, counts and advocates and for a brief while they could collect the profits of As they came into local justice and wield some control over it. each region they summoned its leaders to attend their solemn crown wearings, dehberated with them on the affairs of the Reich jurisdiction superseded the standing

and the locality, presided over pleas, granted privileges and made war against peacebreakers at home and on enemies abroad. The Promotion of the German Church. The royal revenues came from the king's demesne lands and from his share of

—

GERMANY the tributes that Poles, Czechs, heathen Slavs and Danes had to pay whenever he could enforce his claims of overlordship. The He and his household king's demesne was his working capital. lived on its produce during their wanderings through the Reich, and it also served to provide for his family, to found churches and to reward faithful services done to him, especially in war. To swell the hosts, vassals had to be enfeoffed, and alienations were The Salians, though they inherited the remains of inevitable. Ottoman wealth as imperial demesne, brought little of their own to make up for its diminution. Already the last Saxon, Henry II (1002-24), and after him Conrad II therefore took to enfeoffing vassals with lands commandeered from the monasteries. But the beneficiaries often enough were already powerful and wealthy men in their own right, so that no class of freeborn mounted warriors, linked permanently with the crown, sprang from the loyalties and rewards of one or two reigns. In any case the lion's share of grants went to the German church. From the Carolingians the German kings inherited their one and only institution of central government: the royal chapel, with the chancery that does not seem to have been distinct from it. Service there became a recognized avenue of promotion to the episcopate for highborn clerks. In the 11th century bishops and abbots conducted the affairs of the Reich much more than the lay lords, even in war. They were its habitual diplomats and ambassaUnlike Henry I, Otto I and his successors sought to free dors. the prelates from all forms of subjection to the dukes. The king appointed them, and to him alone, as to one sent by God, they owed obedience. Thus there arose besides the loose association of stems in the German kingdom a more compact and uniform body with a By far greater vested interest in the Reich: the German church. ancient Germanic custom, moreover, the founder of a church did not lose his estate in the endowment that he had made he remained its proprietor and protecting lord. The bishoprics, it is true, and certain ancient abbeys such as St. Gallen, Reichenau, Fulda and Hersfeld did not belong to the king; they were memThe greater bers of the kingdom but under his guardianship. churches therefore had to serve the rulers with mounted men, money and free quarters. Gifts of royal demesne to found or to enrich bishoprics and convents were not really alienations but pious reinvestments, as long as the crown controlled the appointments of bishops and abbots. But the church did not merely receive grants of land, often waste, to settle, develop and make profitable: it was also given, as has been shown, powers of juris;

diction over its dependents.

Nor

did the kings stint the prelates

such as mints, markets and tolls. These grants broke up counties and to some extent even duchies, and that was their purpose to disrupt the secular lord's jurisdictions which escaped royal control. This pohcy of fastening the church, a universal institution, into the Reich with its well-defined frontiers is usually associated with the name of Otto I. But it gathered momentum only in the reigns of his successors. It reached a climax under Henry II, the founder of the see of Bamberg in the upper Main valley; but Conrad II, though less generous with his grants, and his son Henry III continued it. Bishops and abbots became the competitors of lay princes in the formation of territories, a rivalry which more than any other was the fuel and substance of the ceaseless feuds, the smoldering internal wars in all the regions of Germany for centuries. The welter and the confused mosaic of the political map of Germany until 1803 is the not so remote outcome of these 10th- and 11th-century grants and of the incompatible ambitions that they aroused. The Ottonian Conquest of Italy and the Imperial Crown. in other regalian rights,

:

:

I

:

I

i

—Otto

I

'\

j

j

I's marriage with Adelaide (Adelheid), daughter of Rudolph II of Burgundy, and the Italian rivalries between his brother Henry, duke of Bavaria, and his (Otto's) son Liudolf, duke of Swabia, drew him southward. After 951, expeditions into Italy were a matter for the whole Reich under the leadership of its ruler and no longer just an outlet for the expansion of the south German tribes. For the Saxon military class too the south was more tempting than the primeval forests and swamps beyond the Elbe. With superior forces at their back the German kings gained

289

There too their possession of the Lombard kingdom in Italy. overlordship in the 10th and the 11th centuries came to rest on the bishoprics and a handful of great abbeys. After his victory over the Magyars in 955, Otto I's hegemony in the west was indisputable. By the standards of one chronicler,

become emperor because he had subjected other peoples and enjoyed authority in more than one kingdom. But the right to confer the imperial crown, to raise a king to the higher rank of emperor, had fallen to the papacy, which had crowned Charlemagne and most of his successors. The Carolingian order in the west was still the model and something the Saxon Widukind, he had already

10th century. Otto had measured himself against the political tasks which had faced his East Frankish predecessors and more or less mastered them. To be like Charlemagne, therefore, and to clothe his newly won position in a traditional and time-honoured dignity he accepted the imperial crown and anointment from Pope John XII The substance of his empire was military power in Rome in 962. and success in war; but Christian and Roman ideas were woven round the Saxon's throne by the writers of his own and the next generation. Although the German kings as emperors did not give the law to the Roman Church in matters of doctrine and ritual, they became its political masters for nearly a century. The imperial crown enhanced their standing even among the nobles and knights who followed them to Italy and can hardly have understood or wanted all its outlandish associations. Not only the king but also the German bishops and lay lords thus entered into a permanent connection with an empire won on the way to Rome and bestowed by the papacy. (See Holy Roman Empire.) Otto II (sole king 973-983) and above all Otto III (983-1002) were strongly drawn toward their new Mediterranean sphere of action but Henry II returned to a sober regime centred on Germany and contented himself with three brief Italian expeditions. The Salians, the Papacy and the Princes, 1024-1125.— Under Conrad II (1024-39), the first member of the Rhine-Frankish like a political ideal for all its ruling families in the

house known as the Salians, the kingdom of Burgundy fell finally under the overlordship of the German crown and this tough and formidable emperor also renewed German authority in Italy. His son and successor Henry III (1039-56) treated the empire as a mission which imposed on him the tasks of reforming the papacy and of preaching peace to his lay vassals. Without possessing any very significant new resources of power he gave to his authorYet under ity an exalted and strained theocratic complexion. him, the last German ruler to maintain his hegemony in western Europe, the popes themselves seemed to become mere imperial bishops. He deposed three of them, and four Germans held the Holy See at his command; but lay opposition to the emperor in Germany and criticism of his regime over the church were on the increase during the last years of his reign. The Papal Reforms and the German Church.

— More than any

other feudal society in early medieval Europe, Germany was divided and torn by the revolutionary ideas and measures of the reformed papacy. From the pontificate of Leo IX onward he was one of Henry Ill's nominees the most determined and inspired spokesmen of ecclesiastical reform placed themselves at the

—

—

Holy See. Only a few years after Henry Ill's death (1056) they agitated against lay authority in the church, founded on proprietary rights. They regarded the laity as passive partakers of the sacraments and denied the supernatural status of kingship. Priests, including bishops and abbots, who accepted their dignities from lay lords and emperors at a price committed a sin, for these earthly powers could not rightly confer churches at all, nor could they own them. They believed moreover that thorough reforms could only be brought about by the exaltation of the papacy so that it commanded the obedience of all provincial metropoUtans and service of the

was out of the

eijiperor's

and the

local aristocracy's reach.

The

endless repetition of these teachings in brilUant pamphlets and at clerical synods spread agitation in Italy, Burgundy and Lotharingia, all

parts of the empire.

of the

movement

Their new program committed the leaders

to a struggle for power, because

it

struck at the

very roots of the regime to which the German church had grown accustomed and on which the German kings relied. The vast

GERMANY

290

wealth that Henry IV's predecessors had showered on the bishoprics and abbeys would, if the new teaching prevailed, escape his control and remain at the free disposal of prelates whom he no longer appointed. Under Roman authority the churches were to be freed from most of the burdens of royal protection without losing any of its benefits. The most fiery spirits in Rome did not Their leader flinch from the consequences of their convictions. Hildebrand, later Pope Gregory VII (1073-85), was ready to risk a collision with the empire. Henry IV was not yet six years old when his father died in 1056. The full impact of the Gregorian demands, coming shortly after a royal minority, a Saxon rising and a conspiracy of the south German princes, has often been regarded as the most disastrous moment in Germany's history during the middle ages. In fact the German church proved thoroughly unreliable as an inner bastion Its leaders. Anno and of the empire even before Rome struck. Adalbert (qq.v.), archbishops of Cologne and of Hamburg- Bremen respectively, shamelessly exploited their hold over the young king When by hunting for spoils out of the imperial demesne.

Gregory VII launched his decrees against simony and clerical marriage, humiliated the aristocratic episcopate by summonses to Rome and sentences of suspension and, in 1075, forbade rulers to invest bishops and abbots with their churches, the German hierarchy was demoralized and shaken. The prelates' return to their customary support of the crown was neither disinterested, wholehearted nor unanimous. The Discontent of the Lay Princes. Henry IV's minority also gave elbowroom to the ambitions and hatreds of the lay magnates. His mother Agnes of Poitou's feeble regency faltered before the throng of princes who respected only authority and forces greater than their own. The ruling influence of the higher clergy at the court of Henry III and the renewed flow of grants to the church had estranged them from the empire. It is likely also that these eternally belligerent men were lagging behind the prelates in the development of their agrarian resources. The prelates had a vested interest in peace and under royal protection improved and enlarged their estates by turning forests into arable land and also by offering better terms to freemen in search of a lord. The bishops' market and toll privileges brought them revenues in

—

money, which many of the lay princes lacked.

So

far,

however,

the princes' military power, their chief asset, had remained un-

Now

challenged. within their

own

Henry IV began

for the first time they had also to face rivals Henry III and the young sphere of action.

to rely

on advisers and fighting men drawn from

a lower tier of the social order, the poorer freebom nobility of Swabia and above all the class of unfree knights, known as ministeriales. The latter had first become important as administrators

and soldiers on the estates of the church early in the 11th century. Their status and that of their fiefs was fixed by seigniorial ordinances, and they could be relied on and ordered about, unlike the The Salian kings, beginning free vassals of bishops and abbots. with Conrad II, used ministeriales to administer their demesne, as household ofiicers at court and as garrisons for their castles. They formed a small army which the crown could mobilize without having to appeal to the lay princes whose ill will and antipathy toward the government of the Reich grew apace with their exclusion

from it. Having come of age, Henry IV used petty south German nobles and his ministeriales to recover some of the crown lands and rights which the lay princes and certain prelates had acquired during his minority, particularly in Saxony. There, however, his recuperations went further and a great belt of lands from the northern slopes of the Harz mountains to the Thuringian forest was secured

and

fortified

under the supervision of his knights to form a compact

royal territory, where the king and his court could reside almost

The south German magnates were thus kept at a when Henry and his advisers struck at the neighbouring Saxon princes, especially Otto of Nordheim and the Billung family. The storm broke in 1073. A group of Saxon nobles and prelates and the free peasantry of Eastphalia who had to bear the brunt of

continuously. distance

statute labour in the building of the royal strongholds revolted

against the regime of Henry's Prankish and Swabian

officials.

To

overcome

this startling

combination and to save his fortresses, the

king needed the military strength of the south German princes Rudolf of Rheinfelden, duke of Swabia, Welf IV, duke (as Welf I) of Bavaria, and Berchtold of Zahringen, duke of Carinthia. Suspicious and hostile at heart, they took the field for him only when the Eastphalian peasantry committed outrages which shocked aristocratic caste feeling everywhere. Their forces enabled Henry to defeat the Saxon tribal rebellion near Langensalza in June 1075. But when the Ufe-and-death struggle with Rome opened only half

German malcontents deserted Henry and, together with the Saxons and a handful of bishops, entered into an alliance with Gregory VII. Few of them at this time were converted to papal reform doctrines, but Gregory's daring measures against the king gave them a chance to come to terms with one

a year later, the south

another and to justify a general revolt. The Civil War Against Henry IV. On Feb. 22, 1076, the pope had absolved all men from their oaths to Henry and solemnly excommunicated him. In October his legates met the German lords at Tribur (modern Trebur) to decide on the future of the king, whom his last adherents now abandoned. Although Henry was absolved by Gregory at Canossa in Jan. 1077, the princes two months later nonetheless elected Rudolf of Rheinfelden to rule in

—

his place.

The war which now broke out lasted for almost 20 years. A majority of the bishops, most of Rhenish Franconia (the SaUan homeland) and some important Bavarian and Swabian vassals sided with Henry.

He

thus held a central position dividing his

Saxon enemies, who could not unite long enough to destroy him. With the death in battle of Rudolf of Rheinfelden (1080) and the demise in 1088 of another antiking, Hermarm of Salm, the war in Germany degenerated into a number of local conflicts for the possession of bishoprics and abbeys. It

south

German from

his

in 1098, when the south German adherents of the terms with Henry for the time being, but without recognizing his antipope Clement III. Throughout these years the crown, the churches and the lay lords had to enfeoff more and more ministeriales in order to raise mounted warriors for their forces. Though this and frequent devastations strained the fortunes of many nobles, they knew how to recoup themselves by extorting more fiefs out of neighbouring bishoprics and abbeys. The divided German church thus bore the brunt of the costs of civil war and needed peace almost at any price. Henry, since 1080 once again a vulnerable excommunicate, could not protect it. Henry V and the Results of the Conflict. The Salian dynasty and the rights it fought for were saved because Henry IV's son and heir himself seized the leadership of a last and pitiless rising against his father (1105). This cold-blooded maneuver enabled Henry V (1106-25) to continue the struggle for the crown's prerogative over the empire's churches against the inexorable demands of the papacy. The conflict now shrank into a legaUstic dispute over the right to invest bishops and abbots with their dignities and the secular possessions attached to them {see Investiture Controversy). In the course of it the princes became the arbiters and held the balance between their overlord and the pope. In 1122, acting as intermediaries and on behalf of the Reich, they forced the temporary concessions known as the Concordat of Worms out of the Holy See and its German spokesman, Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz (1109-37), the bitter personal enemy of Henry V and the territorial rival of the Hohenstaufen sons of Henry's sister Agnes. But by then they had for the most part defeated efforts to restore royal rights in Saxony and to stem the swollen jurisdic-

almost died

down

papacy came

to

—

tions

and

territorial

powers of the aristocracy elsewhere.

V, the last Salian, died childless in 1125, Germany was no longer the most effective poUtical force in Europe. The' brilliant conquest states of the Normans in England and in Sicily and the patient, step-by-step labours of the French monarchy were achieving forms of government and concentrations of military and

When Henry

economic strength which the older and larger empire lacked. The papacy had dimmed the empire's prestige, and Rome now became the true

home

of universalistic interests.

When Pope Urban

II

preached the first crusade in 1095, Henry IV, cut off and surrounded by enemies, Uved obscurely in a corner of northern Italy.

GERMANY The Holy See by its great appeal to the militant lay nobility of western Europe thus won the initiative over the empire. At this critical moment the Reich also lost control in the Italian bishoprics and towns just when their population, trade and industrial production were expanding fast, Germany did not even benefit indirectly from the crusaders' triumphs although some of their leaders (e.g., Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert II of Flanders were vassals of the emperor. The civil wars renewed for a time the relative isolation of the southern and central German regions. Internally the crown had saved something of the indispensable means of government in the control over the church, but it was a bare minimum and its future was problematic. The ecclesiastical princes henceforth held only their temporalities as imperial fiefs, for which they owed personal and material services. As feudatories of the empire they came to represent the same interests toward it as did the lay princes; at least their sense of a special obligation tended to weaken. The king's jurisdiction continued to exist side by side and in competition with that of the local powers. The great tribal duchies survived as areas of separate customary law. Each developed differently, and the crown could not impose its rights on all alike or change the existing social order. The most tenacious defenders of this legal autonomy had been the Saxons; but in Swabia, where distinct territorial lordships grew The Gregorian reform movement therefore fast, it prevailed also. aggravated the age-old contradictions in Germany's early medieval constitution. But its monastic culture and its intellectual interests were anything but barren. Both sides fought with new literary weapons to work on public opinion in cathedrals and cloisters and perhaps also in the castles of the lay aristocracy. In their hardhitting polemical writings they attempted to expound the fundamental theological, historical and legal truths of their cause. The )

agitation did something to disturb the cultural self-sufficiency of

German laity. It drove many of the south German nobles maintain direct connections with the Holy See and, whether they wanted it or not, they had to fall in with the aspirations of the religious leaders. The reform movement of the 11th and 12th centuries, one might almost say, very nearly completed the conthe to

version of

D.

Germany which had begun

five centuries before.

Germany and the Hohenstaufen, 112S-12SO

Dynastic Competition, 1125-52.— The nearest kinsmen of Henry V were his Hohenstaufen nephews, Frederick, duke of Swabia from 1105 to 1147, and his younger brother Conrad, the sons of Henry's sister Agnes and Frederick, the

first Hohenstaufen had always been necessary to succeed to the crown, but before the great civil war nearness to the royal blood had been honoured whenever a dynasty failed in the direct line. By 1125, however, the princes, guided by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz, no longer respected blood right. Affinity with Henry V was no recommendation to them, and hereditary succession seemed to lower their authority in the government of the Reich. Instead of Frederick they chose the duke of Saxony, Lothair of Supplinburg, king from 1125 to 1137 and emperor as Lothair II (q.v.) from 1133. Like the Hohenstaufen, he had risen by a lucky marriage and a successful career of continuous fighting into the first rank of dynasts but, unlike them, had served the cause of the Saxon opposition to the Salians. With the enormous Nordheim and Brunonian inheritances behind him, he could humble the Hohenstaufen brothers (1134) after marrying his only daughter and heiress to a Welf, Henry {q.v.) the Proud. The Welfs, already dukes of Bavaria and possessors of vast demesnes, countships and ecclesiastical advocacies there and in Swabia, were even without this dazzling alliance somewhat better off than their Hohenstaufen rivals. In 1137, however, the fears of the church and a few princes turned against them. Instead of Henry the Proud, who now held the duchies of Saxony and Bavaria and the Matildine lands in Italy, they chose Conrad (1138-52), Lothair's unsuccessful Hohenstaufen opponent. The battle against the Welfs, which Conrad III put foremost on his political program, was abandoned with his death in 1152 when an election once again decided the succession and the political

duke of Swabia.

situation in

Some form

Germany

of election

for the next 30 years.

The

princes then

291

chose Frederick I Barbarossa (q.v.; king 1152-90), the son of Conrad's elder brother Frederick and the Welf princess Judith, who

Welf cousin Henry was dualism. In 1156 the duchy of Bavaria, which Conrad had tried to wrest from the Welfs, was restored to Henry, already undisputed duke of Saxony. The Babenberg margrave of Austria, his rival, had to be compensated with a charter which raised his margraviate into a duchy and gave him judicial suzerainty over an even wider area. Taken out of the Lion's duchy, it was to be held as an imperial fief which might descend both to sons and daughters. A perpetual principality, it served as a model for the aspirations of many other lay agreed to share power

The

(q.v.) the Lion.

Germany with

in

princes.

Colonization of the East. 12th and 13th centuries ing and colonizing the

swamps and

the Slav tribes

German

his

price of his election

is

—The

history of

Germany

one of ceaseless expansion.

movement

A

in the

conquer-

burst across the river frontiers into

from Holstein to Silesia and overwhelmed between the Elbe and the Oder. Every force in forests

the princes, the prelates, new religious townsmen and peasant settlers. Agrarian conditions in the older lands of Germanic occupation seem to have favoured large-scale emigration. With a rising population, there society took part

;

orders, knights,

was much experience

drainage and wood-clearing but a diminishExcessive subdivision of holdings impoverished tenants and did not suit the interests of their lords. Sometimes also seigniorial oppression is said to have driven peasants to desert their masters' estates. They in

ing fund of spare land to be attacked in the west.

certainly found a better return for their labour in the colonial area:

personal

freedom, secure and hereditary leasehold tenures at

moderate rents and

in

many

places quittance from services and the

The colonists brought with them a disciplined routine of husbandry, an efficient plow and orderly methods in siting and laying out their villages. Very soon even the Slav rulers of Bohemia and Silesia competed for immigrants. First and foremost, however, the Saxon and Thuringian marcher princes sought to attract settlers for the lands that they had conquered and the towns that they founded to open up communications and trade routes. The older regions of the Reich moreover had not only peasants but also men of the knightly class soldiers who needed fiefs and lordships to uphold their to spare rank. Both could be gained beyond the Elbe under the leadership of successful princes. The germanized east thus became the home of fair-sized principalities in the 13th century, while all along the Rhine valley the rights of government were scattered over smaller and less compact territories. The Ascanian dynasty for instance, which under Albert (q.v.) the Bear began to advance into Brandenburg, by 1250 not only ruled over a broad belt of land up to the Oder river but had already established itself on the eastern banks Farther south the Wettin (q.v.) ready for further advances. margraves of Meissen busied themselves with settlements and town foundations in Lusatia. jurisdiction of the seigniorial advocate.

—

For a time Henry the Lion, as duke of Saxony (1142-80), overshadowed all these rising powers, and the Welf profited as much by the ruthless use of his resources against weaker competitors as by his own efforts in Mecklenburg. As his protection was alone worth having in northeastern Germany, the newly established Baltic bishoprics were at his mercy and he alone could attract the traders of Gotland to frequent the young port town of Liibeck, which he extorted from one of his vassals in 11 58. The Reich too possessed demesnes in the east, notably the Egerland, Vogtland and the land ot Pleissen in the Thuringian march. The Hohenstaufen kings therefore took some part in opening up these regions. They too founded towns and monasteries on their thickly wooded lands and established their ministeriales as burgraves and advocates over them. But in this as in many other They did not and things they only competed with the princes.

movement as a whole. Hohenstaufen Policy in Italy. It was different with the other great field of German expansion in the 12th century, Lomcould not control the eastward

—

Italy, There the emperors and their military following alone counted, and the rural population of Germany had no direct interest in the wars waged to recover and exploit ancient

bardy and central

GERMANY

292

Lombard city communes. The connection between the German crown, the empire and dominion over Italy has indeed been regarded as a disaster for Germany and regalian rights over the growing

the ever increasing concern of the Hohenstaufen dynasty with the But although Frederick Barbasouth as its most tragic phase. rossa's policy was opportunistic he had really very little choice.

Having bought off the Welfs and reconciled other great families with yet more concessions and lastly endowed his own cousin, Conrad Ill's son Frederick, with Hohenstaufen demesnes in Swabia. he had to try to mobilize their good will for the empire while He now aimed at setting up a regime of imperial officials it lasted. and captains who were to exact dues and to control jurisdiction which the communes had usurped from the failing grasp of their bishops. The Germans in Italy did not bring valuable accomplishments to poor and savage tribesmen, but they attacked economically advanced and better developed communities to which they had nothing to offer in return for the rights and taxes they demanded. Military power was their chief asset in Lombardy and they used

it

ruthlessly.

For the Hohenstaufen ministeriales the rule of their masters in northern and central Italy was a career. They could be deployed continuously and became therefore the backbone of the imperial occupation. A handful of minor dynasts also served Barbarossa for many years in the powerful and profitable commands that he established. The German bishops and certain abbots still had to supply men and money, and some of them threw themselves wholeheartedly into the war: for instance Rainald of Dassel and Philip of Heinsberg, archbishops of Cologne from 1159 to 1167 and from 1167 to 1191 respectively, who as archchancellors for Italy had a

But the support of the lay princes was fitful Even at critical moments they could not be counted

vested interest in

it.

and sporadic. on unless they individually agreed to serve or to send their muchneeded contingents for a season. The refusal of the greatest of them, Henry the Lion, in 1176 brought about the emperor's defeat at the battle of Legnano and in ,the long run spoiled many years' efforts in Lombardy. The Fall of Henry the Lion and the Estate of Princes.

—

Forced

to retreat before the

Lombard

league in 1177, Barbarossa

whom he could justly blame for Dualism in Germany had outlived its purHitherto the enemies of Henry, the princes, bishops and pose. magnates of Saxony, had been unable to gain a hearing against him at the emperor's court days. By 1178, however, the emperor was ready to help them. Outlawed (1180), beaten in the field and deserted by his vassals, the Welf had to surrender and go into exile His duchies and fiefs, all but his houselands, were forin 1182. cooled toward his Welf cousin,

some

of his setbacks.

feited to the Reich.

His fall left a throng of middling princes face to face with an emperor whose prestige, despite reverses, stood high and whose resources had greatly increased since he began to reign. They were nonetheless the chief and ultimate gainers by the events of 1180. The final judgment by which Henry the Lion then lost his honours was not founded on folk law but on feudal custom. The princes who condemned him regarded themselves as the first feudatories of the empire, and they also decided on the redistribution of his possessions among themselves. During the 12th century the stem duchies of the Ottonian period finally disintegrated. Within their ancient boundaries not only bishops but also lay lords succeeded In their large immunities in eluding the authority of the dukes.

they themselves wielded stem-ducal powers. To enforce the imbecame both their ambition and their justificaEverywhere the greater lay dynasties and even some bishops tion. tried to acquire a ducal or an equivalent title which would enable

perial peace laws

to consolidate their scattered jurisdictions and if possible force lesser free lords to attend their pleas. These highest dynasts had interests in common, and they closed their ranks not only

them

from above but also against fellow nobles who had been less successful in amassing wealth, counties and advocacies and who did not possess the superior jurisdiction of a duke, a margrave, a count palatine or a landgrave. They and they alone were against threats

now

called princes of the empire.

their varied rights they

To

lend a certain cohesion to

were willing to surrender

their houselands

and receive them back again as a princely fief. For was theoretically an advantage that men so powerful in their own right should owe their chief dignity and most valued privileges to his grant. It opened the possibility of escheats, for in feudal custom the rules of inheritance were stricter than in stem law. But in Germany the political misfortunes of rulers brought it about that, by and large, ancient caste feeling and notions of inalienable right conquered the principles of feudal law. By 1216 it was established that the emperor could not abolish principalities, nor could he create princes at random. The "heirs" of Henry the Lion had to fight a ceaseless battle to In Bavaria the Wittelsbachs establish and maintain themselves. iq.v. had received the vacant duchy but they were not recognized as superiors by the dukes of Styria or by the dukes of AndechsMeran. In Saxony the archbishop of Cologne was enfeoffed with Henry the Lion's ducal office and all his rights in Westphalia, while an Ascanian prince, Bernard of Anhalt, received the eastern half of his duchy. Neither he nor the archbishop, however, could make much out of their dukedoms, except in those regions where they already had lands and local jurisdictions. All over the Reich these and regalian rights, such as mints, fairs, tolls and the right of granting safe-conducts, were the substance of princely power, and to possess them as widely as possible became the first goal of the abler bishops and lay lords. The Hohenstaufen Conflict With the Papacy, 1159-1215.—

to the Reich

the emperor

it

)

to establish a direct imperial regime in Italy antagonized the papacy once again and led to a new struggle with Rome, the ally of the Lombard communes. Political and territorial rather

The attempt

than ecclesiastical interests were at stake in this quarrel; but the popes could only fight it as heads of the universal church defending

and had to employ their propaganda and intrigue. Nonetheless the German bishops stood by Barbarossa and for the most part followed him in maintaining a prolonged schism against Pope Alexander III. Unsuccessful in Lombardy, the centre of Hohenstaufen ambitions after 1177 shifted to Tuscany, Spoleto and the Romagna. This redoubled the fears and the resentment of the popes, particularly when Frederick's son and chosen successor, Henry VI king 1 1 90-97 became after 1 1 89 the legitimate claimant to the Sicilian kingdom through his wife Constance, the sole

its

liberty against a race of persecutors

characteristic weapons, excommunication,

(

)

,

1

With their backs to the wall the surviving legitimate heiress. popes had to make what use they could out of any opposition to the Hohenstaufen.

Their chance came in 1197 when Henry VI

t

'

died prematurely, leaving a three-year-old son, Frederick, to sueceed him. To escape the chaos of a minority regime, the bulk of the German princes and bishops in 1 198 elected the boy's uncle, Philip of Swabia (d. 1208); but an opposition faction in the lower

Rhenish region, led by the archbishop of Cologne and financed by Richard I of England, raised an antiking in Otto IV {q.v.), younger son of Henry the Lion. Pope Innocent III had to enlarge on his rights over imperial coronations and become a partisan in the German electoral feud if he wished to defend his recuperations in Territorial interests in the Italy against Hohenstaufen claims. Romagna tempted the papacy to exploit the weaknesses of the empire's constitution, the uncertainties of electoral custom and the lack of strict legal norms in Germany. During the war for the crown much hard-won demesne and useful rights over the church had to be sacrificed by the rivals to bribe their supporters. Frederick II and the Princes. Frederick II iq.v.) entered Germany to regain his own against Otto IV in 1212 and secured the crown in 1215. Despite promises to divide his inheritance, he kept the kingdom of Sicily and the empire together and thus he also

^

.

1

;

—

shouldered the inevitable life-and-death struggle with the papacy. The Hohenstaufen demesne in Swabia, Franconia and Alsace and on the middle Rhine was still very considerable, and Frederick even recovered certain fiefs and advocacies which had been lost during the recent civil wars. Their administration was improved, and they provided valuable forces for his Italian wars. The great peace

moreover showed that the emperor had not bemere competitor in the race for territorial gain. But except for brief intervals the princes and bishops were left free to fight for the future of their lands against one another and against

,

|

;

I

j

|

j

legislation of 1235

come

i

a

\

|

GERMANY who

the intractable lesser dynasts

refused to accept their domina-

The

charters that Frederick had to grant to the ecclesiastical princes (Privilegium in favorem principum ecclesiasticorum, 1220) tion.

and later to all territorial lords iConstitutio or Statutum in favorem principum, 1232) gave them written guarantees against the activities of royal demesne officials and limited the development of imperial towns at the expense of episcopal territories. But they were not always observed, and until 1250 the crown remained formidable in southern Germany, despite the antikings Henry Raspe and William of Holland whom the papacy caused to be elected by the Rhenish archbishops in Germany in 246 and 1247. ]

The Reich After the Hohenstaufen Catastrophe. erick

n died in

cent IV.

1250, in the midst of his struggle against

His son Conrad IV

(d.

1254)

left

— Fred-

Pope Inno-

the north in 1251 to

for his father's Italian possessions.

William of Holland, antiking from 1247 to 1256, was thus without a rival in an indifferent Germany which had lost interest in its rulers. But the princes were not ready to become the sole residuary legatees of imperial authority. The bishops' cities and the towns, many of them founded on royal demesne, could not be absorbed. Their economic power challenged the age-old aristocratic order in German society. Deprived of royal protection they banded together to defend their autonomy. Within the nobility moreover each rank fight

tended to acquire some of the personal rights of its betters. The princes could not mediatize the free lords and counts or turn their vassalage into effective subordination. The Hohenstaufen breakdown after 1250 left a gap in Swabia which no rising territorial

power was able

to fill. Countless petty lords and imperial minissouthwest succeeded in holding their seigniories as immediate vassals of the Reich. Their independent territories often survived for centuries. The ministeriales elsewhere too ceased to be the dependable servants that they once had been. Many free nobles voluntarily joined their ranks, and the knights teriales of the

thus assimilated the rights of the free aristocracy.

They became

the governing class of the territorial principalities, the standing

councilors of their masters

whose household

offices

and

local justice

they monopolized and held in fee for many generations. Without the consent of this territorial nobility the princes could neither tax nor legislate. Even the less important ministeriales who only ,

administered manors for their lords, entrenched themselves as hereditary bailiffs who kept surplus produce for themselves and usurped seigniorial dues, so that it paid the owners to commute the labour services of their villeins into money rents and to lease out those portions of the demesne which the unfree peasants had cultivated for them. Even then, however, the hereditary officials could not be easily dislodged. Lastly the ambitions of the princes themselves did not aim above the patrimonial policies of the past. They were acquisitive, and attempted to build up their territories by inheritance, marriage treaties and escheats. They where possible to administer their lands with officials whom they could depose at will. Yet they did this not to found sovereign states but chiefly to provide for their families. Again and again they divided their dominions among sons who in turn founded cadet lines and set them up on a fraction of the principality. By 1250 there was thus no really effective central authority left [in Germany. The prince-bishoprics had become fiercely contested prizes between neighbouring dynasties, often vassals of the Holy iSee. But constant feuds, disorder and insecurity did not by any

usurpation,

also tried

means

frustrate the

immense

energies of the

Germans

in the 13th

Eastward expansion continued under the leadership of the princes and, above all, of the knights of the Teutonic Order. Their advance into Prussia went hand in hand with the opening up of the Baltic by the merchants of Liabeck. It is possible that three ^centuries of complete security from foreign invasion made it un-

[century.

necessary for the

German

aristocracy to learn the virtues of polit-

and subordination; but it would be a great mistake if Hohenstaufen Germany were to be judged solely by its failure to achieve political and administrative unity. (K. J. L.) ical

self-discipline

E. The Rise of the Habsburgs, 1254-1493 The Great Interregnum.— The period from the

Conrad IV to the election of Rudolf of Habsburg

death of

in 12 73

is

gen-

293

erally called the Great Interregnum.

It

was used by the princes

to increase their authority, although Richard, earl of Cornwall,

who was crowned

in 1257, enjoyed some authority in the Rhineland, thanks to his wealth, until his death in 1272. The inter-

regnum established the

electors, who from now on possessed vested maintenance of the royal title. time the territories of a prince were rarely divided

interest in the

Until this

among fiefs

his descendants, the reason being that, although the private

of the nobles were

hereditary, their offices

—

margraviate, theory at the disposal of the king. There was now a tendency to set this principle aside. Otto II, duke of Bavaria, a member of the Wittelsbach family, had in 1214 become by marriage ruler of the Rhenish Palatinate. For two years after his death (1253) his extensive inheritance was ruled in common by his two sons; but in 1255 a formal division took place and the territory of the Wittelsbachs was divided into the duchies of Upper Bavaria and Lower Bavaria (in the next generation the Palatinate was in turn detached from the Upper Bavarian branch of the family). About the same time Saxony {i.e., the small eastern portion of Henry the Lion's powerful duchy, which the Ascanian princes had acquired) was divided into two duchies, those

countship and the like

— were

in

of Wittenberg and Lauenburg.

—

The First Habsburg Kings and Adolf The end of the interregnum was brought about by the pope, who realized the necessity for some power which could protect the church in Germany. In Oct. 1273, at the instigation of Pope Gregory X, the electors raised to the throne a Swabian noble, Rudolf, count of Habsburg. The situation on the eastern border was critical, because of the aggressive policy of Otakar II, king of Bohemia. The victory won by Rudolf I over Otakar at Diirnkrut (Aug. 26, 1278) saved eastern Germany from disintegration. By the annexation of all Otakar's possessions except Bohemia, Rudolf suddenly became one of the chief territorial princes in the empire.

His policy of teraggrandizement was justified by the condition of the Gerkingdom, the ruler of which had little strength save that which

ritorial

man

he derived from his hereditary lands. Four years after the fall of Otakar, Rudolf obtained from the princes a reluctant assent to the granting of Austria, Styria and Carniola to his own sons, Rudolf and Albert. In 1285 Carinthia was given to Meinhard, count of Tirol, on condition that when his male line became extinct it should pass to the Habsburgs. [See Austria, Empire of.) After Rudolf's death (July 1291) the electors, fearing the new power which he had founded, passed over his son Albert and elected Adolf, count' of Nassau (May 5, 1292). Like his predecessor, Adolf wished to secure an extensive territory for his family. Meissen, which he claimed as a vacant fief of the empire, and Thuringia, which he bought from the landgrave Albert II, seemed to offer a favourable field for this undertaking, and he spent a large part of his short reign in a futile attempt to carry out his plan. Naturally he sought to isolate Albert of Habsburg, who was treating with Philip IV of France, and this led to an alliance with Edward I of England. But many of the princes were disgusted with him, and at Mainz in June 1298 Adolf was declared deposed. He resisted the sentence, but Albert of Habsburg, who had been chosen his successor, marched against him, and on July 2, 1298, at GoUheim near Worms, Adolf was defeated and killed. Albert was crowned at Aachen on Aug. 24, 1298. As his father had done, the new king Albert I made it the principal object of his reign to increase the power of his house, but he failed in his attempt to add Bohemia and Thuringia to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, and he was equally unsuccessful in his endeavour to seize the counties of Holland and Zeeland as vacant fiefs of the empire. He recovered some of the lost crown lands, however, and sought to abolish unauthorized tolls on the Rhine; he encouraged the towns and took measures to repress private war he befriended the serfs and protected the persecuted Jews. His greatest danger came from a league which was formed against him in 1300 by the four Rhenish electors, who disliked his pro-French policy and resented his action with regard to the tolls. Albert, however, supported by the towns, was victorious; and the electors soon made ;

their peace.

The Luxembourg Dynasty and the Wittelsbachs

After

GERMANY

294

King Albert's murder in May 1308, Henry, count of Luxembourg, a brother of Baldwin, archbishop of Trier (1307-54), was elected king as Henry VII in November. Since 1273 the material condi-

Germany had improved because the Habsburg kings had confined their activities to north of the Alps; but in 1308 as in 1291 the electors preferred a weak ruler. Henry was an ideologue who felt himself obliged to restore imperial rule in Italy; but he did not lack shrewdness, as witness his seizure of Bohemia for his son John in 1310. At the end of 1310 he crossed the Mont Cenis into Italy but died there (Aug. 1313) when, superficially, success seemed within his grasp. Dante {cf. especially Paradiso, xxx, tions of

137-139, 142-144) conferred on him a reputation in excess of his ability.

After a year's delay there was a double election to the empire

Learned and systematic, he was responsible for the foundation of Prague university, an international but also a German seat of learning. By his reform of the imperial chancery he created a court and a centre of scholastic jurisprudence, which for the next 150 years was to exert an influence over Germany out of proportion to the power of the crown. Such was the ascendancy of Charles IV that his son Wenceslas succeeded him peacefully in 1378, although for 200 years no son had followed his father on the throne unchallenged. For several years Wenceslas proved a successful king of Bohemia; but by 1385 anarchy aggravated by the schism in the church {see Papacy) prevailed in Germany. The Swabian league allied itself with the Swiss cantons; and, though only the Swiss were victorious in the field, it became impossible to prevent the towns from receiving

means of extending municipal

when one group of electors chose Louis of Wittelsbach, duke of Upper Bavaria, and another chose Frederick, duke of Austria, the

external burghers, Pfahlbiirger, as a

After a war of eight years, Frederick was defeated I. Muhldorf on Sept. 28, 1322. The success of Louis IV was to some extent due to the imperial cities which supported him from the first but he was perhaps still more indebted for his victory to the outbreak of war between the Swiss and the Habsburgs; the position of the Habsburg family had been somewhat weakened by the defeat of Frederick's brother Leopold I of Habsburg, duke of Northern Germany, Austria, at Morgarten on Nov. IS, 131S. where emperors were usually ignored, had been unconcerned in the struggle, which was an episode in the feud between the powers of Wittelsbach and Habsburg that lasted to the 17th century. UntU the battle of Miihldorf, Pope John XXII was ostensibly neutral, but the appointment by Louis of an imperial vicar in Lombardy in 1323 caused the pope to arraign and later to excommunicate Louis.

neighbouring lords. their fiefs of the empire; except in parts of southern Germany where their confederation, the Shield of St. George, successfuDy bargained with princes and towns, these knights became a distressed class prone to lawlessness. InteUectual development suffered little, and the foundation of universities was even promoted by the schism, v/hich cut off Germany from France; e.g., Vienna (1384, second foundation), Heidelberg (1385), Cologne (1388), Erfurt (1392, second foundation) and, after the expulsion of Germans from Prague by the Czech Hussites, Leipzig (1409). In Aug. 1400 the Rhenish electors set up the able Rupert of Wit-

son of Albert at

;

Louis insisted that the vote of the electors sufficed to make a German king and that the approval of the papacy was not essential. Thus he retained the support of most electors until 1346. In a diet at Frankfurt (1338) the papacy was declared excluded from any share in the choice of an emperor. The higher clergy and princes were alarmed at papal aggression; but there was no Foreign scholars, William national opposition to the pope.

Ockham, Marsilius of Padua, Jean de Jandun and the Spiritual Franciscans were more valuable to Louis than his own countrymen.

He added

Brandenburg, Tirol, Holland and Hainault to

the lands of his family, which however soon proved incapable of keeping them. The death of Louis (Oct. 1347) forestalled civil war with Charles of Luxembourg, margrave of Moravia and king

of Bohemia, a papal candidate accepted

by four

electors in July

1346.

has an important place in the history of Bowas crowned in 1349 amid the visitation of the Black Death, which in Germany led to attacks on the Jews exIn the Golden ceeding in violence similar attacks elsewhere. Bull {q.v.) of 1356, Charles, who had been crowned emperor in April 1355, gave the German kingdom a firmly defined electoral For several generations the college and a law of succession. princes had regarded themselves as a caste rather than as territorial rulers, and their lands were subdivided to support all the Charles IV,

hemia

who

iq.v.),

sons of a family. By asserting the indivisibility of electoral lands Charles encouraged reconsolidation. The cities, despite the prohibition of the Golden Bull, formed new associations for mutual The defense or strengthened those which already existed. Hanseatic league (q.v.) carried on a successful war with Valdemar VI of Denmark, while it extended its commerce. In 1376 some Swabian towns formed a league which in spite of the imperial prohibition soon

became powerful

in

southwestern

Germany and

de-

by his son Swabian League). Mean-

feated the forces of Eberhard II of Wiirttemberg. led Ulrich, at Reutlingen in

May

1377 {see

while the emperor who, unlike his predecessor, avoided conflict with either the papacy or the princes was steadily increasing the power of his house chiefly at the expense of the Wittelsbachs and Habsburgs. When he died in Nov. 1378, he wore the crowns of the

empire, of Germany, of Bohemia, of Lombardy and of Burgundy (Aries); he had added lower Lusatia and parts of Silesia to Bohemia; he had secured the mark of Brandenburg for his son Wenceslas in 1373 and he had bought part of the Upper Palatinate. ;

and of undermining the jurisdiction of The chief sufferers were the knights holding

interests in the countryside

But Rupert had no patrimony to sustain his dignity and, intervening in Italy (1401), was defeated by the Visconti and their mercenaries; he died in May 1410 having failed to establish himself. Sigismund, a brother of Wenceslas, was elected king in Sept. 1410. He gained standing for himself and for the empire by his part in the Council of Constance (1414-17) but he proved unable to defend Germany against the Hussites or to recover Bohemia. He was mainly preoccupied in Hungary. Bohemia recognized him telsbach, the elector palatine, as a rival king.

large

;

From 1434 to Dec. 1437 he concerned himself with imperial reform; and his proposals for the division of the country into circumscriptions and for the regulation of currency and justice set the program for many schemes untU Maximilian's time. The Habsburgs Established. In March 1438 the electors chose .\lbert V of Habsburg to be king as Albert II, in the hope that after negotiation with the Council of Basel in 1435. his death in

—

he would defend the eastern frontier. He was universally respected but died after a single campaign against the Turks in Oct. Then Frederick V of Habsburg, duke of Styria and the 1439. senior prince of his house, was elected king as Frederick III in Feb. 1440.

His reign was a

series of crises for

From 1438

Germany and

particu-

1448 the electors preserved neutraUty in the rivalry between the papacy and the Council of Basel. Habsburg territories were jeopardized by the counts of Cilli until Ulrich of Cilli was murdered in 1457; and then by Peasant Frederick's brother Albert VI of Habsburg until 1463. revolts in the southeast and feuds among the lesser nobility were larly for the

Habsburg

lands.

to

acute examples of social troubles besetting all Europe at this time. Frederick's greatest success was the securing for his family of the succession to the Burgundian Netherlands in 1477. He died in

Aug. 1493. The Estates in the 15th Century. In defense of order Germany was compelled to rely on local organs of government. One of these, the Vehmgericht, Feme or Fehmic court, which spread from Westphalia, had a brief period of general usefulness before Elsewhere the its venality led to its repression (after 1450). estates in a particular area, assembled in a Landtag, would by means of a Landjriede restrain private wars when they became intolerable. Disintegration had reached its extreme, and although the unity of the Reich was farther than ever from realization, the 15th century witnessed a slow consolidation of the territories ruled by princely dynasties. The estates, normally composed of nobility, towns and clerg>', played their part in effecting unity on a local At the same time as I scale and preventing it on a national scale.

—

the Hohenzollern margrave and elector Albert Achilles

was enact-

GERMANY ing the Dispositio Achillea (1473) to introduce primogeniture into Brandenburg, the estates of Wiirttemberg were participating in

the reunion of territories formerly partitioned among members of the reigning house. As feudal revenues declined, the princes were

driven to depend on grants from the estates of their territories, and those of Saxony gained an exclusive right to impose taxaThe local estates throughout Germany wrecked the national tion. taxation on which hung all plans for the reform of the Reich; and those of Bavaria, Saxony and Austria removed foreigners {e.g., Styrians in Austria) from the administration. The economy and civilization of Germany were sustained by the towns, and the stand

much to save the indebut the majority of other towns were

of Nijrnberg against Albert Achilles did

pendence of imperial

cities;

submitting to the government of princes.

Society in the 15th Century. Meanwhile technical discoveries and improvements were transforming society. These included not only printing and the glazing of stoneware but also advances in metallurgy and mining, as well as the instrument manufacture of Niirnberg without which the Portuguese voyages of discovery could hardly have been made. A wave of piety swept Germany in the 1 5th century but ecclesiastical conditions were uneven and mainly unsatisfactory. A large number of monasteries were reformed. In the north the Augustinian congregation of Windesheim was the chief agency, in the south the Benedictines of Melk. Notwithstanding the efforts of the cardinals John Carvajal and Nicholas of Cusa (legate 14S1-S2) the reform of the church, such as it was, owed most to the participation of the princes. (C. A. J. A.; A. Lh.) F.

Maximilian mihan cised

I,

I

The Reformation,

and the Beginning

emperor from 1493

German imagination

lands and Austria which formed the basis for the world-wide empire of Charles V. Likewise the marriage of his grandson Ferdinand in 1516 to the Jagiello princess Anna created a claim on the succession not only to Hungary (where the rule of the Jagiello dynasty was weakened militarily and financially by the wars with the Turks and by the opposition of the Magyar nobles) but also to Bohemia, since her father was king of both. In return, however, Maximilian had to agree that the Order of the Teutonic Knights should do homage for Prussia to Anna's uncle Sigismund I of Poland, which they had refused to do since 1466. His arbitration between Bavaria-Munich and the Palatinate for the disputed succession to Bavaria-Landshut was paid for by his acquisition of the towns of Kitzbiihel, Rattenberg and Kufstein and the baihwicks of Hagenau and Ortenau 1504). The territory around Lienz, which escheated to him after the death of the last count of Gorz, linked Tirol and Austrian Swabia in the west with Austria proper in the (

—

German

east.

MaximiUan's reign saw the beginning of the Reformation.

to 1S55

Lutheranism

—

ing councils of the 15th century.

long ago

made concordats with

The western European states had Holy See permitting them to

the

draw on the rich property of the church for government expenditures and forming in fact state churches largely independent of Rome. Similar moves on behalf of the Reich were unsuccessful as long as its rulers did not give up their pretension to the secular universal empire and therefore could not afford to renounce the power of the universal church. The only gainers were the territorial princes and the towns they used the emergency powers of :

secular authorities to reform the church in their territories,

demands. still allowed the papacy's complicated financial Hence, from 1456, the imperial and territorial diets repeatedly formulated the "grievances (gravamina) of the German nation." They complained bitterly that the church was but an enormous financial institution which, down to its least branches, administered the means of grace essential to salvation only with an eye to material profit. Complaints were also made against the privileged In its higher ranks social and economic position of the clergy. the church had become a welfare organization for the younger sons and daughters of the nobility. In some districts one-third of the The radical sermons of the mensoil was ecclesiastical property. dicant friars glorified the ideal of a poor church, but the lower clergy, an ecclesiastical proletariat, could only live if its members accumulated benefices from among the mass of pious foundations without fully executing the duties associated with them. Many prebendaries, monks and nuns lived the pleasant life of drones, enjoyed special legal status, were free of all civic burdens and, when they competed in economic life, possessed an unfair advanThis criticism found new food as the lives of high and low tage. The harm ecclesiastics became more secular and less edifying. done was deeply felt, for life was still permeated by religious concepts quiet devotion and the sanctity of labour as well as the need for pomp and circumstance, the belief in witches and miracles as

but

Maxi-

to 1519, the "last knight," has exer-

as few other emperors have done.

Crit-

icism of the church had continued unabated since the great reform-

all

of

295

Dig-

and showy, famous as a leader of the mercenary Landsknechte, as a hunter and as a patron of the arts, he hatched the most fantastic plans to escape his unceasing financial embarrassment. In spite of all his failures, luck and chance continued His favourite project was to lead a to deal him winning cards. European army against the Turks, but this could not be realized. Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in 1494; and this endangered not only the imperial fief of Milan but also the communications with Rome which the emperor valued as he considered himself the protector of Christendom. Maximilian was not able to maintain his rights, despite the long series of wars and the continually chang-

nified, affable

ing alliances with the Italian states, the papacy, the Swiss, Spain,

England or France against whoever held Milan at the time. The German princes refused to follow Maximilian as they feared that he would use them only to strengthen Habsburg interests. It is true that the estates in the diet of Worms, guided by the archbishop of Mainz, Berthold (q.v.) von Henneberg, in 1495 granted a uniform and general tax, the "common penny," for the establishment of an imperial army and agreed to the erection of a supreme court to supervise the execution of the "permanent public peace" forbidding private feuds; but in return Maximilian had to agree to the setting up of a council of regency which was to supervise the emperor. However, the estates were neither organized nor resolute enough to impose their will for long on the emperor, while the empire, without an imperial civil service, was too weak to secure its own revenue by taxation. The war with the Swiss league, which refused to tolerate Habsburg territorial possessions on its soil, virtually severed the connection between Switzerland and the empire in 1499, though Swiss independence was not formally recognized till the peace of Westphalia in 1648. In order to strengthen the material basis of his power Maximilian was forced to expand the hereditary Habsburg territories. He never forgot this necessity, not even when he had to mortgage important sources of income such as the Tirolese silver mines to his creditors, mainly the banking house of Fugger (q.v.). The marriages (1496 and 1497) of his son Philip the Fair to Joan the Mad and of his daughter Margaret to Joan's brother John, heir to the Spanish crowns (who however died within a few months of his marriage;, brought about that linking of Spain, the Nether-

:

well as apocalyptic imaginings.

pubhc criticism of the church and thus compelled a complete reconstruction of the church. The young monk and theologian had, after many solitary struggles, learned from his study of the Bible that men are justified not by the accumulation of pious works but by trusting in the mercy of God. His opposition to the traditional customs of the church became public because of the abuses connected with the sale of indulgences. Albert of Brandenburg (1490-1545), son of the elector John Cicero, was a pluralist, holding the archbishopric of Magdeburg and Mainz and the administration of the bishopric of Halberstadt; and this breach of canon law had to be paid for by increased dues to Rome. In order to reimburse the Fuggers and to obtain some additional income, he permitted a clever salesman, the Dominican Johann Tetzel, to the indulgence sell indulgences in his dioceses by every dirty trick in question had been promulgated by JuUus II in 1506 on the occasion of the papal jubilee and had been renewed by Leo X to obtain Martin Luther

(q.v.) gave to this

a voice that could not be quieted

;

funds for the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Luther, a professor of theology and having cure of souls in Wittenberg, affixed 95 theses

GERMANY

296

door of the palace church on Oct. 31, 1S17. This was the of inviting an academic discussion concerning a doctrine which was not yet a dogma of the church and which, according to Luther, endangered the sacrament of penance. Within a few weeks the theses were printed and distributed all over Germany by businesslike publishers; against Luther's wish they were interpreted as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. The papacy opened proceedings against him, but he was protected by his territorial prince, the elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, a key figure in the contemporary struggle for the imperial crown. The Election of Charles V Maximilian's succession was contested by his grandson Charles I of Spain, by Francis I of France and for a short period by Henry VIII of England. Charles had been in Spain since 1517; after the death of his father Philip the Fair (1506) he united Burgundy with the kingdom of Castile and its newly discovered lands in America; after the death of his maternal grandfather Ferdinand II of Aragon (1516) he joined Aragon, Naples and Sicily to his realms; and after the death of Maximilian (1519) he and his brother Ferdinand I {g.v.} shared the Austrian hereditary lands together with claims on Bohemia and Hungary. Francis I of France, threatened by this extension of to the

usual

way

—

Habsburg power into the area of the Meuse and Scheldt and across the Pyrenees, did not intend to give up France's claim to lead Europe. Pope Leo X, as the temporal ruler of the papal states, wished neither for a renewal by the Habsburgs of the Hohenstaufen combination of the empire and Naples nor for the foundation by Francis I, who held Milan, of a French imperial Hne. He therefore advocated the candidature of Frederick the Wise, who was, however, too clearly aware of his own limitations and those of his power to agree to this. Both the French and the Habsburgs offered

enormous bribes to the electors, but the contest was decided unanimously in favour of Charles, who became emperor as Charles V. German pubhc opinion was also in his favour. The princes insisted on a series of solemn promises on the emperor's part, contained in a "capitulation," both in order not to be drawn into the imminent war between him and France and in order to Hmit his rights by means of an oligarchic constitution for the Reich. If he broke the capitulation, the estates were to have the right to oppose him by force. For the remainder of his Hfe Charles tried to fuse the dynastic and the imperial ideals; but he was pushing both ideas beyond their hmit in the very period which saw the rise of the national states in western Europe.

—

The Diet and Edict of Worms (1521) In the meantime the Lutheran affair assumed the proportions of a national movement. The Leipzig disputation with Johann Eck (1519) and his study of ecclesiastical history confirmed Luther in his opinion that the Church of Christ according to Holy Writ was not a visible external organization but a small group of people separated from the mass of nominal Christians by their belief in the divine revelation witnessed by the Bible. Luther felt called to a reform of the existing church, not to its complete reconstruction. The humanists, fighting against the schoolmen and the friars, believed him to be their partisan. Erasmus counseled moderation but Ulrich von Hutten (g.v.) hoped to win both Luther and the young emperor over to his fight against Rome after the Swabian league had driven the quarrelsome Duke Ulrich from Wiirttemberg and transferred the administration of Wiirttemberg to Austria. Pubhc opinion felt certain that the long-awaited reform of church and state would at last be realized. Luther, the most popular professor at Wittenberg university, where he allied himself with Philipp Melanchthon in an attempt to reform the curriculum, symbolized his formal separation from the church by burning a copy of the papal bull excommunicating him. He used the printing press for an extensive literary agitation; his three great reforming pamphlets, published in 1520, were widely distributed; To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation; On, the Freedom of a Christian Man; and On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church. Charles came from Spain to be crowned at Aachen in Oct. 1520 and to open his first diet at Worms in 1521. He left Spain in a state of revolt. The regency, led by Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht (the future pope Adrian VI), managed only slowly to gain the upper hand. Charles's aim, instilled by his chancellor Mercurino

Gattinara, was to renew the universal empire on the basis of the Habsburg power. At the diet the estates obtained the agreement of the self-confident emperor to the estabhshment of a Reichsregiment or council of regency, which however was to funcuniversal

tion only during his absence from the Reich, was to be led by an imperial viceroy and was to be barred from dealing with foreign affairs. Since the capitulation that had secured Charles's election had stipulated that no subject of the empire could be declared an

—

outlaw a procedure which normally followed papal excommunication—without pubhc trial, Luther's case had to be heard. When Luther steadfastly refused to recant, the Edict of Worms was promulgated outlawing him and forbidding the reading and sale of

On his way home to Wittenberg he was secretly taken Wartburg castle on the elector Frederick's order. There, from the quarrels of the day, he translated the New Testament

his books.

to the

far

into

German

in ten weeks.

Immediately after the

diet of Worms, Charles made alliances with Pope Leo X, then with Henry VIII of England. He reconquered Milan and Genoa and defeated and captured Francis at Pavia in 1525. The peace of Madrid, which the imprisoned king signed to secure his release, did not last long, since the new pope, the vacillating Clement VII, formed the League of Cognac with Milan, Venice and France in order to obtain small territorial gains. The sack of Rome by German and Spanish mercenaries in 1527 forced the pope and France to make peace (treaties of Barcelona and Cambrai, 1529). Charles received the

against France,

first

imperial crown at the pope's hand in Bologna before he left again for Germany, the last elected king to be so crowned.

Lutheran Church Organization and the Peasants' ReGermany had seen far-reaching changes while Charles was

volt.

—

absent.

Luther's doctrines of the priesthood of all believers and of the Bible as the sole norm of hfe had shaken the bases of society as it had formerly been constituted on Cathohc principles. Wherever the authorities did not interfere. Evangelical congregations were formed, independent in doctrine and discipline. This demonstrated at once how dangerous it was to have no agreed authority

for the interpretation of the Bible. For while Luther stayed in the Wartburg, his Wittenberg congregation hstened to the "prophets of Zwickau" led by Nikolaus Storch, who taught, as did Thomas

Miintzer in Thuringia, that the true authority was not the Bible but the inner light given by God to those who were his. Luther restored order in eight days by his sermons. Other men, appealing to Luther's writings as their authority, used the general insecurity to further their

own

egotistic ends.

The

rich

Franz von Sick-

ingen (q.v.), a friend of Hutten and, hke all knights, hemmed in between the rising cities and the territorial princes, hoped that the impending changes would bring him a principahty between the

Nahe river and Alsace. He made war against the archbishop of Trier but was himself besieged and killed in his castle of Ebernburg. The Swabian league razed the castles of the knights allied with him throughout Franconia and the Odenwald (1523). The greatest upheaval was caused by the peasants' revolt, which began in 1524 in the southern area of the Black Forest and spread in 1525 through southern Germany (except Bavaria), Hesse, Thu-

Saxony and Tirol. Citing Luther's plea for the "Uberty of Christian men," the peasants demanded the restoration of their ringia,

customary rights and destroyed abbeys and manor houses. Luther, however, attacked them in passionately worded pamphlets. The individual peasant bands, badly led, were easily defeated with enormous loss of life by the armies of the territorial princes. When the Reformation began Luther had avoided any formulation of his doctrines (except for the Loci commtines published

by Melanchthon in 1521), trusting in the power of "the Word' alone": he had abolished the Mass but had not created a new order of service or united the congregations in a central body. The experience of the peasants' revolt proved that the Reformation could not advance by itself outside tiie cities. Ecclesiastical visitations of rural parishes showed that the common man was rude and hostile to all religiosity while the clergy

of church property.

now

established

its

were ignorant, negligent wasters

With Luther's encouragement each

own

state church; they

to the character of the prince

all

territory

differed according

concerned and according to the

'

GERMANY Unsuitable priests were dischanging political circumstances. missed; inventories of ecclesiastical property were drawn up; consistories supervised the clergy with the prince as summus episcopus ("supreme bishop") and judge of appeal; the monasteries were made to bear the cost of schools and churches and provision was made for education, for church disciphne and for a uniform development of dogma. Nobody was to be forced to believe, but all were to be taught and exhorted ahke liberty of conscience meant free access to the Scriptures, compulsion of the conscience meant ;

:

burdening it with papal laws. As none of the rulers wanted to give up uniformity of pubhc service or of dogma, their subjects who differed from them on grounds of conscience had to emigrate. The Diets of Speyer (1526, 1529) and Augsburg (1530).— During the long absence of the emperor the estates tried to find a political solution of the religious differences, but Charles refused Some of the Roman Catholic to call a German national council. territories, united in the Regensburg convention (1524) and in the Dessau league, promised one another mutual succour in the execution of the Edict of Worms, but this provoked the formation At the diet of Speyer of of the Torgau league of Evangelicals. 1526 Luther's followers were willing to uphold the union with Rome if they were permitted to treat institutions and ceremonies based on the Bible as essential but to regard those that were manmade as not essential and only to be tolerated until the calling Charles objected again, for he wished all of a general council. ecclesiastical changes only to be settled by a council called by both emperor and pope. As these two powers were actually in a state of war, the estates bound themselves to follow only their

PhiUp of Hesse and the elector of Saxony John the Steadfast formed the League of Schmalkalden, consisting of the north German Protestant princes, Strasbourg and a number of south German cities (1531). It proved impossible to form a counterleague, as the political interests of the Roman Cathohc princes concerned were too divergent. Ferdinand, Charles V's brother, had been made his successor in the Austrian hereditary lands in 1522 and had become king of part of Hungary in 1526 after the death of his brother-in-law King Louis II in the battle of Mohacs against the Turks (who advanced as far as Vienna in 1529) and in 1526 also a quarrel about the succession to Louis II's other kingdom, Bohemia, had ended with Ferdinand's victory over his rivals, the Bavarian dukes. In 1531 Charles saw to it that Ferdinand was elected king of the Romans, despite strong Roman Cathohc and Lutheran opposition this made him Charles's heir presumptive in In the same year the south German cities the imperial dignity. lost their Swiss backing when Zwingli was killed in the battle of Kappel against the Roman Catholic cantons (Heinrich Bullinger, however, continued Zwingh's work). When the Turks invaded Hungary again in 1532 Ferdinand was forced to buy the indispensable Protestant support by the religious peace of Niirnberg: a truce was called in doctrinal matters until the meeting of a council (now very far distant or the next Reichstag. Philip of Hesse succeeded, with the help of French subsidies, in restoring Duke Ulrich to Wiirttemberg, where he immediately introduced the Reformation (1534). Such successes gained new members for the Schmalkaldic league. The Reformation, in the form of strictly regulated ;

;

)

state churches, spread along both shores of the Baltic, into Silesia

conscience until the next council.

and to the lower Rhine.

Besides the state churches based on Lutheran doctrines there arose another type of Reformed organization, the Zwinglian, in which the civil community was itself identified as the legal embodiment of the church and in which the citizen was equated with

Charles, full of the dream of a universal empire, held it his He was victorious highest duty to fight infidels and heretics. against the Barbary corsairs of north Africa, but this led to a

and strictly supervised by the Ehegericht (marriage court). Huldreich Zwingh (q.v.) had abolished the Mass and removed the sacred images in the Swiss city of Ziirich. Ziirich thus had to face the hostility of neighbours who had remained Roman Cathohc and, for economic reasons, were not prepared to follow Zurich's example in canceling their treaty for the provision of the Christian

Swiss mercenaries to France. In Switzerland also there arose the Anabaptist movement, which substituted adult baptism for pedobaptism. Small Anabaptist congregations rapidly spread throughout southern Germany, Thuringia, Hesse, Silesia and Moravia, into the Alpine valleys and down the Rhine into the Netherlands everywhere they were cruelly persecuted by both Roman Catholic and Reformed authorities. The extent of the feeling of insecurity can be gauged by the measures taken by the landgrave Philip (9.11.) of ;

Hesse in 1528 to forestall an apparently imminent Roman Cathohc attack. He had been tricked by the Saxon secretary Otto von Pack, but a general war of religion was avoided only with difficulty. The diet of Speyer of 1529 failed to produce any recess to which all the estates could agree the Roman Cathohc majority resolved ;

to leave the solution of the religious quarrel to a future council,

keep the Edict of Worms; but the "protesting" minority appealed to the emperor and to the council and in the meantime did not wish to do anything against PhiUp of Hesse invited Luther and Zwingli to their conscience. Marburg in the hope of reconciling their chfferences about the Eucharist so as to make possible a pohtical alliance with the Swiss, but the attempt failed. Lutherans and Zwinglians presented to the emperor different formularies of faith at the diet of Augsburg (1530) the Confessio Aiigustatia drawn up by Melancttthon and to oppose Zwingli's doctrines

and

to

:

1

297

the Confessio Tetrapolitana of the south

German

cities.

Though

they did not lead to any compromise, since the Evangelicals remained firm on all questions of conscience. Yet the calling of a council could not be expected from the contemporary papacy, which had grown up in opposition to the conciliar movement of the 15th century and could only foresee a diminution of its power as the likely result. Thus failed the attempts to reform the church in the empire. Those who wanted to recover the lost areas for Roman Cathohcism had to use force. The League of Schmalkalden. To be prepared against force,

drawn up

in a conciliatory spirit,

—

After futile campaigns in renewal of hostiUties with France. Provence and in the Netherlands the ten-year truce of Nice was Paul, however, refused mediated by Pope Paul III (1538). Charles's demand for a council. Consequently Charles extended the religious truce to all the new adherents of the Augsburg Confession (Frankfurt agreement, 1539), for he needed the aid of the Protestants against the Turks and now moreover had to compete not only with France but also with William, duke of Cleves-JijhchReligious Berg, heir to the rich duchy of Gelre {see Gelderland) colloquies at Hagenau, Worms and Regensburg came to nothing. .

was an agreement with Philip of Hesse promising him that he would not be punished for his bigamy if he refused alliances with foreign powers and prevented the admission King Ferdinand had to of Cleves to the Schmalkaldic league. watch impotently while the Ottoman sultan Suleiman I occupied Hungary. Charles failed in his attempt to relieve the Turkish pressure by an attack on Algiers. In 1542 Francis I of France felt strong enough to make his fourth war against Charles V. The Schmalkaldic league remained inactive while Charles occupied Cleves and reintroduced Roman Catholicism but Philip of Hesse and the elector John Frederick I {q.v.) of Saxony together expelled the emperor's firmest partisan, Henry II of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, from his duchy and proceeded to evangelize it. At the same time Hermann {q.v.) of Wied, archbishop-elector of Cologne, attempted to introduce Protestantism in his diocese with the advice of Melanchthon and the Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer. The Protestant faith was openly accepted in the bishoprics of Miinster, Osnabriick, Paderborn and Minden and was professed by Maurice {q.v.), of the then ducal line of Saxony, and by Otto Henry of Palatinate Neuburg. The peace of Crepy-en-Laonnois (1544) between Charles V and Francis of France created the preconditions for a thorough overhaul of German affairs. While the Protestants were fooled by renewed religious talks at Regensburg, Charles got ready for war. The papacy had called a general council to Trent for 1545 but hoped to escape this irksome promise by actively supporting the emperor with money and troops. Charles obtained the neutrahty All that Charles achieved

;

Duke Maurice by vague promises. There was no doubt about the emperor's purpose, yet the Schmalkaldic league proved unable to reform its cumbersome organization. The emof Bavaria and of

'

GERMANY

298

peror took the field in the summer of 1546. Hesse and electoral Saxony could not bring themselves to risk the effective army which they and their allies had quickly assembled consequently the emperor was able to reinforce himself from Italy and the Netherlands. Impatient, Duke Maurice brought the decision when he, together with King Ferdinand, invaded unprotected Saxony in order not to ;

which had been promised to him. John Frederick fled but was caught near Miihlberg on April 24, 1547, and Philip of Hesse was made prisoner in July at the moment of asking the emperor for mercy on bended knees. Charles V had reached the zenith of his power, ready, with the help of the council, to lead back the strayed sheep into the fold of the church. Luther, lose the electoral dignity

enemy

compromise, Henry VIII and Francis I were dead. The papacy, however, was not willing to see the emperor all-powerful. Charles V had asked the pope to consider and redress first the "grievances," but when the longawaited council had at last met it had begun by redefining the creed and the apostolic traditions of the church. Indeed, Paul III had withdrawn his troops even before the battle of Miihlberg and transferred the council to Bologna in order to withdraw it from imperial influence (see Trent, Council of). Thus it was without papal backing that Charles V forced the Interim on the estates at the diet of Augsburg (1547-48). This conciliatory formula restored Roman Catholic ritual in general but conceded the eucharistic cup to the laity and allowed priests who were already married to keep their wives pending the final decision of the general council. the

of

all

The Augsburg Interim.

The Roman Catholic

—

princes refused to accept this before the

Roman Catholic priests were reintroduced by force in the Protestant areas and towns of southern Germany, but the common people either remained faithful to the council had actually decided, and

expelled ministers (unless they went into exile) or renounced ser-

mons and sacraments altogether where the authorities did not find The city of Magdeburg a means of circumventing the Interim. was put under the ban of the empire but despised all threats of force and satirized in numerous pamphlets the timorous Melanchthon, who had retreated from his original Lutheran position and was fumbling to find weak compromise formulas. Pope Julius III recalled the council to Trent in 1551, but the Protestant envoys, now admitted to its sessions, had to limit themselves to the mere presentation of their confessions of faith and to protests against decrees which had already been settled and could no longer be revised. Deeply disappointed, the emperor had to recognize that the general council was unable to provide a viable solution for the religious conflicts in Germany. Maurice of Saxony's War (1552). All the estates agreed in

—

opposing the imperial absolutism, the "beastly Spanish servitude," as long as the emperor, contrary to his election capitulation, kept Spanish troops in the Reich. The soul of the resistance movement was the ambitious Maurice of Saxony, whose Protestant faith was chiefly a means of afiirming his princely independence and rise to power. His treaty of Chambord with Henry II of France (1552) provided him with large subsidies for his war against the emperor in exchange for the cession to France of the imperial cities of Metz, Toul, Verdun and Cambrai. Taken by surprise, the emperor fled from Innsbruck to Villach pursued by the troops of Saxony, Hesse and Brandenburg-Kulmbach; the Council of Trent disintegrated out of fear of the approaching army. Yet in the negotiations at Passau the opposition achieved only a renewed truce until the calling of the next diet, which was to decide whether the religious conflict was to be ended by decision of the council, by a recess of the diet or

by a

religious colloquy.

Maurice was

killed

Sievershausen in July 1553, against Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, who had continued the war on France's order, burning and killing as he pleased. Charles V's Abdication and the Peace of Augsburg (1555). in the battle of

— Charles besieged

Metz

unsuccessfully, but his hopes for a uniby the marriage of his son Philip

versal empire were revived again

with the English queen Marj' I 1554) by combining the resources of the Netherlands, England, Spain and the Reich, he hoped to encircle and defeat France. The marriage, however, remained childless, so that the emperor's expectations came to nothing. When (

Henry

:

II of France found a supporter in the

new pope, Paul IV

I

(elected 1555), Charles abdicated,

worn out by

all

his failures.

He

handed over the Netherlands to his son Philip in 1555, Spain to Philip in 1556 and his imperial authority to his brother Ferdinand in 1556 also. He then withdrew to Estremadura, near the monastery of San Yuste. Thus he admitted that the medieval ideal of the unity of Christendom was no longer valid. In 1555, despite Charles's protests, the diet of Augsburg sanctioned the existing state of affairs. The peace of Augsburg (q.v.) renounced the idea of uniformity of doctrine within the empire, acknowledged the coexistence of Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism and promised no toleration for Zwinglians, Calvinists or Anabaptists. Lawyers later elaborated the formula cujus regio ejus religio (the prince's religion to

be applied to the individual

is

the religion of his dominions),

territories.

The

so-called "eccle-

siastical reservation" stipulated that if

an ecclesiastical prince became Lutheran, he had to renounce his office: thus his change of religion would not affect his subjects as a secular prince's change would. Church property secularized before 1552 was to remain so. The cities that had accepted the Interim had to tolerate both Roman CathoHcism and Lutheranism within their boundaries. The peace of Augsburg was a deep disappointment to the high hopes entertained at the beginning of the Reformation. Its authors held it to be only a temporary solution, but nobody could really believe that a final religious reconciliation would be brought about in the future. The idea of one Christian Church had to be given up now that two creeds were legally estabhshed side by side. The recess of the diet of 1555 also decided the conflict between emperor and estates in favour of the estates. By its "executive ordinance" the "imperial circles" (administrative districts established by Maximilian) were given powers to administer law and order within their areas and execute the decisions of the imperial chamber or Reichskammergericht. In the southern and western areas, where there was the greatest number of quasi-independent authorities, this "circle" organization provided at least some safeguard against the religious wars threatening to spill over into Germany from the west. The vital forces making for a renewal of poUtical Ufe were now to be found in the individual territories of the empire rather than in the empire as a whole. They were not active in foreign affairs. Within the territories, however, newly created administrative organizations, centrally directed and staffed with trained lawyers, began to issue numerous laws covering every aspect of

life.

Economic policy was

ture of paternalist welfare legislation

especially affected

and rationalizing

by

a mix-

utilitarian-

ism which aimed both at increasing the princes' revenue and at keeping the subjects happy and contented. The subjects were treated as uniformly as possible within the boundaries of each state, and the habit of obedience to orders was instilled: the territorial estates, composed of nobility and towns, gradually saw their rights severely curtailed, especially that of deciding taxes. As regards ecclesiastical poUcy the territorial princes, "vicegerents of God," felt

their

responsible for maintaining uniformity of belief: whatever

momentary

nized, upheld

belief

might be,

and propagated

it

was

to be the only truth recog-

Regarded by contemporary opinion as an essential safeguard against heresy and revolution, the doctrinal unity thus enforced was used as an instrument of state poHcy to strengthen the unity of the territory and so to augment its power. The religious struggles in Germany came to be settled on the territorial plane; and the resultant territorial distribution of the various creeds survived, by and large, into the in their states.

20th century. The independence of the numerous though varied states was hardly called into question any more, so that emperor and empire faded into the background, having shed their universal claims.The emperors had to co-operate with independent institutions of the Reich and to reach an agreement with the diets and the representatives of imperial "circles." The emperors' power was not enough to stop the centrifugal forces or to inaugurate that development toward the formation of a national state which had already affected the other European monarchies. True, the princes had not the power to subordinate the Habsburg wearers of the imperial crown, who retained their European position because of their world-wide connections. Indeed, the Austrian rulers used their

GERMANY imperial dignity to further their interests as territorial princes, despite the other princes' misgivings. While Austria remained the strongest upholder of the imperial tradition, still not quite extinct,

based his power on the Austrian hereditary lands, Reich; on the lands of the Bohemian crown, which were not represented in the Reichstag or incorporated

Ferdinand

I

fully incorporated in the

in the circles;

and on the kingdom of Hungary, entirely outside Turks and their vassal

the Reich and largely in the hands of the

Transylvania.

The Counter-Reformation and the Thirty Years' War Ferdinand I and Maximilian II. The partition of Charles

G.

—

meant that henceforth there were two Habsburg lines, the Austrian and the Spanish, but both were still Roman Catholic and they were closely linked with one another despite Ferdinand I was no less deoccasional tension and opposition. voutly Roman Catholic than Charles V had been, but reasons of His son state found him readier to make necessary concessions. and successor Maximilian II, emperor from 1564 to 1576, was still readier for compromise as he leaned toward Protestantism, though he never confessed it publicly. During their reigns, however, the leadership in the world of ideas, which Luther and the proponents of universal empire had combined to give to Germany, passed to the new spiritual forces which took advantage of the peace that now prevailed in the Reich. The Roman Catholic CounterReformation, inaugurated by the Council of Trent and promoted by Spain, Rome and Italy, put forward the idea of the hierarchical structure of the church, led by the papacy, against the Protestant doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. The Tridentine Creed (1564), the Roman catechism (1566), the breviary and the missal (1570) were the instruments of an internal renewal as well as the The reformed offensive weapons of the Counter-Reformation. papacy, moreover, possessed in the Society of Jesus its most reliable army, which turned its attention immediately to the most threatened spot, Germany: Jesuit settlements had been founded as early as 1544 in Cologne, Vienna, Ingolstadt and Prague, that is, in areas where the religious decision was still in the balance. Moreover, the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Bavarian V's dominions

dukes created a

Roman

Catholic bloc in southern

Germany with

pohtical and intellectual centre in Munich and this reimposed the old belief by force in Bavaria, in the archbishopric of Salzburg

its

;

and in the bishoprics of Bamberg and WiJrzburg. Though support from the rest of Germany was always most readily forthcoming for the defense of the empire against the Turks, which bore most heaxdly on Austria, Ferdinand and Maximilian nevertheless avoided offensive war in order not to have to make further rehgious concessions to the Protestant Austrian estates.

The Lutheran princes east of the Weser river, meanwhile, refrom Denmark. Electoral Saxony, Branden-

ceived effective help

burg and Pomerania not only secularized ecclesiastical property and established Lutheran state churches within their territories but also began, from 1555, to absorb neighbouring bishoprics and abbeys when chapters sympathetic to Lutheranism elected Protestant administrators to supersede the Catholic prelates. Despite endless disputes, which paralyzed the diets, this proved a successful method of circumventing the "ecclesiastical reservation" that had

been meant to protect such ecclesiastical principalities. Disunity, however, grew among the German Protestants when French and later Dutch land refugees brought Calvinism first to the Palatinate (1559) and then to Nassau, Hesse and the lower Rhine valley. Soon after Luther's death (1546) doctrinal strife had broken out between the followers of the old radical Lutheranism and those who preferred Melanchthon's compromise formulas. As the princes could decide what form of religion they wished to establish, By order of this theological quarrel had political consequences. the elector palatine Frederick III, the Heidelberg catechism was drawn up in 1563 though it became the official doctrinal statement of the Reformed (that is, Calvinist) Church only in 1619. This catechism is the most important German contribution to the doctrines of international Calvinism. Electoral Saxony, Wiirttemberg and Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel were eventually to end the constant doctrinal disputes among the Lutherans by accepting, after a

—

299

long struggle, the Formula concordiae of 1577, after Rudolf II's accession as emperor. This did not prevent them from regarding the Calvinists as more serious opponents than the Roman Catholics. When the Calvinist John Casimir of the Palatinate tried to

form a Protestant league. Saxony wrecked the plan. John Casimir was the foremost of the German princes to intervene on the Huguenot side in the wars of religion in France. Wherever Austrian power proved ineffective, the empire suffered great losses. As the Teutonic Order had been secularized as early as 1525, its calls for help were ignored, so that Courland became a Polish fief in 1562, while Livonia was divided between Poland and Russia and Estonia passed under Swedish rule. On the western frontier the French kept the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun even after the peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) and extended their influence over Lorraine. When the revolt of the Netherlands broke out against Spanish rule, the empire did not intervene, though the Netherlands belonged to the Burgundian circle of the empire and though the leader of the revolt, William the Silent, was himself a prince of the empire (Nassau and Orange). Only the Calvinist Palatinate gave William direct support: otherwise the Protestant estates merely appealed for Maximilian II's mediation, which Spain rejected. Finally Spain and the rebel provinces came to act as sovereign powers in the Netherlands, independently of the (See Netherlands: History.) Rudolf II, the Cologne War and Matthias.

empire.

—

Maximilian was succeeded by his eldest son, Rudolf II, emperor from 1576 to 1612. By this time the conflict in the Netherlands was having its effect on the strife of the creeds in the Rhineland. The fluctuating religious position there was decided by events in the archbishopric of Cologne (Koln), where Archbishop Gebhard {q.v.) wanted to marry and so, in order to circumvent the "ecclesiastical reservaCologne's contion," tried to secularize the diocese (1582-83). version to Protestantism would have given the Protestants a two-thirds majority in the electoral college, with far-reaching repercussions on the election of an emperor, and would probably have led to the conversion of the vacillating duchy of Cleves-JiilichBerg and the Westphalian bishoprics. Ernest of Bavaria, bishop of Freising, Hildesheim and Liege, was consequently put forward by Bavaria, Spain and the papacy to take Gebhard's place. Gebhard put his troops under the leadership of John Casimir of the Palatinate but received no help from the Lutheran princes. Defeated in 1584, he withdrew to the Netherlands and then to Stras-, bourg. The Spaniards and the Dutch, however, continued the war for years, devastating the country; Miinster and the other Westphalian bishoprics fell to Ernest of Bavaria, as well as Cologne, A sequel to the Cologne War was a double election to the bishopric of Strasbourg in 1592; after long conflict, the Catholic candidate prevailed (1604).

Rudolf II had been educated in Spain; he was devoutly Roman Catholic, interested in intellectual matters, of good political judgment but of an odd nature. He fled from human contact, was afraid to act and lived alone in his castle in Prague till his reason gave way and he became incapable of making political decisions.

The

violent

means by which Catholicism was being restored

in all

the Austrian territories and in Hungary provoked the opposition of the Protestant territorial estates everywhere and fanned the discord between Rudolf and his brother Matthias, who in 1606 was declared the head of the house of Habsburg in Rudolf's place. It

Habsburg dominion would disintegrate into sepaby its estates, thus completely paralyzing Austria's capacity for action. As Rudolf, the wearer of the imperial crown, was thus incapacitated, imperial institutions slowly ceased to function. The new state of affairs, arising from seemed

as

if

the

rate small territories, each controlled

the divergent interpretations of the religious peace of Augsburg, could not be undone, and existing disputes could be solved neither

nor by special commissions of the imchamber or of the imperial diet. The threat of the ban of the empire was unavailing. Help was not even forthcoming for war against the Turks, The religious groupings neutralized one another and hence were not able to oppose the Spanish interventions in the lower Rhineland and WestphaUa, The strict Lutherans in the diets of the circles

perial

for conscience's sake refused to act against the emperor.

The

GERMANY

300

as the "corresponding princes" were who. as a Calvinist, was not even included in the religious peace. Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, who forced his Protestant subjects either to submit to the Roman Catholic Church or to emigrate, rose to be the leader of the Roman

activist Protestants

led

by the elector

known

palatine,

Catholic party. The absolute paralysis of emperor and empire re\'ived the old plan to form rehgious associations. Two such groupings soon opposed one another: the Protestant vmion led by the Palatinate (1608); and the Catholic league led by Maximilian of Bavaria (1609). The former looked for help to France, the latter to Spain,

and both armed themselves, as France and Spain seemed about to begin a European war over the succession to Cleves-JiiUch-Berg, and its undecided religious allegiance see Julich i. The assassination of Henr>' IV of France (1610) prevented the outbreak of war. and Matthias (emperor from 1612 to 1619) tried to ease the tension by his policy of "compositions." that is. of small concessions. Finally, in 1614. the duchy of Cleves-JiiUch-Berg was peacefully partitioned, without imperial mediation, by the late duke's heirs John Sigismund of Brandenburg, who had just turned Calvinist, and Wolfgang Wilham of Palatinate Neuburg, who had just i

:

turned CathoUc,

— Since neither Matthias nor

Ferdinand II and Bohemia. suriwng brothers had legitimate

heirs,

it

his

was planned that the

Habsburg and the imperial succession should pass to their cousin Ferdinand of Styria, a pupil of the Jesuits and a con\'inced champion of the Counter-Reformation who had just recathohcized inner Austria by force, Philip III of Spain renounced his o-smi claims and offered help to Ferdinand in exchange for the cession of the Austrian territories in Alsace and Ortenau, which would link the Spanish Netherlands -nith the Spanish Franche-Comte and the routes to Italy and thus extend the arc of encirclement round The Protestant Bohemian estates, however, objected France. strongly to recognizing Ferdinand as their future king, and in 1618, during a dispute over local grievances, some radical nobles in

Prague threw the imperial governors out of the windows of the The Bohemians then prepared for war. and palace. in 1619, after the death of Matthias, proceeded to elect the Calvinist Frederick V, elector palatine, as king of Bohemia on Aug. 26. two days before the Habsburg candidate was elected emperor as Ferdinand II. Ferdinand had the support of Spain, Poland, the papacy and, especially, the Catholic league. Their combined armies defeated the isolated Frederick at the battle of Draconic measures the White Hill near Prague in Nov. 1620. destroyed Protestantism in Bohemia and the remaining Austrian The territories, and the influence of the estates was aboUshed. army of the Catholic league pursued the last partisans of the "winter king" on their flight to the Netherlands. Maximilian of Bavaria was granted the electoral dignity, which had been the condition of the help that he gave to the emperor. The Thirty Years' War. The Bohemian revolt and its suppression are conventionally regarded as the beginning of the complex European struggle designated as the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). The surprising resuscitation of the power of the German Habsburgs. the occupation by the Spaniards of the Rhenish Palatinate and the resumption of war between Spain and the United ProNdnces called the European powers into the after a 12-year truce (1621 arena, for they did not wish a re\aval of the empire of Charles V. Thus the warfare in Germany became a general European war. Christian IV of Denmark wished to acquire the bishoprics of Verden. Bremen, Osnabriick and Halberstadt, which were under Protestant administrators and surrounded by secular principalities. Against him Ferdinand put a new army into the field under the This soldier of leadership of Albrecht von Wallenstein (q.v.). fortune had acquired an enormous compact mass of lands in Bohemia by a rich marriage and augmented it from the confiscated

Hradcany

—

)

After his elevation to the dukedom 1625 he turned this property into a huge armaments factory. Basing himself on this and holding to the principle that war must feed war, Wallenstein became independent of the imperial treasury and thus, at first, indispensable to Ferdinand, Johann Tzerclaes, Graf von Tilly (.q.v.), the general of the Cath-

estates of Protestant nobles.

of Friedland

(

»

defeated Christian near Lutter ("1626); Wallenstein occupied Jutland, Mecklenburg and Pomerania: only the city of Stralsund, supphed by sea from Denmark and Sweden, withstood Christian was forced to make peace at siege (May-July 1628), Liibeck (1629), regaining his lands but renouncing his alliances with the north German princes and his claims on the bishoprics in Lower Saxony, Now at the height of his power, Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution (1629), enforcing again the "ecclesiastical reservation," the most debated of all the provisions of the rehgious peace of 1555, and ordering all bishoprics and abbeys secularized since This edict 1552 to be restored to the Roman Cathohc faith. olic league,

showed the emperor determined

to revolutionize all existing pohti-

the independent and aggressive spirit that he revealed provoked even the opposition of the Catholic league and cal conditions:

especially that of Maximihan of Bavaria. At a meeting at Regensburg 1630) the electors, backed diplomatically by France, forced Ferdinand to dismiss \^allenstein whom he had made duke of Mecklenburg and thus a prince of the empire), to reduce the imperial army and to accept the electors' control of foreign and (

(

miUtar>' policy,

Wallenstein's dismissal

made

it

easier for the

Swedish king Gusta\ais II Adolphus to decide to land in Pomerania. The king of Sweden was brought to this decision by Sweden's struggle for the dominium maris Baltici (supremacy in the Baltic sea), for which he had fought Russia, Livonia and Poland and which was endangered by the successes of the imperial army. It was also motivated by his desire, based on his deep religious convictions, to Uberate the north German Protestants and to obtain the large

by France. Of the Protestant states only HesseKassel voluntarily joined the Swedish king; Saxony was forced The into an alliance because of counterpressure from Vienna. princes feared for their freedom and dreaded the emperor's revenge. In 1631. in the first of the battles of Breitenfeld. Gustavus Adolphus defeated TQly. who had taken Magdeburg: the \-ictory was so complete that the Cathohc party collapsed completely in subsidies offered

northern Germany, the Cathohc league dissolved itself. Munich was occupied and even Vienna appeared to be faUing prey to the Swedes. In this danger Ferdinand asked Wallenstein to recruit another army and made him its generahssimo. Wallenstein proceeded very cautiously, since he wanted both to demonstrate his indispensabUGusta\Tjs Adolphus ity and to avoid hazarding his new army. restored Protestantism in large areas of Germany, but fell mortally wounded in the battle of Liitzen (1632). The Swedes however, under the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. continued the war. united the south German estates in the League of Heilbronn and again threatened the Austrian hereditar>' lands after the conquest of Regensburg. The Vienna court began to distrust Wallenstein because of his hesitant strategy. Indeed, since his dismissal. Wallenstein was torn between thoughts of a general pacification, the need for revenge and more egotistic aims. He negotiated with Saxony and Sweden without, however, following a clear hne of pohcy. Suspected of high treason, he was murdered with Ferdinand's consent by some of his ofiicers (1634). The imperial army, still intact, and the newly arrived Spanish auxiliarj' troops defeated the Swedes at Nordhngen and again occupied southern Germany to the Rhine.

Peace was made at Prague between the emperor and Saxony (1635 ). and most German states joined this in course of time. The peace of Prague fixed the religious divisions as they had existed in 1627 (an arrangement originally limited to 40 years and not renounced the Edict of Restitution; and applicable to Cahonists gave the emperor the supreme command over a new imperial army to be provided by the estates and to be used against the foreign )

;

powers. Despite this renewed effort German strength did not suffice to enforce peace. War ravaged the country for another 13 years; it was no longer fought for German questions but to ch\ide the spoils between Sweden and France. After the \'ictor>' of the French crown over the malcontent nobility and the Huguenots aUke, the cardinal due de Richeheu declared war against the Spanish

world power on all fronts in 1635, regardless of doctrinal considerations but simply following the dictates of French reason of state.

\

f

GERMANY

301

France gained footholds in Savoy, Mantua and Parma and thus controlled Spanish Milan and the passes over the Alps into southern Germany. The United Provinces and those states of the empire which stood aside from the war were strengthened by subsidy Along the western frontier of Germany, Richelieu occutreaties. pied Lorraine and pushed his occupation troops through Alsace to In order to keep the Swedish army in the German the Rhine. theatre of war, he mediated a prolongation of the Swedish-Polish truce for another 26 years and granted annual subsidies for the There were meetings Swedish armies fighting in the empire. of the electors and of the diet, but neither the emperor nor the

the territorial princes could now build up their military power and finances without interference from above or below and so consolidate the basis not only for increasing independence but also for

One after to bring about a general pacification. another made separate treaties with the foreign powers. The Peace of Westphalia (1648). Ferdinand II was suc-

palatine (Pfalzgraf) of the Rhine, with a ninth, Hanover, added in 1692 (recognized by the Reichstag as late as 1708). The number

estates

were able

—

ceeded by his son Ferdinand III, emperor from 1637 to 1657. Nine years after his accession, with Spain's power sapped by the revolts Catalonia and Portugal (1640), the enemies of the house of Habsburg won the upper hand in Germany. In 1648 the French had crossed Bavaria and reached the Inn river and the Swedes were again attacking Prague when the news of the peace of Westphalia at last arrived (see Westphalia, Peace of). in

had been in vain, but from 1644 onward had been taking place among the interested powers. First Spain concluded a separate peace with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, whose sovereignty was recognized (though the Franco-Spanish war was to go on for 11 more years, Earlier peace feelers

serious negotiations

The conditions offered the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659). by the emperor and the states of the empire to the Swedes at Osnabrijck and to the French at Mijnster were accepted, and peace was signed in Oct. 1648: in addition to 5,000,000 thalers to pay off their troops, the Swedes obtained the archbishopric of Bremen, the bishopric of Verden, the town of Wismar and western Pomerania; the French obtained the Habsburg rights in Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, together with the fortress of Breisach and the right to occupy the fortress of Philippsburg. The Swiss and the Dutch, now sovereign powers, till

all links with the empire. Within the empire, Bavaria retained the electoral dignity and the Upper Palatinate; the elector of Brandenburg received the bishoprics of Kammin, Halberstadt and Minden, with the reversion to that of Magdeburg, in compensation for what he had had to cede to Sweden; and the dukes of Mecklenburg received the bishoprics of Ratzeburg and Schwerin, likewise in compensation. Otherwise the territorial status quo of 1618 was restored. The rehgious status quo of 1624 was acknowledged, except for the Austrian hereditary lands and Bavaria, and Calvinism was recognized as one of the creeds of the empire. Constitutionally, the emperor's power was considerably reduced in favour of the estates or members of the empire, even in matters of foreign policy. To prevent majority decisions in denominational disputes, the estates were divided between a Corpus Evangeliconim or Protestant group and a Corpus Catholicorum, both of which had to be in agreement if Finally, the a decision was to be valid for the empire as a whole. fact that France and Sweden were guarantors of the peace laid Ger(W. P. F.) many open to foreign intervention.

severed

H.

The Empire

in Decay, 1648-1721

Emperor and Empire After

—

1648. After the peace of Westemperor and empire {Kaiser und Reich) ceased to mean the whole body politic with its monarchical head but emphasized the contrast between the emperor, who had no power in the empire, and the empire, which had Uttle use for the emperor. Free to form associations among themselves or with foreign princes (provided that they were not directed against empire or emperor), the rulers of the member states had become nearly fully sovereign and independent in international law. The emperor was reduced to the rank of an honorary president of an aristocratic republic he was unable either to make laws or to levy taxes for the Reich without the consent of the imperial diet or phalia, the expression

;

On the other hand, the territorial diets declined nearly everywhere with the special exceptions of Mecklenburg and Wiirttemberg, where the dukes were almost powerless. Therefore Reichstag.

—

absolute government within their own territories. The Reichstag, which from 1663 was to be permanently established at Regensburg, was composed of three chambers the college of electors (Kurjiirstenkollegium); the council of princes of the and the college of imperial empire (Reichsfiirstenkollegium) :

;

The

electors were the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, the king of Bohemia, the dukes of Saxony and Bavaria, the margrave of Brandenburg and the count cities

(Reichsstddtekollegium)

.

of entities represented in the council of princes is less easy to state because of recurring divisions within dynasties and reunions

through inheritance, as well as the varying readiness of the Reichstag to admit transfers or new creations. The estimate therefore varies between 170 and 200 secular principalities and countships in addition to about SO ecclesiastical principalities (archbishoprics, The 59 greater bishoprics, abbeys and orders of knighthood). princes, however, had each a separate vote in the council (Virilstimme), while the lesser counts of the empire voted collectively through representatives of the four "benches" or colleges among which they were grouped (Kuriatstimme). Similarly, 35 ecclesiastical princes had Virilstimmen, while the remaining abbeys, etc., were grouped in two Kurien. The imperial cities iq.v.) had two votes, one for the 14 cities of the "Rhenish bench" and one for the 37 of the "Swabian bench"; their right to a casting vote was There were thus about 300 entities with practically disputed. sovereign rights and the quality of Reichsstandschaft; i.e., that of being represented in the Reichstag as an estate of the empire. In addition to these quasi sovereignties there were nearly 1,500 other minor lordships which, without having Reichsstandschaft, enjoyed Reichsunmittelbarkeit or "immediate" dependence on the Reich, with no suzerain other than the emperor. Besides the Reichstag, there were three other general organs The Reichskammergericht or imperial chamber for the empire. (q.v.), which sat at Speyer and later at Wetzlar, was the supreme judicial body, but it was hampered in its effectiveness by the prolixity of its procedure (61,233 suits were found to be awaiting judgment in 1772) and was moreover in perpetual rivalry with the Reichshofrat or aulic council (q.v.) in Vienna. In Vienna also was the Reichskanzlei or imperial chancery, which dealt with all questions of rights, privileges, pardons, etc., depending on the emperor. Its nominal head was the archbishop of Mainz, as archchancellor of the empire, but the work was done by an imperial vice-chancelWhen the Austrian court chancery was detached from it in lor. 1620, the imperial chancery had faded into the background, but at the end of the 1 7th century it regained a certain importance as the great European wars strengthened the bond between emperor and Reich. Under Friedrich Karl, Graf von Schonborn, as vicechancellor (1705-34), this revival was especially marked. In the absence of regular taxation for the Reich, necessary dues from the member states were collected on the basis of a register in which each was assessed at a definite rate; but payment into ,

the imperial treasury was irregular as the members would constantly claim that the rate was too high. Likewise, as there was

no general organization for the defense of the Reich, the member states were expected to provide a specified quantity of troops and ordnance for the imperial army when the Reich went to war but these contingents, on the rare occasions when they met at the appointed time, would consist chiefly of raw levies, variously equipped. With no direct power over the Reich, the emperor was little more than the nominal guardian of law and order (which he had scarcely the means of enforcing) and the fountain of honour (for elevations in rank and the granting of privileges). The Territorial Powers in the 17th Century. The greatest of the secular powers in the Reich was the house of Habsburg, which ruled over a vast area in the southeast, comprising Bohemia, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Trieste and Tirol and held also numerous hereditary possessions in southern Swabia extending to the banks of the Rhine (Breisgau). These lands, how;

—

GERMANY

302

had from time to time been distributed among various branches of the house and were not finally reunited until 1665 after the extinction of the Tirolese branch). Moreover, the central authority for the Habsburg possessions, which Maximilian I ever,

I

had tried to set up, exercised little control, as many of the component territories kept their own administrations and diets, (See AusTRLA, Empire of; Habsburg. The kingdom of Hungary was a Habsburg territor>' outside the Reich. From the middle of the 1 7th century the house of HoheozoUern (g.v.) was outpacing the houses of Wittelsbach and Wettin in the struggle for the second place in the Reich. The Hohenzollern margraves of Brandenburg had inherited Cleves in western Germany, together with Mark and Ravensberg in Westphalia, in 1614 and the duchy of Prussia, which w-as a Polish fief outside the Reich, in 161S; and had secured eastern Pomerania, as well as the former bishoprics of Kammin, Minden and Halberstadt, together with the reversion to Magdeburg, in 164S, Next, in the course of the socalled First Northern War (1655-60), Poland under the treaty of Wehlau 1657 confirmed by the peace of Oliva in 1660 renounced suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia, which thus became sovereign. When Prussia was raised to the rank of kingdom in 1701. the elector of Brandenburg thus became king of a realm independent of the Reich, just as the head of the Habsburgs was in respect of Hungarj-. The individual districts under Hohenzollern rule, how)

(,

)

;

own institutions to a considerable extent, (See Brandenburg; Prussia.) The house of Wettin (g.v.) was di\'ided into so many branches that its head, the elector of Saxony, ruled only a portion of its lands. The same was true of the house of Wittelsbach (g.v.) its largest and most compact territory was Bavaria, whereas its scattered lands in the Palatinate were distributed among junior branches of the family. The house of Welf iq.v.). which had the leading role in northwestern Germany, also divided its lands in BrunsW'ick and Hanover between various branches (seven or sometimes even more and the house of Hesse was likewise di\nded. ever, maintained their

;

)

;

In the extreme southwest the house of Zahringen, with the margra\-iate of Baden, and the house of Wiirttemberg were the most important dj-nasties. Most of these great princes in the course of the 17th and ISth centuries succeeded in reducing the old-established powers of the diets in their territories, though they did not dare to suppress them outright, Goverimient and justice, however, in the hands of paid officials, were far more efficiently administered in the greater principalities than they were in the lesser ones. The lesser secular princes ruled their subjects patriarchally. but employed quantities of officials out of all proportion to the size of their miniature

and maintained sumptuous courts, for the upkeep of which they were ever preoccupied N\ith devising new taxation or obtaining "pensions" from foreign monarchs, chiefly France. The ecclesiastical princes in general governed no better than the secular ones, since their lack of legitimate issue made them sometimes careless of the future well-being of their countries. Elected by the chapter with which he was to share the administration and which was composed largely of younger sons of the local nobility, a bishop or abbot would often use his position to further the interests of his family by settUng his brothers, cousins and nephews on church property or bringing them into the chapters. Some of the imperial cities were towns of major importance with a long-standing commerce, such as Liibeck. Hamburg. Bremen. Nurnberg. Augsburg. Ulm. Frankfurt am Main and Strasbourg. The majority, however, were little country towns in southwestern Germany, with 3.000 inhabitants or less, which had long ago lost any significance. Overshadowed by the capitals rising round the princely residences, the imperial cities were for the most part governed by a few patrician families who monopolized all positions of influence and profit and used them to their personal advantage. Finally, there were the dominions of the "immediate" knights of the empire (not to be confused with the knights of orders, whose master was an ecclesiastical prince), nearly all in southwestern Germany. These knights were no more than large landowners who exercised sovereign rights over their manor and perhaps some adterritories

jacent village.

Leopold I and the French and Turkish Wars to 1699 Ferdinand HI, emperor from 1637, had secured the election of his eldest son Ferdinand as king of the Romans, or successor designate young king had died in 1654, and the emperor died in April 1657, before securing the election of his second son, Leopold 1. as king of the Romans, After 15 months' to the empire, in 1653; but the

interregnum Leopold was elected emperor July 165S ), but not before he had signed a capitulation whereby the emperor's rights were still further reduced. Leopold had originally been destined for the church, and his deeply religious nature would have justified such a calling. When he came to rule he always protected the interests of the church and completed the work of the CounterReformation. The high moral tone of his life and conduct gave an example to others. Peaceful by nature, he had to make almost continual war on several fronts, which again and again interrupted the economic reconstruction of his territories. He was interested in the arts and sciences (the theatre, music, political science), though his reign did not witness such magnificent works as did that of his cousin Louis XI\' of France. His greatest fault was his lack of energj' and of decisiveness of which even his spiritual ad\-isers (Emmerich Sinelli and Marco d'Avaano complained. Yet his firm com-iction that he was an instrument of the di%Tne will endowed him with an almost unshakable spiritual equanimity which saved him in the extremely critical situations so frequent during his reign. Though benevolent and even weak by nature, Leopold was unyielding on all matters involving either the interest of the church or his own sovereign rights. In the first decade after the peace of Westphalia, the primary concern of all the estates was the maintenance of peace. As the war between France and Spain lasted until 1659 and as grave issues were arising in the north and in the east. Germany could easily have been involved again in a general war. As no one believed in the ability of the emperor to safeguard the empire from this danger, there grew up a network of alliances between the different territories for mutual defense. The elector of Mainz, Johami Philipp von Schonborn. succeeded in uniting the most important Catholic and Protestant princes in a great defensive alliance. This first Rheinbund or Confederation of the Rhine was signed in Aug. 1658, for three years, and had for its object the full execution of the peace of Westphalia, the prevention of foreign wars and the defense of its members' own territories; but in fact the alliance, which the emperor regarded as directed against his authority, very soon became largely dependent on France, It was frequently renewed and lasted until 1667, During the so-called First Northern War (1655-60), the emperor, in the Catholic interest, supported the Catholic king of Poland, John Casimir; and the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, who at the outset had supported Sweden, later entered into an understanding with Poland and the emperor. This warfare, however, was waged for the most part outside the territory- of the (

—

)

empire, Germany was far more deeply disturbed by the course of events on its western frontier.

The continuing Spanish possession

of the southern Netherlands

and of Franche-Comte was an obstacle

to the traditional French policy of advancing the frontier into Flanders and toward the

Rhine, which Louis XIV was determined to pursue. After his War of Devolution (1667-6S) against Spain had been brought to an abrupt end because of inter\'ention by the triple alliance of England,

Sweden and the Dutch. Louis decided

that the

Dutch would have

When

be crushed.

he induced the archbishop of Cologne (Maximilian Henry of Bavaria and the bishop of Mijnster Bernhard von Galen to co-operate with his invasion of the United Provinces, the neighbouring states, fearing that they would be involved in the war, invoked the assistance of the emperor and the empire. Moreover. Louis XR' had, without any legal grounds, driven the duke of Lorraine, Charles IV, who was a prince of the empire, out of his duchy. The empire thus had good cause to intervene, (See Dutch Wars.) Yet Leopold hesitated to take any action against Louis XIV. Foreseeing the extinction of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, to

)

{

i

his

main policy was

to assure its succession for his

own

branch.

This would require the French king's acquiescence, for which Louis

.

GERMANY

view of the Karlsplatz 20-ft. towers of the Id city

late

Plate

I

The two Munich, capital of the Land (state) of Bavaria. Gothic Frauenkirche are seen behind the Karlstor, one of the

in

gates

East Berlin's Frankfurter Allee, constructed as a showpiece by government of the German Democratic Republic, as seen from entrance of a subway station

residential section of

city of the Federal Republic of GerSituated on the Elbe river, it is one of the largest

Hamburg, the most populous

lany and a Land in Its own right. saports on the European continent

barges moored alongside the docks 'ing in energ>great displaved force, he caUed which placed the force under Nazi control; in addition, of them SA and SS (Schutzmajority the poUce. auxiliary 000 50 up The poUce were forbidden to interfere with the many staffeln). were given the "freeacts of intimidation carried out by the SA who

The

elections

dom of the streets." by On the night of Feb. 27 the Reichstag buUding was destroyed to seize power the conplot Communist of a pretext the On fire

were suspended and the stitutional guarantees of individual Uberty was in this atmosReich government given emergency powers. It were held a week elections the that insecurity phere of fear and majority, Nevertheless the Nazis failed to secure an outright later held firm. It Democrats Social the and party Centre the and both that Hitler sewas only with the help of his Nationahst partners seats in a house of 647 depu52 plus of 2S8 majority bare a cured

was to secure the passage of an enabUng act government the power to issue decrees inthe which would give For this he dependently of the Reichstag and of the president. The 81 ComReichstag. the in majority two-thirds required a the support ot munist deputies were either arrested or excluded; seats) was obtamed party (73 Centre the of and Nationalists the and the Social Democrats who alone Hitler's next step

by assurances and promises, 441 opposed the biU (March 23) were outvoted by

to 94.

of Hitler Enabling act remained the constitutional basis

s

Ihe dicta-

was ever introduced to replace that were promulgated as they were laws fresh republic; Weimar of the was created. (The sec(empire Reich required. Thus the third the term first ond Reich was that formed by Bismarck in 1871; 962-1806.) of empire Roman Holy Reich denoted the been careful with overriding powers, which he had

torship

No new

constitution

)

Armed

to obtain without

formaUy infringing on the

principle of legabty

with the authority of Hitler proceeded to carry out a revolution culminatmg in the Law for the state on his side. A series of decrees abolished the Land the Reconstruction of the Reich (Jan. 30, 1934) the Lander to the of powers diets and transferred the sovereign was suppressed Reich In Mav 1933 the trade unions organization under Robert front labour German a into and the unions' merged

the only political party in Germany. Opposition to these measures in the cabinet crumpled before the wave of revolutionary violence which swept over the country. Papen was shorn of his authority as Reich commissioner for Prus-

being replaced by Goring, and Hugenberg was unable to prevent the dissolution of his own party and was forced to resign. The Nazi group in the cabinet was strengthened by the inclusion of propaganda Josef Goebbels as minister of public enlightenment and (March 14, 1933). but in fact the cabinet had ceased to count, and sia,

aU decisions were taken by the Nazi leaders on their own authority. There was. however, a point beyond which the process^ of Nazi Gleichschaltung (co-ordination), the current euphemism for endangerseizure of control, could not be carried without seriously During efficiency of the state and of the German economy. ing the

the

summer

of 1933 Hitler

began

to call a halt.

The plans

of the

economy by some radical wing of the party to replace the capitaUst abruptly form of corporate organization under state control were with the big indusrepudiated. Hitler could not afford to quarrel Hugenberg s successor at triaUsts and financiers, and from June 28 director-general of the the ministry of economy was Kurt Schmitt. Schacht, the new whUe Germany, in company insurance biggest

set his face president of the Reichsbank (appointed on March 16), experiments. anticapitaUst radical against firmlv Hitler s The Rbhm A /fair.— There was considerable opposition to section of new policy of s'tabilization. both from the more radical the had been left out the Nazi movement and from those who revolution until scramble for positions and wanted no end to the provided for. This opposition found its focus

m

m

thev had been

the'S\ and the

summer

leader in the of 1933 to the

its

SA

chief of staff, Ernst

summer

Rohm. From

of 1934 this question ot the

dommant issue m German so-caUed "second revolution" formed the poUtics. „ ^ m Germany During the first half of 1934 the conser\-ative forces to the loyalty came to look to the army with its particular claim were inflexibly oppose(i to leaders army The Hindenburg. of .

.

the army. Hitplans for the incorporation of the SA mto army which part could not afford an open clash ^nth the the mstitution independent powerful most the StiU remained the He needed the help of the generals in carrying out countr%to secure their supanxious was he and Germany, of rearmament (which mcluded the suport for his succession to the presidency now his preme command of the armed forces) when Hindenburg,

Rohms

ler for his

m

m

87th year, should . -.n-^A a deThe crisis was touched off by Papen, who on June 17, 1934 of the anxieties to the expression gave he which in speech Uvered a had only a few whole nation. Hitler now knew that Hindenburg the president, weeks to live, and on June 21, when he flew to see by tHe presented demand, uncompromising he was met with an government the either Blomberg; minister of defense. General von die.

or the presi-

tension must bring about a relaxation of the state of dent would hand over power to the army. Rohm had powerful enemies inside the party, notably Cionng the party corps and Heinrich Himmler. the Reichsjuhrer of the SS, action When Hitler reluctantly made up his mind to take d'elite Hmimler, it was Gbrmg and leadership, SA the and against Rohm Rohm and his chiel who carried out the preparations for the purge. and exe-, seized on the weekend of June 30, 1934,

_

lieutenants were

also taken to settle other cuted without trial. The opportunity was among those murdered accounts in this "night of the long knives"— Gregor Strasser A leader Nazi former the and were Schleicher Then with the, died. Hindenburg month later, on Aug. 2, President office of president and supreme, the leaders army the of agreement and Hider assumed, commander was merged with that of chanceUor. On Aug. 19 a plebiscite conthe title of Fiihrer und Reichskanzler. votes cast. firmed his new office by 88% of 43,529,710 pomt of the regime. The crisis of June 1934 was the turning the outarmy leaders congratulated themselves on ^

Although the of hesitation had come it was Hitler who after a period to choose, he umphantly reasserted his authority. Forced

tn-j

hac.

GERMANY

333 command

struck at the radicals and repudiated the "second revolution" but

a separate high

doing so had used methods which only underlined the radical and revolutionary character of the regime he had established. The Totalitarian Police State. The years between 1 934 and

Wehrmacht, O.K.W.) which

in

—

World War The state.

II saw. the steady elaboration of the totalitarian police

principal instrument of control

was the unified

police,

and SS organization under the direction of Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. Schools, universities, the press, the theatre and the arts were forced to follow the pattern of Nazi regimentation, and the most determined efforts were made to indoctrinate the younger generation with the Nazi ideology through the schools and the compulsory Hitler Youth. The concordat which the Vatican had signed with the new German government on July 8, 1933, did not protect the CathoHc community in Germany from constant interference and persecution by the Nazi security

his chief lieutenant,

authorities.

The

refusal of the

authority of the Nazi-sponsored

German Protestants to accept German Christian movement

the led

an equally bitter conflict between the Protestant churches and the state, in the course of which many Protestant pastors, including Martin Niemoller (July 1937), were arrested and ill-treated. Treatment of Jews. The regime showed particular hostility toward the Jews, who were singled out for attack from the first day of Hitler's chancellorship. A law of April 7, 1933, decreed the to

—

dismissal of the

Jews from government service and the universi-

they were also debarred from entering the professions. Under the Nijrnberg laws of Sept. 15, 1935, marriages between Jews and persons of "German blood" were forbidden, and the Jews were Their persecution reached its virtually deprived of all rights. climax in the pogrom of Nov. 9-10, 1938, carried out under the direction of the SS. The greater part of all Jewish property was confiscated, and the surviving Jews were restricted to a ghettolike existence until the war when they were systematically put to death. Altogether, in German-occupied Europe, out of a total of about 8,300,000 Jews, 6,000,000 were killed or died in extermination ties;

camps of starvation or disease. Rearmament. By an extensive program of expenditure on afforestation, land improvement, road building, public works etc. the Nazi government succeeded in reducing the number of registered unemployed from more than 6,000,000 in Jan. 1933 to From 1935 onward rearmament on a 2,600,000 in Dec. 1934. massive scale rapidly changed the problem from one of mass unemployment to one of an acute labour shortage. This remarkable recovery however did not lead to any comparable rise in the standard of living, which was deliberately held down by wage and price

— —

—

permit the diversion of the greatest posproportion of the national resources to the creation of a power-

stabilization in order to sible ful

military force.

were sacrificed to Hitler's demand for rearmament of Germany at double the rate which the military and economic experts thought possible. In Sept. 1936 Hitler proclaimed a four-year plan and gave Goring plenipotentiary powers to execute it. Schacht, who became minister of economic affairs on Aug. 2, 1934, and to whom Hitler owed the expert planning of the finances of German rearmament as well as the elaborate network of controls over German foreign trade, became increasingly critical of the reckless arms program and on Nov. 26, 1937, resigned. AlAll other considerations

the

though Schacht remained minister without portfolio at Hitler's

and until Jan. 20, 1939, president of the Reichsbank as from the end of 1937 Goring was able to carry out Hitler's economic plans in preparation for war without hindrance. Germany's expenditure on armaments is estimated at more than 51,000,000,000 RM. in the six years before 1939, rising from less than 2,000,000,000 RM. in 1933-34 to 10,000,000,000 RM. in 1936-37 insistence well,

and 16,000,000,000

1938-39. Shortly after Schacht's final resignation, Hitler proceeded to reorganize the two principal institutions which had so far escaped in

He used

the pretext of Field

—

the army and the foreign service. Marshal von Blomberg's mesalliance

the process of Gleichschaltung

and a trumped-up charge of homosexuality against the minister of defense. Gen. Werner von Fritsch, to secure their removal, assuming Blomberg's office of commander in chief of the armed forces himself and abolishing the ministry of defense and replacing it by

of the

armed

forces

(Oberkommando der

in fact acted as his personal staff.

Six-

teen of the senior generals were retired, others were transferred to different posts.

In Feb. 1938 Neurath was relieved of his post as foreign minister and replaced by the subservient Joachim von Ribbentrop, while the insignificant Walther Funk assumed office at the ministry of economics. Henceforth until the end of the war Hitler's arbitrary power over Germany was complete. Hitler's Early Foreign

came

power

Policy.—From

the time that Hitler

unswerving aim was to overthrow the peace settlement of 1919 and establish a German hegemony in Europe. These aims had, however, to be disguised until German rearmament had made progress, and Hitler showed great skill in soothing the anxieties of the other powers by his constant talk of peace. On Oct. 14, 1933, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the disarmament conference. This was represented as a protest against the hypocrisy of the victor nations in refusing to keep their promise to follow Germany's example after they had forced it to disarm. The nonaggression pact with Poland, signed on Jan. 26, 1934, was used by Hitler as further evidence of his eagerness for peace, and when a Nazi rising in Austria on July 25, 1934, failed to secure power, he was quick to repudiate his followers and send Papen to Vienna on a mission of conciliation. With the reunion of the Saar with Germany, following the plebiscite of Jan. 13, 1935, which had shown a 90% vote in favour to

his

of a return to the Reich, Hitler declared that

all

causes of dispute

between Germany and France had been removed; but he evaded British and French schemes for a general European settlement and on March 16, 1935, announced that Germany was reintroducing conscription with the aim of creating a peacetime army of 35 divisions. This open repudiation of the treaty of Versailles involved a considerable risk, but the gamble came off: the other powers contented themselves with protests, and Hitler was encouraged to take bigger risks in the future.

During the next few years Hitler played with remarkable sucupon the divisions between the other European powers. He persuaded the British to sign an Anglo-German naval treaty (June 18, 1935) which was much resented in France, and he soon became the principal beneficiary of the quarrel between Italy and the western powers over Ethiopia. The outbreak of the civil war in Spain in 1936 enabled him to establish close working relations with Mussolini (Oct. 20-24, 1936). Using the Spanish civil war as his text Hitler now redoubled his propaganda campaign against cess

the dangers of communism with very considerable success in dividing and confusing public opinion in the western countries. The ratification of the Franco-Soviet treaty of mutual assistance of May 2, 1935, provided Hitler with a convenient pretext for the denunciation of the Locarno pact and the remilitarization of the

Rhineland (March 7, 1936). The fact that this second open breach of the Versailles treaty was allowed to pass without effective challenge not only increased Hitler's confidence but had immediate repercussions in the alignment of the smaller powers. The alliance system which the French had built up in eastern Europe after 1919 began to show signs of strain. On Nov. 25, 1936, Ribbentrop concluded the anti-Comintern pact with Japan, which gave a strong fillip to Hitler's antiBolshevik propaganda campaign, and a year later (Nov. 6, 1937) he secured the adhesion of Italy to the pact after Mussolini's state visit to Germany in Sept. 1937. By the end of 1937 Hitler was ready to take the offensive in foreign pohcy. German rearmament had already made considerable progress; he was convinced that France and Great Britain would never fight; he had driven a powerful wedge between the Soviet Union and the western powers; and he had won Italy away from the Anglo-French camp to close co-operation with himself.

Peaceful Annexations.

— Hitler's

first

objective was the an-

nexation of Austria. After the unsuccessful Putsch of 1934, Hitler for a time had to go carefully, but then closer co-operation with Mussolini, who had hitherto been the most determined opponent of an Anschluss, opened up new possibihties. On July 11, 1936, a so-called gentlemen's agreement was concluded between Germany

GERMANY

334

and Austria, which was used by the German government as a means government in of exercising pressure on Kurt von Schuschnigg's while Vienna. Hitler sought to preserve the fa(;ade of legality overt applying political pressure under the threat, but without the the Austrian chanuse, of force. On Feb. 12, 1938, Schuschnigg, demands during an cellor, was bullied into accepting far-reaching subsequent Schuschnigg's Berchtesgaden. Hitler at with interview quickly decision to hold a plebiscite, however, forced Hitler to act and on March 12, 1938, German troops occupied Austria, 24 hours other before the plebiscite was due to be held. Once again the powers failed to do more than utter solemn protests, and Hitler turned toward his second objective, the disruption of the rapidly

Czechoslovak republic. The demands of the Sudeten German skilfully minority in Czechoslovakia for greater autonomy were ally, used by Hitler to create a situation in which Czechoslovakia's on the France, and Great Britain brought heavy pressure to bear Prague government. This situation culminated in Neville Chamof Hitler's berlain's direct intervention to secure Czech acceptance ultimatum for the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany (Munich far more conference, Sept. 29-30, 1938). Hitler in fact aimed at settlement as a than this and soon came to look upon the Munich mistaken concession which had balked him of his entry into Prague. the Slovaks In March 1939 he used the smoldering quarrel between ser\'ed as his prewhich crisis further a create to Czechs and the Bohemia and Mora\na text for the occupation of the whole of (March 15). Also, on March 20, he secured the return of Memel

from Lithuania to the Reich. (See Munich, Conference of.) Poland's Refusal.— Shortly after the Munich settlement, RibPoland bentrop had opened yet another claim by suggesting that Retch should agree to the return of the free city of Danzig to the railand the construction of a German extraterritorial road and rest way across Polish Pomerania to link East Prussia with the These demands were renewed m of Germany (Oct. 24, 1938). uncompromising resharper terms after Prague. They met with an the fusal from the Polish government, and on March 31, 1939,

British government,

which had abandoned

its

policy of appease-

ment after the occupation of Bohemia-Mora\da, announced its guarantee to Poland in the event of any act of aggression. the Hitler's immediate retort was to denounce on April 28 German-Polish nonaggression pact of 1934 and the Anglo-German Mussolini naval treaty of 1935. In May, the understanding with attenrion Hitler's but of steel," "pact pubHc the was converted into

was directed above all to Moscow where the British and French front of were negotiating with the Russians to build up a common resistance to

German

aggression.

these talks encouraged Hitler to

The make

difficulties

encountered

in

a secret counterproposal.

pact was Stalin agreed to a visit by Ribbentrop and the Nazi-Soviet public pact signed in Moscow on the night of Aug. 23-24. To the the whole of nonaggression was appended a secret treaty dividing partirioning Poland. of eastern Europe into spheres of influence and Moscow pact Hitler was convinced that the signature of the

would lead the British and French to withdraw their guarantees When the British government replied with the sigto Poland. pact of mutual assistance between Great Britain and of the nature Poland (Aug. 25), Hitler attempted to avert British intervention bring by further negotiations. The British, however, refused to army German the on Sept. 1 and Poles, pressure to bear on the invaded Poland. Two days later Great Britain and France, after of delivering an ultimatum demanding the immediate withdrawal the invading forces, declared war on Germany.

0. -World

War

II

—

Easy Conquests. Hitler began World War II of waging a localized war against Poland intention (g.v.) with the and following this with the quick offer of a peace settlement. The concampaign, however, lasted only 35 days, and the ease of his tempted Hitler to take the initiative in extending the war to

The Years

of

quest the west.

During the course of the winter of 1939-40, Adm. Erich Raeder, commander in chief of the navy, won over Hitler to the idea of vital occupying Norway and Denmark, partly to safeguard the Narvik, iron-ore supply route from northern Sweden through

partly to guarantee the inviolability of the Baltic and partly to prevent the dispatch of British and French troops to the aid of Finland (then at war with the U.S.S.R. through Norwegian ports. The operation was launched on April 9 and proved highly successful without disturbing the main concentration of German forces. The invasion of the Netherlands. Belgium and France was begun on May 10, 1940. The German armoured forces concentrated )

on breaking through the hilly and Hghtly defended Ardennes sector of the front. The success of this advance through Sedan to the Channel coast, which cut off the French and British troops fighting The Dutch and Belgian in Belgium, proved the key to victory. the British were driven of May, end the before surrendered armies

Dunkerque, and by the middle of June the French had requested an armistice. Hitler had no plans at all for the next stage of the war, but when the British showed no disposition to consider a compromise peace, he ordered preparations to be made for the invasion of Britain. How far he seriously intended to embark on so difficult an undertaking has been questioned, but in any case the failure of the German air force to win air supremacy over the Channel and their defeat in the battle of Britain meant that the essential preliminary conditions were lacking, and in Oct. 1940 Operation "Sea Lion" was postponed indefinitely. Russian economic collaboration had been of great value to Germany in reducing the pressure of the British blockade, and in the marked disposifirst half of 1941 the Soviet government showed a hadlong however, Hitler, Germany. with tion to avoid a breach envisaged German expansion eastward and now rapidly convinced himself that Germany was threatened by Russian ambitions. On into the sea at

Dec.

18, 1940,

he signed the directive for Operation "Barbarossa,"

to crush Soviet Russia in a quick campaign. At this point, Hitler's plans were complicated

by the action

ol

attacking Mussolini (who had entered the war on June 10) in

Balkan Greece (Oct. 28, 1940). The effect of this was to open up a The situarion front, of which the British might take advantage. and was made worse by the total failure of the invasion of Greece Su: before Africa north in Italians the of by the rapid retreat to Archibald Wavell's advance (Dec. 1940). Hitler was obUged

come ments

to the aid of his Axis partner.

to north Africa

(where Erwin

He sent German Rommel succeeded

reinforcein driving

German the British back in the spring of 1941) and prepared for a invasion of Greece. Hungary and Rumania were already German Greek satellites and allowed German troops to move toward the In March 1941 the Germans proceeded to occupy key frontiers. the positions in Bulgaria, after a sharp diplomaric contest with Russians, and also induced Yugoslavia to accede to the tripartite palace pact, but the Yugoslav government was overthrown by a Hitler revolution in the name of the young king Peter. Thereupon In ordered drastic measures to make an example of Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia April 1941 German forces invaded and occupied both and Greece, the former operation being accompanied by air attacks May on the defenseless city of Belgrade, and in the last half of German parachute troops completed the conquest of the Balkans

by the capture of Crete. Invasion of the Soviet Union.—With the occupation of Crete Egyptian and Rommel's success in driving back the British to the German main the make to hoped who frontier, Raeder and others blow against the effort in the Mediterranean called for a decisive set upon whole British position m the middle east. But Hitler was confidently attacking and defeating the U.S.S.R., a task which he expected to accomplish within six or eight weeks. The invasion began on June 22, 1941, and though in the opening into Soviet stages of the campaign the German army drove deep

on Moscow untU late m At the beginning of Dec. 1941, the onset of the dreaded faced Russian winter and the unexpected Soviet counteroffensive This crisis. military major with a command the German high and the brought to a head the strained relations between Hitler the army leaders. In Dec. 1941 he assumed the direct command of drastic measures he sucfield armies himself. The fact that by

territory. Hitler left the frontal assault

the year.

winter greatly inin holding the Soviet attacks during the Henceforward creased his confidence in his own miliUry genius.

ceeded

gp:rmany he refused to listen to any views, or even information, which ran counter to his own conception of how the war should be conducted.

—

Germany Declares War on the United States. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Dec. 1941 now extended the war Hitler promptly declared war on the United to the whole world. whose resources he underestimated

States,

the U.S.S.R.

was not

as grossly as those of

Hitler failed to grasp the importance of seapower

Karl Donitz (who succeeded Raeder 1943) was able to persuade him of the importance of the U-boat war. Great efforts were then made to build up Germany's submarine forces, and the U-boat attacks taxed the Allies' shipping resources to the limit, but by the end of 1943 the British and Americans had established a superiority in methods of defense and the Germans had lost the battle of the Atlantic, largely through Hitler's neglect of its possibilities at an earlier stage. Hitler had shown an equal blindness to the importance of the Mediterranean theatre of operations. At the close of 1942, the advance of the British 8th army from the east and the joint AngloU.S. landings in northwest Africa were driving the German and Italian forces under Rommel into a trap. Hitler now hurriedly sent reinforcements, but the only result was to increase the size of the forces captured in Tunisia, where more than 250,000 German and Italian troops surrendered in May 1943. Meanwhile Hitler had embarked on still more ambitious operations for the eastern campaign of 1942, aiming at the occupation of the Caucasus oil fields and a drive to the Volga. The invasion of the Caucasus fell short of its objective, while the drive to the Volga turned into a desperate contest for the city of Stalingrad (Volgograd), where Hitler's obstinate refusal to withdraw in time led to the encirclement and capitulation of the German armies at the end of Jan. 1943. The double defeat of Stalingrad and Tunisia represented the turning point of the war. By mid- 1943, the German forces everywhere stood on the defensive.

and

as

it

commander

until 1942 that

in chief of the na\'y in Jan.

The Nazi Empire.—At

the height of his success, Hitler

the master of the greater part of the

European continent.

was

German

was extended to wide areas of the Baltic states, and European Russia; Poland and the protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia; Serbia and Greece (where the occupation was shared with the Italians) and the nominally independent, satellite states of Slovakia, Croatia, Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria. In the west, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium and France were all under German occupation, part of France from the summer of 1 940 and the whole country from Nov. rule in the east

Belorussia, the Ukraine

;

1942.

German economic exploitation of these territories was ruthless. German policy treated the population, in accord-

In

335

Germany

impact of war was not sharply felt until 1942. Casualties in the early campaigns were comparatively light and not until the winter of 1941^2 in Russia did they reach the scale of World War I. The effects of the blockade were reduced itself the

by the plundering of the occupied After the

countries.

1941-42 on the eastern front Hitler demanded total mobilization. Fritz Sauckel took over the recruitment of foreign labour, while Albert Speer was appointed minister of armaments. By a remarkable feat of organization and improvisation Speer succeeded in maintaining and even raising German war production despite the heavy Allied bombing of industry and communications. By 1944 he had 14,000,000 workers under his direction and was virtually the economic dictator of the country. In the early stages of the war. Goring was the second man in Germany and was named by Hitler as his successor. But by 1942 Goring suffered total eclipse with the failure of the air force to check the Allied raids or make effective retaliation. His place was taken by Himmler, who extended the functions of the SS until it crisis of

became virtually a state within the state. Not only was Himmler put in charge of the resettlement of the occupied territories in the east but in the Waffen (armed) SS divisions, 500,000 strong by 1944, he created a rival army to the Wehrmacht. The Beginning of Defeat By the end of 1943 at the latest

—

Germany's defeat seemed certain to many of its own military leaders. The fact that the war continued for another 18 months, at terrible cost, was due to the refusal of Hitler to admit defeat and his determination to drag down Germany and half of Europe with him rather than repeat the capitulation of 1918. During the course of 1943 Mussolini was overthrown, AngloU.S. forces invaded Italy, and the Russians began the series of massive attacks which were to carry them deep into central Europe. In the east Hitler insisted that the German troops must defend everything they held and obstinately refused to allow the strategic withdrawal which his generals considered the better course. In the summer of 1944 the German front in Poland broke and the Russians pressed forward toward the frontiers of the Reich; on June 4 Rome was liberated and on June 6 the British and Americans made their landings in Normandy. Since the beginning of 1942 the Allied air forces had steadily increased the weight of their bombing attacks on Germany. The first 1,000-bomber raid, on Cologne, took place on the night of May 30-31, 1942. In July 1943 Hamburg was devastated in a series of such raids, while between mid-Nov. 1943 and mid-Feb. 1944 the R.A.F. dropped 22,000 tons of high explosives on Berlin. In March, the U.S. army air force carried out its first day raids on the German capital. These combined attacks continued without respite for three years and did enormous damage. {See Air War-

In eastern Europe,

fare.)

ance with Nazi teaching, as inferior races fit only to serve as slaves. Those classes of the population which on account of their education or position might be expected to provide leadership, together with the Jews and any who showed signs of resistance, were put

Hitler, who had made his headquarters since the summer of 1941 in a remote part of East Prussia, was now completely cut off from the life of the nation he led. He refused to visit the bombed towns, was scarcely ever seen in pubhc and spoke or broadcast only

to

death.

At Mauthausen, one

of

the extermination

camps

in

2,000,000 people, mostly Jews, were exterminated between 1941 and 1945; at Oswiecim (Auschwitz) in Poland, 2,500,000 were executed in the gas chambers, while another 500,000 died from starvation and disease. Frequent man hunts were carried out to round up labour for deportation to Germany; at the end Austria, close to

about 4,795,000 foreign workers had been recruited in this way, the three largest groups being Russians (1,900,000), Poles of 1944,

and French (764,000). Those from the east were and the conditions under which they lived were often appalling, though Hitler's and Himmler's plans for the new order that they meant to build in eastern Europe (851,000)

treated entirely as slave labour

were only partially carried out. In certain parts of the occupied territories (especially where the terrain was favourable) the Germans encountered partisan

movements;

e.g., in Yugoslavia, Poland and the U.S.S.R. In almost all there was some form of resistance movement, in Norway, France and the Netherlands as well as in the east. The German measures for stamping out this opposition were often brutal and

included the shooting of hostages.

on rare occasions. The Plot Against Hitler Realizing that Hitler's refusal to consider surrender would do irreparable harm to Germany, a group of German patriots had for some time been plotting to assassinate

—

him.

The German

opposition was composed of a

number

of loosely

connected groups, fluctuating in membership, with little common organization or common purpose other than their detestation of the Nazi regime. The two senior members, who had been engaged in conspiring to overthrow Hitler from before the war, were Gen. Ludwig Beck, chief of staff of the army until 1938, and Karl Goerdeler, a former Oberbiir germeister of Leipzig. The only institution in Germany able to stage a successful coup d'itat was the army, and one of the principal centres of the plot was the Abwehr (the counterintelligence service of the armed forces). This was broken up by Himmler during 1943 but was replaced by a small group in the command headquarters of the reserve army, whose outstanding personality was Col. Graf Claus von Stauffenberg.

On

July 20, 1944, Stauffenberg placed a

bomb

concealed in his

under the table during a conference at Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia. By chance, however, Hitler, although brief case

,

GERMANY

336

was not among those killed. The attempt of the conspirapower in Berlin and bring the army over openly to their side failed, and both there and in Paris the coup was suppressed before the morning of July 21. The End of the Third Reich. By the end of 1944 the western Allies reached the Rhine, and six months' fighting in the west alone had cost the Germans 1,000,000 men killed, wounded and captured. The Russians swept through the Balkans and by Dec. 1944 were besieging Budapest and threatening East Prussia. Nazi propaganda injured,

tors to seize

—

foretold a terrible fate for the German people if they failed to hold enemy, while extravagant hopes were placed in the secret weapons (guided missiles, jet planes and new U-boats) and in a split off the

between the western powers and the U.S.S.R. Ignoring the danger of a Soviet breakthrough in the east, Hitler persisted in gambling his last resources on an attempt to disrupt the Allies' front in the west by the abortive Ardennes offensive of Dec. 1944. In Jan. 1945, the Russians launched an attack along the whole line from the Baltic to the Carpathians and broke into Germany from the east, while in March the British and Americans crossed the Rhine and poured in from the west. At Hitler's command Germany was turned into a battlefield in a senseless campaign to delay the inevitable defeat.

Although there had been talk of the creation of a national redoubt in the mountainous country of Bavaria, which was the birthplace of the Nazi party. Hitler finally refused to leave Berlin. In a political testament to the German nation, he laid the blame for the disastrous war on others, principally on the Jews, and expressed neither regret nor remorse for what had happened. He appointed Admiral Donitz his successor as head of state and Goebbels as chancellor. In the early hours of April 29, he married his mistress, Eva Braun, and so far as is known shot himself on the afternoon Goebbels committed suicide the following day and of April 30. Himmler shortly afterward. Goring, Speer, Ribbentrop and most of the other Nazi leaders were captured and subsequently tried by

war criminals

the Allies as

at Niirnberg.

Admiral Donitz attempted to negotiate with the western powers, but the Allies insisted upon an unconditional surrender and this was signed at Reims on May 7, 194S, to take effect at midnight

May

8-9.

P.

Germany After World War

II,

1945^9

the unconditional surrender the German state ceased to exist and the responsibility for the government of the German people was assumed by the four occupying powers, the United States, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R. and France. On June 5, the four origi-

With

members of the Allied Control council (Gen. D wight D. Eisenhower, Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, Marshal G. K. Zhukov and Gen. J. de Lattre de Tassigny published in Berlin a declaration stating that the governments of the four powers "will nal

)

hereafter determine the boundaries of Germany or any part thereof and the status of Germany or of any area at present being part of Germany." Berlin (q.v.), although situated in the Soviet zone,

four powers and to be governed by an inter-Allied authority or, in Russian, Kommandatura. The Potsdam Agreement. At the Potsdam conference (July

was

to

be occupied by

all

—

1945), attended by Stalin, Harry S. Truman, Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee but not by a French representative) to be carit was agreed, though a program of decentralization was ried out, not to partition Germany but to treat the country as a single economic unit with certain central administrative departments. Great Britain and the United States agreed to support

17-Aug.

2.

(

at the peace settlement the Soviet annexation of the northern half The conference also of East Prussia (including Konigsberg). agreed "pending the final delimitation of Poland's western frontier" to leave the "former German territories" east of the rivers Oder and Neisse (Pomerania, including Stettin [Szczecin] and Swinemlinde; Silesia; and the southern part of East Prussia), as well as the former free city of Danzig, under Polish administration, stating that these territories "should not be considered as part of the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany." These changes in the east meant

the loss of

22%

of Versailles.

of

German

territory as constituted

by the treaty

The Potsdam conference also decided that "the transfer to Gerof German populations, or elements thereof, remaining in

many

Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, will have to be undertaken." On Nov. 20, 1945, the Allied Control council agreed on a plan to move the entire German population from Poland, including the territories east of the Oder-Neisse line, to the Soviet and British zones of occupation, and the entire German population from Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary to the U.S., Soviet and French zones. In all, during 1946 and 1947, about 6,650,000 Germans were transferred to the four zones of occupation. This total does not

Germans who had fled in 1944^5 westward from Poland, Czechoslovakia and the Danubian countries at the time of the advance of Soviet armies. The Failure of Joint Allied Control. The Allied plans for a common policy in Germany and for the treatment of the country as a single economic unit proved abortive. There were three principal reasons for this failure. The first was the opposition of the French, who had not been represented at Potsdam and who wanted a par-

include about 6,200,000

—

Reich to prevent the reappearance of a unified German the growing divergence between the poUcies pursued by the powers in their zones. The third and most important was the breakdown of the alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one side and the U.S.S.R. on the other. Their differences covered the whole field of Allied policy, but so far as Germany was concerned, the most important issues were the functions and powers of the future German government, the economic unity of Germany, reparations, frontiers and the future Prolonged negotiations between the four powers, of the Ruhr. culminating in four meetings of the Council of Foreign Ministers (London, Sept.-Oct. 1945; Paris, July 1946; New York, Nov.-Dec. 1946; Moscow, March-April 1947), produced no agreement. On March 1, 1947, however, the Allied Control council promulgated a law declaring that "the Prussian state, which from its early days tition of the state.

The second was

had been promoter of militarism and reaction

in

Germany, has de

facto ceased to exist." The deadlock on the Allied Control council had already driven the British and U.S, authorities to act on their own initiative in dealing with the problems of their own zones of occupation. These

were particularly severe in the British zone which contained the densely populated and heavily bombed industrial centres of the Rhineland, the Ruhr, Hanover and Hamburg. The Allies undertook the occupation of Germany with the purpose of rooting out the Nazi regime and destroying the basis of

German stress

on

military power. political

Hence

their original directives laid great

and economic decentralization, disarmament,

the

war criminals, denazification, the dismantling of German war industries and reparations. They rapidly found themselves

arrest of

forced to deal with quite a different set of problems: economic stagnation, the dislocation of communications, famine, a desperate shortage of housing, an unstable currency and rampant black market and the influx of millions of refugees expelled from eastern

Europe. In 1946 the British accepted the offer of the U.S. government to merge their two zones for economic purposes and the bizone came into existence on Jan. 1, 1947. This development was attacked by the Soviet government and was disliked by the French. The British and U.S. authorities had already handed over much administrative responsibility to the Germans and had set up state State parliaments {Laiidtage) were {Lander) governments. brought into being by elections in the U.S. zone at the end of June 1946, in the British in April 1947 and in the French in May 1947. three largest parties to emerge were the Christian Democratic Union (Christlich-Demokratische Union, C.D.U. ), the Free Demo-

The

party (Freie Demokratische Partei, F.D.P.) and the Social party (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, S.P.D.), the last-named being closely bound up with the revived trade union movement. In the bizone, on Jan. 1, 1947, a German economic council of 52 members elected by the Landtage assumed cratic

Democratic

responsibility,

under Allied supervision, for econoniic reconstruc-

tion.

Alongside this rebuilding of the German economy and frequently disarm it, the Allies continued their measures to

at variance with

GERMANY Germany and reduce the

industrial basis of its military power.

This led to confusion in Allied policy which already suffered from major differences between the western powers; e.g., between the British Labour government and the United States over the socialization of the Ruhr industries; between the French and the other two western powers over the creation of centralized organs The resulting sense of inseof administration and government. curity added to German demoralization and apathy. Apart from the hardships of life in ruined and hungry towns, other factors weighed heavily on the Germans; e.g., the large numbers of prisoners of

war

difficulties

still

held abroad, especially in the U.S.S.R., and the

of absorbing the refugees.

The turning point in the postwar history of Germany was the year 1948. The U.S. and British were determined to press ahead with their plans for the reorganization of western Germany. On Jan. 7, 1948, the powers and composition of the German Economic council for the bizone (meeting in Frankfurt am Main) were

German government. was expanded from 52 to 104 members and

changed to create the nucleus of a future

The Economic council

chamber, a Ldnderrat consisting of two representatives from each state, was set up. To meet French objections, a sixpower conference in London (United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) produced on June 7 an agreed program for the future development of the three western zones. Its main features were a constituent assembly and federal German government for all three zones (without the Saar, which at the end of 1947 .became an autonomous territory economically attached to France) an Allied occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities; an economic merger of the French with the British and U.S. zones; the estabhshment of an Alhed military security board to enforce demilitarization; and an international Ruhr authority to control the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr basin. a second

:

337

greater freedom and responsibility to the city administration under its mayor, Ernst Reuter (S.P.D.) When the Soviet authorities made further attempts to interfere with freedom of communica.

tion, the Allies

continued the airhft.

ment was reached which

left

Finally a tacit working agreeBerlin divided into western and

eastern sectors under separate administrations, but with the garrisons of the western powers still in situ.

Two

meetings of the Council of Foreign Ministers held in

London (Nov.-Dec. 1947) and in Paris (May-June 1949) succeeded no more than earUer meetings in reaching agreement on a unified pohcy for the whole of Germany; and, in the meantime, the measures for the organization of separate west and east German states had gone on. On Jan. 17, 1949, an Allied security board had been set up to supervise the demilitarization of Germany. Strong German protests continued to be made against the dismantling of German factories. A new program for demihtariza-

on by the U.S., British and French foreign ministers in April made considerable concessions to the German attitude, but this did not stop the agitation, which led to a number of incidents with the British authorities in the course of the tion agreed

Washington

in

The three foreign ministers at their Washington meeting completed the arrangements for the merger of the French with the Anglo-American bizone and on April 10, 1949, published the promised occupation statute. This guaranteed full powers of selfgovernment to the new West Germ.an state except for certain reserved subjects (see Constitution and Government, below). (A. Bk.; U. W. K.) year.

;

The Soviet government reacted strongly to these developments. attacked the new policy in western Germany, withdrew its representative from the Allied Control council (March 20) and It

began to place obstacles in the way of communications between western Ciermany and Berlin. After the much-needed currency reform in the western zones (put into operation on June 20; the Soviet authorities proceeded to enforce a blockade of the Allied garrisons in Berlin and of about 2,500,000 inhabitants of West Berhn, with the intention of driving out the western powers. This blockade lasted from the summer of 1948 to the summer of 1949.

The answer of the western powers was to institute a counterblockade of the Soviet zone and to organize the supply of Berlin by air.

By

Sept. 30, 1949,

when

the airlift ceased, 2,323,738 tons

and raw materials had been brought into the bejleaguered city in this way. Meanwhile the Allied governments jpressed ahead with the execution of the decisions made in the [summer of 1948. On Sept. 1, a parliamentary council of 6S [members, elected by the Landtage, met at Bonn under the chairmanship of Konrad Adenauer {q.v.), of the C.D.U., to draft a [Constitution. Pending a decision by a future German government ;on the question of public or private ownership, the coal, iron and isteel industries of the Ruhr were placed in the hands of German [trustees and an international Ruhr authority set up with powers to allocate supplies between internal and export needs, as well as to fix quotas, tariffs and prices. After the Marshall offer of U.S. aid to Europe, further economic aid on a large scale (the European Recovery program) was toade available to western Germany, and this, combined with the ipurrency reform, led to a remarkable economic recovery. In the fecond half of 1948 industrial production rose from 45% to nearly p5% of the 1936 level, while steel production doubled during that The economic policy of free competition pursued by the ft&r. German authorities under Ludwig Erhard's guidance was criticized by the S.P.D. and the trade unions on the grounds that it led to ? steep rise in prices and hardship for the poorer classes, but re'ival in German confidence was marked. of food, fuel

I

;

In

May

1949 the U.S.S.R. finally agreed to lift the blockade )f Berlin. In the same month the western powers put into opration a new occupation statute for West Berlin which gave

Q. Federal

Republic of Germany

With cil

the occupation statute published, the parliamentary counat last concluded its discussions on the Basic law of the new

state. This was passed by the council on May 8, 1949, by 53 votes to 12 and approved by the Allied military governors on May 12 with certain reservations, the most important of which was the

West Berlin, the proposed 12th Land of the federaThe 11 Lander, then, were Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhinelandexclusion of tion.

Hesse, Bavaria, Baden, Wiirttemberg-Baden and Wijrttemberg-Hohenzollern (the last three were in 1952 merged to form Baden-Wiirttemberg). The Basic law was ratified by the legislatures of all the Lander save Bavaria (which had hoped for a more federalist, that is, decentralized, distribution of power) and came into force on May 2i, 1949. For the constitution of the new Federal Republic of Germany thus established see below. Administration arid Social Conditions: Constitution and Government. The first federal election was held on Aug. 14, 1949. Two parties emerged from it with roughly a third of Bundestag seats each; the Christian Democrats, whose leader was Konrad Adenauer; and the Social Democrats, led by Kurt Schumacher. An alliance with the Free Democrats and with the German party, which described themselves as liberal and as conservative respectively, allowed Adenauer to be elected first chancellor of the Federal Republic by the margin of one vote and to form a government in which these two other parties occupied 5 of the 13 seats. On Sept. 12, 1949, Theodor Heuss, of the F.D.P., was elected president of the republic. The seat of the government was at Bonn. On Sept. 21, 1949, the occupation statute came into force and the Allied military government was replaced by an Allied high commission. On Oct. the Federal government was given permission to appoint its own delegate to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation. On Nov. 24 the Allied high commission concluded the Petersberg agreement with the chancellor, which included further Allied concessions on dismantling and demihtarization and allowed West Germany to build a merchant marine, to become a direct member of the Ruhr authority and of the Council of Europe, and to re-establish consular and commercial Palatinate,

U

relations abroad.

Foreign Policy (1949-60). republic, so for

Adenauer

took precedence over

was established

all

—As for Stresemann

in the

Weimar

in the Federal Republic, foreign policy

other concerns.

in 1951 the chancellor

When

a foreign office

combined the post of foreign

GERMANY

338

minister with the chancellorship, and even after the appointment the of Heinrich von Brentano to the foreign ministry in 1955 chancellor clearly reserved not only major decisions but also the negotiations to himself.

conduct of major In tune with pubUc opinion, Adenauer deplored the division of Germany. In 1953 he declared: "This oath I take on behalf of the whole German people; We shall not rest nor relax until the whole of Germany is united again in peace and freedom." In was effect his government always maintained that, since Germany divided by agreement between the AUies, it was the responsibiUty of these powers to bring about German reunification and that world disarmament must be conditional on German reunification. This problem was the main subject of the BerHn four-power conference (Jan. 25-Feb. 17, 1954), but the foreign ministers spent four weeks in futile discussion. The following year they met again within Geneva (Oct. 27-Nov. 16) but this conference too ended out agreement. The difference of opinion concerned the relation

quired to help defend Europe, To prevent the emergence of a new German national army, both Sir Winston Churchill and Rene

Pleven (of France) proposed a European army, in which German But the units would be integrated under European command. S.P.D. waged a long battle against rearmament, in which they were aided by Gustav Heinemann, lay president of the synod of the Evangelical Church and Adenauer's first minister of the interior, who voluntarily resigned from the government in 1950, and by Martin Niemoller, president of the Evangelical Church of Hesse, This battle was not finally lost until after the election of 1953, when the government secured a two-thirds majority in both houses and thus made the constitutional question whether rearmament involved amendment of the Basic law irrelevant in practice. The federalists hoped that an apex for the European Coal and

between German reunification and European security, the three western powers regarding the former and the U.S.S.R. the latter

Community and for the European Defense Community would be formed by a European political community, the details of which were worked out in 1952-53 as a basis for governmental discussions by a constitutional committee of which Brentano was the rapporteur. But the defeat of the E.D.C. in the French national

as the preconchtion of the other.

assembly

The cornerstone of the Federal Republic's foreign policy was the western alliance under United States leadership, and, within based on reconit, a federalist conception of west European unity

sovereignty,

ciliation with France.

Adenauer himself had

for years looked for-

ward to a United States of Europe. Probably in no country had the European movement received such enthusiastic support as in western

just after the war; indeed "to serve the peace of the equal partner in a united Europe" was written as an

Germany

world as an

aim into the preamble of the Basic law. European unity offered a new ideal and a new fatherland to a people disillusioned with the disastrous effects of nationalism run riot, whose country had been divided and who were shunned by their neighbours after the crimes against humanity committed in the German name. Economic arguments for European integration seemed obvious first during the immediate postwar period of distress and then also once German recovery had really begun. Given the presence of Soviet troops on German soil, Germans were highly conscious of the Also European unity repredangers of Communist expansion. sented at the same time a path back to German equality in the family of nations, as France and other neighbours would agree to surrender to supranational institutions those powers which they were determined that German national institutions should never Moreover, Adenauer himself and some who thought like regain. him feared for German political stability at home and were afraid that in their foreign policy Adenauer's successors might be tempted to "go it alone," bid for German reunification by offering other concessions and allow Soviet policy to drive a wedge between the countries of western Europe unless these countries were first irrevocably tied in with each other. The Social Democratic opposition was in principle not unfavourable to European integration, but in practice (partly for tactical

reasons) until 1956 condemned the particular forms which it took. Schumacher opposed the entry of the Federal Republic to the Council of Europe in 1950 largely on the grounds that the Saar was admitted to the council simultaneously as an associate mem-

—

ber a move which he feared would appear to sanction its political When the French foreign minister separation from Germany. Robert Schuman in May 1950 proposed the establishment of a coal and steel pool between France and Germany, the S.P.D. saw in this arrangement a French device to exploit the resources of Ger-

man heavy

industry for France's benefit and a confirmation of

Schumacher the economic integration of the Saar with France, accused the Christian Democrats, whose support then came chiefly from the Catholic areas of the west and south, of neglecting reunification with the Protestant industrial areas in which traditionally the S.P.D. had its strength and of hankering after a clerical-

conservative second Carolingian empire of capitalist cartels. Most hotly debated of all were the issues of German rearmament, first raised in 1950, The western powers had allowed Germany a security police force as a counterpart to the "people's police" of the Soviet zone, but after the outbreak of the Korean

War

it

was

felt in

Washington that

12

German

divisions were re-

Steel

Aug. 1954, which held up the restoration of German made an alternative solution necessary both for the problem of German rearmament and for the further progress of in

European

unification.

Accordingly, by the Paris agreements of Oct. 23, 1954, which came into force on May 5, 1955— almost exactly ten years after "unconditional surrender"— the Federal Republic became a sov-

North Atlantic Treaty orup its own armed forces within the NATO framework. Great Britain and the six countries of the Coal and Steel Community joined in a Western European union which was to supervise German rearmament and ensure the maintenance of a sufficient British force on the continent. The Saar was to be given a European statute after a referendum; but

member of (NATO), pledged to

ereign state and a full

the

ganization

set

the local population rejected this settlement on Oct. 23, 1955, the Saar returned to Germany politically to become a Land on Jan, 1, 1957, and to be integrated into the Federal RepubUc

when

economically on July

6,

1959.

But neither NATO nor the Western European union was a tight enough framework to satisfy Adenauer's federalist conception of European unity, and in 1955 the Federal Republic massively supported the plans for two further supranational communities to integrate the six member states of the Coal and Steel Community: a European atomic energy community and a European economic community. In the negotiations over the details of these schemes the Federal Republic less the

two

made major

treaties, signed in

concessions to France; neverthe-

Rome

in

March

1957, were ratified

with the votes of the Social Democratic opposition, and a German, Walter Hallstein, previously secretary of state in the German foreign office, was appointed first president of the commission of the economic community. What opposition there was in the Federal Republic to the Rome treaties came not from those who feared that the economic community would introduce too much free trade within the common

market but from those who feared that it would restrict Germany's world-wide trade by regional preferences. This opposition found a spokesman in Ludwig Erhard, minister of economics since 1949, who in Oct, 1957 was in addition given the post of viceErhard bowed to Adenauer's political reasons and chancellor, voted for the treaties but attempted thereafter to advance the establishment of a free-trade area around the common market, in which the United Kingdom, too, would participate, French intransigence, however, brought this scheme to nought at the end of 1958, and the German government was unwilling to put excessive pressure on the French to induce them to revise their attitude. Adenauer had gone to meet General de Gaulle in Sept, 1958, and for the next year the two men worked in a close harmony which came in Great Britain to be referred to as the "Bonn-Paris axis," while the common market went off to a good start, A certain coolness developed at this period between the Federal Republic (which viewed with distrust Harold Macmillan's journey to Moscow and his attempts to bring about a summit conference) and the United Kingdom (which felt left out of continental eco-|

GERMANY nomic arrangements and political understandings). There had earlier in the postwar period been clear-cut disagreements over dismantling and support costs, but a new general miasma of misunderstandings was reached in 1959 and early 1960. The Germans felt that the popular reception given to President Heuss on a state visit to London in Oct. 195S had been too cool, and Adenauer in 1959 made an impromptu statement on "wire-pullers" operating against Germany in the British press. In Great Britain there was anxiety over the influential positions held by many former Nazis in the German government and judiciary, and fears of a Nazi revival were sparked off by a wave of swastika-daubing (not confined to Germany) after Christmas 1959. It was not until

summit conference of May 1960, when meantime grown impatient of President de Gaulle's attitude toward European integration (which to the chancellor seemed a continuation of nationalist aggrandizement by other means), that a rapprochement was initiated and iMacmillan was invited to come to Bonn in Aug. 1960. German relations with the United States were cordial throughout: harmony with the United States was part of the basic conception of West German foreign policy. The chancellor and John Foster Dulles, the U.S. secretary of state, trusted and respected each other, and Adenauer's journeys to the U.S. in 1953 and 1957, both triumphant successes, were no small help to him in the gen-

339

recognize the Soviet zone as foreign territory, or the government

German Democratic Republic as a legitimate government; and since it regarded that government as a temporary dictatorship on German soil, it refused, on principle, to have diplomatic relations with any state other than the U.S.S.R. which recognized that government. Relations between the two administrations were confined in the main to trade, cultural matters and sport. In particular the Federal Republic's government, in contrast to the Social Democratic party and sometimes also to the Free Democratic party, rejected all accusations that its policy of reof the

—

armament jeopardized

—

the chances for

German

reunification.

It

likewise rejected the various proposals for an atom-free zone in

—

ticular attention to the

Europe such as the "Rapacki plan" put forward in Oct. 1957 by the Polish minister for foreign affairs and for a confederation between the two German political units with a consultative all-German council to prepare for the withdrawal of all foreign troops a plan endorsed by N. S. Khrushchev during his visit to East Berlin in Aug. 1957. In April 1958 a trade agreement was signed between the Federal Republic and the Soviet Union; but the Soviet stick was brought out more clearly than ever since the establishment of the Federal Republic when, in the following November, Khrushchev demanded that all Allied troops be withdrawn from Berlin and threatened to turn over the routes of access to Berlin to the German authorities of the Soviet zone unless this withdrawal took place within six months. In this second Berlin crisis, the western powers stood their ground, and in Dec. 1958 they rejected Khrushchev's 'pro-

man citizens. The Federal Republic

The Social Democratic mayor of West BerUn, Willy Brandt, embarked on a pubUc relations campaign in Germany and throughout the western world, emphasizing Berlin's symbolic position as the outpost of the free world which could not without disaster be abandoned. The year 1959 saw the Conference of Foreign Ministers in Geneva (May-Aug.), which was attended by observers of both East and West Germany. The conference adjourned without reaching any agreement, and the summit conference summoned in Paris in May 1960 proved abortive. Throughout 1960 and 1961 "the German problem" the status of Berlin, the conclusion of a peace treaty, the demarcation of German frontiers and German reunification thus remained unsolved. Domestic Developments (1949-61) Table II gives an analy-

after the failure of the

Adenauer had

in the

eral elections of those years.

Beyond Europe, the foreign policy

of

West Germany paid

par-

emergent states of the middle east, Asia and Africa. Israel was a special case; and as an attempt to make partial material atonement for the death of 6,000,000 Jews, the Federal Republic in March 1953 ratified an agreement with Israel for reparations amounting to 3,450,000,000 DM. over a period of 12 years. But in the Arab world also, and in Africa, the Federal Republic was anxious to establish itself as a noncolonial power which could supply capital goods and technicians, and even some export credits (insured by the German government), to facilitate economic development. Thus the Federal Republic signed a major agreement with the United Arab Republic on May 7, 1958, providing 400,000,000 DM. of industrial credit and technical assistance for the U.A.R., and for the return of sequestrated property to Ger-

to the

Rome

also undertook, in a convention

appended

treaty of 1957, to contribute $200,000,000 over five

same sum as France) as a nonrecoverable gift to the development fund of the European Economic Community a sum which was to be spent mainly in the African countries which were then French overseas territories. The fact that the Federal Republic was not a member of the United Nations helped West Geryears (the

many

—

to maintain amicable relations simultaneously with the colo-

and former colonial powers and with the newly emerging nation-states the dilemmas which many votes in the United Nations would otherwise have posed could not arise for the Federal nial

;

Republic. Particularly since 1957, after the disagreements at the time of the Suez crisis between the United States on the one side and both

Great Britain and France on the other, the U.S. department of state felt that in Adenauer's Germany it had a firm European ally on whose partnership it could count. Adenauer, in turn, was able to carry a good deal of weight in Washington even after Dulles' death when, before the summit meeting of 1960, he feared that western policy, in the course of negotiating with the U.S.S.R., might lose sight of Germany's special position. The Federal Republic's relations with the Soviet Union were much more complicated; the initiative, for the most part, was that of the Soviet Union, with the Federal Republic seeming, at times, to be stalling in the face of alternating blandishments and threats. The Soviet Union offered the Federal Repubhc diplomatic relations in 1955, which Adenauer, visiting Moscow in September, agreed to establish in return for the release of nearly 10,000 German prisoners of war still held in Russian hands. Soviet policy was to recognize two German governments and to insist that only by negotiations between these two could German unity be re-established. The Federal Republic, on the other hand, refused to

central

—

—

posal for a "free city."

—

—

sis

of the voting in the elections to the

Table

it.

—Elections

to the

Bundestag from

Bundestag, 1949-61

(Percentages of total valid votes) Parties

1

949.

Ade-

GERMANY

340

Then in 1950 a refugee party, the Block der Heimatvertriebenen und Entrechteten (B.H.E.). subsequently renamed the AllGerman bloc, was formed in Schleswig-Holstein, where it immediately attracted 23% of the votes, as against the C.D.U.'s 20%; it quickly spread to Lower Saxony, where it polled 15% the next year, and to other Lander. Yet. except for certain rural areas and for people of advanced years, the assimilation of the refugees proved surprisingly easy. Their integration into the fast-growing economy and their participation in the social product (resulting from their own hard work far more than from the law on the equalization of war burdens of July 18. 1952) was reflected in the voting figures: by 1953 the party obtained only 6% and by 1957 less than 5% of federal votes, thus losing its representation in the Bundestag. Further to the right, organizations sharing many of the ideals of the Nazi movement caught the public eye during the first legislative period. The Socialist Reich party, led among others by Otto Remer. who had shot many of the plotters of July 20. 1944. polled 11% of the votes in Lower Saxony in 1951. It was banned But as an unconstitutional successor to the Nazi party in 1952. reunions of soldiers' organizations and the attempts by Werner Naumann (whom Hitler had nominated as Goebbels' successor) to infiltrate with sympathizers into the Free Democratic and other parties and to weave a "spider's web" of international connections caused some concern. Naumann was arrested in Jan. 1953 on the orders of the British high commission. After his release he joined the Deutsche Reichspartei. which remained in existence as a party for those with nationalist sympathies and denazification grievances but never polled more than just over 1% of federal votes. Former Nazis were to be found in other parties, but neo-Naziism remained an ineffective marginal phenomenon. The first legislative period was marked by the struggle over the law of codetermination. demanded by the unified Trade Union federation which had taken the place of the politically and denominationally divided German unions of the Weimar period. "Labour directors" nominated by the trade unions were made compulsory in the coal and steel industries under a law passed on April 10, 1951. But in spite of disagreements over the distribution of the national product, the German trade unions were extremely moderate in their wage demands throughout the postw-ar decade, thereby facilitating economic growth, even if at the expense of an inequality of wealth which might not have been tolerated in

some other

countries.

Simultaneously the process of reconcentration was going on apace in German industry. Even Alfried Krupp von Bohlen. who had been sentenced at Niirnberg as a war criminal, was allowed on his release to retain interests worth approximately £25,000,000. Indeed, both through its hold on the purse strings of the government parties and through its organizational and personal influence, the business community was thought to have an important voice in political decisions behind the scenes. The great conAdenauer's Second Administration (1953-57). solidation of domestic politics in the Federal Republic took place in the election of Sept. 6, 1953, when Adenauer's C.D.U. increased In spite of the reits poll from 7.359,084 to 12,444,799 votes. armament issue the chancellor's party succeeded in establishing

—

Protestant areas and in attracting, in the Catholic away from such minor predominantly Catholic parties as the Bavarian party and the Centre. Economic progress, the hold of the chancellor's personality and

itself in the

areas, an important share of the vote

the desire to remain close to the protection of the west were the chief motives for this surprisingly decisive poll. The Social Democrats, who had lost their brilliant leader Schumacher in 1952 and were now led by Erich Ollenhauer, won a smaller percentage of the total vote cast though they increased their poll from 6.934.975 to 7,939,774, while the Free Democrats, who could scarcely attack a government of which they formed a part and could not effectively claim credit for all its achievements, dropped from

Adenauer's second administration included representatives of the B.H.E.. as well as of the F.D.P. and the German party, but strains and stresses soon developed. The German Trade Union federation, claiming to speak for its 6.000,000 members, came out clearly on the side of the Social

and conscription and

Democrats against rearmament

favour of further efforts to negotiate for German reunification: the ''German manifesto" issued from the Frankfurt Paulskirche in 1955 was supported by the Socialists, the Federation leaders and prominent Protestant churchmen. But on July 15 a law for the formation of a volunteer army (in preparation for conscription w-as passed by the Bundestag, special provisions being inserted in the bill to safeguard civilian control and attempt to exclude from the higher ranks of the army those whose political past was suspect. The conscription bill was passed on in

)

July 21, 1956, and the first recruits were called up on April 1, 1957. In the summer of 1955, the All-German bloc spht, and when

Adenauer retained

its

two ministers

in his cabinet, the

rump

of the

party w-ent into opposition. Early in 1956 the government's majority was further reduced: after a bitter conflict over the terms of the next electoral law, the Free Democrats broke with the chancellor. In North Rhine-Westphalia a young group of politicians from the F.D.P. united with the Social Democrats in the "Diisseldorf revolt" to replace the C.D.U. minister president by a coalition of the F.D.P. and the S.P.D. and thus to swing the five votes of the Land in the upper house against the chancellor. Only 16 F.D.P. Bundestag members (including four ministers) spUt off from the F.D.P. to remain loyal to the government. By 1957 the chancellor's parliamentary majority had thus fallen from more than 180 to less than SO votes, and as the Free Democrats appeared wilhng to form a coalition with the Social Democrats after the elections of 1957 many observers felt that the end of Adenauer's supremacy was at hand. Adenauer's Third Administration (1957-61). Such forecasts, however, proved premature. The U.S.S.R.'s suppression of the Hungarian rising at the end of 1956 put an end to the "Geneva spirit" in which reunification plans of the type envisaged by the Social and Free Democrats had appeared realistic. In the spring of 1957 a major reform greatly increased pensions and tied future pension rates not only to the cost of living but to the growth in national income. For the elections on Sept. 15. 1957. an efficiently organized, expensive campaign backed by business finance and by the moral influence of the Catholic Church, insisting on the phenomenal economic progress of the Federal Republic under eight years of Adenauer's and Erhard's policies with the slogan: "No

—

—

experiments Konrad Adenauer,'' resulted in the first absolute Though the Social majority ever polled by a German party. Democrats dropped socialism from their election appeals and concentrated on fighting against conscription, atomic weapons and authoritarian tendencies under the Adenauer regime, the rise in their share of the votes was small. The Free Democrats, who declared that they would not bind themselves to either major party until the

morning after the

the grace of the C.D.U.

election, lost substantially.

did the

German party

Only by

return to the

Bundestag as a

satellite fourth party: but its parliamentary existence ceased in 1960. w'hen its federal ministers and many of its members joined the C.D.U. The Social Democrats continued their battle against atomic armament after the election. With the aid of the trade unions they launched a "campaign against atomic death" in March 1958 and once more called for the withdrawal of foreign troops and

When the Trade Union federation in Europe. general strike in favour of the campaign, the city-states of Bremen and Hamburg, controlled by S.P.D. governments, attempted to organize Land referenda on the question but

an atom-free zone refused to

call a

2,829,920 to 2,628,146 votes. The Communists failed to obtain in the Bundestag and were banned as unconstitutional in 1956. Theodor Heuss was re-elected president of the republic

were prevented from doing so by the constitutional court. The Federal German armed forces were equipped with dual-purpose By the' missiles capable of carrying atomic warheads in 1958. end of 1960 their strength numbered more than 290.000 men,! forming seven divisions under NATO command and four in process Gen. Adolf Heusinger had been appointed chairof formation. man of the permanent military committee of NATO in Washings

in July 1954.

ton.

any seats

GERMANY The year 19S9 saw the first attempt to challenge the chancellor's leadership within the C.D.U. The crisis was provoked at the end of Heuss's second term as president by Adenauer's proposal to have Erhard elected as president of the republic, thereby eliminating him from the succession to the chancellorship. When Erhard,

prompted by many of his party colleagues who feared that the C.D.U. would thereby lose a major electoral asset, refused to stand, the C.D.U. in a surprise move induced Adenauer himself Adenauer left for his holidays to accept nomination (April 7). asserting that a president had great reserve powers, particularly He sought to induce the C.D.U. to in the field of foreign affairs. accept as his successor Franz Etzel, a former vice-president of the Coal' and Steel Community identified with the policy of European integration on the level of "the Six." But when the party seemed determined to nominate Erhard for the chancellorship, Adenauer on June 7 reversed his decision as suddenly as he had taken it in the first place. Though he had cast severe aspersions on Erhard's political experience and reliability in foreign policy, he was able to scotch an incipient revolt in the party immediately and without The episode temporarily damaged the prestige both of difficulty. the chancellor and of the Christian Democrats, who had so readily accepted his changes of mind and come to heel at his command. The candidate finally elected president was Heinrich Liibke, of the C.D.U. Other domestic subjects of dispute during the third legislative (1) the demand by the minister of the interior, Gerhard Schroder, for increased executive powers and provisions the draft of the minisfor government in an emergency; and (2 try of the interior for a party law (demanded by the Basic law) which would regulate the internal structure and afford some pubNeither bill was passed, nor licity on the sources of party funds. was the dispute over the control of a second television service, claimed by the Lander as against the federal government, resolved. The Social Democrats were badly shaken by their defeat in 1957 and impatient at being confined to opposition at the federal level, whatever constructive achievements they might have to their credit A younger group for their work in Land and city governments. came to the fore with revisionist tendencies and decided to concentrate its efforts at securing a change of government, which seemed to them vital in the interests of a soundly functioning democracy. In Nov. 19S9 the Social Democrats adopted the first "Program of Principles" since that agreed upon in Heidelberg in 1925. This Bad Godesberg program marked a complete abandonment of Marxism, scarcely mentioned socialization and advocated an economic policy of "as much freedom as possible, as much planning period were:

)

On June

as necessary,"

20, 1960, after the failure of the

conference, the party proceeded to abandon chancellor's foreign policy

and called

common

for a

its

summit

opposition to the

common Then

reappraisal of

Hanover, in Nov. 1960, the party conference confirmed Willy Brandt, the mayor of West Berhn, as its candidate for the chancellorship; Brandt reversed the party's remaining major stand against the government by accepting both conscription and the possibility that German troops might be equipped with atomic weapons. The party thus aligned itself in policy matters very closely with the C.D.U. and evidently hoped to fight the electoral campaign of 1961 chiefly by contrasting the popular figure of Willy Brandt with the venerable chancellor who, at 85, was 38 years Brandt's senior. Adenauer's Fourth Administratioti (1961- ). The result of the situation

and

a

foreign policy.

at

—

was that the Christian Democrats lost their absolute majority in the Bundestag. The number of their votes, as compared with the 1957 election, fell from 15,008,399 to 14,298,372, while the Free Democrats increased their popular vote from 2,307,135 to 4,028,765 and the Social Democrats from 9,495,571 to 11,427,353. The German party and the AllGerman bloc, which together had formed the All-German party, ;suffered defeat, falling from a combined 2,381,348 to 870,757 the elections of Sept. 17, 1961,

For the first time in the history of the Federal Republic only three parties were elected to the Bundestag: the Christian

votes.

I

Democrats,

still

crats 67 seats

the strongest, obtained 242 seats, the Free

and the Social Democrats 190

seats.

Demo-

341

A coalition between the Christian Democrats and the Free Demowas an obvious necessity, but, as Erich Mende, the latter's wanted a chancellor other than Adenauer, the negotiations were protracted and were concluded only on Nov, 7 when Adenauer was re-elected chancellor. The new cabinet comprised 16 Christian Democrats and 5 Free Democrats, The new coalition government was pledged to the same domestic and foreign policies (especially rapprochement with France) as its predecessor, but Mende exacted from Adenauer the appointment of a new foreign minister, Gerhard Schroder. A treaty of co-operation, drafted to end Franco-German strife forever, was signed by Adenauer and crats

leader,

De

Gaulle in Paris, Jan. 22, 1963,

R,

(U.

W. K.)

German Democratic Republic

The Soviet approach in their zone of occupied Germany was both politically and economically different from that of the westUnderstandably enough, reparations and ern occupying powers. security were Soviet chief interests. The Russians had no sympathy for the German people who had accepted Naziism so easily and who had devastated half the European territory of the U.S.S.R. They were looking for friends in Germany mainly among the Communists, especially among those who had been exiles in the U,S.S,R. The Soviet Military administration (S.M.A.) was formed on June 9, 1945, and the following day Marshal Zhukov issued a proclamation restoring political freedom to all "anti-Fascist" parties. As a result the Communist party (K.P.D.), the Social Democratic (S.P.D.), the Christian Democratic (,C.D.U.) and the Liberal Democratic (Liberal-Demokratische Partei, L.D.P.) parties emerged as leading political organizations. On June 14 they pubUshed a common declaration of policy pledging themselves to work together for the final liquidation of Hitlerism and the creation of a democratic regime in Germany. In July 1945 the Soviet zone was divided into five Lander or states; Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt (formerly Prussian Saxony), Saxony, Thuringia and Mecklenburg (incorporating the part of Pomerania situated west of the Oder river).

On

Sept.

created:

12,

1945, the

first

was by Germans under Erwin Hornle, a Com-

central zonal administration

there were 12 departments headed

the chairmanship of Marshal Zhukov. munist, the secretary for agriculture, undertook immediately a farreaching land reform aimed at destroying the power of the Junkers or the Prussian military caste. All estates of more than 100 ha.

were expropriated without compensation. On Dec. 8 Hornle announced that the reform had been completed. It resulted in the transfer of land from about 3.000 big landlords, who had owned about a third (2,165,000 ha.) of all agricultural land, into the hands of 544,079 landless farm workers, small holders and resettlers from Poland and Czechoslovakia. There were other radical changes in the economic structure of the Soviet zone which differentiated it sharply from the western zones. Early in June 1945 the S.M.A. ordered the blocking of all bank accounts, allowing the withdrawal of only 300 RM.; at one blow everybody was placed on an equal footing and forced to look for work. On July 26, 1945, all private banks were closed, and all firms, organizations and private persons were ordered to hand over to the Soviet authorities, within five days, all gold and silver currency, bullion bars, foreign bank notes, deeds and valuMassive dismantling of factories as reparations and the ables. transfer to the U.S.S.R. of rolling stock and rails (by reducing all lines to a single track) were top priorities. On April 22, 1946, after four months of negotiations, the Communists and Social Democrats in the Soviet zone formed a single party known as the Socialist Unity Party of Germany Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands or S.E.D.) Wilhelm Pieck and Otto Grotewohl were elected joint chairmen. This fusion was strongly opposed by the Social Democrats in the three western zones where the S.E.D. was not recognized by the AUied authorities. In Sept. 1946 elections for towns and parish councils took place (

;

The S.E.D. obtained the largest number 48.4% in Saxony to 69% in Mecklenburg; the Liberal Democrats were the second strongest party in Thuringia (25.7%), in Saxony-Anhalt {2i.i%) and in Saxony (20.2%),

in all the five

of votes: from

Lander.

GERMANY

342

while the Christian Democrats were the second strongest party in

Brandenburg (19%) and Mecklenburg (16%).

that the

Oct. 20 voting took place throughout the Soviet zone for the Landtage (state councils). About 89% of the electorate of

On five

11,000,000 took part in these elections. Of the 9,790,931 votes cast, the S.E.D. obtained 47.5% votes, the Liberal Democrats 24.5% and the Christian Democrats 24.4%. Coalition governments between the S.E.D. and the two other principal parties were established.

As a Soviet reply to the German Economic council in the bizone, 25-member economic commission was created on Feb. 13, 1948,

a

taking over the central administrative departments already in existence; its chairman was Heinrich Rau, a veteran Communist. On Dec. 6-7, 1947, the S.E.D. convened in East Berlin a People's congress {Volkskongress) and. a second one was held on

March 17-18, 1948. The latter, attended by about 2,000 "delegates," decided to set up a People's council (Volksrat) of 400 members. Addressing the second People's congress, Grotewohl blamed the western powers for "refusing to solve the German problem on a four-power basis." In the autumn of 1948 the People's council was set to work to draw up a constitution for a POPUUTION VARIATION BY POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS. 1950-1361 German Democratic Republic.

A third

On March 25, 1954, the Soviet government announced German Democratic Republic was sovereign. During May 1952 the German Democratic Republic announced

S.A.G.).

it from the Federal Republic of police-guarded no man's land 3 mi. wide w-as created along the whole extent of the frontier dividing the two republics, Berlin remaining the only exception. On July 23, 1952, new administrative divisions were adopted: the 5 Lander were replaced by 14 new Bezirke (districts), each containing 15 to 16 Kreise

several measures which isolated

Germany.

A

(counties).

A treaty recognizing the Oder-Neisse line as the permanent Polish-German frontier was signed on July 6, 1950, at Zgorzelec (Gorlitz). On Oct. 1, 1950, the Democratic Republic was admitted to the Council for Mutual Economic Aid, which included the U.S.S.R. and six eastern European people's democracies. On May 14, 1955, a treaty of mutual military assistance was signed in Warsaw by the eight governments, including that of the Demo(See Warsaw Treaty Organization.) cratic Republic. The land reform of 1945 left about 1,900,000 ha. of agricultural land in the possession of individual farmers owning between 20 and

People's congress of 1,S2S

members, elected

in the Soviet zone on May 15-16, 1949, adopted the constitution on May 30. The People's congress appointed a new People's council of 400 which was transformed on

Oct.

7

into a provisional People's

chamber A ( V olkskammer) chamber of states {Ldnderkammer) was appointed three days later and on Oct. 11 the two chambers elected Pieck president of the repubhc. A government was estabhshed under the premiership of Grotewohl; Walter .

Ulbricht,

first

S.E.D., was minister.

secretary of the

first

deputy prime

The S.M.A. then

for-

mally handed over power to the new government, being replaced by a Soviet control commission. When Pieck died on Sept. 7. 1960,

no successor was elected. Instead, on Sept. 12, the office of president was aboUshed and a council of state formed, Ulbricht

becoming

chairman.

its

On May

16,

1950, Stalin an-

nounced a reduction in the Soviet reparations demand. By the end of 1950, East Germany would have paid about $3,658,000,000 toward the total Soviet demand of $10,000,000,000.

The

Soviet

government, in agreement with Poland (entitled to 15% of the Soviet share), decided to reduce the sum still due by 50%, that is,

to $3,171,000,000, to be paid

from current production over a period of 15 years.

however,

From

Jan.

1,

U.S.S.R. ended the collection of repara1954,

the

from the Democratic Reand on that day transferred to its government about 96 Soviet hmited-liability companies

tions

public

(Sowjet Aktiengesellschaften or

POPULATION VARIATION BY POLITICAL SUBDIVISIONS 1950-61

GERMANY Collectivization of these farms began in July 1952. By spring 1960 all the individual peasants had joined the agricultural

100 ha.

L.P.G. (Landwartschaftliche Profarmers rebelled by escaping westward through Berlin. Because of prosperity and full employment in West Germany, East German workers, especially young and skilled workers, as well as professional men, were constantly escaping from East Germany. According to West German official figures a total of about 2,700,000 East Germans fled to the Federal Republic between Oct. 1949 and Aug. 1961. This exodus seriously handicapped the economic development of East Germany, whose industrial growth, although impressive, was much smaller than that of the Federal Republic. In addition no progress was made with the solution of the problem of Berlin where, according to a Soviet proposal of Nov. 27, 19S8, a "demilitarized free city," comprising the three western sectors, should be formed. East Berlin, in the Soviet view, was an integral part of the German Democratic Republic. At the beginning of Aug. 1961 the political advisory council of the Warsaw Treaty organization met in Moscow and adopted a resolution asking the government of Eas Germany "to establish on the borders of western Berlin a regime which will securely block the way to the subversive activity against the countries of the socialist camp, so that reliable safeguards and effective control may be estabhshed round the whole territory of western Berlin, including its border with democratic Berlin." On Aug. 12 the East German Volkskammer adopted a decree seahng off the border between East and West Berhn as well as between West Berlin and the surrounding East German territory, leaving only 13 official crossing points open. The decree stated or

co-operatives duktionsgenossenschaft). producers'

Many

no way revised former decisions on transit traffic between western Berhn and western Germany via the G.D.R." Both documents were published in the night of Aug. 12-13 and, during the same night, a barbed-wire barrier dividing Berhn was erected. In the night of Aug. 17-18 a concrete wall up to 6 ft. high and topped with barbed wire replaced the provisional barrier. On Aug. 22 the number of crossing points was reduced to six; three for West Berhners, two for West Germans and one, in that this "in

the Friedrichstrasse, for foreigners.

All the protests of the three

government asking them put an end to these "illegal measures" were ignored. As a

Allied western to

governments

to the Soviet

result of the closing of the

the

two German

Berlin gap in the frontier between

states, the flood of refugees

was practically stopped.

from East Germany (K. Sm.)

POPULATION

IV.

The changes in area and population from 1871 The population of the German empire

are given in

!Table III.

at its establishment was about 41,000,000. Between 1871 and 1914, a peiriod of rapid industrial expansion, the birth rate in Germany was It rose to more than 39 live births per 1,000 population in the 1870s and then fell steadily to 27.5 in 1913. By il914 the population exceeded 67,000,000. World War I severely reduced the population in three ways: the loss of men from all iwar causes was estimated at 2,870,000; the birth rate fell to the [lowest point in history 14.3 in 1918 and, by the Versailles treaty,

iunusually high.

—

iGermany had

;

to surrender territories containing nearly 7,000,000

persons.

After the war the birth rate rose to 25.9 per 1,000 in 1920 but again to 14.7 in 1933. Regarding the low birth rate as an obstacle -to the industrial and military expansion of the Reich, the INational Socialist leaders adopted between 1933 and 1939 several [measures designed to increase the population. These measures, including the system of government marriage loans of which onequarter was remitted for each child born alive, brought about a

j

[fell

moderate increase in the birth rate. At the end of 1937 the population of the Reich was about 69,000,000. By the summer of 1939, however. Hitler's annexations had resulted in an increase in popujlation of nearly 18,000,000, bringing the grand total for greater iGermany to a figure in excess of 86,000,000. World War II reduced the population of Germany in much the same way as World War I losses from war causes were estimated I

:

343 Table in.—

GERMANY

344 am Main

furt

(683,081),

Dortmund

(641,480), Stuttgart (637,-

Hanover (573,124), Bremen (564,517), Duisburg (502.993), Nurnberg (454,520) and Wuppertal (420,711). The only towns in the German Democratic RepubUc exceeding 400,000 are East Berlin (1,055,283), Leipzig (585,258) and Dresden (491,539),

699).

years after World War II the East German authoricheck the drastic population developments in their territory, influenced, no doubt, by the overcrowding and chaos which prevailed. Then there was a tendency to introduce

In the

ties

first

made no

effort to

Measures population measures reminiscent of the Nazi era. against abortions were tightened up, and in 1950 a law "for the protection of mother and child and the rights of women" was introduced, with the dual aim of increasing the employment of women in industry and encouraging the production of large families. Such measures, however, were largely offset by an increasing exodus to the Federal Republic of members of the most fertile age groups during the ensuing years. The density of population in Germany (including the Saar, but not later anne.xations increased steadily from 124.2 per square kilometre (48 per square mile) in 1910 to 147.6 (57) in 1939. It was this growing pressure of population which gave the National Socialists the excuse for demanding more Lebensraum ("Uving space"). The most rapid increase in density was in the cities and the industrial areas, while the countryside was becoming gradually depopulated. The absorption of refugees in West Germany by the least populated areas has helped to spread the pressure but the concentration in the cities and industrial areas remains. The Refugees Under the 1945 Potsdam agreement about 6,500,000 persons of German origin in former German territory east of the Oder-Neisse line, in Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, were to be returned to Germany (2,750,000 to the Soviet zone and 3,900.000 to three western zones). By the end of 1953 there were 8,451.000 expelled persons living in the Federal Republic and an additional 2,153.000 political refugees from the Democratic Republic and the Soviet sector of Berlin, who together formed about 22% of the population of the Federal Republic. In the Democratic Republic the refugee population in Aug. 1950 was This number, however, was 4,312,000, 24% of the population. reduced to 3,800,000 by mid-1953 as many continued their flight to the west. Until Aug. 1 961 when East Berlin was sealed off from West Berlin, there had been a steady stream of refugees from the Democratic Republic to the west, varying in intensity with the )

—

,

and the economic conditions in the Democratic In 1960, 199,188 refugees from East Germany found their way to West Germany. In the first six months of 1961 this number was 103,159 and in August alone 47,433 persons from East Germany sought refuge in the west, mostly before the seahng off of East Berlin on Aug. 13. It was estimated that between 1949 and

political situation

Republic.

about 2,600,000 inhabitants of the Democratic ReBy June 1961 it was estimated that more than 12.500,000 of the Germans in the Federal Republic were refugees. The integration of these refugees has placed a tremendous burden on the economy of the Federal Republic. On the other hand, as the average age of the refugees was lower than that of the nonrefugee population, the former have also helped to redress the balance, disturbed by the war, between the more fertile and the less fertile age groups. (R. A. A. C. de S.)

June

30, 1961,

public found refuge in the west.

V.

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Since Germany's unconditional surrender in 1945 there has been no central government for the whole country. The evolution of the two German Republics after partition is discussed in History above. Their political systems are now completely divided, and each is

of talks between the three western powers in

London

in the spring

of 1948, principles were enumerated for the formation of a central government in western Germany, for the international control of the

Ruhr and

for the establishment of a mihtary security board.

German Lander were authorized to convene a constituent assembly for the drafting of a democratic and federal type of constitution which would combine The

ministers president of the western

adequate central authority with a proper degree of self-government for the participating Lander. The constitution was to make possible the accession of the Lander of the Soviet zone, and to remain in force until the constituent assembly of a united Germany could draft a more permanent instrument. For this reason the German ministers president insisted on calling the constitution the Basic

law (Grundgesetz). It was adopted by the parliamentary council at Bonn on May 8, 1949. At first sight, the Basic law closely resembles the Weimar constitution in being a federal, republican type of constitution, weighted in favour of the central authority. It contains, however, a number of provisions aimed at strengthening German democracy and avoiding some of the most dangerous practices of the Weimar constitution. The German conception of democracy is the Rechtstaat, in which all acts and regulations of the public authorities are based on legal principles and procedures clearly laid down, and are all liable to examination and control by the courts, mainly the administrative courts. The Weimar constitution did not guarantee the participation of the people in making the laws nor make individual basic rights legally binding. The Basic law not only laid down these basic rights as binding and not subject to the amendment procedure but also set up a constitutional court with Moreover, the the specific task of ensuring respect for them. Basic law reversed the relative positions of the president and the chancellor within the state.

Under

the president had to be elected directly of the popular vote.

the

Weimar

constitution,

by an absolute majority

He

was, therefore, in a political position suwho owed his ofSce to an uneasy coalition of representatives elected under proportional representa-

perior to that of the chancellor,

tion. The Basic law provides for the indirect election of the president for five years by a federal assembly ( Bundesversammliing) composed of both legislative chambers, i.e., the Bundestag or lower house and the Bundesrat or upper house, and transfers his former emergency powers, in a severely curtailed form, to the chancellor and his cabinet. The chancellor is nominated by the president but must be elected by an absolute majority of the Bundestag, and he cannot be dismissed except through the election of a successor by

same method. Like the Weimar constitution, the Basic law provides for a twochamber legislature: a Bundestag (composed of 497 members plus 22 representatives from West Berhn who. however, cannot vote), representing the nation as a whole and elected by direct universal suffrage for four years; and a Bundesrat, formed from members The Bundesrat (which has 41 memof the Land governments. bers plus 4 deputies from West Berlin^) acts mainly in an ad\dsory the

capacity, but its consent

and

is

required for a large

number

of laws

for the issue of regulations affecting the Lander, as well as

for amendments to the Basic law. This is important, as the Basic law continues the practice of the Weimar constitution of entrusting to the Lander the exercise of state powers and the discharge of state functions.

The Basic law was approved by the American, British and French military governors with certain reservations and came into force on May 23, 1949. The exercise of sovereign powers in the new Federal Republic was restricted by the occupation statute, by which the three Allied powers reserved to themselves powers of

sive conferences of the four foreign ministers having failed, the

number of fields relating to questions already the subject of wider agreements or of special interest to them. A reservation concerned the position of Berlin. It was decided that, in view of the quadripartite occupation of the city, Berlin could not be included in the new Federal Republic, although it should be allowed to send observers to the Federal parliament. The Ldtider. The ten Lander of the Federal Republic of Ger-

three western powers eventually decided that governmental development in western Germany could be held up no longer. At a series

many, together with areas, populations and capitals, are shown in Table IV. Each of them has its own written constitution and each

treated separately below.

A. Federal 1.

Republic of Germany

—

Constitution and Government. Efforts to establish a German government by quadripartite agreement at succes-

central

control in a

—

—

GERMANY Table IV.

Federal Republic of Germany: Lander (States) Area

.... .... ....

Baden-Wiirttemberg Bavaria

Bremen

.

Hamburg Hesse

Lower Saxony North Rhine-Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Schleswig-Holstein Berlin (West)* . Total

.

345

GERMANY

346 Weimar

regime, was the third strongest in Germany.

It is a Chris-

unemployment

in the U.S.

and British zones

tian party following a policy closely approaching that of the left

after the currency reform.

wing of the C.D.U. The Bayernpartei (Bavarian party) espouses Bavarian particularism and regards itself as the defender of the middle classes. The Bund der Deutschen (League of Germans) and the German Social Union (D.S.U.) are neutralist parties. The Union Deutscher Mittelstandparteien (U.D.M.) is a union of small The Communist party (K.P.D.) was local middle-class parties. declared unconstitutional and banned in 1956 as was an extreme right-wing neo-Nazi party. (P. G. Rs.; I. L. G.; R. A. A. C. de S.) 2. Taxation. In West Germany after the currency reform in 1948, fiscal measures were applied much more frequently than before World War II to influence the level of economic activity. There was a steady reduction of rates of taxation and an increase of personal and child allowances. In this way, income tax rates (levied on a progressive scale) declined by more than 50% and, To stimulate in the main, were lower than those levied in 1936. industrial investment, tax exemption was granted for new and replacement plants, and undistributed profits and accumulated reserves received preferential treatment many of these very considerable concessions were reduced or abolished by subsequent

Lander was

—

;

legislation.

But most measures favoured the medium- and higher-income groups, especially those deriving their incomes from company profand made it easier for them to accumulate capital. Lowerincome groups, too, benefited through the reduction of the tax on salaries and wages and through successive cuts in excise duties. Improved social insurance benefits resulted in higher deductions, and for these groups compulsory social insurance contributions were, in fact, more important than the payment of wage tax. A major source of federal revenue is the turnover tax, but this tended to expand less rapidly with the growth of the economy than the income tax which in the early 1 960s was the highest yieldits,

ing tax. 3.

War

Employment and Trade Unions.

—As

(S. E. S.)

a result of

World

German

labour force as a whole decreased as a proportion of the population. The position in 1946 was abnormal in that a large part of industrial hfe was at a standstill; accommodation in the industrial areas was severely hmited, and more II losses, the

than 7,000,000 refugees from the east were living in predominantly By 1950 the occupational distribution of the agricultural areas. German population was gradually reverting to its prewar structure, the drift away from agriculture into trade and industry being

By the early 1960s the number of employed persons in the Federal Republic far exceeded the total in particularly noticeable.

the same area for the late 1930s, when German economic resources were being used to the fullest. Although unemployment after the war never reached the dimensions witnessed in Germany during the world economic crisis (in Feb. 1932 more than 6,000,000 persons were unemployed), the problem in West Germany was serious enough in the years immediately following the currency reform enacted in June 1948. Until then, money had little value and open unemployment was not great. Many unemployed did not bother to register, preferring to eke out a precarious existence on the black market or perform casual labour for whatever food they

could get.

Currency reform

in

West Germany brought about

a return to

more efficient standards in business and industrial life; economies were introduced into the running of both public administration and private firms, and the production of inessential goods was gradually reduced. The real extent of unemployment then became apparent, and by 1950 it had reached a monthly average of 10% (excluding

West Berlin, which had an even higher rate because of its special problem of Soviet interference with western trading outlets). High unemployment resulted from the disruption of the economic structure, from the destruction and dismantling of industrial plants, from Allied prohibitions on industry and shipping, from an increase in population from 35,000,000 in 1936 to 47,700,000 in 1949 and from the division of Germany. Refugees, moreover, were crowded into three Lander Bavaria, Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein) which between them accounted for nine-tenths of the increase in (

The

in the first six

months

transfer of refugees to other

a slow process but a practical one, for they included a higher proportion of men of working age than existed in the indigenous population. In 1950 the federal government embarked on a plan to create jobs which involved the expenditure of 3,400,000,000 DM. on such schemes as housing, credits to Lander with large refugee populations, the movement of unemployed persons from distressed areas and credits to industry. As a result of this plan, coupled with the general economic improvement as industrial conditions

expanded, assisted by the setting up of the European Economic

—

the Common Market), unemployment in the Federal Republic dropped considerably and by the early 1960s there were three times as many jobs vacant as unemployed persons.

Community fE.E.C.

—

Trade Unions and Industrial Management. After World War growth of a democratic trade union movement was encouraged in the western zones, but, on the general principle of recreating democratic institutions from the lowest levels upward, the trade unions were at first authorized to form only locally. The result was a great variety of types of unions, organized in some places according to industries, in others by professions and in yet others in comprehensive associations. In no case were they subdivided into political groupings, however. Gradually these unions federated, first at Land and later at zonal levels, and in 1950 a single federation, the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund, having a membership of more than 5,000,000, was established for the territory of II the

the Federal Republic. After the establishment of the federal government in 1949 the trade union movement asserted an appreciable It was coninfluence over the government's industrial policy.

and its plans between employers and workers (Mitbestimmimg) in the management of the reconstituted coal, iron and steel concerns were accepted. After World War II, as had been the case after World War I, it was felt in West Germany that, in view of the serious disruption of economic life and the large proportion of socially uprooted and impoverished people, some form of economic democracy had to be introduced. The principal political parties and the churches endorsed the demand that the workers have afi equal share in indusMost of the new Land constitutions embodied trial management. clauses of this nature. Works councils were again set up, and some Lander also issued legislation reorganizing the chambers of trade and industry and allowing workers and consumers an equal voice In 1951 a federal law provided for workers to share in in them. the management of the coal, iron and steel industries. In 1952 a further law allowed workers a limited voice in the management It was also proof all firms employing more than five persons. posed to create a new federal economic council, in which workers could co-operate in economic planning at the highest level, but the plan broke down over the trade unions' demand for 50% repre-

sulted over the decentralization of heavy industry, for copartnership

sentation. 4.

Wages and Cost

of Living.

— During the two decades

World War I, wages and the standard as Germany passed through first the

after

of living fluctuated widely inflation period and then,

after a short-lived return toward economic prosperity, the economic depression following 1929. By 1933 wages had declined to

Although full employment was reached by 1938 and both wages and prices were in general pegged from that time onward, the standard of living on the whole deteriorated as the quality and quantity of consumer goods decreased and taxation and contributions to the National Socialist organizations increased. a very low level.

Shortly after the occupation in 1945, the Allies directed that wages be maintained, subject to the removal of certain inequities and discriminatory measures and to the variations of rates and allowances within the average wage existing controls over

In West Germany there was a general removal of price levels. and rationing controls after the currency reform of June 1948, and an initial 15% wage increase was permitted. This was followed in Oct. 1948 by the complete abolition of the wage control legislation and by a return to the recognized measures of collective bargaining between the trade unions and the employers' associations

GERMANY which had been current during the Weimar republic. For a few years after World War II the rise in the cost of living far outstripped the rise in average gross weekly earnings. But the 1948 currency reform soon corrected this trend, and by 1950 the increases in the cost of living and in gross weekly earnings in industry were practically identical when compared with 1938. Between 1950 and 1960 earnings almost doubled whereas the cost of living increased by only about one-fifth. At the same time the average weekly hours worked in industry fell from 49 in 1950 to 45.6 in 1960.

By

the early 1960s, in these circumstances,

it

was

hardly surprising that wage claims by organized labour were based on the demand for a larger share in the increased prosperity rather than on hardship arising from cost-of-living increases. 5. Health and Welfare Services. In the Federal Republic,

—

a ministry of health was formed in 1961, taking over a department which had formerly been controlled by the minister of the interior. There are three main types of hospitals, state, free and private.

The

free hospitals are mainly religious or charitable foundations. City corporations are represented on the board of many hospitals; they appoint physicians and are the hospitals' chief source of revenue. Three classes of treatment are provided, the difference being in conditions rather than in medical attention. Social insur-

ance covers the cost of basic treatment.

An

extensive system of compulsory, mainly contributory, social

insurance had been built up in Germany during the second half of the 19th century, and in the 1930s unemployment insurance was

In 1945, under Allied supervision, the system began to function again, but the aftermath of the war imposed an increasing burden of expenditure in this field. The importance attached

introduced.

in

West Germany

to the social services

was shown

in the establish-

ment, in 1953, of a ministry for family affairs, and by the coming into force, on Jan. 1, 1955, of a law on family allowances, by which 25 DM. 'was payable each month for the third and further children of a family. Other social insurance benefits include pensions, sickness

and accident, unemployment

relief,

war

dis-

ablement, etc. In 1958 pensions ceased to be paid on a flat rate, being based instead on the average earnings of a lifetime at the rate of 1.5% of each year's wages. Pensions would be annually reassessed by parliament to ensure against loss of purchasing power. Contributions of both workers and employers rose accordingly to cover the extra costs, in addition to a large government

:

!

i

grant. j

National insurance is compulsory for all but those in the highest income groups. Benefits include unemployment allowance, treatment, sick pay or leave allowance, maternity and child allowances, death payments and old-age and disability pensions. Employees contribute 20% of the first 600 DM. monthly of their taxable income (30% for mine workers) an equal amount is contributed by

I

;

the employer. 6.

'

Housing.

serious before

I

—The

housing situation in II. In 1946,

World War

Germany was already West Germany the

in

number

of destroyed or heavily damaged dwellings represented nearly one-quarter of the total number in existence in 1939, the proportion for Berlin being as high as two-fifths. Over the same period the average number of persons per dwelling had risen from 3.8 to 5.5 in

i

By 1950

West Germany, and from

2,8 to 3.4 in Berlin.

there were nearly 10,000,000 dwellings in the Federal

Repubhc, more than 500,000 being emergency constructions. But although the total number was not far short of the prewar figure, the population of West Germany had increased greatly as a result of the influx of refugees from the east, and the housing shortage remained acute. Between 1945 and 1954 about 3,000,000 new dwelling units were constructed in the Federal Republic, and by the early 1960s that figure was more than doubled. 7. Education. In the Federal Republic the school system re-

—

I

verted largely to the traditional

from one Land

Weimar

structure, with consider-

In 1959 it was decided add a ninth year to the V olksschiile (free elementary school for 'children between 6 and 15) where this was not already the case. ;More than half of all West German children receive only Volks\schule education, followed by part-time attendance at vocational schools. Mittlere (intermediate) and Gymnasium (secondary) able variations to

to another.

347

not everywhere free, but where fees are charged the number of scholarships has risen. The oldest and best-known form of secondary school was the classical Gymnasium, which, modeled upon the ideas of Wilhelm von Humboldt iq.v.), gave a thorough grounding in Greek, Latin and the humanities; next the Realschooling

is

gymnasium was instituted, in which classical and modern subjects were more evenly balanced, and finally the Realschule, teaching mathematics, science and modern languages. (See Education, History of.) The universities were faced with great problems at the end of the war. Not only were the teaching staffs curtailed by denazification and many of the buildings destroyed but the number of prospective entrants was abnormally high as a result of neglected studies during the war. Even after certain categories of Nazis and regular officers were excluded, it was found necessary to restrict entry (by means of examination) during the early postwar years. Apart from the introduction of a system of state grants to needy and gifted students in 1957, other proposals for university reform were frustrated by the continuing influx of students. By the late 1950s the ratio between teaching staff and students was approximately 1 to 50 and a number of the technical colleges were forced to adopt a numerus clausus (restricted number). As a means of dealing with this problem, the West German Council of Arts and Sciences proposed in Nov, 1960 that 12,000 new chairs be created in the existing universities and that three new universities and one technical university be founded. The Federal Repubhc has universities at Bonn (founded 1818), Erlangen (1743), Frankfurt am Main (1914), Freiburg (1457), Giessen (1607), Gottingen (1736), Hamburg (1919), Heidelberg (1386), Kiel (1665), Cologne (1388), Mainz (founded 1477, closed 1816, reopened 1946), Marburg (1527), Munich (1472), Miinster (1780), SaarbriJcken (1948), Tiibingen (1477) and Wiirzburg (1582). The Free university in West Berlin was founded in 1948. Other educational establishments of university status are the mining academy at Clausthal, the academy of medicine at Dijsseldorf, the college of veterinary medicine at Hanover, the agricultural academy at Hohenheim, the academy of economics at Mannheim and the college of social sciences at Wilhelmshaven. There are also technical colleges at Aachen, Brunswick, Darmstadt, Hanover, Karlsruhe, Munich, Stuttgart and West Berlin (technical university). (See also Universities. For German cultural institutions see Library; Museums and Galleries.) 8. Justice. Judges and public prosecutors in Germany have always been civil servants. They are appointed for life (subject to the age hmit) after university studies, a first examination, three

—

years of basic practice in the courts, in public prosecutors' offices and in private legal practice, and a final examination. Judges from the lower courts usually staff the administrative posts of the ministries of justice and return to the bench later.

At the base of the structure of courts as established in 1879 the local court (Amtsgericht) with jurisdiction over minor civU and criminal matters and such other matters as land registry and is

bankruptcy. gericht),

Above

which

a court of first

and divorce

the local court is the district court (Landboth a court of appeal from the local court and instance for more serious civil and criminal matters is

cases.

Above

Land.

the district courts are the courts of ap-

of which there is normally one in each court of the Reich (Reichsgericht) was esIt acted as the final court of appeal in matters

peal (Oberlandesgerichte)

,

The supreme

tablished in 1879.

of civil and criminal law, as the court of

first and only instance in cases of treason, and also served the purpose of guaranteeing the uniform application of the law. The courts of appeal and the

supreme court were entirely composed of professional judges. Certain cases before local courts were heard and tried by a single professional judge assisted by law assessors, and some criminal and civil cases before district courts by a jury under the chairmanship of a professional judge. Special tribunals were also set up to deal with labour disputes, taxation and pension appeals. Under the Nazi regime the Lander were deprived of their prerogatives in the administration of justice, which was made the exclusive concern of the Reich. A special supreme court, the people's court (V olksgerichtshoj) was established, competent for ,

—

GERMANY

348

which were withdrawn from the Reich sgericht. At and similar cases were estabHshed. After World War II the occupation powers law, procedure and organization cleansed the whole legal system of Nazi features. The division between West and East Germany resulted in the separate development of both after 1946. In West Germany authority over the legal system was gradually handed back to the administration of the Lander, and German jurisdiction over this field was finally restored in 1949. The Basic law re-established conditions very largely as they were in the Reich before 1933, although it abolished capital punishment. Competence over legal matters rests with the legislative authorities of the Federal Republic. The organization, the appointment of judges and the budgetary provisions of the administration of political cases,

local

and

district levels, special courts for those

—

The structure of the the concern of the Lander. system of courts was maintained. The Reichsgericht was replaced There are also by the federal high court Bundesgerichtshoj)

justice are

i

.

federal high courts for administration, financial jurisdiction, labour, social questions and civil service. The federal supreme court

foreseen in the Basic law has never been established and there is thus no tribunal competent to adjudicate when the federal administrative, financial, labour or social courts give opinions at variance with those of the federal high court. The federal constitutional court (Bundesverjasstmgsgericht) decides in Htigations between the federation and the Lander, on the interpretation of the Basic law and on the constitutionality of federal and La7id law. It is

upon to decide whether a political party pursues any aims or methods conflicting with the spirit or letter of the Basic law. The federal president and federal judges can be impeached before called

the constitutional court. Judges of the constitutional court are (See elected half by the Bundestag and half by the Bundesrat. also

Germanic

L.aws. E.arly;

—Traditionally,

German Law.)

Germany was respononly for the preservation of public peace, security and order but "for the general welfare of our loyal subjects from the negative, as well as the positive, point of view" (King Frederick WilHam III of Prussia, Dec. 1808). Almost every act of internal administration was thus a "police" act. Under the Weimar republic, the task of the police was limited to warding off "dangers through which the public security and order were threatened." This was still a wide conception, as "public order" was considered the expression of the social opinion of the society, which at the time formed the state, about what was consistent with its own best interests. Thus, with little change, the police could be made to serve the Nazi state, or, as in the Democratic Republic, the Communist regime. Before 1933, the police was the responsibility of the Lander; there was no Reich police force and little control from the Reich. 9.

Police.

the police in

sible not

In the Lander the leading

official at

each level of internal admin-

was also the police authority for the area under his jurisdiction and was responsible for the issue of police ordinances.

istration

either state {Gendarmerie') or municipal although in some large cities the police force was also controlled by the Land. There were also criminal police, administrative police and other specialized bodies. All these police officials were civil servants and could act only on the basis of, and in accordance with, the law. Their acts could be challenged before the administrative tribunals. Hitler created the post of Reich chief of police and brought the police forces of the Lander under the control of the minister

Police

—

forces

(Schtitzpolizei)

The

Ordnungspolizei, Gendarmerie and Kriminalhowever, once more subordinated to the detailed provisions of the Basic law concerning individual rights and liberThe control of the Federal government over the police was ties. still indirect, although, in Sept. 1950, the Federal government was authorized by the western powers meeting in New York to create a frontier protection police ( BundesgrenzschutzpoHzei) of 30,000 men to patrol the frontier between the Federal Republic and the Democratic Republic. 10. Defense. Although strictly speaking the German army was founded in 1871, its origins and traditions may be traced back to Before unification of the a much earlier period (see Army). German empire several of the German states possessed independent armies, the best and the largest of which was the Prussian. As Prussia acquired hegemony in the second Reich, Prussian methods and spirit dominated the creation of the imperial German army. They survived in the republican Reichswehr created after the 1918 defeat and became much ahve in Hitler's Wehrmacht. After the total collapse of 1945, Germany was completely disarmed and demilitarized, but in 1949 two German republics came into being. Both soon began to organize armed forces of their own. In the Bundesivehr of the Federal Republic of Germany great importance is attached to the old German mihtary police forces

polizei

—were,

—

tradition.

Soviet policy in Germany, aiming at the formation of a Communist satellite state, and Communist aggression in Korea in June 1950 caused the western Allies to review the question of German disarmament and demilitarization. In Sept. 1950 the U.S., British and French foreign ministers agreed that German participation In in an integrated force for European defense was desirable. October the French national assembly adopted a plan providing for a European Defense Community (E.D.C.), in which Germany would play an active part, and in December this was approved by the council of the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO). In Feb. 1952. by 209 votes to 156, the Bundestag declared its support for the government's policy of assuming a fair share of the burden of defense, provided that it was on a basis of complete

equahty. In May a treaty instituting the E.D.C. was signed in Paris by France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. It defined the E.D.C. as an organization of supranational character, with common institutions and

German. framework. Although 12

common

forces composed of 43 divisions, including The E.D.C. was to be defensive, within the NATO

ratification of the E.D.C. treaty was completed in the Federal Republic, as -well as in Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, the French national assembly in Aug. 1954 rejected The British governit, and the whole scheme fell to the ground. ment immediately proposed that the French Republic enter NATO as an equal partner; that France accept German rearmament only

were

in a

.

by

framework where the

controlled

German contingent was fixed German troop movements were commander in Europe; and that

size of the

international agreement and

by the supreme Allied Kingdom be committed

to keeping its forces permaIn October the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and the six E.D.C. powers signed in Paris A protocol specified that German a new series of agreements. federal armed forces should not exceed the numbers fixed in the E.D.C. treaty of May 1952. The Paris agreements were approved

the United

nently on the continent.

placed

The Gestapo and the security services had been above the law and they permeated all police forces, which they used as instruments to reshape the life of the German

by the French national assembly in December, and on May 9, 1955, the Federal RepubHc was formally inducted as the 15th

people.

member of NATO. On July 22, 1955,

the first western German armament act, the Volunteer act, was passed, empowering the government to prepare for the establishment of armed forces of 500,000 men authorized by the Paris agreements. In 1955 the chief of the Bundeswehr, or federal armed forces, department in the ministry of defense assumed command of the NATO ground forces in central Europe, and in 1960 a German general was appointed chairman of the NATO military committee in Washington. The planned 12 divisions (six armoured, four infantry, one air-

of the interior.

After World

War

II the occupying

powers completely reorganized the police, different systems being applied in each zone of occupation in accordance with the experience of the occupying power. Watch committees and blue uniforms were introduced in the British zone, and municipal police forces under the control After the creation of the of the mayor in the American zone. Federal Republic, the various Lander resumed control of their own police forces and largely returned to the prewar organization.

—

GERMANY Bundeswehr, 28 squadrons in the navy were completed by 1964. three corps, all of them being under

borne and one mountain)

in the

and 22 flotillas The army was organized

in the

air force

in

NATO

command. Toward the end of 19S8 the air force adopted the Lockheed F-104G Starfighter and the Fiat G91 light strike fighter as standard equipment. The navy consisted of a number of destroyers, frigates, subA naval construction program marines and smaller vessels.

was authorized by the council of the Western European union and the first destroyer to be built in the Federal Republic since World War II was launched in 1960 and the first submarine (See also Military Affairs [Articles on] Naval Afin 1961. fairs [Articles on].) (I. L. G. P. G. Rs. T. C. Pe. R. A. A. C. de S. K. Sm.) ;

;

;

B. 1.

;

;

German Democratic Republic and Government After

Constitution

the

Potsdam

agreement, the Soviet zone of occupation was submitted to a regime different from that of the other zones. The Communist and Social

Democratic parties were merged to form the Sozialistische

Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity party or S.E.D.) in April

1946.

The Christlich-Demokratische Union

of

Germany

Union or C.D.U.) and the Liberal-Demokratische Partei (Liberal Democratic party or L.D.P.) were at first tolerated and enticed into coalition governments in all five (Christian Democratic

Lander, but with the support of the Soviet authorities the S.E.D. assumed control of the assemblies set up at all levels of adminSlowly, but inexistration and eventually ousted all opposition. orably, the zone was given a Communist regime. The administration became highly centralized, all matters of importance being controlled, under Soviet supervision, by a central economic commission and a number of main authorities. The provisional constitution of the Democratic Republic bore a superficial resemblance to the Weimar constitution, but, whereas the Bonn constitution amended Land autonomy, the constitution

this in the direction of greater

for East Germany strengthened powers of the central government. It granted the central authority virtually exclusive powers of legislation and a dominant position over finance and taxation. Moreover, although there was ostensibly a two-chamber legislature, the Ldnderkanimer (chamber of states or upper house) was elected entirely on a population basis and was Httle more than a reflection of the Volkskammer (people's chamber or lower house). The V olkskamnier was, according to the constitution, to be elected by proportional representation, but in practice the single-list system was used for the 1950 elections, the seats being allotted to the various parties in advance under an arrangement made by the Communists which ensured their predominance. The president was elected by the joint assembly of the two houses and had purely representational powers. The minister president was appointed by the strongest party in parliament, and his government reflected the strengths of the various parties represented in the V olkskamnier. Real political power, however (on the

,

'

1

'.

j

I

the pattern of the

Communist

countries;, lies with the Politburo

of the S.E.D. I

East Berlin was more closely associated with the Democratic Republic than was West Berlin with the Federal Republic,

I

and, lying in the centre of the Soviet zone, i

it

acts as capital for

the area.

Revolutionary administrative reforms in the Democratic Rejpubhc were initiated by the Socialist Unity party on July 11, 1952, as part of a plan for intensifying the socialist structure of the country. These were embodied in a law of July 2i. which abolished the five Land governments and parliaments and substituted 14 district councils and assemblies (15 with East Berlin). The districts (Bezirke), each comprising 15-16 Kreise (^counties). did not in all cases coincide with the Land boundaries. The Kreise ;had about 50 Gemeinden (parishes or communes) each. At the same time the presidium of the council of ministers was charged ;with the supervision of all ministries. The reform aimed at reorganizing the country into units that would facilitate economic I

'

Table V.

349 German Democratic Republic: Bezirke

{Districts)

GERMANY

350

munist-dominated Socialist Unity party, its members lost the right to strike, and it was merely to serve as an instrument for increasing labour productivity and encouraging recruitment into the various semi-official defense forces. The F.D.G.B. claimed a membership of more than 6,000,000 by the early 1960s. In the fully planned economy of the Democratic Republic a fiction of collective agreements was maintained, but the trade unions had no more powers of representing the real interest of the workers than had the Labour Front under Hitler. An act regulating conditions of labour was issued in 1949 which, although covering such principles as the right to work, the retention of a normal 48-hour week and an annual paid holiday, was mainly concerned with the increasing of labour productivity -in order to achieve the economic plan. Following an order of June 8, 1950, general collective agreements were to be drawn by the trade unions and the competent ministries for the various branches of industry, and within these framework agreements the nationalized undertakings, and private concerns employing more than 20 persons, were to draw up works collective agreements. These were to contain reciprocal obligations for realization of the planned target, especially in labour productivity, the quality of products, the improvement and extension of the system of technical labour stand-

payment by results and the use of manconformity with the government plan. Since the technical labour standards were continually raised, the average worker's hopes of obtaining better working conditions were still delayed. 4. Wages. In the Democratic Republic an ordinance of Aug. 17, 1950, introduced official regulation of wages in the state-owned undertakings, which were even then estimated to employ more than half the total number of industrial workers. This ordinance established a system of wage differentials corresponding to the relative importance of various industries in the national economy. It introduced a greater differentiation of wages for labour with different degrees of skill within the separate industries and laid down equal pay for men and women doing the same work. In general the new wage rates represented an increase of &%-iO% over the previous rates. Hourly rates ranged from a minimum and ma.ximum of 1.10 and 1.95 DM. in underground coal and ore mining to a minimum and maximum of 0.70 and 1.19 DM. in ards, the extension of

power

in

—

The differential wage system was carried a stage when the salaries of skilled workers, engineers and

further in 1952, scientists

work-

certain key industries were raised, considerably in

some

cases, in order to attract the "technical intelligentsia" into the serv-

Further wage increases in 1953 and 1954 served to redress the balance somewhat between skilled and unskilled workers and between priority and nonpriority industries. By then wages were rising faster in general than labour productivity, and stress was laid on the need to increase "working norms." Average hourly earnings, including family allowances, rose by about two-thirds between 1951 and 1959, and the system of norms was maintained in the 1960s. A shortage of skilled labour exists because many professional people and technicians have left the country. This was the main reason for sealing the border and building the Berlin wall in 1961. ice of the state five-year plan.

Nevertheless, with the possible exception of Czechoslovakia, the

standard of living 5. lic

is

the highest in the Soviet bloc.

Health and Welfare

Services.

(T. C. Pe.)

—In the Democratic Repub-

the nationalized health system resembles that of the U.S.S.R..

embodying a comprehensive scheme of prevention and treatment, In 1954 the organization was with emphasis on the former. changed so that each hospital became the health centre for its own In district with the duties of prevention, treatment and aftercare. addition to the main hospitals there are cottage hospitals, polyclinics, dispensaries and consultation and treatment centres. The social insurance plans were at first carried on by the separate Lander, there being in each of these an independent instiBy a government decree of April 26, tute for social insurance. 1951, however, the responsibility for the control and administration of the system of compulsory social insurance was transferred to the trade

6.

is

receive maternity leave with pay

a system of children's allowances.

Housing.

— In

the Democratic Republic the five-year plan

for 1951-55 provided for the construction of 10,100,000 sq.m. of

new towns. According to the state statistical 1950-53 (a period including one preplan year) But building lagged far behind the 5,700,000 sq.m. were built. rate in West Germany. The seven-year plan (1959-65) provides for a stepped-up housing program and the complete reconstruction dwelling space in 53

bulletin, during

of major city centres by 1965.

—

Following the partition of Germany the Ein(comprehensive) type of school became fully established only in the Soviet zone, where educational administration was centralized at a very early stage. This Einheitsschule provided for an eight-year elementary stage, followed by four years' secondary schooling either in an Oberschule (high school) or in a Private schools were part-time or full-time vocational school. abolished. No religious instruction was allowed, and the teaching was speedily converted to the inculcation of communism. Under pressure of the shortage of skilled labour, preference was later given to the 11 -year elementary-plus-technical school and after 1959 two types of polytechnic high schools were established, with eight grades and ten grades respectively. In East Germany great importance is now attached to the broadening of the social basis of university attendance, and more than halt the students supposedly come from workers' and farmers' Scholarship grants are available only for these and for families. students of lower middle-class origin. Political reliability, in the Communist sense, continues to determine academic advancement, and in every faculty students are required to pass a basic course in political science. Apart from the excessive and compulsory concentration on Communist political theory, seven universities of the Democratic Republic (at Leipzig [1409], Halle [1694], Rostock [1419], Jena [1558], Greifswald [1456], Potsdam [1948] and Humboldt university in East Berlin [ 1 809] ) have suffered from 7.

Education.

lieitsschiile

an overspecialization in technical subjects to meet the demands of economic planning. 8. Justice. The legal tradition of the former German Reich is summarized in the Justice subsection of Federal Republic of

—

Germany, above.

forestry.

ing- in

Employed prospective mothers and there

union federation (F.D.G.B.

i.

Unemployment

in-

surance, workmen's compensation and sick leave benefits are paid.

In East Germany the legal system underwent considerable changes after the enforced introduction of the political and social system of the "people's democracies." Large parts of the civil and commercial code became obsolete by the abolition or restricThe tion of private property in agriculture, industry and trade. criminal code was extended by that type of offense falling under A new criminal the heading of economic crimes and sabotage. code began to be formulated, and in 1952 the Volkskammer passed a new criminal procedure law in which great importance was at-

tached to making criminal procedure lead to respect for the socialist law, for socialist property, for labour discipline and for the protection of democracy. In Aug. 1952 the system of courts was reorganized to fit in with the new administrative pattern. The new Law on the Constitution of Courts provided for only three kinds of courts: district courts (Kreisgerichte, replacing the Amtsgerichte), regional courts (Bezirksgerichte, replacing the LandThe Oberlandesgerichte were gerichfe) and the supreme court.

The underlying principle of the new legal system was new class of "people's judges" who would enthe courts acted as guardians of the new social and eco-

eliminated.

the formation of a sure that

nomic order of the state. All criminal and civil matters dealt with by the new district and regional courts in the first instance were to come before a senate consisting of one professional judge and two law assessors (Sckoffen), who would exercise full judicial The supreme court hears appeals only on behalf of functions. the state. The Volkskammer is nominally the supreme authority in the administration of justice in East Germany and holds the functions of a constitutional court, 9. Police. The evolution of German police systems is summarized above in the Police subsection of Federal Republic of

—

Germany. In the Democratic Republic the police system of the Nazis

I

GERMANY proved well suited to the political requirements of the regime. As the Volkspolizei, it remained under central control and was adapted Already in 1946, some of its units to all police requirements. were concentrated in barracks and trained with infantry weapons. In 19S4 the Volkspolizei had an estimated 90,000 men organized in army, navy and air force formations with tanks, self-propelled guns and other weapons. When the people's army was created in Jan. 1956, the Volkspolizei in barracks was incorporated en bloc in the new armed forces. In the early 1960s the largest group was identified as frontier police (Grenzpolizei). (I. L. G.; P. G. Rs.; T. C. Pe.; R. A. A. C. de S.) 10. Defense. East German armed forces were at first organized by the department for internal affairs of the Soviet military

—

administration.

were formed

The

first

Bereitschaften (alert units or battalions)

in Sept. 1948, shortly after the Soviet authorities

started the so-called Berlin blockade. force ofi&cially

known

had

At the end of 1950 the

as the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (barracks

people's pohcej comprised 39 Bereitschaften organized as military

formations of a particular

arm

In June 1952 the

or service.

Volkskammer approved the establishment of

a nationals Volks-

armee (national people's army). On May 14, 1955, a treaty of mutual defense was concluded by the U.S.S.R. and the seven European people's republics, including the German Democratic Republic {see Warsaw Treaty Organization). In Sept. 1955 the Volkskammer approved the addition of two amendments to the constitution declaring conscription a national duty and authorizing the necessary legislation. In Jan. 1956 it adopted laws for the establishment of a national people's army and a defense ministry as well as for the introduction of

new uniforms.

According to the Federal Republic government, in the early 1960s the national people's army of the Democratic RepubUc comprised about 110,000 men. The land forces were grouped in two armies, each consisting of three divisions (two of motorized infantry and one armoured). There were also an artillery and antiaircraft division and a division consisting of a signals regiment, a telecommunications regiment, two sapper regiments, a guard

I

j

regiment and a transport battalion.

number

The naval

forces included

ocean mine sweepers, coastal defense and patrol vessels, antisubmarine vessels and probably a few submarines. The air force comprised two fighter divisions, one antiaircraft division and two radar battalions. There were from 130,000 to 200,000 trained reservists, and the strength of the paramiUtary frontier police was given as 45,000 to 50,000 men grouped in eight brigades. A conscription law, permitting the induction of menbetween 18 and 26 for 18 rnonths' active duty, was adopted in Sept. 1961. An estimated 450,000 Soviet troops stationed in East Germany were believed to be organized into 20 divisions. (K. Sm.) a

,

;

of escort destroyers, frigates,

THE ECONOMY

VI. A.

The Background

Germany went through nomic and

a profound transformation in its eco-

between the date of the establishment and the years immediately preceding World War I. In 1871 two-thirds of the population hved in the country and one-third in the towns. Within one generation this situation was reversed. In 1871 industry consisted mainly of handicrafts pursued in homes and small workshops. The Germany of 1910 was based upon coal and iron and factory production. Germany rivaled Great Britain in both industry and foreign trade, Production of coal in 1860 was 12.500,000 tons, and of lignite social structure

of the second Reich in 1871

!

j

In 1914 production reached 191,000,000 tons of coal and 87,000,000 tons of lignite (292,000,000 tons in Great Britain). In 1871-75 production of pig iron was 2,000,000 tons per year, in 1911-13, 17,000,000 tons per year (10,000,000 tons in Britain). Within one generation Germany became a powerful industrial state. It also experienced a great increase in agricultural production and ia rapidly expanding foreign trade and became a colonial power. In spite of the losses of two subsequent world wars, Germany twice made phenomenal recoveries in production and levels of living. 'This is to be attributed above all to the extraordinary skill and [persistence with which the German people have utilized their

14,500,000.

!

J

351

meagre natural resources and the poor quality of the order to increase production of industrial goods and food-

relatively soils in stuffs.

After World lation,

12%

War

of

I

Germany

lost

about

12% of 10%

agricultural production,

its

turing production and

75%

of

its

its

of

area of popuits

manufac-

iron ores.

A shortage of raw materials and an inadequate food supply was always evident and the country's existence therefore has depended upon its ability to export manufactured goods to pay for the import of these necessities. Between 1913 and the outbreak of World War II the relative importance of the principal groups of goods comprising Germany's imports remained fairly constant, despite great changes in the total volume of trade, but this was not hue of exports. Thus, although food steadily averaged about two-fifths of total imports and raw materials about one-third, by 1937 food had vanished from the Ust of exports, and raw materials had also declined as a proportion of exports. Correspondingly, the proportion of total exports represented by finished goods increased from less than two-thirds to nearly four-fifths between 1913 and 1937. Period. Germany's industrial transformation 1. Interwar during the half century before the outbreak of World War I was checked for a time after that conflict. The treaty of Versailles '

—

dislocated

some

of the leading industries, inflation upset the

home

market and the scarcity of capital following inflation hampered industrial reorganization. However, in 1925 Germany started forward again in a great industrial recovery which continued during

The adoption of the Dawes plan for reparaDawes, Charles Gates) re-established German credit and allowed Germany to borrow heavily abroad. Part of the money borrowed was spent in prompt payment of reparations obthe next four years. tions (see

ligations, but part

much

was spent

in public welfare

improvements and

of the remainder in the "rationalization of industry"; that

in the modernization of old plants and the construction of new ones with up-to-date machinery. The excessive rationalization of industry, or replacement of hand labour by machines, affected Germany adversely in two ways. It saddled the nation with an intolerable foreign debt at high rates of interest which could not be met when the world depression began in 1929. It also tended to increase the chronic unemployment situation in Germany which was at its worst in is,

1932.

In 1933 another great industrial recovery began. It was stimuby the National Socialist policy of reducing unemployment by spreading out work at short hours and giving fixed low wages to as many persons as possible. The National Socialists also reduced unemployment by great government expenditure on rearmament and public works. By 1939 the feverish effort at rearmament had completely wiped out unemployment and even created a severe labour shortage. As German exports were insufficient to pay for all the raw materials needed from abroad, Germany also began to feel a severe shortage of these. As the nation also aimed at self-sufficiency in case of a future war and blockade, it developed a policy of autarchy. Instead of manufacturing goods from imported raw materials it began to manufacture them as far as possible from its own domestic resources. These substitute products, such as oil from coal, textiles from wood fibre or cellulose, and artificial rubber or buna, required more labour, capital investment, horsepower and domestic materials, such as coal and timber, than goods formerly made from imported raw materials. The severity of the shortage of labour and raw materials was thus further intensified. Coal mining, one of Germany's basic industries, had lost about one-sixth of the production capacity of 1913, the ceded part of Upper Silesia having an output of 32,000,000 tons of the total German output of 193,000,000 tons. Moreover, 13,000,000 tons a year from the Saar were not available from 1919 to 1935. These losses could not be completely overcome even by 1939. The world's coal situation had changed; lignite (brown coal) had become of great importance, and oil and electricity became serious competitors. German coal production increased to 163,000,000 tons in 1929, sank to 105,000,000 in 1932 and then rose again to 184,500,000 in 1937. Lignite production increased rapidly after lated

GERMANY

352 World War weight.

It

I until

it

almost exactly equaled coal production in in the form of briquettes for domestic

was largely used

and also for generating energ\- in electric power plants and heavy chemicals. About one-third of the The total coal production was used for coking and distillation. coking process produced coke for smelting iron ore. gas which was piped for hundreds of miles, oil, coal tar, dyes and thousands of other derivatives invaluable for the chemical industry and for the manufacture of many substitute products. Iron and steel, another of Germany's basic industries, suffered an even greater dislocation as a result of World War I and the use,

for the production of

cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France.

The production

of iron ore

had been 28,600,000 tons in 1913; of this output the districts remaining to Germany produced but 7,300,000 tons a reduction of three-quarters. This production even dropped in 1932 to 1 ,300,000 tons. The number of separate undertakings fell from 328 to 115, and the number of persons employed from about 43,000 to 14,000. After 1933, however, iron and steel production recovered rapidly. Its great lack was iron ore to make up for the ores lost in Lorraine. To overcome this Germany in 1937 imported 20,600,000 tons, mostly from Sweden and France, but also from Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain, Newfoundland, Algeria, Norway and other countries. Its own domestic production of iron ore rose from 2,600.000 tons The total of imported and in 1933 to 9,700,000 tons in 1937. domestic iron ore in 1937 (30,300,000 tons), however, was not enough for Germany's rearmament and other needs, so there was formed, as part of the four-year plan, the Hermann Goring Reich Company for Ore Mining and Iron Smelting to exploit Germany's

—

low-grade ores in the area of Salzgitter, south of Brunswick. 2. Post-1945. World War II brought grave damage to German

—

industry, and the victorious powers had to frame a policy for a German industrial system that had collapsed. The policy was set

down

in the

Potsdam agreement

was deany branches

of Aug. 2, 1945, which

signed, in the economic sphere, to eliminate or control

of industry which could be used for military production

payment after

all

of reparations claims; but also to ensure that

;

to ensure

Germany,

claims had been met, should be left with a self-supporting The Potsdam agreement therefore provided for the

economy.

armaments, aircraft and seagoing ships, and had potential war importance were to be strictly order to ensure that production was limited to Ger-

total prohibition of

industries that

controlled in

many's legitimate peacetime needs. Surplus productive capacity was to be remov^ed or destroyed. The agreement also required that German industry be decentralized by the elimination of all excessive concentrations of economic power. In March 1946 the Allied Control council published a provisional ]evel-of-industr\' plan in implementation of the Potsdam agreement. This plan, if carried out. would have restricted Germany's

more than half the 1938 level. It was based, however, on various assumptions which were not fulfilled, such as the treatment of Germany as an economic unit, the pooling of resources between the four zones of occupation and the use of the proceeds from current German production in the first place industrial capacity to little

pay for necessary German imports. Disagreements arose between the U.S.S.R. and the three western AUies on all these points and, though right up to 1947 the western Allies tried to ensure that Germany should be treated as an economic unit by the four occupying powers, circumstances forced them ultimately, in their own as well as Germany's interests, to organize industry in the western zones independently of what the Soviet occupation authorities were doing in their own zone. On Jan. 1, 1947. the British and U.S. zones were fused,- for economic purposes, into a bizone, and later the French zone also joined the merger so that a uniform economic policy for the whole of West Germany beto

came

possible.

On Aug.

29, 1947, in default of a wider agreement, an Anglo-U.S. plan for a revised level of industrj' in the bizone was published. This provided for reparations claims and also for security considerations, but it allowed German industrial capacity, including a permitted level of steel production of 10,700,000 metric tons (11.100,000 metric tons including the French zone ), to be retained at roughly the 1936 level. As a corollary to this revised plan, a

dismantling list was published on Oct. 17, 1947, which enumerated 682 plants that were to be removed as reparations or destroyed as surplus to the requirements of the new level of industry,

A Divided Economy.

—

The postwar division of an integrated problems of structural readjustment, but by the early 1960s these had evidently been overcome. In 1936 western Germany accounted for about seven-tenths of the total national product and it produced almost all the hard coal, petroleum and iron ore. After the war there were sucpluses of these products Brown coal and in West Germany and deficits in East Germany. potash production, on the other hand, were heavily concentrated The in the east and in these commodities the west had deficits. processing of iron and steel was sited in the Ruhr coal field which, together with Upper Silesia, supplied eastern Germany with these products. The production of textile and office machinery was mainly concentrated in East Germany but agricultural machinery (much in demand in the eastern sector) was mainly produced in state created

the west.

The problem of surplus industries was more easily ov-ercome than was expected, because of the rapid rate of expansion at home and in foreign markets. The deficit industries in each area raised bigger ditficulties, but gaps were filled quickly by the application of technical skills and a high rate of capital formation. Structural adaptation in West Germany was complete by the mid-1950s. There was full employment, industrial products were competitive in foreign markets and there was a favourable balance of payments. Though big strides had been taken in East Germany, the readjustment was not complete even by the early 19S0s. This was because, first, there had been heavy demands for reparation payments; second. East Germany was markedly deficient in heavy industries and investment goods; third, consumer-goods industries were underutilized for lack of markets and raw materials; and fourth, centraUzed and controlled economic policies had laid down a set of planned priorities. Industry accounts for about two-fifths of the output of both West and East Germany, It has expanded faster than all other sections of the economy, though individual industries have had The number of persons particular problems of readjustment. employed in industry considerably increased in both East and West Germany. The increase was mainly in producer-goods rather than consumer-goods industries. In East Germany the increase was largely in the hea\->' industries, whereas in West Germany it was outstanding in the metal-using industries. In both areas almost two-thirds of the industrial workers are engaged in heavy and metal-using industries, and little more than one-third in consumer-goods and food industries. The division of Germany (into the Federal Repubhc of Germany [West] and the German Democratic Republic [East] ) has, however, entailed substantial modifications in the economies of both republics which are discussed separately in sections below. B.

Federal Republic of Germany

—

Up to the end of World War II, two maim systems of landholding formed the basis of German agriculture. 1.

Agriculture.

The east, especially east of the Elbe, was a land of big properties, some tracts such as East Prussia and parts of Silesia being in the hands of comparatively few owners. Little of the agricultural land was farmed by tenants, the rest being run by the owners or In the west, south and their administrators with hired labour. most parts of central Germany the land was mainly held by peasant Some of them, especially in the northwest, owned proprietors. larger farms and employed hired labour. Others, especially in the Rhine valley, were small holders, running their plots of land -n-ith the help of their families and often engaging in some secondary industrial occupation. Agrarian Germany was thus a kind of peasant democracy, though dominated in some parts by estate owners farming on a large scale and clinging to somewhat feudal social j

conceptions. Even before

World War II, however, big estates were beingJ broken up and new peasant agricultural holdings created by re-^ claiming swamps and other unused lands. After the war, measures of land reform were carried out

by the individual

states in

West

GERMANY Germany

but, since large farming estates played no great role for resettlement was relatively small.

there, the area available

In the early 1960s more than half the total land area was arable and holdings of more than 50 ac. exceeded 35% of the available land, about 60% was in holdings of 5-50 ac. and the remainder The main problem was one of conin holdings of less than 5 ac. solidating the scattered strips of tiny holdings.

The structure of agriculture altered considerably as a result of World War II. Until then, although mixed farming was to be found everywhere, Germany could be divided into the following the clay plains in the east with crops of rye and potatoes; the loess and black earth of central Germany and Silesia yielding wheat, potatoes and sugar beets; the dairying districts of the damp coastal lowlands and the Bavarian plateau; and the fruit- and vine-growing districts of the distinctive agricultural regions:

Fisheries.

Although farming in the Federal Republic had recovered by 1954, largely because of the government's highly protectionist policy, its progress was slower than that of other branches of the economy. This was due to the small size and excessive fragmentation of farms, and the disincHnation of the farmer to adopt new methExcluding production from imported fodder, the Federal ods. Republic produces little more than two-thirds of its food requirements, compared with about four-fifths for the prewar Reich. About 9% of the net national income at factor cost is derived from agriculture, plus forestry and fishing. Crops. In 1945 Germany lost about one-quarter of its prewar agricultural area, consisting for the most part of arable land which had formerly produced about one-quarter of its bread grain and

—

one-third of its potato crop.

The

agricultural balance suffered

further because of the pohtical barrier that grew up between the Soviet zone and the western zones, for, whereas in the Soviet still

zone three-quarters of all agricultural land was arable, little more than half was under the plow in the west. Thus West Germany

was at first even more dependent on the import of foodstuffs from abroad than was the Reich before the war. In the early postwar years the shortage of fertilizers, seeds, equipment and machinery, as well as skilled agricultural labour, badly affected the harvests. By 1949, however, both the harvests and the yields per acre were approaching, and in some cases outstripping, the prewar averages for the same areas. Compared with the immediate prewar period, by the early 1960s the Federal RepubUc had increased its main crops to the following levels (in metric tons): wheat 4,500,000; rye 3,400,000; barley 3,200,000; potatoes 23,700,000; and sugar beets 10,500,000; but the oat harvest, at 2,200,000 metric tons, was still lower than prewar. Viticulture has long been important in southwest Germany. The main areas lie on the better drained sloping lands with a southerly exposure in the valleys of the Rhine above Bonn, and in the Neckar and Main valleys, as well as the edges of the upper Rhine valley. The largest area is in the Rhineland-Palatinate, southwest of Mainz. Production is mainly in the hands of small peasant cultiThe vators and holdings are normally extremely fragmented. cultivated area decreased substantially after World War II but recovered during the 1950s; average annual production in the early 1960s (nearly 5,000,000 hi.) was roughly double that of the late 1930s, Hops are also cultivated in the sheltered and warmer areas of the southwest. Bavaria is responsible for 90% of the total production.

—

Livestock. A main feature of German farming is the emphasis on animal husbandry. Livestock was maintained fairly well during World War II, but in the final stages the number of animals was greatly reduced, and the early postwar food shortage in West Germany caused farmers to slaughter livestock and convert their grassland to edible crops. This trend was gradually reversed after 1948 as supphes of foodstuffs became available through the European Recovery program and as crop yields improved. By 1954

West Germany was

practically self-sufficient in

meat and dairy

products, and by the late 1950s animal husbandry accounted for three-quarters of the total food production. In the early 1960s

West Germany numbered about 13,000,000

000,000 pigs and 1,000,000 sheep.

cattle,

17,-

— Sea

food forms an important supplementary

source of food supply. In the early 1960s West German craft were landing more than 600,000 metric tons of fish annually in domestic ports. The total figures were of the same order of magnitude as prewar ones. About 40% of the catch (in value) consists of herrings. The principal fishing grounds are in the North sea, whence comes half of the catch. The remainder are caught in the North Atlantic, especially in Icelandic waters (25%) and the Norwegian coast (10%). In order to satisfy consumption almost 120,000 tons of fish were imported annually. Half of the West German trawler landings are at Bremerhaven, one of the largest Others are at Cuxhaven, Hamburg and fishing ports in Europe. Kiel. The herring catch is mainly landed at the smaller ports on the lower Weser and at Emden. 3.

Forestry.

—After the

loss of the eastern territories in 1945,

mostly of fir, spruce, beech, oak and covered about one-quarter of the country. Even before World War II Germany had been obliged to import about onethird of its timber requirements, and toward the end of the war reafforestation was no longer keeping pace with the felling program. Not only did imports cease in 1945 but the great demand for timber for reconstruction purposes reduced supplies needed for paper, wood fibre, cellulose. Ersatz products, pit props and railway

German

west.

stock in

2.

353

pine,

forests, consisting

still

However, with the restoration of normal trade was reduced

sleepers (ties).

conditions, timber feUing in the Federal Republic

from nearly 40,000,000 cu.m. in 1948 to an annual average of about 25,000,000 cu.m. in the 1960s. After 1949 over 3,700,000 more than one-fifth of the area under timber. ac. were replanted Nearly one-third of the forests is owned by the federal government, the Lander or communes. 4. Industry. The growth of pre-World War II Germany as

—

—

an industrial nation is summarized in the introduction above. The new phase of West German industrial development began in 1948 as a result of the Allied intention to associate the country in the economic revival to be fostered by the E.R.P. (European Recovery program [q.v.l). The United States, Great Britain and France, in collaboration with the three Benelux countries, began discussions which resulted in an agreement to set up an international authority for the dustries,

Ruhr

Germany's heavy inwatch over German did not infringe AUied controls.

to control

and a military security board

to

industry in general to see that it association of West Germany in the E.R.P. however, made disit essential to reconsider the level-of-industry plan and the mantling list of 1947. Consequently in April 1949 the United States, Great Britain and France agreed on a substantial reduction

The

,

list, and many prohibitions and restrictions on industry were removed. In Sept. 1950 the foreign ministers of the three powers agreed to a further revision of Allied The remaining restrictions on industry in the Federal controls. Republic were aboKshed on May 5, 1955, when the Paris agree-

of the dismanthng

German

ments giving sovereignty to the Federal Repubhc came into force. On the same date the functions of the mihtary security board came to an end. On May 16, 1949, the occupying powers in West Germany promulgated law no. 27 to redefine AUied pohcy on the decartelization of German industry. During the inflation of the 1920s the concentration of industry in a few hands in combines or cartels had been common in Germany and most of the basic industries (coal, lignite, pig iron, steel, potash and many others) adopted this highly centralized form of organization, thus securing a kind of cooperative monopoly for their members. The law passed by the western Allies to deal with this state of

heavy industries

affairs transferred the

German trusteeship for planned decartelization. The first decarteliza-

(coal, iron

and

steel) to

the period of the tion orders were issued on July 10, 1951, and transferred property from the former great steel combine, known as Vereinigte Stahlwerke, and the firm of Otto Wolff, Cologne, to five specially created, smaller "unit companies."

The European Coal and Steel Community (g.v.) came into being on July 25, 1952, and, in accordance with the Allied undertaking, all the postwar restrictions imposed by the western occupying powers on German steel production were formally abolished, and

GERMANY

354

the progressive liquidation of the international authority for the Ruhr, set up by the western powers in 1949, was announced. Germany before World War I emerged as one Iron and Steel. of the chief steel-producing countries of the world. This industry

—

was based primarily on coal from the Ruhr and iron ore from LorThe loss of the Lorraine ore field in 1918 raine and abroad. drastically reduced Germany's iron-ore production, and since then the country has imported most of the iron ore it needed. By the early 1960s production of iron ore in the Federal Republic (inducing the Saar) was about 18,000,000 metric tons. Production

of pig iron and blast-furnace ferroalloys was 25,000,000 metric tons and that of crude steel 33,000,000 tons. The best deposits of iron ore are in the Lahn, Sieg and Dill valleys in the plateau to

Table VI.—Industrial

Production: 1960 and 1961

West Germany

East Germany

.... .... ....

Lignite* Metallurgical cokef

Gast

2,676

142,741

235,000 3,206

97,194 44,754 20,670 124,563

.

3,319 42,504

.

2,029 3,444

Electricity* Iron ore (iron content)* Pig iron*

Crude

steel*

510

Caustic sodat Soda asht

Superphosphatest Nitrogen fertilizersf Calcium carbidet .

.

Cement+ Automobiles! Commercial vehiclest

379 1,180 1,101

27,144

5,275 64 13

.

238

*1960. tI961. Source: Statistisches Jahrbuchjilr die Bundesrepublik DeutscMand, 1962.

the east of the Rhine. These ores, which are deep mined by shafts, are good but costly, and resources and production are small. Especially important are the low-grade iron ores that occur at Salzgitter. There an iron- and steelworks, which utihzes coal from the Ruhr

brought in by the Mittelland canal, has an annual output of about

are given in Table VI. 5.

Manufacturing Industries.

dustrial workers in each

same

in

—The

West Germany

proportion of the in-

major group of industries is much the There are roughly 27% in the mining, metallurgy, chemical and build-

West and East Germany.

basic industries (energ)',

a little more than one-third in the metal-using industries (engineering, electrical industries, precision instruments

ing materials)

;

and optics) 29% in the light industries (woodwork, textiles, paper and printing, and other consumer goods) and a little less than ;

;

one-tenth in the food industries. This major group of industries includes steel conEngineering. structional work, and the production of machinery and vehicles. These account for about one-fifth of all industrial workers.

—

semifinished products of iron and steel plates, rails, girders, wires, etc., are located v.ith the blast furnace and the steel

The

converter and rolling mills. Steam locomotives and freight cars are made at Essen, Kassel and Mannheim; diesel and electric locomotives at Berlin and Mannheim. Cutlery, nails, bolts, screws and hardware, etc., are manufactured in the Solingen district south

Most

of the Ruhr.

of the fabricating industries are carried on

near the seats of iron and steel production or in the cities. Production of motor vehicles increased rapidly in the 1930s, and production was controlled by a few firms in a few large plants located The growth at Rijsselsheim, Stuttgart, Cologne and Frankfurt. in the late 1950s was largely due to the vast Volkswagen plant at Wolfsburg (east of Brunswick, alongside the Mittelland canal).

The

electrical industries

before 1939. estabhshed in

West

public.

Shipbuilding. in the

world

were mainly concentrated

Following World

War

II

the

industry'

in

Berlin

w'as

re-

Berlin and in other cities of the Federal Re-

—The

Federal Republic occupies a leading place competing with Japan and the U.K.

in shipbuilding,

;

—

—

—

—

1,817

2,000,000 metric tons. Comparative production figures for East and

—

—

5,011 25,431 33,458 3,170 776 1,117

730 327 594 553 334 923

Sulfuric acidt

Hamburg.

Chemical Production. This increased rapidly after 1945. Germany's share of the world production reached 21.9% in 1938. The Federal Republic's share now exceeds 6% the main seats of heavy chemical production are situated in the Ruhr and in several great complexes on the navigable water front of the Rhine notably at Leverkusen, Ludwgshafen and Hochst (near Frankfurt am Main). The district around Cologne facing on the Rhine witnessed a great growth in the mid-20th century of petroleum chemicals, and do-mistream, as far as the Ruhr, there are rayon and man-made fibre and heavy-chemical plants. Textiles. Employing about 9% of the workers, the textile industry is dominant in the lower Rhinelands, both south of the Ruhr (Elberfeld-Barmen) and west of the Rhine (Krefeld) also in the southwest in the Neckar valley and between Constance and Augsburg. A more balanced industry has resulted from the increased production of man-made fibres. Other Industries. Glassmaking is located in the Ruhr and the Precision instruments and electrical apparatus are manuSaar. factured in major cities, especially Berhn. Optical and precision instruments are produced in small towns in Baden-Wijrttemberg, while clocks, toys, jewelry and footwear are miade in several small towns in southwest Germany; e.g., jewelry at Pforzheim and boots and shoes at Pirmasens. IMany skilled industries, such as the making of harmonicas, are to be found in the country villages and small towns of this area. 6. Mining. For iron ore see Iron and Steel, above. Coal. As far as industrial resources are concerned, Germany's greatest natural assets are hard coal (deep mined) and brown coal Small bituminous coal fields or Hgnite (mostly surface mined). are scattered along the northern edge of the central highlands, but the Ruhr is the main seat of production and, in fact, the greatest In the early 1960s it accounted for about coal field in Europe. three-quarters of the 140,000,000 metric tons produced annually in the Federal Repubhc, including the Saar. At that rate of production its reserv'es should last for another 400 years. Lignite beds lie in the southern portion of the northern Lignite. lowland. In the Federal Republic the main area is the ViUe to ;

(Figures are given in 000 metric tons, except for gas [000,000 cu.m.), electricity (000,000 kw.hir.l, merchant vessels [000 gross registered tonnage] and motor vehicles [000 units))

Coal*

Shipbuilding and marine engineering are concentrated in the North sea ports, notably in

—

the southwest of Cologne, while a much smaller field Ues near Helmstedt. Annual producrion in the early 1960s averaged rather less than 100,000,000 metric tons. The Hgnite is surface mined to depths of several hundred feet using gigantic excavators and very httle labour. Though low in calorific value, its large-scale production and utilization on the spot as a fuel, or its fabrication into coal bricks for wider distribution, have been the basis of a Thermoelectric plants, to20th-century industrial revolution. gether wth chemical plants producing synthetic nitrates and oils, However, it was estimated that are located near the workings. the accessible reserves in the Ville district, for example, would

only about 70 years. Other Mineral Resources. Apart from coal and iron ore, the only other natural mineral resources of which Germany has large quantities are potash and rock salt. The main fields he in East Germany. Before World War II Germany had almost a world monopoly of potash, which is used as a fertiUzer and as a basis The Federal Republic has suppUes that for chemical industries. >'ield more than 2,000,000 metric tons of potash annually, a quarThe Federal Republic meets 90% ter of the world production. and 60% of its requirements of zinc and lead respectively. Copper production is small and aluminum production depends entirely on imports, for Germany has no bauxite deposits. There are oil deposits in both East and West Germany. Production is very small in the east, but rose rapidly in West Germany from 2,700,000 metric tons in 1954 to about 6,000,000 in the early 1960s. The main producing area is in the Emsland in the extreme northwest of the country. 7. Power. In the Federal Repubhc, of the electricity capacity last

—

—

feeding the public grid, one-half consists of hard-coal plants, onequarter of hydroelectric undertakings and the rest of brown-coal

About one-sixth of the total consumprion of electricity derived from water resources, the hydroelectric stations being

stations. is

GERMANY

355 them. southwest and northwest with

sociated MAJOR INDUSTftlAl ARtAS

To is

the a zone

which the textile, metalware and machine industries are domi-

in ;.

POTASH SALTS FIELD

CRUDE Oil

nant.

COPPER

Ruhr

LEAD

The

— the

industrial area of the series of

towns reach-

ing from Duisburg on the Rhine

ZINC

through Essen to Dortmund in

IRON ORE

the east

—

is

the

hub

com-

of this

West GerNorth Rhine-

plex and, indeed, of the

man economy.

WestphaKa accounts

about

for

two-fifths of the industrial workers of the Federal

RepubUc.

The

Ruhr

produces nine-tenths of Germany's bituminous coal and is, in consequence, the main seat of production in Germany, and in western Europe, of iron and steel, gas,

electricity

and

distillation

products.

Middle Rhine Region.

—This

area has its chief centres at the northern end of the upper Rhine plain

Frankfurt

in

am

Main,

Mainz and Wiesbaden and,

far-

ther south, in Ludwigshafen and

Mannheim.

It

of industries,

has a great variety

some of which are

old established ones, such as leatherworking and the production of boots and shoes, based

raw materials. But modern growth has been par-

originally on local ticularly cilities

due to the transport

offered

fa-

by the Rhine for

bulky raw materials. This accounts, for example, for the vast heavy-chemical industries at Ludwigshafen and at Hochst, west of Frankfurt am Main. Wiirttemberg. This former Land developed skilled domestic

—

crafts in the 18th century, particularly those that involved the

treatment of textiles and metals. Skilled manipulative industries are located in the environs of Stuttgart as well as in the small

towns and a large

DICKINSON

many miles

INDUSTRIAL AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF GERMANY

villages.

number

In this area

of workers travel

each day from remote work in both

villages to places of

located mainly in the Bavarian Alps.

In 1960 an experimental nuclear power station with a boilingwater reactor came into operation. A full-scale plant of 240megawatt (Mw.) capacity at Gundreimmingen, near Ulm, BadenWiirttemberg, and two further experimental stations, one with a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor and the other with a multipurpose heavy-water reactor, were also planned. In the Federal Repubhc, gas, derived from one-third of the coal production, is the most important source of power. Most of the production is from coking plants at the pits and the rest from steelworks and municipal gasworks. Distribution is effected by a system of long-distance supply lines. The chief supplier, at Essen, has developed a network reaching from the Ruhr to Hanover and Mannheim. By the early 1960s gas production exceeded that of the mid- 1930s by about one-fifth. 8. Location of Industry.— The chief industrial areas of the Federal Republic are summarized below. North Rhine-Westphalia. This Land has as its heart the Ruhr

—

coal field

and the

Ville coal field, together with the industries as-

big cities and small towns.

Great skills and small quantities of raw materials characterize the industries in the area. Other hidustrial Centres. Several of the great cities are out-

—

standing as seats of industry. fore the

war

Berlin

is

the greatest of them.

employed 1,000.000 persons

in industry, or

Be-

8%

of the total for the Reich, equivalent to the total for Wiirttemberg. The skilled steel and metal industries are especially important, and electrical supplies are among Berlin's chief products. Clothing industries, building trades, foods and printing are its other main it

Hamburg and Bremen owe their strong concentration of industry to their functions as ports. The other major regional capitals outside the main industrial areas are also important seats of industry, particularly Munich, Niirnberg. Hanover and Kassel. industries.

—

9. Tourism. In West Germany the various forms of tourism yielded about of the national income in the early 1960s, and there are many places where tourism is the primary source of liveli-

8%

hood.

North

There are about 240 inland spas, while the shores of the sea provide sandy beaches and bathing facilities on a major

scale, including the islands of Sylt

and Norderney, as do the

Baltic

GERMANY

356

shores in East Germany, including the islands of Riigen and Usedom. The lakes of the south are much frequented and the Germans flock to the Bavarian Alps. The highlands of central Ger-

many, particularly the Black Forest, attract visitors in winter and summer. Apart from the scenic areas, the numerous small historic towTis and the great cities also attract many visitors, espeRhineland. After World War II Germany was poorer than ever in raw materials and food supplies, with its economy unbalanced and suffering great losses from war damage, reparations and controls. At the same time its shipping resources had almost vanished cially in the

10.

Trade.

—

its capital reserves were hea\ily mortgaged by prewar and postwar debts. Nevertheless, largely as a result of the European Recover>' program (E.R.P.\ most-favoured-nation treatment from the United States and Great Britain, and the various measures taken by the Organization for European Economic Cooperation

and

(O.E.E.C.) to revive western trade in general, the foreign trade West Germany recovered to a remarkable degree. From 194S onward West Germany began to play a major role in the expansion of west European trade. By 1953 the total volume of imports and exports of the Federal Repubhc was already half of

as large again as that for the

same area before World War

II.

The

Federal Republic achieved its first postwar surplus of visible exports over imports in 1952, and this increased considerably later. By the early 1960s the structure of the Federal Republic's imports had changed compared with the prewar position of the Reich as a whole. The share of food in total imports had fallen from about two-fifths to less than a third, and that of raw materials from more than a third to about a quarter, the share of semifinished and finished goods having increased correspondingly. The structure of exports had changed little, however, the main items being The direction of trade finished and semifinished manufactures. had altered. Trade with the member states of O.E.E.C. and their associates had increased in importance compared with that for the prewar Reich, while more than a quarter of the Federal Republic's imports were from the western hemisphere compared with less

than a

fifth before.

munity (E.E.C.)

Membership

in 195S

in the

European Economic Com-

planned integration of the countries was a landmark in West Ger-

and

in the

economies of the member man economic histor>' {see Economic Union). Trade Fairs. Annual international trade fairs are of special significance. The most important are held at Hanover (representing West German industries), Frankfurt am Main (consumer goods), Cologne (mostly hardware, furniture and household goods), Niirnberg (toys), Munich (handicrafts), Offenbach (leather goods') and West Berlin general industries), 11. Finance. Before World War I government functions were di\-ided between three authorities the Reich, the Lander and the local authorities, but the burden of administration remained with

—

(

—

:

the Lander. Each level of administration le\-ied its own taxes, often on the same basis, but by 1910 the percentage v.hich the local authorities could add to the LaJtd rate of income, turnover and other ta.xes was hmited. Under the Weimar constitution the

Reich took over more administrative services than it had pre\-iously been responsible for, but poHce, education, justice, public health and super\-ision of industr\' continued to be within the competence These had tax collecting services of their own, of the Lander. though some of the smaller ones entrusted the Reich authorities with the collection of their taxes. The Reich, Lander and local authorities shared certain sources of revenue but the proportion going to the Reich increased gradually as the burdens of the latter increased. This raised the question of equalization of the burden of expenditure in the different Lander, but it was not until 193S that, in Prussia, a proper financial equalization based on need and taxation capacity was evolved. By 1939, as a result of the centralizing policy of the National Socialists, the central government had become the chief taxing authority in Germany, and the Lander had been ousted from their former privileged position. The central

government controlled not only customs and excise but also income The tax. corporation tax and the inheritance and property taxes. Lander were still allowed, however, to lew taxes on land, buildings, businesses and other sources of income. As the Lander found

themselves unable to

carrj' out their tasks

nith the proceeds of

these taxes, about three-quarters of the proceeds of the income and corporation taxes were handed over to them, and they in turn had to share these funds with the municipalities. A complicated

system of equalization grants was established to enable the Lander and municipal authorities to meet their obhgations. After World War II the financial system in the Federal Repubhc was based on the principles laid down in the Basic law. By these the federal government acquired exclusive legislative rights over some taxes (e.g., customs and excise, except beer, and financial monopolies) and concurrent legislative powers with the Lander in the case of certain other taxes (e.g., income and property taxes). The revenue from beer and various other taxes accrued to the Lander. Similarly there was a di\nsion of competence \\\ih regard The Basic law also to the actual administration of the taxes. authorized the federal government to draw upon an equalization fund provided from the proceeds of various Land taxes, and to make grants to the poorer Lander in accordance with their needs. As more of the burdens of reconstruction and compensation for war damage were assumed by the federal government, its financial requirements increased, and the Basic law was accordingly amended during 1955-56, The shares of the income and corporation taxes flowing to the federation and the Lander were to be changed to the advantage of the former, and the shares could be altered in or after I960 by federal law. requiring the consent of the Bitndesrat. Principles were laid down which meant that, in the long run. the federation would draw in the revenue and share it out on the basis of need and the remaining taxation capacity of the

By

'

960s the total annual revenue of the federation and the lander exceeded 60.000,000,000 DM, Banking and Currency. The first commercial bank was estabUshed in Germany in 1619, but it was not untfl the late 19th century that a modern, co-ordinated banking system developed.

Lander.

the early

1

—

By

the Reichsbank two of which were purely Berlin institutions, while the "big three" (the Deutsche Bank, Dresdner Bank and Commerz- und Privatbank) had branches throughout the country. After the inflation of 1923 the Reichsbank was reorganized under the Dawes plan and managed to preser\-e some semblance of independence until 1939. when a decree placed it directly under the control of Hitler, who exercised the control through Walther Funk, Reich minister of economics and president of the Reichsbank. There were also in prewar Germany pubUc banks maintained by the Land governments, provinces and municipahties, and these were important as savings banks. Savings, however, suffered because of the 1923 inflation and in 1924 they were only Later, confidence one-fifteenth of what they had been in 1914. was restored, and by 1937 savings had almost returned to the 1914

and

the 1930s

German banking was dominated by

five other big banks,

level.

After Germany's collapse in World War II the banking system was developed along different lines in the Soviet zone and the western zones. In West Germany banks were allowed to maintain their existence, and accounts other than those connected with Reich and Nazi property were not blocked. However, the western .\Uies considerably modified the banking system in West Germany, setting up a federal banking system in place of the former centralized structure. The head of this system was the Bank Deutscher Lander, and each of the Lander had its own autonomous bank ( Landeszentralbank) on which all the banking operations in the Land depended. The Bank Deutscher Lander derived its funds from the Land banks and acted as their banker, .\lthough it was the only bank allowed to issue notes, and was to that extent a centralizing influence, it was unable to open branches or to do internal

German banks.

business, generally speaking, except with the Land central In this respect it was quite di&'erent from the former

Reichsbank, whose influence and ramifications were widespread. Moreover, the essentially federal character of the postwar system may be judged from the fact that no West German bank was allowed to maintain branches outside the Land in which it was

|

i

|

]

registered.

In 1951 the federal government approved a new banking law designed to modify considerably this decentralized system. The

-

.

GERMANY law proposed to substitute for the 30 or more small banks functioning under the system of decentralization nine successor organizations to the former "big three," with power to operate in three large regions instead of being confined to Land boundaries. By 1954 this reorganization was said to have been completed. In 1956 a law permitted the merging of the successor banks. By 1958 the "big three" were again operating. In 1957 the Land central banks were merged with the Bank Deutscher Lander to

become the Deutsche Bundesbank. The dominant economic requirement in Germany after World War II was a reform of the currency so that money could once more play its essential part in economic life instead of finding its place usurped, as a unit of value and means of exchange, by such commodities in short supply as cigarettes and coffee. After the western Allies had failed to reach an agreement with the U.S.S.R. on an all-German currency reform, they instituted a separate reform in their own zones of occupation, and this reform was carried out in stages in 1948. The old reichsmark was converted to the new deutschemark at a rate of 10 RM. to 1 DM., and half the amount resulting from conversion was placed in a blocked account. By a further currency law 70% of the blocked accounts were canceled, 10% retained for compulsory investment and 20% freed. Thus in the end the West Germans had the free use of 6% of their holdings though a provision existed by which a later claim up to 10% of former reichsmark holdings might be allowed ) The reform was severe, but necessary and beneficent in its ultimate effects. By July 1948 money in circulation had been reduced from about 65,000.000,000 RM. to about 10,000,000,000 DM., and this restoration of the purchasing power of the mark and of people's confidence in it was the indispensable foundation of the Federal Republic's subsequent economic recovery. By Aug. 1957 the position of the deutschemark was strong enough to allow the lifting of all external currency restrictions, for by then the balance of payments was showing a large surplus. In March 1961 the exchange rate of 4.20 DM. = $1 was revalued at 4 DM. = $1. 12. Transport and Communications. Railways. Prussia nationalized its railways during 1876-79, and the other German Lander followed suit. In 1919 the Reich took over the various railways but failed to run the unified system at a profit. Later, with the help of funds made available through the Dawes plan, the railways were reorganized and their financial position improved. World War II, however, put an intense strain on rail transport, and (

—

—

bombing did enormous damage to rolling stock, tracks and marshaUng yards. After the war the railways felt the competition of road services and were thus in a weak financial position. The bulk of the railway system (now Deutsche Bundesbahn) in West Germany was formally designated as federal property in 1951. Allied

At the beginning of the 1960s the length of railway track exceeded 22,000 mi.; about one-eighth was electrified and a slightly larger proportion privately owned. Traffic on the federal railways amounted to about 38,600,000,000 passenger-km. and 53,500,000,000 ton-km. annually. Roads. By 1938 the new Autobahnen totaled about 1,900 mi. Plans for extending the Autobahnen in the Federal Republic were not approved until 1955, when a bill was passed to increase taxation on gasoline and diesel oil both to assist in financing new Autobahn construction and also to help the federal railways. In 1960 classified roads totaled about 85,000 mi., including 1,600 mi. of Autobahnen this figure, however, was being steadily increased by new construction; and 16,000 mi. of highways. Shipping. Very little tonnage was left to Germany in the immediate postwar years, most having been set aside for reparations. Moreover, for security reasons the German shipbuilding industry was severely limited, and many dock and shipbuilding installations were destroyed or removed. Afterward, Allied restrictions on the industry in West Germany were progressively removed. In the early 1960s the gross registered tonnage of merchant shipping (more than 2,700 ocean-going vessels) exceeded the total of 4,500,000 tons owned by the Reich in 1939, Hamburg handled nearly half the total overseas freight, and Bremen nearly a quarter; the other chief ports were Emden and Liibeck. Inland Waterways.— Beiore World War II about one-fifth of

—

(

—

German

357

was water-borne. But the inland shipping system suffered great damage during the war, both from Allied bombing and from the demolition of bridges and locks on canals by the Germans themselves. For example, at the end of the war the important Dortmund-Ems canal was completely out of action. After 1945, however, rapid progress was made in both East and West Germany in repairing war damage and in extending the inland waterways. The Rhine is navigable for 4,000-ton barges to Duisburgand for 2,000-ton barges to Basel; it dominates the waterborne traffic of western Europe. Duisburg receives ores, grain, oil and timber. Some of this traffic moves to the upstream parts, together with Ruhr coal and Rhenish brown-coal briquettes. The Mittelland canal, completed in 1938, carries 1,000-ton barges from the Ruhr to the Elbe, and serves, among other areas, the industrial complex of Salzgitter (iron and steel), Wolfsburg (automobiles and around Brunswick. Its through traffic is cut by the frontier between West and East Germany. The Weser is navigable for 600-ton barges almost to Kassel, with improvements to Minden inland

traffic

)

(at

the junction with the Mittelland canal)

to take

1,000-ton

Bremen's water-borne traffic has doubled since World War II, whereas that of Hamburg is below prewar figures, since the navigable Elbe and the Berhn system are cut off by the boundary from East Germany, In the Federal Republic by 1960 the Neckar had been made navigable as far as Stuttgart for 1 200ton barges, and the canalization of the middle Weser was proceeding. The canalization of the Moselle jointly with France was agreed on in 1956. In the early 1960s West German inland waterways carried more than one-quarter of total freight traffic, mostly in the Ruhr and northwestern Germany where mining and smelting involved vast freight movements. The Rhine fleet was barges.

,

actually larger than before the war.

—

Air Transport. For ten years after World War II Germany was served exclusively by foreign aircraft, but in 1955 the Allied High commission gave permission for the newly constituted airline Lufthansa to begin both internal and external services. It soon flights to many European capitals. North America, South America and the middle and far east. Postal Services and Telecommunications. The postal services in West Germany are federally operated, and the federal government also has a monopoly of telephone, telegraph, radio and television systems. In the early 1960s there were about 8,000,000 mi. of telephone and telegraph wires, and more than 8,000,000,000 letters and 280,000,000 parcels were handled annually. Telex serv-

operated regular

—

ices are particularly well developed.

C. 1.

German Democratic Republic

Agriculture.

—There

is

a brief historic discussion of

German

"peasant" agriculture in the Agriculture subsection of Federal Republic of Germany above. A drastic system of land reform was introduced in the Soviet zone in 1945, affecting all holdings of more than 100 ha. (247 ac). Farms and estates with a total area of 7,207,000 ac. were expropriated, being mostly parceled out in peasant holdings of between 7 and 9 ha. (17.3 and 22.2 ac). The recipients were mostly agricultural labourers and small peasants, together with many refugees from the east. By 1949, holdings of more than 250 ac. formed only 3.6% of all agricultural land, compared with 28.3% in 1939, although the latter percentage was more than restored by the subsequent poUcy of coUectivization. Collectivization. In the early postwar years, farming in the German Democratic Republic suffered from a shortage of both labour, which was being attracted into industry, and technical equipment. Agricultural costs were much higher than in the Federal Republic, and compulsory deliveries at low fixed prices were graded progressively steeper for the "larger" farmer, who was gradually squeezed out, The Communist-dominated Peasants' Mutual Aid organization soon began to control every aspect of farm life. In 1949 the state agricultural machinery pools were set up and acquired a virtual monopoly of larger agricultural machinery. By the early 1960s there were more than 600 of these pools controlling machine and tractor service stations. The final phase in breaking the resistance of the independent landowners started in July 1952 with

—

GERMANY

358

the promotion of collectivization. The "socialized sector" comprising nearly one-half of the productive agricultural land is now under some form of collective ownership state farms, other publicly owned farms or agricultural production co-operatives. Crops. Annual production of crops in the early 1960s was

—

—

roughly as follows: wheat 1,400,000 metric tons, barley 1.200,000, rye 2.000,000, potatoes 15,000,000, sugar beets 6.000,000 and oats 1,000.000.

—

Special attention was given to the increase of liveLivestock. stock and milk production in East Germany, but it still lagged behind the west. Cattle numbered about 4,800,000, pigs 8,000,000 and sheep 2.000,000 in the early 1960s. Although sea and coastal fishing had reached 2. Fisheries. about 100,000 metric tons by the early 1960s, supply remained far

—

below domestic demand. The catch is landed mainly at Rostock and Sassnitz, which are canning and preser\ang centres. 3.

Forestry.— .\s

in

West Germany,

after

World War

II the

timber supply situation was difficult. Afforestation in East Germany amounted to about 65,000 ha. a year in the late 1950s. More than 3,000,000 cu.m. of sawn timber were produced annually. Industry in East Germany w^as severely ham4. Industry. pered during the first two years after the end of World War II by the extensive dismantling of equipment and its removal as reparations to the U.S.S.R. Factories, mining equipment, railway Unes and overhead electricity wires were among the items removed on a large scale, and in addition many thousands of skilled workers

—

In the industries left in their zone of occupation the Russians followed a pohcy of eliminating private ownership and enterprise as far as possible. Socialization of industr>' formally ended on April 17, 1948. At that time about half of the East German industrial production was under state or pubindustrial lic ownership, about a quarter in the hands of the 126 Soviet-owned enterprises known as Sowjet Aktiengesellschaften

were deported

to the U.S.S.R.

(S.A.G.) and the rest in private hands. As soon as the initial policy of dismantling and removal of equipment and installations to the U.S.S.R. had ceased, the Soviet authorities embarked on a more positive economic policy in their zone, and one aspect of this was a consistent effort to raise the level of industrial production. An expedient to this end was the adoption, as in the U.S.S.R., of concerted "plans." On June 30, 1948, a two-year plan was drawn up; and this was replaced, on Jan. 1, 1951. by the five-year plan, which was designed to double industrial production in the

Democratic Repubhc by 1955.

the population of the Democratic Republic to achieve the objects of the five-year plan led to much hardship and discontent, which formed one cause of riots in Berlin and

The pressure on

elsewhere in June 1953, A ftw days earlier the government had decided to slacken the tempo, and the disturbances caused this "new course" to be emphasized still further. It involved concessions to private industry, a policy of labour incenUves and efforts to increase the quantity and reduce the prices of consumer goods. Also, the So\'iet government in Aug. 1953 announced the end of reparations from the Democratic Repubhc as from Jan. 1, 1954,

cancellation of the republic's debts to the Soviet Union, a reduction in the costs of the Soviet forces of occupation, an increase in deliveries of goods from the Soviet Union, large credits and

remaining S.A.G.s to the republic. was prepared, to follow the Production was later geared to a sevenfirst at the end of 1955. year plan (1959-65) which replaced the second five-year plan. The seven-year plan had ambitious objectives. It was expected that industrial production would double in value as a result of an 85% increase in the productivity of labour. Continued emphasis was to be placed on basic materials and producer goods, the production of which was to be doubled, but it was also planned to

finally the transfer of the ii

In

March 1954

a second five-year plan

increase the production of consumer goods by three-quarters in order to raise the standard of living. By the early 1960s total industrial production was four times as large as it had been ten

years earlier, an increase comparable with West German production, which was twice as large as before World War 11. Comparative production figures for East and West Germany are

shown

in

Table \T above.

—

Compared with the Federal ReRepubhc had the major share of the pro-

Manufacturing Industries. public the Democratic

duction of textile machinery, electrical apparatus and optical instruments. Heavy industr>' is located at Karl-Marx-Stadt, the hgnite fields of Lower Lusatia, and East Berlin. A large part of the engineering products of East Germany is exported to the So\iet Steel construction and electrical industries have made big bloc. Shipbuilding is of minor importance, although there is strides.

some development

at Rostock.

Chemical production is based on lignite, plus potash and salt mined around the Harz, chiefly the Leunawerke near Merseburg. The principal hea\^-chemical products are caustic soda, sulfuric

ammonia, phosphate, nitrogen products Pharmaceutical products, photographic supplies, perfumes, soaps, plastics, etc., are rather widely distributed The chemical industry accounted in many of the major towns. acid, chlorine, synthetic

and calcium carbide.

more than one-sixth of total industrial producdon in the early 1960s, and there was subsequently a big increase in the production of plastics and arrificial fibres. The textile industries employ for

about 13.5% of the industrial workers in East Germany and are next in importance to engineering. They are dominant in an area extending from the Sudeten in w-estern Silesia through Saxony and thence to Hof in northeast Bavaria. These industries were hard hit through their separarion from the sources of prewar imports, and the clothing industry in East Berhn suffered from being cut off

from western markets.

of the total production.

Cotton

textiles

The production

of

have the biggest share

man-made

fibres is re-

cei%ing high priority. Metalworking industries accounted for nearly one-third of total industrial production in the early 1960s, and the engineering in-

dustry pro\ided nearly two-thirds of total exports. Machine tool production was to be increased by 150% during the seven-year plan.

—

Location of Industry. The middle Elbe region is the main Germany. The predominantly industrial character of the hill country of Saxony is due in origin to the 5.

industrial area of East

early development of handicrafts. skilled

It

has a great variety of highly

machine and metalworking industries and

is

also a

main

Thuringia is also a seat of seat for the production of textiles. skilled industries, such as the making of hardware, toys, musical instruments and porcelain. The lowiand to the north of Saxony

an area of recent development, based entirely on the production brown coal, together with salt and copper. It is mainly an area Close to the brown-coal workings are of new hea\^' industries. thermoelectric plants, chemical w^orks and glass production in Lower Lusatia. Before Wodd War II the middle Elbe area accounted for one-fifth of the industrial workers in the Reich, and in this respect it was as important as North Rhine-WestphaUa. There are small bituminous coal fields in Saxony, 6. Mining. notably near Zwickau, but by the early 1960s the whole producis

of

—

tion

amounted

Germany

is

to less than 3,000.000 metric tons annually. East of the world's leading producers of lignite

now one

(brown coal) and the main deposits are in the middle Elbe basin and Lower Lusaria. By the early 1960s hgnite producrion had increased to more than 225,000,000 metric tons annually. Production of iron ore mcreased about fourfold in East Germany between the late 1930s and the late 1950s, but it was still only about 1,500,000 metric tons annually. The output of pig iron increased sevenfold to about 2,000,000 metric tons and that of crude metric steel doubled, but the latter reached only about 3,000,000 tons annually; and, in the face of higher industrial output generally, the degree of self-suificiency in metals had not improved. fields of potash (1,600,000 tons annually) and rock he east of the Harz around Stassfurt. Resources of copper (from the Harz lead and tin the fields in upper Silesia were lost All mining operations are state controUed. to Poland) are small. All producing and distributing enterprises were na7. Power. Uonahzed in 1946. The potential sources of hydroelectric power mountains) in East Germany are hmited to the Erzgebirge (Ore and the Sudeten (Sudeten mountains ). However, the Democratic

The main

salt

(

,

)

—

Republic uUlizes areas are located

its

large quantities of lignite, and in the mining thermoelectric plants. By the early

mammoth

GERMANY 1960s capacity had increased by at least one-fifth compared with World War 11, and output had roughly doubled. Nevertheless, the shortage of power was one of the chief industrial bottlenecks in East Germany. The operation had begun of a 70-Mw. before

prototype nuclear reactor. 8.

War

Trade.

—The

Germany after World West Germany concentrated largely on the

foreign trade of East

II like that of

export of industrial goods of high quality, including textiles and chemicals, in return for food and raw materials. This trade be-

monopoly and was diverted even more rigidly toward the U.S.S.R. and its satellites than was West German trade toward the E.R.P. countries. The decisive change in the direction of East German trade took place after 1948, the first year of E.R.P. During the two-year plan of 1949-50 and the five-year plan which followed, the tendency was to integrate the economy of the Democratic Republic more closely with the Soviet bloc and graducame a

ally to

state

make

the republic independent of trade with the west.

for this period, most of its meat, fat, wool, fish, tobacco, tea, manganese and chromium ores and pig iron, nearly half its requirements of rolling-mill products and smaller quantities of coke. In return the Democratic Republic would supply the U.S.S.R. with heavy machinery, motors and industrial equipment on a large scale, together with such products as chemicals, ships, precision instruments and television sets. Supplementary long-term trade agreements were similarly concluded between the Democratic Republic and the other Communist states. After 1 948 there was a rapid expansion in the trade of the Democratic Republic, which within a few years had the largest to-

trade turnover of any eastern European country and, next to China, was the most important trading partner of the U.S.S.R. In 1957 a new agreement was made with the U.S.S.R. under which the

tal

volume of Soviet deliveries to the Democratic Republic was to be increased by nearly one-third and East Germany was to be granted credit of 340,000,000 (old) rubles in freely convertible currency. By the early 1960s the total trade turnover of East Germany was equivalent to $4,360,000,000, of which three-quarters was with other Communist countries. More than four-fifths of the imports consisted of vegetable products, minerals, foodstuffs,

and metallurgical products; while chemicals and machinery of all kinds accounted for more than half the exports. Under the seven-year plan adopted in 1959, it was hoped to expand forThe most important international trade fair eign trade greatly. textiles

autumn

at Leipzig.

—A discussion

of finance before World War II is given under Finance in Federal Republic uj Germany above. In East Germany the financial system after World War II was 9.

Finance.

at first

marked by extreme

decentralization.

The

central admin-

which were the precursors of had indeed no tax revenues of their own and were financed from contributions from the railways and postal services and from the various Land governments. However, in 1950 the financial system of the Democratic Republic was centralized. The authority to raise revenue and the right to receive the revenue were taken from the Latid authorities and given to the central ministry of finance, which made allocations to the Lander, Kreise and Gemeinden to enable them to carry on This centralization their necessary work of local administration. foreshadowed the administrative reforms of 1952 when the Lander By (states) were abolished and replaced by Bezirke (districts). 1960 annual government revenue was about 50,809,000,000 DM. Banking and Currency. In the Soviet zone of Germany all existing banks were closed after the occupation had begun, and all bank deposits were blocked. Later a decentralized system somewhat on the western model was introduced, and in 1947 Land central banks were set up. In 1948, after a separate currency reform had been carried out, the Deutsche Emissions- und Girobank was set up as a central bank for controlling the new currency. Its title was soon changed to Deutsche Notenbank, and from that time istrative organs of the Soviet zone,

the ministries of the Democratic Republic,

—

the new institution began to exercise an ever greater control over banking activities throughout the Soviet zone. The system of centralized planning involved more encroachment on the functions of the Land banks, and in 1950 this process led to their complete amalgamation with the Deutsche Notenbank. In 1951 the Deutsche Notenbank became the official state bank with functions enabhng it to control the carrying out of long-term economic planning besides controlHng note circulation and foreign exchange transactions.

In 1953 the eastern deutschemark was "revalued" at an exchange DM.-ost = 1.80 rubles. The third postwar currency 1 reform took place in 1957, when old notes were exchanged at par but only in limited amounts. Officially at par with the western rate of

deutschemark, in the early 1960s the eastern deutschemark was beWest BerHn at a rate far below its par value. After 1945 the rail10. Transport and Communications.

ing exchanged in

—

A way

long-term agreement on the mutual deliveries of goods during 1952-55 was concluded between the U.S.S.R. and the Democratic Republic in 1951. It was then claimed that the U.S.S.R. would supply all the wheat, cotton and fodder required by East Germany

takes place every

359

network in East Germany suffered severely as a result of wholesale removal of rolling stock and tracks by the U.S.S.R. as reparations. They remained state owned and operated but by the early 1960s had been largely reconstructed, carrying more than 1,000,000 passengers and a freight tonnage of about 240,000,000 metric tons annually. There are more than 10,000 mi. of railway track. The road network is highly developed and there are about 30,000 mi. of classified roads. There are about 1,650 mi. of navigable waterways. In the early 1960s East Germany had a commercial fleet of more than 50 ships with a gross tonnage of about 200,000. Rostock was being developed as the principal port. A new canal from Niederneuendorf to Paretz, to the northwest of Berlin, designed to en-

inland shipping to avoid using waterways of The East German to traffic in 1952. Lufthansa (state airline) operates services to Moscow and the capitals of eastern European countries. All telephone, telegraph, radio and television facilities are able East

West

German

was opened

Beriin,

government owned and operated. The postal services of the Democratic Repubhc handle about 1,300,000,000 letters and nearly 40,000,000 parcels annually. See also references under "Germany" in the Index volume. (I. L. G.; P. G. Rs.; R. A. A. C. de S.; R. E. Di.)

—

Bibliography. Current history and statistics are summarized annually in Britannica Book of the Year. Physical Geography: R. E. Dickinson, Germany: a General and Regional Geography (19S3) with N. J. G. Pounds, The bibliog.; F. Ratzel, Deulschland, 5th ed. (1945) Ruhr (1952) E. de Martonne, L'Europe Centrale, 2 vol. in Geographie Universelle (1930-31) Handbuch der Ceographischen Wissenschaft, ed. by F. Klute, Das Deutsche Reich, 2 vol. (1941); Publications of the Bundesamt fiir Landeskunde and of the Institut fiir Raumforschung, Bad Godesberg, including many volumes of regional studies of the Forschungen zur deutschen Landeskunde and the quarterly periodical Raumforschung und Raumordnung; Georg Miiller, Die Sladt iind Landkreise in der Statistik, Institut fiir Raumforschung, with a series E. Meynen (ed.), of maps of the Federal Republic of Germany (1959) Geographisches Taschenbuch: Jahrweiser zur deutschen Landeskunde ;

;

;

;

(annual 1949). The People: M. Haberlandt, Die Volker Europas und des Orients A. Haberlandt, R. Much, Deutsche Stdmme, 3rd ed. (1920) (1920) "Die volkstiimliche Kultur Europas in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung," and M. Haberlandt, "Die indogermanischen Volker des Erdteils Europa," Hlustrierte Volkerkunde, ed. by G. H. T. Buschan, vol. ii, part 2 (1926) R. Beitl, Wbrterbuch der deittschen Volkskunde, 2nd ed. ;

;

;

(19SS).

History: Ancient History: The classical sources on the ancient Gerare Caesar, Tacitus, Aramianus Marcellinus and Jordanes (gq.v.). See further T. Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman Empire, ch._ 5, Eng trans. (18S6) E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of tlie Roman Empire, the Later vol. i-vi, ed. bv J. B. Bury (1909-14) J. B. Bury, History of Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian, vol. i (1923), The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians (1928) Nils Aberg, Archdologie der V olkerwanderungen (1922); L. Schmidt,

mans

;

;

;

Geschichte der deutschen Stdmme bis zutn Ausgang der Volkerwanderungen, 2nd ed. (1934) E. A. Thompson, History of Attila and the Huns (1948). There are also chapters, with bibUographies, in the Combridge Ancient History, vol, x-xii, and in the Cambridge Medieval His;

tory, vol.

i

(1911).

Merovingians and Carolingians: The fundamental documents (diplomas, capitularies, cartularies, canons of councils and formularies) are printed in the various series of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica (1826See further L. Schmidt, Geschichte der deutschen Stdmme ) 2nd ed. (1934) W. Levison, England and the Continent in the .

.

.

.

,

;

"

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/'pe of

style. He subsequently collaborated with his brother Ira Gershwin, a gifted writer of lyrics, and together they produced popular musical comedies on Broadway, among them Lady Be Good (1924), Strike up the Band (1927) and Of Thee I Sing 1931), the last a political satire that was awarded the Puhtzer

his

(

prize.

In his

Rhapsody

in Blue,

commissioned by Paul Whiteman and

Gershwin was the soloist at its first on Feb. 12. 1924. The following year a sequel to the Rhapsody iti Blue was produced with the Concerto in F for piano and orchestra, following the traditional piano concerto form. It was commissioned by Walter Damrosch, who conducted it with the composer as soloist in New York city on Dec. 3, 1925. In 1928 Gershwin wrote the sjTnphonic poem An American in Paris (New York. Dec. 13), in which quotations from popular French music alternate with original dance tunes, the score including parts to be played by Paris taxi horns. The Second Rhapsody for piano and orchestra, which Gershwin played with the Boston Symphony orchestra, conducted by Serge Koussevitzky, on Jan. 29, 1932, fell below the spontaneous inspiration of the Rhapsody iti Blue and remained unsuccessful. Gershwin's last and finest work was the opera Porgy and Bess with a libretto based on Negro life by DuBose Heyward and written for Negro singers. It was first staged in Boston on Sept. 30, 1935, and subsequently in New York city, Europe and the U.S.S.R. Although its initial reception was not enthusiastic, the opera grew in popularity and became especially known for its songs, "Summer"I Got Plenty 0' Nuttin" and "It Ain't Necessarily So." time, Gershwin died in Hollywood, Cahf,, on July 11, 1937. See 1. Goldberg, George Gershwin (1931) D. Ewen, A Journey to Greatness: the Life and Music of George Gershwin (1956). (N. Sy.) (1363-1429). French theologian, chanGERSON, JEAN cellor of the University of Paris and a leader of the conciliar movefrom the "blues'" and jazz. performance in New York

city

''

;

Auch, the ancient capital of Gascony and seat of an archbishopric, is the largest town (16,109 in 1962) and prefecture, centrally situated on the Gers river, and focus of the roads and railways that serve the departement. It has a fine 16th-century cathedral, especially noted for its Renaissance stalls and stained glass. The departement comes under the academie of Toulouse and the court of appeal of Agen. Auch, Condom and Mirande are the centres of the three constituent arrondissements.

GERSHOM BEN JUDAH

(Ar. E. S.)

950-c. 1028), known as R.^^bBENU Gershom, and "the Light of the Exile," was the greatest rabbinical authority of the Jews of western Europe. As the brilliant teacher of the rabbinic academy at Mainz in Germany, he

was one of the first lonia and Palestine

{c.

to transplant the talmudic learning of to the schools of the west.

Baby-

A consummate

from all parts of Europe, and was the mentor, guide and appellate judge of the autonomous and demscholar, he attracted students

ocratically governed Jewish communities of

Germany and

France,

DE

ment

for church reform, called doctor christianissmus.

He

was

surname is derived) near Reims on Dec. 13, 1363 the family name was Charlier. He was educated at the College of Navarre in Paris, studying theology under Pierre d'Ailly g.v.), who remained his hfelong friend. At the university he was elected procurator for the French "nation" in 13S3, and in 1387 was sent with the chancellor and others to Clement VII to procure the condemnation of Jean de Montson, a Dominican who had rejected the Immaculate Conception. When D'Ailly was made bishop of Le Puy in 1395, Gerson was elected chancellor of the university, then at the height of its fame and attracting students from all the lands of Christendom. In theology Gerson was a follower of the nominalist William

bom

Gerson (from which

at

his

;

(

Ockham

(see

also

Nominalism).

Impatient with the merely away from

helping to mold their political, social and co-operative institutions. At synods of community leaders he proposed and guided the adoption of legal enactments that shaped the organized life of European Jewry. These enactments prohibited polygamy and limited the husband's right of arbitrary divorce, strengthened the jurisdiction

verbal subtleties of decadent scholasticism, he turned the w-hole medieval tradition that had emphasized

of courts of law and extended the use of the principle of majority

and the church fathers instead of indulging in finespun arguments on points of speculative theology. It seemed an attractive program to many, but the rejection of human reason as a key to theological truth could as easily lead to religious skepticism as to the purer and simpler faith at which Gerson aimed. His own theological writing was influenced by the mystiHe had a cal tradition of the Victorines and of St. Bonaventura. great reputation as a preacher and a moralist; one of his moral

rule in

community

legislation.

He

wrote

many

responsa, worked

Talmud and on the Masora, and transmitted to his students an extensive oral commentary on the entire Talmud. All rabbinic scholars of Germany and France of the subsequent on a

critical text of the

generations considered themselves the students of his students, and followed faithfully his teachings, his customs and his legal enactments. (I. A. A.)

the

value

For Gerson the good of an action depended solely on the will of God, which hu-

of reason in the discernment of divine truth.

or evil

man

reason could not fathom.

selves to the study of the Bible

He

urged students to apply them-

GERSONIDES—GERSTENBERG treatises

was

a

work warning university students

scenity and skepticism of the then very popular

against the ob-

Rommi

de la rose. Some scholars have credited Gerson with the authorship of the famous mystical treatise The Imitation of Christ, but it is most

probably not his work. Gerson is especially remembered for his part in healing the Great Schism which began in 1378 when two rival candidates, Urban VI and Clement VII, disputed the papal throne. {See also Papacy: The Great Schism, 1378-1417.) At first his attitude was moderate. He deprecated the views of zealots on both sides who held that all members of the opposing party were in a state of excommunication and lacked valid sacraments; but as the schism grew more embittered Gerson came to propound really radical doctrines on church government as the only means of restoring unity. He taught that although the papacy was divinely established as the head of the church, nevertheless the authority of the whole universal church was greater than that of any individual pope. -

The

practical consequence was that a general council could judge and depose a pope. Gerson supported the Council of Pisa (1409) which claimed to depose the two e.xisting "popes" and elect a third. After it became apparent that this had merely produced three "popes" instead of two, the Council of Constance assembled in

1415this council and played a leading part in its (including those that led to the condemnation of His views on conciliar authority were accepted, and

Gerson attended deliberations

John Huss). the schism was ended by the forced resignation of two "popes" and the deposition of the third. Gerson, however, had one major defeat In 1408 he had taken the lead in condemning a at the council. work of the theologian Jean Petit, who had defended the assassination of the due d'Orleans by partisans of the duke of Burgundy as justifiable tyrannicide. The case of Jean Petit was reconsidered at Constance, but the council refused to condemn him explicitly. When Gerson left Constance in 1418 he was prevented from returning to France by the threats of the duke of Burgundy, and he went into exile in Germany. In 1419, on the death of the duke, he returned to France and settled at Lyons. Gerson had always showed a tenderness toward small children, and he spent his last years teaching children and writing hymns and works of devotion. He died with a reputation for exemplary piety on July 12, 1429.

The

best editions of his collected works, those of Paris, four

volumes (1606), and Antwerp,

volumes' (1706), are both very

five

imperfect.

—

Bibliography. J. B. Schwab, Johannes Gerson (18S8) John Gerson, Mystic and Reformer (1928).

;

nolly,

J. L. Con(B. Ty.)

GERSONIDES from

his initials,

(Levi ben Gershon) (1288-c. 1344), known with the title Rabbi, as Ralbag and also called

Leo de Bagnolas, Leo Hebraeus or Maestro Leon, Jewish mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and biblical commentator, [was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, of a family distinguished for piety and learning. He lived at Avignon (w-here the rule of the Angevin counts of Provence and later of the popes was comparakively tolerant), at Orange and at Perpignan. His De Numeris I

^harmonicis (written in

Hebrew but

extant only in the Latin ver-

was composed at the instance of Philip of Vitry, bishop of iMeaux. Other mathematical works of his include a treatise called De Sinibus, chordis et arcubus, one of the first European writings ion trigonometry. He invented (or improved) an astronomical inIstrument, which he called Jacob's staff (baculus Jacob), for measuring heights and used the camera obscura. These inventions enlabled him to correct the astronomical tables of the time. His •importance as an astronomer is undisputed but cannot easily be

jsionj

astronomical part of his philosophical work Milihamot Adonai ("The Wars of the Lord"; partial Ger, trans, by

lassessed, as the

B. Kellermann, Die Kdmpfe Gottes, 2 vol., 1914-16) was unfortunately omitted both from the editio princeps (1560) and from the jsecond edition (1868), although it had been translated into Latin

As a philosopher Gersonides develops the synthesis of 1342. lAristotelianism and Judaism which Maimonides (q.v.) had ef-

jin

On account

fected. taries,

he

is

of his familiarity with Averroes'

more firmly grounded

in Aristotle

commen-

than his illustrious

367

He himself wrote supercommentaries on the six books of the Aristotelian Organon and on Porphyry's Isagoge, some of which were printed, with the commentaries of Averroes, in the Latin edition of Aristotle (1550). His pronounced rationalism is in evidence also in his commentaries on the Bible. His orthodox contemporaries mockingly called his main work "Wars against the Lord." Sec also Jewish Philosophy. (A. An.) FALLS or Jog Falls, a cataract on the short predecessor.

GERSOPPA

Sharavati river in North Kanara mi.

N.W.

of Shimoga.

The

district,

Mysore

state, India, S3

river there crosses the

the western Ghats, having cut

main scarp of

headwaters far back beyond the crest. It descends in four cascades, one of which, the most striking in all India, has a vertical plunge of 829 ft. The Mahatma Gandhi power station 120.000 kw. utilizes the fall. The power is mainly consumed in the factories and mines of Mysore. Near the village are extensive ruins of Nargabestikere, the former capital of the Jain chiefs of Gersoppa. The area was formerly celebrated for its pepper. Some timber is extracted from its forests. (T. Her.; L. D. S.) FRIEDRICH (1816-1872), German traveler and author of popular travel books, was born at Hamburg on May 10, 1816, the son of a famous singer. From 1837 to 1843 he led an adventurous life in America, studying local customs and traveling widely throughout the United States. On his return he (

its

)

GERSTACKER,

described his experiences in a

number

of sketches, Streif-

und

Jagdziige diirch die Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas, two vol-

umes (1844; Eng.

trans..

Wild Sports

in the

Far West, 1854).

In

the next year he published a novel, Die Regidatoren in Arkansas,

three volumes (Eng. trans.. Feathered Arrow, 1851), incorporating similar material, and thereafter produced a stream of travel

sketches and novels. He made journeys to South America, California, Australia and the Dutch East Indies (1849-52), to the German colonies in South America (1860-61) and to Mexico,

Ecuador, Venezuela and the West Indies (1867-68), as well as His impressions of South America are recorded in Achtzehn Monate in Stidamerika, three volumes (1862), and he later campaigned effectively for the interests of the German emigrants and for proper national representation overseas. He died at Brunswick on May 31, 1872. Gerstacker's works attained enormous popularity, answering to the widespread interest in far-off countries. His novels have no particular formal or stylistic qualities, nor do they go very deep, but they tell exciting stories with liveliness and exotic detail, being set most frequently in passionate tropical lands. His observation is rarely detailed or accurate enough to be of scientific value, and his books are no longer widely read. Apart from the one mentioned above, his novels Die Flusspiraten des Mississippi (1848; Eng. trans.. The Pirates of the Mississippi, 1856) and Tahiti (1854) are among his best. His collected works appeared in 44 volumes (1872-74). See F. Sevfahrt, Friedrkh Gerstdcker (1931). (W, D, Wi,) smaller expeditions.

GERSTENBERG,

HEINRICH

WILHELM VON

(1737-1823), German poet, critic and theorist of the Sturm und Drang movement, was born at Tondern, Schleswig, Jan. 3, 1737. After studying law at Jena he entered the Danish military service and took part in the Russian campaign of 1762. He spent the next 12 years in Copenhagen, where he was a friend of the poet Klopstock. From 1775 to 1783 Gerstenberg was official Danish representative at Liibeck, and in 1786 received a judicial appointment at Altona, where he died, Nov. i, 1823. The text of his cantata Ariadne auf Naxos (1767) was set to music by J. A. Scheibe and J. C. Bach (these scores were lost) and later adapted for a famous duodrama by Georg Benda. Gerstenberg also translated Beaumont and Fletcher's Maid's Tragedy (1765), and himHis self wrote a gruesome but powerful tragedy, Ugolino (1768). chief service to the new literary movement was his Briefe iiber Merkwiirdigkeiten der Literatur, three volumes (1766-67), in which the critical principles of the Sturm und Drang and espewere first definitely formucially its enthusiasm for Shakespeare lated. As a musician Gerstenberg, a pupil of Scheibe, formulated theories on instrumental and dramatic music opposed to those of Jean Jacques Rousseau.

—

—

—

)

GERVAIS— GESNER

368 Bibliography. vol. (1815-16).

— Gerstenberg's The

Briefe iiber

GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED

Vermisckte Schriften appeared in 3

M erkwiirdigkeiten der Literatur were

See also A. M. Wagner, H. W. republished by A. von Weilen (i888-8g) von Gerstenberg und der Sturm und Drang, 2 vol. (1920) J. W. Eaton, Gerstenberg and Lessing (1938). For Gerstenberg's musical influence see A. Schering, "G.P.E. Bach und das 'redende Prinzip" in der Musik," in Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters (1939). .

I

(1805-1871), Gerand Shakespearean commentator, was bom on 1805, at Darmstadt, and died on March 18, 1871, at

man

historian

May

20,

;

PAUL

(i8i6-i879» GERVAIS, (FRANCOIS LOUIS) French paleontologist and zoologist most noted for his work on fossil vertebrates, was born on Sept. 26, 1816, in Paris, where he obtained doctorates in science and medicine. He studied paleontology as assistant to H. M. D. de Blainville. Cuvier's successor as professor of comparative anatomy in the Museum of Natural History. In 1845 Gervais was appointed to the chair of zoology and comparative anatomy in the faculty of sciences at Montpellier of which he was appointed dean in 1856. He returned to Paris in 1865 with professorships in anatomy, comparative physiology and geologN' at the Sorbonne. Three years later he achieved his ambition of succeeding to the chair of Cuvier and Blainville in the museum. Most important of Gervais' earlier works were his Zoologie et paleontologie iranqaises (1848-52), essentially a continuation of Cuvier's and Blainville's publications on the same subject. Among his major later works were Zoologie et paleontologie generales (1867-75) and, with Van Beneden, a series of important studies on

Osteographie des cetaces vivants et fossiles (1868 et seq.). numerous papers on vertebrates brought back by French expeditions abroad, and was the author of such general zoological works as Histoire naturelle des mammijeres (1S55 and, with Van Beneden, Zoologie midicale (1859). Gervais died in (A, S, Rr,) Paris on Feb, 10, 1879,

whales

He

also published

Heidelberg, In 1835 he became professor of history at Gottingen. His Geschichte der poetischen Xationailitteratur der Deutschen, five volumes (1835—42), subsequently entitled Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, 5th ed, by K, Bartsch (1871-74), was the first comprehensive and scholarly history of German literature. In 1837 he was one of the seven Gottingen professors dismissed for their protest against the violation of the constitution by the king of

Hanover. After some years in Heidelberg, Darmstadt and Rome, Gervinus settled in Heidelberg, where in 1844 he was appointed honorary professor. In the following year he espoused the cause of the German Catholics, hoping for a union of all the Christian confessions and the establishment of a national church. In 1846 he came forward as a champion of the Schleswig-Holsteiners. With other patriotic scholars he founded the Deutsche Zeitung, one of the best-wTitten liberal journals published in

GERVASE the Canterbury

(Gervasius Doroborxensis) chronicler, who championed

OF Canterbury

1141-c. 1210), English

monks

in

monk and

struggle

their

with the archbishops.

Perhaps of a Kentish family, he entered the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, at an early age, and was professed (1163) and ordained by Thomas Becket, He took a prominent jjart in the disputes between the monks of Christ Church and Archbishop Baldwin (.1185-91^ and was made sacrist (after 1190, until 1197),

About 1188 he undertook the compilation of his Chronica (from Stephen to the death of Richard I, usually an independent auA second histor>', the Gesta thority for the years 1188-99), regiim, on a smaller scale, traces the fortunes of Britain from the days of Brutus to about 1210; the latter part only, from 1199, deserves

much

attention.

See Gervase's Historical Works ed, by W, Stubbs with notes, "Rolls see also D. Knowles, The Monastic Series," no. 73. 2 vol. (1879-80) (Pl, Gs.) Order in England, pp. 316-324 and 331-333 (1949), ;

GERVASE courtier,

is

or

Tilbury

(c.

1152-c,

a striking representative of the

the 12th century,

A

kinsman

1220),

scholar

and

cosmopolitan society of

of Patrick, earl of Salisbury, he

presumably spent his childhood in England, He was, however, in Rome by 1166, studied at Bologna and afterward taught canon law there. He returned to England about 1180 and entered the household of Henry H's eldest son, Henr\'. "the young king," after whose death in 11S3 he passed into the ser\-ice of William, archbishop of Reims, and from there into that of William II of Sicily, Gervase made an advantageous marriage in the early 1 1 90s with a kinswoman of Humbert, archbishop of .\rles. It was doubtless this connection that led later to his appointment by the emperor Otto IV as marshal of the kingdom of Aries, He appears to have rein the imperial service until Otto's death in 1218. but soon afterward returned to England where, his wife being dead, he retired from the world to an unnamed house of regular canons, Gervase's claim to fame rests upon the Otia Imperialia, dedicated to Otto IV, The work was still in progress in 1215 and cannot have been presented to the emperor until near the end of his life. Intended as a compendium of geography, historv' and natural history, Extracts have been published it is above all a book of mar\-els. from the 17th century onward and an edition of the whole work was published by Leibniz in 1707 and 1710, Apart from a single

mained

anecdote by Ralph of Coggeshall, to be gathered from his book.

all

that

is

known

of Ger^-ase

(H. G. Ri.

is

in the 19th

;

he also sketched his Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, eight volumes ( 1854-60), His parallel study of Handel and Shakespeare appeared in 1868. See M, Rychner, G. G. Gervinus. Ein Kapitel iiber Literaturgeschichte (A. Gs,)

(1922),

GESENIUS, (HEINRICH FRIEDRICH)

i

(c.

Germany

Between 1849 and 1852 Gervinus pubUshed his important work, Shakespeare, in four volumes (4th ed,, 2 vol., 1872 Eng. trans, by F, E, Bunnett, 1863, new ed,, 1877 j. During this period

century.

WILHELM

(1786-1842 ), German bibhcal critic and a highly important figure Hebrew and other Semitic language studies, was born at Nordhausen, Hanover, on Feb. 3, 1786. He was educated at Helmstedt and at Gottingen and in 1811 became professor of theology at Though accused of Halle, w^here he attracted many students. rationalism, he was never dismissed from his post. He published httle that was controversial, his chief theological publication being Gesenius inaugurated in a commentary on Isaiah (1821-29), Semitic language studies a modern philological approach such as had been developed in Indo-Germanic linguistics. His Hebrew grammar (.1813; edited and enlarged by E, Kautzsch; 2nd English

in

edition revised according to the 28th

German

edition

by A, E, Cow-

1910) and his Hebrew and Chaldee (.z.e., Aramaic) dictionary (1810-13) taught generations of scholars, and have been kept alive to this day through the labours of editors and translators. Gesenius also laid the basis for Semitic epigraphy, collecting and deciphering the Phoenician inscriptions then known. He died on

ley,

Oct, 2i. 1842, See E, F, Miller, (1927),

The Influence of Gesenius on Hebrew Lexicography (E. G. Kk,)

GESNER, ABRAHAM inventor, noted for his

797-1864) Canadian geologist and early processes for distilling kerosene, was ( 1

,

born in Xova Scotia on May 2, 1797. He qualified as a doctor of Returning to Canada, he pubmedicine in London in 182 7. lished in 1836 Reviarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, and in 1843 brought before the Geological society of London "A Geological Map of Xova Scotia, With an Accompanying Memoir." In 1849 he issued a volume on the industrial resources of the country. He dealt also with the geology and mineralogy of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. In 1854 Gesner established a New York company at Newton Creek. L.I., to manufacture kerosene from petroleum. Devoting himself later to the economic side of geologj' in various parts of North America he published in 1S61 A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum and Other Distilled Oils,

which was translated into a number of languages.

died at Halifax. N.S., on

.April 29.

He

1864.

KONRAD VON

(1516-1565). German-Swiss whose monumental Historia animalium is considered the starting point of modern zoologj', was born at ZiJrich. He took his M.D. at Basel in 1541 and then practised at Zurich, where he became lecturer in physics at the Carolinum. Gesner was

GESNER,

writer and naturalist

a versatile intellect, knowiedgeable in many fields; Cu\ier called him "the German Pliny," He illustrated his many works with figures outstanding for their freshness and, with few exceptions, their this in an age known for its styUzed and often trueness to hfe

—

GESNERIACEAE— GESTA FRANCORUM and plants. He was elevated to the and died of plague on Dec. 13, 1565, when he

fanciful depiction of animals

nobility in 1564

refused to desert his patients during an epidemic in Zurich. To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist, though

manuscripts were not published till 1751-71, In 1545 he published his remarkable Bibliotheca universalis td\te.Ahy y&vmXtr (1574), a catalogue (in Latin, Greek and Hebrew) of all past writers with the titles of their works, etc. A second part, under the title of Pandectarum sive partitionum iiniversalium Conradi Gesneri Ligurini libri xxi, appeared in 1548, only 19 books being then concluded. The 21st book, a theological encyclopaedia, was published in 1549. but the 20th, intended to include his medical work, was never finished. His great zoological work, Historia animalium, appeared in four volumes ("quadrupeds, birds, fishes) folio, 1551-58, at Zurich, a fifth (snakes) being issued in 1587 (there was a German translation entitled Tkierbuch,

most of

his botanical

at Niirnberg.

of the first four volumes, Zijrich, 1563).

Not content with such vast works, Gesner put forth book entitled Mithridates de

differentiis

in

1555 his

Unguis, an account of

about 130 known languages, with the Lord's Prayer in 22 tongues, while in 1556 appeared his edition of the works of the early Roman writer Aelian.

probably best known for his among them, undertaken partly as a botanist, but also for the sake of exercise and enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1555 Gesner issued his

To

nonscientific readers, Gesner

love of mountains and for his

narrative (Descriptio

many

is

excursions

Montis Fracti sive Montis

Pilati) of his ex-

cursion to the Gnepfstein (6,299 ft.), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain,

and therein explains

at length

how

each of the senses of

man

refreshed in the course of a mountain excursion. See Livesh\ J. Hanhart (1824) and J. Simler (1566) see also Papers Bibliog. Soc. Amer., x, pp. S3-86, ed. by J. E. Bay (1916). is

;

GESNERIACEAE,

a family of dicotyledonous plants, con-

chiefly tropical, a few found temperate regions. It includes the popular house plants African violet (Saintpmdia species) and gloxinia (Sinningia speciosa). Over 80 genera are recognized, with about 1,200 species, the tropical genera being sharply limited geographically as between the Large genera in the old world tropics of the two hemispheres. are Cyrtandra, Didymocarpus and Aeschynanthes, and in the new Many world Columtiea, Kohleria, Corytholoma and Gesneria. species representing various other genera are cultivated for ornamental purposes. These include Ramonda and Haberlea, rock garden subjects; Cape primrose (Streptocarpus) and Episcia, showy house plants. See African Violet; Gloxinia. (1831-1881), Italian explorer and adminGESSI, istrator in the Sudan, was born at sea on April 30, 1831, of an Italian father (in the British Levant consular service) and an Armenian mother. He was an interpreter with the British army in the Crimean War during 1854-55 and a volunteer in the SardinLater an Italian ian army that fought against Austria (1859). In 1873 'citizen, he set up in business at Tulcea in Rumania. C. G. Gordon ithe khedive Ismail appointed Col. (later Gen.) governor of the Egyptian Equatorial province, and Gordon, who had met Gessi in the Crimea and again at Tulcea, invited him to the Sudan. Under Gordon's direction Gessi and C. Piaggia circumnavigated Lake Albert. ^Then, disappointed by the lack of During [Official recognition, Gessi resigned the Egyptian service. [1877-78, with P. Matteucci, he vainly attempted to penetrate western Ethiopia from the Blue Nile valley. Gordon, now governor general of the Sudan, re-employed him as governor of the Bahr el Ghazal province and commander of an expedition against the rebel Suleiman wad al-Zubayr. After a hard campaign he caught and killed Suleiman, an action which, though approved by Gordon, was criticized by Gordon's successor, Mohammed Rauf Pasha, who dismissed Gessi. Racked by fever he left for Europe but died at Suez on April 30, 1881. Gessi's memoirs, unfinished at his death, were published as Sette anni nel Sudan egiziano ( 1891 Eng. trans. iDy L. Wolffsohn and B. Woodward, Seven Years in the Soudan, 1892; abridged Italian ed. by A. A. Michieh, 1930). sisting of herbs, vines

and shrubs,

in

ROMOLO

;

See C. Zaghi, Vita di

Romolo

Gessi (1939).

(R. L. Hi.)

369

GESSLER, OTTO KARL

(1875-1955), German minister of was imposing disarmament, was born at Ludwigsburg on Feb. 6, 1875, and entered the legal department in Bavaria in 1904. He was burgomaster of Regensburg in 1911, and of Niirnberg in 1913-19. A founder of the German Democratic party, he was minister of reconstruction in the Reich from 1919 to 1920. On March 24, 1920, he became minister of war. As such he was faced with the neces-

war

for nearly five years

when

the Versailles treaty

sity of allaying the suspicion of the AlUes.

He had

as his colleague

Gen. Hans von Seeckt and in spite of difficulties succeeded in reorganizing the Reichswehr. Gessler became increasingly unpopular with the parties of the left, and the Social Democrats asserted that relations were maintained between the patriotic unions and the Reichswehr. He resigned on Jan, 19, 1928, Always a royalist, Gessler kept contact mth Bavarian royalists after 1933 and was imprisoned for seven months in 1944-45. He became head of the Bavarian Red Cross in 1949 and of the German Red Cross in 1951, remaining its president until his death at Lindenberg on March 24, 1955.

GESSNER, SALOMON

(1730-1788), Swiss writer, painter on April 1, 1730, and died there his pastoral prose Idyllen (1756-72) and his epic poem Der Tod Abels (1758), he was the most successful and typical representative of a literary rococo movement. In the melodious rhythms of his prose, the playful dream of a new Arcadia goes hand in hand with keen observation and love of nature. His pastorals were translated into 20 languages including Welsh, Latin and Hebrew. The English version ran through about a score of editions, was appreciated by Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron and William Wordsworth, and is mentioned by Thomas Hood in his "Dream of Eugene Aram." He translated some of Alexander Pope's Pastorals and two tales of Denis Diderot. His works were published in his own important pubhshing house, illustrated with excellent etchings by himself. He served his town as a town councillor and was an efficient forestry superintendent. The final collection of his works was published at Ziirich in 1841. Bibliography. P, Leemann van Elck, 5. Gessner (1930), a biography with register of the literary and artistic works. See also J. J, Hettinger, 5. Gessner (1796); H. Wblfflin, 5, Gessner (18S9); S. Gessner, 17301930, Gedenkbuch sum 200. Geburtstag (1930) Bertha Reed, The In(M, We.) fluence of S. Gessner on English Literature (1905), (in full, Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolymitanorum, "Deeds of the Franks and of the Others of Jerusalem"), a short and anonymous chronicle of the first crusade, one of the best sources and consequently much exploited by historiographers. The author (sometimes mistakenly identified with Alexander, chaplain to Stephen, count of Blois) was an eyewitness, apparently a Norman knight who set out with Bohemund I from southern Italy but went on, after the capture of Antioch, with Raymond IV of Toulouse to Jerusalem, The narrative, which ends with the battle of Ascalon (1099), seems to have been composed for the most part while the crusade was actually in progress. Its chronology is exact, and it gives information about the army's morale and about material conditions in the course of the warfare. An account of the origins of It has a bias in Bohemund's favour. the crusade (omitting the council of Clermont) and some passages in the epic manner, such as those describing what was going on in the Turkish camp (with the speeches of the Turkish leaders), may have been added by a cleric rewriting the authentic chronicle. Completed by 1101, the work soon became widely known in western Europe, It was copied by Tudebodus, a priest of Civray in Poitou, who may have been in Palestine between 1 1 02 and 1111; and it was rewritten, in a more pretentious style, by Baudry de Bourgueil in his Historia IherosoUmitana (c. 1108), It likewise provided the substance of the Historia Hierosolyinitana of Robert, a monk of Marmoutiers (c. 1122); and Guibert of Nogent used it as his chief source for his Gesta Dei per Francos ic. 1104), though he added other elements, as Robert did. Other wTiters who drew very largely upon the Gesta were Ekkehard of Aura (or von Urau), who accompanied the expedition of 1101, found the chronicle in Jerusalem and used it for the first crusade in his Hierosolymita; Raoul of Caen, for his Gesta Tancredi; and the poet

and etcher, was born at on March 2, 1788. With

Ziirich

—

;

GESTA FRANCORUM

Graindor, for the Chanson d'Antioche.

—

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

370

First printed by Jacques Bongars in his Gesta Dei per Francos (1611), the Gesta Francorum is included in the Recueil des historiens des croisades, section Historiens occidentaux, vol. iii (1866), under the title Tudebodus abbreviatus, as it was once

wrongly supposed that Tudebodus was the original source. There by H. Hagenmeyer (1890), by B. Lees (1924) and by L. Brehier, with French trans., Histoire anonyme de la premiere croisade (1924). (J. B, R.) PSYCHOLOGY. The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing ha-s been gestellt, i.e., "placed" or "put together." There is no exact equivalent in Eng"Form" and "shape" are the usual translations; in psylish. chology the word is of ten. rendered "pattern" or "configuration." Gestalt theor>' began toward the close of the 19th century in Austria and south Germany as a protest against the piecemeal analysis of experience into atomistic elements that was characteristic of the associationist school in north Germany and that reached It ended its climax in the influential teaching of Wilhelm Wundt. its independent existence as a distinct school by absorption into the main stream of mid-20th-century psychological and philosophical thought, with ramifications in biology, chemistry, aesthetics, economics and other disciplines. The Gestalt Principle. The chief tenet of the Gestalt approach is that analysis of parts, however thorough, cannot provide are separate editions

GESTALT

—

composed, as Wundtian analysis might lead one to expect, of four equal straight lines and four right angles; in addition to these there is

another element, squareness.

qualities

— angularity,

Like squareness, other perceptual

slenderness, roundness and in music such

— are

characteristics as the major or minor mode and above the elements constituting the whole. ities,

as Ehrenfels called

elements over

Such Gestalt qualthem, can be transposed to an entirely

different set of elements without affecting the Gestalt quality of

When presented in a different colour, place or size an object remains as square, angular or round as before; the same the whole.

melody can be transposed

to a different key, using as elements an

entirely different set of tones.

While the Wundtian psychologists used an introspective method must

for the analysis of consciousness, specifying that observation

made use of an This method, with a tradition going back to Goethe, involves nothing more than the description of direct psychological experience, with no restrictions on reduce experience to

its

elements, Gestalt studies

alternative method, phenomenology.

what is permissible in the description. Meanwhile, G, F, Stout had been led by

his introspective studies

of apperception (or, as he preferred to call

it,

"noetic synthesis")

was the same in essence as that of the Gestalt school, on the basis of which he put forward drastic

to a doctrine that

later crit-

an understanding of the whole.

icisms of the associationist theories prevalent in Great Britain during the greater part of the 19th century. His main conclu-

nature of the whole,

sion

Rather, to comprehend the full necessary to analyze "from above down," from the structure of the whole to the characteristics of its constituent parts. The whole may have attributes that require a cerit is

and function for each part in the whole; these attributes are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. A whole that is a Gestalt is not simply the sum of its parts. A soap bubble, for example, has a structure that imposes certain characteristics on each "part" of the film composing it; change of one part results in a dramatic change in the entire structure. On the other hand, a sum of money or a pile of poker chips is not different from the sum of its parts, and hence is not a Gestalt but merely an additive aggregate; changing one part has no effect on the others. In a Gestalt, the nature of the parts is required by the characteristics of the whole, and the parts are fused and interdependent, This is not true of interacting in a specific structural manner. a conglomerate in which the parts are readily separable and functionally isolated; they are arbitrarily hooked together and indifParts of a Gestalt have no meaningful ferent to one another. identity independent of their place, role and function in the whole. Antecedents. The Gestalt approach was. in many ways, radically new. Yet many aspects of what later became Gestalt theory had been anticipated by philosophers since antiquity. Aristotle included "form" and "matter" among his four causes: form (which tain place, role

—

for

him meant

intelligible structure rather

holds together matter verts

it

(i.e.,

than perceptible shape)

the material or substratum) and con-

into a meaningful object.

John Locke provided

a

demon-

stration of the Gestalt principle of relational determination in If the left his famous experiment on temperature perception.

held in a bucket of warm water while the right is and both hands are then plunged into tepid water, the tepid water feels cool to the left hand and warm to the right. Not only the immediate stimulus of the tepid water's temperature but

hand

is first

in cold,

relation to preceding stimulation determines the quality also of the sensation. Kant partly anticipated the doctrine of Gestalt by emphasizing the organized nature of experience in his doctrine its

of apperceptive synthesis. The objects of experience form integrated wholes perceived in terms of the categories of time and space. John Stuart Mill, in arguing that the qualities of water cannot be predicted from knowledge of the properties of its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, provided a clear illustration of later writers called the principle of emergent quality. Christian von Ehrenfels. a student of Franz Brentano at Vienna (where he was appreciably influenced by Ernst Mach's doctrine of space-Gestalt and time-Gestalt). pubii.=ihed in 1890 an epochmaking paper, Vber Gestaltqualitdten, in which he argued that form is a quality immediately experienced. A square is not merely

what

was that a form of combination (i.e., the shape of a triangle, the melodic outline of a tune, the rhythmic pattern of a movement) is itself "a material constituent of consciousness" apprehended quite as directly as the sensory constituents that are so combined.

Founding and Early Development of Max Wertheimer iq.v.) in 1912 published the

Gestalt Theory. paper generally considered to mark the founding of the Gestalt school. In it he reported the result of an experimental study done at Frankfurt with two colleagues, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka (gg.v.) these ;

three formed the core of the Gestalt school for the next decades. Wertheimer's paper dealt with the perception of apparent motion. If the reader holds a finger before his face, and looks at it

with the right eye and then with the left, opening one eye is closed, the finger will appear to move from left to right. As a feature of certain toys, such as the stroboscope, the phenomenon had been familiar since 1830 if not earher, and it first

as the other

forms the essential principle on which the modern motion picture Using the familiar apparatus of the psychologist's labis based. oratory. Wertheimer exposed in rapid succession two stationary stimuli (e.g., points of light in a

of time and space.

darkroom\ varying

If the time interval

is

less

the intervals

than 3/100 sec,

seem simultaneous; at about 6/100 sec. the observer moving from one position to the other; with an interval of 20/100 sec. or more the stimuli are seen for what they are two successive flashes at different places. the flashes

sees a single point

—

This appearance of continuous movement when there is no corresponding physical movement Wertheimer called the phiphenomenon. Evidently the effect is inexplicable on the old assumption that the sensations of perceptual experience stand in a one-to-one relation to the physical stimuh. The perceived motion is an emergent experience, not present in the stimuh in isolation but dependent upon the relational characteristics of the stimuli. ner\'ous system of the observer and the observer's experience do not passively register the physical input in a piecemeal way. Rather, the neural organization as well as the perceptual e.xperience springs immediately into existence as an entire field with

The

In later writings this principle was stated as The neural and perceptual organization of any set of impinging stimuli forms as good a Gestalt or whole as the prevailing conditions allow. Not only are sensory elements not considered primary, as they were in associationistic psychology, but the existence of sensory differentiated parts.

the law of Prdgnanz:

elements as parts of perceptual experience is explicitly denied. Things, objects, parts of the perceptual field arise from a differentiation and segregation of the total input, not from an additive

combination of sensory elements.

—

GESTA ROMANORUM Major elaborations

of the

new formulation occurred within

the

Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka and their students extended the Gestalt approach to problems in other areas of perception, in problem solving, learning and thinking. next decades.

Perception.

— Much

of the early

work was directed

against the

brick-and-mortar interpretation of perception iq.v.) as corresponding one-to-one with the mosaic of stimulation. Many experiments demonstrated that the local stimulus can remain constant while the experience changes, and that the local stimulus can be Locke's demonstration altered without affecting the perception. and Ehrenfels' analysis had pointed in this direction, but the new

beyond these. The perceptual constancies provided rich ground for demonstraThe illumination of an object tions of relational determination.

research went far

its immediate environment can be greatly decreased, for example, without appreciably affecting the apparent brightness of the object. As a person moves away from the observer, his image on the observer's retina decreases in size, yet the person hardly

and

appears to shrink.

Contrast effects in perception also showed that the percept is not tied point for point to the local stimulus but is dependent upon the interaction of stimulus and background. If two small circles are cut from the same piece of gray paper, and one is placed on a black background and the other on white, the former looks noticeably Hghter than the latter.

Movement and

its

perception yielded further evidence. If an object surroundings are moved relative to one another, the object

seen as moving irrespective of whether it framework that is actually in motion; the is

is

the object or the

moon may be

per-

moving while the clouds appear to be stationary. Work on the Ehrenfels qualities was extended to dependent part qualities: the attributes of a part depend upon its place, role and function within the whole of which it is a part. Thus middle ceived as

acquire quite different perceptual characteristics when playecl as part of a C7 chord, a melody in C or an A minor sequence; the word "well" means different things in different settings. Among the most influential new formulations were Wertheimer's principles of perceptual organization (1923), which aimed to an-

C may

swer the question of how the perceptual field becomes grouped Parts that are similar and near each other tend to form units, as do parts that move together or that form a "good" Gestalt or a closed form. When such stimulus factors are equivocal, the observer's set, motivation, habits or attention may influence unit formation. Borrowing from Edgar Rubin, the Gestalt theorists noted that the units perceived as objects are more "thinglike" than their background and stand out from the ground per-

into wholes.

ceptually and in

memory.

Learning and Thinking. learning

was radically

—The Gestalt approach

different

to the study of

from that of Wundtian elementism

and that of the behaviouristic stimulus-response associationism The that flourished contemporaneously with the Gestalt school. elementists held that the connection between remembered items is indifferent to the nature of the connected items; elements are hooked together much as objects can be connected with strings. The elementists also believed that perception is intimately affected by past experience of this arbitrary hooking-up variety. The Gestalt psychologists disagreed vigorously with these formulations. Associations, according to the Gestalt view, vary with the characteristics of the items; all interaction depends on the nature Experimental work demonstrated of the interacting objects. that factors that make for strong perceptual grouping of items do indeed also make for strong associations. In recall and recog-

'

I

j

(

I

I

nition, present experience reactivates past experience in a highly

'

way, with similarity as the basic principle; the present make contact with the trace of the past event only the two are similar in some way. The basic process in learning conceived not as a series of automatic arbitrary hookups but

selective

experience can if is I

I

as discovering the structural, organized characteristics of the environment. This leads to important educational consequences; not drill and repetition but insight and understanding must be emphasized. Problem Solving. The study of problem solving by Wertheimer

—

(1912 emphasized the difference between the psychology of problem solving and its logic. Wertheimer showed that traditional )

way men actually think but rather prescribes criteria that guarantee the precision, validity and conlogic does not describe the

sistency of such products of thought as general concepts, propositions, inferences and syllogisms. Kohler's investigations of prob-

lem solving and insight in chimpanzees showed that animals tend to behave with insight if the problem permits a meaningful solution lying within their powers, and that they act blindly only if the problem is too complex or beyond their ordinary range. Karl Duncker showed that human problem solving typically involves a perceptual or cognitive reorganization of the problem material.

—

Dissemination and Later Developments. By the 1920s the was a forceful voice in psychology. Koffka in 1922

Gestalt school

wrote an

article in English for the Psychological Bulletin introduc-

ing the Gestalt approach to the United States, in 1929 Kohler's

book Gestalt Psychology appeared and in the 1930s the three leaders and many of their students moved to the United States. Among the books published in that decade, the most ambitious was Koffka's Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935). Two American psychologists, Harry Helson and W. D. Ellis, aided the spread of Gestalt psychology in the United States and in England, the former writing a series of articles in the American Journal 0} Psychology in 1933, the latter publishing in 193S a book of condensed EngUsh translations of some of the basic Gestalt writings. The In the 1920s, '30s and '40s new fields were explored. Gestalt principles were applied to motivation, social psychology and personality by Kurt Lewin, Muzafer Sherif and Solomon E. Asch; to aesthetics by Rudolf Arnheim; and to economic behaviour by George Katona. Wertheimer demonstrated that the Gestalt concepts of relational determination and requiredness can also be used to shed light on problems in ethics, political behaviour and the nature of truth.

problem solving, from the modest process of compute the area of a parallelogram to the major scientific insights of Galileo and Einstein, were further developed by Wertheimer in a small book, Productive Thinkitig, published posthumously. Productive thinking involves going from a situation whose structure hides the solution to a state in which relations that at first were unrecognized become central; with appropriate

The

principles of

learning

how

to

reorganization, the solution emerges.

During the 1920s and '30s Kohler elaborated on Wertheimer's brain theory of 1912 with his concept of psychophysical isomorphism, the identity of the field structure of psychological e.xperience and the underlying brain process. This formulation led in the 1940s and '50s to studies of figural aftereffects, a class of perProlonged exposure to a figure alters the perception of a test figure subsequently presented in the same place. Such an illusion is presumed to be the isomorphic reflection of the change in the brain medium produced by the prolonged stimulation ceptual illusions.

I

I

371

with the preceding figure. Kohler also studied the implications of his field-theoretical view of brain function by direct experi-

mental investigation of the electrical properties of the brain. Dissolution as a School. By the middle of the 20th century,

—

the Gestalt

movement had

so influenced the entire field of psy-

chology that it, in effect, died of success; the movement could no longer be considered to have an independent existence as a school. This is not to say that all the issues had been resolved. A wide the role of learning range of problems raised by Gestalt theorists in perception, the nature of learning, the organization of brain

—

and motivation remained as foci of psychological interest and controversy. At the centre of all of these is the basic Gestalt issue, by no means resolved by the middle of the 20th century, of empty hookups versus meaningful organization. function, characteristics of personality structure

—

Bibliography. K. Koffka, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935) Ellis, A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology (1938) W. Kbhler, Gestalt Psychology (1947); R. S. Woodworth, Contemporary Schools G. Murphy, Historical Introduction to Modern of Psychology (194S) Psvchologv (1949) E. G. Boring, /I History of Experimental Psychology (1950) M. Wertheimer, Productive Thinking (1959). (M. M. Wr.) ;

W. D.

;

;

;

;

GESTA ROMANORUM, and

tales,

a Latin collection of anecdotes probably compiled early in the 14th century, very pos-

GESTATION PERIOD

372 sibly in England.

It

was one of the most popular books of the

time, and the source, directly or indirectly, of

much

later literature,

the secretion of progesterone.

man

manual

follows their excision.

for preachers.

of the Romans, is only partially appropriate, contains, in addition to stories from classical history and

since

it

legend,

many The

pean.

others from a variety of sources, oriental and Euro-

compiler, whose style

is

please and to edify; the collection

very uneven, clearly aimed to

of the sort of story betales of magicians and monsters, ladies loved in the middle ages in distress, escapes from perilous situations, all unified by their moral purpose and made real by details drawn from observation of nature and everyday life. He brought together a variety of excellent material the germ of the romance Guy of Warwick; the story of "Darius and His Three Sons," versified by Occleve;

—

is full

—

part of Chaucer's

Man

of Law's Tale; and a tale of the emperor its main features as that of King Lear.

Theodosius, the same in

The

loose structure of the

insert additional

book made into his

stories

it

possible for a transcriber to

own

copy, and therefore

the

manuscripts show considerable variety. The earliest printed editions were produced at Utrecht and Cologne, late in the ISth century, but their exact dates are unknown. Three English versions were made during the ISth century, two of them about 1440, the third later. This last, probably based directly on Harleian manuscript 5369 (British museum, London), was published by Wynkyn de Worde about 1524; the only known copy is in the library of St. John's college, Cambridge. In 1577, Richard Robinson published a revised edition of De Worde, which proved extremely popular. The first volume of a translation by "B. P." (probably Bartholomew Pratt) "from the latin edition of 1514" appeared in 1703. Bibliography. On the manuscripts see further M. Krepinski, in Le Moyen Age, 2nd series, xv (1911). The Latin text was edited by H. Oesterley (1872) and W. Dick (1890). A translation by C. Swan (1824) was re-edited by W. Hooper (1877) and reissued with preface by E. A. Baker (1905). The English versions were edited by Sir F. Madden, for the Roxburghe club (1838), and by S. J. H. Herrt'age for The Early EngUsh Text society (1879; reprinted 1932 and 1962), both with valiiable introductions. See also T. Warton's "Dissertation" prefixed to his History of English Poetry, vol. 1 (1824); H. S. Bennett, Chaucer and the isih Century (1947), vol. iii of the Oxford History of English Liter-

—

(N. D.)

ature.

GESTATION PERIOD.

The period

of gestation, or preg-

nancy, in mammals is usually defined as the time, between conception and birth, in which the embryo or fetus is developing in the uterus. This definition raises occasional difficulties since in some species (e.g., in monkeys and man) with long periods during which intercourse may be performed, the exact time of concep-

may

tion

not be known.

In these cases

the beginning of the period from

it is

customary to date

some well-defined point

in the

reproductive cycle, such as the beginning of the previous menstrual period. However, as knowledge of the time of ovulation becomes

more precisely known correction is made for this The length of the gestation period varies from cies,

est

and each has

known

its

gestation

factor.

species to spe-

characteristic average duration. is

The

short-

that of the Virginian opossum, about 12

days, and the longest that of the Indian elephant, about 22 months. Very little is known of the causes of this species variation but in most mammals the time of birth is determined by the length of life

of the corpus hiteum, a glandular organ that replaces the the ovary. The corpus luteum secretes a hormone, proges-

ovum in

terone, that

is

essential for the

maintenance of pregnancy.

When

degenerates and no longer secretes progesterone, birth follows. The length of life of the corpus luteum is, therefore, a determinPregnancy may ing factor in the length of the gestation period. be extended by the injection of progesterone and the young continue to grow, but they do not live for more than a few days under However this is not the only mechanism, since this treatment. in the mare and the East African bat Nycteris luteola, the corpora lutea (plural) degenerate early in pregnancy, yet pregnancy continues. Probably in these species some other organ takes over

it

of the corpora lutea dur-

In the monkey and in be removed early, i.e., soon after uterine implantation of the embryos, without interruption of gestation; in other species {e.g., mice, cattle and goats) the corpora lutea appear to be essential throughout, since abortion or resorption of the embryos

being used by Chaucer, John Gower, Thomas Occleve, Shakespeare and many others. Of its authorship nothing certain is known, but its didactic nature and the allegorical explanations attached to the stories in the early versions suggest that it was intended as a

The name, Deeds

Removal

ing pregnancy produces variable results.

they

may

Evolutionary Factors.

—In the course

of evolution the dura-

have become adapted to the needs of the species. The degree of ultimate growth is a factor, for smaller animals usually have shorter periods of gestation than do larger forms. Main exceptions to this rule are found in the guinea pig and related South American rodents, in which gestation is prolonged (averaging 68 days for the guinea pig and 111 days for the chinchilla), in comparison with the 20-30 days gestation period usual for rodents. The young of these species having a prolonged gestation period are born in a state of greater maturity than are Another factor is those of the rat with its period of 22 days. tion of gestation appears to

many species with restricted breeding seasons, the gestation period is adjusted to cause birth at the season when food is most abundant. Thus the horse, a spring breeder with 1 1 months' gestation, has its young the following spring, while the sheep, a fall breeder with a 5 months' gestation, lambs also in the spring. Animals that live in the open tend to have longer gestations, and the young are bom in a state of greater maturity, than those that can This conceal their young in underground burrows or in caves. that, in

and to the bear, whose young are born very immature, while the she-bear is in her period of winter sleep; these animals have short gestation periods. The Virginian opossum and other marsupials generally have short gestations; e.g., 40 days only for the largest kangaroos. The young are born in an extremely immature state and immediately transfer to the pouch in which gestation may be said to continue.

applies to rodents generally,

Delayed Implantation. an arrest

in

—Embryos of some

species experience

development at the blastocyst (hollow sphere of Gestation Periods (in

Animal

days)

cells)

GESUALDO—GETHSEMANE stage, thus greatly prolonging the gestation period. cially true of the

This

is

espe-

fur-bearing carnivores, the martens and weasels.

Thus, the European badger and American marten breed in July and August; the embryo develops for a few days, then lies dormant in the uterus and is not implanted in the uterus until January. After implantation, however, development is normal and birth occurs in March. The total gestation period is thus about 250 days, but only SO are actually taken up by growth. The dormant period can be reduced by at least three months if the pregnant females are exposed to artificial light during autumn and winter in order to increase daily

amounts of light, a result that suggests that the by its regulation of the corpus luteum, may be

pituitary gland,

involved in prolongation. This type of gestation has also been observed in the armadillo and the roe deer; there is reason to suspect that it occurs in bears and seals.

Delayed implantation also occurs dents that

in

become pregnant while they

mice and other small roare

still

suckling a htter.

Under such circumstances gestation in these animals may be prolonged by 10 to 20 days. The prolongation results from the drain on the mother caused by lactation, since the degree of lengthening is directly related to the number of young that are being suckled. Delayed implantation is shown less in larger rodents, such as the common rat (gestation 22 days) and the cotton rat (27

days) than

it is

in mice.

Minor Variations in the Gestation Period.

—

If a large series

one species are plotted as a curve, the distribution is found to be normal (a bell-shaped curve); i.e., there are few periods of short length, then the daily frequency increases rapidly of gestations of

maximum, and

a

to

the

number

of longer gestations

distribution suggests that either a single factor or a great

minor factors,

falls

few greatly prolonged ones.

rapidly until there are very

off

This

number

culminating at or near one date, determine the length of gestation. The latter is probably nearer the truth, as several minor variations are known to occur: in man, the gestation period for males is three to four days longer than that for females; and in cattle, bulls are carried about one day longer than heifers. In both species the gestation period of twins is five to six days less than it is for singlets. In animals such as the rabbit or pig, which bear many young at a time, gestation is shorter for larger litters than it is for smaller ones. Heredity also influences gestation; in cattle the mean gestation period for Holstein-Friesians is 279 days, while that for Brown Swiss is 290 days, with other breeds falling between these extremes. The same tendency is noticeable in horses, where draft horses tend to have a shorter gestation than saddle horses, though Percherons fall into the longer group. The season of year affects gestation in a few species. This effect is most marked in the horse, in which gestations terminating in winter average about 20 days shorter than those ending at any other time of year. The cause of this has not been explained. The age of either parent seems to have no influence on the duration of

all

of gestation.

When

hybrids are produced by crossing of two species that have hybrid is carried for a period that somewhere between those of the two parents. Thus a mare

different gestation periods, the lies

carries a

mule

foal (fathered

by a jackass) about 10 days longer

than the normal period for the horse (about 337 days), while a jenny ass carries a hinny foal (fathered by a stallion) about 10 days less than the normal for the ass (about 365 days). In either case the gestation period of the hybrid

is

not exactly

midway

be-

tween those of the parents, but is a little toward the mother's species, suggesting that maternal physiology is an influence as well that of the hybrid. See Embryology; Embryology, Human; Reproduction; ReiPRODUCTrvE System; Childbirth; Pregnancy; see also ref-

ias '

erences under "Gestation Period" in the Index volume.

For a more complete discussion see L. B. Flexner's Gestation (1955) the gestation periods of many species may be found in J. H. Kenneth's ;

gestation Periods (1943). I

(S.

GESUALDO, DON CARLO,

Prince of Venosa (c. 1560whose musical fame rests on sets of five-part madrigals, was born in Naples. Gesualdo to have lived most of his life in or around that city; he

|1613), Italian ihis six

jseems

A. A.)

composer and

lutenist

died there on Sept.

murder of

8,

373 He won

1613.

notoriety by ordering the His madrigals were

his first wife for her unfaithfulness.

published between 1594 and 1611 in the usual partbooks and in 1613 were printed in score one of the first publications of its kind. The madrigals in the first four books are conventional pieces of competent workmanship, typical of their age. The astonishing madrigals in the last two books, with their dramatic exclamations, discontinuous texture and harmonic licence, are not "progressive,"

—

as has often been said. They are, rather, the work of a highly individual composer and, as such, lacked any successors in this

bizarre vein. See C. Gray and P. Heseltine, Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa, (N. Fo.)

Musician and Murderer (1926).

GETA, PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS,

joint

Roman emperor

209-212, was born in Milan in 189, younger son of the emperor Septimius Severus and Julia Dorana. He was styled Caesar in 198, when his elder brother Caracalla became joint emperor (Augustus) with their father, and was himself promoted Atigustus in 209. The furious rivalry between the brothers made each the focus of opposing groups within the empire. After their father's death at York early in 211, both brothers openly sought each other's murder until, in Feb. 212, Caracalla succeeded in having Geta murdered in their mother's arms, in her apartments in the palace. (Jn. R. M.) GETAE, an ancient people of Thracian origin, closely akin to the Daci (see Dacia). They inhabited lands on both banks of the lower Danube, and to the north of the river extended far into south Russia, where Thracian personal and place names can be traced as far east as the Crimea. The Getae are first noted in literature by Herodotus, recounting the invasion of Scythia by Darius I about 513 B.C.; and a century later, as remarked by Thucydides in his History (ii, 96), certain Getae were under the suzerainty of Sitalces, king of the Odrysae. When the Odrysae were subjected by Philip II of Macedonia in 342 the Getae made overtures to him, and their king's daughter became his wife. Alexander the Great on his accession decided to make his power felt in the north and, after defeating the Triballi of the Balkans, crossed the Danube and burned the Getic capital (335) but about 326 Zopyrion, the Macedonian governor of Thrace, was killed in an In 292 Lysimachus penetrated to expedition against the tribe. the Bessarabian plain but was forced to surrender, though the Getic king Dromichaetes allowed him to depart unharmed. From the late 3rd century onward the military power of the Getae was broken by the mass invasions of the Bastarnae (q.v.) and other tribes. The Romans occupied all the country up fo the Danube by Augustus' day, and about the beginning of the Christian era the Sarmatians finally conquered south Russia. From then on the Getae disappear from history. Later writers gave the name Getae to the Goths, who had no connection whatever with the people described above. The Getae were Thracians subjected to Scythian influence, expert as mounted archers and devotees of Zalmoxis (q.v.), a deity translated by Porphyry as "bearskin" and "strange man." The Greeks were greatly impressed by the Getae's belief in man's immortality, and Greek rationalizers in the Black sea colonies identified Zalmoxis as a pupil of Pythagoras. ;

—

Bibliography. Herodotus, History, iv, 93 et seq.; Strabo, GeogCambridge Ancient History, vol. xi, pp. 77 (reprint vii, 295-305

raphy,

;

(G. E. F. C.)

1954).

GETHSEMANE

(Gethsemani;

which Jesus withdrew with

"oil press"),

the place to

on the evening before Luke xxii, 39 the crucifixion (Matt, xxvi, 36; Mark xiv, 32). locates it on the Mount of Olives, which was across the brook Kidron east of Jerusalem. John xviii, 1 says that Jesus withdrew to a garden, presumably enclosed, across the brook Kidron and The name sugso on the western slope of the Mount of Olives. gests that the "garden" was a grove of ohve trees in which there was an oil press. The exact spot to which Jesus went cannot be determined with certainty, but the Armenian, Greek, Latin and Russian churches have all claimed to mark the site by their olive groves on the lower western slope of the Mount of Olives, and this his disciples

area would suit well the meagre details given by the Gospels.

An

GETTYSBURG

374

ancient tradition locates the scene of Jesus' Gethsemane prayer and betrayal at the spot now called the Grotto of the Agony, near the bridge that crosses the Kidron. A little farther south, in a garden containing very old olive trees, the Latin church built by the Franciscans is located on ruins of a 4th-century church that attest an alternate tradition. See also Jerusalem. (F. V. F.) a borough of southern Pennsylvania, U.S., 35 mi. S.W. of Harrisburg; it is the county seat of Adams county. Named It lies in a beautiful rolling country of fertile farms. for James Gettys, to whom the site was granted by William Penn, it was settled about 1780, became the county seat in 1800 and was incorporated as a borough in 1806. Gettysburg college (originally Pennsylvania college) was established in 1832 with Lutheran Dedication affiliation. It is a coeducational liberal arts college. of the national cemetery at Gettysburg in Nov. 1863 was the occasion of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. The battlefield became a national military park in 189S; jurisdiction pas.sed to the national park service in 1933. For comparative population figures

GETTYSBURG,

see table in

Pennsylvania: Population.

—

Battle of Gettysburg. This three-day battle, which started July 1, 1863, at a place where neither opponent expected a major engagement, is generally regarded as the turning point of the American Civil War. It has probably been more intensively studied and analyzed than any other battle in U.S. history. (For background, see American Civil War.) After defeating the Federal forces under Gen. Joseph Hooker at Chancellorsville in May 1863, Gen. Robert E. Lee had decided to invade the North. The morale of his troops was high while defeatist sentiment was spreading in the North. He hoped that a bold thrust into Pennsylvania might cause further discourage-

FROM "THE WEST POINT ATLAS OF AMEFTICAN WARS," VOLUME PRAEGER, INC. (1959) FIG. 2.

— SITUATION

ABOUT 3:30

P.M.

I,

PUBLISHED BY FREDERICK

A.

ON SECOND DAY OF BATTLE OF GET-

TYSBURG

ment

in the

North and

at the

same time induce European powers

Confederacy. In preparation army of about 75,000 men into three corps under Gen. A. P. Hill, Gen. James Longstreet and Gen. R. S. Ewell. The cavalry was led by Gen. /. E. B. Stuart. During the last week in June, Stuart made a bold and, in the opinion of some, ill-advised cavalry sweep completely around the Federal forces, passing between them and the national capital. On June 28, when his army of northern Virginia was extended deep into Pennsylvania, Lee was out of touch with his cavalry under Stuart, which should have served as the eyes of the army. Through a spy Lee received a report that Hooker's army of the Potomac was at Frederick, Md., under a new commander. Gen. George G. Meade, who had just replaced Hooker. Lee took imto give diplomatic recognition to the

for his invasion

FHOM "TME WEST PPlNT ATLAS OF AMERICAN WARS," VOLUME PRAEQER, INC. (l9Sf FIG.

1.

I,

PUBLISHED DT FREDERICK

—SITUATION ON THE FIRST DAY OF THE GETTYSBURG BATTLE. JULY

1863. AT 10 A.M.

A.

1.

Lee reorganized

his

mediate steps to meet this unexpected threat. Ewell, whose corps had been preparing to carry the offensive across the Susquehanna from positions at Carlisle and York, was ordered to move either to Cashtown or Gettysburg. Longstreet's corps at Chambersburg and A. P. Hill's corps at Greenwood, both of which had been preparing to move north, were to march east to Cashtown. This concentration east of South mountain would put Lee in an excellent strategic position to defend or attack. Early on June 29, Meade started north with Gen. John Buford's two cavalry brigades scouting ahead of the army. While maneuvering to keep between Lee and the Federal capital, Meade intended to make Lee turn and fight before he could cross the Susquehanna. On June 30, Buford's troopers met and drove back a Confederate brigade from Hill's corps that was approaching Gettysburg to seize a reported supply of badly needed shoes. Hill then authorized Gen. Henry Heth to lead his division into Gettys-

GETTYSBURG burg the next day.

Buford, meanwhile, had immediately recog-

ni2ed the strategic importance of Gettysburg as a road centre and prepared to hold the town until reinforcements arrived.

—

First Day's Battle. On July 1, one of Buford's brigades, armed with the newly issued Spencer repeating carbine, delayed Heth's division until J. F. Reynolds' I corps began to arrive at about A vigorous counterattack drove Heth's two leading bri11 A.M.

corps forward. Lee told Ewell to attack Cemetery hill "if possible," but Ewell did not elect to take the risk. Whether this decision was correct remains a moot point. The Second Day, July 2. By dawn, Meade's troops occupied a line along Gulp's hill, Cemetery hill and Cemetery ridge. Both opposing commanders recognized that a Confederate success on

—

the Federal right would jeopardize Meade's entire position by threatening his line of communications along the Baltimore pike. Lee wanted to exploit this strategic weakness, but Ewell argued

gades back with heavy losses on both sides. Reynolds was killed by a sharpshooter. By 1 p.m., all three divisions of the I corps were deployed along Seminary ridge and two divisions of the XI corps had arrived to defend the northern approaches to the town.

flank.

A

make Meade

third division of the XI corps was posted on Cemetery hill. Gen. O. 0. Howard reached the field about noon, turning his XI corps over to Gen. Carl Schurz and succeeding Gen. Abner Double-

day in over-all command of the battlefield. The Federals resisted on both fronts until about 2:30, but an attack by Gen. Jubal Early's division against the northeast flank of the to collapse of their entire position.

XI

The XI corps was

corps led

routed, ex-

posing the flank of the I corps and forcing it to retreat. Before the defenders could rally on Cemetery hill the two Union corps had sustained more than 50% casualties. Lee now had superior strength available, but, being in the dark as to the enemy's true dispositions, he did not want to bring on a general engagement until Longstreet's corps arrived. About 4 p.m., Gen. W. S. Han-

cock arrived to examine the situation for Meade and decide whether to drop back to previously prepared positions along Pipe creek, 15 mi. S.E. After recognizing the importance of Gulp's hill and ordering it occupied, Hancock studied the terrain and reported that Gettysburg was the place to fight. Meade, having reached the same conclusion, had already ordered the III and XII

375

make the main attack on the opposite Longstreet, on the other hand, contended that Lee should

that Longstreet should

attack. Delayed by the opposition of his corps commanders, Lee did not issue his orders until 11 a.m. Longstreet was to envelop the Federal south flank and attack north along the Emmitsburg pike, where Lee erroneously believed Meade's main line to be; Hill and Ewell were to make secondary attacks. When Longstreet's artillery started preparatory firing at 3 p.m. Meade rushed to the heretofore neglected south flank and found that Gen. D. E. Sickles had not positioned his III corps along Cemetery ridge as directed but had moved forward to higher ground; this created a dangerous salient and weakened the south flank, but it was too late to pull him back. Gen. J. B. Hood's division attacked at 4 p.m. About this time Gen. G. K. Warren, Meade's chief engineer, reached Little Round Top and found it undefended; but before the 500 Alabama troops who had scaled

(Big)

Round Top

could continue their attack from that hill, sufficient Federal reserves to defend Little Round Top. While Warren's action secured the main battle position, the Federal III corps was driven from "Sickles' salient" with

Warren had diverted

crippling losses. There was desperate fighting at Little Round Top, Devil's Den, the Wheat field and the Peach orchard. Both Hood and Sickles were seriously wounded. Confederate secondary attacks were so poorly timed, however, that Meade could shift strength from quiet parts of his line and move reserves to meet each new threat. Hill attacked too late to achieve significant results, and not until 6 p.m. did Ewell launch the assault that should have started with Longstreet's. Some of Ewell's troops reached Cemetery hill but were driven off; others were stopped on the

southeast slopes of Gulp's hill. The Third Day. In spite of Longstreet's objections, Lee was determined to attack again on the third day. Meade, on the other hand, was less confident and it was only after a formal council of war that he decided to stay and fight. While Ewell made a secondary attack against Gulp's hill, Lee planned to hit the Federal centre with ten brigades, three of which were fresh troops of Gen. G. E. Pickett's division. Although this attack has been

—

immortalized as "Pickett's charge," that general's only over-all was to form the divisions of J. J. Pettigrew and /. R. Trimble as they reached their attack positions on his left; Longstreet, not Pickett, was in command of the operation. Shortly after 1 p.m., the Confederates started a tremendous artillery preparation, which was answered immediately by Federal counterfire. At 3 P.M., the infantry moved out of the woods in parade ground order and started across the 1,400 yd. of open fields toward Cemetery ridge. The Federals watched in awed silence as 15,000 Confederate troops moved toward them. Then the Federal artillery, which had ceased fire an hour earlier to save ammunition, went back into action with devastating effect at a range of 700 yd. Almost unscathed by the Confederate artillery preparation, most of which had gone over their heads, the 10,000 Federal infantry against whom the attack was directed waited coolly behind stone walls and held their fire until the Confederates were within effective range. The southern spearhead broke through and penetrated onto Cemetery ridge, but there it could do no more. Critically weakened by artillery during their approach, formations hopelessly tangled, lacking reinforcement, and under savage attack from three sides, they marked "the high tide of the Confederacy" with the bodies of their dead and wounded. Leaving 19 battle flags and hundreds of prisoners, the southerners retreated, demoralized but without panic. Part of one Union brigade advanced to hasten their retreat, but the army of the Potomac had been too roughly handled to mount a counterattack. responsibility

THE WEST POINT ATLAS OF RAECER, INC, (19S9) 16,

lAY

3.

—GETTYSBURG

AMERICAN

BATTLE.

WARS," VOLUME

SITUATION

I,

PUBLISHED BY FREDERCCK

ABOUT 2:30

P.M.

A.

ON THIRD

;

GEULINCX

376 Early in the day, Ewell had attacked Gulp's

hill

without success.

whose bone-tired brigades had arrived the previous evening, was driven back by three Federal cavalry brigades when he tried At the other end of to envelop Meade's strategic north flank. the hnes Federal cavalry was foolishly employed in futile and costly charges across rough terrain against Hood's infantry. Lee waited during July 4 to meet an attack on Seminary ridge that never came. That night, taking advantage of a heavy rain, he started retreating to Virginia. After the war, when Gettysburg

Stuart,

was recognized as the turning point, southern sentiment charged Longstreet with "losing the war" by not properly co-operating with his commander on July 2 and 3. Longstreet was unenthuabout the invasion of Pennsylvania and advocated forcing army to attack. Confederate successes at Bull Run, Antietam and Fredericksburg had convinced him the war could be siastic

the Federal

won by

a policy of strategic offensive and tactical defensive.

ever, according to Lee's biographer,

D,

S.

How-

Freeman, "Lee never

gave any intimation that he considered Longstreet's failure at Gettysburg more than the error of a good soldier. To Longstreet's credit was the belief that Cemetery ridge, on July 2-3, was too strong to be stormed successfully. If, when the balance of Longstreet's account is struck, it still is adverse to him, it does not warrant the traditional accusation that he was the villain of the (Lee's Lieutenants, vol. iii, pp. 188-189; copyright 1944, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, N.Y.) Lee's defeat stemmed

piece."

in his troops, Ewell's

from overconfidence

inability

to

fill

the

Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson, and faulty reconThe latter cannot be attributed entirely to Stuart's

boots of Gen. naissance.

unfortunate raid; Lee was so dependent on Stuart personally that he failed to employ properly the four cavalry brigades left at his disposal. Meade has been criticized for not destroying the army But it must be said of northern Virginia by a vigorous pursuit. to his credit that only five days after taking command, Meade had stopped the Confederate invasion and won a three-day battle. Coming the day before Grant's triumph at Vicksburg, Meade's victory meant that destruction of the Confederacy was only a

matter of time.

intention of completing Cartesianism with a definitive ethics, to

which Descartes had aspired as the supreme goal of philosophic Through Philaretus, Geulincx proclaims his loyalty to Descartes. He writes on morals according to his master's principles; for him, to reduce Cartesianism, as some did, to a physics, and not to see that it must issue in wisdom, is to misrepresent it. Thus Geulincx takes the main tenets of Cartesian metaphysics as established: there is the same passage from doubt to cogito, from cogito to God; the same duality of thought and extension; the same conception of the will's dominant role in determining the judgment. Yet the disciple's preoccupation is quite different from

inquiry.

and belongs

his master's

to a different climate.

Whereas Cartesian

found a science which would give us mastery of matter, life and mind, in the Metaphysica vera Geulincx aims to deepen the relations of the ego and of things with God; he reveals the enigma of man's condition, his ontological impotence before the ineffable transcendence of his creator. The perspectives of conquest which Cartesian metaphysics opened give way to an ethics of humility and of submission of the will (which alone is our own possession) to the order of reason.

wisdom expects metaphysics

to

Jansenist at Louvain, Calvinist (at least officially) at Leiden, Geulincx always drew his inspiration in metaphysics and ethics from Augustine. The opposition between God, creator, transcendent, incomprehensible, and his quite powerless creation: this is the key idea giving new life to the Cartesianism of the Metaphysica vera, and to the neo-stoic, even Spinozist formulas of the De Virtute. Here lies the real source of his "occasionalism." Among the corollaries of the disputation De incendio Aetnae, defended by P. Romeyn under the presidency of Geulincx in June 1669, are the following three axioms, vital for grasping Geulincx' wisdom: (1) Quod nescis quomodo fiat, id non jacis ("one cannot

do that which one does not know how to do") (2) Facimus semper quod Deus vult ("we always do what God wills") (3) Deus neque peccati neque erroris causa est ("God is cause neither of sin nor of error"). The first axiom displays his conception of knowledge and being. In the cogito, I have the intuition of myself as thinking being, which gives me the certainty of the absolute existence of God, infinite and creator, of whom my thought is but a mode. As man, composed of body and soul, I depend both in my being and action on God, for God is the unique cause of all he knows, to wit, of all that occurs in the universe. I cannot know the being of things because I have not made them, and because the divine action is beyond my grasp. Whether it be the world of thought or the world of matter or their reciprocal action, I can know them only in so far as God reveals them to me, and according to my human capacity. God, unique source of all causality, disposes of mind and matter as of instruments of his infinite power. All ac;

;

—According

Union losses at Gettysburg were 23,049 out of 88,289 engaged; ConAnother Northern federate losses were 28,063 out of 75,000. authority, W. F. Fox, puts Confederate losses at 20,448, which

Numbers and

Losses.

to T. L. Livermore,

agrees almost exactly with the official Confederate figure of 20,451. Bibliography. U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, Gettysburg National Military Park, Pa. (May 1961) D. S. Freeman, R. E. Lee, a Biography, 4 vol. (1935), Lee's Lieutenants: a Study in Command, 3 vol. (1942^4); Frank A. Haskell, The Battle of Gettysburg, (1908 and 1958) K. P. Williams, Lincoln Finds a General, 5 vol. (M. M. Bo.) (1949-56).

—

;

;

GEULINCX, ARNOLD

(1624-1669),

like

Spinoza, was

the most notable philosophers of the golden age of the Netherlands. Baptized a Catholic at Antwerp on Jan. 31, 1624, Geulincx studied philosophy and theology at the University of

among

Louvain, where he received his first professorships in 1646 and 1652. Probably because of Jansenist tendencies he was dismissed in 1658 and took refuge at Leiden, where he became a Calvinist. He became doctor of medicine on Sept. 16, 1658, and in 1659 he

few months to lecture privately in philosophy. an exile. In 1662, however, through the recommendation of his protector, the theologian A. Heydanus, he obIn 1665 he was made professor tained a lectureship in logic. extraordinary of philosophy and ethics. He died of the plague in Nov. 1669. During his lifetime had been pubUshed Quaestiones quodlibeticae (1653), re-edited at Leiden under the title Saturnalia in 1665; Logica restituta (1662) Methodus inveniendi argumenta (1663)

was authorized

The work of Geulincx usually appears in the history of philosophy as a mere signpost on the road opened up by the Meditationes Metaphysicae of Descartes. If his place be among the epigones of French philosophers, however, what sets him apart at once is the

for a

He lived in penury,

;

an ethical dissertation De virtute et primis ejus proprietatibiis (1665). After his death, his pupil C. Bontekoe, a doctor, published under the pseudonym "Philaretus" the six treatises of the Gnothi seauton, sive Arnoldi Geulincx Elhica (1675). Other posthumous works include Metaphysica vera et ad mentem peripateticam (1691); Physica vera (1688); Annotata praecurrentia

ad R. Cartesii principia (1690); Annotata majora (1691); Collegium oratorium (1696).

it can therefore be thoughts, no more than On the other hand, the world I am of the movements of my body. of extension, the "brutum," which borders on nothingness, cannot

tivity flows

from the creator;

only immanent.

I

am not

in

creatures

the author of

my

really act on me either. The enclosed world of my sense experience is only a world of appearances, a subjective reflection of the world of extension, in itself unknowable. God uses the "occasion" of the body to produce my various thoughts; what I think I do is really his making my will effective. Instrumentalism The link between is a better name for this than occasionalism.

the

first

and second axiom now becomes apparent: man,

like things

confined within strict determinism: he always does what God wills. Yet he is free, and thus responsible for error and sin. Geulincx' metaphysics of human impotence issues in an

bereft of causality,

is

optimist ethic and anthropology. Man's nothingness is not total. By his mind, he participates in the perfection of his creator, Deus Conscious of this reason that is in him, he can consive Ratio. form to the divine will, not in his acts these are operations of

God is is

— but

—

in his resolutions.

The one

thing within man's power

his intention, his voluntary submission to the divine will. This where man acts freely, and this is the whole of virtue it estab;

GEUM—GEYSER man

lishes

in a

philosopher

is

bond of love with God, who for Geulincx the

doubtless identical with the

God

377

Geysers are a rare natural phenomenon that occurs mostly in

of his faith as a

regions of relatively recent volcanic activity. The three areas of highest development are at Yellowstone National park in the

Geulincx' works have been edited by J. P. N. Land, Arnoldi Geulincx Antverpiensis Opera Philosophica, three volumes (1891-

United States, and in Iceland and New Zealand. Geysers have been reported from Alaska, Tibet, Japan, the Malay archipelago. South and Central America and Nevada. Cold-water

Christian.

93).

Bibliography.

—V.

van der Haeghen: Geulincx, etudes sur sa

vie,

sa philosophie el ses ouvrages (1886) J. P. N. Land, Arnold Geulincx und seine Philosophic (1895); M. Paulinus, Die Sittenlehre Geulincx ;

E. Terraillon, La Morale de Geulincx dans ses rapports avec (1892) philosophie de Descartes (1912) H. J. De Vleeshauwer, "Les antecedents du transcendentalisme: Geulincx et Kant," Kantstudien, (1953-54), pp. 245-273 and "Occasionalisme et conditio humana chez ;

la

;

XLV

Arnold Geuhncx," Kantstudien,

L

(1958-59), pp. 109-124.

(P. Di.)

GEUM, q.v.),

a genus of hardy perennial herbs (family Rosaceae; containing about 60 species, widely distributed in temperate

and arctic regions; commonly called avens.

from

stalks spring

The

a cluster of radical leaves,

erect flowering

which are deeply

cut or lobed, the largest division being at the top of the leaf. The flowers are borne singly or in clusters on long stalks at the end of the stem or its branches. They are white, yellow or red in

and shallowly cup-shaped.

colour,

The

fruit consists of a

number

of dry achenes, each bearing a hook formed from the persistent

also

springs exhibiting geyser action occur at Kane, Pa., and Soda Springs, Ida.

Yellowstone National park in northwest Wyoming possesses the world's greatest concentration of geysers. Whereas all of Iceland contains only 30 known active geysers, Yellowstone's boundaries include some 200 active geysers, almost 10% of the hot springs being geysers. The hot springs and geysers tend to be concentrated along the drainage basins of streams, such areas then being called "geyser basins." This local usage conflicts with the earlier and preferred use of geyser basin to denote the bowllike depression or crater containing the geyser's pool during quiescence.

The two major geyser basins of Yellowstone National park, the upper basin and the lower basin, are located along the rather level valley floor bordering the Firehole river. The upper basin, the most spectacular of its type on the globe, possesses a myriad of hot springs and geysers, some with pools containing water above the boiling temperature of 93° C. for that elevation yet, for unreasons, not boiling. Old Faithful, the most renowned of the upper basin's 70-odd geysers, erupts to heights of 100 to

lower portion of the style, and admirably adapted for ensuring

known

distribution.

150

ft. at intervals of about an hour and for durations of about minutes. Grand geyser, which erupts irregularly at intervals varying from once to twice a day, majestically expels its water to heights approaching 160 ft.; the eruption, punctuated by short

About 20 species are natives of North America, of which ten are common in moist woods in the

five

eastern United States.

periods of quiescence, may last from 18 to 50 min. and results in the discharge of over 9,000 cu.ft. of water. Castle geyser, whose eruptions may be accompanied by earth tremors, sometimes steams for two hours after the eruption. Beehive geyser, an infrequent performer, was observed to erupt to a height of 219 ft., the highest

are easy

to

Several

and well

cultivate

adapted for borders or rock gardens. There is not much interest in them for gardening purposes, the exception being the showy G. chiloense,

which

is

known

measured

forms with bright scarlet flowers. This was introduced into England from Chile in 1826. It is found in many British and American garhorticultural

eral

dens, especially the

Mrs. Bradshaw.

form

Two

mud

called J.

HORACE MCPAfiLAND CO.

species oc-

:

GEVELSBERG, ;ion f

Germany which

a town of

of the nation after

World War

II

following parti-

was located

in the

Land

North Rhine-Westphalia, Federal Republic of Germany, situated 9.5 km. (6 mi.) S.W. of Hagen. Pop. (1961) 31,748.

state) of

!S

Despite industrialization, Gevelsberg retains '.urrounded

by the wooded

Ennepe

its

natural beauty

Some ansurvive in the "village" in the old quarter of the on the railway and road from Hagen to Wuppertal and hills

of the

valley.

cient buildings

own.

It is

Manufactures include stoves, tools, motorcycles, lutomobile parts, locks and keys. Gevelsberg was first mentioned n 1225 when Count Friedrich von Isenburg defeated Engelbert 'on Berg, archbishop of Cologne and duke of Westphalia, in the

Dijsseldorf.

I'icinity.

Gevelsberg received

its

town charter

in 1886.

(Re. B.) an intermittent hot spring which, at more or less egular intervals, spouts its contents of water and steam into he air to heights varying from mere inches to, in exceptionally igorous geysers, hundreds of feet. The word stems from "Geyir," the Icelandic proper name, meaning gusher or spouter. which >as been applied since 1647 to a particular geyser in southwestern Iceland. In 1847 the German chemist Robert Wilhelm von Bunjen used the word as a technical term for all hot springs similar to

i

'

GEYSER,

Geysir" in action; the English spelling

is

geyser.

great geyser district of

The geysers were inactive in 1880 but revived Tarawera volcanic eruption of 1886; seven gigantic geysers then came into existence, discharging water, steam, mud and stones to heights up to 800 ft. for four hours before quieter conditions prevailed. Waimangu, the greatest of all geysers, was active from 1900 to 1904, occasionally spouting jets to 1,500 ft.; draining nearby Tarawera lake in 1904 caused Waimangu's water level to drop about 35 ft., whereupon geyser action ceased. Iceland's geysers are mostly concentrated within two areas, one 30 mi. N. of Reykjavik, the second extending eastward from Reykjavik toward the active volcano Hekla. Geysir itself is 30 mi. N.W. of Hekla in a broad valley at the foot of a range of hills. During its calm periods Geysir appears as a sea-green pool 60 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in depth, filling and gently overflowing a bowllike depression or basin on the summit of a mound of siliceous mineral deposits, or sinter (q.v.). Extending downward from the basin's centre is a 10 ft. diameter, 70 ft. deep, welllike shaft whose water temperatures, at various depths, were first measured by V. Lottin in 1836. Ten years later Bunsen and after

FIRE OPAL. A HORTICULTURAL VAGreat Britain G. urbanum, RIETY OF GEUM CHfLOENSE wood avens, is a common hedge plant with small yellow flowers and G. rivale, water avens, is a rarer plant found throughout the north temperate zone. Both species were once widely used as a corrective of dysentery, as their .^oots contain an astringent tannin. (N. Tr.) cur in

in the park.

New Zealand, located near the upper basin of the Waikato river in the south of the province of Auckland, presents a striking profusion of boiling springs, steam jets and The

in sev-

volcanoes. the

A. L. 0. des Cloizeaux observed that: (1) Geysir's temperature increased steadily from its surface downward to the mid-point of its well whereupon, for greater depths, it increased at a lesser rate;

and that (2) Geysir's temperature at all depths, except for minor fluctuations, steadily increased as the time for the next eruption

drew near. Conclusions drawn in Bunsen's classic (1847) paper were: (1) the steady temperature increase for all depths would, Geysir's temperature-depth relationships being as observed, cause boiling conditions to be most closely approached at mid-depths; (2) an upward movement of the water column in the tube sufficient to cause overflow from the basin would trigger the eruption by elevating the deeper, high-temperature waters to shallower levels of reduced pressure such that the water at mid-level would, during one of these upward surges, exceed the boiling temperature of its new site; (3) the volumes of steam consequently formed at

GEZELLE—GEZIRA

378 would increase the upward surge of the water column to accelerate overflow; and (4)

mid-depths

BOILING POINT

DEPTHCtt.)

(-F.)

the outer world.

_-

291

in turn, this accelerated overflow

would cause more the geyser column

levels within

to

boil,

the

chain reaction ultimately producing a full-scale eruption.

Bunsen's theory, conceived to only Geysir, was widely accepted and extended, perhaps unSubduly, to cover all geysers. .

fit

sequent work revealed features of geyser action unaccounted for For example, by the theory. H. 0. Lang in 18S0 noted the ne-

FROM

H.

BROWN,

MONNETT AND

V.

"INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY,"

J.

STOVALL,

19B8

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A GEYSER TUBE Geyser action presumably results from constricted portions of the tube Interfering witii the formation of convection currents and permitting water to accumulate in the lower parts of the tube until heated far above the normal boil-

an influx of relatively water to terminate an eruption, otherwise all geysers ing point. The boiling points indicated for the different depths assume the tube would simply become steam to be completely filled with water, in 1940 T. Thorkelsson vents. which would be true only toward the cited convincing evidence in sup- end of each period port of his theory that bubbles cessity of

cooler

from earthly bonds, he attained greater harmony with Almost from the beginning he had shown great technical originality in his use of language and imagery, rhythm and rhyme, developing a style highly individual yet rooted linHis work as philologist guistically in the west Flemish dialect. and folklorist is also interesting, and his influence on 19th-century Flemish intellectual Hf e was great. His originahty in writing poetry of great lyrical purity and intensity, liberating the secret forces of the word at a time when positivism was the prevailing philosophy, has caused him to be considered a forerunner of their art by modern poets.

liberation

formed by the dissolved gases in the water, principally nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen and argon, could cause eruptions without the necessity of boiling conditions being attained at depth. See E. T. Allen and Arthur L. Day, Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park, Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. (1935) T. F. W. Barth, Volcanic Geology, Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland, includes a bibliography of literature on geyser action published between 1780 and 1949, Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. (1950). (F. D. B.) ;

GEZELLE, GUIDO

—

Bibliography. Jubileumuitgave van Guido Gezelle's Volledige Werken, 18 vol. (1930-39); G, Gezelle's Dichtwerken, ed. by F. Baur, 4 vol., 3rd ed. (1950-51); Lyra Belgica, I, Eng. trans, by C. and F. Stillman (1950) G. L. van Roosbroeck, G. Gezelle: the Mystic Poet of Flanders (1919) A. Walgrave, Het leven van G. Gezelle, Vlaamschen priester en dichter, 2 vol. (1923-24); U. van de Voorde, G. Gezelle (1926) F. Baur, Uit Gezelle's leven en werk (1930) R. F. Lissens, Het Impressionisme in de Vlaamsche letterkunde (1934) A. Vermeylen, De Vlaamse letteren van Gezelle tot heden (1949); H. Bruning, Guido Gezelle de andere (1954). Eng, trans, of selections from his poems by (R. F. Ls.) M. Swepstone (1937). GEZER, once a royal Canaanite city, now a small village and ;

;

;

;

;

agricultural settlement about 6 mi. S.S.W. of Lydda in Israel. It was described in the Old Testament as on the boundary of Ephraim,

maritime plain and near the Philistine border. According Jerome, Gezer was 4 Roman mi. N. of Nicopolis ("Amwas). At this point, near the village of Abu Shusha, stands Tell Jezer, whose identification with Gezer was suggested by Clermont Ganneau in 1871 and later confirmed by the discovery of boundary inscriptions with the name Gezer inscribed on rock outcroppings around the

in the

to

site.

—Gezer

often mentioned in the Egyptian records of from Thutmose III (15th century) to Merneptah (late 13th century B.C.). Among the clay tablets in Babylonian cuneiform which were found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, from the reigns of the Egyptian Pharaohs Amenhotep III and IV (early 14th century b.c), were 11 official letters, ten written by princes of Gezer with biblical names and one written by Pharaoh A fragment of another Egyptian letter to the prince of in reply. Gezer was discovered at Gezer itself. Gezer was abandoned about 900 B.C. and was little occupied thereafter. Archaeology. The site was excavated systematically by R. A. S. Macalister for the Palestine Exploration fund during 190205 and 1907-09. The excavations disclosed a whole series of strata covering most periods from the Neolithic Age to the time of the Maccabees, together with a long series of structures and objects illustrative of a corresponding variety of cultures and cults. Among the discoveries of special interest are two cuneiform tablets

History.

is

New Kingdom,

(1830-1899), Flemish priest and poet, one of the masters of modern European lyric poetry, was born at Bruges, May 1, 1830. He spent his youth in Bruges, at that time almost a medieval town, studying the humanities there and at Roulers (1846-49), and philosophy and theology at Bruges (1850-54). At Roulers were awakened his combative Flemish nationalism and his poetic genius; there too companionship with English students aroused his sympathy for Britain, which lasted He was ordained in 1854 although already a teacher at all his life. His own personahty Roulers, where he remained until 1860. developed to the full and he worked to inspire his students with his His romantic religious, poetic and Flemish nationalistic idealism. views on education, friendship, aesthetics, language and poetry clashed with conservative opinion, however, and in 1860 he was transferred to Bruges where he became professor of philosophy and vice-principal of the Anglo-Belgian seminary (1861-65) and

the

curate (1865-72).

of the 7th century B.C., an alignment of monoliths (mazzeboth), many instances of presumed infant sacrifice, a water tunnel cut

Meanwhile he revealed himself

as a lively,

sometimes reckless

political journalist, writing with startling faciUty in his

weekly,

Jaer 30, and other papers. He founded and edited a cultural weekly, Rond den Heerd (1865), for which he wrote on his main 't

—

philology, folklore, local history and natural science. Overwork, disappointments, political attacks and domestic problems reduced his poetic output and brought him to the verge of a nervous breakdown. In Sept. 1872 he was transferred as curate to Courtrai, where he recovered his balance and again began to write poetry. In 1881 he founded Loquela, a philological review edited by himself, and in 1886 published a masterly translation of Hiawatha. From about 1877 until his death his output of poetry continued constant. In March 1899 he became chaplain of the English convent at Bruges, where he died Nov. 27. During his first period (1850-70), Gezelle's poetry (Kerkhofblommen and Dichtoejeningen, 1858; Kleengedichtjes, 1860; Gedichten, gezangen en gebeden, 1862) was the untrammeled expression of a sensitive, passionate and versatile personality, ill-

interests

adjusted to life, enthusiastic yet shy, egocentric, yet delighting in sentimental friendship and the beauty of nature and finding its The poetry of his second spiritual exaltation in love of God. period (1877-99), collected in Tijdkrans (1893), Ripnsnoer (1897) and Laatste verzen (1901), was more mature and controlled in construction, and, although the poet still longed for

—

depth of 94 ft., and an agricultural calendar from the 10th century B.C., written in Hebrew. Excavations were resumed In 1957 Y. at Gezer in 1923 and have continued intermittently. Yadin identified the Solomonic wall and gateway of -Gezer, referred to in I Kings ix, 15-17; these fortifications are identical in construction with the corresponding Solomonic remains excavated at to a vertical

Megiddo and Hazor. Bibliography.

— R. A.

S. Macalister, Bible Sidelights

From

the

Mound

The Excavations of Gezer, 3 vol. (1912) Y. Yadin, "Solomon's City Wall and Gate at Gezer," Israel Exploration Journal, (W. F. A.) vol. viii, pp. 80-86 (1958). of Gezer (1906),

;

GEZIRA

(Arabic for "island"), a triangular area in the Republic of the Sudan, lying between the Blue and White Niles south of their confluence at Khartoum as far as latitude 13° 30' N., is Its irrigation works ft. above sea level. scheme depend for their water on the Sennar Canalization irrigates (formerly Makwar) dam, built 1922-25.

a clay plain about 1,300

known

as the Gezira

about 1,000,000

ac. yielding

valuable crops of long-staple cotton,

and fodder. The scheme incorporates an agreement between the Sudanese government, the Gezira board and the Sudanese cultivators. The government, which provided and maintains the dam and principal canals, receives 40% of the proceeds of the cotton

millet

crop,

20%

being paid to the board (which supervises cultivation,

GHANA and marketing) and 40% to the tenants who and pick the crop. The tenants (about 25,000) each farm about 40 ac. under a prescribed rotation. They are descended from those formerly cultivating the area under uncertain and sporadic rainfall. They also receive rent from the government for their

From Cape Coast to beyond Sekondi-Takoradi a thick series of sandstones, arkoses, shales and boulder

transport, ginning

occur at Accra.

cultivate

there

ancestral holdings.

beds of probable lower Upper Paleozoic age. Jurassic, of terrestrial facies, occurs at Saltpond. Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments are restricted to coastal belts in the extreme east and west of the country. Around Lake Bosumtwi, near Kumasi, thick

from about 4-18 cwt. per acre, and 410 lb. annually, nearly all long-staple cotton. The Manaqil extension (about 830,000 ac. ) was completed in 1 962 its water duty being provided from Sennar. The new dam at Er Roseires (Ar Rusayris), assisted by a World bank loan (1960) of $15,500,000, will provide supplies after 1965 both for Manaqil and also for the new Kenana (Kinanah)

The

yield of cotton varies

the Gezira crop averages about 400,000 bales of

,

plan (1,200,000 ac.) west of Singa.

The

town is

chief

Wad Medani,

the capital of Blue Nile province. (J.

GHANA

Ghana became

self-governing dominion.

dent as head of state on July the Commonwealth of Nations.

1,

a republic with the presi-

1960, remaining a

The country, which

member is

of

a portion

between latitudes 4°45' and 11°10' N. and W. and is bordered on the west, north and east by the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta and Togo republics. On the south it faces the Atlantic along a coast of 334 mi. Population (1960 census) 6,726,815. Area 92,100 scj.mi. There are eight administrative regions, and the national capital is Accra, situated of

upper Guinea,

lies

longitudes 1°12' E. and 3° 15'

in the eastern sector of the coast.

(Er. A. B.) This article contains the following sections and subsections: I.

Physical Geography

3.

Geology Physiography Climate

4.

Vegetation

5.

Animal Life

1.

2.

11.

III.

Era

Early Traditions 3. Contact With Europe and Its Effects 4. Colonial Period 5. Independence IV. Population V. Administration and Social Conditions 1. Constitution and Government 2. Taxation 3.

Justice

4.

Living Conditions Welfare Services

6. 7.

VI.

Education Defense

2.

3.

Production Trade and Finance Transport and Communications I.

1.

Geology

PHYSICAX GEOGRAPHY

—About

half of the surface area

is

composed of

Pre-Cambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks. Most of the remainder is a platform of Paleozoic sediments resting on the older rocks. Beginning in the southeast and east the Pre-Cambrian is divided into

(

1

)

—

Physiography. Relief throughout the country is generally The southwestern, northwestern and extreme northern parts

consist of a dissected peneplain rising a

number

from sea

level to 1,000

of peneplain residuals of

up

ft.,

to 2,000

ft. with a northeast-southwest trend. In the vast basin of the Volta occupying the central part of the country the land rarely exceeds 500 ft., but heights of 1,500-1,750 ft. occur in the Kwahu and Gambaga plateaus, which form the uplifted edges of the basin along the south and north and are bordered by bold erosional scarps. In southeast Ghana, trending northeast from Accra to the Togo boundary, he the Akwapim-Togo ranges averaging 1 ,500 ft. and containing the highest mountains in the land (Mt. Djebobo 2,873 ft.; Mt. Afadjato 2,905 ft.). These ranges overlook the Voltaian basin on the west and the gently rolling Accra plains on the southeast. The coast is generally flat, sandy and fringed with lagoons, but between Cape Three Points and Accra extends a succession of bays and rocky headlands. East of Accra the rnain feature is the Volta delta and its associated lagoons. The drainage is dominated by the Volta, whose basin covers the northern twothirds of the country. South of the Kwahu plateau, which forms the main watershed, smaller rivers such as the Pra, Ankobra and

drain directly into the sea.

by

The

rivers exhibit seasonal vari-

rapids, thus restricting navigation.

3. Climate. This is governed by the tropical continental air mass or harmattan iq.v.) consisting of hot, dry, dust-laden air from the northeast across the Sahara and the tropical maritime air mass consisting of moist and relatively cool monsoonal air from the southwest across the Atlantic. The two meet along a broad front known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence zone (I.T.C.Z.), where their contrasting effects produce violent thunderstorms or hne squalls. Seasonal variation in weather is caused by the oscillation, following the overhead sun, of the I.T.C.Z., which reaches its most northerly position north of Ghana in August and its most southerly near the Guinea coast (latitude 7° N.) in January. Rains occur where the dominant air mass is monsoonal, while the harmattan is associated with drought. In the savanna country north of the Kwahu plateau the year falls into two seasons a dry season from November to March with hot days and cool nights and a wet season reaching a peak in August-September. The mean annual rainfall diminishes generally northward from about 45 to 35 in. and heavy, violent storms are usual. In the southern forest country two rainy seasons with peaks in May-June and October are separated by two relatively dry periods during the harmattan from December to February and in August, which along the coast is a cool and misty month. The mean annual rainfall there varies from 86 in. in the west around Axim to 45 in. in the east. Around Accra anomalously low figures of 40 in. to less than 30 in. occur, and the rainfall variability re;

The Economy 1.

2.

low.

—

2.

5.

rocks are highly weathered and great spreads of laterite and lesser spreads of bauxite and manganese ore are found. (W. J. M.)

Tano

History Prehistoric

deposits of lacustrine clays of geologically recent date contain fish and plant remains. Over much of the surface of Ghana the

ations and are interrupted

The People 1.

is

above which stand

H. G. L.) consists of the former British colony of the Gold Coast and of that portion of Togoland formerly under United BLingdom trusteeship, which on March 6, 1957, were formed into a

I

379

Dahomeyan,

schists, granite-gneisses,

and

hornblende-

Marble (tremolitic) and nephelite-syenite also occur; (2) Akwapimian, or Togo series, quartzites and phyllites; (3) Buemian (northward from the Pawmpawm river), quartzites, conglomerates, shales and lavas. Westward from the base of the Akwapimian the Pre-Cambrian consists of; (4) Birrimian, graywackes, phyllites, lavas, tuffs and intrusions; (5) great masses of granitic rocks and migmatites, in-

garnet-gneisse's, pyroxenites

eclogites.

sembles that

in the

northern savannas.

most extensive being that of

Temperatures show much more uniformity; the annual mean is 26°-29° C. (79°-84° F.) and the daily range is only 6.7°-7.2° C. along the coast and 10°-16.7° C. in the north. Relative humidity is high 90%-100% in the south and 65% in the north), producing with the high temperatures enervating conditions though during the harmattan relative humidities as low as 12% occur in the Accra plains. Locally, conditions are moderated by high altitudes and by regular land and sea breezes. In most places the hottest months are February and March, just before the start of the rains, while

Tarkwa-Konongo. The sandstones, conglomerates and shales of the Voltaian platform are probably of Lower Paleozoic age, although fossils are practically absent. Middle Devonian sandstones, grits and shales

the lowest temperatures occur in January, or along the coast in August. (Er. a. B.) 4. Vegetation. The natural vegetation is high forest in the south and savanna woodland in the north. Most virgin forest has

trusive into the Birrimian; (6) erates, quartzites, phyllites

downfolds

in

and

Tarkwaian, gold-bearing conglomflags,

the Birrimian, the

occurring in a

number

of

(

—

—

GHANA

38o

been replaced by a mosaic of permanent cocoa farms and more or less temporary mixed farms where banana, plantain, oil palm, maize (corn) and market-garden crops are cultivated. Shifting cultivation frequently results in overcropping and loss of fertility, and cassava is extensively grown in poor soils. When forest farms are abandoned a fallow of thicket reverts to a secondary type of forest and fertility is eventually restored. Citrus and other fruit trees are planted around villages.

The most luxuriant vegetation is in the statutory reserved forests which are mainly of mature secondary type. There isolated emergent trees of silk cotton (Ceiba pentandra) wawa (Triplochiton sderoxylon) utile (Etitandrophragma utile) and African mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) overtop successive canopies of smaller trees and shrubs, and robust chmbers reach to the upper strata. Epiphytic ferns, lichens, mosses and inconspicuous orchids clothe On the shaded ground broad-leaved herbs the high branches. abound amid saplings and low shrubs, but grasses are few. In swampy parts of the forest Raphia, climbing palms, bamboo and scrambling herbs and ferns are characteristic. ,

,

In the drier coastal regions, particularly near Accra, scattered clumps with Elaeophorbia surround old termites' nests in an open-grass savanna. Savanna grasslands are subjected to regGuinea ular dry-season burning and thus are not truly natural. savanna, a thin woodland of small widely spaced trees and abundant tall grass, occurs in the lower Volta and Afram river areas and over most of the Northern and Upper regions. Borassus fan palms are typical of the transitional zone between forest and savanna. In northern Ghana, yams, groundnuts (peanuts) and Guinea corn (sorghum) are widely grown. Wild trees and shrubs such as dawadawa (Parkia clappertonia) shea butter (Butyrospennum parkii), rubber- vine ( Landolphia) etc. are preserved for various uses, and baobab, akee apple {Blighia sapida), Acacia albida, neem {Azadirachta indica). mango and Khaya senegalensis (the dry-zone African mahogany) are commonly planted for shade, fruit or firethicket

,

,

wood. 5.

Animal Life.

—The fauna, formerly

(C. D. A.) rich but

much

depleted,

includes lions, leopards, hyenas, pottos, antelopes, elephants, buffaloes, wild hogs, chimpanzees and many kinds of monkeys in-

Among the snakes are cluding the black and white colobus. pythons, cobras, horned and puff adders, green mambas and boomCrocodiles and a diminishing remnant of manatees and and lagoons, and hippopotamuses the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great snails are common. The numerous birds include parrots, hornbills, kingfishers, eagles, kites, herons, cuckoos, nightjars, sunbirds, doves, pigeons, egrets, snakebirds, swallows, vultures and plantain eaters. Shoals of herring frequent the coast seasonally; other fish include mackerel, slangs.

otters frequent rivers

sole, skate, mullet, bonito, flying fish,

elephant

fish,

lungfish

and

Sharks occur at the mouths of the rivers. Edible turtles, barracudas, halfbeaks and sting rays are fairly common. Mussels are numerous on tidal rocks and on exposed mangrove roots. Spiders and scorpions abound. Insect life is multitudinous, includmuUfish.

ing beetles,

fireflies, ants,

termites, butterflies, crickets

and bugs.

Mosquitoes, tsetse flies and simuliids transmit malaria, yellow fever, trypanosomiasis and onchocerciasis, which are among the endemic diseases. A game reserve of 900 sq.mi. exists near the Mole, one of the headwaters of the White Volta in northwest Ghana. (J. D. Th.) II.

vation and have their homes in small towns, villages or hamlets. Workers and professional men maintain farming interests, and the welfare of the land is a primary value. Men hunt, fish, clear the bush and pursue handicrafts; women engage in petty trade and

domestic chores. herbalists

and

Both sexes farm and

diviners.

and spiritual worlds. Amid a rich diversity of practice and doctrine a remote supreme being is generally

of the physical

recognized, approachable through manifestations of the spirit or

through minor deities to whom libations and sacrifices are offered. The Earth is sacred and ancestors are respected. More than 70% of the population subsist by shifting hoe culti-

Most people

either

live

may

among

practise as

their kinsfolk,

and widespread family and lineage obligations condition social inRegular invocations of antercourse and economic endeavour. cestors renew lineage solidarity, while wider ties are reinforced by ceremonies linking localized groups. Most of southern Ghana is occupied by groups of the Kwa language subfamily (Akan, Ewe [gg.v.], Ga-Adangme and Guang). Of the Akan, who are numerically and culturally dominant, the best-known groups are the Ashanti and Fanti {gg.v.), and the Akim, Akwapim, Ahanta and Nzima. Another group of the Kwa (See African subfamily are the Gonja of northwest Ghana. Languages: The Niger-Congo Family.) The rule of matrilineal descent is the key to Akan social organization. Inheritance to office, status and most property descend within the matrilineage. Certain spiritual and personal qualities pass through the paternal line. Each lineage has at its head an elder responsible for its internal peace and relations with other lineages. He is custodian of the lineage's "stools," which embody the spirits of the ancestors, and is thereby mediator between the living and dead members. Within a town stools are hierarchically ordered, and each lineage has specific military, political and ritual duties. One stool is the town stool, and its occupant is the "chief," who always has sacerdotal as well as secular functions. Town The stools are grouped in a similar hierarchy within a "state." umbrella is the most conspicuous symbol of chieftaincy and the most illustrious chiefs are gazetted "paramount" chiefs. States vary in population from a few thousand to the great Ashanti confederacy of states, which, at its height, contained more than 800,Other Kwa speakers are traditionally organized into numerous politically independent subtribes, consisting of a group of related patrilineages. Links with maternal kin are important. In the north broad cultural similarities are concealed by local variations, with differently based descent systems, virilocal and uxorilocal residence patterns and varying rules of exogamy. Moreover the subcultures have no sharp boundaries. Dagomba, Gonja (gg.v.) and Mamprusi are "states," with rulers selected from chiefs of specified lineages. Outside these states, and even to some extent within them, authority is traditionally vested in clans and their 000.

segments. Political stability depends on the maintenance of equilibrium within the lineage system. Chiefship is the prerogative of certain primarily immigrant clans. Chiefs do not rule, though they are respected and enjoy economic privileges. They are principally custodians of shrines and the ritual guardians of their communities. Most Ghanaians tenaciously maintain their traditional animist beliefs but about 16% of them belong to Christian churches, the

group being Roman Catholic, although the combined Protestant churches (chiefly Methodist and Presbyterian) have about twice as many adherents. Approximately 63% of the people largest single

are Muslims.

Europeans (mainly those in commerce or in technical branches of the civil service) have increased since independence, particularly among the non-British groups. By the early 1960s, however, the (P. T. W. B.) British were still the largest non-African group.

THE PEOPLE

Ghanaians are Negroes. In the north they speak Mossi-Grussi languages and in the south Kwa languages; both subfamilies of the widespread Niger-Congo family. The two linguistic areas, between which the Black Volta forms an approximate boundary, correspond to distinguishable culture areas. But throughout Ghana some values are shared, particularly an insistence on the duahty ritual

I

III.

HISTORY

—

As elsewhere in Africa, the climate of Ghana varied during the Pleistocene epoch. With greater rainfall forest spread northward and man retreated toward the Sahara; when rainfall diminished, man occupied even the present forest. Correlations with Europe are estaWished by raised beaches. 1.

Prehistoric Era.

Apart from some pebble tools from high river terraces, the first is Late Chellean in the southeast, in middle river gravels corresponding to the 23-metre beach. In the succeeding pluvial era, the Acheulean culture is lacking save from the extreme north. With increasing aridity, man reappeared, bringing Late Acheu-

industry

lean and Sangoan cultures, probably successively. the Togo mountain range from the Niger river.

He moved along Sangoan

tools

GHANA abound in Transvolta and round Accra and extend to Kumasi; the west remained forest and was rarely visited. Late Acheulean is associated with the 14-metre beach and the lower terraces; a developed Sangoan with the 8-metre beach.

The Sangoan

culture

waned

in the

Gamblian

pluvial era.

close there appears an Aterian culture, probably

cating Sahara;

from the

At

its

desic-

occurs in basal gravels of valleys carved during In central Ghana its tools are shapely, near the coast crude and formless. it

the preceding pluvial period.

Degenerate Middle Stone Age traditions lingered into the succeeding subpluvial era. Thereafter excavations at Legon yielded quartz microliths made on small pebbles. Upcountry these occur on silt terraces deposited in the preceding wet phase as far as the Niger. This culture is independent of the Saharan mesolithic.

The latest Mesolithic Age has stone hoes, quartz beads and other Congo types; pottery seems absent. This stage dates to the postFlandrian marine regression (? 1st millennium B.C.). Several Neolithic cultures seem identifiable. They contain polished axes and usually coarse pottery. The most distinctive appears around Kintampo and in the Accra plains; it had clay houses,

Saharan chert microliths, shale armrings and scored terra cottas like flattened cigars.

A

neolithic culture

was excavated near Abetifi. Evidence lacks for the introduction of

more

in mesolithic tradi-

iron.

Polished stone was

tion

commonly used

until the 16th century, especially in the forest.

Trade in greenstone for ax manufacture flourished. In Transvolta and the west greenstone hoes are common. No satisfactory chronology has been established, nor can existing tribes be identified before the 1 7th century. Of excavated sites, Nsuta, with decorated pottery and bobbin beads, should be early medieval; Sekondi village and cemetery, with fine pottery, stone axes, and quartz and shell beads, lasted into Portuguese times. In the north heavily decorated pottery continued later on open sites and mounds indi:ating clay houses. Associated European imports are unknown before the 17th century. (O. D.) 2. Early Traditions. The modern state of Ghana is named

—

ifter the ancient

Negro empire

and was situated close

that flourished until the 13th cen-

Sahara in the western Sudan. about 500 mi. to the northwest of the nearest part of the modern state, and it is tolerably :ertain that no part of the latter lay within its borders. The :laim that an appreciable proportion of modern Ghana's people derive from emigrants from the ancient empire cannot be unequivocally substantiated with the evidence at present available. vVritten sources relate only to the period since European contact OTth the Gold Coast, i.e., modern Ghana, began in the 15th century, )r to Muslim contacts with ancient Ghana from about the 8th to tury

Phe centre of ancient Ghana

to the

(g.v.) lay

381

were being reached by Mande traders ("seeking gold dust) by the 14th century, and by Hausa merchants (desiring kola nuts) by the 16th century. In this way the inhabitants of what is now Ghana were influenced by the new wealth and cross-fertilization of ideas which arose in the great empires of the western Sudan following the development of Islamic civilization in northern Africa. It is against this background that the traditions of origin of the Ghanaian states must be viewed. It would seem that the first states of the Akan-speaking peoples who now inhabit most of the forest and coastlands were founded, c. the 13th century, by the settlement, just north of the forest, of migrants coming from the direction of Mande; that the dominant states of northern Ghana, Dagomba, Mamprussi and their satellites were established by the 15th century by invaders from the Hausa region; that a little later the founders of the Ga and Ewe states of the southeast began to arrive from what is now Nigeria by a more southerly route; and that Gonja, in the centre, was created by Mande conquerors about the beginning of the 17th century.

Tradition tends to present these migrations as

movements

of

whole peoples. In certain instances, for example Dagomba, Mamprussi, Gonja, it can be shown that the traditions relate in fact to comparatively small bands of invaders who used military and poHtical techniques acquired farther north to impose their rule on already established Negro populations whose own organization was based more on community of kin than on allegiance to political sovereigns. It is probable that the first Akan states, e.g., such influential states as Bono and Banda north of the forest or the smaller states founded on the coast by migration down the Volta river, were also established in this way. The later Akan infiltration into the forest, which then was probably sparsely inhabited, and the Ga and Ewe settlement of the southeast may have been more of mass movements, though in the latter case it is known that the immigrants met and absorbed earlier inhabitants. 3.

Contact With Europe and

Its Effects.

—A

revolution in

Ghanaian history was initiated by the establishment of direct sea trade with Europe foUov^g the discovery of the coast by Portuguese mariners in 1471. Initially Europe's main interest in the country was as a source of gold, a commodity which was readily available at the coast in exchange for such European exports as cloth, hardware, beads, metals, spirits, arms and ammunition. This gave rise to the name Gold Coast, by which the country was to be known until 1957. In an attempt to preserve a monopoly of the trade, the Portuguese initiated the practice of erecting stone fortresses

on

(Elmina

sites leased

castle dating from 1482 was the first) on the coast from the native states. In the 17th century the

.he 13 th century. Many modern Ghanaian peoples possess well ^reserved oral traditions, but even though some of these may reach

back as the 14th century, this is after the final disappearance ancient Ghana, and such very early traditions often present considerable problems of interpretation. Little progress has so is

far

)f

far

been made

in linking the surviving traditions

with the available

archaeological evidence.

More

archaeological research, especially into the Iron Age, will much toward resolving present uncertainties about he early history of modern Ghana, but for the moment little more

[indoubtedly do

be said than that the traditions of many of the states into which he country was divided before it came under British rule refer to heir people having immigrated within the last 600 years either rom the north or northwest or from the east or northeast. Such

:an

raditions link ivhich is

;wo

up with other evidence

now Ghana was

great

for

many

to suggest that the area centuries a meeting place for

streams of west African history.

Ultimately these the existence of two major trans-Saharan butes, a western one linking the headwaters of the Niger and jtreams

FROM PUB

CHRISTIANSBORG CASTLE. ACCRA. ORtGINAULY BUILT BY THE DANES IN THE 17TH CENTURY. WAS TRANSFERRED TO THE BRITISH IN 1850. IT IS NOW THE RESIDENCE OF GHANA'S PRESIDENT

stemmed from

lenegal rivers to Morocco and a more central one linking the pgion between the Niger bend and Lake Chad with Tunisia and i'ripoli. At the end of the western route arose the great Mande itates, notably ancient Ghana and Mali, while around the more jasterly termini developed Songhai, the Hausa states, and Bornu. 'here is evidence that parts of modern Ghana north of the forest

Portuguese monopoly, already considerably eroded, gave way comwhen traders from the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden and Prussia Protestant seapowers antagonistic to Iberian imperial pretensions discovered that the commercial relations developed with the Gold Coast states could be adapted to the export of slaves, then in rapidly increasing demand for the American planpletely

— —

tations, as well as of gold. By the mid-18lh century the coastal scene was dominated by the presence of about 40 forts controlled

GHANA

382

by Dutch, British or Danish merchants. The presence of these permanent European bases on the coast had far-reaching consequences. The new centres of trade thus estabhshed were much more accessible than were the Sudanese emporia, and this, coupled with the greater capacity and efficiency of the sea-borne trade compared with the ancient overland of routes, gradually brought about the reversal of the direction the trade flow. The new wealth, tools and arms, techniques and ideas introduced through close contact with Europeans initiated political and social as well as economic changes. The states north of the forest, hitherto the wealthiest and most powerful, declined

new combinations farther south. At. the end of the 17th century the Akan state of Akwamu created an empire which, stretching from the central Gold Coast eastward to Dahomey,

in the face of

sought to control the trade roads to the coast of the whole eastern Gold Coast. The Akwamu empire was short-lived, but its example soon stimulated a union of the Ashanti (g.v.) states of the central forest, which union, after establishing its dominance over

expanded north of the forest to other conquer Bono, Banda, Gonja and Dagomba. Having thus engrossed almost the whole of the area which served Ashanti as a market and source of supply for the coastal trade, turned toward the coastlands. Here traditional ways of life were being increasingly modified by contact with Europeans and their neighbouring Akan

states,

trade, and when, beginning in the latter part of the ISth century, Ashanti armies began to invade the coastal states, their peoples tended to look for leadership and protection to the European traders in the forts. But between 1804 and 1814 the Danes, Engtrades, and lish and Dutch had each in turn outlawed their slave the gold trade was declining. The political uncertainty following

impeded the development of new trades, and in these circumstances the mutually suspicious European interests were not always keen to embark on new political responHowever, during 1830-44, under the outstanding leadersibilities. an ship of George Maclean, the British merchants began to assume informal protectorate over the Fanti states, much to the comthe Ashanti invasions

mercial benefit of both parties. As a result of this the British in colonial office finally agreed to take over the British forts, and 1850 it was able to buy out the Danes. However, trade declined under the new regime, which was averse to assuming formal con1860s, trol over the territory influenced from the forts, and in the 1820s as a result of this influence and of the growth, from the

onward, of Christian missionary education, the Fanti states atFurther tempted to organize a European-style confederacy. Ashanti incursions and the final evacuation of the coast by the Dutch (1872) combined to reverse this negative British policy, and in 1874 a punitive expedition destroyed Kumasi, the Ashanti capital, and the Gold Coast was declared a British colony. 4. Colonial Period.— French and German activity in adjacent interritories and the demand of British mining and commercial for better protection led to a further active period of British policy during 1895-1901, during which Ashanti was finally conquered and its northern hinterland formed into a British pro-

terests

of British rule that followed went far toward welding into one state the three elements of the territory, of the colonies of the Gold Coast and Ashanti and the protectorate the Northern Territories, to which after World War I was added western a fourth, under mandate from the League of Nations, the part of former German Togoland (see Togoland). But this was tectorate.

The 50 years

hardly the result of deliberate policy. The ever increasiftg assimilation of European ways by the people on the Gold Coast had already made possible there the introduction of such organs of as a legislative council (1850) and a supreme court (1853), but for many years Ashanti and the Northern Territories remained the sole responsibility of the governor, whose officials were from the 1920s onward encouraged to work with and through the authorities of the indigenous states. Contemporary attempts

government

to introduce similar elements of indirect rule in the Gold Coast served mainly to stimulate a nationalist opposition among the edu-

cated professional classes, especially in the growing towns, which aimed at converting the legislative council into a fully responsible

parliament.

What

really brought the country together

was the great develop-

the introduction and rapid expansion of cocoa-growing by local farmers in the forest. By the 1 920s, the Gold Coast, while continuing to export some gold, was producing more than half of the world's supply of cocoa: timber and man-

ment

of its

economy following

ganese later became additional exports of note. With the wealth created by this great increase of trade, it was possible to provide modern transport facilities harbours, railways, roads and social services, especially education (to the university level), all of which tended toward the conversion of the traditional social order, of groups bound together by kinship, into one in which in-

—

—

dividuals were linked principally 5.

Independence.

—

Political

by economic ties. advancement tended

hind economic and social development, especially

in the

to lag be-

south (for

the role of the Northern Territories was principally the supply of cheap labour for the Gold Coast and Ashanti). World War II and there its aftermath tended to accentuate this lag, and in 1948 riots in the larger towns. The Watson commission of inquiry reported that the Burns constitution of 1946, which had granted Africans a majority in the legislative council, was "outmoded at

were

An all-African committee under Justice (later Sir Henley) Coussey was appointed to work out a new constitution African in which some executive power would be transferred to ministers responsible to an African assembly, but under the dynamic leadership of Kwame Nkrumah, a new nationwide mass poparty, the Convention People's party (C.P.P.), had litical

birth."

then arisen. This demanded immediate self-government for the country and entered on measures of "positive action" to enforce In 1951 the strength of the C.P.P. its will on the government. was demonstrated when it won nearly all of the assembly seats

open to direct election under the Coussey constitution. Nkrumah was thereupon released from the prison sentence to which "posiof govtive action" had brought him and was appointed leader ernment business in the assembly. In 1952 he became prime minDuring the next five years the Gold Coast passed rapidly ister. through a period of transition in which government was trans-

by stages to an all-African cabinet responsible to a national assembly elected by adult suffrage. On Dec. 13, 1956, following British Togoa plebiscite held under United Nations auspices, the Securing Coast. Gold with the integrated was land trust territory genera) over 70% of the seats in the assembly at each of the government elections of 1954 and 1956, Nkrumah and his C.P.P. ferred

were able in 1957 to obtain the recognition of their country, named Ghana, as an independent self-governing member of Commonwealth of Nations (March 6) and a member of

re-

thf thi

United Nations (March 8). Nkrumah was then free to concentrate his energies on the liberaon the estab tion of the rest of Africa from colonial rule and

hshment of a new, independent, united Africa. He initiated Africai series of conferences between leaders of independent peoples. Union; states and between representatives of the African between Ghana and the former French territories of Guinea ani Mali were announced in 1958 and 1960, and in the latter yea Ghana also responded to the United Nations appeal by sending Conge strong contingent of troops to help restore order in the For the achievement of his goals, Nkrumah deemed it necessar government fo to secure a strong, highly centralized form of Ghana, in which the whole national life would be identified wit

i

^

;

republica the C.P.P. and the personality of its leader. In 1960, a (Nkrumal: constitution, giving great authority to the president Oppositio also known as Osagyefo, "redeemer"), was adopted. the par to the regime was interpreted as a betrayal of Ghana and African cause, and critics, within as well as outside the C.P.P

became

liable to preventive detention.

IV.

(J.

D. F.)

POPULATION

The 1960 census gave a total population of 6,726,815, com sponding to an average population density of 73 persons per squai mile. However, the population is rather unevenly distributed, triangular area with a base 250 mi. long on the coast from Axim inland north ( the Togo frontier and with its apex about 150 mi. Kumasi covers only about one-fifth of Ghana's territory but coi t

GHANA about two-thirds of its population, with an average density approaching 300 per square mile. A similar but much smaller high-density area extends along the northeast frontier. At the other extreme, a belt of land 100-150 mi. broad stretching from south of Wa across the country in a southeasterly direction has a density below 10 per square mile. The rate of population increase is estimated at about 2.5% annually. tains

Area and Population Region (headquarters parentheses)

in

of Regions,

1960*

383

GHANA (ANCIENT)

384 THE ECONOMY

VI.

Ghana

is

basically a country of small farmers with a population

tons annual capacity to be built at Tema by U.S. and U.K. alumiinterests and to furnish power for secondary industries and

num

density low enough for the land to support the people in moderate comfort. On this and the proceeds of Ghanaian exports the apparatus of a modern state is being erected.

new towns. See also Volta. 2. Trade and Finance. There

The principal food crops are cassava, yams, 1. Production. maize (corn), millet and plantain, but little meat is produced and the main local source of animal protein is fish, which is caught

overseas firms; the chief imports are textiles, food, drink, tobacco and commodities such as cement, trucks and vehicles, industrial machinery and petroleum oils. Except for some timber and a small amount of gold, the whole of the cash crop and mining production

—

extensively along the coast.

Most

of

Ghana

is

not a natural rear-

by the early 1960s the cattle population (largely white Fulani zebu cows) was about 500,000, a fivefold inCocoa, grown in the forest areas by small crease since 1930. farmers on plots of two or three acres, dominates all other cash

—

in food.

Much

of the import

is an extensive domestic trade and internal trade is handled by

exported. Ghana currency,

ing zone for livestock, but

is

crops with a yield in excess of 300,000 tons annually.

first issued in 1958, is based on the Ghana pound (£G) with a sterling exchange standard. The Bank of Ghana (1957) is the central bank of issue. Commercial banks include the state-owned Ghana Commercial bank and two large

The Ghana

Cocoa Marketing board is the statutory body responsible for Minor exgrading, exporting and selling the entire cocoa crop. port crops include copra, kola nuts, palm kernels, bananas, tobacco, Forest reserves total about 8,500 sq.mi. and coffee and rubber. Gold mines logs and sawn timber are' significant export items. produce an annual average of 880,000 oz. fine gold. Mining occupies about 30,000 workers, and average annual production figures for other minerals are: diamonds (more than half obtained by individual diggers) 3,225.000 carats; manganese 563,000 tons; bauxite 193,000 tons. There is no coal and by the early 1960s electricity (mainly for domestic use) from diesel-powered generating stations was available only in the larger towns; the mines are the biggest industrial users. Manufacturing plays a small part in the economy, and there are few factories (cigarettes, canning, biscuits,

matches,

nails,

plywood, furniture, vehicle assembly).

—

The Volta River Project. With the object of expanding the economy and lessening the dependence on cocoa, the Volta plan based on damming the lower river was launched in 1961, when the Italian firm that built the

Kariba

dam (Rhodesia)

obtained the

contract for the main Volta dam at Akosombo, about 60 mi. from the mouth. The dam, financed by the Ghanaian government and by loans from the World bank, the U.S. and the U.K., was expected to create a lake of about 3,275 sq.mi., which was planned to become a fresh-water fisher>', the terminus of an inland waterway system and an irrigation source for rice-growing in the surrounding basin and for livestock on the Accra plains. The electricity generated (768,000 kw.) was to supply an aluminum smelter of about 200,000

An agreement

with the U.S.S.R. in 1960 provided economic and technical aid and the supply of machines and equipment in exchange for cocoa and other primary products. A consortium of West German manufacturers in the same year agreed to provide credits of £G 150,000,000 toward industrial projects in Ghana, and the Italian state-controDed oil corBritish banks.

for a Soviet loan,

poration agreed to build a refinery at Tema. 3.

Transport and Communications.

— Ghana had

in the early

1960s about 4,420 mi. of trunk roads, of which 1,900 mi. were tarred. The railways, of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge and with a route mileage of about 620, are confined to the southern half of the repubhc and Most local passerve mainly for carrying export commodities. senger traffic is by bus, and modern "tro' tro' " motor coaches are replacing the old-style "mammy wagons." The Black Star line, founded in 1958, is the state mercantile marine. Until 1961 the main port was Takoradi, but in that year the eight-berth deep-

water harbour

at

Tema was opened

to shipping.

Ghana Airways

operates international and local services, with main airfields at Accra, Takoradi, Kumasi and Tamale. The postal service handles about 60,000 inland items annually and there are more than 30,000

The

telephones.

national

mitters at Accra and

Tema.

broadcasting service employs transSee also references under "Ghana"

(J. W. Wi.) Redmayne, Gold Coast to Ghana (1957); F. Wolfson, Pageant of Ghana (1958) R. Raymond, Black Star in the Wind (1960). Physical Geography: R. J. H. Church, West Africa (1957) E. A. Boateng, A Geography of Ghana (1959) H. O. Walker, Weather and Climate of Ghana (1957). The People: M. Manoukian, Akan and Ga Adangme Peoples of the Gold Coast (1950), The EweSpeaking People of Togoland and the Gold Coast (1952) D. Westermann and M. A. Bryan, The Languages of West Africa (1952) K. A. Busia, The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of E. L. R. Meyerowitz, Akan Traditions of Origin Ashanti (1951) (1952); J. B. Christensen, Double Descent Among the Fanti (1954); Linguistic Classification (1955); J. H. Greenburg, Studies in African Organization of the Lowiili (1956); F. M. J. R. Goody, The Social Bourret, Gold Coast: a Survey of the Gold Coast and British Togoland,

in the

Index volume.

BiBLiOGR.\PHY.

—P.

B.

;

;

;

—

;

;

;

2nd ed. (1952), Ghana, the Road to Independence (1960); Colonial Central Office of InReports on the Gold Coast (annually to 1954) formation, The Making of Ghana (1956); Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana (1957) W. E. F. Ward, History of Ghana, 2nd ed. (1958) J. D. Fage, Ghana: a Historical Interpretation (1959); J. G. .\mamoo, The New Ghana (1958) D. Warner, Ghana and the New Africa (1960); T. E. Hilton, Ghana Population Atlas (1960). The Economy: Economic Survey (annually) K. A. Akwawuah, Prelude to Ghana's Industrialisation (1960); J. B'. Wills (ed.), Agriculture and Land Use in Ghana (1962); current history and statistics are summarized annually in Britannica ;

;

;

;

;

Book

of the Year.

GHANA

(ANCIENT). The ancient west African empire which the modern Ghana (q.v.) is named was centred in the regions of Aukar, Hodh and Bakhunu, between the Sahara and the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger rivers, partly in the southeastern sector of the Islamic republic of Mauritania and partly in modern Mali. It was peopled predominantly by Soninke clans of the Mande-speaking Negroes. Its origins are obscure, though tradition suggests that the first rulers, the Kayamaga, were not Negroes. It has been suggested that they were Berbers or Judaized Berbers who crossed the Sahara and established their dominion after

FISHERMEN ARRANGING THEIR NETS AND CLEANING THEIR BOATS AT TEMA

over the Soninke about a.d. 300. The first written references to the empire are those of Arabic geographers and historians from the 8th century onward. It was visited by Ibn Hawqal in the 10th century, but the fullest description of the empire in its maturity is that written by al-Bakri in the years 1067-68. By then the rulers

GHARBIYAH— GHAZNI were pagan Negroes, and al-Bakri's account and customs of Ghana suggests interesting parallels with more recent and better-known west African Negro states. The name Ghana was properly the title of the ruler, and the empire was ruled through tributary princes who were probably the There were probably a numtraditional chiefs of subject clans. ber of successive capitals, also known as Ghana; that of the 11th century has been identified by archaeologists with the ruins at Koumbi Saleh, 200 mi. N. of modern Bamako. The principal raison d'etre of the empire was the desire to control the Sudanese end of the trade, principally in alluvial gold, which had attracted Moroccan merchants to the Sudan and had led as well as the people of the court

the pastoral to

nomad Berber

tribes of the desert, such as the Sanhaja,

develop the western trans-Saharan caravan road. Gold was seby mute barter, from Negroes at the southern limits

cured, often

and conveyed to the capital, where a Muslim comtown developed alongside the native city. There the gold was exchanged for commodities, the most important of which was Saharan salt, imported by the north African caravans. The empire began to decline with the emergence of the MusHm Almoravids (q.v.) a confederation of the Sanhaja and other desert Berber tribes. After some years of warfare, the Almoravids overran Ghana in 1076. Almoravid domination of Ghana lasted only a few years, but their activities had upset the trade on which the empire depended, and the irruption of their flocks into an arid agricultural terrain had initiated a disastrous process of desiccation. The subject peoples of the empire began to break away, and of the empire,

mercial

,

1203 one of these, the Sosso, occupied the capital. Eventually 1240 the city was destroyed by the Mande emperor Sundiata, and what was left of its empire became incorporated in the new and greater empire of Mah which he founded. in

in

See R. Mauny, "The Question of Ghana," in Africa, vol. xxiv (1954) D. Fage, "Ancient Ghana; A Review of the Evidence," in Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, vol. iii (1957). (J. D. F.) ;

J.

GHARBIYAH, AL

and

KAFR ASH SHAYKH,

ernorates of the Nile in lower Egypt, are

gov-

bounded north by the

Mediterranean, northeast by Dumyat (Damietta) governorate, east by the Damietta branch of the Nile, south by Al Minufiyah governorate and west by the Rosetta Rashid) branch of the Nile. Formerly Al Gharbiyah included all the delta north of Al Minufiyah, but in 1949 a new province Fouadiya was created, renamed Kafr ash Shaykh in 1955. Kafr ash Shaykh comprises the northwest part of the old province. Area 1,330 sq.mi. Pop. (1960) 973,000. The population of Al Gharbiyah in 1960 was 1,715,000, with an area of 770 sq.mi. Northern Kafr ash Shaykh consists of Lake BuruUus, about 200 sq.mi., separated from the sea by a narrow sand bar 35 mi. long and bordered southward by extensive saline marshes under reclamation. Rice is an important crop on the reclaimed land. About 62% of the occupied population work at agriculture; the level, fertile land is intensively cultivated and the principal crops are cotton, rice, maize (corn) and wheat. Fishing in Lake BuruUus is done from Baltim. The capitals are Tanta and Kafr ash Shaykh; other important towns are Al Mahallah al Kubra and Zifta, Bilqas Qism Awwal, and (in Kafr ash Shaykh) Disuq and Biyala. All are market towns having industries coninected with agriculture (cotton ginning, flour and rice milling). Al Mahallah al Kubra is the chief centre of Egypt's textile industry and Kafr az Zayyat has one of the country's largest ginneries and soap and chemical works. A barrage at Zifta raises the level of the Damietta branch to supply canals irrigating the north and northeastern parts of the delta. Southern Gharbiyah has a density of population exceeding 2,000 per square mile. Sa al Hajar or Sais (q.v.), Babbit al Hijarah (Iseum) and Samannud (Sebennytos) are notable sites of antiquity. (A. B. M.) GHATS, a word which, in its Anglicized plural form (formerly ghauts), is applied particularly to the Eastern and Western Ghats which form the eastern and western edges respectively of the great plateau of peninsular India, having been transferred from the mountain passes to the mountains themselves. Ghat is a Hindi word signifying "landing stairs from a river" and "a pass through a mountain," and hence any steep road or rail incline. The word is also used of the artificial terracing of river (

i

I

I

'

'

I

I

i

385

banks, as in bathing and crematory ghats at Varanasi (Benares) and other Indian cities, and to ferry landings. The term Eastern Ghats is applied to several discontinuous and dissimilar hill areas (there is a 100-mi. gap across the lower Godavari river and the Krishna river). In the north they are dissected blocks of ancient Peninsular rocks, in the centre (the Cuddapah ranges) worn-down stumps of loftier ancient mountains, and in

the south mainly rounded masses of gneiss.

In Orissa they sometimes exceed 3,000 ft., but they are lower elsewhere. Local names are given to the separate parts.

The Western Ghats

are the crest of the western edge of the

Their seaward slopes are very steep and dissected by canyonlike valleys, but on the landward

plateau, possibly a great fault scarp. side slopes are gentle

The

and valleys wide and mature.

begins south of the Tapti estuary and for 3,000-5,000 ft. In this section the plateau

scarp

300 mi. rises to is capped by the Deccan lavas, which give it a wall-like face and tabular upper surface. From near Goa southward the ancient gneisses and granites of the For more than 200 mi. summit plateau form the escarpment. levels are below 3,000 ft. Hill forms are more rounded, and several of the coastal streams have cut their valleys inland beyond the Crestline and captured headwaters of plateau rivers. Beyond the 13th parallel summit levels rise again until the Ghats culminate This great dome of gneiss in the Nilgiri hills {see Nilgiris). reaches a height of 8,760 ft. in Mt. Dodabetta. It overlooks the wide Palghat gap which is usually regarded as the southern limit of the Ghats though continued through the lofty Anaimalai, Palni and Cardamom hills to the southernmost tip of India in Cape Comorin. The westward face of the Ghats receives a heavy monsoon rainfall and is clothed with dense evergreen forest. The streams of the Western Ghats are important sources of power, notably at Gersoppa falls and in the Nilgiris. (T. Her. L. D. S.) GHAZIPUR, a municipality and district in the Varanasi (Benares) division, Uttar Pradesh, India. The town stands on the left bank of the Ganges, 45 mi. E. of Varanasi. Pop. (1961) its first

;

37,147.

The

ancient town Gadhipur was renamed Ghazipur in about a.d.

1330, traditionally after the title of a Mushm ruler. During early British rule it enjoyed great strategic significance and a canton-

ment was established; it also served as an important river port. The cantonment is occupied by the civil lines, comprising Gora bazar, a church, the mausoleum of Lord Cornwallis, viceroy of India who died there in 1805, and a college of Gorakhpur university. The town is stretched out along the high bank of the Ganges. served by two stations of the North-Eastern railway and one There is a regular bus servGhazipur is an administrative and business ice from Varanasi. centre and the headquarters of the dwindling opium department. It is

of the Eastern, on the opposite bank.

Perfume

distilling, flour

and

oil

milling

and hand-loom cloth are

local industries.

Ghazipur District (area 1,308 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 1,321,578) forms part of the great alluvial plain of the Ganges which divides it into two unequal portions. The main crops are rice, barley, gram, millets, sugar cane, wheat and opium. Being subject to frequent floods and droughts, it is a "deficit" district. (R. L. Si.) once a famous city in central Afghanistan and the seat of an extensive empire under two medieval dynasties, and now the capital town of the minor province of Ghazni, is situated on both banks of the Ghazni river on a high tableland (altitude 7,300 ft.), 224 mi. N.N.E. by road from Kandahar and 94 mi. S.S.W. from Kabul. It lies at the base of the terminal spur of a ridge of hills, an offshoot from the Gul Koh, which forms the watershed between the Arghandab and Tarnak rivers. Pop. (1960 est.)

GHAZNI,

26,000.

The old city on the left bank of the river, still completely walled and topped by a citadel used as a military fort, stands at the northern angle (about 150 ft. above the plain) next to the hills. Its high walls, built partly of stone or brick laid in mud and partly of clay built in courses, and incorporating numerous towers, present a remarkable spectacle to the observer below. This Entrance to the is the only walled town surviving in Afghanistan.

GHAZNI

386

old city which contains narrow and picturesque bazaars is through two gates. The present restricted walls could not have contained

the vaunted city of Mahmud of Ghazni; but the existing site may have formed the citadel of his city. A considerable area to the

northeast

is

covered with ruins, a vast extent of shapeless mounds

which are referred to as Old Ghazni. The most prominent remains are two remarkable towers rising to about 140 ft. and about 400 yd. apart. They are similar to each other and belong on a

Kutb Minar at Delhi. show the northern tower

smaller scale to the same class as the

Arabic have been the work of Mahmud himself and the other that of his son Mas'ud. The outline of many larger buildings can be clearly seen from air photographs. One of these, believed to be the mosque of Mas'ud, was excavated by the Italian archaeological mission inscriptions in Kufic characters

to

working on the site. The shape of the courtyard, its flagstones Several dwelling and decorative carvings are plainly visible. houses on the slope of the hill have also been excavated. In the plain to the south a prominent mound, called Tepe Sardar, has yielded interesting Buddhist remains. On the old road to Kabul, one mile beyond the minaret of Mahmud, is a village called Rowza, where lies the tomb of the famous conqueror, a prism of white marble standing on a plinth of the same material and bearing a Kufic inscription praying for the mercy of God. The tomb itself stands in a chamber covered

dome and set in a small garden. The village is surrounded by many gardens and orchards, watered by an aqueduct. Ghazni contains many other holy shrines, such as that of the poet The town Sana'i, which make it a place of MusHm pilgrimage. has a hbrary and archaeological museums (one founded in 1835) containing objects found in various excavations by French and Italian archaeologists. There are a number of elementary schools, a high school for boys, a school for girls and a cinema, and a model town was developing in the 1960s on the right bank of the river. The city, once one of the most glorious in Asia containing countless riches plundered from India by Mahmud of Ghazni, was long Its strong walls did, however, play an important role in decay. It is now an agricultural in the Afghan wars of the 19th century. and commercial centre having revived since the opening of the Kabul-Kandahar road. Many of the well-known Afghan sheepskin The chief trade is in coats {piishtin) are manufactured there. corn, fruit, madder and in the sheep's wool and camel's-hair cloth that is brought from the adjoining Hazarajat country to the north. The population consists mainly of Tadzhiks (Tajiks) though the nomadic Afghan tribe of Ghilzais lives in the surrounding villages. with a clay

(X.)

—

The city's early history is obscure and identification with the Gazaca of Ptolemy or with the Gazos of Greek poets remains conjectural. It was, however, probably the same city as the Ho-si-na of the Chinese traveler Hsiian.Tsang which, about A.D. 644, he described as the capital of Tsao-kin-to, a powerful History.

of

it

kingdom deeply influenced by Buddhism. In works by the early Arab and Persian geographers and chroniclers the area around Ghazni, called Zabulistan, was regarded as part of Hindustan and was the object in the second half of the 7th century a.d. of many abortive Arab raiding expeditions operating up the Helmand valley from their base at Zaranj in Seistan. The area of Ghazni itself was conquered by the Saffarid Yakub ibn Laith c. 871. A Persian source, the Ta'rikh-i-Sistan, actually attributes the foundation of the city to Yakub ibn Laith, but this is inconsistent not only with

the Chinese evidence, but also with that of the 10th-century PerHudiid al-'A!am.

sian geographical work, the

Ghazni's political importance in Islamic times begins with its Turk Alptigin, former captain of the

conquest, in 962, by the

guard to the Samanid amirs of Samarkand and Bukhara. Alptigin himself was seeking a refuge from his enemies at the Samanid court, but he and his successors, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, Bilkatigin Piritigin and Subuktigin acknowledged the sovereignty of the Samanids. Ghazni became completely independent with the capture in 999 of the Samanid family by the Qara-Khanids of Turkistan and under Mahmud, who reigned from 998 to 1030, rose to be the centre and the capital city of a great but, as it proved, evanescent empire stretching at its height, in varying degrees

from Lahore in the east to Ray and Isfahan and from the Oxus river (Amu-Darya) in the north to the coast of Makran in the south. It was from Ghazni that Mahmud launched his famous plundering raids into Hindustan, the loot from which was used, in part, to beautify the city. Under his son Mas'ud (1030-41) the power of Ghazni was eroded by the nomad Seljuks. After the battle of Dandanqan in 1040, Ghazni lost its possessions in Khurasan and its effective power was confined to the area of Afghanistan and the Punjab. During the reign of Bahram Shah (111 7-5 7 ) Ghazni was sacked by *Ala-ud-din (Jahansuz) of Ghor (g.v.) and never recovered the splendour which was then destroyed. Between 1161 and 1 173 it was occupied by a horde of Ghuzz Turkmen nomads while the last of the Ghaznavid rulers, Khosrau, took refuge in the Punjab. The Ghuzz were expelled by the nephews of 'Ala-ud-din Jahansuz, Ghiyath ud-din Mohammed ibn Sam and Mu"izz ud-din Mohammed ibn Sam (Mohammed of Ghor), the latter making Ghazni a headquarters between 1175 and 1206 for campaigns in Hindustan which led eventually to the foundation of the Delhi sultanate (see Delhi,

of subordination, in

the

west,

Sultanate of) The death of Mohammed ibn Sam in 1206 was followed by a struggle among his relatives and former slaves for the possession .

most notable contestants being Taj ud-din Yilduz and Qutb ud-din Aibak. In 1215, however, following Yilduz's capture by the Turkish ruler of Delhi, Iltutmish, Ghazni was occupied by the forces of the Khwarizmshah, 'Ala ud-din, who conferred it upon his son, Jalal ud-din. In 1221 it fell to the Mongols and was occupied by Genghis Khan's son, Ogadai. The seizure was not at first secure, for about 1225 Ghazni appears to have been under a Turkish chief, Sayf ud-din Hasan Qarlugh who had earlier served under the Khwarizmshah. By 1238 however, he had submitted to Ogadai but was soon expelled east of the Indus into Sind. Ghazni thereafter provided a base for occasional Mongol raids into the Punjab. After the death of Ogadai in 1241, the Mongol empire was divided, the Ghazni area going to the Il-khans in Persia. Toward the end of the 13th century they were replaced at Ghazni by the Jagatai Mongols of Transoxiana who proceeded, during the reign (1296-1316) of the Delhi sultan 'Ala ud-din Khalji, to embark on major incursions into India. In the 14th century there are few references to Ghazni, Passing through the area in 1333, the Moroccan traveler, Ibn Batutah, noted that the greater part of the city was in ruins. At the end of the 14th century, Ghazni fell under the rule of Timur (g.v., Tamerlane) whose power had replaced of Ghazni, the

that of the Jagatais in Transoxiana. In 1397 he left his grandson, Pir Mohammed, as governor of Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar before himself leading his destructive expedition into Hindustan

(1398-99).

A

century

later,

Ghazni was

still in

the possession of

a descendant of Timur, namely Ulugh-Beg, an uncle of Babur Ulugh-Beg died in 1501 and (g.ii.), the first Mogul ruler in India.

1504 Babur acquired Kabul and its then appendage, Ghazni. For more than 200 years Ghazni remained under the overlordship of the Indian Moguls. In 1738 it passed under Nadir Shah (g.v.). Under Ahmad Shah Durrani it became part of the new Afghan kingdom created by him, being occupied by Durrani's forces in

in

1747.

In 1839 Ghazni was thrust upon the attention of the western world when captured by the British under Gen. Sir John Keane. It was recaptured by the Afghans in 1842 only to be reoccupied by the British in the autumn of the same year. Ghazni and the great Ghaznavid empire of Mahmud's day again emerged into the view of the outside world with the discovery, in 1948-49 by M. D.

Schlumberger, leader of a French archaeological expedition, of the remains of Mahmud of Ghazni's palace at Lashkari-Bazar near (P. H.) Bust (Qala Bist) on the Helmand river.

Ghazni Province

lies at

the centre of the eastern frontier of

bordered northwest by Kabul province, northeast by Paktia, south by Kandahar and southeast by Pakistan. There is a mountainous region in the north, but to the south it is the country and

is

largely a bare plateau rising to the Shinkai hills in the southeast,

which is the Ab-i-Istada lake. The climate in winter is intensely cold and snow lies 2 to 3 ft. deep for about three months. Fuel consists chiefly of prickly shrubs. The sumto the north of

.

GHAZZALI—GHENT not so hot as that in Kabul or Kandahar but the evenings and constant dust storms occur. Wheat, barley, The provalfalfa and madder are grown, besides minor products. ince had an estimated population in 1960 of 790,000 ([1954 cenIn the mountains to the north of the Kabulsus] 424,221). Kandahar road, notably in the Jaghuri valley, live the Mongolian Hazaras, whereas the main part of the province is inhabited by the

mer

is

are oppressive

The largest and most powerful subtribe of the Suleiman Khel, most of whom spend their winters in Pakistan, live in the southernmost part of the province. Apart from Ghazni the most important settlements are Mashaki and Mukur; all three towns he on the Kabul-Kandahar road which Ghilzai Afghans. Ghilzais, the

traverses the province.

(X.)

See V. Minorsky's Eng. trans, and commentary on Hudud al'Alam, (1937) article "Afghanistan" in Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. i, 2nd ed. (1954-60). ;

GHAZZALI, AL-

Mohammed

sedimented protein, which still contains 50% or more of fat, may be reworked with addition of peanut oil or buffalo milk fat to make inferior grades of ghee. A major portion of the ghee consumed in India is made from buffalo butter, but only ghee made from cow's butter has reUgious or medical significance. In early Sanskrit writings ghee is said to have powers of improving a person's appearance, voice and mental powers, as well as being efficacious in disorders of the stomach and digestion. It also used to be applied externally to wounds and to diseased skin and eyes. A Hindu believes that ghee is more curative when old, and it is often kept for ten or more years; examples that were even 100 years old have been known. In the numerous rites that followers of Vishnu or of Siva must observe at different moments of their fives, the use of ghee is prescribed in almost every one at birth (ghee is a symbol of fer-

—

tility), at

the cutting of hair, at the piercing of the ear, at the

Moham-

initiation into

med AL-Tusi al-Shafii al-Ghazzali; Lat. Algazel) (10581111), Islamic theologian and philosopher, was born at Tus, 15 mi. N.W. of Meshed, of Iranian stock. In theology he belonged to the school of al-Ash'ari (g.v.), which in his time supported the Seljuk regime, and in 1091 he was appointed professor in Baghdad ay the vizier Nizam al-Mulk. After a physical and psychological :risis, he left his professorship in 1095 and spent ten years in seclusion cultivating the mystical life, first for two years in Damascus md then, after a pilgrimage to Mecca, probably again in Baghdad. He was prevailed upon by the sultan to accept a professorship at Nishapur in 1105 but soon left it and lived in retirement at Tus

gifts at death.

ivith

few

a

Most

(Abu-Hamid

ibn

disciples.

numerous works have survived, but not Several works appear to have been falsely ascribed to him (see the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 24-45, 1952). His chief book, The Revival of the Religious Sciinces (Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din), contains the insight he gained from :he crisis of 1095 and subsequent meditations, combining theoogical orthodoxy with mystical experience. Though few followed him exactly, his work partially reconciled theologians and nystics (Sufis), who had often been violently opposed to one anill

of al-Ghazzali's

have been published.

manhood, as part of the wedding sacrifices and as Images of the gods are washed in ghee and it is frequently used to light holy lamps or is thrown upon an altar fire in sacrifice. (C. C. H. F.) (Flemish Gent, Fr. Gand), the capital of East Flanders, Belg., stands at the junction of the Lys and the Scheldt. The population of the city proper was 157,811 in 1961. Including the three chief suburbs of Ledeberg, Gentbrugge and St. Amandsberg, the population was 215,624 and the total area 20 sq.mi. Ghent has retained more traces of its past than any other Belgian

GHENT

town. Among the old buildings grouped at its centre is the Gothic cathedral of St. Bavon (Sint Baafs), begun in the 12th century and finished in 1531, when the tower (262 ft.) was completed. It contains, among many works of art, the great polyptich altarpiece "The Adoration of the Lamb" by Hubert and Jan van Eyck. The original 12 panels, which had been dispersed since 1816, were eventually brought together again under the treaty of Versailles in

The

1920.

picture was

removed by the Germans

in

World War

II

but restored in 1945. Other old churches include St. Nicholas (13th century), St. Jacques (12th-14th centuries), St. Michel (lSth-17th centuries), and St. Pierre, at one time the oratory of the abbey of the

same name, which

is

also

an imposing building.

Among

other.

If al-Ghazzali

Mohammed and ihis is less

is

sometimes called the greatest Muslim after

entitled "the Proof of Islam" {Hujjat al-Islam),

for that reconciliation than for his defense of orthodoxy

propaganda of the revolutionary Isma'ili movement ind against the Arabic Neoplatonism of al-Farabi and Avicenna. \1-Ghazzali, by his own reading, mastered the logical technique of igainst the

and then,

Incoherence of the Philosophers {Tahafiit al-Falasifa), used it against their metaphysical positions (vhere these were opposed to Islamic orthodoxy. Since his time nost Islamic theology has had a Greek philosophical basis. Bibliography. For manuscripts and editions see C. Brockelmann, Geschickte der arabischen Literatur (1937). For translations, books these philosophers

in his

—

md

articles see P. J. de Menasce, "Arabische Philosophie," Biblioiraphische Einfilhriingen in das Studium- der Philosophie, part 6 (1948) The chief studies are: D. B. Macdonald, in J. Amer. Orient. Soc, vol. xx (1899) F. Jabre, article in Melanges de I'InstitiU Dominicain d'Etudes Orientales, vol. i (1954) J. Obermann, Der philosophische und religiose Subjektivismus Ghazalis (1921) A. J. Wensinck, La Pensee de Ghazzali (1940); M. Smith, Al-Ghazali: the Mystic (1945). Much of alGhazzali's Ihya is reproduced by M. Asin Palacios, La Espiritualidad ie Algazel y su sentido cristiano (1934-41) and there is an analysis and ndex edited by G. H. Bousquet (1955). W. Montgomery Watt, The "aith and Practice of al-Ghdzali (1953), includes a translation of his spiritual autobiography. The Tahafut is mostly translated in Averroes' Tahafut al-Tahafut by S. van den Bergh (1954). (W. M. Wt.) (Clarified Butter) is the most valued food in India, ;

;

;

;

GHEE

from wheat and rice. It is used not only by all classes and astes for cooking and in medicine but also by Hindus in their rehgious ceremonies. The word is derived from the Sanskrit

iipart

^hrita

387

through the Hindu

Ghee

ghi.

produced as follows: butter made from cow's milk is inelted over a slow fire and then heated slowly until the separated fvater boils. The final traces of water are removed by short, intense heating and the vessel is allowed to cool slowly. The pre:ipitated protein settles to the bottom and the semifluid, clear fat, vhich is the best ghee, is carefully decanted through cloth. The is

other notable abbeys are the abbey of St. Bavon, founded in the 7th century, and the abbey of the Byloke, with its splendid 14th-century gable. Ghent is famous for its Beguines (g.v.), the name given to members of lay sisterhoods founded in the 12th century who five One of the most atin enclosed districts known as beguinages.

Hoyen, which has enappearance. In the centre of the city stands the Belfry (14th century), a massive, rectangular construction about 300 ft. high. Its bell tower, frequently altered in the course of centuries and entirely rebuilt 1912-13, is surmounted by a gilded copper dragon, forged in Ghent in 1377. The carillon (mid-1 7th century), one of the most important in the country, is composed of 52 bells. The town hall comprises two buildings of different styles, the diversity of which is a reflection of the diversity which once reigned in the administrative and judiciary organization of the city: the Schepenhuis van de Keure (an alderman's house), which faces north, was built between 1518 and 1535 and is a magnificent example of Flamboyant Gothic; the Schepenhuis van Ghedeele (also an alderman's house), which faces east, was completed in 1620 in Renaissance style. The interior of the town hall is no less imposing, with its splendid Gothic staircase and its vast chapel. Not far away is the moated castle of the counts of Flanders ('s Gravensteen), which was begun in 1180 by Philip of Alsace in order to humble the troublesome townspeople. Restored at the beginning of the 20th century, this warlike structure with its great keep and circular walls stands in striking contrast to the buildings that surround it. Other historical buildings include the Cloth hall ( 1 4th century) the Groat Vleeshuis (meat hall, 15th century), and the castle of Gerard the Devil, built in the 13th century, which now houses state archives. Ghent is also well known for its large public squares and market places, of which the principal one is the Vrijdagmarkt (Friday market), the centre of the life of the medieval city. Of Ghent's many public tractive of these tirely

preserved

is

the Beguinage of Ter

its original

,

Iwn cliicl ones ;irc llii- I'itri -, A little sugar cane is grown and

cultivated land in

surplus of which

is

;

some

citrus

and other

fruits.

Olives are grown at

Rudbar

in the

important; formerly organized by a joint Soviet-Iranian company, it was taken over by the government in 1953. Most of the catch (sturgeon, salmon, whitefish) is exported, as is the caviar which at 100-150 tons annually is about 20% of world production. GOan proper has a few modern factories mainly for tea and rice processing; a silk mill and a kanaf Safid

Rud

valley.

Fishing

is

plant are at Rasht. Modern developments include a dam at ManjQ, at the upper entrance of the Safid Rud gorge, designed for irrigation and electric power. Land use in Zanjan and Arak is of the

highland t>-pe. grazing and dr>^ farming (wheat, barley) prevailing in Zanjan, irrigated cropping and fruit growing in Arak. The capital and the main commercial centre of the ostan is Rasht; other centres in Gilan proper are Lahijan (19,895),

Langarud (14,580) and Bandar-e Pahlavi (31,328), the busiest of the Caspian ports of Iran. Zanjan (47,199) and Arak (58,929) are the centres of their respective districts and important stations on the Transiranian railway and its branch to Azerbaijan.

—

BiBLioGR-^PHY. H. L. Rabino, Les provinces caspiennes de la Perse. Le Guilan (1917), reprinted from Revue du Monde musulman, vol. xxxii; Pro\-inces of Persia," J. B. L. Xoel, "A Reconnaissance in the Caspian Geogr. Journal (June 1921) L. S. Fortescue, "The Western Elburz and Persian .\zerbaijan," Geogr. Journal, bdii (1924) and "Les provinces caspiennes de la Perse," La Geographie, xliii (1925) H. Bobek, "Die Landschaftsgestaltung des Siid-Kaspiscben Kiistentieflands," Festschrift (H. Bo.) y. Krebs (1936). ;

;

The Gila river rises in southwest New Mexico Grand and Catron counties near the Gila Cliff Dwellings NaThe river. 630 mi. long, flows west-southwest tional monument.

GILA RTVER.

rivers.

(M.

GILBERT, SAINT,

Sempringham

of

J.

L.)

1083-1189), founder of the Gilbertines, the only medieval religious order of EnglisTi origin, was born at Sempringham in Lincolnshire. He studied in France, was ordained in 1123 and was presented by his father to the lixing of Sempringham. In 1131 he succeeded his father as lord of the manor. The new religious order began there by his giving a rule of life, inspired by the Benedictine rule as interpreted by Citeaux, to seven girls, his parishioners, who w-ere under his spiritual direction. To perform the hea%'y work and cultivate the fields, he formed a number of labourers into a society of brothers attached to the convent, like the conversi of Citeaux. There were also ser\-ing nuns in the domestic offices, and later a (c.

fourth division, ministering to the others, of priests and clerics, followed, as canons regular, the rule of St. Augustine. Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, favoured Gilbert's work and helped him to find resources. Similar establishments sprang up elsewhere and

who

them incorporated in the Cistercian order Gilbert received papal encouragement to continue as before. The order of Sempringham was double, the communities of men and of women living side by side but separately, the property belonging to the nuns and the superior of the canons being the head There were also houses for canons of the whole estabUshment, GUbert died at only, all under the master of Sempringham.

after failing, in 1147, to get

Sempringham in 1189, on Feb. 4, his feast day from the very beginning and his date in the Roman martyrology (though the dioceses of Nottingham and Northampton keep the feast on Feb. 16), and was canonized in 1202. The order never spread beyond England, except for one Scottish house. At the dissolution, there were 2S monasteries.

—

BiBLlOGR-\PHY. Between Oct. 13, 1202, and July 13, 1205, a canon, the sacrist of Sempringham, probably Ralph de Lille, gathered a whole dossier on Gilbert including a formal life (printed in W. Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. \i, part 2, 1830; 2nd ed. 1846), miracles and cprrespondence about the canonization, etc. some are printed in Dugdale, the rest by R. ForeviUe, L'n Proces de canonisation a I'aube du siecle. Le Livre de Saint Gilbert de Sempringham (1943). See also R. Graham, St. Gilbert of Sempringham and the Gilbertines (1901); D. Knowles, The Monastic Order in England, pp. 205-207 (1949) D. Knowles and R. X. Hadcock, Medieval Religious Houses, England and (Pl. On.) Wales, pp. 122-125 (1953). ;

XIW

;

GILBERT, SIR ALFRED

(1854-1934), British sculptor and is the "Eros" memorial fountain in Piccadilly Circus, London, was bom in London on Aug. 12, 1854. His first training in art was at Heatherley's art school, London, and he also studied at the Royal Academy schools and under From 1875 to 1878 he attended the Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm. ficole des Beaux- Arts in Paris under P. J. Cavelier. He then went to Italy, where he produced his first important works, including "The Kiss of Victor>-" and "Perseus Arming." In 1884 he returned to England and his "Icarus,"' commissioned by Lord Leighton, was exhibited at the Royal Academy that year. In 1885 Gilbert began the memorial (known as "Eros") to the philanthropic earl of Shaftesbury, which was unveiled in 1893. In iSSS he produced the statue of Queen Victoria at Winchester and also made the first sketches for the silver gilt and enamel mayoral

goldsmith, whose best-known

work

chain for Preston, a good example of his talent for delicate craftsIn 1S92 he was elected royal academician and began his memorial to the duke of Clarence (one of his most important

in

manship.

dr>' desert land of southwestern United States into the Colorado river at Yuma, Ariz, (elevation 141 ft.). Near Clifton, Ariz., the Gila receives its main charge of water from the San On the San Carlos Indian reservation, near Francisco river. Globe, Ariz., the Gila is dammed by the Coolidge dam completed in 1928. The dam's capacity is 1,250,000 ac.ft. of water, which is used for irrigation in the Casa Grande valley. From Coohdge dam the river flows west about 125 mi. to a point 20 mi. W. of Phoenix, where it receives the Salt river, its major tributarv* from the northRoosevelt dam on the Salt and Coolidge dam on the Gila east. store all available surface water and the Gila river bed is a dry, desolate, barren wasteland to its confluence with the Colorado

works), which was placed in the Albert chapel, St. George's, Windsor. In 1904 he became bankrupt and settled in Bruges, Belg., where he remained until 1926 when, at the wish of King George V. he returned to England to finish the Clarence memorial. Gilbert's last important work was the Queen Alexandra memorial opposite St. James's palace, London, unveiled in 1932. in which year he was knighted, Gilbert died in London on Nov. 4, 1934. (R. Gs.)

over the hot,

GILBERT, CASS the

(1859-1934), U.S. architect, designer

Woolworth skyscraper and

the U.S.

supreme court

of

building,

at Zanes\ille. O.. on Nov. 24, 1859. He studied at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in 1883 began his career as

was born

GILBERT moved to New York. He jecame most widely known as the architect of the Woolworth building in New York (1913), which, with its 60-story tower rising to a height of 792 ft., lacily ornamented in modified Gothic, is He regarded as one of the best designed of early skyscrapers. in architect in St. Paul, Minn., but later

jtilized the neoclassical style characteristic of the national capital

treasury annex (1919) and the supreme court building (completed 193Sj in Washington, D.C. for the

Gilbert's other buildings include the

Paul; the Endicott building, the

3t.

Minnesota

state capitol at

Dayton avenue church and

St. Paul; the U.S. customhouse York; the Brazer building and the Suffolk Savings bank in Boston; Art building and Festival hall (for the Louisiana Purchase exposition and the Central Public Ubrary, 3t. Louis; Ives Memorial library. New Haven (Conn.); and the Public library, Detroit. He drew the plans for the University of Minnesota and for the University of Texas. Gilbert died on St.

Clement's Episcopal church in

and the Union club.

New

)

May

17,

1934, at Brockenhurst, Eng.

GROVE KARL

(1843-1918), U.S. geologist, GILBERT, was born at Rochester, N.Y., on May 6, 1843, and graduated at the University of Rochester in 1862. He began the study of geology md in 1869 went as a volunteer assistant on the second Ohio State survey. In 1871 he was assigned to the G. M. Wheeler survey west of the 100th meridian and during his three years' service

by boat up the lower canyons of the Colothrough central Arizona and down the valley of the Gila, and again by boat down the Colorado to the Gulf of California. As a result of this trip he published two papers characterizing the basin range and plateau provinces and naming and describing ancient Lake Bonneville. He was transferred to the John Wesley Powell survey in 1875 which took him to Utah, and with the formation of the U.S. geological survey in 1879 he was made one of the six senior geologists. In 1884 he was placed in charge of the Appalachian division of geology and in 1889, upon the creation of the division of geologic correlation, he was placed at its head. After 1892 he relinquished most of his administrative duties and his position as chief geologist in order to return to the fuller study of some of his earlier problems. The Bonneville Monograph, which he himself regarded as his magnum opus, was published in 1890. His report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains, in which the intrusive igneous structure known as a laccolith (g.v.) was first described, and his History of the Niagara River (1890) were of particular importance. He had much to do with planning the federal survey's bibliographic work and the adoption of principles of nomenclature and cartography which form the basis of the survey's geologic map work. took a remarkable trip rado river,

He

by pack

train

died at Jackson, Mich., on

May

1,

1918.

See Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. xxxi, pp. 26-64 (March 1920), which includes a complete bibliography of Gilbert's publications and W. M. Davis, American Journal of Science, 4th ser., vol. xlvi, pp. 669^81 (Nov. 1918). ;

GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY

(c. 1537-1583), English soland navigator, who spent most of his life devising and carrying put projects of colonization, was the second son of Sir Otho Gilbert of Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and half brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. According to John Hooker, he was educated it Eton and Oxford. He entered the service of Princess Elizabeth

;iier

1544 or 1545. Wounded at the siege of Le Havre (1563), he concerned in 1565-66 with Anthony Jenkinson in projects for tliscovering a northward passage to Cathay, and wrote a Discourse n support of the northwestern route. Gilbert went to Ireland as a captain under Sir Henry Sidney in July 1566, but returned in November. In Dec. 1566 he put forward a proposal for an expedidon to explore the northwest passage, but abandoned it in the face

'jn

iwas

from the Muscovy company. He spent most of the ±ree years after May 1567 in Ireland, where he and other west countrymen began to elaborate projects for colonization, at first n Ulster and then in Munster. From Sept. 1569 Gilbert was in pharge of operations against the Munster rebels, whom he suppressed with great vigour and ruthlessness. He was knighted in ;1570, but his colonizing schemes fell through and he returned to

of opposition

jEngland, sitting as

member

of parliament for

Plymouth

in 1571

and again

411 in 1581.

He commanded,

with more energy than skill 1572 to assist the

or success, the English "volunteers" sent in

Netherlands' revolt against Spain. Gilbert was living at Limehouse from 1573 to 1578. He drew up an interesting plan for reforming the practice of wardship and establishing an academy in London. His interest in the northwest passage revived in 1575, and the printing of his earlier Discourse in 1576 probably encouraged the voyages of Martin Frobisher (1576-78). Gilbert did not subscribe to them, however, for he was now beginning to think of applying the ideas of colonization, evolved in Ireland, to parts of the American continent. He put forward a plan in 1577 for seizing the Spanish, Portuguese and French Newfoundland fishing fleets, occupying Santo Domingo and

Cuba and intercepting the Spain. The following year

ships that carried

the queen granted

American silver him a patent for

to six

years, in very vague terms, to discover and settle "heathen lands

not actually possessed of any Christian prince or people." He strained his means to the uttermost, even pledging the estates of his wife, Anne Aucher, of Otterden, Kent, to fit out an expedition which sailed from Dartmouth on Sept. 26, 1578. His exact objective remains obscure and his ill-equipped, ill-disciplined force broke up and drifted home or into piracy by the spring of 1579. During that summer he and some of his ships were employed against FitzMaurice's rebellion in Ireland.

Four years later, after many struggles to raise funds, he managed to equip another expedition for a more ambitious project of "western planting." He sailed from Plymouth on June 11, 1583. One of his five ships turned back on June 13, but on Aug. 3 he arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, and took possession of it in the queen's name. Moving southward with three ships, he lost the largest of them on Aug. 29 and two days later turned homeward with the "Golden Hind" (40 tons) and the "Squirrel" (10 tons). Obstinately insisting upon sailing himself in the tiny "Squirrel," he was last seen, according to Hayes, captain of the "Golden Hind," during a great tempest "sitting abaft with a book," shouting to the "Golden Hind" that, "we are as near heaven by sea as by land." In the night the "Squirrel's" lights disappeared as she, and Gilbert with her, were "swallowed up of the sea." See D. B. Quinn, The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Gilbert, 2 vol. (1940). (R. B. Wm.)

Humphrey

GILBERT, SIR JOHN

('1817-1897), English painter and works of Shakespeare and other dramatists, both English and foreign, was born at Blackheath, London, on July 21, 1817. He received some rudimentary training from the still-life painter George Lance, and in 1837 began exhibiting oils of historical and romantic subjects at the British institution. From 1838 he sent regularly (except for a break of 16 years) to the Royal Academy, becoming a full academician in 1876. A prolific watercolourist, Gilbert became an associate of the Old Water Colour society in 1852, a full member in 1854 and president in 1871, shortly after which he was knighted. His imaginative designs enhanced the popularity of the Illustrated London News, his drawings being notable for their breadth of scale and dramatic chiaroscuro. He died at Blackheath on Oct. 5, 1897. (D. L. Fr.) GILBERT, (1832-1885), U.S. surgeon and transit expert who played a major role in the development of rapid transit in New York city, was bom in Guilford, N.Y., Jan. 26, 1832. He attended the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York city and then served as a surgeon in the Union army in the Civil War. He had become interested in the development of illustrator ot the

RUFUS HENRY

rapid transit in large cities as a means of allowing movement of population from crowded downtown tenements, with their high in-

cidence of illness, and left the army to pursue that work. After gaining experience with the Central Railroad of New Jersey, he incorporated the Gilbert Electric Railway company in 1872 to build elevated lines in New York utilizing pneumatic tubes set on ele-

vated structures, with cars propelled by air pressure in the tubes. Financing difficulties prevented construction until 1876, however, and forced adoption of the more conventional type of elevated railroad, with trains drawn by steam locomotives. The Sixth avenue line, from Trinity church to Central park, was completed and placed in operation in April 1878. But financiers forced Gilbert

— 4-12

from the company and he died July 10, 1S8S, broken financially, phvsicallv and mentally. (J. F. D.) Gylberdek (1544-1603), the most

GILBERT

WILLIAM

(

man

in England during the reign of was a member of an ancient Suffolk family, long resident in Clare, and was born on May 24, 1544, at Colchester, where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder. Educated at

distinguished

—

GILBERT—GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS

Queen Elizabeth

of

science

I,

Colchester school, he entered St. John's college, Cambridge, in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due course, graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected a senior fellow of his college. He traveled in Europe, and in 1573 settled in London, where he practised as a physician. He was ad-

mitted to the College of Physicians probably about 1576, and he held several important offices. In 15S9 he was one of the committee appointed to superintend the preparation of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis which the college in that year decided to issue, but which did not actually appear until 1618. In 1601 Gilbert was appointed physician to Queen Elizabeth I, with the usual emolument of £100 a year. On the death of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her successor; but he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died on Dec. 10 (new style; Nov. 30, old style), 1603, either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the latter to^mi, in the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a monument was erected to his memor>'. To the College of Physicians he left his books, globes, instruments and minerals, but they were destroyed in the Great Fire of London. Gilbert's principal work is his treatise on magnetism {q.v.), entitled De magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magna magnete tellure (London, 1600; later editions Stettin, 1628, 1633; Frankfurt, 1629, 1638). This work, which embodied the results of many years' research, was distinguished by its strict adherence to the scientific method of investigation by experiment, and by the originality of its matter. It contains an account of the author's experiments on magnets and magnetic bodies and on electrical attractions, and also his great conception that the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and that it is this which explains, not only the direction of the magnetic needle north and south, but also the dipping or inclination of the needle. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited by his brother from two manuscripts; its title is De mundo nostra stibhinari philosophia nova (1651). He was also the first advocate of Copernican \iews in England, and he concluded that the fixed stars are not all at the same distance from the earth.

—

GILBERT, SIR WILLLA.M

SCHWENCK

(1836-1911),

by Madame de Genlis (q.v.). The result was by Kendal in November at the Hay-I market. This was followed in 1871 by Pygmalion and Galatea, an(J in 1873 by The Wicked World, and The Happy Land, written inj verite, the novel

The Palace

tures

inclined

over the signature of "Bab." These were collected in 1869 under the title of Bab Ballads, followed by More Bab Ballads (1873).

The two collections and Songs ume issued in 1898.

of a Savoyard were united in a vol-

Early in Dec. 1866 the dramatist T, W. Robertson (q.v.) was asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St. James's theatre, to find someone who could turn out a bright Christmas piece in a fortnight, and suggested Gilbert who promptly produced Dulcamara or the Little Duck and the Great Quack, a burlesque of L'Elisire d'amore, written in ten days, rehearsed in a week and duly performed at Christmas. He sold the piece outright for £30, a rash action which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial success. In 1870 he was commissioned by J. B. Buckstone to write a blank verse fairy comedy, based upon Le Palais de la

Gilbert's next dramatic ven^^ conventional pattern Sweethearts

Tom Cobb (St. James's, 7, 1874) Broken Hearts (Court, Dec. 17, 1875); Dan'l Druce (Haymarket, Sept. 11, 1876); and Engaged (Haymarket, Oct. 3, 1877). Gretchen, a verse drama in four acts, appeared ini' 1879 and a one-act piece, called Comedy atid Tragedy, was produced

;

i

Lyceum on Jan. 26, 1884. Two dramatic trifles of were Foggerty's Fairy (1881) and Rozenkrantz and

at the

later date

Giiildenstern (1891).

In the autumn of 1870 the composer Fred Clay introduced bert to Arthur Sullivan and they started to

The

work together

Gil-

in the

two comic operas. Thespis, or the Gods and Trial by Jury (Royalty. March 25, 1875) were followed by four productions at the Ofwra Comiqu©^ —The Sorcerer (Nov. 17, 1877); H.M.S. Pinafore, or The Last' That Loved a Sailor (May 25, 1878) The Pirates of Penzance, or The Slave of Duty (April 3, 1880) and Patience, or Bunthorne's Bride (April 23, 1881). In Oct. 1881 Patience was moved to a new theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the GObert and Sullivan operas by Richard D'Oyly Carte {q.v.). Patience was followed on Nov. 25. 1882. by lolanthe, or The Peer and the Peri; and on Jan. 5, 1884, by Princess Ida, or Castle Adamant, a recast of The Prirt' cess, a fantasia which Gilbert had wTitten in 1870 and had then described as a "respectful per\'ersion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the operas The Mikado, or The Toum of Titipu (March 14, that followed 1885); Ruddigore, or The Witch's Curse (Jan. 22, 1887); The Yeomen of the Guard (Oct. 3, 1888) and The Gondoliers (Dec. 7, 1889). After the appearance of The Gondoliers a. coolness occurred between the composer and librettist Gilbert thought that Sulhvan had not supported him in a business disagreement mth D'Oyly Carte. But the estrangement was not final. Gilbert wrote several more librettos and of these Utopia Limited (1893) and The Grand Duke (1896) were written in conjunction with Sullivan. The music for Gilbert's last opera. Fallen Fairies (1909), was written by Edward German. His last play, The HooUga7i, was performed in following year.

first

Groii'n Old (Dec. 26, 1871) ,

;

;

;

;

1911.

Gilbert began to write in an age of rh^-med couplets, puns and

his skill

illustrations,

the

to

(Prince of Wales's theatre, Nov,

which were performed mainly at the Savoy theatre. The son of WiUiam Gilbert (himself a novehst and a descendant of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), he was bom in London on Nov. 18, 1836. Educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at King's college, London, he became a clerk in the education department of the privy council office in 1857, He had already entered the Inner Temple as a law

own humorous

more

April 24, 1875);

travesty,

tribute comic verse to Fun, \\ith his

of Truth, produced

collaboration with Gilbert a Beckett.

English playwright and humorist, best-remembered as the writer of witty librettos for the comic operas of Arthur Sullivan iq.'o.),

student in 1855; a legacy in 1861 enabled him to leave the civO ser\'ice for a legal career. He was called to the bar in Nov. 1863 and joined the northern circuit in 1866. His practice was inconsiderable, and his mihtarj' and legal ambitions were eventually satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appointment as a magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1861 he began to con-

1

and

works exhibit the facetiousness of all writers His importance lies in the fact that he turned away from these tedious arts and developed instead a genhis early

of extravaganza.

eral burlesque of contemporar>' behaviour, A different age is ignorant of many of his original targets pre-Raphaelite aesthetes, women's education. Victorian plays about Cornish pirates, or the long theatrical vogue of the "jolly jack tar"; but Gilbert's burlesque is so good that it creates its own truth. In the later works burlesque was replaced by a more ironical humour, but it is a mistake to believe that Gilbert was a satirist. None of his works are angr>'; not even Patience is designed as punishment. As a writer of words for music Gilbert is important not only because of a natural abihty for casting words in musical shapes

—

but also because he was able to suggest to his composer

many

op-

portunities for the burlesque of musical conventions.

GObert was knighted

in 1907.

a heart attack brought on

by

He

died on

sa\'ing a

May

29, 1911,

from

woman from drowning

in a

lake at Harrow Weald, Middlesex. BiBLioGR.\pHv. Sidney Dark and Rowland Grey, W. S. Gilbert: His Life and Letters (1924); Hesketh Pearson, Gilbert and Sullivan (1935); Reginald AUen, "William Schwenck Gilbert: an Anniversary Survev," Theatre Notebook, vol. xv, no. 4. (1961).

—

(T. S.; V. C. C.-B.)

GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS,

a

British

consisting of 37 coral atolls and islands spread over

colony than

more

2,000,000 sq.mi. of the western Pacific ocean. Pop. (1960 est.) Total land area 350 sq.mi. There are 16 Gilbert islands. 9 EUice islands, 8 Phoenix islands and 3 of the northern Line islands, wth Ocean Island as an outlier from the Gilbert islands. Gilbert Islands lie between 4° N, and 3° S. and between 172°

46,000.

;

I

;

GILBERT DE LA PORREE— GILBERT FOLIOT and 178° E. They are Makin or Butaritari, Little Makin, Marakei, Abaiang, Tarawa, Maiana, Abemama or Apamama, Aranuka, Kuria, Nonouti, Tabiteuea, Onotoa, Beru, Nikunau, Tamana and Arorae. Ellice (Lagoon) Islands lie between S° S. and 11° S. and between 176° E. and 180° E. This group consists of Nanumea, Niutao, Nanumanga, Nui, Vaitupu, Nukufetau, Funafuti, Nuku-

and Niulakita. Phoenix Islands are situated between 2° S. and S° S. and between 171° W. and 175° W. They are Gardner, Hull, Sydney, laelae

McKean, Phoenix,

Birnie,

Enderbury and Canton

islands, the last

two being under joint Anglo-American administration. Li7ie Islands. The three islands of this group lie between 1° N. and 5° N. and between 157° W. and 161° W. and are Fanning, Washington and Christmas islands. Ocean Island is located at 0° 52' S., 169° 35' E.

With the exception of Ocean Island, which is a coral and phosphate mass of approximately 1,500 ac. thrown up by volcanic action to a height of about 265 ft., the colony consists of low-lying coral islands

surrounded by coral

reefs, or atolls of coral islets

These are mere sandbanks and sand piled up by the action of sea and wind upon gradually subsiding coral reefs. The islands seldom rise more than 12 ft. above high water, but they are protected from heavy Most parts of the islands are seas by the outlying coral reefs. densely covered by coconut palms, and to a lesser extent by the Rainfall pandanus or screw pine, but undergrowth is scanty. ranges from 120 in. annually in the Ellice Islands and 80-100 in. in the northern Gilbert Islands to 50 in. in the Phoenix Islands and 40 in. in the southern Gilberts, the two latter groups being subject The temperature varies between 26.7° and to severe droughts. 33.9° C. (80° and 93° F.) in the shade by day and seldom drops surrounding lagoons of irregular shape. of coral detritus

below 21.1° C. (70° F.) at night. Nikunau was discovered by Commodore John Byron in 1765; others of the Gilbert Islands by the British shipmasters Thomas Gilbert and John Marshall in 1788; and the remainder by the masters of trading vessels (usually British) between 1799 and 1824. Some of the Ellice Islands were probably seen by the Spanish explorer Alvaro de Mendaiia in 1568 and 1595 and by his compatriot Francisco Maurelle in 1781 the others were discovered by trading or whaling vessels between 1809 and 1825. Some of the Phoenix Islands were also sighted by the early Spanish navigators and others discovered in the early 19th century. Christmas Island is believed to have been sighted in 1537 by Hernando de Grijalva and was charted by James Cook in 1777. The other Line ;

1798 by Edmund Fanning in the U.S. trading vessel "Betsey." Great Britain established a protectorate over the Gilbert and Ellice groups in 1892 and annexed them as a colony at the request of the native governments in 1915. The Phoenix Islands, peopled by emigrants from the Gilberts, were

islands

were discovered

in

included in the colony in 1937.

The Japanese

seized the Gilberts

Dec. 1941 and Ocean Island the next year. They were expelled from the Gilberts by Allied forces in 1943 and from Ocean Island in 1945. (See World War II The War in the Pacific.) The people in the Gilbert Islands are Micronesians, while the smaller number of Ellice islanders are Polynesians. The people live in villages of native huts built of coconut and pandanus timbers thatched with pandanus leaves. Most of them are Christians, [having been converted from their former paganism and sorcery cults. There are about 300 Europeans in the whole colony. Government, under the direction of the British high commissioner for the western Pacific, is exercised by a resident commissioner assisted by four district commissioners. The administrative There is a native centre, formerly Ocean Island, is now Tarawa. advisory body which holds a biennial conference, and each inhab;ited island has a native government under a visiting European administrative officer. Education is compulsory up to the age of jl6 and there are many primary and a few secondary schools, [mostly run by the missionary societies. There is a large central [hospital on Tarawa, and each inhabited island has a native hospital. Exports from the colony normally exceed £1,000,000 annually, of which more than half is accounted for by the high-grade phosin

:

413

phate rock which is mined on Ocean Island by native labour and of which about 300,000 tons are exported annually by the British Phosphate commission. The only other export is copra, gathered from the scattered islands and shipped from Tarawa. Most families engage in subsistence fishing. Imports, largely from Australia and New Zealand, consist chiefly of cotton goods, fuel oils, tobacco, soap, building materials and foodstuffs. Apart from Ocean Island, trading is in the hands of native co-operative societies and a government-controlled wholesale co-operative society. The islands are off the normal shipping routes, and interisland communications are maintained by a few small vessels owned by the government, Mails into and out the co-operative society and the missions. of the colony are usually carried by ships visiting Ocean Island for Apart from Ocean Island, the ports of entry are phosphate. Tarawa, Funafuti and Fanning and Christmas islands. A central radio station at Tarawa maintains contact with branch stations Canton Island has an international airport in the other islands.

on the southern route from North America to Fiji, Australia and New Zealand, while Fanning Island has a relay station on the transpacific cable from Australasia to Canada.

—

Bibliography. C. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, 1832^2 (1845) C. Hedley et at., A General Account of the Atoll of Funafuti (1897) F. henwood, Pastels From the Pacific (1917) P. S. Allan, Stewart's Handbook of the Pacific Isles (1923) Gilbert and Sir Harry Luke, Ellice Islands Colony Blue Book, 1940-41 (1944) From a South Seas Diary (1945) Sir Arthur Grimble, A Pattern of Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (biennial report, Islands (1952) (G, H. Ea.) H.M.S.O.). ;

;

;

;

;

;

^

GILBERT DE LA PORREE

(c. 1075-1154), scholastic and theologian, was imbued with Platonic reaUsm and famihar with Aristotehan logic. After studies under Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of Laon, he taught for several years at Chartres, where he became chancellor. About 1139 he went to Paris to lecture "on logical and divine subjects," and in 1142 he became bishop of his native Poitiers. Although accused by Ber-

logician

nard. of Clairvaux of heretical doctrines concerning the Trinity, Gilbert escaped formal condemnation at the Council of Reims (1148) by agreeing to correct his writings. Proceeding from the idea that the conceptual universal is prior to the actual individual,

he attempted to compromise between Plato and Aristotle in the controversy over universals. According to Gilbert, "native forms" are created examples of an eternal exemplar in the mind of God, while there is a distinction between the "subsistence" or common essence that makes beings members of a class and the "substance" that makes them particular individuals. As applied to the Trinity Boethius, Gilbert's tendency to identify in his Commentary on .

.

.

the logical and ontological led him to distinguish between an abstract divine nature ( Deltas or Divinitas) and the actual God of Three Persons (Dens or Trinitas). This and similar conclusions

were rejected formulas.

at

Reims

as contrary to generally accepted doctrinal

Gilbert apparently also wrote

distinguishes

among

The Six

Principles,

which

the ten categories of Aristotle four essential

ones and six subsidiary ones, and comments upon treatise enjoyed great authority during the middle said works and various scriptural commentaries vol. Ixiv and clxxxviii of J. P. Migne's Patrologia

are published in latina.

(D. D.

GILBERT FOLIOT

This His afore-

the latter. ages.

McG.)

1188), bishop of Hereford and of London, is first mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was called in 1136 to plead the cause of the empress Matilda against Stephen (q.v.) at the Roman court. Shortly afterward he became (d.

I

prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house dependent

upon

In 1 139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesiastical point of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot proved himself a valuable ally of the empress, and her ablest controversialist. GilHe was respected at Rome and bert's reputation grew rapidly. He in 1148 was nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford. Cluny.

w-as an

Angevin

at heart,

and after 1154 was treated by Henry II

with every mark of consideration. He was Thomas Becket's rival for the primacy, and the only bishop who protested against the Becket endeavoured to win his friendship by proking's choice. But Gilbert evaded curing for him the see of London (1163).

GILD— GILDING

414

the profession of obedience to the primate, and apparently aspired On the questions to make his see independent of Canterbury. raised by the Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.) he sided with the

whose confessor he had now become. He urged Becket to when this ad\ice was rejected, encouraged his fellow bishops to repudiate the authority of the archbishop. Gilbert was twice excommunicated by Becket. but on both these and other occasions he showed great dexterity in detaching the pope from It was chiefly due to his influence that the cause of the exile. Henr}' avoided an open conflict \A'ith Rome of the kind which John afterward provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops whose excommunication in 1170 provoked the king's knights to murder Becket, but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence with the king and among his fellow bishops. king,

yield and,

—

Bibliography. Gilbert's letters were edited by J. \. Giles in Patres Materials for the History oj Ecclesiae Anglicanae, 2 vol. (1845). Thomas Becket, ed. by J. C. Robertson, "Rolls Series" (1875-85) K. Norgate, England Under the Angevin Kings (1887) D. Knowles, The Episcopal Colleagues of Archbishop Thomas Becket (1951). (H. W. C. D.) ;

;

GILD:

see Guild.

GILDAS

(GiLDUs)

(d.

570?), British saint, author of the De ("The Ruin of Britain"), one of

excidio et conquestu Britanniae

the few sources for the confused and uncertain history of Britain

was born,

in the 6th centur>% in Strathclyde.

He probably

biography

to

be trusted,

studied under St. Illtyd in

Pembroke-

if

a late

is

journey to Ireland: an alleged visit to Rome is hardly credible. He certainly founded a monaster^' in Brittany, called after him St. Gildas de Rhuys. near which he is said to have died. Gildas' own writings mention Maelgwn. king of Anglesey (d. c. 547), as still alive; but a certainly corrupt sentence in chapter 26 of the De excidio cannot be used to date his o-s\-n birth. Fragments of correspondence, a penitential manual and a magical poem (called Lorica) against attacks from demons have been attributed to him. the last probably wrongly. His most famous work, however, is the De excidio, a historical and moralistic tract. It is written in ver\- euphuistic. but for the time and the place remarkably grammatical. Latin, and catalogues the sins of five British kings who can be located in Cornwall and Wales, and of priests generally. The charges are supported by a mass of scriptural quotations of some value as their text is not that of the Vulgate. These denunciations are preceded by a summary of British history up to the battle of Mons Badonicus (c. 500). It is the earliest authority for the British appeal to the Roman general shire

and made

a

the letter called the "Groans of the Britons." sent probably between 446 and 453; for the invitation of the English by the British king Vortigem (though names are not given), and

Aetius,

i.e.,

Mons Badonicus

connection with which Ambrosius Aurelianus is mentioned but not Arthur. Gildas conto be "slaughtered sidered that the Britons deserved their fate in heaps" or forced into emigration. Since the historical summary of the De excidio seems to date for the battle of

itself, in

—

the building of both Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall (gq.v.) have tended to dismiss it as valueless.

to about A.D. 400. historians

But

it

is

possible to argue that Gildas

was making a blundering

effort to correlate certain casual references to Britain in continental

sources such as Orosius with native traditions of some value.

—

Gildas' works (excluding Lorica) are ed. by T. the Monumenla Germaniae historica series, Chronica minora, vol. iii (1898) and (including Lorica) with Eng. trans, by H. Williams, Gildae de excidio Britanniae, "Cymmrodorion Record Series," vol. iii (1899-1901). The historical portions of the De excidio have been trans, bv A. W. Wade-Evans, Nennius (1938). See also C. F. C. Hawkes, "the Jutes of Kent," in D. B. Harden (ed.), DarkAge Britain (1956) C. E. Stevens, "Marcus, Gratian, Constantine," P. Grosjean, "Notes d'hagiographie Athenaeum, vol. xxxv (1957) Celtique," Analecta Bollandiana, vol. Ixxv (1957); C. E. Stevens, "Gildas sapiens," English Historical Review, vol. Ivi (1941). (C. E. S.)

Bibliography.

Mommsen

in

;

;

GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU

(1S31-1924),

U.S. philologist, who was recognized by many as the greatest classical scholar in .\merica, was born in Charleston, S.C., on Oct. 22, 1831. He studied at Princeton, Berlin, Bonn and Gottingen, was professor at the University of Virginia from 1856 to 1876, and in

1876 became professor of Greek at the newly founded Johns HopIn 1880 The American Journal of Philology was established under his editorial charge, and he contributed many articles, particularly on grammar. He published a Latiji Grammar (1867) marked by lucidity of But his bent was order and mastery of grammatical theory. toward Greek. He edited The Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar 1885) with a brilliant and valuable introduction. His edito use his own tion of The Apologies of Justin Martyr (1877) words he used unblushingly as a repository' for his sj-ntactical formulas. A collection. Essays and Studies, Educational and Literary, appeared in 1890. His mastery of Greek syntax could scarcely be equaled, though unfortunately he did not cover the field thoroughly; the largest portion is in his Syntax of Classical Greek From Homer to Demosthenes ivnih C. W. E. Miller, Part I, 1900; Part II, 1911). He died in Baltimore. Md., on Jan. 9, 1924. (S. Lx.) GILDING, the art of decorating wood, metal, plaster, glass or other objects with a covering or design of gold in leaf or powder form. The term also embraces the similar appHcation of silver, palladium, aluminum and copper alloys. The earliest of historical peoples had masterly gilders, as evidenced by the overlays of thin gold leaf on the royal mummy cases and furniture of ancient Egj^jt. From early times, the Chinese ornamented wood, pottery and textiles with beautiful designs in gold. The Greeks not only gilded wood, masonry and marble sculpture but also fire-gilded metal by applying a gold amalgam to it and driving off the mercury with heat, leaving a coating of gold on the metal surface. From the Greeks the Romans acquired the art that made their temples and palaces resplendent with brilliant gilding. Extant examples of ancient gilding reveal that the gold was appUed to a ground prepared with chalk or marble dust and an animal kins university, from which he retired in 1915.

,

{

—

—

size or glue.

Beating mint gold into leaves as thin as r^^o.txxi '^^- ^* "^""^ by hand although machines are utilized to some extent After being cut to a standard 3| in. square, the leaves are packed between the tissue paper leaves of small books, ready for the gild{See also Goldbeating.) er's use. The many substances to which the gilder can apply his art, and the novel and beautiful effects he can produce, may require largely

his methods and materials. however, are pertinent to all types of For example, the ground to be gilded must be carefully

special modifications

and applications of

(Certain basic procedures, gilding.

prepared by priming. Flat paints, lacquers or sealing glues are used, according to the nature of the ground material. Metals subject to corrosion may be primed, and protected, by red lead or iron oxide paints.

With

pencil or chalk the gilder lays out his design

on the ground after the ground has been prepared and is thoroughly dry. Patterns may also be laid down by pouncing powdered chalk or dry pigment through paper containing perforations made with pricking wheels mounted on swivels the swivel arrangement permits the attainment of the most intricate of designs. To create an adhesive surface to which the gold will be securely held, the area to be gilded is sized. A variety of sizes and appropriate brushes for applying them are available to the gilder. The substances used include oils, glues, varnishes, commercially prepared iapanner's gold sizes and water size; the latter consists of isinglass or gelatin in aqueous solution and is used particularly in connection with gilding on glass. The type of size used depends on the kind of surface to be gilded and on whether it is desirable ^^'hen the size has dried for the size to dry quickly or slowly, enough so that it just adheres to the fingertips it is ready to receive and retain the gold leaf or powder. Gold leaf may be rolled onto the sized surface from the tissue book. Generally, however, the gilder holds the book firmly in his left hand with the tissue folded back to expose as much leaf as is needed and detaches that amount with a pointed tool, such as a sharpened skewer. He then picks up the leaf segment with his gilder's tip, a brush of camel's hair set in a thin cardboard holder, ;

and carefully transfers

it

to its place in his design.

The

leaf

is

held to the tip by static electricity, which the gilder generates by brushing the tip gently over his hair. For some gilding opera-

•

GILDO— GILES This tions the gilder uses a cushion to hold his pieces of leaf. that is is a rectangular piece of wood, about 9 x 6 in. in size,

415

with the changing fortunes of Israel and its enemies. Ammon was located southeast of Gilead, generally east of the north-south

Jabbok river. However, when Ammon was prosexpanded to include good sections of southern Gilead. Moab, usually well to the south, also on occasion occupied southern Gilead. Gilead likewise felt the shock of Syrian onslaughts and the

padded with flannel and covered with dressed calfskin; a parchment shield around one end protects the delicate leaf from disturbance by drafts of air. When the gilding is completed, the leafcovered area should be pounced with a wad of soft cotton of

section of the

surgical grade.

Rubbing with cotton burnishes the gold to a high Application of a gilder's burnisher, i.e., a highly polished agate stone set in a handle, also imparts a fine, high finish to the metal. Loose bits of gold, or skewings, may be removed from the finished work with a camel's hair brush. Leaf gold may be powdered by being rubbed through a fine-mesh

rolling tide of Assyrian invasion; Tiglath-pileser III established

lustre.

the Assyrian province of Gal'azu (Gilead) about 733 B.C.

Powdered gold is so costly, however, that bronze powders sieve. have been substituted almost universally for the precious metal. Thin pieces of bronze, usually of the type comprised of copper and zinc, may be very finely flaked by being struck on an anvil by hammers that rise by cam action and fall by gravity, rotating on their axes as they fall to exert a burnishing as well as a flaking Bronze powders are produced in a variety action on the metal. of colours, including various shades of gold. Metallic powders may be pounced on a sized surface with a soft material such as velvet or plush, or they may be combined with a lacquer or with a chemical base and then apphed as metallic paint. A finishing coat of clear lacquer prevents discoloration of the metallic surface

When

gold leaf

is

by oxidation. employed in the

gilding of

domes and the

roofs

(E. L. Y.) used in ribbon form. GILDO, the name of a Moorish potentate who rebelled against Rome in a.d. 397-398. He had in 375 helped the Romans to crush As a reward he was eventually appointed his brother Firmus. count of Africa and master of the soldiers. He refused to help Theodosius I in his struggle with the usurper Eugenius, and in 397 he prevented the African grain ships from sailing to Rome. The senate declared Gildo a public enemy and in the spring of 398 sent a force to Africa under the command of Mascezel, a brother of Gildo. Little effort was required to crush the rebel; between Theveste (Tebessa, in northeastern Algeria) and Ammaedara (Haidra in Tunisia) Gildo's forces, said to number 70,000, melted away. Their leader tried to escape by sea but was driven [ashore at Thabraca (Tabarka, on the north coast) and executed. jThe swiftness of Mascezel's victory was unwelcome to Stilicho, at that time the effective ruler of the west; and when Mascezel was of buildings,

it is

drowned shortly after his return to Italy, Stilicho was believed to have had him murdered. Gildo's property was so vast that after his death the Roman government had to appoint a special ofiicial to administer it. The war against Gildo forms the subject of one of the poems of Claudian, in which the achievements of Mascezel are played down. E. A. T.) GILEAD, an area of ancient Palestine east of the Jordan river, corresponding to the northwestern sector of the modern kingdom of Jordan. The region is bounded in the north by the Yarmuk river and in the southwest by what were known in ancient times as the "plains of Moab." It is about 35 mi. long from north to south and 25 mi. from east to west. To the east there is no definite (

boundary. The decreasing rainfall gradually makes cultivation iand finally even grazing impossible. It is a highland area, averaging 2,500 ft. and reaching over 3,300 ft. in the "Gilead dome." I

1

Gilead river I

{

is

divided into northern and southern sections by the Jabbok az Zarqa the valley of which is deep and steep-sided.

Nahr

)

,

rainfall and heavy summer dew. included rich forest areas, fine grazing lands

;The territory receives excellent In ancient times

'

'

I

!

it

and good vineyard and grain districts. Sometimes "Gilead" is used in a wider and more general sense for all the region east of the Jordan river. The first appearance of the name Gilead is in the account of the last meeting of Jacob and Laban, in "the hill country of Gilead" (Gen. xxxi, 21-22). After Israel had defeated Sihon and Og, the tribes of Reuben and Gad were attracted by the good grazing land there, so this area

was assigned to them and to the halfManasseh. Reuben was in the south, Gad in the centre and half-Manasseh in the north, although the boundaries, uncertain in any case, fluctuated with the relative strengths of the tribes and tribe of

perous,

it

Gideon swept back the hosts of Midian apparently on the soil Jephthah the Gileadite smote the Ammonites from Aroer to Minnith (Judg. xi, 33) and then, using the key word shibboleth, detected and slaughtered the Ephraimites at the fords of the Jordan (Judg. xii). In Gilead, Saul's son Ishbosheth was made king by Abner. To Gilead fled Absalom from the anger of his father, David, as did David later flee from Absalom. Gilead was the home of Elijah, and Jesus at least twice visited the area of Peraea, the land beyond the Jordan. There are extensive remains in Gilead from Roman and later periods. The "balm of Gilead" is probably to be identified with mastic, the resin furnished by Pistachia lentiscus; it is mentioned in the (E. D. Gr.) Amarna tablets (14th century B.C.). GILES, SAINT, patron of Saint-Gilles, a town in southern France {departement of Gard) on the site of an ancient abbey claiming his relics and protected by Charlemagne. One of the 14 Holy Helpers, or auxiliary saints, Giles was venerated throughout Europe as patron of cripples, beggars and blacksmiths; and pilof Gilead (Judg. viii).

grims to his tomb contributed much to the prosperity of the medieval town and abbey. The saint's symbols, the hind and arrow, refer to famous but conflicting legends based upon a 10th-century uncritical biography which claims that he, a young Athenian aristocrat, after visiting St. Caesarius of Aries (d. 543), lived as a hermit until wounded by Flavins, king of the Goths, who was pursuing a hind that had fled to Giles for safety. Later Flavins built an abbey, making Giles abbot. His feast day is Sept. i. See F. Brittain, Saint Giles (1928); H. Thurston and D. Attwater, Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. iii, pp. 457-458 (1956). (A. B. Wr.)

GILES

OF

(Lat. Aegidius Romanus) (c. 1245-1316), and philosopher, known honorifically as doctor

Rome

Italian theologian

The intellectual ("the best-grounded teacher"). leader of the Augustinian hermits, Giles was probably a pupil of Thomas Aquinas in Paris, and for eight years refused to submit

fundatissimits

condemnation of Aquinas' philosophical docwas general of his order from 1292 to 1295 and archbishop of Bourges from 1295 to 1316. Developing in an original way Augustinian and Thomistic doctrines, he maintained that God's existence is both directly evident to the human mind and demonstrable from sense experience; that essence and existence are distinct (his polemic with Henry of Ghent became famous), both being "things" at the same level, that is, by participation in God's ideas and in God's existence respectively; and that the pope must have direct political power over the whole of mankind. His vast literary production includes commentaries on Aristotle, on the De causis, on Peter Lombard's Sentences and on parts of the Bible; theological works (Qiiodlibeta and Theoremata, notably the Theoremata de esse et essentia, ed. by E. Hocedez to the ecclesiastical

Giles

trines (1277).

[1930]); political treatises (De ecclesiastica potestate against IV of France, ed. by R. Scholz [1929], and the very popular De regimine principwn); and Errores philosophorum, edited by Riedl (1955). Numerous J. Koch, with English translation by J. editions of collected and individual works of Giles appeared in the Philip

15th, 1 6th and 17th centuries; for a catalogue see G. Bruni, Le opere di Egidio Romano (1936).

—

E. Hocedez, introduction to the Theoremata de esse B. Geyer, Die patristische und scholastische Phiessentia (1930) E. Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy losophie, new ed. (1951) (I/- M.-Po.) in the Middle Ages, Eng. trans. (1955)

Bibliography.

et

;

;

PETER

(1860-1935), Scottish comparative philoloEmmanuel college, Cambridge, from 1911 until his death, was born near Aberdeen on Oct. 20, i860. He was educated at the local parish school, the University of Aberdeen, Freiburg im Breisgau, and Gonville and Caius college, Cambridge,

GILES,

gist,

who was master

where he took

of

a first class in the classical tripos,

won

a large

num-

;

GILGAL—GILGAMESH

4i6

ber of scholarships (including two for New Testament and international law) and was appointed reader in comparative philology in the university in 1891. He was the author of a Short Manual of Comparative Philology jor Classical Students (1895) and of many

works of reference.

articles in

managed the

of strict integrity, Giles

Emmanuel college in a businesslike way and Cambridge by securing only good appointments

affairs of

raised its status in

among

A man

its fellows.

He

died on Sept. 17, 193S, at Cambridge.

See an appreciation by J.

Whatmough

in

Word

Study, vol. 30, no.

pp. 1-3 (1954).

(J.

1,

Wh.)

GILGAL

("stone circle"), the name of several places in western Palestine (modern Jordan and Israel) mentioned in the Old

The most important

Testament.

is

that

located near Jericho

which served as an encampment for the 12 tribes upon entry into Palestine. Josephus recorded that it was ten stadia and Jerome that it was two Roman miles from Jericho, but neither identified the site. F. M. Abel placed Gilgal at Khirbet en-Netheleh 3 mi. S.E. of Jericho; James Muilenburg placed it near Khirbet el Mef jer, north of modern Jericho. The exact location remains uncertain. A shrine of the God of Israel was located there. Another Gilgal, mentioned in the Hebrew text of Josh, xii, 2i, has been identified as modern Jiljulieh in the foothills of Samaria, an important site at the juncture of the great coastal route and the road to Shechem (Nablus). A third Gilgal may have been in the neighbourhood of Shechem (Deut. xi, 30). Numerous Old Testament references to a Gilgal (cf. Amos iv, 4; Hos. xii, 11) are not sufficiently specific to locate the site of an important cult (Josh,

iv,

19; xv, 7),

centre.

See F. M. Abel, Giographie de la Palestine, vol. ii, p. 337 (1938) J. Muilenburg, Bulletin oj the American Schools of Oriental Research, 140:11-27 (19SS). (J. S. I.)

GILGAMESH, EPIC OF, one of the most important literary products in the Akkadian language (q.v.), relates the story of Gilgamesh, the best known of all Sumerian heroes. More tales are told of him than of any other. None hved so long in local memory and none dared so mightily as he and his friend Enkidu. Each adventure, however imaginary, makes a good tale. The whole has been described as an Odyssey, but an Odyssey of a king who did not want to die. The storyteller takes his audience not only to danger spots on earth' but also to the final rendezvous of kings and commoners.

He

provides one of the very rare indicaTo Bible students

tions of local behefs as to the state of the dead.

the account of the deluge

is

of particular interest.

Students of

comparative literature admit the possibility that the Gilgamesh Minor in Hittite and Hurrian languages, may have influenced the Greek Odyssey. Similarities are noted especially between the Calypso and Siduri episodes. Themes from the Gilgamesh epic are said to occur also in the folklore of the Pacific. The Text. The fullest text extant is that of the 12 incomplete story, current in Asia

—

tablets in the

Akkadian language found

at

Nineveh,

of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria (669-630? B.C.).

in the library

Long before

however, Gilgamesh was celebrated in story. Five short poems in the Sumerian language are known from tablets which were written sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium B.C. To these have been given the descriptive titles: Gilgamesh and the land of the living; Gilgamesh and the bull of heaven; Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish; Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the underworld; the death of Gilgamesh. There is no echo of the third and fifth poems in the Nineveh version. A tablet of about 1800 B.C., in the Akkadian Old Babylonian language, found at Sippar in Babylonia, contains parts of tablets ii, iii and x of the 7th-century Ninevite version. From the Bogazkoy Hittite archives (c. 1400 B.C.) have come a text in Akkadian, some fragments in Hittite and a fragment in Hurrian. This last is useless because largely unintelligible, but the others help to fill gaps in the final versions. In about 1200 B.C. the poet Sin-leqe-unnini, who lived in Uruk ("biblical Erech, q.v.), the city of Gilgamesh, made an Akkadian version of the traditions concerning Gilgamesh. Of this the Ninevite version may well be a copy. Such gaps as occur in this final version can be partly filled by use of the fragments mentioned from the 2nd millennium B.C., and from other fragments of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. found at Uruk itself, at Ashur (Assur), one-time capital of Assyria, and this date,

near Harran in Mesopotamia. There are differences where these tablets Sultantepe,

at

northern

overlap with the Ninevite version, but the essentials of the story are not in doubt.

—

Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The Gilgamesh of the poems and the epic was probably the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk some

time during the first half of the. 3rd millennium B.C. at the same period as Agga of Kish, and is

mentioned in the much later Sumerian list of kings as reigning after the flood (see Babylonia

AND Assyria). The name Gilgamesh is Sumerian and is variously translated by scholars as "father, hero" and "the old one, the hero." There is no historical evidence for the exploits narrated in

poems and Enkidu,

epic.

Sumerian

in

the

servant,

the

friend

but

and

in

texts

the

epic

companion,

of

Gilgamesh, is not otherwise known. His name also has been

NATIONAL

MUSEUMS

FRANCE

GILGAMESH

HOLDING CAPTURED LION. BAS-RELIEF FROM KHORSABAD. 8TH CENTURY B.C. IN THE the LOUVRE

variously interpreted: as identical with the deity Enkimdu

the dike and and as meaning "lord of the reed-marsh" and even '^Enki (i.e., Ea) has created." The Story. Tablet i of the Nineveh version of the epic begins with a prologue in praise of Gilgamesh, part divine and part human, the great builder and warrior, who knows all things on land and sea. In order to curb his oppressive rule the god Anu causes the ("lord

of

canal"),

—

creation of Enkidu, a wild

man who

at first lives

among

animals.

Soon, however, he is initiated into city-going ways by a courtesan and goes to Uruk, where Gilgamesh awaits him. Tablet ii, known chiefly from an Old Babylonian text, describes a between the two men in which Gilgamesh is the

trial of

strength

In Tabthey set out together against Humbaba (Huwawa), the divinely appointed guardian of a remote cedar forest, but the result of the engagement is not recorded in the surviving fragments. Tablet vi tells how Gilgamesh, now returned to Uruk, rejects the marriage proposal of Ishtar, the goddess of love, and then, with Enkidu's aid, kills the divine bull that she sends to destroy him. Tablet vii begins, according to the Hittite version, with Enkidu's account of a dream in which the gods Anu, Ea and Shamash decide victor.

lets iii-v

on the instigation of EnUl that of the two friends it is Enkidu who die for slaying the bull. Enkidu then falls ill, and dreams of the "house of dust" which awaits him. Tablet viii relates Gilgamesh's lament for his friend and the state funeral of Enkidu: Tablets tx and x describe Gilgamesh's dangerous journey in search of Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Babylonian flood, in order to learn from him how to escape death. In Tablet xi Utnapishtim teUs Gilgamesh the story of the flood and shows him where to find But after Gilgamesh has obtained a plant which renews youth. this plant it is seized by a serpent, and he returns saddened to Uruk. Tablet xii, which is an appendage to the epic, relates the loss of objects called pukkii and mikku (perhaps "drum" and "drumstick") given to Gilgamesh by Ishtar according to a Sumerian legend. The epic ends with the return of Enkidu, who promises to recover these objects and gives a grim report on "the ways of the underworld."

must

—

Bibliography, Eng. trans, by R. C. Thompson, The Epic oj Gilgamesh (1930), by A. Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and the Old Testament Parallels (1946), and by E. A. Speiser in J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Te.xts Relating to the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1955). German trans, by Albert Schott, Das Gilgamesch-Epos (19S8)_; Italian trans, with exhaustive bibliography down to 1956 by G. Furlani, Miti Babilonesi

e Assiri

(no date).

(T. FH.)

GILGIT a territory in the northwest of Kashmir containing Gilgit town, gives its name also to (1) the Gilgit river; (2) the Gilgit wazarat lying to the south; and (3) the Gilgit agency now

GILGIT,

comprising four political districts of Gupis, Punyal (Punial), Ashkuman (Ishkuman) and Yasin, two subdiN-isions of Gilgit and Aster, two states of Hunza and Nagar and the subagency of Chilas.

These territories extend toward Chitral, Afghanistan, the U.S.S.R. and Sinkiang (China). Since 1947 the whole area has been administered by Pakistan.

Physical Characteristics.

—The

terrain

tainous, being near the junction of the Hindu ranges. The glaciers of Nagar are enclosed

is extremely mounKush and Karakoram

between the spurs of Ata range on the northeast and the frontier peaks of Kashmir (terminating with Rakaposhi, 25,550 ft.) on the southwest, and mass themselves in an almost uninterrupted series from the Hunza valley to the base of those gigantic peaks which stand about Mt. Godwin Austen (K2). From its utmost head to the foot of the Hispar, overhanging the valley above Nagar, the length of the glacial ice bed known under the name of Biafo is said to measure about 90 mi. Throughout the mountain region of Hunza and Nagar the valleys are deeply sunk between mountain ranges which are nowhere less than 15,000 ft. in altitude and average above 20,000 ft. As a rule the

Muz Tagh

these valleys are bare of vegetation. One of the oldest recorded routes through this country

is

that

which connects Mastuj on the Chitral valley with Gilgit, through the Shandur pass, and now forms the high road between Gilgit and Chitral. Each of the northern afiHuents of the main Gilgit stream is headed by a pass, or a group of passes, leading either to the Pamir region directly or into the upper Yarkhun (Kunar) valley from which a Pamir route diverges. The Yasin valley is headed by the Darkot pass (15,010 ft.) which drops into the Yarkhun not far from the foot of the Baroghil group over the main Hindu Kush watershed. The Ashkuman is headed by the Gazar and Kora Bohrt passes, leading to the valley of the Ab-i-Punja, and the Hunza by the Kilik and Mintaka, the connecting links between the Taghdumbash Pamir and the Gilgit basin. They are all about the same height, 15,000 ft. All are passable only for short seasons. The Gilgit river joins the Indus a few miles above the little post of Bunji. Just below Bunji the Astor river joins the Indus from

and this deep pine-clad valley indicates the continuation of the highroad from Gilgit to the south, via the Tragbal and Burzil passes. Another well-known route connecting Gilgit with West Pakistan lies across the Babusar pass (13,690 ft.) linking the picturesque Hazara valley of Kagan to Chilas, Chilas (4,150 This is a more direct ft.) being on the Indus, 50 mi. below Bunji. connection between Gilgit and the plains of West Pakistan than ithat afforded by the Kashmir route via Gurais and Astor, which involves two considerable passes the Tragbal (11,586 ft.) and the southeast,

—

the Burzil (13,775 ft.).

by

a

Like the Kashmir route, it is now defined Gilgit is within 250 mi. of the

good military road by which

'railway at

Hasan Abdal.

—

The People. Within the wider limits of the Gilgit agency are many mixed races, speaking different languages, but usually classed together under the name Dard. Between Chitral and the Indus the Dards of Dardistan are chiefly Ashkuns (or Yeshkuns) and Shins, and it would appear from the proportions in which these people ioccupy the country that they must have primarily moved up from :the valley of the Indus in successive waves of conquest, first the iAshkuns and then the Shins. The Shins are of Hindu origin and jspread northward and eastward as far as Baltistan, where they abutted the aboriginal Tatar population of the Asian highlands. The wazarat of Gilgit had a population (1941) of 76,526. The Shins are the dominant race whose language Shina is widely spoken. This is one of the so-called Pisacha languages, an archaic Aryan group intermediate between the Iranian and the Sanskritic {see iDardic Languages). In general appearance and dress all the mountain-bred peoples lextending through these northern districts are very similar. They jare well built and of a fair complexion. Thick felt coats reaching ibelow the knee, loose "pajamas" with cloth puttees and boots are almost universal, the distinguishing feature in their costume being i

417 worn

the felt cap

They

close to the

head and

rolled

up round the edges.

are fond of polo and dancing.

History.

—The Dards (Daradae) were located by Ptolemy with

surprising accuracy on the west of the upper Indus,

beyond the

headwaters of the Swat river (Gr. Soastus), and north of the Gandarae, i.e., the Gandharans, who occupied Peshawar and the country north of it. This region was traversed by two Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hsien, coming from the north about a.d. 400, and Hsiian Tsang, ascending from Swat, in a.d. 629, and both left records of their journeys. Gilgit, as far back as tradition goes, was ruled by rajas When this family became extinct of a dynasty called Trakane. the valley was desolated by successive invasions of neighbouring rulers, and in the 20 or 30 years ending with 1842 there had been The Sikhs entered Gilgit about 1842 five dynastic revolutions. and kept a garrison there. When Kashmir was made over to Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu in 1846 by Lord Hardinge the Gilgit claims were transferred with it, and a boundary commission was sent that included the first Englishmen to visit Gilgit. The Dogras (Gulab Singh's people) in 1852 were driven out for eight years and 2,000 of their men were exterminated. In 1860 they returned to Gilgit and took Yasin twice, but did not hold it. They invaded Darel, one of the most secluded Dard states, but withdrew again. In 1889, in order to guard against the advance of Russia, the British government, acting as the suzerain power of Kashmir, established the Gilgit agency. On the British withdrawal in 1947 the place of the In Nov. 1947 political agent was taken by a Kashmiri governor. the Gilgit scouts rose in revolt, imprisoned the governor and proalso, in 1866,

to the south of the Gilgit basin,

claimed Gilgit's accession to Pakistan.

Administration and Economy.

—When the

fighting between and Kashmir (q.v.) in 1949, The whole of Gilgit, including a cease-fire line was established. the agency and the wazarat, lay north of this line and from that date it has been administered directly by the government of Pakistan which appoints a pohtical agent as head of the administration. There are assistant pohtical agents for Gilgit and Astor subdivisions and Chilas subagency. The two states are administered by the respective rulers in accordance with tribal custom through local elective assemblies and are under the direct control

India and Pakistan ceased in

of the political agent.

The

Jammu

four political districts are administered

by governors who are also under the control of the pohtical agent. There are a high school and a girls' high school at Gilgit and middle schools at Astor, Gupis and Hunza, and more than 60 primary schools in the agency. There is a hospital at Gilgit and a

number of dispensaries in other areas. The population is Mushm, mainly of the Shi'ah sect. The fields are carefully tilled and irrigated. Rice, wheat and other food grains are grown. Fruits are plentiful. In Astor cultivation is precarious because of the high altitude. Weaving of woolen cloth ipattn) is the chief industry. Essential commodities

by air from Rawalpindi to Gilgit. Gilgit Town. The little hill station of Gilgit (4,890 ft. above sea level), the headquarters of the agency, spreads itself in terraces above the right bank of the river nearly opposite the opening leading to Hunza. It nestles under the cliffs of the Hindu Kush which are carried

it on the south from the savage mountain wilderness of Darel and Kohistan. Mountain roads radiate into the surrounding valleys and its geographical position now, as in ancient times, has made Gilgit the nodal point for the area. A suspension bridge connects Gilgit with the left bank of the river. The climate is cool and dry. The ancient name of the site under its Hindu rulers was Sargin. Later it was known as Gilit, which the Sikhs and Dogras corrupted into Gilgit. To the country people it is familiar still as Gilit or Sargin Gilit. The remains of ancient stone buildings and Buddhist carvings suggest that Gilgit was once a centre of Bud-

separates

dhism.

The old Buddhist route between Gilgit and the Peshawar plain passed through the gorges and clefts of the unexplored Darel valley to Thakot under the northern spurs of the Black mountain. Bibliography.— G. W. Leitner, Dardistan (1895) J. Biddulph, The Hindu Kush (1880) E. F. Knight, Where Three Empires Meet (1892); W. Lawrence, The Kashmir Valley (1895); A. G. A. ;

Tribes of the

;

GILIA— GILLESPIE

4i8

Durand, Making a Frontier (1899) Government publication, Delhi, Memorandum on Indian States (1936). (K. S. Ad.) ;

GILIA, a genus of about 100 species, chiefly of herbs, of the family Polemoniaceae, a few of which are used in the flower garden. Gilia species are mostly native to western North America, a few to South America; they include annual, biennial and perennial sorts that show much variation and flower colour.

The following

in

growth habit, inflorescence

are popular garden plants: G. capitata, an annual

of about

two

G. rubra,

commonly known

feet with dense globose heads of light-blue flowers;

stemmed garden

as standing cypress, a

common,

leafy-

perennial, three to five inches high, with a narrow

panicle of externally bright scarlet flowers that are yellowish and

dotted with red on the inside; G. aggregata, known as scarlet or skyrocket gilia, a biennial, one to three feet high with showy scarlet to white flowers; and G. tricolor, known as bird's-eyes, an annual one to three feet, with loose clusters of fragrant flowers with yellowish tubes, purple throats and lilac or violet roundish corolla lobes. All are of easy culture, and even the biennials and perennials will often flower from seed within a single season. (J.M. Bl.) GILL, SIR (1843-1914), British astronomer, skflful observer of solar and stellar parallax and pioneer in the use of photography for mapping the stars, was born at Aberdeen, Scot., on June 12, 1843, and educated at Marischal college and at the University of Aberdeen. In 1872 he became director of Lord Lindsay's private observatory at Dunecht near Aberdeen, whence he undertook expeditions to observe the transit of Venus at Mauritius in 1874 and the close approach to the earth of Mars at Ascension Island in 1877. In 1879 Gill was appointed H.M. astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope in succession to E. J. Stone. In 1888 and 1889 he carried out. with the co-operation of many astronomers, a program of intensive observation with the heliometer of selected minor planets. This led to the first determination (1901) of the solar parallax with modern accuracy (8". 804 0".0046). While at the Cape observatory Gill completed a series of photographic observations (1885-89), introduced observations of stellar parallax with the heliometer iq.v.'), and served as one of the original council for the International Astrographic Chart and Catalogue. He was made knight commander of the Order of the Bath in 1900.

DAVID

±

Gill died in

GILL,

London on Jan

24. 1914.

(ARTHUR) ERIC (ROWTON)

(O. J. E.)

(1882-1940), English sculptor, engraver, typographical designer and essayist, was born on Feb. 22, 1882, at Brighton, Sussex. The family moved in 1897 to Chichester, where Eric spent two years in an art school. In 1899, he was articled to a London architect but in 1902 he turned to letter carving after studying in his spare time at the new Central School of Art with Edward Johnston, a pioneer in the revival of lettering. From then until 1910, he earned his living as a carver of tombstones, although by 1909 he had turned to figure sculpture. A "Madonna and Child" (1910) brought him into public notice through the efforts of Roger Fry. On Jan. 20, exhibition at the Chenil gallery, London; him as a sculptor. On his 31st birthday in 1913, Gill and his wife were received into the Roman Catholic Church and he was commissioned to carve the stations of the cross for Westminster cathedral (1914-18), London. These bas-reliefs, each 5 ft. 8 in. by 5 ft. 8 in. in size, were cut in Hoptonwood stone, a stone he helped make fashionable in the 1920s and 1930s. It was in this material that he carved his most famous figure, the torso "Mankind" (1928; Tate gallery). In 1931 he won a commission to do the reliefs "Prospero and Ariel" over the main entrance of Broadcasting house, London, and in 1935-38 he was commissioned by the British government to provide the three bas-reliefs entitled "The Creation of Adam" in the lobby of the council hall of the Palace of Nations at Geneva; the lobby was the British government's contribution to the League of Nations. Gill was equally successful in his work for printers, particularly

1911, Gill held his

its

first

success established

with H. D. C. (Douglas) Pepler in their founding of the St. Dominic's press in 1915. Gill not only contributed in his partnership

wood engravings and

lettering for the press but also

began

his pro-

vocative writings on the relationship of religion to the workman and art. In 1924 he was asked to do engravings for the Golden Cockerel press, and his work there brought him international fame.

The

remembered of his hundreds of engravings and dozens the "Four Gospels" (1931), printed from type expressly designed by him for the press. At this time he formed, with his son-in-law Rene Hague, a private press at his home at Pigotts, best

of books

is

Buckinghamshire, and there in 1931 he printed his controversial essay on printing, "Typography." Type faces he designed included Perpetua, his most notable book face, in 1925; Gill Sans, a popular printers' type, in 1927; Joanna,

own use in 1930 and recut for popular use in 1958; and Bunyan, designed in 1934 but recut for machine use and renamed Pilgrim in 1953. Gill was made an associate of the Royal Academy in 1937 and of the Royal Society of British Sculptors in 1938. He died at Uxbridge Nov. 17, 1940, and is buried in the country churchyard of Speen near Pigotts. designed for his

Bibliography.— J. K. M. Rothenstein, Eric Gill (1927) J. Thorp, E.G. (1929); E. Gill, Autobiographv (1940) W. Shewring (ed.), Letters of E.G. (1948) Evan R. GUI, Bibliography of Eric Gill (1953), ;

;

;

A

List of Eric Gill's Inscriptional

GILL

Work

(Branchia), the name given

(1963). to

(A. Sn.)

any structure

specially

adapted for aquatic respiration. The essential features of gills are thinness and large surface of exposure to facilitate exchange of respiratory gases; hence they are generally filamentous, feathery or plate-shaped body projections. Gills occur in some annelids {e.g., tube-dwelling marine worms), most mollusks {e.g., oysters, squid), the larger crustaceans {e.g., crayfish), aquatic larvae of insects,

almost all fishes, most larval and a few adult amphibians {e.g., salamander) and perhaps some aquatic arachnids. Gills often have accessory functions, as producing food-concentrating currents and brooding of young (as in certain fresh-water bivalve mollusks). (5ee Annelida; Crustacea; Fish; Mollusk.) The word is also applied to structures resembling the gills of fishes, such as the wattles of a fowl or the radiating films on the underside of a mushroom. See also references under "Gill" in the Index volume.

GILLES LI MUISIS

(Le Muiset) (c. 1272-1352), French was born probably at Tournai, and in 1289 entered the Benedictine abbey of St. Martin in his native city, becoming prior of this house about 1329, and abbot two years later. Gilles wrote two Latin chronicles, Chronicon majits and Chronicon mimis, dealing with the history of the world from the creation until 1352. This work, edited by J. J. de Smet, in Corpus chronicoriim Flandriae, tome ii (1841), and by H. Lemaitre for the Societe de I'Histoire de France (1906). is valuable for the history of northern France and Flanders during the first half of the 14th century. Gilles also wrote some French poems, and these Poesies de Gilles li Muisis were published by Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove chronicler,

(1882).

GILLESPIE,

GEORGE

(1613-1648), one of the leading at Kirkcaldy on Jan. 21, 1613. where his father. John Gillespie, was parish minister, and was educated at the University of St. Andrews. As private chaplain to the earl of Cassillis he wrote his first work, A Dispute Against the English Popish Ceremonies Obtruded Upon the Church of Scotland (1637), which was burned by order of the priw council his later publications were also highly controversial and hostile toward state domination of the church. In April 1638 Gillespie was ordained minister of Wemyss (Fife) and in the same year was a member of the Glasgow general assembly, before which he preached (Nov. 21) a sermon against royal interference in matters ecclesiastical. In 1640 he accompanied the commissioners of the peace to England as one of their chaplains and was one of the first systematically to expound Presbyterian ideals to the English Puritans. As a result he was moved to Edinburgh in 1642 and helped to frame the covenant. In 1643 he was appointed one of the four Scottish commissioners to the Westminster assembly, where he displayed great debating power. In 1645 he drafted the Act of Assembly sanctioning the directory of public worship, and in London he also contributed to the Westminster confession of faith. GiUesScottish covenanting ministers,

;

was born

.

GILLESPIE— GILLRAY pie

was elected moderator of the assembly

1648, but died at

in

Kirkcaldy a few months later on Dec. 17, 1648. See W. M. Campbell, The Triumph of Presbyterianism (1958). (1708-1774), Scottish minister and GILLESPIE, one of the' founders of the Relief Church, was born at Clearburn,

THOMAS

Duddingston, in 1 708. He was ordained at Northampton in Jan. 1741, having studied for a time in England. In Sept. 1741 he was inducted to the parish of Carnock, Fife. In 1752 he was a victim of the controversy, following the Patronage act of 1712 {see Scotland, Church of), over the right of congregations to approve the Having absented himself from the meetings choice of ministers. of presbytery held in order to induct an unacceptable presentee IS minister of Inverkeithing, he was deposed by the assembly for maintaining that the refusal of the local presbytery to act against The case was used by the the wish of the parish was justified. assembly finally to subordinate inferior to superior church courts, ind marked the collapse of resistance to patronage. Gillespie continued to preach at Carnock, and afterward in Dunfermline, where In 1761 with Thomas 1 large congregation gathered round him. Boston of Jedburgh and Thomas Colier of Colinburgh, he formed Its 1 separate communion under the name Presbytery of Relief. distinctive mark was hberality toward other churches, by contrast the Secession {see

to

died at

United Presbyterian Church).

Dunfermline on Jan.

Gillespie

19, 1774.

See G. Struthers, History of the Relief Church A Church History of Scotland ( 1960)

Burleigh,

GILLETTE, WILLIAM

HOOKER

(1843); J. H. (H. Wa.)

S.

(18531937), U.S.

419

tended to include Rainham parish. Until 1903 a court leet iq.v.) existed, one of the last to function in the country. The population is largely industrial, employed in the royal dockyard, the greater part of which actually lies within the borough, and in numerous local light industries. Some residents are attached to the services in local establishments, notably the royal engineers. (N. T.)

GILLOT,

CLAUDE

known

(1673-1722), French painter and en-

Watteau and Lancret, was born at Langres on April 27, 1673. His sportive mythological landscape pieces, with such titles as "Feast of Pan" and "Feast of Bacchus," opened the Academy of Painting at Paris to him in 1715; and he then adapted his art to the fashionable tastes of the day. He was connected with the opera and theatre as a designer of scenery and costumes. He died in Paris on May 4, 1722. GILLRAY, (1757-1815), English caricaturist, who lampooned the political figures of his day, was born at Chelsea. Gillray began by learning letter-engraving and later was admitted as a student to the Royal Academy, supporting himself by engraving and perhaps by caricatures signed with fictitious names. William Hogarth's works were a source of study and delight for him in these years. Soon his own caricatures began to appear the first that is certainly his is "Paddy on Horseback," published in 1779. The name of Gillray's publisher and print seller. Miss Humphreys, is inextricably associated with his. He lived in her house during all the years of his fame and his prints were shown in the graver, best

as the master of

JAMES

;

windows of her shop.

A number

of his

most trenchant

satires

were directed against

playwright and actor, most successful in portraying the cool, resourceful man of action and associated particularly with the character Sherlock Holmes, was born at Hartford, Conn., on July 24,

After graduation from Hartford high school, he studied at New York university, Massachusetts Institute of Fine Arts and Boston university. Gillette served with a number of stock companies and made his first appearance as an actor at the Globe theatre in Boston, Mass., in 1875 in Faint Heart Ne'er Won Fair Lady. His play The Professor, a light comedy in which he appeared in the title role, was produced at the Madison Square Garden theatre in New York city in 1 881. Esmeralda, his second successful play, produced later in 1881, ran for a year and was later revived from time to time. 1853.

various times at

Held by the Enemy, a Civil War spy story (produced in BrookN.Y., in 1886), and Secret Service (Philadelphia, 1895) are considered among his best original works. His famous play Sherlock Holmes, first produced in New York in 1899 and later in England, was frequently revived in both countries with Gillette in the leading role. His only motion-picture appearance was as Sherlock Holmes in a production of 191 5. He died at Hartford, Conn., on lyn,

April 29, 1937.

GILLINGHAM,

a municipal and parliamentary borough of Kent, Eng., stands on the Medway next to Chatham with which it and Rochester form the three "Medway towns." Pop. (1961) 72,611. The church of St. Mary Magdalene ranges in date from iNorman to Perpendicular. There was formerly a palace of the Urchbishops of Canterbury covering a large area surrounding the church, which has therefore been described as "an archbishop's peculiar," that is, at one time outside the jurisdiction of the dioc;san bishops. A prominent landmark for many years, and an

and religious curiosity, was the Jezreel tower, begun 1885 as a temple (New and Latter House of Israel) for the ifezreelites. Building ceased in 1889 when funds ran out and it tjvas finally demolished in 1960 to make way for industrial develop;nent. Before the establishment of the royal dockyard of Chatham i portion of the town, then known as Grench, was a limb of the Cinque port of Hastings. Sir Francis Drake's father was vicar irchitectural .n

nearby Upchurch.

Will Adams, the Gillingham sailor who Drake when the Armada was defeated, was the first Englishman in Japan. He rendered distinguished iervice to that country where he died in 1620 and he is commemorated in Gillingham by a memorial. Among famous soldiers who It

ierved under Sir Francis

eceived their early training as royal engineers' officers at Brompion barracks were General Gordon and Lord Kitchener. Gillinglam was incorporated in 1903, and in 1929 the boundaries were ex-

"The plum pudding

— King

in

danger" by james gillray

—

and his court. After the French Revolution, Gillray became a conservative and he issued caricatures ridiculing Napoleon and the French and glorifying John Bull. His last work, from a design by Bunbury, is entitled "Interior of a Barber Shop in Assize Time" and is dated 181 1. While engaged on it he became mad, although he later had occasional intervals of sanity. He died on June i, 1815. Gillray's- caricatures may be divided into two classes: the social and political. The political caricatures form a historical record of the latter part of the reign of George III. They were circulated not only over Britain but throughout Europe and exerted a powerful influence. In this series George III, the queen, the prince of Wales, Fox, Burke, Pitt and Napoleon are the most prominent figures; the latter two are satirized in "The Plum Pudding in Danger." Among Gillray's best satires on the king are: "Farmer George and His Wife," companion plates, in one of which the king is toasting muffins for breakfast, and in the other the queen is frying sprats; "The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal pair propose to dispense with sugar to the great horror of the family; "A Connoisseur Examining a Cooper"; "Temperance Enjoying a Frugal Meal"; and "Royal Affability." "The First Kiss These Ten Years," a satire on the peace, is said to have greatly amused Napoleon. Like most of the EngUsh caricatures of the time, Gillray's plates were executed in etching with stipple and coloured by hand.

"Farmer George"

George III

)

,

GILLYFLOWER— GIL ROBLES

42 o They were produced

for popular consumption and perhaps this is one of the reasons for that hurried vitality and spontaneity which make them so lively and timely. The injustices and pretentions which they depict as ridiculous absurdities are always present in some form or other, and in the work of Gillray they are leveled to the ground of truth by combination of conviction, vitality, acute human observation, fantasy and artistic naivete. Unlike Daumier. Gjllray does not situate the caricature in. the realm of great art, but he does bring it to the threshold.

Sfp-Thomas

and R. H. Evans, Historical and Descriptive Account of the Caricatures of James Gillray (1851); Mary Dorothy George, Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires in The British Museum, vol. v-ix (1935-49). (H. Es.; X.) VV' right

.

GILLYFLOWER

i

Gilliflower)

,

a

name

.

.

applied to various

clove-scented flowers, especially

carnation

or clove caryophyllus) and stock (q.v.; Matthiola incana but also given to the wall-

the

(g.v.),

(Dianthus

pink

.

The

flower iCheirantkus cheiri).

name

derived ultimately from the Greek word for clove tree, is

karyophyllcm

(Kterally, "nut and was given originally Italy to plants of the pink fam-

leaf" in

)

Caryophyllaceae). The of Chaucer, Spenser and Shakespeare was the carnation. Other plants that have the ily

(

gillyflower

word

names

gillyflower in their

dame's

are

violet

matronalis),

or

(Hesperis

dame's

gilly-

flower: the soapwort, or bouncing

WALL GILLYFLOWER OR WALL FLOWER (CHEIRANTHUS CHEIRI)

bet iSaponaria officinalis), called

mock gillyflower: the grass, or garden, pink {Dianthus plumariiis) called feathered gillyflower; and the thrift (Armeria maritima), called sea pink, or sea gilly,

flower.

(J.

W.

Tt.)

OILMAN, DANIEL COIT

(1831-1908), U.S. educator, first president of Johns Hopkins university, was born in Norwich, Conn., on July 6, 1S31. After his graduation at Yale in 1852 he

went lin

For

political

to 1875 he

University of California at Berkeley. president of Johns Hopkins. This post he filled until 1901. after which, until 1904, he served as the first president of the Carnegie institution at 1

Washington, D.C.

He

Norwich on Oct.

died at

13,

90S.

Oilman's influence upon higher education

in the

United States

was great, as was his contribution to the organization of the Johns Hopkins hospital, of which he was made director in 1889. Under him Johns Hopkins had an immense influence, especially in the promotion of original and productive research. Through his services on numerous foundations and boards devoted to education, and as president of the National Civil Service Reform league, he further aided in educational and social betterment in the United States.

See Fabian Franklin, Life

Thomas

Faris.

oj Daniel

Men Who Conquered

Coit (19:2).

GUman

GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD

(1910)

;

John

(1829-1892), Irish-

American bandmaster and organizer of music festivals, was born in County Galway. Dec. 25, 1829. He emigrated to the U.S. and in 1859 formed the Gilmore band, for which he wrote much music. He organized the National Peace jubilee (1869) and the World Peace jubilee (1872) in Boston with choruses of thousands of voices and large instrumental groups including an Anvil Chorus, consisting of 100 firemen beating anvils to

mark

the rhythm.

Gil-

more traveled with his band throughout the U.S. and Canada, and in 1878 brought them to Europe. He died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 24, 1892.

tlement, was born at Kentmere, Westmorland, in 1517, and educated at Queen's college and Christ Church. Oxford. He was

ordained in 1542, and associated with the conser\'ative supporters of the Reformation. He defended the doctrines of the church

John Hooper (q.v.) and Peter Martyr, and in 1552 preached before Edward \T a sermon on sacrilege, in which he denounced the expropriation of church property. He became vicar of Norton in the Durham diocese in 1552 and obtained a licence, through William Cecil, secretary of state, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom during Edward M's lifetime. Just before Mary's accession he went to study at Louvain. Antwerp and Paris, returning in 1556 to be rector of Easington and archdeacon of Durham. He was the friend of both Erasmus and Cardinal Reginald Pole and frankly refused to accept definitely either Calvinism or the decrees of the Council of Trent. Charged with heresy, he was defended by his great-uncle. Cuthbert Tunstal, bishop of Durham, who gave him the rich living of Houghton-le-Spring. Durham. An accident prevented Gilpin's complying with a royal warrant for his apprehension in London, and Mary's death saved him from further danger. He joined the majority of the lower clergy in subscribing to the Elizabethan supremacy, despite his personal doubts of contemporary Puritan trends, in order not to be "a means to make many others to refuse, and so consequently hinder the course of the word of God." However, he declined several offers of promotion and concentrated on pastoral work throughout the north, much needed since the dissolution of the Cistercian abbeys there. Austere in private life, Gilpin was highly esteemed for his generosity to all classes of his parishioners, founded a grammar school, helped poor scholars to attend universities and visited prisons. He remained celibate and retained other characteristics of the Catholic tradition, although many of his pupils became Puritans. He died at Houghton on March 5. 1583. against

See C. Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Biography, vol. 3, 4th ed. (1853); G. Every, "Letters of an Elizabethan Saint," Church Quarterly Review, vol. 124 (1937).

GIL POLO, GASPAR

readabiHty. The numerous interpolated verses include metrical innovations and constitute, together with the dehghtful evocation of the \'alencian countryside, the chief attraction of the novel,

and

From 1872

BERNARD

(1517-1583), one of the most consciGILPIN, entious and broadminded upholders of the Elizabethan church set-

geography and secretary was head of the In 1S75 he became first

worked

of the governing board.

Darlington, Irish Orpheus: the Life of Patrick Gilmore (1950) (X. Sy.)

at "V'ale as assistant U-

17 years he

brarian. professor of physical

M.

1530-1585). Spanish pastoral is knowTi only as the author of La Diana enamorada Valencia, 1564), a charming continuation of the Diana of Jorge Montemayor (q.v.), which it surpasses in

to St. Petersburg, Russia, as attache, then studied at Ber-

(1854-55).

See

(c.

novelist and poet of Valencian origin, (

which was praised and imitated by Cervantes and early translated

A

into various languages.

Latin version

i

Eroto-didascalns, 1625) celebrity, and

by the eccentric Kaspar Earth achieved a certain Bartholomew Young's English translation, current in the 15SOs (published 1598

mena episode

in

),

is

in

manuscript

said to have suggested the Felis-

The Two Gentlemen of Verona.

Gil Polo died

at Barcelona in 1585.

See J. B. .^valle-.^rce.

La novela

pastoril espanola

(1959). (F. S. R.)

GIL ROBLES, JOSE

MARIA

(1898-

Spanish politician and leader of the Catholic party during the second republic, was the son of an eminent professor of law. He was a journalist on the staff of the Catholic newspaper El Debate when, in 1931, he was chosen to lead the newly founded Catholic party. Accion Popular. By 1933 he had organized a combination of right-wing parties, C.E.D.A. Confederacion Espanola de Derechos Aittonomos). which became the most powerful political group after the elections of Nov. 1933. when women voted for the first time. Nev),

(

Zamora, asked the radical This was because Alcala the administration were en-

ertheless, the president. Niceto Alcala

Alejandro Lerroux to form a government.

Zamora feared

left-wing reactions

trusted to Gil Robles. the

monarchy and

if

who was accused

set

of wishing to re-establish

up a Catholic corporative

state

on the

C.E.D.A. supported, but did not join, both Lerroux's government and that of his successor Ricardo Samper until Lerroux then formed another government in which Oct. 1934. Austrian model.

GILSONITE— GINDELY ".E.D.A. ministers were included.

This provoked the left-wing

ris-

autumn of 1934. A governmental crisis in March 1935 was resolved by the formation of a new administration, still under ings of the

which Gil Robles became, significantly, minister of war. He continued in office under Joaquin Chapaprieta, but resigned, ivith the other C.E.D.A. ministers, in Dec. 1935 over the budget Lerrou.x, in

ind the estraperlo scandals. In the ensuing elections of Feb. 1936. Gil Robles led an alliance

C.E.D.A. and other right-wing parties in a national front, but al:hough C.E.D.A. became the largest single party in the new Cortes, Gil Robles' :he majority was won by the left-wing popular front. supporters now became impatient with his policy of gaining power :hrough peaceful means he lost the support of the middle classes, jf

:

jnd his extremist adherents followed his youth leader Ramon He remained chief opposition Serrano Suiier into the Falange. spokesman in the Cortes, but was increasingly eclipsed there by the

monarchist Jose Calvo Sotelo.

He was

an intended victim of the

murder (July 1936). Soon ifter the outbreak of the civil war, he went to Lisbon to set up 1 mission with Nicolas Franco for the purchase of arms for the rebels. After the war he largely retired from public life. In June 1962 he chose to go into exile rather than comply with an order from Gen. Francisco Franco's government forcing him to reside outside Madrid. (J. C. J. M.) GILSONITE is a native bitumen (q.v.), an asphaltite, found near the Colorado-Utah border in the Uinta basin. It is named after S. H. Gilson, one of its discoverers; the alternative names uintaite or uintahite are derived from its location. Gilsonite is a lustrous, jet-black solid bitumen exhibiting conchoidal fracture. It gives a brown streak, ranges in specific gravity from 1.03 to 1. 10 and is soluble in carbon disulfide. The melting point varies plot

from

responsible for Calvo Sotelo's

no"

to 260°

C, depending on chemical composition.

Gilsonite occurs as veins filling parallel, vertical fractures.

not at the time of the bear ceremony, a phenomenon indicative of the coalescence of two different religious practices.

M.

See

(L. K.)

Czplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (1914).

GIN,

a potable distilled spirit, deriving its principal flavour The origin of gin the juniper berry (jimiperus communis)

from was medicinal and

.

attributed to Franciscus de la Boe (161472), professor of medicine at the University of Leiden, Holland, who distilled spirits in the presence of the juniper berry in order is

to prepare a specific with known diuretic properties. The juniper berry was known by its French name of geni^vre, which the Dutch altered to genever, and the English to gin. By 1792 Holland was producing 14,000,000 gal., of which 10.000,000 were exported. British soldiers returning from the wars on the continent brought the taste for gin to England. However, it was Queen Anne who gave gin distilling its impetus during her reign (1702-14), when she raised the duties and taxes on imports

and lowered the excise on home products. There are two basic types of gin, those produced in the Netherlands and those produced elsewhere, principally in England and America. The difference derives from the fact that the Dutch utilize very rich, full-bodied spirits and distill their gin at a very low proof, usually below 100, while the English and American distillers use highly purified spirits, distilling their gins off at about 160 U.S. proof.

Dutch lands.

gins are

known

Low-proof

as

Geneva, Genever, Schiedam or Holfrom a mash of at least one-

spirits distilled

third barley malt are rectified. The resultant spirits, together with the flavouring agents, are redistilled, coming off at between 94 and 98 proof. Dutch gins are malty in flavour and have a very full body. Other "botanicals" are included with the juniper berries, but not in the variety employed in England and the United States.

The

thousands of feet deep and about 20 ft. thick. Maximum annual production before 1950 was about 75,000 tons, when it was used largely in manufacturing paints and other coating materials. Gilsonite production increased after 1957, when it was mined hydrauUcaUy and transported as a water slurry by pipeline to refineries for conversion to coke and gasoline. (S. R. Sn.) (NrvKH), a people of eastern Siberia, about 4,000 in GIL number, who inhabit the lower course of the Amur river, the coast of the Okhotsk sea and the Pacific, and northern parts of the nearby island of Sakhalin. Their homeland has a severe subarctic climate. They have no definitely known linguistic affiliation, but it has been suggested that they form part of a larger family together with the Ainu (g.v.). Their closest geographic neighbours largest veins are several miles long,

YAK

Manchu-Tungusic tribes of the Amur basin, who are more closely related to the Mongols and Koreans linguistically. jThe Gilyaks have undoubtedly occupied their territory for a very are the small

long time.

They are a prime example of a hunting, fishing and gathering leconomy and live almost exclusively by the products of the sea and river. They fish for salmon and sturgeon and hunt sea mammals (seal and white whale). Hunting of land animals is of minor importance, and the women do a limited amount of wild-plant gathering.

They have domesticated the dog, but no other animal, and have no domesticated crops. The dog, in harness to a sledge, is their most important means of transportation; the dog is also a source pf food and pelts. They have little idea of ethnic unity or iden;tity. The social organization has been best described by the great jRussian ethnologist, L. Y. Sternberg, who was exiled to their territory during tsarist times. Their chief social unit is the village, and they are formed into clans which live together, work together and own fishing territories in common. The core of the kinship is a group of siblings and cousins, who bear a common kinship designation, the tiivn or ruvn. Men related as tuvn have certain rights over each others' wives and property.

organization

The bear plays an important role in their religion. Each clan has bn annual ceremony in which a bear that has been captured for the Jccasion is sacrificed. Shamanism is practised among them, but j

421

produced by rectifying high-proof grain whisky These are then reduced with water to proof strength (114.2 U.S. proof), placed in a pot still together with the flavouring agents, and the whole redistilled. The resultant gin is reduced to 80, 86 or 94 U.S. proof, depending on the market for which it is intended, and allowed to rest for a very short period before bottling for the English gin

is

or spirits to assure complete purity and flavour-free spirits.

market.

The "botanicals" used

to flavour gin in

England and the United Germany and Italy;

States are juniper berries, preferably from

almonds, caraway, coricalamus, cassia bark, lemon peel, sweet and bitter orange peels, etc. Each gin producer has developed his own secret formulas, using some or all of the orris, angelica

and

licorice roots; bitter

ander, cardamon, anise and fennel seeds;

foregoing.

American gin producers follow the English method, usually employing solely 190 proof grain spirits. Their gin stills often have a tray or gin head in which the botanicals rest and through which the alcoholic vapours swirl as they rise. Usually, gin is not aged. Some U.S. producers do age their gin although under U.S. regulations no claim of age may be made for Such aged gins have a pale golden colour. English and American gins are dry gin. The term London Dry gin is used in the United States and has lost its geographical sigOld Tom gin is a slightly sweetened gin, while fruit nificance. flavoured gins are produced by adding such flavors as orange, lemon, raspberry or pineapple to finished gin. Sloe gin is a gin in name only. It is a sweet liqueur with the

gin.

acid tang of the sloe berry.

Hollands gin is generally drunk neat or mixed with water, while dry gins are consumed in a variety of fashions neat, in cocktails such as the dry martini and long drinks such as the Tom Collins, or mixed with tonic water. See also Alcoholic Beverages, Dis(H. J. Gn.) tilled. (1829-1892), Austrian historian, noted for his work on Bohemian history and on the period of the Thirty Years' War, was born in Prague, Sept. 3, 1829, the son of an Austrian father and a Czech mother. He studied at Prague and in 185s made the first of his journeys investigating archives in Bohemia, Poland and Germany. There he gained access to the

—

GINDELY, ANTON

GINER DE LOS RIOS— GINGER BEER

4-22

records of the Moravian Brethren, which led him to write sevboKmischen Briider (1857).

eral works, including Geschichte der

In 1862 he became professor at Prague and in 1867

mian

archivist.

bohemica (5

He was

vol..

also the editor of

official

Monumenta

Bohe-

historiae

i864-go\

Gindely's other important w-orks include Geschichte des 30 Jdhrigen Krieges (1S69-80). Rudolf II iind seine Zeit (1863 and

1868) and a criticism of Wallenstein. Waldstein wdhrend seines ersten Generalats (2 vol. 1885-86), which caused controversy. His Geschichte der Ge genre formation in Bohmen was edited by T. Tupetz 1S94). Gindely died in Prague. Oct. 24, 1892. (

GINER DE LOS RIOS, FRANCISCO

(1839-1915), Spanphilosophy of law and educational reformer, was born at Ronda, in Andalusia, on Oct. 10, 1839. After graduating in law at Granada,, he went to Madrid in 1863 and obtained employment in the archives of the ministry of state. Frequenting university circles, he came under the influence of Julian Sanz del Rio, the leading Spanish exponent of the philosophy of Karl ish professor of the

(q.v.), which he adopted. In 1866 Giner won nomination as professor of the philosophy of law at Madrid: but he had hardly taken possession of his chair. in 1867. when Sanz was dismissed from his university post for refusing to swear an oath of loyalty to church and monarchy. Giner then renounced his chair in sympathy with Sanz and tried Restored to practise as a lawyer, which he found distasteful. his chair after the revolution of 1868, he showed himself favourable to radical reforms in education without concerning himself

Krause

with poHtical acti\-ity. On the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy a new attempt was made to restrict the freedom of teaching, and Giner protested so forcefully that he was imprisoned for a time at Cadiz (1875). Released but excluded from the university, he inspired other chairless professors to join with him in founding the Institucion Libre de Enseiianza in 1876. This was to stand for teaching in

complete independence of confessional, philosophical or political Restored again to his chair in 1881, Giner eventually decided that the Institucion should be concerned mainly with development in educational method. He sponsored coeducation and

prejudices.

organized excursions for his pupils from Madrid to the countryside and provincial towns. An admirer of English methods, he was

welcomed by Benjamin Jowett on a also visited France, the

Low

visit to

England

in 1884.

He

Countries and England again in 1886

and France again in 1889. His pupils, with whom his personal relationship was no less important than his teaching, came to know him affectionately as "the Grandfather." He died in Madrid on Feb. 17. 1915. A collected edition of his writings, in 20 volumes, appeared between 1916 and 1936. GINGER, an economically important spice, consisting of the rhizome (underground stem) of Zingiber officinale (family Zingiberaceae; q.v.), a perennial reedlike plant. Although not known with certainty in the wild, the ginger plant is considered to be a native of tropical Asia, whence it was carried by man throughout the warmer parts of the world. The use of ginger in India and China has been known from very ancient times. By at least as early as the 1st century a.d., the spice had traveled in trade to the Mediterranean region, and by the 11th century w^as well knowTi in England. It was brought to the West Indies and Mexico by the Spaniards soon after the conquest and by 1547 was being exported from Jamaica to Spain. Jamaica. India, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and China are important producers of ginger. The plant is propagated by cuttings of the rhizome. When the leafy stems turn yellow and wither (usually in nine or ten months after planting the ginger is ready for harvesting, which is done simply by digging the rhizomes from the soil. The cured, or dried, ginger of the spice trade is prepared in two major ways, coated and uncoated. Pieces of the rhizome, called races, or hands, may simply be dried in the sun after they are washed; ginger so prepared is coated, because its epidermis is still intact. In the preparation of uncoated ginger the rhizomes are w-ashed. the epidermis is partially or completely removed by peeling, scraping or trampling and the rhizomes are then dried. 1

appearance, ginger of some grades may be bleached, In some regions ginger is scalded or boiled before it is dried, without peehng, to produce the so-called "black" ginger. Ginger is added, usually ground, to many kinds of food and beverages. Medicinally it is used chiefly for its carminative, stimu-

To improve

its

either with lime or with sulfur fumes.

and counterirritant properties. Essential oil of which the odour of the spice is due, is isolated from the rhizomes by distillation and is extensively used in the food indusOleoresin of ginger, tr>-. It is also employed in some perfumes. to which the pungency of the spice is due. is obtained by percolating ground ginger with acetone, alcohol or ether and then evaporating away the solvent; it finds some use as a carminative and in

lant, rubefacient

ginger, to

Preserved treatment of certain gastrointestinal disorders. is the peeled young rhizomes, carefully boiled in syrup. Green ginger, used in cooking, is the fresh rhizome. Candied ginger forms an agreeable sweetmeat. The leafy stems of ginger grow three to four feet high. The flowers, borne on leafless stems from 6 to 12 in. high, are in dense conelike spikes. The spikes are about one inch thick and from two to three inches long and are composed of overlapping green Each bract encloses a bracts, which may be edged with yellow. single, small, yellow-green and purple flower. The elongate leaves are alternate on the stem, arranged in two vertical rows, and are 6 to 12 in. long. The leaf blade arises from a sheath that enwraps the

ginger

the stem.

The

generic

zirigiberi,

name

which

is derived from the Greek comes from the Sanskritic name of the

of ginger. Zingiber,

in turn

spice, singabera.

GINGER ALE,

a sweetened,

(J. W. Tt.) carbonated beverage, the pre-

dominating flavour and pleasant warmth of which are derived mainly from the underground stem, or rhizome, of Zingiber officinale. Though originally carbonated by fermentation, modem ginger ales are artificially saturated with carbon dioxide gas. The Jamaican and African varieties of ginger rhizome yield the finestflavoured beverages, the flavour and pungency of the rhizome being dependent upon the essential oil and oleoresin, which are its principal active constituents.

Other flavouring materials are frequently added; for example, citrus essences, fruit juices, foam-producing substances, etc., and occasionally peppery materials, such as capsicum, to increase the pungency of the beverage. There are two general tj^pes: pale dry ginger ales tend to be less sweet, more acid, lighter, milder and highly carbonated; golden, or aromatic, ginger ales tend to be sweeter, less acid, darker and generally more pungent. The joint committee of definitions and standards of the U.S. department of agriculture in 1922 defined ginger ale as the carbonated beverage prepared from ginger ale flavour, sugar sirup, harmless organic acid, potable water and caramel colour. Ginger ale flavour, or ginger ale concentrate, was defined as the flavouring product in which ginger is the essential constituent, with or without the addition of other aromatic and pungent ingredients, citrus oils and fruit juices. In preparing a carbonated ginger ale. a sirup is first made, this being compounded from water, sugar, ginger ale flavour or extract, citric or tartaric acid, caramel colour and possibly foani essence. Such a sirup is employed in making the carbonated beverage in the manner which is described under Soft Drinks. (R. W. Me.) is the generic term for three classes of nonspices,

GINGER BEER

excisable (less than 2' was told of Giotto as a shepherd boy drawing his father's sheep on a piece of flat stone and being discovered by Cimabue. who took him Still earlier, however, the Anonj-mous Dante Comto Florence. mentator (of c. 1400) had told an entirely different stor>'. for, according to him, Giotto was apprenticed to the wool trade in Florence but spent all his time in Cimabue's shop, so that finally his father transferred his apprenticeship.

Both

making Giotto Cimabue's pupil and

tradition

this

stories agree in is

probably

Nevertheless, whatever he may have learned is certain that, like Niccolo Pisano about 30 years

largely correct.

from Cimabue it earlier, he was truly a re\nver of classical ideals and a great innovator at the same time, bringing the new humanity, which St. Francis had brought to religion, into painting. In Giotto's works the human beings who are his exclusive submatter act with dedicated passion their parts in the great drama of sacrifice and redemption. By comparison, all his predecessors and most of his immediate successors painted a puppet show with lifeless manikins tricked out in the rags of the splendid, hieratic and impersonal art of Byzantium, w^hich was to be entirely superseded by the urgent emotionalism of the Franciscan approach to Christianity. The Date of Giotto's Birth.—The date of Giotto's birth can be taken as either 1266 '67 or 1276, but the 10 years' difference is of fundamental importance in assessing his early development and is crucial to the Assisi problem (see below). It is known that ject

Christian

Jan. 8. 1337 (new style; 1336. old style); this was recorded at the time in the Villani Chronicle. About 1373 a rh>'med version of the Villani Chronicle was produced by Antonio Pucci. town crier of Florence and amateur poet, and in this it is stated that Giotto was 70 when he died. He was thus bom in

viSSE-.L-iS'CERSCS

SAINT FRANCIS RENOUNCING HIS PATRIMONY" BY GIOTTO: ABOUT FRESCO FROM THE UPPER CHURCH AT ASSISI. ITALY

1296,

Giotto died

1266/67, and it is clear that there is i4th-centur>' authority for the statement (possibly Giotto's original tombstone, now lost). Vasari. however, gives 1276 as the year of Giotto's birth and it

may be that he was copying one of the two known versions of the Libra di Antonio Billi, a collection of notes on Florentine artists. In this version, the Codex Petrel (Biblioteca Nazionale. Florence), the statement that Giotto was bom in 1276 at Vespignano, the son of a peasant, occurs at the very end of the "Life" and may have been added much later, even, conceivably, from Vasari. In any case, whether \'asari or "Antonio Billi" first made the statement, it cannot have the same authority as attaches to Pucci, who was about 27 when Giotto died. Certainty of the date of Giotto's birth, if settled by new documents, could help to solve the problem of his work at Assisi and the question of the origins of his style.

The studies,

Assisi

may

—

Problem This, the central problem in Giotto summed up as the question whether Giotto ever

be

if so. what? There can be no reasonable doubt that he did work at .\ssisi. for there is a long literary tradition which goes back to the Chronicle of Riccobaldo Ferrarese who wrote in or before 1319; i.e., when Giotto was alive and famous. Later writers down to Vasari expanded this and made it clear that Giotto's works were in the great double church of S. Francesco. By Vasari's time several frescoes in both upper and lower churches were attributed to Giotto, the most important being the cycle of 28 scenes from the life of St. Francis of Assisi in the nave of the upper church and the "Franciscan Virtues" and some other frescoes in the lower church. In the 19th century it was obser\-ed that all these could not be by the same hand, and the new trend toward skepticism of Vasari's statements led to the position adopted by F. Rintelen in which he rejected all the .Assisi frescoes and dated the St. Francis cycle to a period after Giotto's death. This extreme view has been

painted at Assisi and.

generally abandoned, and indeed a dated picture of 1307 can be shown to derive from the St. Francis cycle. Nevertheless, many scholars prefer to accept the idea of an otherwise totally

"Master of the

unknown

Francis legend' on the grounds that the style of the cycle is irreconcilable with that of the Padua frescoes, which are universally accepted as Giotto's. This involves the idea that the works referred to (in Giotto's lifetime) by Riccobaldo cannot be identified with anything now extant and must have St.

perished centuries ago, so that Ghiberti, Vasari and others mistakenly transferred the existing St. Francis cycle to Giotto. Five

hundred years of tradition are thus written Still

more

difficult,

must be attributed

off.

the St. Francis frescoes, major works of

art,

who cannot be shown to have whose name has disappeared without trace

to a painter

created anything else, although he was of the

rank and, odder still, was formed by Cimabue the Florentine and P. Cavallini

first

the combined influences of

and may be taken which formed Giotto himself. Arising out of the fusion of Roman and Florentine influences at Assisi, there was later a tendency to see the hand of Giotto, as a ver\' young man, in the works of the "Isaac Master," the painter of two scenes of "Isaac and Esau" and "Jacob and Isaac" in the nave above the the

Roman,

influences which coalesce at Assisi

as the influences

St, Francis cycle. If this theory is accepted it is easy to understand that Giotto, as a young man, made such a success of this commission that he was entrusted with the most important one, the official painted biography of St. Francis based on the new In fact, the whole official biography written by St, Bonaventura.

of our mental picture of St. Francis stems largely from these frescoes. Clearly, a man bom in 1276 was less Hkely to have

received such a commission than one ten years older, if, as was always thought, the commission was given in 1296 or soon after by Fra Giovanni di Muro, general of the Franciscans. (For reasons

why

this date is

not necessarily binding, see bibliography,

Murray.) The works in the lower church are generally regarded as productions of Giotto's followers (there are. indeed, resemblances to his works at Padua) and there is real disagreement only over the "Legend of St. Francis." The main strength P.

—

GIOTTO of the

non-Giotto school

lies

in

the admittedly sharp stylistic

between the St. Francis cycle and the frescoes in the Arena chapel at Padua, especially if the Assisi frescoes were painted 1296-c. 1300 and those of the Arena c. 1303-OS; for the interval between the two cycles is too small to allow for major This argument becomes less compelling stylistic developments. when the validity of the dates proposed and the Roman period As already mentioned, the Assisi c. 1300 are taken into account. frescoes may have been painted before 1296 and not necessarily afterward, and the Arena frescoes are datable with certainty only in or before 1309, although probably painted c. 1305-06; clearly, a greater time lag between the two cycles can help to explain stylistic differences, as can the e.xperiences which Giotto underwent in what was probably his second Roman period. Roman Period c. 1300. Three principal works are attributed They are the great mosaic of "Christ Walking to Giotto in Rome. contrasts

—

on the Water" (the "Navicella") over the entrance to St. Peter's; the altarpiece painted for Cardinal Stefaneschi, in the Vatican gallery; and the fresco fragment of "Boniface VIII Proclaiming the Jubilee'' in

S.

Giovanni Laterano.

have painted some frescoes these are lost.

It

is

in

Giotto

is

also

known

to

the choir of Old St. Peter's but the Necrology (i343) that

known from

Cardinal Stefaneschi was a great benefactor of St. Peter's and that he employed Giotto to make the "Navicella" but the date 1298 for this commission does not occur in the actual text, although it is often said to occur, on the authority of F. Baldinucci,

who saw another version

in the

17th century.

known, however, that the religious jubilee of 1300 was very largely unpremeditated and the "Navicella" is most probably a commemoration of its success, and therefore commissioned at almost any date after 1300. In any case, it was almost entirely remade in the 17th century except for two fragmentary heads of angels (in the museum of St. Peter's and in Boville Ernica), so that old copies must be used for all stylistic deductions. The fresco fragment in S. Giovanni Laterano was cleaned in the 20th century and was tentatively reattributed to Giotto on the It is

basis of its likeness to the Assisi frescoes.

The

original attribu-

cannot be traced beyond the 17th century, but, on the other hand, the "Stefaneschi Altar" (Vatican), with its portrait of the cardinal himself, must be one of the works commissioned by him. It is, nevertheless, so poor in quality that it cannot be by Giotto's own hand. It may be observed that several works bearing Giotto's signature, notably the "St. Francis" (Paris, Louvre) and the altarpieces in Bologna and Florence (Sta. Croce ), are generally regarded as school pieces bearing his trade-mark, whereas the "Ognissanti Madonna" (Uffizi, Florence), unsigned and virtually undocution

mented, is so superlative in quality that it is accepted as entirely by his hand. The Crucifix in Sta. Maria Novella and the "Madonna" in idenIs. Giorgio suUa Costa (both in Florence) may be possibly tifiable with works mentioned in very early sources and if so they throw light on Giotto's early style (before 1300). It is also posisible that, about 1305, Giotto went to Avignon but the evidence for this is slender.

Paduan

—There

is thus no very generally agreed upon development and many of the surviving documents and pictures are capable of more than one interpre-

Period.

picture of Giotto's early i

some relief, therefore, to turn to the fresco cycle Padua known as the Arena or Scrovegni chapel. Its name derives from the fact that it was built on the site of 'a Roman amphitheatre by Enrico Scrovegni, the son of a notorious usurer mentioned by Dante. The founder is shown offering tation.

in

It is

the chapel in

model of the church in the huge "Last Judgment," which covers whole west wall. The rest of the small bare church is covered with frescoes in three tiers representing scenes from the lives of SS. Joachim and Anna, the life of the Virgin, the Annunciation '(on the chancel arch) and the Life and Passion of Christ, coniCluding with Pentecost. Below these three narrative bands is a ^fourth containing monochrome personifications of the Virtues and Vices. The chapel was apparently founded in 1303 and consecrated on March 25, 1305. It is known that the frescoes were completed in or before 1309 and they are generally dated c. 1305/6,

[a

the

i

blit

429

even with several assistants

it

must have taken

at least

two

years to complete so large a cycle. The frescoes are in relatively good condition, and all that has been said of Giotto's power to render the bare essentials of a setting with a few impressive and simple figures telling the story

and yet as economically as possible is usually based on the narrative power which is the fundamental characterThese dominating figures, simple and istic of these frescoes. severe, are the quintessence of his style, and anatomy and peror even invented spective were used by him as adjuncts to his narrative gifts; he never attained to the skill which so often In the Padua misled the men of the 15th and 16th centuries. as dramatically

—

—

frescoes the details are always significant, whereas

it is

a character-

of the Assisi cycle that there occurs from time to time a delighted dwelling on details that are not absolutely essential to istic

the story.

Sta.

—

Croce Frescoes. Documents show that Giotto was in in 1311-14 and 1320 and it was probably during these

Florence

years, b-efore going to Naples (c. 1329?), that he painted frescoes in four chapels in Sta. Croce belonging to the Giugni, TosinghiSpinelli,

Bardi and Peruzzi families.

The Giugni chapel

frescoes

the Tosinghi-Spinelli ones, except for an "Assumption" over the entrance, not universally accepted as by The Bardi and Peruzzi chapels contained cycles of St. Giotto.

are lost as are

all

Francis and the two SS. John, respectively, but the frescoes were whitewashed and were not recovered until 1852, when they were damaged in the process of removing the whitewash and then heavMuch the same happened to a portrait of Dante in ily restored. the Bargello, also in Florence, for which there is a traditional attribution to Giotto. The account taken of the restorations to the Bardi and Peruzzi chapel frescoes and of the similarities and dissimilarities between the Bardi St. Francis frescoes and those at Assisi tends to vary according to the writer's views on the Assisi problem, but most students would agree that it would be

imprudent to ascribe much of the actual handling (as distinct from the design) to Giotto himself in either chapel. There is no evidence for the dating of the chapels, nor is it certain which came first, but they are probably approximately contemporary. The date 13 17 is often advanced as a terminal point for the Bardi chapel, since it contains a representation of St. Louis of Toulouse,

who was canonized halo

may

known

in that year.

This

is

well have been added, and in

inadmissible since his it is not un-

any case

for holy personages to be represented as haloed before

their formal canonization.

—

Naples and the Last Florentine Period. On Jan, 20, 1330, King Robert of Naples promoted Giotto to the rank of "familiar" (member of the royal household), which implies that he had been in Naples for some while, possibly since 1328, and he remained there until 1332/33. All the works he executed there have been

may be distinguished in the local April 12, 1334, he was appointed caponiaestro, or surveyor, of the Cathedral of Florence and architect to the city. This was, a tribute to his great fame as a painter and not on account of any special architectural knowledge. On July 19 of the

lost,

but traces of his style

school.

On

same year he began the campanile, or bell tower, of the cathedral. It was later altered but is known, in part at least, from a drawing in Siena. He may have designed some of the reliefs carved by Andrea Pisano on the campanile; certainly the bronze doors of the baptistery by Andrea show clear traces of Giotto's frescoes Indeed the whole course of painting in Tuscany in Sta. Croce. was dominated by his pupils and followers by Taddeo Gaddi, Bernardo Daddi, Maso, Orcagna and the Lorenzetti in Siena but none of these really understood all of his innovations and it was not until Masaccio (b. 1401) and Michelangelo (b. 1475)

—

that his true successors arose.

See also references under "Giotto" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— R. Salvini, Giotto Bibliografia, with full bibliography up to 1937 (1938) Giotto, ed. by C. H. Weigelt, "Klassiker der Kunst Series" (1925); the large commemorative catalogue of the 1937 exhibition, G. Sinibaldi and G. Brunetti, Pitlura italiana del Duecento See also articles in Burlington Magazine by R. e Trecento (1943). Offner, "Giotto," "Non-Giotto," 74:25? S- (i93q) and 75:96 ff- (i939)i bv C. Brandi, 94:218 (1952) and by J. White, "The Date of 'The ;

—

GIOVANNI DI PAOLO— GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS

430

Legend of S. Francis' at Assisl," 98:344 £f. (1956); in the Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, by C. Mitchell, 14:1 (1951) and P. Murray, "Notes on Some Early Giotto Sources," 16:58 ff. (1953); W. Paeseler in Rotnisches Jahrbuch fiir Kunstgeschichte ("Hertziana Jahrbuch"), vol. v, pp. 51 £f. (1941) R. Salvini, Tutta Pitturadi Giotto (1952); C. GnuAi, Giotto (1959). (P. J. My.) ;

GIOVANNI DI PAOLO

la

monly given to Giovanni di Paolo di Grazia, a long-lived, enormously productive Sienese painter of great individuality. He probably was a pupil of Taddeo di Bartolo, whose style is reflected

"Madonna" of 1426 at Castelnuovo In that year Giovanni fell under the influence of the art of Gentile da Fabriano, who was then active in Siena. The

in his earliest dated work, the

Berardenga.

dominant for a decade, is von Hirsch collection, Basel, During the 1440s and early 1450s Giovanni produced his Sw'itz. most important works. These include the monumental altarpiece earliest

the

example of Gentile's

"Madonna"

influence,

of 1427 in the Robert

of the "Presentation of Christ" of the

somewhat

1447^9

later altarpiece of "St.

in the Siena gallery,

John the Baptist," only ten

scenes of which work are known, and 12 splendid miniatures in a antiphonary in the public library, Siena. The brooding "Ma-

donna" altarpiece of 1463

in the

Pienza cathedral marks the be-

ginning of Giovanni's late period, of which the coarse "Assumption" polyptych of 1475 from Staggia is the last important example. Giovanni's tormented spirituality and expressionist style were httle appreciated before about 1920, but from that time his tense, often highly dramatic art aroused constantly increasing interest. the coloristically and formally attractive figures and

Not only

landscapes of the painter's early and middle period, but also the harsh, ugly forms of the 1460s and especially the 1470s are of interest, as they illustrate the artist's changing vision of the world during the course of his development. BiBLioGR.APHY. John Pope-Hennessy, Giovanni di Paolo (1937) Cesare Brandi, Giovanni di Paolo, in Italian, with a comprehensive

—

bibliography (1947) dell'arte,

;

;

Peleo Bacci, Documenti

e

commenii per

la storia

an important study of the documents, pp. 63-94 (1944). (G.

PAOLO: see Jovirs, GIPPSLAND: see Victoru. GIO"VIO,

GIRAFFE, height of

Cr.)

Paulus.

all mammals, reaching an over-all forms with the okapi (g.v.) the family the suborder Ruminantia, order Artiodactyla. Two ft.,

distinct species are usually recognized: Giraffa camelopardalis, the

common

or blotched giraffe; and G. reticulata, the reticulated or

Somali giraffe. "Giraffe'' comes from the Arabic word zaraja, meaning, among other things, "one w'ho walks swiftly." It is said that Julius Caesar was the first to import a giraffe to Europe, exhibiting it in Rome about 46 B.C. To the Romans the animal was "camelopardalis," a term that survived for some time in English as "camelopard." The giraffe's body is comparatively short, but the legs and neck are very long. In spite of its length, the neck, as in almost all mammals, contains only seven vertebrae. The forequarters stand higher than the hind, and the tail tuft reaches below the hocks; there are no lateral toes on the feet. The short horns on the head, present in both sexes, are covered with skin and end with short tufts of hair. There is always at least one pair and a central swelling on the forehead, between the eyes, which in some races is almost as long as the horns. In some races, too, there is a second smaller pair of horns behind the

main ones, making five The horns are not used

(G. camelopardalis)

Many subspecies have been described, based on variation of coat pattern and the size and number of horns, but it is not certain that they are really distinct. most of Africa south of the Sahara, and savanna or open bush country, but do not penetrate into the forests. They browse upon trees, but do not habitually graze, for they have to spread the forelegs widely to reach the ground or 'to drink. The gait of the giraffe is a pace (both legs on one side move together) and, because of the long stride, is swifter than it appears; more than 30 m.p.h. may be reached at a full gallop. One young is produced at a birth, after a gestation of about 14 months; the calf can follow its mother within two hours of its birth. The voice, ranging from low call notes to a hoarse roar, has so rarely been heard that giraffes are popularly supposed to be completely dumb. Giraffes are still numerous in east Africa, where they are protected, but elsewhere they have dwindled in number because of injudicious hunting by man: the tribesmen seek them for food; Giraffes are native to

live in

the big

game

hunters, for trophies.

5ee also Artiodactyl; Ruminant.

(L. H. M.) (known also as Cixzio, the "academic" name, CynthiusJ (1504-1573),

GIRALDI, GIAMBATTISTA form of

Italian

his

and dramatist, a typical representative of mid- 16th-century Italian hterary ideals, was born in Ferrara. He studied under Celio Calcagnini and succeeded him in the chair of Italian novelist, poet

rhetoric there (1541), later

He

and Pavia.

moving

to the universities of Turin

died in Ferrara.

by the Paduan reintroduction of by the Catholic reaction to it. In his Discorso intorno al comporre de' romanzi (1549) he defended the legitimacy of the romantic epic, and in his poem Ercole Giraldi was influenced both

Aristotelian literary principles and

(1557) he tried to reconcile the Aristotelian rules with modem In his Discorso sulle comedie e sulle tragedie (1543) he reacted against the austerity of the classical tragedies and in his own tragedies Orbecche (1541); Didone (1542); Altile (1543); Cleopatra (1543); Selene; Eufimia; Arrenopia; Epitia, from which Shakespeare's Measure for Measure derives; and Antivalomeni (1549) he included new dramatic elements while conforming to the Aristotelian rules. His Ecatommiti (1565), 112 stories collected according to the pattern of Boccaccio's Decameron, aims at stylistic distinction as well as showing a liking for taste.

the tallest of

more than 18

Giraffidae in

M.

which may be diffuse and pale or very clear-cut and richly coloured (G. reticulata). In the latter type the spots predominate so that the ground colour looks like a light-coloured net thrown over a dark lesser extent with darker spots,

background.

1399-1482), the name com-

(c.

1

—

direct narrative, in the

manner of Matteo Bandello.

They

are

morahstic in tone and were translated and imitated in France, Spain and England: Shakespeare's Othello derives from Giraldi's story of the

drama with

Moor

He

of \'enice.

tried to

renew the pastoral

Egle (1545). In spite of his ambition toward erudition, all Giraldi's Uterary attempts are amateurish: they remain interesting examples of the transition from Renaissance to Counter-Reformation ideals. his

—

Bibliography. Scritti estetici di G. B. Giraldi (1864) C. GuerrieriCrocetti, G. B. Giraldi ed U pensiero critico del sec. XYI (1932); R. Piccioni. "Vita di G. B. Giraldi," in Atti e memorie per le provinde ;

modenese e parmense, xviii 1886) G. Perale, Sul valore morale degli "Ecatommiti" (1907); .\. MUano, Xc tragedie di G. B. Giraldi Cinthio (1901) L. Dondoni, "Un interprete di Seneca del '500: G. B. Giraldi," in Rendiconti Istituto Lombardo, Classe di Lettere, etc., xciii (1959). (G.A.) (

;

;

GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS

in

all.

Ger.ald of Wales, also called 1146-c. 1223), archdeacon of Brecon from 1175 to 1204, author and vigorous opponent of Anglo-Xorman authority over the church in Wales, was born in Manorbier castle near Pembroke, the youngest son of William de Barri, the

in

de-

Xorman

which is effected instead by powerful kicks from the foreor hind legs, but they are used in sparring, when rival males are engaged in "necking" combats. The PRESS LTD ground colour of the coat is pale reticulated GIRAFFE sandy, covered to a greater or reticulata)

Gerald de Barri)

i

(

c.

castellan of Pembroke. More significantly. Gerald's grandmother was Nesta, a descendant of the princes of south Wales; hence his pride of ancestr>' and race, though he was not

fense,

(GIRAFFA

Welsh-speaking. A precocious child, early destined for the church, he was educated in Paris, returning to Wales in 1175, w'hen he was appointed archdeacon of Brecon. Though a man of the world and proud of his literary ability, Gerald was primarily an ecclesiastic and he rapidly distinguished himself by his reforming zeal. He

.

GIRARD—GIRARDON was nominated as bishop of

David's ( 1 1 76) but was not elected, and returned to Paris to study canon law and theology. He entered the royal service, probably in July 1184, and two journeys undertaken during this period led to the compilation of his bestknown and, indeed, indispensable books, those on contemporary He visited Ireland (1185-86) with Henry Ireland and Wales. II's youngest son (afterward King John) and as a result wrote his Topographia Hibentica (c. 1188) and the Expugnatio Hibernica {c. His tour of Wales (1188) with Baldwin, archbishop of 1189). Canterbury, undertaken to raise soldiers for the third crusade jimilarly provided material for his Itinerarium Cambriae (1191) md Descriptio Cambriae (1194). He left the king's service in 1195, retiring to Lincoln to study theology. Gerald's later life was clouded by his frustrated ambition to succeed to the see of St. David's and to make it a metropolitan This ambition, according to his ;ee independent of Canterbury. iutobiography, De rebus a se gestis (c. 1204-05), led him to reject four Irish and two Welsh bishoprics. He was again nominated for St. David's in 1199; but Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canter3ury, promoted a rival candidate and although showing some sympathy for Gerald's cause, Pope Innocent III quashed both elec:ions (1203). Gerald resigned his archdeaconry in 1204 and died Drobably in 1223. St.

Gerald's learning, of which he

was

vain,

was old-fashioned; he

and violently emotional, venting his spleen in scandalous and unwarrantable charges against those who offended But his writings are full of admirable descripDr slighted him. :ions of both the high life and the everyday life of his own time; ihey sparkle with vivid anecdotes about the church, especially in vVales, about the growing universities of Paris and Oxford and ibout notable clerics and laymen. Above all, they provide a lively ind incomparable portrait of one of the most engaging figures of he 12th century, Gerald de Barri himself. was uncritical

Bibliography.

—DaviesBrewer

Giraldi Cambrensis opera 1861-91) W. S. (ed.), Giraldiis Cambrensis: de invectionibus 1920); F. M. Powicke, Gerald of Wales (1928); H. E. Butler (ed.), rhe Autobiography of Giraldus Cambrensis (1937) (H. G. Ri.) ;

J. S.

et al. (eds.),

GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE

(known

as

Pere Girard or

ERE Gregolre) (1765-1850), French-Swiss educationalist, hailed n Switzerland as a second Pestalozzi, was born at Fribourg on Dec. 17, 1765, and educated for the priesthood at Lucerne. In 804 he began his career as a public teacher, first in the elementary chool at Fribourg (1805-23), then, on being driven away by Jesuit lostility, in the Gymnasium at Lucerne until 1834. In that year le retired to Fribourg and devoted himself to the production of lis books on education, De l'enseigneme7it regidier de la langue naternelle (1834; Eng. trans., The Mother Tongue, 1847) and "ours educatif (1844^6). Girard's books influenced educational nethods elsewhere. He abandoned the system of cramming children's minds with rules and facts, seeking instead to stimulate their ntelligence.

He

died

March

6,

1850.

GIRARD, STEPHEN

(1750-1831), U.S. financier, philanjhropist and founder of Girard college, Philadelphia, Pa., was born jn Bordeaux, France, May 20, 1750. Before he was 14 he went to jca as a cabin boy, and at 24 was captain of a vessel in the Amerpan coastal trade. In 1776 he settled in Philadelphia, where he narried and devoted himself to foreign trade. He developed world-wide trading fleet which laid the foundation of his forI

;

june.

During the yellow fever plague in Philadelphia in 1793 he volunmanager of the hospital, and again in the epidemic

j

leered to act as

1797 he took the lead in caring for the sick. In May 1812, bought the building and other assets of the Bank of the United states and established the Bank of Stephen Girard in Philadelphia,

431

GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE

(1804-185S), French writer, the wife of Emile de Girardin (g.v.), and a leading figure in Parisian literary society in the early 19th century, was born at Aix-laChapelle (Aachen), Jan. 26, 1804.

Her mother, Sophie Gay, was was the centre of attraction at her mother's soirees and became a society favourite, wooed by fashionable editors to provide poems for their periodicals. Her early works were published as Essais poetiques (1824) and Nouveaux Essais poetiques (1825). On a tour of Italy in 1826-27 she was also a writer.

As

a girl Delphine

Academy of the Tiber at the Capitol in Rome. Her 68 poems show snatches of brilliance but she was unable to sustain her inspiration. In 1831 she married £mile de Girardin and from 1836 to 1848 produced sketches for his journal La Presse, collected as Lettres parisiennes (1843 and 1853). To her famous salon came all the literary celebrities of Paris, including Theophile Gautier, elected to the

Honore de

Balzac, Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. Her novels, but often somewhat lacking in invention, include

brilliant in style

Le Canne de Monsieur Balzac (1836) and

// ne faut pas jouer avec doideur (1855). She also wrote several one-act comedies in prose and verse including C'est la faute du mari (1851), Le Chapeau d'lin Horloger (1855) and Une Femme qui deteste son mari, published in 1856, a year after her death in Paris on June 29, la

1855.

—

Bibliography. G. d'Heilly, Mme de Girardin, sa vie et ses oeuvres Imbert de Saint Amand, Mme de Girardin (1875) H. Malo, Une Muse et sa mere, Delphine Gay (1924) and La Gloire du vicomte de Laiinay (1925); Maurice Reclus, Emile de Girardin (1934). (1868)

;

GIRARDIN, EMILE DE

;

(1806-1881), French writer, a

pioneer of modern popular journalism,

known

as the

Napoleon

of

the press, was born at Paris on June 21, 1806, the illegitimate son of Comte Alexandre de Girardin and of Adelaide-Marie Dupuy, the wife of a lawyer. He left the Inspectoral des Beaux

Mme

Arts to take up journalism and in 1828 founded Le Voleur, a monthly review of arts and science. In 1831 he married the writer

Delphine Gay {see Girardin, Delphine de). He was elected deputy for Bourganeuf in 1834 and gained popular success by founding a new newspaper. La Presse (1836), for which the annual subscription was only 40 fr., but which made a profit because of excellent publicity. After a private and political dispute with Armand Carrel, director of the National, he killed him in a duel (July 22, 1836), and Girardin's popularity declined. He was excluded from the chamber of deputies on April 13, 1839, because of his doubtful nationality, but by April 23 his French birth had been officially estabhshed and he was readmitted in 1842. His poUtical ideas followed the fluctuations of public opinion; he wa^ a middle-class conservative who occasionally showed progressive

In 1848 he advised Louis Philippe to abdicate and hand over the regency to the duchess of Orleans, and at first supported the second republic, but after the risings of June 1848 he declared his support for Louis Napoleon. His waverings persisted under the second empire: in 1856 he gave up editorship of La Presse, but returned in 1862, joined the liberal party and pressed for war with Prussia. In 1866 he took control of La Liberie, an almost forgottendencies.

ten journal, which after a few weeks had a sale of 16,000 at 10 centimes a copy. After 1870 he became a Republican and in 1872

bought Le Petit Journal; its sale quickly rose to 500,000, and in 1874 he became political editor of La France. Both journals played a great part in the Republican triumph in the elections of 1877. After his wife's death in 1855, he married Mina Brunold de Tieffenbach, said to be the illegitimate daughter of Prince Frederick of Nassau. They separated in 1872. Girardin died on April 27, 1881,

jf

in Paris.

le

His writings include De la presse piriodique au XIXe sibcle (1837), De la liberie de la presse (1842), Le droit au travail (1848) and Questions de mon temps, 1836 a 1856 (1858). See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis (VII) (1861-66); M. Reclus, Emile de Girardin (1934). (J. L.-D.)

vhich

he

was known

War

as the "sheet anchor" of

government

credit in

In 1814 his bank subscribed for 95% of the overnment war loan issue. At his death on Dec. 26, 1831, most (f his fortune was bequeathed to the city of Philadelphia for a of 1812.

Ichool or college for al

.

"poor, white, male orphans," and for munici-

improvements.

See J. B. McMaster, Life and Times of Stephen Girard, 2 vol. (1918) A.Henick, Stephen Girard, Founder (1923). (J. R. Lt.)

;

GIRARDON, FRANCOIS

(1628-1715), French sculptor,

the most purely classical of the sculptors employed at Versailles, was born at Troyes, where he was baptized on March 17, 1628. He attracted the attention of Chancellor Pierre Seguier who

brought him to Paris to study under Francois Anguier, and after-

GIRAUD—GIRDLE

432

to Rome. He returned about' 1650 and became a academy in 1657. He worked for Nicolas Fouquet at Vaux-le-Vicomte and after the minister's fall was extensively employed in the decoration of the royal palaces. In 1663 he was working under Charles Le Brun on the Galerie d'Apollon at the Louvre, and in i666 received the commission for his most famous work, the "Apollo Tended by the Nymphs," for the Grotte de Thetis at Versailles. The inspiration for this elaborate work (later

ward sent him

member

of the

moved and

grouping altered), seems to derive partly from HelApollo Belvedere), and partly from Nicolas Poussin's paintings. Of his other works for Versailles the most notable are the relief on the Bain des Nymphes (1668-70), perhaps inspired by Jean Goujon's Fontaine des Innocents, and "The Rape of Persephone" (pedestal completed 1699), in which he challenges comparison with Giovanni Bologna's "Rape of the Sabines." The effect of this group is marred by its present situation in the centre of the colonnade at Versailles where it can be seen from all sides instead of from a fixed viewits

lenistic sculpture (particularly the

point as originally intended.

Although superficially a baroque artist, Girardon's deep-seated emerge in the careful relating of sculpture to site. This is evident in his two principal works outside Verclassical tendencies

the equestrian statue of Louis XIV in the Place Vendome (1683-92), which was destroyed during the Revolution, and his tomb of Richelieu in the Sorbonne (1675-77). He undertook comparatively little portrait sculpture, but the classical bias of his mind and his abilities as a decorator made him the ideal collaborator with Le Brun (who designed many of Girardon's numerous works for Versailles), just as Antoine Coysevox (g.v.) was with Le Brun's successor, Jules Hardouin Mansart. As Coysevox's star rose, that of Girardon sank, and he received few royal commissions after 1700. He died in Paris on Sept. 1, 1715. See P. Francastel, Girardon (iq28) and La Sculpture de Versailles M. Oudinot, "Frangois Girardon: Son role ... a Versailles (1930) et aux Invaljdes," Bulletin de la Society de I'Histoire de I'Art Fran^ais, sailles,

;

pp. 204

ff.

(F. J.

(1937).

B.W.)

GIRAUD, HENRI HONORE

(1879-1949), French army was born in Paris on Jan. 18, 1879. After graduating from St. Cyr in 1900, he served in French Morocco until World War I. Captured by the Germans in 1914, he successfully escaped He -rea feat he repeated in World War II, 28 years later. turned to Morocco in 1922 and participated in the Rif war. In World War II, Giraud commanded the 7th army and, for a few days before his capture in May 1940, the 9th army. His second

officer,

—

escape occurred

in April

1942.

Seven months later, after secret negotiations with the Allies, he was whisked to north Africa in the wake of the Anglo-American Appointed commander in chief of the French forces, landings. he raised and equipped, largely with American materiel, 250,000 combat troops. From June to Oct. 1943 he was co-president (with Charles de Gaulle) of the French Committee of National Liberation.

Differences with

De

Gaulle resulted in his retirement

in April 1944.

After the war, Giraud was elected to the constituent assembly. also served as vice-president of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre. He died in Dijon on March 11,1 949, and was buried at the Invalides, in Paris. His publications include two memoirs: Mes Evasions (1946 and Un sen! but, la Victoire (1949). (M. V.)

He

)

GIRAUDOUX, (HIPPOLYTE) JEAN

(1882-1944), French essayist, novelist and playwright who created an impressionist form of the drama by emphasizing dialogue and style rather than realism, was born in Bellac, Haute-Vienne, on Oct. 29, 1882. Educated at the £cole Normale Superieure, he made the diplomatic He became known as an avant-garde writer service his career. when £mile Paul (who also published the work of Rainer Maria Rilke and Jean Cassou, and Alain-Fournier's Le Grand Meaulnes) first published his poetic novels: they were thought difficult, indeed an example of this being Suzanne far-fetched in short, precious But other works soon appeared: in Sieget le Pacifique (1921). jried et le Limousin (1922) Giraudoux depicts in silhouette, as it were, the hostility existing between a pair of enemies, France and Germany, as a background to his story of a man who has lost his

—

—

memory;

Bella (1926) is a love story behind which there can bf glimpsed the insurmountable rivalry between two statesmen the nationalist Dubardeau (i.e., Raymond Poincare) and the internaand between two conceptionalist Rebendart (Aristide Briand) tions of the nature of the state. Thus it became clear what was to be the central theme of Giraudoux's plays: a pair of opposites, whatever they might be mar and God, as in Amphitryon 38 (1929), man and woman, as ir Sodome et Gomorrhe (1943 at the other end of his literary career or indeed, as in Judith (1931 ), the world of paganism and the work of the Old Testament. It is this fixed idea of his that remembering Heraclitus' famous remark, "The road from above and the roac from below are one and the same," he should try to resolve conflici between opposites by bringing them into contact, which gives substance to the reproach of preciosity sometimes leveled against his work. In fact, the springboard Giraudoux used for the "leap in the dark" he made when he began to write for the theatre was Siegfriea (1928), a dramatization of his own novel, in itself an ambiguou; work. Siegfried introduced Paris to a great new dramatist, its success being due in part to the actor Louis Jouvet (q.v.), who was always Giraudoux's good genius. It is noticeable that apart from Intermezzo (1933), Giraudouj never worked on a directly imagined subject: having reworkec Siegfried et le Limousin in dramatic terms, he sought inspiration ir tradition, first a pagan one in Amphitryon 38 and later in ^lectrt (1937), then a biblical one. Meanwhile he had adapted Margarei Kennedy's novel The Constant Nymph as Tessa (1934) and Baroi

—

—

—

)

In his la Motte-Fouque's Undine as Ondine (1-939). extraordinary essay Racine 1930) he explained the purely literar> reasons which had led the great playwright from Phhdre to Esthe\ and Athalie: the Judaic tradition had offered the author of Andromaque a Yahweh incomparably more terrif>'ing than the Eumenides of the ancient world, since he possessed the power t( Friedrich de

(

enemies to everlasting torment. This play may hav< Le Cantique des cantique; (1938), a means of truly "eternizing" as one can prolong a musihis relentless investigation and discussion of thf cal note in time conflict between a pair of opposites with which his works were mos( profoundly concerned, demonstrating as it does the fact of the fundamental duality of existence. Many of his works have been translated into English, the best-known being La Folk de Chaillot adapted as The Madwoman of Chaillot by Maurice Valency ii 1947, and La Guerre de Troie n'aura pas lieu (1935), adapted b) Christopher Fry as Tiger at the Gates. Giraudoux died in Paris 01

condemn

his

also given Giraudoux, the author of

—

—

Jan. 31, 1944. Bibliography. Le Theatre complet de Jean Giraudoux (1945-53) C. E. Magny, Precieux Giraudoux (1945) J. Toussaint, Jean Giraudoux (1953); M. Mercier-Campiche, Le Theatre de Jean Ciraudoui (1954); L. Le Sage, L'Oeuvre de Jean Giraudoux, essai de bibliographic chronologique (1957) D. Inskip, Jean Giraudoux, the Makint

—

;

;

(C.-E. Ma.)

of a Dramatist (1958).

GIRDLE

Belt), a band that encircles or girds the waist eithei to confine the loose and flowing outer garments so as to allow freedom of movement or to fasten and support the garments of th< wearer. Girdle in this sense is now a literary word and may connote a more elaborate item of dress than does the term belt, al(

though strictly speaking this is not a point of distinction betweer them. ( For girdle as a type of women's corset a modern usage— see Dress: Post-World War I.) Among the Romans the girdle was used to confine the tuniCi and formed part of the dress of the soldier and the matron. Al though girdles and girdle buckles are not often found in Gallo Roman graves, they are almost invariably present in the grave of Franks and Burgundians and are often ornamented with bosse In Anglo-Saxon dress thi of silver or bronze, chased or inlaid. girdle was unimportant, and Norman knights generally wore belt under their hauberks. After the Conquest, however, the artificer gave more attention to a piece whose buckle and tongue invitei

—

the

work

of the goldsmith.

In the latter part of the 13th century the knight's surcoat wa girdled with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt, whicl became the pride of the cavalier, looped across the hips, carryini

GIRESUN—GIRL GUIDES heavy sword aslant across the hips of the wearer. In the second half of the 14th century the knightly belt took its nost splendid form. The belt was then worn aslant, as a rule, girdling the hips at some distance below the waist and was probibly supported by hooks. The end of the belt, after being drawn ;hrough the buckle, was knotted or caught by a tongue (as in a conthe

ventional

modem buckle). Ornament covered

nonly seen as an unbroken

the whole belt,

com-

enriched with curiously ivorked roundels or lozenges, which, in instances where the loose About 1420 ;trap-end was abandoned, met in a splendid clasp. line of bosses

fashion tended to disappear, the loose tabards in the jousting-yard hindering its display.

:his

irmour

importance as an ornament, and in illustrations showing at the beginning of the 16th century sword and dagare sometimes seen hanging at the knight's side without visible

regained

its

:lothing

worn

jer

worn over the The belt never

support.

In

civil

dress the belt of the 14th century

was worn by men of

rank over the hips of the tight, short-skirted coat, and in that cenLury and in the I5th and 16th centuries there were laws to check

extravagance of rich girdles worn by men and women whose made such display unseemly. Even priests were rebuked Purses, for their silver girdles with baselards (short swords). iaggers, keys, pens and inkhorns, beads and even books dangled From girdles. After the early 16th century the girdle continued as :he

stations

I

mere strap for holding up clothing or as a sword belt. During the men of the court wore a light rapier hung from a

GIRGENTI:

Sashes, broad folded bands of material tied around the waist, began to be worn by women in the latter part of the 18th century; prior to that time they sometimes formed part of a,

worn by men. The cummerbund, a similar item, where it was worn by men; it was widely men's dress clothes and also for women's wear.

military uniform

ariginated in India,

adapted for In parts of the world where peasant costumes are maintained, the belt or girdle is frequently a conspicuous part of the clothing and is often richly decorated with embroidery and other forms of aeedlework.

Folklore and ancient custom are Bankrupts at one time took it

much concerned

jUe.

refused courtesans the right to wear

with the

gir-

open court; French law an earl has been "belted"

off in it;

days when putting on a girdle became part of the ceremony of his creation; and many fairy tales concern girdles that give invisibility to the wearer. (M. B. K.) since the

GIRESUN

(anc. Choerades; Pharnacia; Cerasus), a seaand capital of the il (province) of Giresun, northeast Turkey, Pop. fs situated on the Black sea 97 mi. W. of Trabzon by road. (1960j 19,946. It is the port of Sebinkarahisar with which it is :onnected by road. The oldest part of the town is on a rocky peniisula (450 ft.) crowned by a Byzantine fortress, and the newer The harbour, protected )arts are on the isthmus of the peninsula. )y a breakwater, has a growing trade; it exports filberts (hazelluts), walnuts, hides and timber. Cerasus is said to be the place rem which the wild cherry was introduced into Italy by Lucullus [c. 100 B.C.) and so to Europe (Lat. cerasum, hence French cerise, 'cherry"). The town is on the main coastal road between Trabzon and Samsun. Giresun n, is a small but densely populated area, extending from the coast over the high northern mountain ranges to the upper Kelkit valley in the south. Pop. (1960) 332,451; area 2,659 sq.mi. The climate is humid with an average annual rainfall exceeding I

[jort

!

p2 in.; the

summer

is

warm and

the winter mild.

The

chief crops

Er.; E. Tu.)

town and capital of the minor province of Girishk on the Helmand river, 75 mi. W.N.W. of Kandahar. Pop. (1960 est.) 10,000. The town, formerly situated around an ancient fort on the right bank of the river, was rebuilt on the left bank. The fort was occupied by the British from 1839 to 1842, during the First Afghan War, when a small garrison under an Indian officer, Balwant Singh, successfully withstood a siege of nine months. The British occupied it again in 1879. Parts of its massive walls can still be seen. There is a school of engineering (built 1956-57) and a hospital. Girishk is an agricultural centre; a diversion dam (just above the town) was completed in 1949 to feed the Boghra irrigation canal. The town stands on the main road from Herat to Kandahar and Kabul. About 20 mi. S.E., at the confluence of the Arghandab and Helmand rivers, are the ruins of the once famous commercial city of Bust (Qala Bist), and nearby are the remains of the palace at Lashkari-Bazar excavated by the French archaeological mission. The most famous of the remains at Bust is an arch 65 ft. high bearing inscriptions in Kufic characters and other motifs on its tiled Afghanistan,

east

variety of styles.

S.

see Agrigento.

GIRISHK, a

in

bricks.

i.

coast.

(N. Tu.;

broad shoulder belt (a continuation of the style seen in the wellsnown portrait of Charles I by Anthony Van Dyck) while the men

penders) supplanted the belt, whereas in the United States the reverse largely obtained. In women's clothing a belt is often used to give the garment finished appearance and, especially if it is in a contrasting material or colour, to provide part of the decoration; there is a great

and Tirebolu on the

hisar in the south

Restoration the

from the countryside wore a heavy weapon supported by a narrow Soon afterward both fashions disappeared. Sword waist belt. hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt, except in certain military and sporting costumes, was no longer in sight in England. Even as a support for breeches or trousers the use of braces (sus-

433

densely forested north are filberts, maize (com), beans and potatoes; in the south, which receives relatively little rain, there is wheat production and stock raising. Chief towns are Sebinkarain the

lies

Girishk Province is bounded west by Farah, north by Ghor, by Kandahar and south by West Pakistan. It has large areas

of level plain and desert, rising in the south toward the Chagai hills

and

in the north

rich along the

mated

toward the central highlands.

Helmand

river.

The population

It is agriculturally

in

1960 was

esti-

to be 280,000 (1954 census, 188,814).

GIRL GUIDES, a youth organization for girls in Great Britain and British Commonwealth countries, modeled after the Boy Scouts; a

member

organization of the

World Association

of Girl

Guides and Girl Scouts. The aim of the Girl Guides association is to help its members, through character training, to become good citizens with a sense of service and responsibility not only to their own families and communities but also nationally and internationally. The movement has no political or sectarian aims and is open to all girls of appropriate age who are prepared to make the twofold promise of the Brownies or the threefold Guide promise. A Brownie promises to do her best to do her duty to God and the queen and to help other people every day, especially those at home. The Guide promises duty to God and the queen, helpfulness to other people at all times and obedience to the Guide law. The law requires honesty, loyalty, helpfulness, friendliness, courtesy, concern for animals, obedience, cheerfulness, thrift and purity in thought, word and deed. Guides are encouraged to be practising members of their own religious denominations. Origin and Development. The formation of the Girl Guides association was the result of a spontaneous demand from the girls themselves following the beginnings of the Scout movement (see Boy Scouts). In response Sir Robert Baden-Powell, with his sister Agnes Baden-Powell, devised a system of training and the movement began in 1910. Sir Robert married, in 1912, Olave Soames, who was appointed chief commissioner in 1916. In 1918 she was

—

elected Chief Guide.

The movement

includes Brownies, aged 7^ to 11; Guides, 11 to

and the senior branch. Rangers (land, sea and air sections), 14 to 21; and Cadets (training in leadership within the movement). Handicapped girls and those living too far from a company to attend its regular meetings are included. The Trefoil Guild links those who are no longer active members of the movement but who "are prepared to give support to guiding and to carry the spirit of the Guide promise and law into the communities in which they live and work. Queen Elizabeth II and Queen Elizabeth the queen mother are patrons. Princess Margaret is Chief Ranger of the British Commonwealth and empire. The princess royal is president. In 1923 the association was incorporated by royal charter. Organization. A council elects its executive committee and a 16,

—

GIRL SCOUTS

434

Decentralization, through the countries' chief commissioners and county, division and district commissioners, enables the training policy to be carried out by the Guiders in companies and packs and also allows the needs of the girls to be represented and, through the same channels, by a reverse process alchief commissioner.

lows ideas from all sections of the movement to reach the executive committee. Local associations in districts or divisions are groups of interested persons, principally nonmembers, whose support enHeadquarters of the association for Great lists pubhc interest. Britain and the

Training.

—

are located in London. There are headquarters training centres in England

commonwealth

Hampshire; Waddow hall, Lancashire and the "Golden Hinde" on the river Dart. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland also have centres for the training of Guiders. Citizenship training begins in the pack where the Brownie learns

at Foxlease in the

New

forest,

;

in the

"pack

powwow"

to express her views;

it

continues through

company where Guides in patrols under their girl the affairs of the company and the leaders meet as

the Guide

leaders

discuss

a coni-

Organization in the senior branch varies but is calculated always to help the girl to an understanding of democratic government and to a realization of her responsibility in a wider world. A system of tests and badges at all stages encourages

pany committee.

girls to

widen

their interests

and develop

skills.

Special stress on

future wives and mothers. Cultural activities form part of the training at all stages and are Camping and outdoor specially developed in the senior branch. activities develop initiative and resource while awareness of be-

homemaking badges

helps to

train

longing to a world-wide movement and many opportunities for meeting members from other countries with the basis of a common ideal have an incalculable influence in the formation of right human relations.

—

The Girl Scout promise is: "On my honor, I will try: to do my duty to God and my country, to help other people at all times, to obey the Girl Scout Laws." These laws are as follows: 1.

2. 3.

4.

A A A A

Girl Girl Girl Girl

Scout's honor

Scout

is

Scout. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

A A A A A A

Girl Girl Girl Girl Girl Girl

Scout is courteous. Scout is a friend to animals. Scout obeys orders. Scout is cheerful. Scout is thrifty. Scout is clean in thought, word and deed.

These laws are an understandable code for growing girls and same in all countries in which Girl Scouting or Guiding is organized; they have been recognized as a standard of conduct and an expression of friendship regardless of race, naare substantially the

The trefoil emblem of the Girl Scouts, which symbolizes the three parts of the promise, is used in various versions throughout the world-wide movement. Girl Scouting in the United States is divided into four age groups: Brownie Girl Scouts, 7 and 8 years old; Junior Girl Scouts, 9 through 11; Cadette Girl Scouts, 12 through 14; Senior Girl Scouts, 15 through 17. Girl Scouting presents a single, continuing program for girls as they progress through these age levels. The design of the program is based on six foundation elements which have been characteristic of Girl Scouting since its tionality or religion.

The Girl Scout promise and laws, service to others, troop management by the girls themselves, citizenship, international friendship, and health and safety are embodied in acti\'ities related to the arts, the home and the out-of-doors. Girl Scouting is "girls and adults working together" in basic inception:

which usually consist of 16 to 32 girls and an adult leader or leaders. Except for the Brownie Scouts, troop business is transacted and decisions arrived at through a representative system of government whereby smaller subunits known as patrols units called troops,

International conferences are held regularly in different countries and at one of the earhest, in 1930, Lady Baden-Powell was appointed World Chief Guide. The Guide world flag shows, on a blue ground, the golden trefoil with two stars representing the promise and law, the upward-pointing compass needle and the

attitudes,

(B.-Pl.) thought and expression of a common purpose. is a voluntary organization dedicated to the GIRL purpose of "inspiring girls with the highest ideals of character, conduct, patriotism, and service that they may become happy and

SCOUTS

(preamble to the constitution of the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A.). The informal educational program through which the organization achieves its purpose is carried out in small groups with adult leadership and provides a wide range of activities developed around the interests and needs of girls. Girl Scouting is open to all girls 7 through 17 years old who are willing to subscribe to the promise and laws of the movement. Adult membership, also requiring acceptance of the promise, and law, is open to both women and men. Girl Scouts are part of the world-wide movement founded by Sir Robert (later Lord) BadenPowell in 1910; the organization in the United States is a member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts. Juliette Gordon Low of Savannah, Ga., formed the first Girl resourceful citizens"

United States in 1912, following the pattern set Boy Scouts of Great Britain. Mrs. Low was a native of Georgia, but she had lived in Great Britain and had helped to organize Girl Guide troops. She

Scout troop

up

in the

for Girl Guides, sister organization of the

president of the U.S. organization; when she re1920 she received the title of founder, and her birthday (Oct. 31) was set aside as a special day for the Girl Scouts. At the time of her death in 1927 the Girl Scouts had troops

became the tired from

in

first

ofiice in

every state of the union and had more than 140,000 members.

to be trusted.

Scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. Scout is a friend to all and a sister to every other Girl

World Association. The World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts co-ordinates members in more than SO countries. Associations applying for membership must have self-governing organizations representative of the country as a whole and must accept the principles of the promise and law and also the principle that the movement is open to girls of all races, nations and creeds. Membership must be voluntary and the organization nonpolitical.

heraldic feu of the "flame of love to mankind." The joint birthday of the founder and the Chief Guide, Feb. 22, is celebrated as "Thinking day," when the movement's 5,500,000 members join in

is

loyal.

elect their representatives to a "court of

honour" which

also

in-

cludes the elected troop officers and the adult leaders.

good social development of individual capacities

Activities of girls in Scouting are designed to foster

broadened

interests,

Girls undertake projects whict

growth of a sense of responsibility. are progressively challenging.

Community

service

is

basic to thf

program, and may range from making simple gifts for invalids oi singing Christmas carols to beautifying the grounds of public buildings. Scouts learn to know and appreciate the out-of-doors througl: games, nature study and camping. The activities of the Brownie Girl Scout appeal to her curiosity By learninj spontaneous creativity and desire to be helpful. skills appropriate to her age group, a Brownie works toward fulfilhng her promise "to help other people every day, especiallj those at home." Girl Scout develops her skills in a wide variety o: by 47 proficiency badges. As she advance! she may earn one or both of the Signs of Junior Scouting, th( Sign of the Arrow and the Sign of the Star. The badges earned by the Cadette Girl Scout are more comple;

The Junior

activities represented

may

from 65 badges covering sucl Care and Interior Decoration Earning badges and working toward a series of challenges place( before her, a Cadette progresses toward First Class, the highes award of her age group.

and

specific.

She

select

diversified areas as A\'iation, Child

The Senior

Girl Scout devotes

much

of her time to communit;

service and vocational exploration, often combining them by work ing as a volunteer hospital aide or a museum aide, or by assistin

Many Seniors take part in visits exchange of the various associations in the world-wid

at a public playground.

among

girl

members

Scout-Guide movement. Adapting itself to the changing needs of girls, the organizatio grew from the first troop of 12 girls to a membership by the 196C of more than 2,600,000 girls and 750,000 adult volunteers. Profes sional workers in Girl Scouting account for less than 0.5% of adu! membership. The Girl Scout councD is the organization which makes Scoutin

,

GIRODET-TRIOSON— GIRONDINS ivailable to girls in the

community.

It

is

established, developed,

Clubs, schools, naintained and financed by local volunteers. :hurch groups and other private organizations assist local councils )y providing meeting places, leadership, financial help, volunteer support and other co-operation. The Girl Scout national organiza;ion is

financed principally by membership dues of $1 per annum. is the National council, consisting of delegates

Governing body ;lected

by

and meeting

local Girl Scout councils

at regular inter-

/als.

The national organization publishes The American Girl and various handbooks.

Girl Scout Leader, It

The

also produces a va-

iety of audio-visual materials for training of volunteers and interjretation of the program. The headquarters are in New York city. For the British equivalent of Girl Scouts, see Girl- Guides.

GIRODET-TRIOSON

(Ca. M. B.) (Anne Louis Girodet de Roucy)

fl767-1824), French painter typical of the first phase of the omantic movement, known as Girodet-Trioson after his guardian, M. Trioson, was born at Montargis, Loiret, on Jan. 29, 1767. A jupil of J. L. David, his "Joseph reconnu par ses freres" ("Joseph Recognized by His Brothers") won him the Prix de Rome at the He submitted to the Salon of 1792 "Le Sommeil ige of 22. I'Endymion" ("Endymion Sleeping") (Louvre), a cold, sensual, :repuscular work, nearer in feeling to the troubled romanticism Girodet was jf Chateaubriand than to the Spartan ideal of Da\'id. ilso a poet, and his interest in literature is given full reign in the :urious "Ombres des guerriers fran(;ais regues par Ossian dans le oalais d'Odin" ("Ossian Receiving the Generals of Napoleon in the Palace of Odin"), done for Malmaison in 1801, "Fingal" (Leningrad), painted for Napoleon in 1802, and above all, the famous 'Atala au Tombeau" ("The Burial of Atala") (Louvre) of 1808. Phis, together with his windswept portrait of Chateaubriand Tieditating in front of the

Coliseum

(

1809, Versailles),

is

Girodet's

In "La Revolte du Caire" ("The Revolt in 3airo") (1810, Versailles), he made a determined effort to copy :he swirling compositions of Antoine Gros, for whom he had a deep affection. His landscape sketches and book illustrations, lotably for Pierre Didot's Racine (1801-05), have a freshness ;hat is missing from his more elaborate works. He died in Paris Dn Dec. 9, 1824. nost typical work.

Girodet's poem Le Peintre and essays on Le Genie and La Grace were Dublished after his death with a biographical notice by his friend M. loupin de la Couperie (1829); E. J. Delecluze, in his Louis David, on ecole et son temps (18S5), gives a brief life. (Aa. B.)

GIRONDE, istride

a coastal

departement of southwestern France,

the Gironde estuary and the lower valleys of the rivers

ilaronne and Dordogne, with the tongue of land

(Entre-deuxbetween, consists of parts of ancient Guienne (q.v.) and was mder the allegiance of the English kings for three centuries before he end of the Hundred Years' War. The modern departement has in area of 4,141 sq.mi. and a population 1962) of 935,448. It is wunded north by Charente-Maritime, east by Dordogne and Lotit-Garonne, south by Landes. and west by the Bay of Biscay. The great rivers Garonne and Dordogne, flowing in wide, aluvium-floored valleys with ancient gravel terraces and steep flankng hills, enter the tidal estuary, which widens from two to six niles at its mouth in the Bay of Biscay. Bordeaux, the great comnercial port, on the convex left bank of a curve in the wide river :hannel, lies 60 mi. from the ocean, and the estuary is encumbered ly islands and sandbanks that make navigation difficult, so that in nodern times outports have been developed, notably at Pauillac. U Ambes, in the confluence fork of the Dordogne and Garonne, 6 mi. below Bordeaux, there is a modern oil-refining plant. At he mouth of the Gironde is the famous lighthouse tower of CorJouan, built between 1585 and 1611. Extensive marshes fringe he low-lying estuary shores and have been partly reclaimed by liking. The western portion of the long peninsula between the iironde and the straight dune-fringed coast of the Bay of Biscay 5 the northernmost prong of the Landes, and was extensively )lanted with forests of maritime pine after the middle of the 19th entury. There are large lagoons and in the south the almost andlocked Bay of Arcachon, with extensive oyster beds. In the

Vlers)

(

435

southwest of the departement electricity is generated on the small lignite field of Hortens. .The departeme?tt has a humid climate, with long, hot summers and very mild winters. Although polyculture, with maize (corn) especially important, is practised in some parts, agriculture is generally dominated by the cultivation of the vine. The district round Bordeaux, the Bordelais, has long been a speciaHzed area of viticulture, exporting its produce through the port. The vine-

yards occupy terraces of old, coarse, river gravels (graves) and flanking hills, and have also spread on to low-lying tracts of modern alluvium (pains), though there the wine is of inferior qual-

Medoc, on the left bank of the Gironde north of Bordeaux, was the source of clarets much esteemed in England in the middle ages. The Medoc vineyards occupy a strip of country as far south as Blanquefort. The true Graves country lies round Bordeaux itself. Sauternes come from a small district farther south, flanking the Ciron tributary. On the right bank of the Garonne are the Cotes de Bordeaux and Entre-deux-Mers districts, and vineyards are also extensive beyond the river Dordogne. Bordeaux (q.v.), is the great market centre of the industry. It grew and flourished in the colonial period of the 17th and 18th centuries and is still one of France's major ports and leading proity.

It dominates the departe?nent as an administrative and service centre. Other centres of arrondissements are Blaye, Langon and Libourne. The last, founded by Edward I of England, is noteworthy as a medieval planned town, laid out as a regular grid. Cadillac and Ste. Foy-la-Grande are other bastide towns of the period of medieval town planning. (Ar. E. S.)

vincial cities.

GIRONDINS, known

members

of

a

political

group,

collectively

which played an important role in the French Revolution (q.v.). By their contemporaries they were usually called Brissotins, after J. P. Brissot (q.v.). or sometimes BuzoTiNs, after F. N. L. Buzot, a deputy for Eure, or again RoLANDINS, after J. M. Roland (q.v.). The name Girondins, which owes its currency to Alphonse de Lamartine's use of it in his Histoire des Girondins (1847), refers to the strength that the group derived from deputies for the Gironde departement. Since the Constituent Assembly had forbidden the re-election of its members, the Legislative Assembly, which met in Oct. 1791, consisted of entirely new men. Among these were 136 deputies

who

as the Gironde,

joined the club of the Jacobins or that of Cordeliers (qq.v.)

and from whom the Girondin group evolved. Most of these deputies were professional men, barristers or journalists, well educated and moderately rich, unquestionably enthusiastic for the Revolution and ambitious for themselves. As representatives of the ports (Marseilles, Nantes and, especially, Bordeaux), they were connected with the middle-class businessmen, shipfitters and bankers who supported the reforms of 1789 and wanted to stabilize them against the threat of counterrevolution but were ready to consider a continental war, which would naturally benefit the arms suppliers without damaging France's sea trade. Their social background and philosophy inclined the Girondins to political but not to social to protect wealth and to favour ability. The Girondins met in Paris in the houses of Madame Roland ( Manon Phlipon ) and of Madame Dodun Louise Julie Bourgeois) the friend of P. V. Vergniaud (q.v.). Brissot, already a famous journalist with experience of foreign countries, was their diplomatic expert, but his ill-considered conduct earned them a reputation for unreliability. Vergniaud was their greatest orator but was temperamentally incapable of translating into action the measures that he proposed. From the end of 1791 the Gironde advocated war. This policy implacably opposed Brissot and Robespierre. Brissot was convinced that an attack on Austria would succeed, for the appeal to downtrodden nations would be answered: "The moment has come," he declared on Dec. 30, 1791, "for a new crusade, a crusade for universal liberty." In this, as Marie Antoinette saw, they were unwittingly playing the court's game. With two members of their group in the government (Etienne Claviere as minister of public contributions and Roland as minister of the interior the Girondins secured the declaration of war on Austria on April 20, 1792. their

democracy; they wanted pohtical institutions

(

)

GIRTIN—GISORS

436 The war, however, did not Though at first their

dins.

fulfill

the expectations of the Gironto sister nations

offer of liberation

served to consolidate their popularity in France, the reverses suffered by the French armies in the spring of 1 792 (see French Revolutionary Wars) provoked an unforeseen upsurge of national feeling that led to a new phase in the Revolution. After the failure of the demonstration that they organized on June 20, 1792, in the XVI to approve new decrees on national de-

hope of forcing Louis

fense, the "statesmen" of the Gironde, as J. P. Marat sarcastically called them, began to hesitate for fear of the sans-culoites, whose

insurrectionary

movement now seemed Hkely

to escape

from

their

GIRTIN,

THOMAS

(1775-1802), English landscape painter water colour, was born in London on Feb. 18, 1775, the son of a brushmaker. He was apprenticed to Edward Dayes. the waterWhile still boys he colourist, with whom he later quarreled. and J. M. W. Turner were employed by the connoisseur Thomas Monro in copying works by J. R. Cozens. Girtin went on numerous sketching tours, chiefly in the north of England, and founded a sketching club for young artists. During 1801-02 he \-isited Paris and produced a series of etchings of that city. His gigantic panorama of London, the "Eidometropolis," was exhibited just before his premature death, probably from tuberculosis, on Nov.

in

control and to endanger the influence of wealth and property. The attack on the Tuileries palace, on Aug. 10. which resulted in the

9,

was made without the participation of the first step toward their overthrow. Thenceforward conflict between the Girondins and the architects of the insurrection became overt. It was aggravated by the masThe sacres of Sept. 1792 and by the beginning of the Terror. Girondins, frightened and resentful at being pushed aside, blamed

manner, but in his last years he evolved a bold, spacious and romantic style, in spirit akin to the contemporary poetry of Wordsworth, which greatly influenced English landscape painting. The increasing power of his last works at least tempers the exaggeration of Turner's supposed remark "If Tom Girtin had hved, The British museum and the \'ictoria and I should have star\'ed." Albert museum, London, are rich in examples of his work.

fall

of the monarchy,

Girondins and was the

the Parisian sans-culottes for their troubles, especially after the The idea of a election of the Montagnards to the Convention.

guard to be recruited from the departements for the protection of the new assembly was put forward by Madame Roland, who now hated Robespierre bitterly and Danton even more so; it was she who inspired the intransigent Girondin faction to which Buzot, Barbaroux and J. B. Louvet de Couvrai belonged. Against the centralized dictatorship of the Montagnards. based on Paris, the Girondins appealed to the regional particularism of the moderate botirgeoisie entrenched in local administration: they relied less on the more extreme "federalism." though some sympathized with it. The social aspect of the conflict became clear when and Roland in particular defended economic freethe Girondins

CM.

—

—

dom

demands by the sans-culottes for more rigorous taxation. In the Conv-ention, and even more in the departements, the Gironde was the screen behind which the bourgeoisie rallied to proagainst

tect its interests.

The trial of the king intensified the antagonism between GiThe Girondins rondins and Montagnards in the Convention. wished to spare his life and adopted obstructive tactics, demanding first the banishment of all the Bourbons, then maintaining that the Convention's decision should be ratified by the people and lastly proposing a reprieve. After the execution of the king (Jan. 21, 1793), the reverses sustained by the French in the Netherlands led to the final ruin of the Girondins. The Convention's foreign policy, conducted by Brissot, provoked a general coalition against France, and the defeat at Neerwinden on March 18, followed by the treachery of C. F. Dumouriez in April, exasperated the patriotic Since the Girondins obstinately refused feelings of the masses. to take emergency measures, they seemed to be preventing any efThe Montafective defense of France and of the Revolution. gnards of the Convention had the support of the Paris commune and of most of the Paris sections against the Girondins, and the struggle culminated in the popular rising of May 31-June 2, 1793. On June 2 the Convention, surrounded by 80,000 armed insurgents, capitulated and ordered the arrest of 29 Girondin deputies. Most of these deputies managed to escape. They tried to rouse Normandy, Brittany, the southwest, the south and Franche-Comte in their favour, but these "federalist" risings failed for lack of popular support. The trial of 31 Girondins took place in Oct. 1793, before the Revolutionary tribunal; a special decree stifled their defense, and they were guillotined on Oct. 31, Brissot and Vergniaud among them. The trial of Madame Roland followed. Other Girondins, including Buzot, Claviere, J. Petion de Villeneuve and Roland committed suicide. Louvet de Couvrai and Maximin Isnard, who escaped the purge, returned to the Convention after the Thermidorian reaction of July 1794.

—

Bibliography. The 19th-century works dealing with the Girondins as a group, such as A. de Lamartine, Histoire des Girondins (1847), J. Guadet, Les Girondins, 2 vol. (1861), and E. Eire, La Legende des Girondins (1881), are obsolete or unduly biased. See rather A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative el de la Convention, 2 vol. (1885), and Histoire politique de la Revolution (1901), together (A. So.) with biographies of individual Girondins.

1802. Girtin's earlier landscapes are in the 18th-century topographical

;

Thomas Thomas Girtin

See J. Mavne,

The Art

of

GIRVAN, at the

mouth

Girtin (1949); T. Girtin and D. Loshak, (D. Lk.) (1954).

and

a small burgh

fishing

town of Ayrshire, Scot., Glasgow and

of the river Girvan, 54^ mi. S.S.W. of

22 mi. S.S.W. of

Ayr by

road.

Pop. (1961) 6,159.

—besides catering whitefish) — are the manufacture

The

principal

and fishing (herring and of woolen goods, tweeds and knitwear, the builcUng and repairing of fishing boats and the processing of seaweed. In the town centre is a green plot Knockusion or "hill of justice") where Robert Bruce granted a charter in the 14th century. It is the port of communication with Ailsa Craig to visitors

industries

(

GIRY, (JEAN MARIE JOSEPH)

ARTHUR

(1848-

1899), French historian, who made a considerable contribution to the study of the origins and significance of the urban communities in France. He was born at Trevoux (Ain) on Feb. 28, 1848, and studied at the ficole de Droit, the £cole des Charles and the fecole des Hautes £tudes. He held posts at the BibHothequc Nationale and the .\rchives Nationales before being appointed lecturer at the £cole des Hautes £tudes in 1877.

He became

lec-

turer at the faculty of letters of the Sorbonne in 1881 and professoi at the £cole des

He

Charles in 1885.

died at Paris on Nov. 13

1899.

Giry's works include Histoire de la ville de Saint-Omer et dt XIV^ siecle (1877); Les Etablissement:

ses institutions jusqu'au

de Rouen, two volumes (1883-85) Documents sur les relations dt la royaute avec les villes de France de 1180 a 1314 (1885); am Etude sur les origines de la commune de Saint-Quentin (1887) His Manuel de diplomatique (1894) secured his election to thf ;

Academic des

Inscriptions.

GISBORNE,

a seaport of

New

centre of Gisborne land district,

lies

Zealand and administratiw on Poverty bay on the easi

coast of North Island. Pop. 1 961) 21 ,769. The port is connectec with Wellington by road and rail. Gisborne land district embrace! the hilly and mountainous easternmost projection of North Islant from Opotiki and the Mahia peninsula to East cape. Apart fron Gisborne the only town of any size is the small port of Opotik (2,582) on the Bay of Plenty. The rest of the population is over(

whelmingly rural and largely Maori. The chief economic activit) is extensive sheep rearing on hill pastures in country often seriouslj affected by soil erosion. Captain Cook landed near the site of Gisborne in 1769 and gave Poverty bay its name because of his inabil (K. B. C; X.) ity to obtain supplies from the hostile natives. GISORS, a town of northwest France, Eure departement, lie in the pleasant valley of the Epte, 42 mi. (68 km.) N.W. of Pari: by road. Pop. (1962) 5,952. It is dominated by an 11th- ant 12th-century stronghold of the kings of England. The centra tower, the choir and parts of the aisles of the church of St. Gervai date from the middle of the 15th century and the rest from thi Renaissance. Gothic and Renaissance styles mingle in the was facade, adorned with a profusion of sculpture; there is fine carvin) on the wooden doors of the north and west portals. Gisors is oi

—

a

GISSAR—GIUSTI the

main railway from Paris

manufactures of

to

felt, electrical

Dieppe. Its industries include the machinery, electric lamps and bat-

437

life Gissing established a happy relaFrenchwoman, Mile Gabrielle Fleury, with whom He died at St. Jean de Luz on Dec. 28, 1903.

In the last years of his tionship with a

teries.

he

In the middle ages Gisors was capital of the Vexin. Its position on the frontier of Normandy caused its possession to be hotly contested by the kings of England and France during the 12th century, when with the fortresses of Neaufles and Dangu it was

Bibliography. F. Swinnerton, George Gissing (1912); M. Yates, George Gissing (1922) M. Evans, George Gissing (1951) M. C. Donnelly, George Gissing, Grave Comedian (1954); A. C. Ward, George Gissing (British Council pamphlet, 1959); Letters of George Gissing George to Members of his Family, ed. by A. and E. Gissing (1927) Gissing and H. G. Wells, Their Friendship and Correspondence, ed. by R. A. Gettman (1961) Arthur C. Young (ed.). The Letters of George

lived.

—

;

;

;

ceded by Richard Coeur de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of the 16th century it was occupied by the due de Mayenne on behalf of the League, and in the 17th century, during Gisors was made a duchy the Fronde, by the due de Longueville. 1742 and afterward came into the possession of the comte d'Eu and the due de Penthievre. The town was badly damaged during World War II but has since been rebuilt. GISSAR (Hissar) is the name of a mountain range (Gissarski Khrebet and valley (Gissarskaya Dolina) in the western part of the Tadzhik Soviet Sociahst Republic and the southern part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., and also of a small in

)

town IS mi. W. of Dushanbe, the capital of the Tadzhik S.S.R. The valley is thickly populated, and cotton and other subtropical crops are grown. It is watered by the Gissar canal built during World War II, which is part of the extensive new irrigation systems constructed to increase the production of cotton in the Fergana (q.v.), Vakhsh and Gissar valleys. The town, at the head of a decarved out by the Kafirnigan river, a tributary of the AmuDarya, was once the capital of an independent region which was finally incorporated in the former emirate of Bukhara. It was formerlv famous for silks and damascened swords. (G. E. Wr.) (18S7-1903-), English GISSING, novelist, noted for the unflinching realism of his novels about the poorer middle classes, was born at Wakefield on Nov. 22, 18S7. Exceptionally precocious, he was educated at the Quaker boarding school of Alderley Edge and at Owens college, Manchester, where his academic career was brilliant. His personal life was, until the last few years, mostly unhappy. His two marriages the first to a prostitute and the second to a servant girl brought him little but misery and the need to live the life of near poverty and constant drudgery writing, reading and coaching described in the novels New Grub Street (1891) and The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903). Before he was 21 he had conceived the ambition of writing a long series of novels, somewhat in the manner of his admired Balzac. The first of these, Workers in the Dawn, appeared in 1880, to be followed by 21 others, of which Demos (1886), Thyrza (1887), The Nether World (1889), Born in Exile (1892), The Odd Women (1893), /n the Year of Jubilee (1894) and Eve's Ransom (1895) are, with the two mentioned above, the most notable. He also published several books of stories and sketches and Charles Dickens: a Critical Study (1898), a remarkably able and file

GEORGE ROBERT

—

— —

—

perceptive piece of literary criticism.

His friend H. G. Wells justly described Gissing as "a highly His work is serious though not without a good deal of comic observation linteresting. scrupulously honest and rather flat. It has a good deal of documentary interest, for he wrote in detail of aspects of lower'middle-class London life seldom described so accurately elsewhere. lOn the social position and psychology of women he is particularly iacute. He did not lack human sympathies, but his obvious dislike of and contempt for so many of his characters leaves a bitter taste and reflects an artistic limitation. Although not committed to a respected, but never very popular or prosperous writer."

—

ispecific

philosophical or political position (his cast of

mind was

independent to the point of eccentricity), Gissing was deeply critical, in an almost wholly negative way, of contemporary society. The vulgarity, ugliness and frustration of the life he is describing jemerge powerfully; his delineation of character and of individual imoral dilemmas is often penetrating; yet the total effect is some|what lacking in artistic vigour. Often he seems "got down" by the Iphilistinism he is describing. Yet there is little doubt that he has ibeen, in his lifetime and since his death, an underestimated writer deserving a more exalted reputation. Of his novels In the Year of \Jubilee gives perhaps the most impressive evidence of his powers. He was also a good classical scholar and kept up his studies in late

Roman

history and Italian antiquities.

;

Gissing to

Eduard Bertz (1961).

(Ad. C. K.)

GITTERN, a small medieval stringed instrument played with Early drawings and carvings and the sole surviving a plectrum. example (c. 1300) suggest that the body, neck and pegbox were usually carved from one solid block of wood. In the I6th century the name seems to have been used for the four-course guitar. See (E. Ha.)

Guitar.

GIULIO ROMANO: see Romano, Giulio. GIUNTA PISANO (d. 1255-1267), Italian painter,

a native

and according to some critics a pioneer who, coming from Tuscany to Assisi, influenced the development of Umbrian art. It is said that he painted in the upper church of Assisi, notably a of Pisa

"Crucifixion" dated 1236, with a figure of Father EUas, the general of the Franciscans, embracing the cross. This painting no longer exists. Three large Crucifixions are ascribed to the same master, whose signature can be traced on them. One is in SS. Raineri e

convent of St. Anna; completely overpainted; the third is in Sta. Maria degU AngeK at Assisi. In these paintings Christ is represented with his head leaning on one side with an expression of pain, and his body bending forward in agony conception differing from "the triumphant Christ" of the preced-

Leonardo

in Pisa

the other, in the

and was formerly

Museo

in the

Civico at Pisa,

is

—

ing age.

GIURGIU,

Bucharest regiunea (administrative People's RepubUc, the administrative centre of Giurgiu district, stands on the left bank of the Danube 40 mi. S.S.W. of Bucharest. Pop. (1960) 34,248. Giurgiu is an old Danube port tracing its origin to the ancient Genoese commercial settlement of San Giorgio founded during the decline of the Byzanregion) of the

a

town

in the

Rumanian

The first written reference to the town dates from 1394, during the reign of Mircea the Old. The ruins of a fort of In 1417 the town was conquered this period can still be seen. tine empire.

by the Turks, and

its

inhabitants were

made rayahs

{i.e.,

non-

Muslim Turkish subjects). Not until 1829, by the peace of AdrianIt was severely damaged ople, was it returned to Wallachia. during World War I. The main industries are shipyards, reconstructed during the late 1950s, and food and light industries; the town is also important as a rail terminus and as a juncUon for In 1954 a bridge was completed over the Ploesti oil pipe lines. Danube between Giurgiu and Ruse, connecting Rumania and Bulgaria.

GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE

(1809-1850), ItaUan poet whose saton Habsburg rule in Italy in the early years of the Risorgimento are still enjoyed for their literary merits, was born at Monsummano in Tuscany on May 13, 1809. After two periods as a law student at Pisa (1826-29 and 1832-34), he led an inires

conspicuous

life until

the revolution of 1848.

deputy in the two Tuscan Uved constituent assembly on March 31, 1850. Giusti's satirical script,

and the

legislative (till

poems were

first

He

then sat as a

assembhes and

April 1849).

He

in the shortdied in Florence

at first circulated only in

collections of them, Poesie italiane

manu(unau-

thorized, 1844) and Versi (1845; to be distinguished from the innocuous Leghorn edition, Versi di Giuseppe Giusti, 1844), had to be printed outside Italy, at Lugano and at Bastia, without His first notable satire. La ghigliottina a the author's name. Other satires were Lo stivale ("The vapore, dates from 1833. Boot," in allusion to the cartographical shape of the Italian peninsula) La terra dei morti, in protest against Lamartine's description ;

of Italy as the land of the dead; // brindisi di Girella; Gingillino, denouncing opportunist officials; II dies irae, on the death of the

Austrian emperor Francis I and Per I'incoronazione, on the coronation of the succeeding emperor. His masterpiece, however, is ;

— —

GIUSTINIANI— GJIROKASTER

438 Sant' Ambrogio (1847), a

poem

describing a

company

of Austrian

by deriding them but gives way to sympathy and a sense of solidarity with them as they join in a chorus by Verdi. Popular in their day because of their liberal, anti-Austrian ideas, their satire against the Tuscan grand duke and his agents and their patriotic expression of faith solciiers

—

:

:

at Mass, in which the poet begins

in Italy's resurgence, Giusti's satires

for their wit, their

can

still

be read with pleasure

humorous turns of phrase and

power of

their

EQs complete works, including some previously unpubUshed material, were edited by F. Martini (1924); selections were edited by P. Carli (1912). Bibliography.— E. Bellorini, Giuseppe Giusti (1923); M. Parent!, ridicule in characterization.

Bibliografia delle opere di Giuseppe Giusti, 2 vol. (19S1-S2) B. Croce, Poesia e non poesia (1923). (F. Dl.) ;

GIUSTINIANI, an Italian family name represented in Venice, Genoa, Naples, Corsica and various Greek islands. A Venetian branch first became prominent and gave a doge to the repubhc in the 17th century. A Genoese branch, probably unrelated to the Venetian line, became rich and powerful in the late 14th century, when it amalgamated with other families sharing with it the government and exploitation of the island of Chios. In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention Lorenzo (1380-1456) entered the congregation of the canons of St. George in Alga and in 1433 became general of that order. Eugenius IV made him bishop of Venice; the removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice in 1451 made him the first patriarch of the town. He was canonized by Alexander VIII (St. Laurence Giustiniani; feast day Sept. 5). His works, remarkable for their mystical fervour, were reprinted by the Benedictine P. N. A. Giustiniani (2 vol., 1751). Leonardo (1388-1446), brother of Lorenzo, was for years a senator of Venice and in 1443 was chosen procurator of St. Mark. His fame rests on his translations and original writings in Latin and Greek and more especially on his popular poems, amatory and religious, in Italian (with a fresh, lively Venetian strain). The songs, set to music by him, became known as Giustiniane. B. Wiese published Poesie edite e inedite di Leonardo Giustiniani (1883). Bernardo (1408-1489), son of Leonardo, entered the Venetian senate and served on diplomatic missions to France and Rome; about 1485 he became one of the Council of Ten. He wrote a history of Venice, De origine urbis Venetarum rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia (1492; Ital. trans. 1545). It is to be found in vol. i of the Thesaurus of Graevius. Pietro, also a senator, lived in the 16th century and wrote a Historia rerum Venetarum in continuation of Bernardo. He also wrote chronicles De gestis Petri Mocenigi and De bello Venetorum cum Carolo VIII {Rer. Ital. Script., vol. xxi). Orsatto (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and author of a collection of Rime in imitation of Petrarch, was one of the latest representatives of the classic Italian school.

Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent members were the following

Agostino (1470-1536) was born at Genoa and, after joining the Dominicans in 1487, studied Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic; in 1514 he began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the Bible. As bishop of Nebbio, Corsica, he took part in the earher sittings of the Lateran council (1516-17) but, in consequence of party complications, withdrew to his diocese and ultimately to France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I and was the first to occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the University of Paris. He became acquainted with Erasmus and More and returned to Nebbio about 1522. He bequeathed his fine hbrary to the republic of Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter was published {Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabiciim, et Chaldaicum, Genoa, 1516). Besides an edition of Job, containing the original text, the Vulgate

and a new translation, he published a Latin version of the Guide of the Perplexed of Maimonides Director dubitantium aut perplexarum, 1520) and also edited in Latin the Aureus libellus of Aeneas Platonicus and the Timaeiis of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa (Castigatissimi annali di Genova) were published posthumously inlS37. (

Pompeo (1569-1616) was a native of Corsica, who served under Alessandro Farnese and under Ambrogio Spinola in the Low Coun-j tries, where he lost an arm and hence came to be known by tha sobriquet Bras de Fer. He defended Crete against the Turks, fought the Austrians and was killed in Friuli. He left in Italian a personal narrative of the war in Flanders, repeatedly published in Latin {Bellum Belgicum, 1609). Geronimo, a Genoese (16th century), translated the Alcestis of Euripides and three of the plays of Sophocles; he wrote two original tragedies, Jephte

ViNCENZo, who 17th century,

The

and Christo

made

in Passione.

Roman

palace in the beginning of the the art collection associated with his name.

built the

was removed in 1807 to Paris, and in 1815 all that remained of it, about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king of Prussia and removed to the Berlin royal museum. (R. S. L.) GIZA (Gizeh; al Jizah), a town of upper Egypt and capital of Giza governorate, stands on the west bank of the Nile opposite Cairo, with which it is connected by bridges across the islands of Rawdah (Roda) and Al Zamalik (Gezira). Pop. (1957) 208,667. Giza, which is the seat of Cairo university and has extensive zoological and botanical gardens, grew rapidly after 1945 as a dormitory town of Cairo. Its industries include the manufacture of cotton textiles, footwear, beer and bricks. Giza is also the principal seat of the Egyptian motion-picture industry. A wide straight fivemile motor road and tramway lead westward to the famous pyramids of Giza. Giza Governorate consists of the narrow strip of cultivated land flanking the Nile, bounded north by the Rosetta branch and south by Bani Suwayf governorate. Pop. (1960 census) 1,337,000. Area 387 sq.mi. This strip contains many antiquities, particularly the chain of pyramids west of the Nile between Giza and Dahshur, and includes the great sphinx, the Giza and Abu Sir pyramids, the Saqqarah step pyramid and Memphis. Across the Nile from this great necropolis are the limestone quarries of Tura (10 mi. S. of Cairo) from which much of the building material was obtained. Limestone is still quarried nearby for large cement works (Tura, Ma'sarah, Hulwan) but the principal occupation is agriculture, which occupies about 55% of the employed population and all the collection

The population density of 2,900 per square mile one of the highest in Egypt. The chief crops are maize (corn), cotton, wheat and millet. At Al Hawamidiyah, just south of Tura, is a large sugar refinery (the only one in Egypt), and the by-product molasses is distilled for alcohol. (For the antiquities see Egyptian Architecture.) irrigable land. is

(A. B.

GJELLERUP, KARL ADOLPH poet and novehst

who shared

Henrik Pontoppidan

in 1917.

M.)

(1857-1919), Danish

the Nobel prize for Uterature with

Born

at Roholte, Zealand,

on June

1857, he studied theology, although already an atheist; and, strongly influenced by Georg Brandes and Darwinism, wrote novels expressing optimistic radicalism En Idealist (1878) and Ger2,

maneryies Laerling (1882). Travel broadened his outlook and he reacted against naturahsm, developing an ideahstic philosophy incorporating elements derived from Schiller, Schopenhauer, Wagner

and Buddhism. He settled in Germany in 1892 and wrote many of his later works in German, often using Germanic and classical, or Indian themes and settings. His works include novels Die Opferjeuer (1903), Pilgrimen Kamanita (1906; Eng. trans, by Brynhild J. E. Logie, The Pilgrim Kamanita, 1911); plays He died at (1884), Wuthhorn (1893); and verse in Danish. Klotzsche near Dresden, Oct.

GJIROKASTER

11, 1919.

(Gjinokaster; Gr. Argyrokastron), a town of southern Albania and centre of an administrative division, hes about 1,150 ft. above sea level on the eastern slope of the Mali Gjere ("broad mountain"), overlooking the wide DhropuU valley, 66 mi. S.E. of Vlore by road. Pop. (1960) 14,000, part Muslim and part Orthodox. Its picturesque latticed houses sprawl across the spurs of the mountainside and are dominated by the fortress built by Ah Pasha after his capture of the place in 1811. The fortress is well preserved and has latterly been used as a prison. After the Balkan Wars (1912-13), the town was claimed by Greece until the occupation by Italian forces (191S-

—

GLABER—GLACIER

Seized, like the rest of Albania,

20).

captured by the Greek

army on Dec.

8,

by

Italy in 1939,

it

was

1940, and held until Ger-

many's Balkan campaign the following April. The town is a centre of the Bektashi Muslims. It possibly occupies the site of the ancient Hadrianopolis. (D. R. O.-H.) (c 985-c. 1047), French monk and GLABER, He entered the monastery of chronicler, was born near Auxerre. St. Leger at Champeaux as an oblate, but he had little inclination for religious hfe and his notable instability took him from monasHe was befriended by William of Volpiano, tery to monastery. abbot of St. Benigne at Dijon, who took him to Italy (1028-29). After William's death, however, Glaber went to Cluny, and it was to Odilo, abbot of Cluny, that he dedicated the five books of his Historiae. Finally, about 1035 he returned to St. Germain d'Auxerre, where he had already spent some time at an earlier stage. He died there about 1047. Glaber's work is of scant historical value since he paid no regard ;o chronology. Nevertheless, by its wealth of curious detail it prondes, useful colour and is the only source for much of the 11th-

RADULFUS

Germany, of Italy and, especially, of France, rhere is an edition by M. Prou, Raoul Glaber: Les Cinq Livres de :es "Histoires" (900-1044) (1886). (J. De.) :entury history of

GLACE BAY,

a town and port, the chief coal-mining centre Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia, on the Atlantic ocean. The .own is 14 mi. E. of Sydney, with which it is connected by railway, roal mining dates from 1720 and major operations from 1858. rhe rich bituminous seams dip seaward for four miles. The popuation of the municipality, including the town of Glace Bay and its suburbs, was 37,246 in 1961. Large fishing fleets, particularly ior swordfishing, are stationed there. Marconi sent a transatlantic !vireless message from Glace Bay in 1902. (C. W. Rd.) GLACIAL EPOCH: see Pleistocene Epoch. GLACIER, a body of ice originating on land by compaction iind recrystallization of snow and showing evidence of present or past movement. Glaciers occur where snowfall in winter exceeds |nelting in summer, conditions which prevail only in high mountain beas and polar regions at present. Because they are restricted !o cold, remote places, glaciers are less familiar to most persons 'han are rivers, lakes and other kinds of hydrologic phenomena. )f

1

Nonetheless, glaciers are extremely important features because ;)f the direct and indirect effects on the earth and its inhabitants

from the presence of extensive ice-covered areas. Glaciers occupy a total of 5,800,000 sq.mi,, or 10% of the iarth's land surface, an area nearly as large as South America. !)f the present area of glaciers 96% is concentrated in Antarctica

iesulting 1

ind

Greenland, and the remainder is widely scattered on all conexcept Australia, and on many islands in high latitudes.

inents,

volume of

not known, but conservative estiice to incase the entire earth 1 a mantle between 100 and 200 ft. thick. Variations in the existjig amount of glacier ice are highly critical to man because apIreciable changes, either increases or decreases, would adversely "he exact

glaciers

lates suggest that there is

ffect "or

the distribution of people and their economic relationships.

example,

ise in

if all

ft.

the world.

Types of Glaciers re

were to melt, the resulting would submerge every major

existing glacier ice

sea level of about 200

toastal city in

:re

is

enough

Ice Sheets.— The largest glaciers, which

huge areas and in many cases thick enough to bury entire mountain ranges except for the

called ice sheets or icecaps, cover

lighest peaks.

Practically

1,000,000 sq.mi.

is

lore in thickness.

all

of Antarctica, an area of

covered by an The Greenland

ice sheet locally ice sheet

more than

8,000

ft.

,or

covers about 650,000

and has a maximum measured thickness of nearly 11,000 Smaller ice sheets occur on Iceland, Spitsbergen and several f. ther arctic islands, and still smaller ones in the highlands of iq.mi.

forway.

—

Valley Glaciers. Ice streams which flow down mountain valleys valley glaciers. The Alps, Rockies, Himalayas and other igh ranges of the world contain many glaciers of this kind. The I

^e

inallest

valley glaciers are thin patches of ice covering only a of a square mile. And at the other extreme is Beardmore acier in the antarctic which is about 120 mi. long and 25 mi. wide.

I'action

Hubbard

439

glacier in Alaska

glaciers are 1,000 to 3,000

—

is

about 75 mi. long.

ft.

Many large

valley

thick.

Piedmont Glaciers. A third and more rare type, intermediate between valley glaciers and ice sheets, are piedmont glaciers. They are valley glaciers which spread laterally over the lowland at the foot of a mountain range. The Malaspina and Bering glaciers in Alaska, each of which covers about 1,500 sq.mi., are splendid examples. Differences in size between these three types of glaciers depend on climatic factors which determine the amount of snow that accumulates. Differences in form result from the fact that glacier ice flows and thus can mold its form according to the topography. How Glaciers Form.— Glaciers originate in snow fields. The lower limit of perennial snow fields is called the snow line. The snow Une is at sea level in polar regions and rises gradually toward

The maximum altitude of the snow line (about 20,000 occurs not at the equator but in the dry horse latitudes between 20° and 30° north and south of the equator. Climatic conditions, which are determined by geographic position and altitude, affect both winter snowfall and summer melting, and thus are the the equator. ft.)

major factors

snow fields and glaciers. It some very cold but dry areas have no glaciers whereas other warmer areas with abundant snowfall support large is

affecting locations of

for this reason that

glaciers.

As snow

fields

grow

in thickness, solid ice is

formed through

gradual recrystallization of the accumulated snow. In the first step, which takes place near the surface, melting, evaporation and

compaction transform fluffy flakes of new-fallen snow into a porous mass of small, rounded granules called firn or neve. This stage in the change of snow to sohd ice can be seen in any melting snowdrift. The weight of snow which accumulates year after year buries the firn of previous years to greater and greater depths. The increasing pressure causes melting and recrystallization at the edges of grains until ice is

all air

space

is

gone, and solid crystalline

formed.

The thickness

of snow, firn and ice can continue to increase only is exceeded by the pressure exerted by the

until the strength of ice

weight of the accumulation, at which point movement begins. As a result of the pressure from above, ice at the bottom moves in much the same way that cold molasses or tar will flow. Although ice in small pieces is a brittle substance incapable of flowing, ice

under

sufficient pressure

behaves as a plastic material and flows

The thickness required to initiate somewhat depending on slope of the land surface, temperature of the ice and other factors, but some flow occurs in readily though quite slowly.

movement

varies

masses as little as 50 ft. thick. Flowage causes a glacier to move downward or laterally into a zone where losses exceed annual accumulation of snow. If the glacier descends below the snow hne, losses are due mostly to melting and evaporation, but where a glacier extends into the sea much of the wastage may result from breaking off of icebergs which float away. Thus, the size of a glacier and also variations in its size depend on the degree of balance between accumulation and wastage rates. A glacier which is in equilibrium (a rare condition) does not fluctuate in size because flowage from the zone of accumulation exactly compensates for losses sustained in the zone ice

of wastage. Glaciers move so slowly that the motion cannot be seen, but the speed of movement can be estimated in various ways. For

example, there are many records of the bodies of mountaineers buried by avalanches in the Alps having been carried several miles to a glacier terminus in a few decades. Likewise, the movement of large rocks or other objects on a glacier surface can be determined by successive observations or measurements from some fi.xed point off the ice. Somewhat more precise ways of measuring glacier speeds include drilling deep holes in the ice and inserting pipes which are progressively deformed, or by setting up rows of stakes and measuring their movement by surveying techniques. Maximum velocities up to 150 ft. per day have been recorded, but a few inches or a few feet per day are more typical.

The various parts of a glacier move at different rates. Movement of a valley glacier is similar to the flow of a river in that

!

GLACIER BAY NATIONAL MONUMExNT

440

velocities are greater in the centre than near the edges, as is shown by the fact that a straight row of stakes soon becomes curved. Ordinarily flow is more rapid in the middle part of a glacier than

near

its

head or terminus.

The upper lOO

to 200

ft.

of a glacier

is

composed of rigid, brittle ice which does not flow but is carried along by the mobile ice underneath. This brittle zone fractures easily and is characterized by long cracks called crevasses, which are caused by forces that result from different rates of flow in various parts of the underljing ice. Especially at places where the gradient of the bedrock floor changes abruptly, the upper surface of the glacier may be broken into a jumbled maze of ice

ptmiacles called seracs. Effects of Glaciation.

—

Sharp are much more rugged than nonglaciated mountains. pointed peaks like the Matterhom in Switzerland and deep,

U-shaped valleys like Yosemite in the Sierra Nevada of California The fjords of Norway, their form mainly to glaciation. Patagonia and Alaska are glaciated valleys now partiaUy sub-

owe

A

sea.

glacier abrades

and pohshes the bedrock

floor over

which

it

passes; rocks and sand pushed along by the ice have the effect Frost action, landsliding of a giant rasp or piece of sandpaper. and avalanching carry rock debris onto a glacier surface from the

land protruding above it. The material carried by a glacier ranges from house-sized boulders to clay particles, ^^hen the glacier melts all of this material is laid down as an unsorted deposit called At the terminus of a glacier the melting ice till or boulder clay. form of mounds and ridges referred to as a the in load drops its Valley glaciers also commonly have lateral moraines between the edge of the ice and the valley walls, and medial moraines formed by confluence of tributary- glaciers that have lateral moraines. terminal moraine.

DrumUns

are clusters of elongate hills oriented parallel to movement; they are composed of till laid

the direction of ice

down near

the margins of large ice sheets. Much of the material laid down by glaciers is reworked by meltwater streams, which build outwash plains and outwash terraces composed of stratified sand and gravel. Kettles are depressions

on outwash plains formed by melting of ice blocks buried in the outwash deposits. Eskers are winding ridges of straufied gravel and sand believed to have been deposited by subglacial streams. Former Periods of Glaciation. Present-day glaciers are in part renmants left over from the Ice Age or Pleistocene epoch (q.v.). when the ice-covered area of the earth was three times its present size (see also Max. Evolution of: Estimation of Geological Antiquity). The anUrcdc and Greenland ghciers were not much larger then than now. but large areas in North America and

—

Europe were covered by ice sheets. Exactly when Pleistocene glaciation began is not known, but probably less than i. 000.000 years ago. Available e\-idence indicates that there were at least four major glacial periods, separated by intervals when the climate was warmer than at present. So far as can be determined by use of the radiocarbon method for dating wood and other organic matter found in glacial deposits, the last major ice advance in North America and Europe culminated about 18.000 years ago. At this time the snow line was 1.200 to 1.400 ft. lower than at present and

may

have been about 14° F. cooler. Final shrinkage of the North American and European ice sheets began about 11.000 years ago. and by 3000 B.C. glaciers were less extensive than at present, .\fter 2000 B.C. glaciers again expanded slightly and in most parts of the worid attained sizes slightly greater than during the 17th and iSth centuries. Warmer cUmate during the last half of the 19th centur>-. and especially the first half of the 20th centur>-. caused extensive shrinkage of glaciers throughout

mean annual temperature

the world.

Indirect effects of the glacial erosion and deposition. Pleistocene glacial episode extend far from the areas actually covered by ice. Belts of sand dunes and blankets of wind-blown silt, called' loess (q.v.) occupy large areas south of the boundaries

formed by

of the former

North American and European

ice sheets.

Terraces caused by variauons in stream load accompan>-ing

Glaciers are the most powerful of all erosional agencies and their special effects on land features commonly are both distinctive and specucular. Glaciated mountains

merged by the

with till and characterized by typical glacial land forms, including Drainage features reflect inmoraines, dnmilins and eskers. fluences of glaciadon in that the courses of some rivers, as the Missouri, were determined by the position of the glacier margin; furthermore, the thousands of lakes and swamps in Canada and the northern United States and in northern Europe occupy basins

Although recession has been the general rule during few glaciers have either advanced or remained es-

this period, a

sentially stable.

Not only are remnants of Pleistocene glaciers still present, but also the landscape over wide areas bears the direct or indirect imprint of glaciation. .\reas that were covered by ice are strewn

glaciation

and deglaciation are prominent features

in

many

valleys.

Terraces were also formed along the coast as a result of sea levd Large: fluctuations during glaciauons and interglacial periods. lakes developed in regions now arid, as a result of greater precipitartion and less evaporation during glacial times: Great Salt Lake (q.f.') is a remnant of a formerly much larger body referred to as

Lake BonnevUle (see also Ut.\hV Before the Pleistocene Ice Age, there were two earlier majorked 16 hours a day. Under Peel's supervision he embarked on a major simplification f the tariff; the duties on no fewer than 7S0 articles were reloved or reduced in 1842. While mastering the complexities of Ills subject Gladstone became indeed a more thoroughgoing free ader than Peel himself. The prime minister felt that Gladstone

loadstone, '.ord

m

443

was outstanding among all the promising young men in the government; said that a more admirable combination of ability, knowledge, temper and discretion had never before been exhibited in parliament; and in May 1843 invited him into the cabinet as president of the board of trade. Gladstone accepted, after characteristic hesitations about a proposal to amalgamate two Welsh bishoprics, and continued the

work

of improving the commercial structure of the country. The Railway act of 1844, prepared under his direction, compelled all lines to carry passengers in covered coaches, once a day at least, at a charge of not more than \d. a mile and made provision for eventual state purchase of railway lines. Among other useful tasks, he much improved working conditions for coal heavers in the London docks. Early in 1845, when the cabinet proposed to increase the state grant to the Irish

—

Roman

Catholic college at

Maynooth, Gladstone resigned not because he did not approve of the increase, but because it went against the views he had pubPlain men found his reason for resignAt the end of the year he rejoined the cabinet as

lished seven years before.

ing pernickety.

secretary of state for the colonies. This legally involved the resignation of his seat at Newark. As he was by now a convinced free trader, and the duke of Newcastle was a protectionist, he

could not win it again, and for various reasons he did not contest any of the half-dozen possible seats suggested to him by the Conservative whip. For six months, till Peel's government fell in June 1846, he was in oSice, but not in parliament a position of doubtful constitutional propriety. Absence from the commons had an effect of importance to him he was unable to make any personal reply to Disraeli's onslaughts on Peel. While he was at the colonial office he was led nearer to liberalism by being forced to consider the claims of English-speaking colonists to govern themselves, but he was there too short a time to make any useful mark on colonial policy. Private Preoccupations The Glynne family estates were deeply involved in the financial panic of 1847. For several years Gladstone was concerned with extricating them, devoting his customary energy to the intricacies of industrial investment and land tenure; dull as this work must have been at the time, it gave him a stUl fuller insight into practical economics, which helped him later when he was chancellor of the exchequer. In the course of these operations he became the largest landlord in the county of Flint. At about the same time he began, with singular simplicity, a habit of charitable work which was open to a great deal of misconstruction; he often tried, in the streets of London, to persuade prostitutes to enter a home which he and his wife maintained, or in some other way to take up a different way of life. He spent much time and money on these efforts till well past his 80th birthday. Another private matter that absorbed a great deal of his attention was the conversion of his younger sister to the Roman Cathohc church; this pained him even more acutely than any of the political separations that befell him. Several of his closest Oxford friends were among the Anglicans who left the Church of England for the Church of Rome under the impact of the Oxford movement and the Gorham judgment {see Manning, Henry Edward). Gladstone had been brought up by an evangelical mother; he had moved over to a high Anglican position when in Italy just after leaving Oxford, and once he had

—

:

—

reached it he retained it. Neither affection nor argumentative skill could ever persuade him to become a Roman Catholic himself, but the suspicion that he was one dogged him, and was used against him from time to time by political and clerical adversaries. Of these he had many in the University of Oxford, for which he was elected M.P., to his great delight, in Aug. 1847. He scandalized many of his new constituents at once by voting for the admission of Jews to parliament, and many more by his tolerant opposition to

Lord John Russell's

Ecclesiastical Titles act of 1851.

Gladstone made his first weighty speech on foreign affairs in June 1850, opposing Lord Palmerston in the Pacifico debate. That autumn he paid a private visit to Naples and called on a learned friend, who turned out to be in prison. Already an experienced prison visitor, he was so appalled by the conditions that he found in the Neapolitan prisons that when he returned to London next

GLADSTONE

444

February he could talk of little else. Brushing aside a request to join a proposed protectionist government, he appealed to Lord Aberdeen, the leader of his Peelite friends, to use his influence to help the

many thousands

of starving political prisoners Glad-

stone had seen living chained to criminals in underground dungeons. Aberdeen took time in consulting powerful acquaintances So in July 1851 Gladstone in Vienna; nothing was actually done. published two trenchant Letters to Lord Aberdeen which described what he had seen and appealed to all Conservatives to set an The results were far from what he had desired. iniquity right. For the time, the Neapolitan prisoners were treated even worse than before, and most Conservatives, all over Europe, were deaf But Palmerston circulated the Letters to all the to his appeal. British missions on the continent,

who heard

of them.

and they delighted every

liberal

—

Financial Policy. For nine years after Peel's death in 1850 Gladstone's pohtical position was seldom comfortable and sometimes embarrassing. One of the most eminent of the dwindling band of distinguished Peelites, he was mistrusted by the leaders of both the main parties, and distrusted some of them particularly

—

—

Palmerston and the protectionist Disraeli in his turn. He refused to join Lord Derby's government in 1852. At the end of that year, by a brilliant attack on Disraeli's budget, he brought the government down; and he took a long stride forward in public estimation as a result, for he joined Aberdeen's coalition as chancellor of the exchequer. His first budget speech on April 18, 1853, gave the country in Greville's words "the assurance of a man equal to great political necessities, and fit to lead Parties and direct Governments." In his bold and comprehensive plan he made further large reductions in duties, propounded the eventual elimination of the income tax, and with considerable political courage revived and carried a scheme that Pitt had not been strong enough to carry in 1796 for the extension of the legacy duty to real propEvery other member of the cabinet at first opposed this erty.

proposal, and he converted them all. His budget provided the backbone of the coalition's success in 1853, a year in which he spent much time in arranging for competiHe was also busy preparing the tive entry into the civil service.

Oxford University act passed in the following year; this local preoccupation kept him from taking any detailed interest in the events which led up to the Crimean War. He defended the war, then and thereafter, as necessary at its inception for the defense of the public law of Europe; but of course its outbreak deranged his financial plans. He determined to pay for it as far as possible by from Id. to \s. 2d. in 1854. taxation, and doubled the income tax When Aberdeen fell in Jan. 1855 Gladstone agreed to join Palmerston's cabinet, but resigned three weeks later with two other Peelites, Sir James Graham and Sidney Herbert, sooner than accept J. A. Roebuck's committee of inquiry. This action was no

—

—

readily explicable to ordinary men than his resignation ten years earlier had been, and he was for a time unpopular in the country. He made himself more unpopular still by speeches in parliament in the summer of 1855 in which he held that the war was no longer justified, as its proper objects had already been attained. Meanwhile his imagination was still haunted by the horrors

more

He

helped finance a quixotic project, which Palmerston aided with £500 from secret service funds a steamer with an armed crew was dispatched to rescue some Neapolitan prisoners confined

of Naples.

;

on a Mediterranean island. The good and the harm that might have come of this voyage were alike averted when the vessel sank on the way. Gladstone always kept up his reading in classical studies, as well as in theology and Italian poetry; and used his leisure out of ofiice to prepare a long book. Homer and the Homeric Age (3 vol., 1858), which suggested that ancient Greek life had been designed by providence to show men how they should behave to each other. He helped to defeat Palmerston in the commons by a speech on China in March 1857; and later that year opposed the Divorce bill on religious grounds with such persistency that he was accused long afterward of having invented parliamentary obstruction himself. He twice refused to join Derby's government in 1858, in spite of a generous letter from Disraeli, but accepted

offer to visit the Ionian Islands protectorate as lord high commissioner in the winter of 1858-59, a journey that produced no

an

useful results.

In June 1859 Gladstone gave a silent, unavaihng vote for Derby's Conservative government on a confidence motion, and caused surprise by joining Palmerston's Whig cabinet as chancellor of the exchequer a week later. His sole, but overwhelming, reason for joining a statesman he neither liked nor trusted was the critical state of the Italian question. The triumvirate of Palmerston, Russell and Gladstone did indeed help over the next 18 months to secure the unification of almost all Italy, but on other matters the cabinet

was much divided. Gladstone was constantly at issue with his prime minister over spending on defense. By prolonged efforts, he managed to get the service estimates down by 1866 to a lower figure than that for 1859. He took little other part in the government's foreign policy, except for an unfortunate and unauthorized reference to the seceding American states as "a nation" in Oct. 1862. The national economy responded well to his policies at the exchequer, which included the abolition of a further 370 duties by the celebrated budget of 1860. Two other financial measures of that year were

important: the Anglo-French trade treaty, a project of Richard Cobden's which Gladstone warmly supported, and which shortly doubled the value of Anglo-French trade; and Gladstone's proposal to abolish the duties on paper, which to Palmerston's ill-concealed delight the house of lords rejected. Next year Gladstone repeated the proposal, this time including it with all the other budget arrangements in a single finance bill which the lords dared not amend, a procedure that has been followed ever since. Another particularly useful step was the creation of the post oflfice savings bank. These measures brought him into increased contact, and increased!

popularity, with the leaders of working-class opinion; journeys round the main centres of industry did the same. A few words

commons on May 11, 1864, were widely interpreted] outside as a declaration of belief in practically universal suffrage; seen in their context, they are not quite so extreme. They ara of his in the

worth quoting, with their context, as an example of his characterisj ! tic tendency to qualification: I

venture to say that every

man who

is

not presumably incapacitate

by some consideration of personal unfitness or of political danger i| morally entitled to come within the pale of the Constitution. (M course, in giving utterance to such a proposition, I do not recede froiB the protest 1 have previously made against sudden, or violent, of excessive, or into.\icating change. 1

In the general election of July 1865 Gladstone was defeated ai Oxford, but just secured a seat in south Lancashire; the sadness of the defeat was atoned for in some degree by a contact with a popu4 When Palmerstoij lar constituency which he found refreshing. died in October and Russell became prime minister, Gladston^ took over the leadership of the house of commons, while remaining He was not well suited for the new post; he at the exchequer. was too busy to spend much time in making himself agreeable tfl

backbenchers, and while Whigs distrusted him as a former Cow servative, Conservatives distrusted him as a renegade, and radicals as a churchman.

By now quite convinced of the need for a further reform oi parliament, he introduced a bill for the moderate extension of the Violently attacked by Robert Lowe franchise in March 1866. in committee in June, and the whole government rfr Next year Disraeli introduced another moderate Refonr bill; and this passed, but not until John Bright and Gladstone hac transformed it in committee into a stronger one that gave a vot( to most householders in boroughs. Disraeli became prime minis* ter early in 1868. Gladstone, two months later, carried against hin

it

foundered

signed.

in the

commons

three resolutions calling for the disestablishment That autumn in A Chapter

of the Protestant church in Ireland.

of Autobiography he explained the reasons that had led him so fai from the conclusions of his first book. Russell had by now re? signed from active politics, and it was to Gladstone that the Liberal

whips looked for instructions during the general election at th( end of the year. Though Gladstone lost his Lancashire seat, hi was returned for Greenwich; and the Liberal party won handj somely in the country as a whole. His abilities had made him iti

GLADSTONE and Queen Victoria called on him to form

[dispensable leader,

government when Disraeli resigned. First Administration.

— Gladstone's

first

cabinet (1868-74)

most capable of the century. Its prime minister Peel and unlike Palmerston or Disraeli, to supervise the

as perhaps the ied, like

ork of each department, while giving close attention to church )pointments and devoting his main efforts to Irish and foreign slicy. The Irish church was successfully disestablished in 1869,

attempt to grapple with Irish land was made in 1870; act of that year almost broke up the cabinet, and Abroad, an attempt to promote as emasculated by the lords. sarmament in 1869 failed, as Bismarck refused to consider it. he Franco-German War took the government completely by surise, and the cabinet would not allow Gladstone to propose to russia the neutralization of Alsace and Lorraine. The principal :hievements of 1871 and 1872, the London declaration by the eat powers that they would not in future abrogate treaties withid a first

Land

It

the

it

the consent of

ation of the

all

the signatories, and the settlement

"Alabama" claim

by

arbi-

of the United States, look well

The

retrospect but were thought pusillanimous at the time.

reforms at home were administrative, except for the ducation act of 1870 and the Ballot act of 1872; these meas•es supplemented the work of parliamentary reform, but angonized opposite wings of the Liberal party. When an Irish niversity bill failed by three votes to pass the commons in March >73, Gladstone resigned, but was forced back into office by Diseli. In August he had to reshuffle his cabinet, and again took on e chancellorship of the exchequer himself. Fascinated by anher plan to abolish income tax altogether, he dissolved parliaent suddenly in Jan. 1874, but his party was heavily defeated, id his government resigned. As far back as 185S he had writost useful

n: "Public Life

full of

is

snares and dangers, and I think

arful thing for a Christian to look

forward to closing his

it

a

life in

midst of its (to me at least) essentially fevered activity." So gave up the Liberal party leadership, though he remained M.P. r Greenwich; and retired to Ha warden, to write pamphlets atcking papal infallibility and articles on Homer. Bulgarian Atrocities. The indifference of Disraeli's governe

I

—

ent to the brutality of Turkish reprisals against risings in the

1875-76 brought Gladstone back to active politics. For any years he had held that the only just solution to Balkan oblems was to hand the peninsula over to its indigenous inibitants. Now, in Sept. 1876, he published a famous pamphlet Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East which demanded at the Turkish irregulars should remove themselves, "one and all, ig and baggage, from the province they have desolated and ofaned." He took the lead in stirring popular indignation ;ainst the government's bellicose eastern policy but it was uphill Drk. London society and the London mob were both against m; the queen, under the blandishments of her prime minister, rongly disapproved the Whiggish elements in his own party were kewarm or indifferent at first; and only some radicals, with whom had little in common, supported him hotly. He paid too little tention to the embarrassment he was causing the Liberal party ader. Lord Granville. Yet in the end he triumphed. He gave up his Greenwich seat, and stood for the Scottish >unty of Midlothian against a sitting Conservative who was heir the greatest local magnate. In two tremendous outbursts of atory in Nov. 1879 and March 1880, Gladstone secured his own turn to parliament, but he also did much more: he overthrew a 'Vemment. The general election of March and April 1880 had more, and the whole more ardent, contests than any before, and it was lis one man's eloquence that decided the result and secured a rge Liberal majority. The feat is unique. Gladstone was able, manifest sincerity and skill of argument combined, to convince jnajority of the electorate all over the kingdom that recent Conip'ative policy had been morally wrong, and the Conservative Svernment had to resign. jSecond Administration.— In his second administration 1880-85) Gladstone foolishly combined again for two and a half ars the duties of prime minister with those of chancellor of the ilkans in

1

;

»

;'

.

.

.

;

;

445

exchequer. Party lines had not yet set firm, and his large apparent majority in the commons was unruly; for example, he was dogged by the tiresome controversy over Charles Bradlaugh; and it was not till 1884 that he could introduce the measure for which most Liberals had been pressing, a third Reform act that nearly

doubled the electorate by giving votes to householders in country districts. This measure was passed only after a stiff quarrel with the house of lords. Gladstone had hoped to settle the eastern question quickly, and then retire. As it was, he and Granville,

manage by a brusque naval threat to compel Turkey to cede Thessaly to Greece; yet Granville would not let him go on to give up Cyprus, as the government had already been weakened by other questions and had vital work still before it. There was, again, an appearance of weakness in what can now be recognized as Gladstone's magnanimous attitude to the Transvaal Boers after Majuba {see South Africa, Republic of: History) and there were still graver troubles in Ireland, in the throes the foreign secretary, did

;

of agricultural catastrophe.

Land

The exceedingly complicated Irish own work, did promote in

act of 1881, largely Gladstone's

the long run the prosperity of the Irish peasant continued, culminating in the murder on May

but violent crime 1882, of Gladstone's close friend and nephew-in-law Lord Frederick Cavendish, whom he had just sent to Dubhn as chief secretary in the hope that a settlement could be reached. No alternatives were left to strong pohce powers in Ireland and measures to restrict the free-

dom

of Irish

members

to obstruct the

work

;

6,

of the

commons;

Gladstone hated both, but had to sanction them.

A

imbrogho came to overshadow the other two, unavoidable decisions compelled the cabinet to authorize the occupation of Egj^it in 1882. Gladstone's settlement of the Egyptian debt question (1885) was honourable to his belief in the concert of Europe, but had the unintended effect of tying British foreign policy to German. The worst mistakes he ever made were to allow Gen. C. G. Gordon, whom he never met, to go to Khartoum, and then to fail to rescue him; Gordon was killed in Jan. 1885, and his death cost Gladstone much in popularity. Firm handling of a dispute with Russia over the northern borders of Afghanistan did something to restore his prestige; but when the government was defeated on the budget in June 1885 he was glad to resign. He refused a gracefully worded offer of an earldom from the queen. Irish Home Rule. ^Though he had only spent three weeks in Ireland in his life (in 1877), Gladstone had historical insight and imaginative sympathy enough to appreciate the full force of Irish nationalism. For many years he had looked favourably on the case for Irish Home Rule, that is, for a subordinate parliament in Dublin, as his close colleagues knew. In the autumn of 1885 he believed the time for it was ripe; but as a combination of Irish with Conservative votes had defeated him in June, he waited silently to see what an Irish-Conservative combination would produce. Before the general election of Nov.-Dec. 1885 the radical leader Joseph Chamberlain, whom Gladstone never much liked or understood at all, secured the allegiance of enough of the new voters in the countryside for his "unauthorized program" to produce a paradoxical result in the new parhament the Liberal members exactly equaled the total of Conservatives plus Irish. At this moment an indiscretion by Gladstone's youngest son revealed his father's conversion to Home Rule, and most Conservatives therefore turned against it. Lord Sahsbury's government was defeated when parliament met, and Gladstone formed his third cabinet in Feb. 1886. His Home Rule bill was rejected in parliament in June by a large secession of Whigs under Lord Frederick Cavendish's brother Lord Hartington, and in the country at a general election in July, and Gladstone resigned office. He had kept his Midlothian seat, unopposed, and carried with him into the new parliament a personal following 190 strong, supported by the National Liberal federation, the most powerful political machine in the country. He devoted the next six years to an effort to convince the British electorate that to grant Home Rule to the Irish nation would be an act of justice and wisdom. This policy was auhorrent to the English upper classes, and for the first time a marked class division between the leading parties third imperial

when a

series of

—

:

—

GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET— GLAMIS

446

the opened. At the jubilee of 1887 Gladstone was cheered from pavements but hissed from the balconies. The act was symbolic of the of the position he had now reached, of the great popular hero His reputation stood higher with Scotsmen, Irishmen and age. Welshmen than with Englishmen, except for the English Nonconformists, to whom his tendency to regard and describe great poportraits of litical questions as moral ones made a strong appeal; him were far commoner in poor men's cottages than those of any other political leader. He spoke at many great meetings, and cooperated with the Irish leader C. S. Parnell (g.v.). But his judgment did not improve as he got older, and in 1890, when he was

over 80, momentary excitement led him into a dangerous quarrel with Parnell about the political consequences of the O'Shea divorce. (Gladstone had not believed the rumours about Parnell's liaison, holding that Parnell would never "imperil the future of Ireland for an adulterous intrigue.") He never sought to correct the errors

He sanctioned an about him which Parnell spread in Ireland. extensive program of Liberal reforms drawn up at Newcastle in 1891, because it was headed by Home Rule, and on this platform the Liberals won in the general election of 1892 a majority of 40 if

the Irish voted with them.

Gladstone, an "old, wild, and incomprehensible man of 82i," as him in a letter at the time, formed his fourth cabinet in Aug. 1892. Its members were only held together by awe of him. He piloted another Home Rule bill through 85 sittings of the commons in 1893; the lords rejected it on Devonshire's motion the queen called

by the

largest majority ever recorded there, 419-41, but the full

discussion in the

commons brought

Ireland eventual benefit.

The

cabinet rejected Gladstone's proposal to dissolve. He could not agree with his colleagues that a large increase in the naval estimates was necessary, and finally resigned

—

bly because sight and hearing were failing

1894.

—on March

3,

ostensi-

He

was much mortified by the coolness of his last official interview with the queen he had served loyally all her reign; by now she frankly detested him, and had to struggle to conceal the fact in his presence. He retired to Hawarden, and busied himself with a critical edition of the works of Bishop Joseph Butler (3 vol., 1896), whom he used to name with Homer, Aristotle and Dante as his "four great teachers" besides the Gospels. Humanitarian to the end, in his last great speech, at Liverpool in Sept. 1896, he denounced Turkish atrocities in Armenia. After a painful illness, he died of cancer of the palate at Hawarden on May 19, 1898. His body lay in state in Westminster hall for three days, and was buried in W'estminster abbey. {See also English History.) Character. As a young man Gladstone was handsome. As he grew older his face grew more formidable, with deep lines from beside the nostrils to the corners of the mouth, and was much wrinkled in old age. His spare and upright figure, well proportioned, was just below middle height. His voice was clear, deep and sonorous, with a touch of Lancashire accent; and none who saw it soon forgot the flash of his dark eyes.

—

His truly extraordinary vigour far exceeded that of other men, and was coupled with no less extraordinary powers of self-control and an iron devotion to duty. Training and natural ability led him to qualify statements and subdivide arguments; his thoughts indeed were often complicated, but his character was fundamen-

was a simple sense of duty that took him into which he never felt really at home and for which he was in some ways unfitted, not least by his tendency to believe that other men's motives were invariably as disinterested as his own, and by his excessive anxiety to maintain the consistency of his own conduct. Political courage and personal magnanimity he had in abundance, and he was the most efficient administrator of his age. His gift for concentration was remarkable; this helped people who did not know him well to think him hard or even h>-pocritical. But no one who knew him intimately doubted his entire sincerity or failed to be captivated by his delightful manners, the warmth of his human sympathies and the range of his mind. He was combative by instinct, and combined a magical tally simple.

It

politics, a career in

quickness of understanding with an unusually retentive memory and an inexhaustible fund of phrase; these qualities made him a fearsome adversary in debate. In his prepared speeches he was

able to communicate to his hearers a full sense of the significance of the subject he was discussing, and of their responsibility for Purely as an orator, he had seeing that it was decided rightly.

two or three equals in his own day; as a statesman, only Peel came near him. A few British prime ministers Walpole, Chatham, have been leaders as great; none has been more Pitt, Churchill inspiring. Lord Acton, indeed, assessing for Gladstone's daughter in 1879 her father's standing among the world's statesmen of the past two centuries, concluded that "in the three elements of greatcharacter, the man, the power, and the result ness combined none reached his level." See also references genius, and success under "Gladstone, William Ewart" in the Index volume.

—

—

—

—

—

Bibliography.— Gladstone's official Life is by John, Viscount Morley, It should be supplemented for personal details by The Diary of Lady Frederick Cavendish, ed. by J. Bailey, 2 vol. (1927); Lord KilHerbert, Viscount Gladstone, After Thirty Years (1928) bracken. Reminiscences (1931) Sir P. Magnus, Gladstone (l954) and

3 vol. (1903).

;

;

;

Georgina Battiscombe, Mrs. Gladstone (1956). R. W. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone and the Eastern Question (1935) and J. L. Hammond, Gladstone and the Irish Nation (1938) are the only satisfactory full-length monographs on him. Among the British Museum Additional Manuscripts are 750 volumes A little of his corof Gladstone papers which await full research. respondence has been published: selected Correspondence on Church and Religion, ed. by D. C. Lathbury, 2 vol. (1910) Gladstone and Palmerston (1928) and The Queen and Mr. Gladstone, 2 vol. (1933), both ed. by P. Guedalla; Gladstone to His Wife, a selection, ed. by A. Tilney Bassett ('936); The Gladstone-Granville Political Correspondence, 186S-18S6, ed. by Agatha Ramm, 4 vol. (1952-62 ). He made two selections himself from his numerous articles in magazines: Gleaning of Past Years, 7 vol. (1879) and Later Gleanings (1897). Of a projected edition of his Speeches by A. W. Hutton and H. J. Cohen only 2 vol. appeared (1891-92). A. Tilney Bassett, Gladstone's Speeches (1916) contains, besides the texts of 14 of his best speeches, complete lists of all of them and of all his publications. (M. R. D. F.) ;

GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET. St.

According to tradition, when

Moravia

Cyril of Thessalonica undertook his mission to

the middle of the 9th century

in

he invented an alphabet for his Slavonic translations of essential religious texts. This alphabet was, almost certainly, the Glagolitic, in which some of the earliest extant manuscripts of Old Church Slavonic are written. After the failure of the

among it

a.d.,

Moravian mission, it was quickly superseded by the so-called Cyrillic alphabet, and

the Orthodox Slavs

remained in use principally among those Catholic Croatians

who

persevered in their loyalty to the Slavonic liturgy. The name is, in fact, probably derived from the Old Church Slavonic glagola "(he) said," which would be frequently heard in the chanting of the liturgical Gospels. The origin of the individual letters catmot be said to be well established, despite several, often conflicting, attempts to derive them from contemporary of the alphabet

Greek forms or from oriental sources that would have been familiar to such an accomplished linguist as St. Cyril. See Alphabet. See J. Vajs, RukovtX hlaholski paleografie (1932) ; V. Jagi£, Glagoliceskoe pis'mo (£nciklopedija slavjanskoj filologU 3), III (1911). (F. J.

GLAMIS,

a village

and

civil

Scotland, 5 mi. S.W. of Forfar.

parish in

is

now

Wd.)

(Forfarshire),

Pop. (19S1) 876.

(pronounced Glaams) is derived from wide gap," "a vale." In the village is posed to be a memorial of Malcolm II, John of Fordun, the Scottish chronicler, the castle

Angus

The name

the Gaelic, glamhus, "a a sculptured stone, sup-

although a statement by that the king

was

slain in

rejected.

Glamis

castle, the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, a fine example of the Scottish baronial style, enriched with certain features of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly from the 17th century, but the original structure was

is

as old as the 11th century, for Macbeth was thane of Glamis. Robert II bestowed the thanedom on John Lyon, who had married

the king's second daughter by Elizabeth founder of the existing family. Patrick

England

Mure and was thus the Lyon became hostage to

James I in 1424. When, in 1S37, Janet Douglas, Lord Glamis, was burned at Edinburgh as a witch for conspiring to poison James V, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but it was restored to her son six years later when her

widow

for

of the 6th

'

'

GLAMORGAN innocence had been established. The 3rd earl of Strathmore entertained the Old Pretender in 1715 and fell on the battlefield at Sheriffmuir. Sir Walter Scott spent a night in the "hoary old pile" when he was about twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences in his Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft. The castle was the early home of Lady Eliiabeth Bowes-Lyon, who became consort to King George VI. In 1930 it was the birthplace of Princess Margaret Rose, the first royal baby to be born in Scotland for 300 years. (Welsh, Sir Forgannwg), a county of southern Wales, is bounded northwest by Carmarthenshire, north by Carmarthenshire and Brecknockshire, east by Monmouthshire and south and southwest by the Bristol channel and the Loughor

GLAMORGAN

The word Glamorgan is a corruption of the Welsh Gwlad Morgan, meaning the land of Morgan, a 10th-century Welsh prince. Area 817.6 sq.mi. Structurally it falls into two sections: (1) the estuary.

northern upland section of barren moorland, part of the south Wales coal field; (2) the rural southern section comprising the Vale of Glamorgan and the Gower peninsula.

Physical Features.— The body of the county forms a quarter between the rivers Taff and Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these rivers is the highest ground in the county, the great Pennant scarp of Craig-y-Llyn (1,969 ft.). To the south and southeast extends the soiith Welsh coal field, its surface forming an irregular plateau with an average elevation of 1,000 ft., but with higher ground of 1,500 ft. or more, Mynydd-y-Caerau being 1,823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the depth of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series of narrow river valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. The Cynon, the Rhondda Fach and the Rhondda Fawr (tributaries of the Taff) and the Ely flow to the southeast, the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flow south through Bridgend, and the Avon brings the waters of the Corrwg and Gwynfi to the southwest into Swansea bay at Aberavon. To the east of this region and divided from it by high ground culminating in Cam Bugail (1,570 ft.) is the Rhymney, which forms the county's eastern boundary. On the west, similarly, high ground divides the Neath from the Tawe and the Tawe from the Loughor, circle

its tributary the Aman, separates the county on the northwest from Carmarthenshire. The rivers are all compart'.tively short, the Taff, the chief river, being only 40 mi. long. To the south of this country, which is wet, cold and sterile, and whose slopes form the coal field's southern edge, there stretches to the sea the undulating plain known as the Vale of Glamorgan,

which, with

more than 400 ft. The floor of the vale is of Sandstone and Lias. On the faces of the perpendicular cliffs can be seen the strata of coloured rocks red and green Stretching marls, black shales and blue and yellow limestones. westward from Swansea is the Gower peninsula, a low plateau with some hills rising to 600 ft. Cefn-Bryn, an anticline of Old Red Sandstone, forms its prominent backbone. Most of the southern part is of Carboniferous Limestone covered inland by boulder clay. The limestone cliffs are of great rising in places to

New Red

beauty.

—

The Gower peninsula was

officially

designated by the

national parks commission as an "area of outstanding natural

beauty" in 1956. After the local measures forming the north of the county had been deposited, the southern part was subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines were worn down, and then submerged slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the Keuper conglomerates and marls which spread over the district west of

and are also present on the coast of Gower. The succeedand Lias of the coastal plain of the vale were laid down by the Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is traceable in Gower. Sand dunes are present locally around Swansea bay and between the rivers Ogmore and Neath where the medieval town of Kenfig lies buried. Moraines, chiefly formed of gravel and clay, occupy many of the Glamorgan valleys and are glacial in origin. Between the vale and the coal field is a succession of ridges of Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone and gray-green Pennant Sandstones. The uplands of the coal field are of Pennant Sandstone. The soil of the uplands is dry and sandy, with ocCardiff

ing Rhaetic

447

casional patches of peat. In the lower areas of the north there is more boulder clay and gravel. The Vale of Glamorgan has the best soil of the county, a rich loam, extensively cultivated. Gower

has a large area of boulder clay and gravel, but the Carboniferous Limestone covering more than half its surface supports an infertile soil, lacking depth and uncultivated. The climate is mild, influenced largely by the long coast line and the westerly winds. The temperature falls and rainfall increases as the land rises to the north. The average rainfall at the coast 35 in., rising to 60 Craig-y-Llyn.

is

in.

on the higher ground, and 90

in.

near

History and Antiquities.— The earhest traces of man within the county are remains of the Paleolithic period discovered in the caves of the south coast of Gower (q.v.). Flint implements have been found on the coast particularly at the mouth of the river Ogmore. Cairns and tumuli are found on the uplands. There is a well-preserved stone circle at Carn Llechart, near Pontardawe, and fine cromlechs at Cefn-y-Bryn in Gower, at St. Nicholas and St. Lythan's near Cardiff, and elsewhere. Beakers have been found in the vale; the valley ways, especially that of the Taff, have yielded Late Bronze Age socketed axes. The Llyn Fawr hoard, discovered when the lake was drained, is important. Strategic sites on the coast and along the inland valleys were guarded by hilltop forts. At the time of the Roman invasion the county was inhabited by the Silures, whose conquest began about a.d. 7S. Roman roads, linking military forts, were built from Caerleon in Monmouthshire through Cardiff and the vale to Neath (Nidum), from Cardiff through Gelligaer and Penydarren to the Gaer near Brecon, and from Neath through Capel Coelbren to Brecon. In Glamorgan there were important centres of Celtic Christianity. Llandaff is associated with St. Dubricius or Dyfrig and St. Teilo (6th century), and the establishment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarfan, Llandough and Llantwit Major also belongs to this period. There are Ogham inscribed stones at Loughor and Kenfig. Saxons and Scandinavians raided the coasts of Glamorgan, which were left without protection after the withdrawal of the Romans. The Norman conquest was effected at the end of the Uth century by Robert FitzHamon, lord of Gloucester, who began the building of Cardiff castle. His followers introduced manorial feudalism into the vale, while in the hill country the Welsh retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan, extending between the rivers Neath and Rhymney, became a marcher lordship with its centre at Cardiff, which was granted municipal privileges. In time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Neath and Aberavon became chartered market towns. Cistercian abbeys were founded at Neath (1129-30) and Margam (1147), the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141, and that of Cardiff about 1 100. Dominican and Franciscan houses were established at Cardiff in the next century.

The lordship, held first by the earls of Gloucester, passed by descent through the families of De Clare, Despenser. Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III, in the right of his wife. Attacks from the Welshries, with local or even wider support, characterize the turbulent history of medieval Glamorgan. The building of Caerexample of concentric military Glamorgan, was begun in 1271- to counter a threat to the lordship supported by Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, the last Welsh prince of Wales. Its importance de-

philly (q.v.) castle, a fine extant

architecture and one of the

many

castles of

clined, however, a few years later with the loss of Welsh independence in 1282-83. Caerphilly castle was besieged by Queen Isabella's army, after Edward H's capture nearby, in 1326. In the early years of the 15th century the forces of Owen Glendower

ravaged the county. By the Act of Union (1536) the modern county of Glamorgan was created by the addition to the old county of the lordship of

Gower and Kilvey (which had a separate history, see Gower) west of the river Neath. The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of Sir William its quasi-regal status, was granted by Edward VI to Herbert (c. 1506-70), afterward 1st earl of Pembroke, from whom of Bute {see Cardiff). it has descended to the present marquess

The

rule of

the Tudors promoted the assimilation of

the in-

GLAMORGAN

448

of Elizabeth I the dehabitants of the county, and by the reign become Welsh both scendants of the Norman knights had largely sentiment. and in speech first mainly royalist, but In the Ci%il War the county was at declare for parliament. A sublater di«:satisfaction caused it to

was crushed by Colosequent rovalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648 Nonconformity, St. Pagan's. nel Thomas Horton at the battle of with the Methappearing in the mid-1 7th century, gained strength became an important odist revival of the following century and influence in religious

and

political life.

the middle of the 18th censurface of the tury the coal, which underhes practically the whole uplands and upon which the subsequent prosperity of the county Industrial

Development.— ToK^rd

for use in to depend, began to be worked on a large scale The smelting iron, a process hitherto performed with charcoal. fringes northern the along concentrated were arose that ironworks of the county, at Hirwaun. Merthyr Tydfil and Dowlais. spreading eastward along the outcrop of the coal field where ironstone, lime-

was

and water were all readily Revolutionar>' and Napoleonic France stone, coal

The wars with impetus to the manu-

available. lent

facture of iron in the region; the number of furnaces grew, and the output, despite periods of fluctuation, continued to increase until well into the third quarter of the 19th century, stimulated by

demands of home and overseas markets, especially during the great era of railway construction. Following the developnient of the Bessemer process in the 1830s. there was a great expansion the

At

output of steel, produced mainly from imported these ores were transported to the works at the heads of the valleys, but by the end of the 19th centur>' the cost had compelled ores.

in the first

the transfer of many of the steelworks to sites on the coast, while the older manufacturing centres closed down. Coal had been worked in Glamorgan in small quantities since

medieval times, but from the middle of the 18th century its exploitation increased to satisfy the needs of the new iron foundries. a result, the larger collieries were owned initially by the ironmasters, and were worked primarily for their needs. About 1850, in the area north of Cardiff, the suitability of the lower seams for

As

steam purposes was rapidly

made

realized,

and an export trade sprang up which

Cardiff the greatest coal port in the world.

Later,

however, the modernizing of power plant and equipment led to a sharp drop in the demand for south Wales steam coal in the years following World War I, and by the 1930s this decline, with a decline in the demand for Welsh iron and steel, had produced a serious depression, during which many collieries became derelict. In the southwest of the county the metallurgical industries focused on Swansea were concentrated in the triangle formed by Port Talbot, Ystalyfera and Loughor, where the emphasis has been on nonferrous metals, copper, spelter (zinc), silver, lead and tin. The copper-smelting industry dates back to 1384 at Neath, and to 1717 at Swansea. The nickel works at Clydach-on-Tawe were of considerable importance. During the 19th century the tin-plate industry rose to prominence in the area, and toward the end of the century the development of the neighbouring anthracite coal field made Swansea an important coal exporting port.

Population and Administration.

—The rapid exploitation of

mineral resources and the industrial development of the 19th century made Glamorgan the most populous county in Wales. In the years between 1801 and 1901 the population rose from 70,879

By 1921 the figure had increased to 1,233,728. Since has declined slightly, the total for 1961 standing at 1,227.828. which represents 46.4% of the population of Wales and

to 860,510.

that date

it

Monmouthshire. Well over one-third of this total live in Cardiff (256,270), Merthyr Tydfil (59,008) and Swansea fl66,740j. Other populous townships are Rhondda (100,314), Port Talbot (50,223 ), Barry (42.039 »,Aberdare (39,044), Caerphilly (36.008), Pontypridd (35,536), Gelligaer (34,572) and Neath (30,884). The area of the geographical county, which includes the three county boroughs (see below), is 817.6 sq,mi., of which the administrative county comprises 732.5 sq.roi. The county has seven parliamentary divisions Aberavon, Barry, Caerphilly, Gower, Neath. Ogmore and Pontypridd each returning one member. In addition there are three members for Cardiff, two each for Swansea

—

—

and Rhondda, and one each for Aberdare and Merthyr Tydfil, The city of Cardiff (capital of Wales), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea and are county boroughs: Barrj'. Cowbridge. Neath, Port Talbot Rhondda are municipal boroughs. There are in addition 12 urban and 7 rural district councils. Glamorgan is in the Wales and Chester circuit and assizes are held alternately at Cardiff and Swansea. The three county boroughs are quarter sessions boroughs and have their own commissions of the peace and police forces. Of the municipal boroughs only Port Talbot has its own commission of the peace.

The county lies in the diocese of Llandaff, except for the extreme west which is in the diocese of Swansea and Brecon. There are university colleges at Cardiff (1883) and Swansea (1920), constituent members of the University of Wales. The oldest educational establishment in the county is Cowbridge Grammar school, founded in 1608 by Sir Edward Stradling of St. Donat's. There more than 500 primary and 125 secondary schools administered

are

by the coimty.

Economy.

—Although primarily an

Glamorgan more than 60% of its and crops. The north-

industrial county.

retains an extensive agricultural character, total area being given over to rough grazing

hills are suitable only for the raising of sheep and cattle, and the upland farmsteads concentrate on the production of mutton, lamb, wool, cattle and mi lk. The fertOe Vale of Glamorgan remains largely rural in character producing a high milk yield as well

ern

and sheep. The farms of the county are no more than 60 or 70 ac. and are largely family

as wheat, dairy cattle small, averaging

Since the beginning of World War II a feature of local farming has been the production of early vegetables and fruit in the Gower peninsula. The forestry commission had more than 32.000 ac. under plantation in 1960, much of the timber produced concerns.

being used locally for pit props. In Glamorgan, economically the most important of the Welsh counties, the acute depression of the 1930s resulted in serious efforts to diversify the economy. New light industries were introduced and the Special Areas (Improvement and Development) act of 1934 led to the establishment of the Treforest Trading estate in the lower Taff valley, with the object of attracting light industry to the area. World War II promoted further economic recovery

and other trading estates have been set up at Bridgend. Hirwaun and Fforest Each, which, with light industrial development along the fringes of the coal field, resulted in the following being numbered among the county's products: aluminum, bedding, clothing, bicycle equipment, zip-fasteners, furniture, hosiery, paint, paper,

washing machines and television sets. In addition to these projects an attempt has been made to deIn this velop the old-established steel and tin-plate industries. respect the most important undertaking has been the pooling of

pencils,

resources by four major

Welsh firms

to

form the Steel Company of

Wales, which has modernized the local tin-plate industry by establishing a strip-mill plant at Port Talbot, with complen;ientary coldreduction plants at Trostre, near Llanelly (Carmarthenshire), and Velindre near Swansea. The company subsequently brought into operation a

new

plant designed to increase the ingot capacity of

produced to 3.000.000 tons a year with further expansion projected. Six 100-Mw, generating sets were commissioned at Aberthaw, which, by the mid-1960s was the site of the largest power station in south Wales. Another important industrial enterprise was the construction at Llandarcy of a big oil refinery. Built in 1922, large sums were spent on modernizing the plant and a pipeline was built to link Llandarcy with the new deepwater oil-tanker terminal at Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire. steel

By

volume of trade entering the ports of and Swansea had increased threefold over the 1938 figure of 3,500.000 tons. The volume of outgoing traffic, however, fell from 21,000,000 tons to less than 16,000,000 tons in the same period. At Cardiff, where the chief imports are iron and other ores, building materials and grain, the export of coal has dwindled from a peak of 8,500,000 tons in 1923 to less than 400,000 tons. Nearby at Penarth petroleum is imported and a small quantity of coal exported. Farther west at the early 1960s the

Cardiff, Penarth, Barry, Port Talbot

i

KJi-,jr^i-^l_jI^X\^0

Barry petroleum is the principal import, although attempts have been made to develop the importation of fruit and vegetables. Grain, pitwood. chemicals and building materials also enter south Wales through Barry, The development of trade through Port Talbot has coincided with the creation and growth of the Steel Company of Wales, Imports have increased fivefold since 1938. the principal commodity being iron ore, of which more than 3,000,000 tons entered the port annually in the early 1960s. Iron and steel are its main exports. The commercial prosperity of Swansea,

volume of trade in the county, rests upon the proximity of oil refineries, crude oil forming the principal import and the refined product the chief export. More than 1.000,000 tons of coal still pass outward through Swansea annually, and there is an expanding export trade in tin plate. At the end of the 1 8th centur>' iron was brought by canal along the river valleys to Cardiff, Neath and Swansea, The second quarter of the 19th century saw the development of railway comthe port carrying the largest

largely

The

physical features of the county aided transport to the ports, the railways taking advantage of the gradient to bring coal trucks from the high ground of the coal field to the vale and thence to the coal-exporting ports on the coast. Railway lines

munication.

ran

down from the coal valleys to Cardiff, Barry, Port Talbot and all weU pro\nded with dock accommodation. Gradually

cases frequently spread infection through the respirator>' secretions for a variable period of weeks or months before showing

chnical s>'mptoms and can be detected only by the use of the mallein test. The agent used for this test is an extract or toxin produced from pure cultures 01 the bacillus, and its use as a

diagnostic agent for glanders was

first demonstrated in 1891 by 0. Kalning and C. Helman in Russia and by Leonard Pearson in the U.S. There are three recognized t>-pes of mallein test: (i)

the Subcutaneous mallein

test,

a hj-podermic injection of mallein

under the skin on the side of the neck, which in from 10 to 12 hr. produces a definite rise in temperature (thermal reaction) and a distinct painful swelling at the site of injection;

companies amalgamated and after 1923 they were all owned by the Great Western railway. After 1946 they became part of the Western region of the nationalized British railways. The main line (London-Fishguard running between the uplands and the sea, passes through Cardiff, Llantrisant, Bridgend, Port Talbot, Neath, Swansea and Loughor, Cardiff is sers'ed by Rhoose airport (\2 mi, W, by road) from which airline services have been established with Bristol, the Channel Islands, DubUn, Belfast, Manchester, Glasgow and Paris.

thalmic maUein

)

The headquarters ing corporation at

Wenvoe and

is

of the

Welsh region of and there are

in Cardiff,

the British Broadcasttelevision transmitters

St. Hilary.

Bibliography.— G. T. Clark, The Land of Morgan (1883), Limbus Patrum Morganiae et Glamorganiae (1886); W. Rees. South Wales and the March, 1284-1415 (1924); C. J. O. Evans, Glamorgan: Its (P. Cr.; W. A. L. S.) History and Topography, 2nd ed. (1953).

GLANDERS

CFaecy) is primarily a specific infectious and Seccontagious disease of solipeds (the horse, ass and mule). ondarily, man may become infected through contact with dis-

by inoculation W'hile handling diseased tissues and making laboraton,' cultures of the causal bacillus. As a disease of solipeds, glanders was recognized at an early period. In 425 B.C. it was mentioned by Hippocrates in his writings. In 1797 EriU Viborg, a Danish veterinarian, first published a systemeased animals or

atic

description

of

glanders

them as one and the same

and

farcy.

He

rightly

described

disease, capable of being transmitted

by

In 1882 Friedrich Loffler and Johann Schiitz in C^rmany isolated and identified the causal agent, which they named the Bacillus mallei, now designated technically as the Pfeifferella mallei or Malleomyces mallei. Ordinarily it is spoken of as the glanders bacillus and described as a gram-negative bacterium, non-spore contact.

forming and nonmotile, growing readily in laboratory culture In the aft'ected animal, the bacillus is present in the nasal discharges, secretions from pustules and ulcers on the skin and from diseased nodules in the lungs, bronchial and submaxillary

media.

lymph glands. The infection can be disseminated through the medium of both clinical and nonclinical (latent) cases. Close contact between the affected and nonaft"ected always results in an increasing spread of the disease.

Natural infection

may

take place through one of

following channels: by ingestion into the digestive tract through the consumption of infection contaminated feed or water; by inoculation through slight abrasions of the skin or the

—

mucous membrane, or by inhalation into the respiratory '

incubation appears to be relatively shorter in the mule and donkey. Clinical cases are manifested either by a chronic nasal discharge from one or both nostrils, with or without visible ulceration of the nasal septum; chronic enlargement and hardening of the submaxillary lymph glands without outward suppuration or the presence of pustules and ulcers (farcy buds) on the skin of the hindlegs or other parts of the body. Nonclinical or latent cases are essentially pulmonary in type and the lesions remain in a concealed state (occult) in the lungs as tuberclehke nodules and suppurating foci. In many latent cases, the affected animal shows shght signs of lung trouble (altered breathing). These occult

Swansea,

the small railway

I

449

tract.

After infection, the disease usually follows a chronic course with a variable period of incubation extending from several weeks to several months. Horses that are kept closely stabled and worked hard or debilitated usually develop clinical s>'mptoms in a shorter period than those kept outdoors

on open range.

The

period of

of the eye

test, in

which the mallein

and the reaction

is

is

(2) the ophplaced in the fornix

manifested in from 6 to 12 hr. by

the development of a purulent discharge from the eye; (3) the palpebral intradermic mallein test in which the mallein is injected into the loose fold of skin below the margin of the lower

eyehd

manifested in from 24 to 48 hr. by marked swelling of the eyelid and a muco-purulent discharge from the eye. In addition to these allergic mallein tests, several laboratorj' methods can be used, especially in the diagnosis of human glanders: the agglutination, precipitin and complement-fixation tests and laboratory' culture examinations. The post-mortem appearances of glanders comprise one or more

and the reaction

is

of the following gross lesions: skin lesions, consisting of nodules, pustules and ulcers especially of the hindlegs; respiratory lesions, consisting of nodules and ulcers on the nasal septum, turbinated bones, larjTix and trachea; pulmonary lesions consisting of tuberclelike nodules embedded in the lungs; Ij-mphatic lesions, in-

volving the submaxillan,', bronchial and inguinal K-mph glands. Lesions also may occasionally be found in several of the body The treatment of glands such as the liver, spleen and kidney. glanders in animals is not recognized as a cure for the disease. effective policy for the control and suppression of the compulsory notification of all cases, slaughter of all reactors to the mallein test and proper cleaning and disinfection of the affected premises. Under this policy, glanders was almost comThe pletely eradicated in the U.S., Great Britain and Canada. disease is still known to prevail in some parts of Europe, Asia and

The only

disease

is

.\frica.

—A

Glanders in Man. man was first

specific

description of glanders as a

Since then been reported. In 1900 Otto von Bolhnger in Germany pubKshed an account covering 120 cases. In 1906 George D. Robins in Canada published a report of 156 In 1908 WilUam Hunting in England reported 10 cases cases. which he obsen.-ed personally. Following World War I (1914-18) high the incidence of human glanders in Russia was appallingly in horses. for a time because of lack of control over the disease From the late 1930s to the early 1960s only 12 cases were reported disease of

many

definitely recorded in 1830.

cases of glanders in

man have

in the U.S.

Glanders most frequently occurs in many through occupational conUct with diseased horses, from making an autopsy on a disbacteria. eased animal or from making laborator>' cultures of the one to five days. from averages incubation of period the man In

The onset and manifestations

of the disease are fairly typical.

few days following infection, constitutional disturbances by fever, malaise, fatigue, loss of appetite, manifested develop, More definite jaundice, nausea, headache and rheumatic pains. er>-sipelaslike swelling of signs develop rapidly in the form of an and the limbs or a painful nodular eruption which is soon

Within

a

the face

,

GLANDS—GLAN\aLL

450

a general pustular eruption. There is also nasal ina purulent nasal discharge and ulceration of the septum. The final stage of the disease is characterized by profuse suppurating pustules covering the body, intramuscular abscesses, pneumonia, diarrhea, emaciation and eventuaDy death.

followed

by

volvement accompanied by

The average duration of acute cases is from two to four weeks. In chronic cases, the symptoms are quite similar in character but are prolonged over a period of several months. The treatment of human glanders has included the use of many drugs, largely tonic and palliative, combined with surgical treatment. In selected cases, the use of certain antibiotics has shown promising results. Favourable results were also reported in several cases following the use of serum from h>'perimmunized horses. The prevention of glanders in man depends essentially on the eradication of the disease in horses, asses

and mules.

See R. L. Cecil and R. F. Loeb, pp. 239-240 (1961).

GLANDS.

A Textbook

of Medicine, 10th ed., (C. D. Mc; X.)

Glands are structures which secrete

fluids.

They

are classified according to their mode of secretion, the nature of the secretion, the beha\iour of the secretory gland cell and the organization of the gland. The mode of secretion may be toward the outside of the

body (exocrine") or toward the blood and lymph The secretion may be characterized as cel-

vessels (endocrine).

lular (as in the testis) or

nonceUular (prostate, thyroid or

salivar>'

glands).

The gland may be composed of a single cell or of a simple or complex organization of cells. The gland cells produce their characteristic secretions either through cellular acti\ity u-ithout any direct contribution of the protoplasm (merocrine tj-pe, as in salivary glands) or through cellular disintegration (holocrine type, as in sebaceous glands, or apocrine t>'pe, as in

Anatomy.

—The

unicellular glands in

tirely to goblet cells.

mammary

mammals

glands).

are limited en-

These secrete mucus, a lubricating

fluid

widely distributed in the body, especially in the intestinal tract. The multicellular glands consist of four components: (1) secretory gland cells; (2) ducts which convey the secretory product from the gland cells to an external surface; (3) connective tissue elements which provide a framework to maintain the preceding two elements; and (4) blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves which supply the nutrients and raw materials of the secretion, carry away the waste products, and in some places control the acti\'ity of the gland cells and blood vessels. AU four parts are intimately interwoven anatomically and integrated functionally. The gland cells may be arranged as a folded sheet (as in the choroid plexuses of the brain) They may be arranged as punchedout projections, generally toward the connective tissue framework. .

These projections may be simple (as in intestinal glands) or branched (as in gastric glands), and each is further subclassified according to whether the projection is tubular (as in the intestine), coiled (as in sweat glands), or acinar or grapelike in shape (as in the sebaceous glands of the skin). In the simple glands each secretor>' projection pours out its secretion directly into an un-

branched duct. In the compound glands the ducts are branched and the secretion passes from the secretory portion to a series of progressively larger ducts which finally empty onto an outer surface (as in salivary glands, p>ancreas. Uver). All compound glands are enclosed in connective tissue capsules. The glands are partly broken up into grossly visible lobes (as the

which has five lobes) in relation to major branchings of the These are further partly separated into smaller units, the lobules, which are also visible with Uie naked eye. These are liver,

duct system.

in turn further divided into microlobules

which are visible only with the microscope. All four components of glands (secretory, ductuiar, connective, and vascular and neural) consist of cells and a cellular cement or binding substance. Embedded in the latter only in

the connective tissue are microscopically visible In the connective tissue the cement substance with its fibres is the most prominent feature, the cells being sparse. In the other three gland components the cells are most conspicuous, the cement subsUnce being small in amount. HistoIogy_As stated above, there are four components of glands: secretory portion (whence the secretion originates), the

fibres.

duct system (which conducts the secretion to a surface) the connective tissue (which is the sustaining framework of the gland) and the blood vessels and nerves. The last two components are present in all glands and differ in their microscopic structure in no essential way from their counterparts in nonglandular organs. The ducts may be absent from certain glands in later embryos and Such organs are endocrine and secrete fetuses and in adult hfe. Some endocrine glands (the directly into the circulating blood. freislets of Langerhans of the pancreas, producing insulin) quently retain a relationship to ducts; the secretion is nevertheless passed directly into the blood just as in other endocrine glands. There are certain glands which have no true ducts and are not endocrine. Their secretion passes directly onto the surface of the organ (as for example, goblet cells, choroid plexus). The necks of these glands are all of the nature of cylinders whose walls consist of cells. These may occur as a single layer of cells which may be ,

flat

(as in intercalary ductuli), cuboidal

(as in the pancreas),

columnar (as in the kidney) or they may be arranged in layers two or more cells thick (as in salivar>' glands). It is possible that certain ducts not only conduct the secretion but also alter its composition. Gland ceDs. like other cells, consist of a ceD membrane, the nucleus and the cytoplasm, including the ground substance, a basophilic substance (called chromophile) mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. In addition, the cytoplasm frequently contains specific granules, watery vacuoles and fat :

droplets.

The

protein in

some form resembling that which

specific granules are believed to contain the specific is

characteristic of the

secretion.

Some

gland

cells

show

little

or

no detectable change in

struc-

Others, both exocrine and endocrine, pass through cyclic morphological changes during strong secretion and then revert to the normal or relatively inactive state. ture whether they are secreting or not.

These changes include: reduction in the number of specific granules, increase in the number of watery vacuoles, increased prominence of the chromophile substance, increased number and size of the mitochondria, and hj-pertrophy of the Golgi apparatus. In addition, the nucleus increases in volume with an apparent decrease in stainability of the chromatin, an increase in size and stainability of the nucleolus and a displacement of the nucleus as a whole toward the secretory surface. The cell as a whole becomes smaller. All of these structures revert to normal in the absence of marked secretory activity.

Gland

cells,

Uke

all

other

state of continual activity.

cells,

must be considered

Even

"resting" cells are active, per-

to be in a

forming work in maintaining their integrity and internal organization, and in s>Tithesizing and secreting their specific substances or secretions at minimum levels. See Endocrinology; Hormones, Vertebrate; see also references under "Glands" in the Index volume. (I. Gh.) (Glanvil), JOSEPH (1636-1680), EngUsh philosopher, an apologist for witchcraft and for the Royal society, was bom at Pl>'mouth, of Puritan stock. He was educated at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, Oxford, where he developed a deep distrust of Puritan sectarianism and "enthusiasm." After being successively rector of Frome Selwood, Somerset, and rector of Streat and Walton, he was preferred to a living in the Abbey church, Bath, in 1666, to which he conjoined in 16 78 a prebendaryship of Worcester cathedral; he acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charies II from 1672. He died at Bath on Nov. 4, 1680. 'ffis

GLANVILL

philosophical ideas derive, especially in his earlier writings, from

Descartes and from Henry More; he was also greatly influenced by the development of experimental science within the Royal society. His first publication. The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions (1661; modem reprint, 1931), is particularly directed against scholastic dogmatism, to which GlanviU opposes the experimental method. Such a method, he admits, can never lead to a complete knowledge of nature, for no experiment can demonstrate that the conformities which it reveals will hold under all circumstances. So far Glanvill, like Hume after him, is prepared to describe himself as a skeptic. But the experimental method is the best way available to us of achieving knowledge of, and control over, nature and, insofar as it reveals the workings

M—iA

God

.&.X

VJ J-Ji l-iV \^

'V

the firmest foundation for piety. He praised and defended the Royal society in his Phis Ultra or the Progress and of

to us,

is

Advancement of Knowledge Since the Days

of Aristotle (1668), which has been described as the first history of modern science. What Glanvill hoped for from the Royal society is revealed in the title of his Philosophia Pia: or a Discourse of the Religious Temper and Tendencies of the Experimental Philosophy, Which is

Profest by the Royal Society (1671). Much of his work is devoted to a defense of the reality of ghosts and witchcraft. Thomas

Hobbes had denied that "witchcraft is any real power"; Glanvill, like Henry More, thought that the rejection of witches and ghosts led straight to atheism and hoped to demonstrate their reality scientifically by serious research into reported cases of witchcraft and apparitions. His A Philosophical Endeavour Towards the Defense of the Being of Witches and Apparitions (1666) variously renamed in revised editions and best known under the title of the posthumous edition Saducismus Triumphatus (1681) exerted a great influence for more than a decade. Some regard Glanvill as In his Lux Orientalis (1662) he a pioneer of psychical research.

— —

expounded and defended More's doctrine of the pre-existence of the soul. He also published Essays on Several Important Subjects in Philosophy and Religion (1676).

—

Bibliography. F. Greenslet, Joseph Glanvill (1900); H. S. and M. L. Redgrove, Joseph Glanvill and Psychical Research (1921) B. Willey, The Seventeenth Century Background (1934) J. I. Cope, Joseph Glanvill, Anglican Apologist (1956). (Jn. A. P.) I.

;

;

GLANVILLE (d.

(Glanvil or Glanvill),

RANULF DE

iigo) chief justiciar of England and reputed author of the ,

common

first

was born at Stratford, Suffolk, In ii8o Glanville, who had served as sheriff of date unknown. Yorkshire and Lancashire, succeeded Richard de Lucy as chief justiciar. For the remainder of the reign of Henry II he was the king's principal adviser, and during the king's frequent absences was, in effect, viceroy of England. He was removed from office in II 89 by Richard I and imprisoned until, it is said, he paid a ransom of £15,000. He subsequently accompanied King Richard I on the on the

classical text

law,

man of great in many ways,

to Henry II mark Henry's

reign.

energy and versatile

talent,

was useful

chiefly in the great legal changes that

The common law was

greatly strengthened

by the re-establishment of the curia regis, by the increased use of itinerant justices and by new remedies and improved methods of procedure, including the inquest, from which the right of

trial

by

jury was ultimately developed. Glanville is best known for the Tractatiis de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae ("Treatise on the Laws and Customs of the

Kingdom

the

common

of England"), the earliest of the classical texts on This treatise, attributed to Glanville, but prob-

law.

ably written by his

1

64 1 )

official

.

He was

+5^

living in

London

in

1

643 when he published an un-

is known of him. a family (order Charadriiformes) of old-

royalist pamphlet, but nothing further

GLAREOLroAE,

world shore birds comprising the coursers and pratincoles (q.v.). Claris), a town and canton in east central Switzerland. The town, capital of the canton, is situated 36 mi. E. of Lucerne and 424 mi. S.E. by rail from Zijrich. Pop. (1960) 5,852. It lies 1,578 ft. above sea level on the left bank of the river Linth, at the northeastern foot of the Vorder Glarnisch (7,648 ft.),

GLARUS

(

while on the east rises the Schild (7,543 ft.). In May 1861 practically the whole town was destroyed by a fire fanned by a violent south or fohn wind rushing down the Linth valley. The Kunsthaus (art gallery) contains a permanent collection of 19th- and 20th-

century art and a collection of natural history. The parish church is used by both Roman Catholics and Protestants. Glarus is linked with the international railway from Basel and Ziirich to Graubijnden and to Austria. Glarus Canton comprises the upper valley of the river Linth (q.v.) which rises in the glaciers of the Todi (11,876 ft.) at the southwestern extremity of the canton. Pop. (1960) 40.148, about 70% Protestant and 30% Catholic, all German-speaking. Area 264 sq.mi., of which 173.1 sq.mi. are classed as productive, forests covering 41 sq.mi. The river has carved out a deep valley with a comparatively level floor now occupied by a number of villages. There are glacier passes and a rough footpath over the Kisten pass to the canton of Graubiinden, while a road goes over the Klausen pass to Uri canton. The Sernf valley, which joins the Linth at Schwanden a little above the town of Glarus, has a track leading to Graubiinden over the Panixer and Segnes passes. Just below Glarus the Klon joins the Linth from the southwest; the Klon valley is separated from the main valley by Glarnisch (9.560 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut off from the Grosstal by the high ridge running northward from the Hausstock (10,361 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9,167 ft.). In the east the Rieseten pass leads to the Weisstannen, and the Widersteinerfurkel to the Murgtal,

both being valleys

in the

canton of Sankt Gallen.

There

is

fur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal, and an iron spring at

third crusade, dying at Acre, in Palestine, in 1190.

Glanville, a

(

u

nephew and secretary Hubert Walter

(q.v.),

a sul-

Elm;

there are slate quarries in the Sernf valley at Plattenberg and at Tschingelberg. The slate industry (in existence since the 17th

century), cotton spinning (introduced in 1714), cotton printing (established in 1740) and weaving are the important industries of the canton. There are hydroelectric plants along the river Linth,

two factories for electrical devices, metal and machinery works and paper and cardboards mills. There is little agriculture, but the breeding of cattle is important in this region of mountain pastures. The canton produces green cheese made of skimmed milk of goats or cows mixed with buttermilk and coloured with powdered Trigonella caeridea, a cloverlike plant. After the capital the largest villages are Nafels, Ennenda (ala suburb of Glarus on the opposite bank of the Linth), A railway runs through the Netstal, Schwanden and Linthal. canton from north to south, past Glarus to Linthal village; from

was an accurate, lucid description of the procedure in the king's court. It was soon accepted as the authoritative statement of the law of the period and did much to establish and to extend the com-

most

in competition with the canon and the feudal systems of Largely because of the Tractatiis this period in the common law came to be known as the age of Glanville. Written about 11 88, the Tractatus was first printed in London in 1554. An annotated edition by George E. Woodbine was published in New Haven, Conn., in 1932. John Beames' English translation of 181 2 was reprinted in Washington, D.C., in 1900, with

Schwanden there is a line (opened in 1905) to Elm. High up on an alpine terrace almost opposite Mt. Tbdi is Braunwald, a wintersports resort, accessible only by a funicular railway from Linthal. The district of Glarus is said to have been converted to Chris-

mon law

law.

See also English Law; (S. Tt.) (c. i6io-c. 1643), English poet and dramatist whose poetry resembles that of his "noble Friend and Gossip, Captaine Richard Lovelace," to whom he dedicated his poem Whitehall (1643). He was presumably born in 16 10 at Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire, where he was baptized on July 28 of that year. His plays included Argalus and Parthenia (1639), a pastoral tragedy, and Albertus Wallenstein (1639), his only at-

an introduction by Joseph

Henry

Beale.

Common Law.

GLAPTHORNE, HENRY

tempt at historical tragedy. His plays, although undistinguished, contain isolated passages of merit. He also published Poems (1639), many in praise of an unidentified "Lucinda," and edited the Poems Divine and Humane of his friend Thomas Beedome

tianity in the 6th century

by the

Irish

monk

St.

Fridolin (q.v.).

of Sackingen on the Rhine between Constance and Basel, and about the 9th century the district was owned by the convent. The Habsburgs gradually claimed all

He founded the Benedictine nunnery

Swiss rights over the convent so that in 1352 Glarus joined the It did not gain complete freedom until the battle

confederation.

Switzerland: History). Huldreich Zwingli was priest in Glarus from 1506 until 1516, and Glarus early adopted Protestantism, but the Zwinglians were eliminated by 1564. There were many struggles between Roman that Catholics and Protestants, and to secure peace it was arranged each besides the common Landsgemeinde (democratic assembly) tribunals party should have its separate Landsgemeinde (1623) and

of Nafels in 1388 (see (q.v.), the reformer,

Glarus to (1683). In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of districts under other to united was canton the invaders, the French of government the name of canton of the Linth. The old system

GLAS—GLAbUUW

+ 52

was restored in 1814, but in 1836, by the new Uberal constituUon, only one Lands gemeinde was retained. the Under the present constitution, which dates from 1887, contains 28 comcanton forms a single administrative district and gemeinde to munes. It sends representatives elected by the Lands coun(national Nationalrat and states) of (council the Standerat The canton still keeps its original form of Lands gemetnde, cil). in meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first Sunday

May, composed

of all

acts as the sovereign

male citizens of 20 years of age body so that no "referendum"

or over. is

It

required,

executive while any citizen can submit a proposal. It elects the who all of six members, besides the Landammann, or president, electoral hold office for three years. The communes (forming 18 of elect for three years the Landrat, a standing committee circles')

members

in

the proportion of

1

for every 500 (or fraction over

;

memoirs. The Woman Within (1954), she brought out 19 novels and a volume of critical essays, A Certain Measure (1943), besides other articles, short stories and poems. With The Voice of the People (1900), Ellen Glasgow began her social history of Virginia. Most of her succeeding novels, such as Virginia (1913), contributed to this study, but her work after 1925 represents an In Barren Ground (1925) and Vein of Iron altered emphasis. (1935) she created fiction of epic and, occasionally, tragic depth and fullness. In The Romantic Comedians (1926), They Stooped to Folly (1929) and The Sheltered Life (1932) she wrote modern novels of manners unsurpassed for brilliant style, penetrating ironic vision, and sympathetic, though sometimes malicious, shaping of people through their inner Lives and in their social relationships.

—

Bibliography. Letters of Ellen Glasgow, ed. by Blair Rouse (1958) William W. Kelly, An Ellen Glasgow Bibliography (1963) Frederick P. W. McDowell, EUen Glasgow and the Ironic Art of Fiction (1960) (H. B. Ro.) Blair Rouse, Ellen Glasgow (1962). ;

250) inhabitants.

JOHN

(1695-1773), Scottish Presbyterian (Glass), minister, founder of the Glasite Church, was born at Auchtermuchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister, on Sept. 21, 1695. After graduating in arts at St. Andrews and training in

GLAS

theolog>' in

1719.

At

Edinburgh he became minister of Tealing, Dundee, loyal to the national church, he was soon led,

first

in

in

reaction to certain overzealous parishioners, to question its scripFrom the doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature tural basis. of the kingdom of Christ, Glas concluded that there is no warrant

New TesUment for a national church; that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; that national covenants are without scriptural grounds; and that the church of Christ cannot be built or upheld by political and secular weapons but by the word and spirit of Christ only. This argument is most fully exin the

pounded in Glas's chief work. The Testimony of the King of Martyrs (1729). He maintained that churches should be gatherings of true believers rather than parochial congregations, a view approximating to that of the Congregationalists, who partially deHe organized a society within the rived their ideas from him. church from his own and neighbouring parishes. In 1726 Glas was summoned before his presbytery, was susin 1728 and finally deposed in 1730 by the commission of assembly. His society became the Glassite, or Glasite, Church, soon transferring its seat to Dundee where Glas officiated as elder. He next worked in Perth where he was joined by Robert Sandeman, who married Glas's daughter. Sandeman came to be recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas's views; these he developed in a direction that laid them open to the charge of antinomianism. In 1 738 Glas returned to Dundee where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1 739 the general assembly removed his sentence of deposition and restored him to the character and function of a minister of the gospel of Christ but not that of full minister of the established Church of Scotland. He died in Dundee in 1773. See also Glasites.

pended

GLASGOW, a city and county of a city, royal and parliamentary burgh, port and university city of Lanarkshire, Scot., is situated on both banks of the Clyde (20 mi. from its mouth), 44 mi. W.S.W. of Edinburgh and 396 mi. N.W. of London by road. Pop. (1961) 1,054,913. Area 60.4 sq.mi. The largest city in Scotland and its industrial and commercial capital, modem Glasgow almost fills a section of the Clyde valley from north to south. Its southern boundarj' is, at one point, beyond the range of hills which forms the natural boundary of the vaUey. Glasgow is, historically, in Lanarkshire but many of its suburbs are in Renfrewshire and Dunbartonshire. The city's commercial and administrative centres, with most of its important buildings, are on the north side of the Clyde, the banks of which are lined with shipbuOding, engineering, shipping and commercial installations. Industrial and commercial undertakings of all kinds and sizes are to be found in the many districts of Glasgow. Near the city are the industrial burghs of Paisley, Rutherglen and Clydebank. Immediately outside Glasgow's boundaries are the residential burghs of Bearsden and Milngavie, while there are many residential areas like Giffnock, Newton Meams, Bumside, Uddingston and Bishopbriggs in the adjoining county areas, the populations of which are largely composed of people who work in Glasgow. The working-class districts of Glasgow have hitherto tended to remain in the central district or in the inner suburbs but post-World War II housing developments have removed many of their residents to estates on the outer fringes; e.g., Castlemilk on the southem boundary, Drumchapel in the northwest and Easterhouse in the east. Efforts are being made to stabilize Glasgow's population by moving some of it into towns outside. Three New Towns have taken much of Glasgow's overspill East Kilbride, 8 mi. S.S.E., Cumbernauld, 15 mi. N.E., and Glenrothes in Fife while many established towns like Haddington have arranged to accept a proportion of Glas-

—

See J. T. Hornsby In Records of the Scottish Church History Society, vol. vi (1937) ; H. Escott, A History of Scottish Congregational-

gow's population.

ism (1960).

the operations of the City

(H. Wa.)

GLASER, DONALD ARTHUR physicist

who was awarded

(1926) U.S. nuclear the 1960 Nobel prize in physics for ,

and subsequent development of a research instruchamber (q.v.), was bom in Cleveland, on Sept. 21, 1926. After graduating from Case Institute of

his invention

ment known 0.,

as the bubble

Technology, Cleveland, in 1946, he attended California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, where he received his Ph.D. in physics in 1950, specializing in cosmic ray studies and nuclear physics. He conceived the idea for the bubble chamber while at the University of Michigan, where he taught from 1950 to 1959, when he joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley. At age 34 he was one of the youngest scientists ever to be awarded a

Nobel

prize.

GLASGOW, ELLEN ANDERSON GHOLSON

(1873-

1945), U.S. novelist who wrote vividly of life in the upper south, was bom April 22, 1873, in Richmond, Va., and died there on Nov. 21, 1945.

In 1941 she received the Pulitzer prize for fiction for

In This Our Life.

From The Descendant (1897)

to her

posthumously published

—

Buildings.— Nineteenth-century industrial development and Improvement trustees caused most of Glasgow's ancient buildings to be removed and there are now few of dates earlier than the 18th century. The oldest buildings are the cathedral, "Provand's Lordship" (the manse of the 15th-century St. Nicholas hospital although mostly of later building), the Cross or Tolbooth steeple (1627), the Tron steeple (1637) and the steeple of the old Merchants' house in the Bridgegate (1655). The Trades' hall in Glassford street (1791) was designed by Robert Adam and there are Adam-style buildings in its vicinity.

David Hamilton (1767-1843) designed many Glasgow buildings of the early 19th century, including the Royal exchange (1829), now Stirling's library, Hutcheson's hospital in Ingram street (1803) and Gorbals parish church (1803). Alexander Thomson, known as "Greek" Thomson from the classical nature of his designs, was the architect of St. Vincent street church (1859), Caledonia iroad church (1857), Moray place (1862) and Great Western terrace (1870). The City chambers in George square (1883-89), designed by William Young, is a large block of offices and council rooms in Italian Renaissance style with marble corridors and ornate reception rooms. A large office extension was built in 1923

UL./Y&LrUW on the eastern side of it. The General Post office (1877) is on the south side of George square and the Merchants' house (architect John Burnet, Sr.; 1880) is on the west side. The terraces above Kelvingrove park (built c. 1854) make a fine example of Victorian house architecture and street planning. Charles Wilson was the architect for most of these and for Trinity college with its twin towers and high campanile. Charles Rennie Mackintosh (g.v.; 1868-1928) was the most important Glasgow architect of Victorian and Edwardian times. He designed the Glasgow School of Art in Renfrew street (completed 1909), Queen's Cross church (1899-1909), Scotland Street school (1904-06) and many dwelling houses in and around Glasgow. He created a new style, widely adopted in England and on the continent of Europe. Many of the solid stone buildings of 19th-century Glasgow have decayed and are unsuitable to modern conditions (particularly tenement late

buildings) and an extensive plan of city redevelopment has been formed to include 29 city districts. During World War II Glasgow suffered less from air raids than did many other cities. The most important building destroyed was the "Greek" Thomson Queen's park St. George's church. Air raids, particularly in 1941 and 1943, caused some damage in the west end and in the Tradeston district. The Hampden Park football stadium, scene of the Scottish Cup final and international matches, is the largest in Britain (maximum capacity about 150,000 spectators). Churches. Because of competition in church building among various denominations in the 19th century, Glasgow's churches are numerous but of varying architectural quality, perhaps the best

—

being WelHngton (architect T. L. Watson; 1883), the Barony church (architect Sir John J. Burnet; 1886-1900) and the Barony

North church (architect John Honeyman; 1880).

There are two notable 18th-century churches: St. Andrew's-by-the-Green Episcopal church (1750), the earliest post- Reformation church built in Glasgow, and St. Andrew's parish church (architect Allan Dreghorn; 1756), the design of which was based upon St. Martin in the Fields, London. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St. Andrew was formally opened in 1816. Glasgow cathedral is in the oldest part of the city on a slope facing the Necropolis, the old Fir park of the bishops. It is of Early Pointed and Transition architecture and has a nave, a choir and a lower church or crypt. It is surmounted by a central spire rising to 220 ft. The original intention may have been that the cathedral should be cruciform but the only structure which projects beyond the aisles is a part of the lower church known as "the Fergus or Blacader Aisle" built by Robert Blacader, archbishop from 1484 to 1508. The cathedral measures about 283 ft. in length and 61 ft. in breadth with eight bays in the nave and five in the choir. A chapter house occupies the northeastern angle of the choir. The beautifully molded rood screen (or choir screen) dividing nave and choir is attributed to Archbishop Blacader. The lower church is unusual in that it is entirely aboveground because of the sloping nature of the site.

the cathedral

It contains the oldest part of

and the reputed grave of

St,

Mungo.

The

cathedral

stands on the probable site of a church built by St. Mungo in the 6th or 7th century. (See History, below.) The wooden cathedral

Bishop John Achaius was destroyed by fire and rebuilt by Bishop Part of his work remains in the lower church of the present building. William de Bondington (bishop 1233-58) commenced the cathedral as it is today with the building of the choir and most of the lower church. The tower and chapter house were the work of William Lauder (bishop 1408-25) although they After the 'were finished by John Cameron (bishop 1426-46). Reformation the church was used for the new form of worship by three separate congregations. In 1570 an attempt was made to demolish it while the altars and images were being removed but this was prevented by the craft guilds of Glasgow. The building was alternately abused and neglected during the 17th and 18th centuries but in the 19th century various local societies and individuals interested themselves in restoring and maintaining the fabric and beautifying the church. In 1854 the town council, which was then responsible for the cathedral, was advised that the two western towers (a bell tower and a consistory house) ought to be removed, being of a later date than the rest of the church and of of

Jocelin (1175-99).

453

an inferior

This was done, to the regret of

style.

many

architects

and friends of the cathedral. The cathedral (or St. Mungo's High church as it is officially known) is now used for worship by one congregation of the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) and the fabric is under the care of the ministry of works. Surrounding the cathedral is the High Kirk burying ground which contains some interesting 17th-century tombstones and monuments. Early memorials preserved inside the cathedral include a recumbent effigy of Bishop Robert Wishart (1276-1316), some portrait bosses of Bishop Bondington and others in the lower church and a memorial brass to the Stewarts of Minto, 17th-century provosts of Glasgow.

University, Colleges and Schools.— Glasgow university was founded in 1451 by a bull of Pope Nicholas V on the petition of King James II of Scotland. William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (1447-54), was the first chancellor. Its classes in theology and arts were probably held in the cathedral and the Black Friars' monastery at first but were soon removed to a paedagogiiim in the Rottenrow. About 1460 lands granted by Lord Hamilton on the east side of High street formed the site of the university until its removal to the west end of Glasgow in 1870. The Reformation caused the university to decay greatly but Andrew Melville, the great Presbyterian scholar, revived it and drew up a new constitution entitled the Nova Erectio, which was confirmed in 1577. The religious disputes of the 17th century again lowered its standards but, despite a falling off then, a new building was erected for it

between 1632 and 1660. Another revival took place in the 18th century, partly because Glasgow university had a wider freedom of teaching and student entrance than Oxford and Cambridge. Glas-

gow gained like

Adam

assistants

among its teachers men CuUen and Joseph Black. Among its were James Watt and the famous printers Robert and a national reputation, having

Smith, William

Andrew Fouhs.

In the 19th century Glasgow university's medical school (associated with the Royal infirmary opened in 1794) became famous internationally with teachers like Lord Lister, professor of surgery

who

carried out his pioneer

work

in antiseptic

William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), the celebrated physicist, was professor of natural philosophy for many years. By mid- 19th century the old college in High street had become surrounded by very bad slums and was sold by the university to the Glasgow City Union Railway company which turned it into a railway station and later demolished the building. The university removed to a new building, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott, at Gilmorehill in the west end of the city in 1870. Under acts of parliament of 1858 and 1889 the university is now governed by the senate for academic matters and the university court for finance and general administration. There are six facin ulties arts, divinity, law, medicine, science and engineering each of which degrees are conferred. The rector, often a person chosen apart from academic considerations, is elected triennially by the students. The Students' Representative council forms a liaison between the student body and the university authorities. The Royal College of Science and Technology is Britain's oldest and largest technical college. It grew out of Anderson's college, founded in 1796 by John Anderson, which later amalgamated with the Glasgow Mechanics' institution (founded in 1823) and with the Atkinson institute (1861) to form the West of Scotland TechniFrom 1912 it was known as the Royal Technical colcal college. lege and was affiUated with Glasgow university in 1913. In 1956 it was renamed the Royal College of Science and Technology, Glassurgery there.

Sir

—

—

It prepares students for university degrees in various gow. branches of applied science and technology and in architecture as

well as for

its

own

diplomas.

The

Scottish College of

Commerce,

founded originally in 1845, awards diplomas and associateships in commercial subjects, business administration and management. It has also schools in hotel practice and in librarianship. The Glasgow School of Art has diploma courses in the various branches of The Royal Scottish Academy of Music, art and in architecture. founded originally in 1874, prepares students for recognized certificates and diplomas in music. Allied to it is the College of Dra-

]

i

matic Art. The West of Scotland Agricultural college (1899; also with the university) trains students for university degrees agriculture and for its own diplomas at the college in Glasgow

affiliated

m

GLASGOW

454

Ayrshire. Trinity colat the college estate at Auchincruive in of Scotland. It was Church of the college lege is the theological students founded in 1856 as the Free Church college and prepares of Scotfor university degrees in divinity. The Glasgow and West Domestic Science (founded 1875) gives full-time

and

land College of

cadiploma instruction for those entering the fields of cookery, clothing. of making or the management household tering, dietetics, Two boys' senior secondary schools in Glasgow are of some anThe High School of Glasgow (the Grammar School of tiquity. Glasgow until 1834) was founded before 1450. It is now under Glasgow corporation education department. Hutcheson's Grammar school is an independent school managed by Hutcheson's Educational trust. It was founded about 1643 under the will of George and Thomas Hutcheson, writers (solicitors) in Glasgow. Each of for these schools has a counterpart for girls— Glasgow High School

Girls

(1894) and Hutcheson's Girls'

Grammar

school

(1869).

Allan Glen's school (1853) was originally a primary school for sons of craftsmen, becoming later a secondary and technical institudeparttion. It is now under the Glasgow corporation education

ment and

specializes in science

Glasgow academy

and technology.

(1846) and Kelvinside academy (1877) are independent schools St. Aloysius college (for resembling English "public schools." boys), founded in 1859, and Notre Dame High School for Girls (1897) are the principal Roman Catholic schools in Glasgow. Libraries, Museums and Art Galleries. Glasgow corporation's public-library ser\'ice consists of the Mitchell (Reference) library in North street (700,000 vol.); more than 30 branch libraries with home-reading and children's departments and reading

—

rooms; the Commercial library of books on business and industry, directories, maps, reports and statistical material; and the Rankin Reading room, a small establishment in the east end of the city.

The Commercial

library also has a library of patents containing

American and foreign specifications. The Mitchell was founded in 1874 under the will of Stephen Mitchell, a Glasgow tobacco manufacturer. It has reference books on all subjects with several special collections, notably on Glasgow, Robert Bums and Scottish poetry and music. The Jeffrey Reference library, bequeathed in 1901 by Robert Jeffrey, a Glasgow manufacturer, housed in a separate room in the Mitchell library, has many rare and beautiful works. Stirling's library, in the Old Royal exchange (which also houses the Commercial library), is the central home-reading library but was founded originally as a sub-

many

British,

library

scription library in 1791,

Baillie's Institution

Free library

is

a

small reference librarj' in Blythswood square, catering for students

antiquities as well as a valuable collection of coins collection with many important items of British and

A

special feature

is

and a fine art European art.

the collection of paintings, drawings, etchings

and lithographs by James McNeill Whistler presented by the

art-

with some personal relics. Government. Glasgow is administered by the corporation of

ist's relatives

—

the city of Glasgow directed by the town council, which consists of 111 elected members for the city's 37 municipal wards with the deacon convener, who is president of 2 nominated members the Trades' house, and the dean of guild, who is president of the

—

Merchants' house. The civic head is the lord provost, an elected and there are 23 bailies, whose status is analogous to that of aldermen of English cities, undertaking magistrates' duties and other municipal work. The civic centre is the City chambers in George square which contain the principal corporation offices, although there are departments which have their chief offices in councilor,

other parts of the city. Glasgow has many parks and open spaces; more than 20 are spacious parks including Glasgow green in the centre of the city, which has been owned by the city since the 1 7th century, the Royal

Botanic gardens along the Great Western road and Loch Lomond park on the shore of the famous loch. The Zoological gardens at Calderpark, Uddingston, are privately owned. Transport and Communications. Northern and southern Glasgow are separated by the Clyde. On the north side, adjacent to the river, runs what is in effect one long road from the eastern boundaries to the western extremity of the city at the boundary of the burgh of Clydebank. This road is composed of Gallowgate and London road which run almost parallel for many miles and join at Glasgow cross to form Trongate. At Stockwell street this

—

becomes Argyle street until it joins Sauchiehall street at Kelvingrove to become Dumbarton road which it remains to the city boundary. A similar road runs from Rutherglen to Paisley on the south side of the river. This road branches at Paisley Road Toll to become Paisley Road West and Govan road, the latter joining a road which runs to the boundary of the burgh of Renfrew. Roads run north and south through the city leading to the northern suburbs and the central Highlands and to the southern boundaries of the city, joining the

main roads

to southern Scotland

and Eng-

The centre of the city is concerned with administration, trade, commerce and business and has relatively few residents, most of those working there traveling to and from their homes in the suburbs. The suburban districts vary in character. Some show all the characteristics of the independent tovms they were;

land.

many rare and valuable works. Among its collections are those made by William Euing (15,000 vol.), with its rare Bibles, and the

some, like Kjiightswood and Mosspark, were created as housing programs; others were shaped by social and economic circumstances like Gorbals, which has since the mid- 19th century attracted immigrants, first from eastern and central Europe and

library of Sir William Hamilton, the philosopher

after

especially in local

and Scottish history.

Glasgow university has a and teaching staff with

large librar>' for the use of the students

—

of Glasgow university was bequeathed to his university by William Hunter (1718-83), the famous physician. It includes

World War II from India and Pakistan. Glasgow corporation owns and operates a large network of transport routes served by buses, trolley buses and (in the early 1960s) A short underground railway, opened in 1895, a few tramcars. runs on a circular route through the city and the inner suburbs. There are four railway termini Central station, with main lines to London, Edinburgh and to the Clyde coast Buchanan Street to Aberdeen and the Highlands; Queen Street to Edinburgh, the Highlands and London by eastern England; and St. Enoch to London and the southwest of Scotland. Suburban lines run from alli these stations except Buchanan Street. Prestwick airport, 28 mi. S.S.W., is served by international airlines; Renfrew airport, 9 mi. N.W., is served by British and European airlines. Commerce and Industry.— Glasgow's first industry was probably salmon fishing, but its geographical position gave it an advantage as a market town for the west of Scotland. By the 1 7th century Glasgow merchants were trading with many parts of Brit-| ain and with Ireland, France and Norway, exporting coal, plaidingi and herrings. The union of parliaments with England gave Scot-J tish merchants parity with those of England in American trade an( Glasgow's traders, first chartering ships from English ports anc later using their own, began to import tobacco, sugar and rum from the Americas. Glasgow became very prosperous as the tobaccO'

collections of material relating to medicine, natural history

importing centre of the world until the tobacco supplies stoppec

(8,000 vol.).

Other large special libraries are those in the Royal College of Science and Technology and in Trinity college. Glasgow's principal museum and art gallery is in Kelvingrove f>ark and was opened in 1901. It contains an art collection which is

among

the best

owned by

a municipality in the

United Kingdom,

as well as departments of antiquities, engineering

and shipbuilding and natural history. The art collection, founded upon the pictures collected by Archibald McLellan, a Glasgow coachbuilder, and purchased by the corporation in 1854, contains such famous works as Rembrandt's "Man in Armour," Jean Baptiste Corot's "Souvenir d'ltalie," James McNeill Whistler's "Portrait of Thomas Carlyle" and Salvador Dali's "Christ of St. John of the Cross." In 1944 Sir William Burrell, a Glasgow shipowner, presented his collection of paintings, tapestries, sculpture and other objects of art, representing all ages and types, adding to it until his death in 1958. Other corporation museums are in the People's palace at Glasgow green (the Old Glasgow museum), ToUcross park (a chOdren's museum and a branch of the schools' museum service, supplied by the museums and art galleries and education departments of Glasgow) and Old Camphill house in Queen's park. The Hunterian

museum

and

—

;

j

j

GLASGOW with the American Revolution when the merchants transferred their commercial activities to other goods and to the manufacture of textiles, wooden and metal goods, pottery and rope and to brewWith the Industrial Revolution came ing and sugar processing.

founding and chemical manufacture and shipbuilding was undertaken with increasing success from the early years of the 19th century. The prosperity of the heavy industries was shaken by the aftereffects of World War I and, although these are still the basis of Glasgow's hvelihood, the pattern of industry after 1920 shows a much wider variety. Manufactures include coal mining, iron

textiles, clothing, foodstuffs,

whOe machinery

brewing, tobacco, paper, printing and of all kinds

is made. Abundance of Glasgow area has encouraged firms from other parts of the United Kingdom, from the United States and from the European continent to establish factories in and around Glasgow. Many small industrial firms have been accommodated in Glasgow's five industrial estates Hillington, Queenslie, Camtyne, Craigton and Thornliebank. The city's development plan makes provision for industrial installations and for the avoidance of their

chemicals,

skilled labour in the

—

confusion with residential areas, while several important industrial concerns have established themselves in Glasgow's New Towns and in neighbouring industrial burghs, while their administration is

based on Glasgow. The Clyde and the Port of Glasgow. The Clyde in its westsouthwesterly course through Glasgow is almost entirely industrial and commercial. It is administered by the Clyde Navigation trust from Albert bridge, Glasgow, to Newark Castle, Port Glasgow (an independent burgh although initiated by Glasgow in 1667). The port of Glasgow consists of the quays and docks lining the river from Albert bridge to Rothesay dock, Clydebank, a distance There are five docks (Kingston, Queen's, King of six miles. George V, Prince's and Rothesay) capable of accommodating all types of ships except the largest ocean liners. There are also basins The at Yorkhill and quays which cover a water area of 2SS ac. river is crossed by 11 bridges within the Glasgow area. Farthest upstream is Rutherglen bridge from Bridgeton to the Rutherglen boundary, built in 1893; next is the Richmond park footbridge and the James street (or Ballater street) bridge, both terminating on Glasgow green. The St. Andrew's suspension bridge was built in 18S6 for the convenience of weavers travehng from Hutchesontown to Bridgeton. The Albert (or Saltmarket) bridge, built in 1871, replaced a bridge damaged by floodwater. A railway bridge, built in 1871 and rebuilt in 1900, carries the line from St. Enoch station. The Victoria (or Stockwell) bridge, from Stockwell street to Gorbals (opened in 18S4), succeeded Glasgow's oldest stone bridge, the so-called "Bishop Rae's bridge," probably built in the 14th century and demolished after many additions and repairs in 1850. The Portland street suspension bridge was built by the heritors of Laurieston in 1853. Glasgow bridge (also known as Jamaica bridge and Broomielaw bridge) connects Union street and the western part of central Glasgow with the southwestern suburbs. It was opened in 1899 and replaced a bridge completed by Thomas Telford in 1836. Telford's bridge succeeded the original Jamaica Adjacent is a railway bridge or New bridge built in 1767-72. bridge from the Central station and west of this is the bridge farthest downstream, King George V bridge, built in 1927-28 to

—

by the older bridges. Farther downstream a number of passenger and vehicular ferries cross the river. In 1960 a passenger and vehicular tunnel was begun below the river from Whiteinch to Govan. A smaller tunnel from Finnieston on the south bank to Plantation on the north bank was made in 1895 but closed in 1943. There are coastal and packet services for England, Ireland, the Hebrides and the continent. Passenger steamers (curtailed in winter) depart from

ease the strain of cross-river traffic borne

Bridge wharf to various places along the Clyde. History. The origin of the name Glasgow is uncertain. Historians agree that it is probably derived from Celtic words gleschu {glas ghu) meaning "the green glen" or "the dear green glen," a reference to the valley of the Molendinar, a stream associated with St. Mungo and his evangelization of Glasgow in the 6th and 7th centuries. There are earlier evidences of settlements in Glas-

—

I

'

:

'

1

gow.

Relics of the Late Stone

Age and the Early Bronze Age have

455

been found in and around the city. A prehistoric village appears to have been formed on one of the 37 drumlins low boulderclay hills left on the passing of the Ice Age on which central Glas-

—

—

gow

is founded. The village (named in ancient British times Cathures) seems to have been fortified and to have been a trading centre for the local tribes and the Highland clans. Two great roads^between Edinburgh and Dumbarton castles and between the Highlands and the Lowlands crossed at or near the presentday junction of High street and Rottenrow. The Clyde was famed in ancient days for its large catches of salmon and the area surrounding the primitive village was covered with heath and forest which held game. Although the Antonine wall {q.v.) is only about

—

4 mi.

from the

some

points, the

and actually within the boundary at to have made little impact on the centre of Glasgow, although Roman relics have been found in some districts of the modem city. St. Kentigern (Celtic, "High Lord"), usually

known

city centre

Romans seem

as St.

Mungo

(Celtic,

"my

dear friend," a

name

have been given to him by his teacher St. Serf), came to Glasgow from his native Culross in Fife about 550 to convert the British tribes of the district. He formed a Christian corrmiunity and built the first Glasgow cathedral and, after his death in 603, was canonized. Glasgow appears again in history in 1115 when said to

King David

I of

Scotland ordered the compilation of the "Notitia"

or "Inquisitio," an account of the church's ancient possessions in

Scotland to be used in the king's plan of religious revival in the The king's tutor John Achaius, appointed bishop of the reconstituted see, rebuilt the cathedral about 1136. Glasgow was created a burgh of barony, under the bishop, by William the Lion about 1180 and about 1189 was granted the right to hold an annual fair. Sir William Wallace is said to have fought the battle of the Bell o' the Brae with the English in 1300 and John McUre, the city's first historian (1736), states that Glasgow's first stone bridge over the Clyde was built by Bishop William Rae land.

In 1450 the city was created a burgh of regality by James II of Scotland. In 1 560 the Reformation caused Archbishop James Beaton to seek refuge in France taking the cathedral plate in 1350.

and archives; the archives are now in private hands in Scotland; the plate was given to a religious order in France. In 1568 the troops of Mary, queen of Scots, were defeated by the regent James Stuart, earl of Moray (Murray), at Langside a few miles outside the city. The Glasgow Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons was founded in 1599 and the trades incorporations were organized in a "Letter of Guildry" by King James VI of Scotland (James I of Great Britain and Ireland) in 1604. In 1636 King Charies I extended the charter of a royal burgh that was granted in 1611 by

James VI, although with reservations to the authority of the The general assembly of the Church of Scotland met in Glasgow in 1638 and proclaimed Presbyterianism as the Scottish

bishop.

system of church government. In connection with this assembly the first book to be printed in Glasgow was issued in the same Oliver Cromwell, after defeating the Scots at Dunbar, year. visited Glasgow in 1650 and in 1689 the revolution settlement, by ending the powers of the bishop of Glasgow, gave Glasgow an independent town council. In 1695 Glasgow lost £3,000 in the Darien scheme {see Darien) Glasgow's first newspaper, the Glas.

gow Courant, was published

in

1715 and, in 1745, Prince Charles

Stuart, on his retreat northward, spent ten days there contributions that neariy ruined the city financially. In

and levied

1 750 Glasbanks, the Ship and the Glasgow Arms, began business and in 1755 the deepening of the Clyde was investigated by John Smeaton. James Watt came to Glasgow in 1757 and by the end opening the century the expansion of Glasgow was shown by the

gow's

first

of

up of George square (1782) and the foundation of the chamber commerce (1783). In 1812 the first passenger-carrying steam{q.v.) boat in Britain, the "Comet," was launched by Henry Bell the Burgh by changed was council town Glasgow's Clyde. the on Reform act of 1853. In 1857 the Western bank failed owing a and investors, large sum of money and ruining many depositors the City of that of was failure bank serious more much while a Glasgow bank in 1878. In 1859 the water of Loch Katrine was and in 1866 the supplied to the city by aqueduct for the first time Improvement trustees obtained powers to demolish old slum of

City

GLASITES—GLASS

456

houses and rebuUd and replan parts of the city. In 1891 Glasgow subextended its boundaries and population by annexing several urban burghs and made a similar annexation in 1912. The city was made a county of a city in 1894. Glasgow has had four major exhibitions— the International exhiof bitions of 1888 and 1901 and the Scottish National exhibition 1938 1911. all in Kelvingrove park, and the Empire exhibition of Bellahouston park. See also references under "Glasgow" in the Index volume. Bibliography.—G. Evre-Todd and R. Renwick, History of Glasgow, M. 3 vol. (1921-34); C. A. Oakley, The Second City (1946); J. Reid, Glasgow (1956); J. Cunnison and J. B. S. Gilfillan (eds.), The Third Statistical Account of Scotland: Glasgow (1958). in

(G. C. Em.)

GLASITES (Sandemanians), a Christian sect, founded c. 1730 in Scotland by John Glas (q.v.). It spread into England and America, where the name Sandemanians was more commonly used.

He wrote one Finance (1927), which teUs his story of the enactment of the Federal Reserve legislation. See Ri-xey Smith and Norman Beasley, Carter Glass (1939). (T. H. Or.) rare talent for forceful

book.

and

logical expression.

in Constructive

GLASS

has from very early times been used for various kinds where the industry has been developed there has been produced a great variety of forms and kinds of decoration, much of it of great beauty. This aspect of glass is the of vessels, and in all countries

subject of this article. For the use of glass in jewelr>' see Gem Imitation Gems. For the composition and properties of glass and the manufacture of various glass products such as glass containers, :

window glass, plate glass, optical glass and glass fibres, see Glass Manufacture. The manufacture of bottles is described separately under Bottles.

This article is divided into the following main sections; I. Ancient Times to the 19th Century

Glas dissented from the Westminster Confession only in his views as to the spiritual nature of the church and the functions of the But his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a cix-il magistrate. distinctive doctrine as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on his tombstone: "That the bare death of Jesus Christ without

on the part of man is sufficient to present the chief of sinners spotless before God." In their practice the Glasite churches aimed at a strict conformity with primitive Christianity Each congregation had a plurality of as understood by them. elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according to what were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to previous education or present occupation; the Lord's Supper was observed weekly; between forenoon and afternoon ser\'ice even.' Sunday a love feast was held at which every member was required to be present; the ceremony of washing each other's feet was at one time observed; new members, on admission, were received with a holy kiss. The accumulation of wealth was held to be unscriptural and

An Adventure

1.

Early Glass

2.

The Roman Empire

4.

Islam Venice and the Fagon de Venise

5.

Germany

3.

a thought or deed

II.

6.

England

7.

The Far East

8.

United States

Modern

6.

Glass from 1850 Great Britain United States Czechoslovakia, Austria and Germany France The Scandinavian Countries Belgium and the Netherlands

7.

Italy

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

I.

1.

ANCIENT TIMES TO THE 19TH CENTURY

Early Glass.

—

It is

not certain in which of the riverine

was

made.

The

civili-

improper.

zations of the ancient near east glass

Churches of this order were founded in Paisley, Glasgow, Edinburgh. Leith. Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where the scientist Michael Faraday was long an elder. The Glasites' exclusiveness in prac-

wholly glass objects from Egypt are beads dating from after c. 2500 B.C. Possibly earlier than these is a green glass rod, found at Eshnunna in Babylonia, that may go back as early as 2600 B.C. A small piece of blue glass found at Eridu dates from before 2200 B.C. There can be little doubt that the first vessels of glass were manufactured in Eg^^pt under the ISth dynasty, particularly from the reign of Amenhotep II (1448-20) onward. These vessels are distinguished by a peculiar technique the shape required was first formed of clay (probably mixed with sand) fixed to a metal rod.

neglect of education for the ministry, and the antinomian tendency of their doctrine contributed to their dissolution. Most Glasites gravitated into other denominations, and the sect is now

tice,

practically extinct.

America ceased

The

last

to exist in

1

Sandemanian churches

of the

in

890.

first

earliest

:

On

body

man, senator and secretary of the treasury, was born in L\-nchburg, Va.. on Jan. 4, 1858. A lifelong Democrat in the strict Jeffersonian

was built up, usually of opaque were coiled threads of glass of contrasting colour, which were pulled alternately up and down by a comblike instrument to form feather, zigzag or arcade patterns. These threads, usually yellow, white or green in colour, and sometimes sealing-wax red, were rolled in (marvered) flush with the

tradition, he served in the

surface of the vessel.

1918.

lucent glass and sometimes of patterned "canes"

5ff James Ross, History of Congregational Independency in Scotland (1900); H. Escott, A History of Scottish Congregationalism (I960). (D. M.; X.)

GLASS,

CARTER

(1858-1946), U.S. publisher, congress-

this core the

blue glass.

On

of the vessel

this, in turn,

—often —were

house of representatives from 1902 to His most notable contribution as congressman was the framing and sponsoring of the Federal Reser\'e act (1913). Pres. Woodrow Wilson appointed him secretary of the treasury in 1918, and he supported Wilson's fight for the League of Nations. In 1920 he accepted an interim appointment as senator from Virginia and remained in the office by election until his death on May 28

added. nearly always small, being mainly used to contain unguents and the like. Occasionally glass was decorated on the lapidary's wheel. Glass is known to have been made on the palace site of Tell el-Amarna, the residence of Ikhnaton (c. 137554 B.C. ), and the number of fragments found in and near the palace

1946.

of

As senator. Glass's principal

role

was one of opposition.

He

supported F. D. Roosevelt for president in 1932 but afterward became a sharp critic of the New Deal. With his fellow senator

from \'irginia, Harry F. Byrd, Glass led the conservative southern Democratic bloc. His position rested upon certain dogmatic and inherited principles of Virginia politics

;

states' rights, racial segre-

sound money, government economy, noninterference with private enterprise and strict construction of the federal constitution. His bitterest assault on Roosevelt came during the controversy over "packing" the U.S. supreme court in 1937. Glass was in the main self-educated, having left the public gation,

The

vessels so

Finally,

if

desired, handles

of trans-

made were

Amenhotep III (c. 1408-1375 B.C.) at Thebes suggests that it was made there also. This palace activity seems then to have died down and after the 21st dynasty (about 1000 B.C.) to have ceased altogether. In Mesopotamia the Nineveh tablets of the reign of Ashurbanipal (668-c. 626 B.C.) and the remains of glass in various forms excavated by M. E. L. Mallowan at Nimrud (Kalakh) indicate that glassmaking

centuries B.C.

was carried on there during the Sth

It is possible that certain

palish green glass, cut

from the

solid

vase-shaped vessels of

mass as

if

from

,

to the 6th

stone,

I

may j

schools of L>'nchburg at the age of 13. He followed his father's path into journalism, ser%'ing as printer's devil, reporter, editor,

be Mesopotamian and may date from as early as the 2nd rrdUennium B.C., although none has been found in controlled excavations. A vase of this type, contrasting completely with the core-wound glass of Egypt, bears the cartouche of the Assyrian king Sargon

and finally proprietor of the Lynchburg Daily News and the Daily Advance. He was of notable independence of mind and had a

(722-705 B.C.), and it is possible that glass treated in was manufactured over a long period in Mesopotamia.

this

i

|

way' i

GLASS Glass was made in Greece in Mycenaean times, usually in the form of small molded architectural details, but a few pieces sug-

perhaps some vessel glass also was made in the Egyptian Other glass of this period found throughout the Aegean may have been imported from Egypt. In general, glass of the first half of the 1st millennium B.C. is scarce and displays little homogeneity. From the 6th century B.C., however, glass begins to appear in great quantities once again, particularly on the Greek-inhabited islands of the Aegean, in Greece itself, in Italy and Sicily and even farther west. This contrasts with the meagre contemporary finds on Egyptian soil. Although in the old Egyptian core-wound technique, these later glasses were probably made in Syria or some part of the Greek world. The vessels were still small but differ in shape from the earlier Egyptian dynastic work. They were usually decorated with light-coloured threads on a dark, usually blue, ground (familiar from the Egyptian 18th dynasty) but a notable variation is to be found in pieces decorated with dark purple threads on a white ground. In the Hellenistic period (roughly from the 4th century B.C.) the shapes of glass degenerated. The technique of decoration, however, remained the same; new colour combinations were used, gest that

technique, though not in Egyptian forms.

and indeed continued into the era of blown glass. In Egypt during the Ptolemaic pe2. The Roman Empire. riod (323-330 B.C.) Alexandria came to the fore in glassmaking; about the 1st century B.C., which saw the beginnings of glass as known today, it had become pre-eminent in certain glass techAlexandria inherited and perfected the manipulation of niques. coloured glass rods to make composite canes which, cut across, revealed a design (mosaic glass). Slices from such canes could be arranged side by side to produce repetitive patterns. When, as often happens, the cane slices show starry or flowerlike designs, An the resultant glass is called millefiori ("thousand flowers"). Alexandrian technical advance more important for the future, however, was mold pressing. A combination of this with the millefiori technique enabled bowls to be produced with variegated designs

—

in infinite variety. larly

compounded

Sometimes

glass of various colours

was

irregu-

to give the effect of a natural veined stone;

occasionally enclosures of gold leaf in the glass simulated the glitter Bowls were often finished of natural pyrites (aventurine glass).

round the rim with a cordon made of a clear glass thread twisted with one of opaque white sometimes such cable threads were themselves coiled round and round from a centre to make a bowl of lacy appearance, with the opaque white glass threads apparently set in ;

a clear colourless matrix.

might be finished with a fire polish by returning many mold-pressed glasses were, in fact, given a rotary polish, either by means of a spinning wheel fed with abrasives or by a process similar to lathe turning, where the obSimilar equipment probably ject spins and the tool is stationary. give every appearance of that pieces numerous for the was used having been cut from a solid block of glass or at least from a thick, All these pieces

them

to the furnace, but

Such pieces (usually flat dishes or twomold-pressed blank. handled cups) follow current forms of pottery and metalwork. Wheel engraving appears to have become an Alexandrian specialty around the 1st century B.C. and probably continued so throughout Alexandrian wheel engravers prothe two succeeding centuries. duced not only the massive cut shapes described but also intaglio and relief surface decoration, the latter by laboriously grinding back the surface of the glass to form a background for the design. Simple motifs such as lotus buds or lotus flowers were produced compositions in this way and occasionally more elaborate figural were also done. Other specialties attributed to Alexandria were

enamel painting (pigments mixed with the surface of the glass vessel

a glassy flux

by a separate

were fused

to

firing in a mufile kiln)

and an extraordinary technique of sandwiching a gold leaf etched with a design between two layers of clear glass. The most important innovation in the whole history of glass manufacture was blowing. Perhaps by a stroke of pure inventive tube genius it was perceived that glass on the end of a hollow metal been could be blown into a mold as easily as it had theretofore pressed in. The next stage was to use molds for forms, such as

457

could not be made by pressing. Finally, it was realized that the glass bulb on the end of the blowpipe could be shaped freehand to any form desired, and handles, feet and decorative elements could be added at will. This liberating discovery, probably made during the 1st century B.C., gave rise to the astonishing flasks, that

growth of the glass industry in Roman imperial times. Not only were luxury vessels of types already described produced with an elaboration of skill which astonishes, and often baffles, the modern technician, but commercial containers in great variety were massproduced in common greenish glass on a scale unmatched until the 19th century.

The discovery of glass blowing may well be credited to the Syrian glassworkers, since the first mold-blown glasses bear the signatures of Syrian masters and since the readily ductile Syrian soda glass was especially apt for this purpose. Syrian glassworkers, however, seem to have migrated wherever demand promised a ready market, and some masters of mold blowing appear to have moved to Italy early in the 1st century a.d.; in the course of that century Italy became an important glass-producing area. Glass engraving especially seems to have flourished there and grinding through an opaque particularly one form of the art

—

white layer to a darker ground (cameo glass). The most famous example of this exacting technique is the Portland vase, in the British museum, London. The capacity of the Italian glass craftsman to surpass all earlier masters in work of the most complex character is seen in the so-called cage cups (diatreta), on which usually a mesh of tangent circles with or without a the design is so undercut that it stands completely free convivial inscription of the body of the vessel, except for an occasional supporting strut. These cups were made perhaps at Aquileia and date from the 3rd

—

and 4th centuries

—

a.d.

Parallel to the pottery industry, glassmaking spread

from Italy

northern Gaul, in particular to the valleys of the Rhone and the Rhine. In Britain the industry was probably not of great importance. The Rhineland, however, became one of the great glassmaking areas of the Roman world (partly due, it is thought, to successive migrations of near eastern workers) and although Rhenish glass is always recognizably Roman, several types of decorated glass were specialties of the district. Glasses decorated in serpentine patterns by threads trailed on and then pressed flat and notched are perhaps the most important and typical iSchlangento

A considerable school of glass engraving also seems probably around Cologne. Although some enflourished, have to graving shows an impoverished Unear style eked out by lines scratched with a hard stone point, some is executed by means of wheels suflSciently thick to permit rounded cuts corresponding to the modeling of the human figure, and simulating it when the piece is seen against the light. Both types of decoration flourished in the 3rd and 4th centuries a.d. In Egypt in the later centuries of the Roman epoch glass was in frequent use for tableware, but artistic standards were not high. with, the Plain dishes, cups, bowls and lamps are frequently met "metal" colourless almost an from ranging tablewares the glass of

jadenglaser).

good quality to a greenish-brownish substance full of bubbles restricted and impurities. Decoration in this late period is mainly of coloured glass to a few rough-cut lines, an occasional group of

of glass thread blobs on, for instance, the lamps, or a zigzag trail In Syria durof vase. a shoulder the and lip the between running technique, which was ing the same period, however, this trailing

was carried to particularly suitable to the ductile Syrian material, or neck of a body the round threads of circuits extreme lengths, handles being favoured. vessel, zigzags and fantastically worked

Here too the quality of the material eventually degenerated. fared With the breakdown of the Roman empire glassmaking

dif-

In the east urban hfe conferently in different parts of the world. evolved in an unglassmaking and undisturbed, tinued relatively northern provinces, broken progress into Islamic times. In the

glassmaking became an however, from being a centralized industry, working in the forests glasshouses isolated, affair of small, often them with fuel. Relatively simple shapes were made that supplied

material, their decoration reof an impure greenish or yellowish Considerable virtuosity, howstricted to simple trails of thread.

GLASS

458

manufacture of elaborate and fantastic "claw beakers" Riisselbecher) from c. a.d. 500 onward. On these, two superimposed rows of hollow trunklike protrusions curve down to rejoin the wall of the vessel above a small button foot. In the eastern parts of the empire Syria appears to have continued its predilection for trailed and applied ornamentation. In

ever,

was displayed

in the

'(

art of glass suffered a catastrophic decline; only small rough vessels of impure green or blue material were manufactured. In Byzantium itself the position of glassmaking is obscure. A distinction between vitriarii C'glassmakers") and diatretarii ("glass cutters") in edicts of Constantine the Great, Theodosius and Justinian suggests that cutting played an important part in Byzan-

Egypt the

tine glass decoration. This is borne out by the fact that the greater part of the glass brought back from the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders, and placed in the treasury of St. Mark's in Venice,

Apart from a few pieces of obviously Roman glass, presumably kept as heirlooms in Byzantium, these glasses are decorated either with tessellated patterns of overlapping round or oval These same two forms of facets or with round bosses in relief. cutting are observable in glass of the 5th century excavated at Kish in Mesopotamia; it is a fair as.sumption that Byzantine taste in glass, as in some of the other arts, was strongly influenced by the east. It is probable, however, that some enameled and gilt glass also was made in the Byzantine provinces (e.g., in Corinth), if not The position of glassmaking in Italy is obin Byzantium itself. scure but it was already practised in Venice in the 10th century, 3. Islam. In the 7th century a.d. the whole near east was overrun by the Arabs and, although a number of rival dynasties were established in different parts of the conquered territory, there was created an Islamic civilization comparable to the preceding area is,

in fact, cut.

—

of

Greco-Roman

culture.

In these conditions a distinctively Is-

Although often it is not possible to say where a particular glass was made, different parts of the Islamic world seem to have shown predilections for one or another type of glassmaking. In Syria pieces more or less heavily decorated with trailed threads or applied blobs, and pieces blown in molds, patterned with ribs or other allover designs, were still made. In Mesopotamia glassmaking and, in particular, engraving flourished, especially under the Abbasids (a.d. 740-1258), who attracted lamic glass style evolved.

many

of the best artists in the Islamic world.

A

great school of

glass engraving appears to

have been established in Mesopotamia. Not only were the earlier modes of facet- and boss-cutting continued, but (perhaps deriving from them) two splendid new styles were created, one of linear intaglio, the other of relief cutting (outlines were left in relief by cutting back the ground and were then enlivened by crosshatching). Bowls, bottles and ewers of remarkable sumptuousness were decorated with forms of running animals and plant scrolls. The quantity of engraved glass of these types found in Persia suggests that such work may have been done there also.

In Egypt there was both innovation and, after the post-Roman period, a notable revival of earlier techniques. Among the innovations was the stamping of glass by means of tongs, one jaw of

which was patterned. The technique, however, is found in other lands and one extension of it, by which the upper and lower halves of bottles, made separately in contrasting colours, were decorated by the tongs and then joined together, was probably a Syrian innovation. More important was the Egyptian invention of lustre painting. In its simplest form this consisted of painting with a pigment containing silver that, when fired in a smoky atmosphere ii.e., without oxygen), produced on the glass a thin metallic film varying in colour from pale yellow to brown. Intact bowls and a

by this technique exist, but whole classes of much lustre-painted glass are represented only by fragments. A very wide variety of sumptuous polychrome effects are represented, many probably not produced by lustre properly bottle decorated

more elaborate

socalled; the technical secrets of these are not yet understood. Egyptian Islamic revivals in glass included millefiori effects, mainly in plaques for wall decoration, and white fern and feather

patterns produced on dark gla.ss vessels by combed and imbedded Glass cutting was also practised in Egypt, mainly for the production of deeply incised small perfume bottles of

glass threads.

square section, the bases of which were often cut into four taperEgypt probably also perfected ing feet ("molar tooth" bottles). the techniques of gilding, decisive for the next phase in Islamic glassmaking. Glassworkers migrating from Egypt to Syria after the

fall

of the Egyptian Fatimite dynasty in 1171

may have

laid

the foundation of the Syrian art of enameled and gilt glass. Although earlier phases of this art are incompletely understood, the first group of enameled and gilt glasses seems to be one in which thick enamels are used (particularly white and turquoiseblue), often in series of beadlike drops. This class is tentatively associated with the town of Rakka in Syria. A similar doubt surrounds the origins of two broad families into which Syrian glass of the 1 3th century is divided. One, characterized by the use of thick, jewellike enamels, is connected with the town of Aleppo; the other, notable for oration,

is

its

exquisitely painted small-scale figural dec-

attributed to Damascus.

Both

cities

were famous for

uncertain what each produced. Wherever made, these two types of glass represent one of the high lights in the history of the art, whether one considers the rich green, red, yellow, white and turquoise-blue enamels of the their glass at this time, but

it

is

"Aleppo" group, or the masterly red outline drawing of the "Damascus" group. Toward 1300 Chinese influences, infiltrating by way of the Mongols and Tatars, makes itself felt in the decoration of these glasses, as is apparent in the series of great mosque lamps which then began to be inscribed with the names of rulers and great officers of state in Egypt. From a peak of excellence at the beginning of the 14th century a decline set in, greatly precipitated by Timur's sacking of the chief Syrian cities at the end of the'century. Damascus fell finally in 1400, and it is recorded that the glassworkers of that city were carried into captivity in Samarkand. Nevertheless, some enameled glass of inferior quality continued to be made in the ISth century, perhaps in Egypt. By the end of that century, however, there is evidence that mosque lamps were being made in Venice for the oriental market and the great near eastern tradition of enameled and gilt glass was clearly moribund, 4. Venice and the Facon de Venise. A glass industry was already established in Venice in the 10th century and vessel glass was made there by the third quarter of the 13th century. In 291 the glass furnaces were removed to the neighbouring island of Murano to obviate the risk of fire in the city. Although Venice had constant contact with the east, there is no evidence that it was

—

1

indebted to that source for its skill in glassmaking. Venetian enameled glasses appear in the second half of the ISth century, and although their technique is essentially similar to that of the Syrian glasses just mentioned, it is clear that they are of independent development. Little is known of the vessels made before this period, but it is evident from representations in pictures that they were mainly footed flasks and low beakers. The Venetians attributed the introduction of enameling to a member of the glassmaking family of Barovier. The earliest pieces known, commencing with a goblet referable to the year 1465, certainly show no signs of outside influence. These, like most Venetian glass of this

period, were inspired

Renaissance.

The

by the artistic ideals of the Italian drawn from contemporary wood-

decorations,

cuts and Nielli, represent triumphs, allegories of love, grotesques and so forth, with borders of dots of enamel laid on a ground of gold etched in scale pattern. Many of these pieces were of richly coloured glass, blue, green or purple. The Venetians were keenly aware of Roman achievements in glassmaking as in the other arts; they reproduced mosaic, millefiori and aventurine glass, and glass resembling natural layered stones (calce.donio, sometimes miscalled Schmelzglas). and they even copied a Roman form of bowl with vertical, externa! ribs. All these types of glass were Venetian specialties, probably developed as a part of the extensive local bead industry. The greatest achievement of Venice, however, and that upon which its great export trade came to be based, was the manufacture of clear, colouriess glass, the secret of which had apparently been lost during the middle ages. From its resemblance to natural crystal, this material was called cristallo, although in fact it often has a not unpleasing brownish or grayish cast. Being fluxed with soda, it was very ductile and cooled quickly. It therefore demanded of

GLASS workmen

great speed and dexterity and this in turn affected the nature of the glasses made. Although in the first half of the 16th century the Venetian glass blowers produced glasses of an austere the

simplicity, as the century

proceeded (and more markedly still in the 17th century) there was a tendency to produce elaborate and fantastic forms. Enameling on glass went out of fashion in Venice (except on pieces for export) in the first half of the 16th century, its place being taken to some extent by the use of opaque white glass threads for decorative purposes (latticinio). This form of decoration became progressively more complex, opaque threads being embedded in a matrix of clear glass and then twisted into cables which were themselves used to build up the wall of a vessel. The height of complexity was reached when a bulb of glass decorated with cables or threads running obHquely in one direction was blown inside a second bulb with threads twisted in the other direction, the composite globe thus formed then being worked into the deThis resulted in a vessel completely covered with a sired form. lacy white pattern {vetro di trina). Other methods of decoration at this time were mold blowing, and dipping a vessel while hot into water or rolhng it on a bed of glass fragments to produce a crackled surface (ice glass). Cristallo was also found suitable for engraving with a diamond point, which produced spidery opaque lines especially suitable for delicate designs. The technique seems to have come into use about 1530. The glassworkers of Murano were forbidden to leave Venice or to teach their secrets to outsiders, under dire penalties both to themselves and their families. Such was the demand for Venetian glass in the rest of Europe, however, and such was the desire of kings and nobles to control and reap the profits of its manufacture, that many Venetian workmen in the course of the 16th century were tempted to abscond to other countries, where they helped to Furthermore, there was at L'Altare, near set up glassworks. Genoa, a second great centre of glassmaking, where glass was made so Uke the Venetian in style and material that it is nowadays impossible to distinguish between the two. The glassworkers at L'Altare, moreover, were governed by no such laws as the Venetians and rather made it their policy to supply their men and teach their methods wherever there was a demand for them. By these two agencies, therefore, the Italian art of glass spread to the rest of Europe, and glasshouses were estabhshed in France, Spain, Portugal, Austria and Germany, while in the north Antwerp seems to have been a secondary source of diffusion. Italian glassworkers were to be found as far north as England, Denmark and Sweden. Their labour was necessarily diluted by that of native workmen to whom they were often required to teach their methods; changed

raw materials modified the quality, and local taste the form and ornaments, of the glass they made. Nevertheless, in the late 16th and the 17th centuries there was an international style in glass, wholly Italian in origin and inspiration {fagon de Venise). Although there was everywhere a family likeness among glasses of the jagon de Venise, certain countries developed types peculiar to themselves that are worthy of mention. Thus in Spain not only were fantastic and even bizarre shapes evolved in green metal, both in the south and in Catalonia, but in Barcelona a characteristic kind of enameled decoration was developed, the peculiarities of which include a light leaf-green colour and a constantly recurring At Hall, in the lily of the valley motif (late 15th-16th century). Tirol, a characteristic decoration

with the diamond point, often

supplemented by cold painting, was favoured in alternating broad and narrow upright panels containing symmetrical scrollwork or coats of arms and other devices. Almost equally stiff and formal diamond-point work is to be seen on glasses probably made at the London glasshouse of Jacopo Verzelini (examples dated between 1577 and 1590). A more promising development of diamond-point engraving occurred in the Netherlands, There too the work of the 16th century was relatively formal and stiff, linear and clear, with simple hatching only. In the succeeding century, however, diamond-point engraving became initially more supple and pleasing,

only to degenerate eventually into overelaboration.

Diamond-point engraving was there practised widely by talented amateurs, among them the humanists such as Maria Tesselschade Roemers Visscher (1S9S-1649), her even more famous

459

Anna Roemers Visscher (1583-1651) and Anna Maria van Schurman (1607-78). The latter two decorated their glasses with sister

flowers and insects drawn with a gossamer touch, often accompanied by epigrams in Latin or Greek capitals scratched with severe precision or in the free scrolled style of the Italianate writing masters of the time. A similar calligraphy was practised at a later date by the amateur Willem Jacobsz van Heemskerk (1613-92), with notably beautiful results. Engraving in the first half of the 17th century gradually abandoned linear clarity in favour of cross-

hatched chiaroscuro effects, the high lights being formed by sometimes completely opaque spots. Many artists worked in this manner; two are worthy of special mention. One was an accomplished engraver signing "C. J. M.," whose earliest dated glass is of 1644; the other was Willem Mooleyser, of Rotterdam, who worked in the last two decades of the 17th century with a scribbled freedom and vigour that raised his work above the average. By the end of the century this type of diamond-point work was superseded in popularity by wheel engraving.

Germany.

—

In Germany toward the end of the 17th century Venetian glass styles seems to have set in. In that country there had been a continuous survival, probably from late Roman times, of a local type of green glass, made in forest glasshouses and fluxed with potash obtained by burning forest vegetation, and called therefore Waldglas ("forest glass"). From this material, often of great beauty of colour, were made shapes peculiar to Germany, notably a cylindrical beer glass studded with projecting bosses, or prunts (Krautstrunk or "cabbage stalk") and a wineglass (Rdmer) with cup-shaped or ovoid bowl set on a similarly prunted hollow stem. This became the classic German shape of wineglass which survived into the 18th century and, with modifications, to the present day. Apart from these indigenous forms, made in a native metal, German glass in Venetian-type cristallo developed local characteristics of its own in the latter part of the 17th century. In Niirnberg, for instance, the tall-stemmed Italianate goblet underwent a transformation into a severe glass with stem composed of no more than a baluster-shaped element and a bulb, joined together by a number of disk-shaped elements or mereses and attached to foot and bowl by the same means. On such goblets is to be seen some of the most accomplished glass en5.

a reaction to

graving ever practised.

The leader and founder of the Niirnberg school of engravers was Georg Schwanhardt (1601-67), a pupil of Caspar Lehmann. Lehmann had been gem cutter to the emperor Rudolf II in Prague and there had taken the decisive step of transferring the art of engraving from precious stones to glass. His first dated work is a beaker of 1605; in 1609 he obtained an exclusive privilege for engraving

Although he is the first great personahty in glass engraving, he was not the first to practise the art in the German area. On Lehmann's death in 1622 Schwanhardt inherited his patent and moved to his own native city, Niirnberg, where a whole school of glass.

grew up around him and his family. Schwanwork is characterized by delicate, tiny landscapes, often accompanied by bold formal scrollwork. His son Heinrich excelled

glass engraving

hardt's

minute landscapes but also engraved inscriptions of fine calliOther notable Niirnberg engravers of the late 17th century were Paul Eder, Hermann Schwinger (1640-83), a master calligrapher, and H. W. Schmidt and G. F. Killinger. both notable for the dehcacy with which they rendered landscapes. Somewhat similar work was done at Frankfurt am Main by members of the Hess family. In Bohemia, after Lehmann's death, little engraving of high quality was done. Just before 1700, however, with the perfection of a in

graphic quality.

massive, crystal-clear, potash-lime glass that allowed cuts of considerable depth, the engravers of the Bohemian-Silesian area came into prominence. The harnessing of water power in the Riesengebirge enabled engravers (those of the Hirschberger Tal in particu-

which demands immense energy Massive covered goblets were decorated with powerful acanthus scrolls in the contemporary baroque taste. Relief engraving (Hochscknitt) was lar) to practise relief engraving,

for grinding

down

the background of the design.

only occasionally used by itself in the Bohemian-Silesian area in the 18th century, being more often employed in conjunction with

GLASS

460 intaglio {Tiejschnitt).

gravers of this area

the turn of the 18th century the enanonymous workmen regarded as artisans

By

— —had acquired great technical

rather than as artists

skill;

this en-

abled them to adapt to glass all the changing fashions of the 18th century in the decorative arts. Glass engraving, often of fine qualnotably Thurinity, was also practised in many parts of Germany

—

—

Saxony and Brunswick but the most significant work of the late 17th and early 18th centuries was that done in Brandenburg. There, the glassworks at Potsdam (moved to Zechlin in 1736) produced massive goblets and beakers that were engraved usually to in Berlin, where a water-powered engraving order for the court shop had been installed in 1 687. Both relief and intagho engraving were practised, the latter being favoured. This workshop, indeed, produced perhaps the greatest of the German intaglio engravers, Gottfried Spiller (d. after 1721), whose deep cutting on the thick Potsdam glass has seldom, if ever, been surpassed in the history of glass engraving. A notable, if lesser, engraver from the same

gia,

—

—

shop was Heinrich Jaeger (working before 1694 until after 1701); and later, in the 1730s and 1740s, work of high quality was done by Elias Rosbach (d. 1765). Another workshop of great significance was set up toward the end of the 17th century at Cassel, in Hesse. There worked perhaps the greatest of all the relief engravers, Fran2 Gondelach (b. 1663. still working 1716), who handled glass with a truly sculptural feeling. In the second half of the 18th century engraved glass declined in favour, although the technical skill required for its production

experienced a great revival in the second quarter of the 19th century when the taste of the newly prosperous bourgeoisie favoured elaborate decoration. The engraving of this period is often skilful in the extreme, although marred by excessive naturalism. Striking innovations of

never died out

the Bohemian-Silesian area.

in

It

the period were the use of a casing (normally ruby-red or opaque

white) through which the design was cut

down

to the colourless

A

yellow coating (the silver stain of the stained-glass artist) was often used in the same way. Notable engravers of this epoch wereDominik Bimann (1800-57), August Bohm (.1812-90), A. H. Pfeiffer ( 1801-66) and members of the Pelikan and Simm families. glass

importance only to engraving as a method of decoGermany was enameling. Germany had proved a profitable market for enameled Venetian glass during the 16th centur>' and in the latter part of that century glass enameHng began to be practised in the Germanic lands themselves, the most notable centre being Bohemia. This enameling, in bright opaque colours, was much favoured throughout the 17th century, chiefly on the

Second

in

rating glass in

cylindrical drinking glasses, often of great size,

The

glass of

known

as

Humpen.

which they were made was frequently impure and of

a greenish or yellowish cast, while the painting itself plified repetitive

work of

was the sim-

artisans rather than of original artists.

Nevertheless, the gaiety of colour of these glasses and a certain naivete in their painting give them an authentic unsophisticated

charm.

The most favoured types

sentation

of

the

imperial

of decoration include a repredouble-headed eagle {Reichsadler-

humpen); representations of the emperor w-ith his seven electors, either seated or mounted on horseback iKurfurstenhumpen) subjects from the Old and New Testaments; and allegorical themes such as the Eight Virtues and the Ages of Man. These were ;

painted between borders of multicoloured or white dots or intersecting ellipses, often on a gold ground. This general style continued into the 18th century, but in the course of that century the levels of artistic

and

spirit bottles

and technical competence sank and the tumblers which were the main types produced can be re-

garded only as objects of peasant art. A far more sophisticated type of enamel painting was carried on during the third quarter of the 1 7th century at Niirnberg. Here, painting in black or sepia iSchwarzlolmalerei) a technique bor-

—

rowed from the stained-glass artist— was used to decorate the small cylindrical beakers (often resting on three hollow ball feet) which were a locally favoured shape. Other colours, notably red used in touches with the black, were also occasionally employed. The greatest and most original artist of this school was Johann Schaper (1621-70). who painted delicate architectural and landscape positions in which a fine point was used to etch in details.

com-

The

best of Schaper's followers were J. L. Faber, Hermann Benkert (1652-after 1681), Johann Keyll and Abraham Helmhack, but

none of them equaled him in artistic competence. Comparable work appears to have been done, although on a more restricted scale, in the Rhineland, notably by Johann Anton Carli (d. 1682) of Andernach. At the beginning of the 18th century Schwarzlot painting, often with touches of gold, was practised in Bohemia and Silesia and reflected the changing fashions in the decorative arts. Daniel Preissler (1636-1733) and his son Ignaz are known to have done this work. In the

first

half of the 19th century the decorators of vessel glass

once again borrowed from the stained-glass artist. Samuel Mohn (1762-1815), his son Gottlob Samuel Mohn (1789-1825) and Anton Kothgasser (1769-1851) painted the beakers typical of this "Biedermeier" period in transparent enamels and yellow stain. A technique peculiar to Bohemia in the 18th century was that These were of the "gold sandwich glasses" {Zwischengoldglaser) beakers, or less often goblets, made of two layers of glass, exactly fitting one over the other, between which was sandwiched a gold leaf previously etched with a steel point to the desired design. The earliest work in this technique was anonymous, but at a later date J. J. Mildner (1763-1808) employed it with notable success, making gift tumblers decorated with medallions of etched gold or silver leaf (often backed with red pigment) and sometimes also engraved on the wheel or with the diamond point. 6. England. Glass was certainly made in England during the later middle ages, but most of it was used for church windows. {See Stained Glass.) The vessel glass of the period has not been much studied and is only imperfectly understood. It is only when the 16th century is reached, and particularly the second half of it, .

—

that the picture

be traced type,

becomes

in this period.

made

in

clearer.

One

is

Two

lines of

the glass of

development may German Waldglas

the woods that supplied the furnaces with fuel and These glasses were made by glassworkers

a source of potash.

whose traditions were those of Lorraine and of Flanders. Much of their production was of window glass but they also made vessels Chief in a modest variety of shapes and modes of decoration. among the forms made was a tumblerlike drinking glass with a low doubled-foot rim produced by pushing in the bottom of the bulb from which the glass was made this might be decorated either by mold-blown diaper patterns, by swirled ribbing imparted by mold blowing and subsequent twisting or by a zone of trailed threading below the rim. Applied notched ribbons or small circular motifs also were used. Small bottles of mold-blown hexagonal section or of flattened ovate form with diagonal ribbing also were made. The second line of development was that of the international Venetian style brought by immigrant Italians; this, however, in time acquired an English idiom. This work was done mainly in London. In the 17th century these two traditions were welded into one, the main factor in the process being the proclamation of 1615 for;

bidding the use of

wood

in glass furnaces, as in certain

other indus-

an effort to prevent the deforestation of the country. Thereafter coal was the sole means of fusing glass, and glasshouses tended to be located where coal deposits (and the frequently concomitant fire clays for making glass pots) were abundant. These areas were for the most part those where industrial development has been continuous ever since {e.g., the Stourbridge area and Tyneside) and excavation on these sites has seldom been practicable. Little, therefore, is known of provincial glassmaking in England in the 17th century, but it is clear that Venetian influences gradually replaced the earlier Waldglas tradition. Some idea of the new style may be gained from the fragments of glasses often excavated in London and other cities. It is frequently difficult to distinguish between an English glass and an imported European one, although a certain coarseness may be taken as symptomatic of English make. During the first half of the 17th century glassmaking was among the English industries for which monopoly rights were granted by the crown; the greatest of a series of monopoly holders was Sir Robert Mansell (1593-i-. 1656), who effectively controlled the industry from 1623 until his death. After the Restoration, altries,

in

GLASS

Plate

I

I

Bowl

The Portland vase, blue glass cased with white and carved. Height: 934 in. A.D.

Roman;

of millefiori

Roman;

glass.

1st century A.D.

Diameter: 5

in.

1st century

Beaker with cut Height: 5 in.

X T

lines.

Roman;

1st century

A.D.

^ ^

% Probably Toilet jug. Height 5I/2 i"B.C. BY COURTESY

OF

(TOP LEFT,

TOP RIGHT,

Pillar-molded bowl.

Egyptian; 3rd-lst centuries

BOTTOM ..PT, T„H T»UST»S or T„.

ANTIQUE GLASS S.m.« «US.„M. .C.T.C

R.OHT,

BOTTOM a,.-T.

Roman;

T„. VKTO.,.

-0

1st century A.D.

..».T »„S...

Diameter: 6Ji

in.

Plate

II

GLASS

GLASS

Plate III

gi^i:!.

Ewer of agate glass Height: 12 in. (Andalusia

Spanish Height: S in. Vase,

or

Castile);

17th

century.

Milleflori

about 1500.

6

\

aloirt auscuy ;

GLASS

Plate VI

black decorated in Beaker (Scbwarzlot) by enamel Schaper, Nurnberg; Johann Height: 3f/2 about 1660-70. in.

Beaker enameled by Anton Kothgasser, Vienna; about 1815. Height: 3^8 in.

Goblet and cover, wheel-enflraved by Hermann Schwinger, Nurnberg: 16S1. Height: 16% in.

GERMAN GLASS

Goblet and cover engraved on the wheel, Silesia; about 1740. Height: in.

6%

jle-'

Baakar. wheal -an graved through a red "flashing. Bohemia: about 1840. Height: In.

4lled beaker deco-

etched gold leaf oldglas). Bo-

4%

nut

IT

Of

(lOJTOM fflCHrt SCHaiDT, ••RANDCRBUIICrSCHe

CUSER

1730.

Goblet and cover, wheel -engraved by Kassel; about 1700. Height about -13

V5ENSCHAFT). (OTHERS) THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

Franz in.

Gondelach,

GLASS

Goblet with baluster stem. 18th century. Height:

7%

English;

early

In.

Plate VII

Tankard, bearing the raven's head seal of George Ravenscroft. English; about 1675-76. Height: 3/2 in.

Wineglass with drawn stem and early type of engraving. English; about 1730. Height: 6! s in.

ENGLISH GLASS

Fruit

or

Irish;

late

1134 16 in.

in.;

salad

bowl,

English

or

Height: 18lh century. width at widest point:

Wineglass with air-twist stem, enwith Jacobite motives. English; about 1750-60. Height: 6 in. graved

Goblet engraved with diamond point, probably made in the London glasshouse of Jacopo Verzeiini; 1581. Height: S'/s in. BY COURTESt

OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

Wineglass with enampl-twist stem, engraved and Inscribed "Success to the Eagle Frigate John KnIII Commander." Height: 6I/2 In. Bristol: X756-S0.

Goblet containing English;

a'

jut

in

1685.

stem a coin of 1684. Height: 91/2 in.

the

GLASS

Plate VIII

"Tobias and the Angel." covered flip glass. John Frederick Amelung. New Bremen GlassHeight: 1788. Maryland; manufaclory.

11%

(Left) Candlestick, probably fronn glassworks of Caspar Wislar in New Jersey; about 1740-80. in. (Right) Lily-pad pitcher, blown by Matthew Johnson. Stoddard. N.H.; Height; about about 1846-72. Height: 73/4 in.

6%

In.

AMERICAN GLASS BEFORE

1850

i

\ Midwestern flask, probably Zanesville glassworks. Zanesville. 0.; 1815-35. Height: (Right) Lily-pad tugar bowl, attributed to Redford or Redwood glassworks. New York; about 1835-50. Height: 10% in.

Lily-pad pitcher, attributed to Lancaster or Lockport glassworks, New York; about 1S40Height: T/e in. 60.

(Lett)

8"/»

In.

Sugar bowl with cover, attributed to glaiiworki o( Henry William Stiegel, Manhelm, P«.: about 1764-74. Height: 6"» In. ^. inunrflST or THt COKNINC HUStUH OF CLASS

'obably from glassworks /illiam

Stiegel,

about

Man-

1764-74.

Sugar bowl. Wistar glassworks, Glassboro. quarter of the

factory last

Height:

at

6',

s

in.

or th|

N.J.;

probablij

ISth

centurlj !

(JLASS

Plate IX

Bowl, produced by J. and L. Lobmeyr, Vienna, from designs bv Auyust Kiitine and Josef von Storck, engraved by Kari Pietsch, Kamenicky Senov (Steinschbnau) Bohemia; 1875. Length; 10'/^ in. .

The "Pegasus" relief by John bridge,

vase,

carved

Northwood

Eng.; 1876-1882.

in

Vase with relief decoration made by Emite Gatl6, France; probably about 1895. Height: in.

9^

cameo

Stour2II/2 in.

of

^Ju^ '^m

Bohemian layered-glass and

gilt,

(Wilhelm Vienna).

vase, painted

of the 1850s, Hoffmann, Prague and Height: 16' a.d.. but finds of small glass Chinese shapes dating from as early as the Han d>-nasty ( 202 b.c-

221) suggest that, even if the material was brought from the usage. west, it could be worked on the spot to conform to Chinese The jade. It was no doubt regarded as a cheap substitute for Chinese themselves do not claim to have made glass before the 5th century a.d.. and even then it is ven' doubtful if they knew A.D.

more than how

to

make beads and

vessels of glass occasionally

other similar small objects. The in burials of the T'ang (618-

found

906 and later dy-nasties although perhaps locally made are more Of the extant glass vessels t>T3ically Chinese in likely imports. I

fomi. none can be shown to be of a date earlier than the reign of K'ang-Hsi (1662-1722). and there is every likelihood that glassmaking was in fact introduced in this period when, through the To this Jesuits. China became vi\-idly aware of western culture. period probably belongs a series of bowls and vases of which the blown character is manifest. They are often of a decayed metal

which appears to suffer from the same deficiencies as European glass of the same epoch. During the reigns of the emperors Yung Cheng (1723-35) and Chien Lung 1736-96) the emphasis on blown forms is subordinated to the desire to make glass a surrogate for natural stones. .Mthough the colours used are often not such as are found in nature, the glass is handled as though it were jade, the foot in particular being fashioned as though cut from stone. This lapidarj' treatment is further emphasized in the cased glass bottles cut on the wheel in such a way that the design stands in one or more colours on a ground of a contrasting tone. (R. J. C.) Glassmaking was apparently the first indus8. United States. tr>- to be transplanted from Europe in the wake of the Spanish conquerors. .\s early as 1535 glass was being made at Puebla de los .\ngeles in Mexico, and in 1592 a glasshouse was located in the territorj- of the Rio de la Plata in the town of Cordoba del Tucuman. .\rg. Broken glass, undoubtedly of European origin, was remelted at the latter and fashioned into various objects including 1

—

thick, semitransparent flat glass.

The London company

of \'irginia set up a glasshouse in James1608 for the manufacture of "glasses" and beads. .\ "tryal of glasse" was sent off to England before the winter of 1609. the "star\'ing time" during which 440 of the colony's 500 inhabitants died. In 1621 the company tried again and. although the second attempt was more carefully planned, it too failed. Excavation of the site has revealed that glass was melted in considerable quantities though no evidence of bead manufacture has been found. For more than a century after Jamestown, there was little American glass. The earliest successful glasshouse was begun in 1739 by Caspar Wistar. The fact that his works produced only humble utilitarian vessels and windowpanes saved him from extermination by the "lords of trade." Wistar died in 1752. after which the factory was operated by his son Richard. It was offered for

town

in

sale in 1780.

.\lthough few,

if

any. objects exist which can be

it is important assigned to the Wistar Glass works with certainty, known today as South Jersey as the cradle of the American glass Glass so-called is the work of indi\'idual glass blowers using t>TDe. own deordinary bottle or window glass to make objects of their Applied glass and. occasionally, pattern molding were the

sign.

loopings and only feasible means of decoration and the resultant threadings are typical of European traditions. One decorative deEuropean provice, the lily pad. is of particular importance as no of the tot>-pe is known. A hot gather of glass applied to the base in which projections series of sides in a around the pulled up is bowl the bowl appears to rest. The second great name in eariy American glass is Henry William In 1763. 13 years after his arrival in America and after Stiegel. several years in the iron business, he built his first glasshouse. Like

Caspar Wistar, Stiegel was concerned with the manufacture of and windowpanes but. with the founding of his second house at Manheim. Pa., in 1765. he ventured into the table glass business. No longer beneath the notice of the "lords of trade," he reported to them in 1767 that the glass he made was both inconsiderable in quantity and ordinary in quality. This report is in sharp contrast to the many advertisements in which he favourably compares his wares with English imports. Encouraged by the patriotic adoption of the nonimportation agreement. Stiegel built a third glasshouse, the American Flint Glass works, also located at Manheim and completed in 1769. Adverse economic conditions, caused by approaching war and colonial preference for imported tablewares, brought final failure in 1774. Few pieces can be attributed with confidence to the Stiegel facfounder tories and. like that of Wistar. his name survives as the bottles

is characterized by the use of coloured glasses: by extrinsic decoration such general, by as engraving, enameling and pattern molding; and. in two distinct styks. one invohing English and the other German

of a tradition. clear

and

Stiegel-type glass

artificially

techniques and decorative de\ices. Certain mold-blowm patterns, such as the diamond-daisy and daisy in hexagon, are believed to have been originated at the Stiegel houses, no European prototypes having been identified. Before the turn of the century, several other glassworks were founded, but few survived the Revolution. These houses were de-

voted largely to the manufacture of bottles and window glasses and. with the notable exception of the New Bremen Glassmanufactory. most of the offhand pieces which can be tentatively assigned to them are of the South Jersey tradition. Three of these enterprises are of particular importance.

First, the

New Bremen

Glass-

manufactorj'. founded by John Frederick .\melung and company, both is of special interest as many of its presentation pieces are signed and dated as well as being among the finest produced in the U.S. before 1800. Originally from Bremen. Ger.. Amelung was persuaded to go to America. Marjiand in particular, for the express purpose of founding what he believed to be a much-needed indus-

By 17S5 his works offered green and white hollow ware for by 1795 the glassworks themselves were offered for sale. One of the most famous pieces in the histor>- of .\merican glass is the Bremen Pokal, blown and engraved in 1788 and sent back to .\melung's financiers in Bremen, probably the only return they ever tr>'.

sale;

received on their investment. The second factory of importance, later known as the Olive Glass works, was completed in 1781 by former employees of the Wistar Glass works, the Stanger brothers. In addition to the many fine South Jersey pieces attributed to this house, it is of interest its long historj-, eventually becoming part of the Owens Bottle company, a forerunner of the Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass

because of

company.

The third notable venture begun before 1800 is the well-known works associated with the name Pitkin. Erected near the ConnecUcut river in 1783, it was intended for the manufacture of crown window glass, but need and foresight converted it in 1788 to a manufactory of bottles and flasks. The factory thrived until 1S30 and is best known for the half -post ribbed flasks in natural browns, ambers and greens. Today the word "Pitkin" denotes a type of flask and not a specific glassworks. ^

1

GLASS The few houses which survived following the

War

the 1790s and the depression of 1812 multiplied to more than 90 by 1830.

This high rate of increase perity

ment

by the false prosof 1812 and later by the employof a special sales agent, extensive paid advertising and adeis

which preceded the

partially explained

War

tariff regulations finally achieved in 1824. For convenience, they are divided into three geographical groups; New England, the middle Atlantic states and the midwest. Until about 1830 U.S. glasshouses produced Uttle more than simple imitations of European glasses, at best interesting and often very handsome combinations of various decorative devices and tra-

quate

The big change occurred between 1830 and 1840 with the production of fine lead glass, the use of the full-size incised mold and. finally, the pressing machine. ditions.

The glasshouse known

as Bakewell's was synonymous with the achievements of the revived industry. Originally established in 1808 in Pittsburgh, Pa., the first city to use coal for fuel in glassmaking, the company survived under several different firms Glass cutting, introduced to Pittsburgh by William until 1882. Peter Eichbaum, glass cutter to Louis XVI, was an important part of Bakewell's operation. In addition to being the first U.S. company to supply the White House, serving Pres. James Monroe in 1817, Bakewell's produced such specialties as lead glass tumblers finest

with "sulphides" (cameo insertions of white fireproof material in an envelope of glass) in the bases portraying Marquis de Lafayette, Andrew Jackson, George Clinton, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. This company also held the first patent on mechanical pressing, granted in 182S for a device to make knobs.

Fine lead glass was first successfully made in the New England area in the south Boston works of the Boston Crown Glass company. Thomas Cains, first employed by this firm in 1812, was

making flint glass there in 1813. He left the firm in 1824 to found the Phoenix Glass works, which survived until 1870. One particular device usually associated with the Boston manufactories of this period is the guilloche or chain, employed in the decoration of a

463

molded bottles known as historical flasks, produced between 1815 and 1870. Three hundred and ninety-eight different examples have been divided into the following groups: (1) Masonic; (2) emblems and designs related to economic life; (3) portraits of national heroes and designs associated with them and their deeds; and (4) portraits of presidential candidates, emblems and slogans of political campaigns. In the second group are a number of interesting designs encouraging the U.S. system of better internal transportation and high protective tariffs. Among the 16 celebrities portrayed in the third and fourth groups are Jenny Lind, the Swedish singer; Lajos Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot; Marquis de Lafayette; and the notorious Thomas W. Dyott, a patent medicine vendor and bottle manufacturer. These containers were used also as propaganda during political campaigns. William Henry Harrison is pictured in this connection with other impedimenta relative to the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign series of pictorially

of 1840.

The to

first

by

25 years of pressed glass, 1825 to 1850, are referred

collectors as the "lacy period."

brief span occurred in 1830 with the

in 1818,

making

Monroe. This factory held the second patent on a device for mechanical pressing, granted in 1826, and produced quantities of pressed glass of all types before it was moved to glass for President

Toledo, 0., in 1888.

The New England Glass company was

also

very fine free-blown and engraved glass. In addiwere made there in the so-called blown three-mold technique in which decorative designs adapted from cut glass patterns of the period were impressed in the glass by blowing in molds hinged in two, three or more sections. More than 400 different molds have been determined and grouped according to pattern under three primary headings: geometric, arch and baroque. By 1830 this type of production was being replaced by the much more efficient pressing machine. Deming Jarves, one of the founders of the New England Glass company, founded the Boston and Sandwich Glass company in 1825. Because of his i?ewmwce«cei, extensive advertisements and

famous for

its

tion vessels

known about

thorough excavations of the factory site, more is any other of the period. Consequently, "Sandwich" has become a generic term for pressed glass even this

particular factory than

many

other factories used identical machinery and, in cases, identical molds. Jarves' first patent on a pressing device, the fifth to be granted, was received in 1828 after the Boston mold maker

though

Before the fires were drawm his employ. Sandwich in 1888, Jarves had founded the Mount Washington Glass works in 1837 and the Cape Cod Glass works in 1857. Among the outstanding makers of fine lead glass in the middle Atlantic states were the Brooklyn Flint Glass works of John L. GilGilliland, a liland and company and the Dorflinger Glass works. partner in the Bloomingdale FKnt Glass works, sold out in 1823 and founded his own works in Brooklyn. In 1864 two members of the Houghton family acquired controlling interest and in 1868 the works was moved by barge to Corning, N.Y., to form part of the

Hiram Dillaway entered at

i

!

I

'

fore this date

amount of glass forced into the mold. Bemost impressed designs were inspired by Anglo-Irish

cut glass, often coupled with popular U.S. devices such as the sheaf of wheat.

more

Between 1830 and 1840 the objects were thinner and

lavishly decorated, often including elaborate motifs based

on the

classic

Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of American glass

and Gothic

revivals.

Because of the unpleasant

surface left by the mold and in an effort to imitate the brilliance of cut glass, unstippled areas were filled in with over-all lacelike patterns: hence the term "lacy." About 1840 economic conditions

forced glassmakers to revert to cheaper molds and simpler geometric forms and to abandon the stippled patterns. During this period the mechanical press became firmly established and by 1850 glassmaking was one of the United States' new mass production (T. S. B.)

industries. II.

MODERN GLASS FROM

1850

history of glass can be said to begin in the middle of the 19th century with the great exhibitions and with the new self-consciousness in the decorative arts which they expressed.

The modern

Glassware was being publicly discussed in art journals and colmuseums, and this new spirit of awareness led to a greatly increased exchange of ideas among the leading glass centres and to the borrowing of ideas from the past. In some degree the established glass-producing centres were still

lected in

concerned in the modern period with the styles of glassware for which they had achieved an earlier reputation. The English glasshouses continued their production of deeply cut crystal; engraved given glass and to a lesser extent coloured and painted glass were the greatest attention in central Europe; the Venetian glasshouses furnace-manipulated at Murano were the leading exponents of But alongside these traditional methods of using and decoglass. rating glassware can be discerned the development of a renewed

beauty of the material itself. Expressed in various masses and in internal figuring and patinterest has been the keynote of the most significant

interest in the

ways,

in the use of thick

terning, this

modern contributions

to the art of glass.

Pressed glassware, which had been first made with great promise being widely made in in the first half of the 19th century, was imitation of cut the middle of the century, and later, as a cheap continued, howcrystal. The decorative possibilities of the process and in the ever, to be exploited in a variety of popular wares; century a series of new simple forms of pressed glassware 20th'

appeared which had been expressly designed in relation to the characteristics of its manufacture. was the cul1. Great Britain.— The Great exhibition of 1851 glasshouses. mination of a period of intense activity in the British British The excise duty on glass had been removed in 1845 and the traditional in their excel to only not determined glassmakers were and the French deeply cut crystal but also to rival the Bohemians the most Probably wares. enamel-painted and cased coloured, in

now famous Corning Glass works. is

that

ring,

piece regardless of the

maintained

the point of

milestone within this

a device which ensured uniform thickness at the edge of each

large variety of tableware.

The New England Glass company, founded the same high standards as Bakewell's, even to

A

development of the cap

was enterprising of the English glassmakers of the period

Benjamm

GLASS

464

ety of richly decorated cased and engraved wares. At the Boston and Sandwich Glass company cased glass was extensively used for The effect of the competition of pressed large kerosene lamps.

which Richardson, of Wordsley near Stourbridge; surviving pieces some were shown by the Richardson firm in the exhibition include wares admirable painted and engraved pieces as well as crystal deeply cut in elaborate patterns. Probably in reaction against the banality of pressed-glass imiUtions of cutting, the most sophisticated work in crystal during

on cut-crystal work can be seen in the appearance of fine-line and during the period up to the Philadelphia Centennial exhibition of 1876 the most significant cr\'stal work was decorated by engraving. Louis Vaupel and Henry S. FiUebrown were two notable engravers employed by the New England company from 1856 and 1860, respectively. At the time of the Centennial exhibition cut-crystal work began to revive and by 1880 a considerable boom in its production had developed a boom which was to continue throughout the 1880s glass

cuttings,

Much of the later ISSOs and 1860s was decorated by engraving. emigrant the engraved work for London dealers was carried out by Bohemian craftsmen and in Edinburgh J. H. B. Millar, a Bohemian, established an important engraving firm which was initially staffed largely by his fellow countr>'men. The Venetian style of furnace-manipulated glass was also exIt can be seen, for instance, in the erting a strong influence. development of the elaborate Victorian centrepieces in the 1860s and 1 870s. In some degree the Venetian style was also an influence, alongside that of the far east, in the fashioning of the fancy wares

and lS90s.

that were made in Great Britain, as in the United States and elsewhere, during the 1880s and 1890s. These wares, in fancy colours and shapes, were usually given specific trade names and were mostly made in the English midlands by firms such as Thomas Webb & Sons of Stourbridge and John Walsh Walsh of Birming-

to Toledo, 0.

—

Sons and Stevens

Later, in the early years of the 20th century, intagUo

became popular, and work in this expensive number of cut glass factories such as the T. G. Hawkes Glass company at Corning, N.Y. As in Great Britain and elsewhere a great amount of glass was

process was carried out in a

in

and often

&

Williams.

The influence of the arts and crafts movement was toward the use of plastic forms and furnace decoration, which John Ruskin had advocated in The Stories of Venice (vol. ii, 1853). In 1859

Jr.,

it

to the cutting of faultless crystal glass. Particularly outstanding in this respect were the designs which were produced shortly before World War II by Keith Murray for Stevens & Wil-

liams and by Clyne Farquharson for John Walsh Walsh. New and appropriate designs for pressed glass were used by firms such as Chance Brothers and United Glass Bottle manufacturers, and at the opposite pole of glasswork an amount of interesting engraved

such as

— By the middle of the 19th century Ameri-

in imitation of cut glass, and the process of fire pohshing was being used to give a surface almost as smooth as that of blown glass. During the succeeding decades pressed-glass designs became increasingly complicated and this tendency was accentuated in the soda-lime glass which William Leighton began to use for pressed work at Wheeling. W.Va.. in the 1860s and which was later widely

become

Cambridge. Mass.. was employing many European craftsmen and was producing a wide variat

particularly associated with

Biedermeier period.

They were

Bohemia

of this nature continued with

in

the preceding

amount of and indeed work

also producing a great

cut crystal glass in the deeply cut English style, little

change throughout the

'

|

!

;

;

|

modem j

period.

in

The New England Glass company

:

fashion.

—

signed

the western glasshouses for the cheapest coloured wares. In general the finer wares of the early part of the period were similar to those of the Biedermeier and later styles of Europe.

new

from a number of internationally known painters and sculptors. Other noteworthy modern American work included simple designs in blown glass by the Blenko Glass company of Milton, W.Va., and enamel patterned bowls by the independent artist Maurice Heaton. In the middle 3. Czechoslovakia, Austria and Germany. of the 19th century the glasshouses of central Europe were producing a great variety of the cased and coloured wares that had

can pressed glass was already a disturbing influence on the design of the finer wares. Its decoration was by that time mostly de-

used

created a

1933 this company was reorganized by Arthur Amory Houghton, who with the help of John Monteith Gates and the sculptor Sidney Waugh deliberately aimed to produce original works in an The most impeccable material which would rank as fine art. typical work was in simple forms decorated with sculpturesque intaglio engraving by Waugh; and the interesting experiment was made, not without success, of commissioning designs for engra\ang

made

States.

;

Much of his work was in a heavily lustred glass tEat was considerably admired abroad, especially in central Europe where

During the 1930s and after World War II other firms produced work in which a restrained and distinctively modern approach was

United

i

style.

From the period of World War I onward new forms of pressed glassware appeared in simple, satisfying designs appropriate to their purpose and the process of manufacture, such as the Pyrex ovenware shapes of the Corning Glass works. In fine glassware the work of the Steuben company of Corning was outstanding. In

2.

,

in 1893,

veloped a simple, dignified style of handmade blown glass, both clear and coloured and sometimes delicately cut and engraved, which represents probably the finest achievement of modern British glasswork. The spirit of his work was subsequently continued by the firm in the designs by Barnaby Powell. James Hogan and others, with an increasing tendency to exploit the effect of thick glass with viaxy surfaces.

artists

j

colouring and figuring of the glass. It was first shown to the public and in pieces that were produced a few years later Tiffany achieved an outstanding expression in glassware of the art nouveau

Philip Webb designed for William Morris some simply formed tableware which was made at the London glassworks of James Powell & Sons. From about 1880 this glassworks was under the control of Harry J. Powell who, working until World War I, de-

work on glasses was carried out by independent Laurence Whistler.

,

fancy forms and colours which, although undisciplined tasteless, nevertheless preserves perhaps more than any In the 1860s, and later, other glass the flavour of the period. typically Victorian centrepieces were often inspired by the furnace-decorated methods of Venetian glass; and in the 1880s and 1890s there was a spate of wares in fancy colours which were given specific names such as peachblow, amberina, pomona and Burmese and were made by such firms as the New England Glass company, the Mount Washington Glass company at New Bedford, Mass., and the Hobbs, Brockunier company at Wheehng. Although belonging essentially to the category of the fancy glasses, the Favrile glass of Louis Comfort Tiffany represented an altogether higher level of achievement both in its shapes and in the

made

white carved design in relief on a dark-coloured glass body. The first important pieces were produced in the 1870s by John Northwood, and in the later part of the centurj^ the most distinguished cameo work was carried out by George Woodall. In the 1880s a considerable amount of semicommercial cameo glass was produced,

Webb &

to the production

cutting in crystal

form of mid- Victorian virtuosity was the cameo glass produced by Stourbridge glassworkers. This work, which was inspired by the Portland vase, required a lengthy process of etching and carving, normally through a white glass casing, to leave a

by the firms of Thomas

methods contributed

noteworthy producer of this type of glass in the 1890s and later was the Libbey Glass company, which was the successor to the New England Glass company in Cambridge and had moved in 1888

striking

particularly

industrial

a

ham.

A

New

of crystal glass of flawless quaUty and to its deep cutting with mathematical accuracy in elaborate designs. Among many others,

A '

i

revival of the indigenous art of engraving

was

initiated

by j

Ludwig Lobmeyr, who from 1864 was in control of the Viennese firm of J. and L. Lobmeyr. His first opportunity came at the Paris exhibition of 1867, and his reputation was firmly established at the

'

>_

j

Vienna exhibition of 1873.

He commissioned

designs for his

|

GLASS from the leading Viennese architects and painters of the time and his work was carried out by the finest craftsmen in Bohemia and Austria. glasses

which went under the name of Jugendstil a deep impression on central European glassware. The work which was made around the turn of the century abounds in slender shapes and flowing organic motifs, Glasses designed by Karl Koepping in Berlin, with long, waving stems and tuliplike bowls, were perhaps the extreme instance of art nouveau In 1897 an exhibition of glass by the style applied to glassware. American Tiffany was shown at several of the museums in the area. Not only the forms of the Tiffany glasses but also their figured and heavily lustred material attracted great interest. Several factories started making a similar heavily lustred glass, and the firm of J. Lotz' Witwe of Klastersky Mlyn (Klostermiihle) won a grand prix at the Paris exhibition of 1 900 with glassware in this type of

nouveau

style,

central Europe,

made

The

in

art

material.

From around 1900 onward a movement toward a modern purist approach to glass was largely fostered by the work of designers Men such as connected with the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule. Kolo Moser and Josef Hoffmann, who were also closely associated with the Wiener Werkstatte, were designing glasses in simple ramovement was shown by Sohne of Vienna and J. Lotz' Witwe. This was the period in which the glass teaching schools achieved a remarkable influence on glass design and came to work in close collaboration with the factories. The most important of these in the years before World War I were the schools at Kamenicky Senov (Steinschonau) and Novy Bor (Haida) in Bohemia and at Zwiesel tional forms,

and much

initiative in this

the firms of E. Bakalowits

in

Bavaria.

War I the outstanding figure in Czech glass art was Josef Drahonovsky, who was professor at the Prague School of Industrial Art. He was essentially a sculptor and most of his glass designs were for sumptuously engraved glass of a monumental After World

His colleague in Prague, Jaroslav Horejc, designed for engraved work of a broadly similar character, some of it for the Lobmeyr firm of Vienna. In 1920 a new glass school was founded at Zelezny Brod with the intention of encouraging a specifically Czech spirit in glassware. After World War II this schooi was quaUty.

much successful work in the design and figured glasses and of elegantly proportioned

one of the principal centres for of thick-walled

menting

of them were represented in the exhiwas Joseph Brocard. who was studying the enameling of glass and whose main ambition was to reproduce medieval Syrian glass, The second was Eugene Rousseau, a commissioning dealer in ceramics who had turned to glasswork at the end of the 1860s and was at the height of his achievement in the years c. 1880. Typically his glasses were thick-walled and translucid, often with interior crackling and shot with random streaks

glasswork and

in

The

bition of 1878.

all

first

In 1885 he associated with E. Leveille, who continued Rousseau's death in 1891. The third of the individual artists at the 1878 exhibition, and the best known of them, was £mile Galle of Nancy, who had been experimenting in glasswork since about 1867. His earliest work was in clear glass, Hghtly tinted and decorated with enamel and engraving; but he soon developed the use of deeply coloured, almost opaque glasses in heavy masses, often cased in several thicknesses and carved or etched to form plant motifs. His inspiration undoubtedly reflects the prevailing interest in Japanese art and some of his methods must have been suggested by those of Chinese glass. His forms were frequently asymmetrical and of an organic inspiration; as such his work contributed largely to the art nouveau of the end of the century. In this period much of Galle's manner was reflected in ranges of industrial glassware made by the firm of of colour.

work

to

Daum

in a similar style after

Freres of Nancy.

Among

the later leaders of French glass art was Rene LaHque, his most typical work around the 1920s.

who was producing

work is characterized by relief decoration produced by blowing into molds or by pressing. He was a leading advocate of the use of glass in architecture and much of his work was in the form of lighting equipment and other details of interior decoraThe work of his contemporary, Maurice Marinot, was more tion. in the tradition of Rousseau, with heavy, thick-walled vessels in strong forms often with boldly cut-away abstract decoration; and Lalique's

Henri Navarre mental nature.

in the

1930s was producing work of a similar monu-

French artists explored with success the use of p&te the pioneer in is powdered glass fired in a mold 19th its use was Henri Cros, who was working near the end of the century. It was later the medium for important work by Albert Dammouse and Francois Decorchemont. The most significant work of Jean Luce and Marcel Goupy, designers of glass and pot-

A number of

de verre, which

;

was in the production of elegant tablewares. Aristide Colotte used glass as a sculptor in large, hewn pieces. Jean Sala worked mainly in coloured bubbled glass. Andre Thuret produced glasses In the industrial in thick plastic forms and with colour effects. tery,

tablewares.

In Austria after World War I the Lobmeyr Stefan Rath produced many admirable engraved and reliefcarved pieces designed by artists such as Ena Rottenberg, Lotte firm under the con-

trol of

Lobmeyr also produced some of the who had his own workshop and Powolny, Michael best designs of had designed for the firm of J. Lotz' Witwe. In Germany the outstanding engraver and glass carver of the professor period after World War I was Wilhelm von Eiff who was Fink and Vally Wieselthier.

,

at the Stuttgart

Kunstgewerbeschule.

Bruno Mauder of the school

was a strong influence for the use of natural and apand some fine tablewares were made in before and after World War II— such both glass pressed blown and Lausitas those designed by Wilhelm Wagenfeld for the Vereinigte zer Glaswerke and for the WiJrttembergische Metallwarenfabnk

at Zwiesel

propriate glass forms;

and by Richard Sussmuth for Glashiitte Immenhausen of Cassel. 4. France. In France, as in central Europe and in England, the glassware in the middle of the 19th century was fine production of The mainly divided between cut crystal and coloured wares. with "opalines," the semiopaque white and coloured wares, often elaborately painted and gilt decoration, were especially popular; and it was during these years that the French paperweights, conadtaining coloured patterns, became internationally known and Louis, mired. The larger factories, particularly Baccarat and St.

—

rest continued to participate in the international fashions of the and beyond. But in France, perhaps because the weak, intradition of industrial glassmaking was comparatively

of the century

work of individual was introduced into the modern

ventive genius manifested itself mainly in the artists

4-65

and thereby a new

spirit

conception of glass. experiIn the late 1860s and 1870s three individual artists were

World War II the firm of Daum was distinguished by thick clear glass vessels manipulated into random shapes. time of World 5. The Scandinavian Countries.— Up to the

field after its

original work. the Swedish glass industry produced little of modern Swedish glass in the 1920s Swedish Arts and was attributable mainly to the initiative of the of the painters employment the in Crafts society that resulted

War

I

The sudden development

Edvin Simon Gate and Edward Hald by Orrefors glassworks and first The 1916-17. years the from glassworks Kosta Oilers by and consisted of handresults were exhibited in Stockholm in 1917 luxury "Graal" blown, undecorated tablewares, together with the so rapidly been had which decoration stained glass with internal was however developed under Gate's inspiration at Orrefors. It and Hald at engraved glasswork, chiefly that designed by Gate glass was established Orrefors, on which the reputation of Swedish inthel920sandparticularlyat the Paris exhibition of 1925. whereby the Swedish In the 1930s came a change of direction and followed the initiative factories took less interest in engraving tinted and figured glasses. of the French artists in making thick and this can be atsuccess greatest their In this mode they found system of intimate assotributed largely to their having achieved a glassmaker craftsmen. ciation between the artists and the to the establishment At Orrefors additional artists were added Lindstrand, Sven Palmqvist Vicke including onward, 1929 from and Ingeborg Lundin. Each of Nils Landberg, Edvin Ohrstrbm addition to decorative them worked in an individual style, and in subsidiary Sandof them designed tablewares for the pieces

many

:

GLASSES—GLASS MANUFACTURE

466

At Kosta important work was produced by Elis Bergh Gerda Stromberg designed for both Eda glassworks and for Strombergshyttan, while other outstanding work was produced by Hugo Gehlin for Gullaskruf and by Monica vik factory.

and later by Lindstrand.

Bratt for Reijmyre. In Denmark the

,

Holmegaard glassworks and in Norway the Hadeland glassworks both followed in some respects the example of Swedish glass. At Holmegaard the movement began in the late 1920s with the appointment as art director of Jacob E. Bang, whose designs included an amount of striking engraved work, and was continued in the interestingly shaped wares of his successor, Per Lijtken. At Hadeland some distinctive glass was designed by a number of artists including Sverre Pettersen, Herman Bongard and Willy Johansson. In Finland a modern style of glasswork appeared which the greatest significance in the development of modern glass.

work

is

is

of

The

frequently asymmetrical, modeled in heavy masses and These characteristics were defined par-

in simple, graceful shapes.

ticularly in the work of Gunnel Nyman (d. 1949) and later in the work of Tapio Wirkkala and Timo Sarpaneva for the firm of Karhula-Iittala and of Kaj Franck for the Wartsila-Notsjo glass-

works. 6.

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Belgium and the Netherlands.

— In

Belgium the Val

St.

Lambert factory was an important producer of heavily cut crystal throughout the period. It is also associated with cased work and was particularly prominent with original work of this nature around Later Charles Graffart designed for it wares made in a some of them with engraved decoration. The Dutch glassworks at Leerdam played an important part in the modern movement and followed a line of development distinct from that of the Scandinavian factories. In 191S the decision 1900.

variety of techniques,

was made

Gldser und Steinschnittarbeiten aus dem Nahen Osten (1929-30), Glass From Iran in the National Museum, Stockholm (1935) W. B. Honey, Glass: a Handbook and a Guide, ch. iv (1946). Venice: B. Cecchetti and V. Zanetti, Monografia della vetraria veneziana e muranese (1874); R. Schmidt, Das Glas, ch. v and vi (1922); W. B. Honey, Glass: a Handbook and a Guide, ch. v, viii-x (1946); A. Gasparetto, // Vetro di Murano (1958). Germany: R. Schmidt, Das Glas, ch. vii (1922); G. E. Pazaurek, Closer der Empire und Biedermeierzeit (1923) R, Schmidt, Die Gldser der Sammlung MUhsam (1914 and 1926) F. Rademacher, Die deutschen Gldser des Mittelalters (1933); W. B. Honey, Glass: a Handbook and a Guide (1946). England: A. Hartshorne, Old English Glasses (1897) H. J. Powell, Glass-Making in England (1923) F. Buckley, A History of Old English Glass (1925) W. A. Thorpe, A History of English and Irish Glass (1929), English Glass (1949); M. S. D. Westropp, Irish Glass (1920); S. E. Winbolt, Wealden Glass: The Surrey-Sussex Glass Industry (1933). Far East: W. B. Honey, Glass: a Handbook and a Guide, ch. xi (1946). United States: A. W. Frothingham, Hispanic Glass (1941) J. Harrington, Glassmaking at Jamestown (1952); G. S. McKearin and H. McKearin, American Glass (1950), Two Hundred Years of American Blown Glass (1950); H. McKearin, American Historical Flasks (1953); J. H. Rose, American Pressed Glass of the Lacy Period, 1825-1850 (1954). Modern Glass: A. Polak, Modern Glass (1962) H. Wakefield, Nineteenth Century British Glass (1961) H. J. Powell, Glass-Making in England (1923); R. W. Lee, Victorian Glass (1945); D. Daniel, Cut and Engraved Glass (1950) L. W. Watkins, American Glass and Glassmaking (1950) G. E. Pazaurek, Moderne Gldser (1901), Kunstgldser der Gegenwart (1925); L. Rosenthal, La Verrerie frangaise depuis cinquante ans (1927); C. G. Janneau, Modern Glass (1931); H. Seitz, Glaset forr och nu (1933) E. Steenberg, Modern Swedish Glass (1949); A. Gasparetto, // Vetro di Murano (1958). see Eyeglasses.

from artists, and by the early 1920s excellent simple tablewares were being made to designs by the architects K. P. C. de Bazel and H. P. Berlage and by the decorative artist C. de Lorm. From the early 1920s onward special pieces called Unica were made; some of the earlier examples were by Chris Lebeau, but most were produced by Andries D. Copier. Later decorative work included worthy designs by Floris Meydam and Willem Heesen. 7. Italy. By the middle of the 19th century Italian glassmaking had partially revived. In the 1860s the Museo Vetrario was founded at Murano (Venice) and Antonio Salviati began to produce the glasses that attracted much attention at the Paris exhibition of 1867. These were variations of the traditional Venetian style with elaborate furnace decoration, and the production of glasses of this nature continued at Murano throughout the remainder of the 19th century and beyond. The early 1 920s saw the development of a more conscious spirit of artistry in Italian glasswork. Giacomo Cappellin and Paolo Venini were producing simple elegant glasses designed by the decorative artist Vittorio Zecchin, and G. Balsamo Stella and his Swedish wife Anna were producing engraved work. In later times, both before and after World War II, much research was done in new methods of colouring and figuring glass the results were seen in the glasses designed by Ercole Barovier for the firm of Barovier & Toso and in those designed by Giulio Radi for the firm Arte Vetraria Muranese. From the Venini firm, presided over by to invite designs

—

;

;

;

;

GLASSES (EYE): GLASSHOUSE: see Greenhouse. GLASS MANUFACTURE. The common

terials as toffee,

which

is

a supercooled sugar solution,

maand the

transparent materials can be prepared are not necessarily glasses this definition. Such materials have been described as organic or polymeric glasses. The definition accepted in the United States by the American Society for Testing Materials (A.S.T.M.) recognizes as glasses only those that are made of inorganic substances.

The

definition states;

article is

"Glass

an inorganic product of fusion without crystallizing." This confined to these inorganic glasses and is arranged as

which has cooled to a

is

rigid condition

follows I.

Introduction 1.

Chemical Composition of Various Glasses

Physical Structure of Glass 3. Fluorescence 4. Historical Outline of the Industry Properties 1. Chemical Durability 2.

II.

2.

Viscosity

3.

Surface Tension Density

4.

7.

Thermal Expansion Thermal Endurance Thermal Conductivity

8.

Mechanical Properties

9.

Electrical Properties

5.

6.

'

scientific definition

by

in-

W

The

higher alcohols (such as the sterols), which can be frozen into by cooling well below the freezing point of water. On the other hand, many of the new organic high polymers from which

fluence from the thick-glass techniques of the north, but the modem Italian glass mostly retained a distinctly Venetian volatile

^'''"- ^ ^'52. Das Glas im Altertume /,Sj*!''°n'*J^"^~'^'"''^ (1908); P. Fossing, Glass Vessels Before Glass-Blowing (1940)B. Honey, Glass: a Handbook and a Guide, ch. ii and iii (1946)Morin-Jcan La Verrerie en Gaule sous I'empire remain (191J); I-. tremersdorf, Romische Gldser aus Koln (1928): D B Harden Koman Olais From Karanis (1936). Islam: C. J. Lamm, Das Glas von Samarra (1928), Mittelallerliche

solid.

glasses

designed of vases

character which stood in contrast to the more deliberately calculated work of Sweden and Finland. See also references under "Glass" in the Index volume. (H. W.)

com-

that regards glass as a "supercooled" liquid thus includes such

as vases

some

have the properties of a

tions they

;

Paolo Venini, came many interesting innovations such decorated with areas of vividly coloured glass that were by Fulvio Bianconi. Some of the work, such as a series designed by Flavio Poll for Seguso Vetri d'Arte, showed

article of

mercial manufacture known as glass is normally a transparent, hard, brittle substance. Glasses are formed from certain liquids that have the property of cooling below their freezing point without crystallizing, thus becoming liquids of increasingly high viscosity until eventually they are so stiff that by all ordinary defini-

10. 11.

III.

Optical Properties Ultraviolet Ray Transmission

Manufacture

Raw

2.

Materials Glass-Melting Furnaces

3.

Glass-Forming Processes

1.

4.

Drawing Processes

5.

Grinding and Polishing of Plate Glass

6.

Float Glass Foam Glass

7.

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

Plate

BY COURTESY OF CORNING GLASS WORKS

OFFHAND GLASS MANUFACTURE 1. Tools used in offhand glass

manufacture

2. Gathering glass from a pot for offhand manufacture 3. Offhand blowing to shape the bowl of a goblet

4.

After fastening to a punty. the unfinished goblet excess glass is sheared off

Is

reheated and the

I

GLASS

Plate II

•T COUITKif or (1-4) COININC CLASS WOIKS

;

PMOIO C ifA PH

,

.

I

;,

pix

FINISHING 1.

An engrtver making « hollow cul on a Steuben goblet

2. Polishing a blueprint cylinder 3. Copper whe«l engraving

MANUFACTURE

AND ENGRAVING GLASS 4. 5.

Lampworker fabricating a bulb-type condenser Foreman in a Finnish glass factory examining an engraved vase

MANUFACTURE

GLASS 8.

Annealing

as a flux it is possible to obtain a glass with a high refractive index and, consequently, the desired sparkle and brilliance. Lead crystal glass is also used for the pinch of electric lamps (the small piece of glass tubing through which the lead-in wires are conveyed) because, owing to its low soda content, it is

Processes Applied After Formation and Annealing Safety Glass 11. Chemcor Process 12. Glass Fibres 9.

10.

I.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Chemical Composition

glasses

may

of Various Glasses.

— Commercial

be divided conveniently into soda-lime-silica glasses

and special glasses, over 95% of the tonnage produced being of the former class. Such glasses are made from three main materials sand (silicon dioxide, or SiOo), limestone (calcium carborate, or CaCOa) and sodium carbonate (Na2C03). Fused sihca itself is an excellent glass but, as the melting point of sand (crystalline silica) is above 1,700° C. and as it is very ex-

—

pensive to attain such high temperatures, its uses are restricted to those in which its superior properties chemical inertness and the ability to withstand sudden changes of temperature are so imNevertheless the production portant that the cost is justified. of fused silica glass is quite a large industry; it is manufactured

—

—

and when intended for optical purposes the rock crystal rather than quartz sand. In order to reduce the melting point of silica it is necessary to add a flux; this is the purpose of the sodium carbonate (soda ash, mostly obtained from the Solvay process), which makes available By adding about 25% of the the fluxing agent sodium oxide. sodium oxide to siUca the melting point is reduced from 1,723° C. to 850° C. and thus the melting difficulty is very considerably reduced. However, such glasses are easily soluble in water (their solutions are known as water glass, which has various domestic uses; e.g., egg preserving). The addition of hme (calcium oxide, or CaO), supplied by the limestone, renders the glass insoluble once again, but too much lime makes a glass prone to devitrification; i.e., the precipitation of crystalline phases in certain ranges of temperature. The optimum composition is approximately 75% silica, 10% lime and 15% soda, but even this is too liable to devitrification during certain mechanical forming operations to be

a much better electrical insulator than the soda-lime-silica glass used for the bulb of the lamp.

Other familiar special glasses are those made to resist the attack of various chemicals; for example, a special "neutral" glass, about halfway in composition between soda-lime-silica glass and the borosilicate glass used for ovenware, is made for ampules to contain pharmaceutical preparations.

Special glasses (see Table III) are also needed for the street lighting lamps that operate by

causing an electrical discharge in sodium or mercury vapour, since these vapours attack most types of glasses. One phosjihate glass (British patent 585,257 of Feb. 3, 1947) has remarkable resistance to hydrofluoric acid solution, which rapidly attacks all ordinary glasses.

is

satisfactory.

customary to replace about 4% of oxide, or MgO) and in bottle glass about 2% alumina (aluminum oxide, or AI2O3) is often found to be present. Other materials are also added, some being put in to assist in refining the glass (i.e., to remove the bubbles left behind in the melting process), while others such as selenium and traces of cobalt oxide are added to improve its colour. For example, sand always contains iron as an impurity, and, although the material used for making bottles is specially selected for its low iron content, the small traces of impurity still impart an undesirable green colour to the container; by the use of selenium and cobalt oxide together with traces of arsenic trioxide and sodium nitrate it is possible to neutralize the green colour and produce a {See also Bottles: Raw so-called "white" (decolourized) glass. Materials and Composition.) Glasses of very different, and often much more expensive, compositions are made when special physical and chemical properties are necessary; for example, in optical glasses, where a wide range In making sheet glass

the

I

it

is

hme by magnesia (magnesium

is required to obtain the variety of refractive index and dispersion needed if the lens designer is to produce multicomponent lenses that are free from the various faults associated

of compositions

with a single lens, such as chromatic aberration. Another disadvantage of ordinary glass is that when it is subjected to a sudden change of temperature, stresses are produced in it that render it liable to fracture; however, by reducing its coefficient of thermal expansion it is possible to make it much less susceptible to thermal shock.

The

glass with the lowest expansion coefficient is fused

silica.

Another well-known example for

is

the

borosilicate

used

glass

making domestic cookingware, which has an expansion

coeffi-

cient only one-third that of the typical soda-lime-silica glass.

In

order to effect this reduction, much of the sodium oxide added as a flux is replaced by boric oxide (BoOg) and some of the lime by alumina. Another familiar special glass is the lead crystal glass used in the manufacture of high-class tableware; by using lead

Another phosphate

commonly used 2.

in various qualities

raw material used

467

monoxide (PbO)

glass

is

the

heat-absorbing

glass

in slide projectors.

Physical Structure of Glass.— In the mid-20th century the study of glass was being intensively pursued and some of

scientific its

properties were beginning to be understood in terms of the struc-

ture and properties of the ions that

compose it. As glass is a liquidno regular long-distance order of the arrangement of atoms on a lattice as there is in a crystal. However, the densities of glasses and of crystals of the same composition are very similar and therefore the atoms must be about the same distances apart in both substances. While the special properties of liquids and glasses arise from this very lack of long-distance order, if one were to judge the structure of the glass merely by the next nearest neighbours to any particular atom, the appearance would be very much that of a crystal. As long ago as 1932, W. H. Zachariasen, a crystallographer, showed that the silicon and oxygen atoms in silicate glasses were arranged in a kind of irregular network, each silicon being surrounded by four oxygens and each oxygen being shared between two silicons. The introduction of sodium oxide weakens this network by bringing in more oxygens like

material there

is

some silicons could not be joined to other silicons by the oxygen bridges. This "random network theory" found much favour for 20 years or so. However, in the mid-1960s, it was recognized that besides the silicate glasses many other glasses exist and that the real criteria of glass formation are not concerned so much with the final structure of the substance as with the conditions in which it can be cooled from a liquid to a solid without

per silicon so that

precipitation of crystals;

i.e.,

with the conditions that

make

crys-

tallization difficult.

There is always a certain amount of energy resident in the surface of any body and this energy manifests itself in various phenomena usually described as being due to surface tension. For example, oil will spread on water because the surface energy of the water-air surface is greater than the energy of the oil-air surface gets and, by spreading, the oil decreases the energy. As a crystal smaller the surface energy makes a greater and greater contribuThis results in very tiny tion to the total energy of the crystal.

more soluble than large crystals. However, from because of time to time such tiny crystals will exist momentarily continually occur local departures from equilibrium conditions that and die away. These local departures may be due to the presence dioxide may of a second phase; e.g., a small addition of titanium crystals being

produce little droplets of liquid inside the glass that are different thus been composition from the remainder. Once the crystals have rearrange themnucleated they grow, and in doing so the atoms and co'stal growth are selves relative to one another. Nucleation or, in the partherefore the controlUng processes of crystallization in

lance of glass technology, of "devitrification," nucleaGlass-forming liquids are those in which the barriers to silicate glasses the very the In high. are growth crystal and tion

makes crystal growth high viscosity at the liquidus temperature glasses, the initial diflSslow. Also, even in the common silicate devitrification. culty of nucleation helps to prevent commercially. Since the 1950s crystallization has been employed the usual glassmakSuitable glasses are first melted and shaped by

—

MANUFACTURE

GLASS

468

ing techniques; a subsequent treatment nucleates crystals and as the temperatures increase these crystals grow until the glass is completely changed into crystals. Such a substance is known as a glass-

ceramic and is very much stronger than ordinary glass, particularly The process was patented by the Corning at high temperatures. Glass works of Coming, N.Y., and the first product made in this way (patented 1960) is called Pyroceram. New uses for glass arise continuously, as 3. Fluorescence. In the midalso do new developments in the glasses themselves.

—

1960s a glass was developed for use in the laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) In this device it is necessary .

surroundings that excited by incident light so that they will wave length through the process known certain critical conditions associated with

have certain ions

to

in

in the ion are satisfied

it

is

will permit them to be emit radiation of longer

When

as fluorescence.

the electronic processes

possible to produce in this

way very

homogeneous beams of light. Such beams have from the surface of the moon and detected again on

intense and highly

been reflected earth they can also be made of such intense energy that they can ;

produce a small hole in a coin. A glass containing 5% of the rare-earth element neodymium has proved particularly suitable for some of these applications. This glass has to be specially prepared and to be particularly free from iron, which would interfere with the radiative processes.

—

Historical Outline of the Industry. Soda-lime-silica have been known for at least 2,000 years, lead glass for perhaps 400 years and all the others for not more than 75 years, indeed many of them for less than 35 years. The modern advances have followed the application of chemistry to the problem of producing glasses with the desired physical and chemical properties, and have been made effective by the development of new technologies. The processes for shaping glass remained much the same in principle from the early Christian era until nearly the end of the 19th century, when the development of machines, at first semiautomatic, began in the United Kingdom and the U.S. The regenerative furnace, patented in 1856 by F. and W. Siemens and adopted by the glass industry, made large supplies of molten glass available to feed the new machines. In the 20th century epochmaking advances took place especially in the U.S. but also in Belgium and the U.K. in the invention of fully automatic machinery. The Corning ribbon machine, for example, can make 4.

glasses

—

more than 1,000,000

—

electric light bulbs a day.

At

least

95%

of

the total weight of glass manufactured in the U.S., the U.K. and other industrialized countries is fashioned by automatic machinery.

These great advances were rendered possible by clever inventors backed up by systematic scientific research and control. The first university department for research and teaching in glass technology was established in 1915 at Sheffield, Eng., and the first Society of Glass Technology in 1916, also in Sheffield. Similar institutions soon followed in the U.S., then in 1922-23 in Germany and later in several other countries.

ble advances

In glass as a decorative material, nota-

were made after 1920

in purity,

range of colouring,

form and decorative surface treatment. These innovations were pioneered mainly by individual glassworks or by individual artists.

To

the long-established schools for training in glass craftsmanship

Kamenicky Senov (Steinschonau) and NoN'y Bor (Haida) in Czechoslovakia there were added others at Zelezny Brod (Eisenbrod) in Czechoslovakia, at Rheinbach in the Federal Republic of Germany and in Great Britain at London, at Zwiesel in Bavaria, at at

Edinburgh and Stourbridge. Glass maintains contact with the study of glass in

Table

I.

all its

An all

International

institutions

aspects.

Glass Production 1900

to

1960 in

Manufacturing Countries* (id ooos)

Country

Commission on in promoting

engaged

the Largest

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

often proceed step by step, it is necessary that the glass remain soft enough to yield to formative pressure over a considerable range of temperature, ending at a viscosity high enough to retain the final shape. Alteration of the forming process thus quite often

means alteration of composition viscosity.

soft over

The much

in order to secure the required lead crystal glass used for hand working remains too wide a range of temperature to suit an auto-

matic bottle-forming machine, and again the glass suitable for the latter would not be suitable for flat glass-drawing machines. The unit of viscosity

the poise (see Viscosity)

the viscosity of water poise but the viscosity of glass is so generally given in powers of ten. Important viscosiis

room temperature

at

high that

it is

is

;

.01

the manufacture of glass are the "working point," i.e., 10'* poises; the "softening point," at which a glass rod of specified ties in

dimensions elongates at 1 mm. per minute under its own weight, lO''-* poises; "annealing point," lO'^ poises; and "strain point," lO^*-^ poises. These "points" are specified by temperatures determined by following a closely controlled technique using apparatus of specified construction (A.S.T.M. specifications C. 336 and C. 338). At the softening point glass deforms rapidly and will adhere to other bodies, at the annealing point internal stress is relieved in IS minutes, while at the strain point it takes 4 hours to do this. When annealing glass, the rate of cooling from just above the annealing point to a little below the strain point is kept quite low, the precise value depending on the glass thickness. (For a fuller discussion of annealing see Annealing, below). 3. Surface Tension. This property plays a part in forming operations and prevents glass from penetrating into minute crevices in molds. Values for silicate glasses are about 300 dynes per centi-

—

469

The improvement

mechanical and thermal is illustrated by the fact that whereas 20 trips was regarded as average in the 1920s, the figure in the 1960s was nearer 60. Improved design of the containers also helped. 9. Electrical Propetties.— Conductivity.— The electrical con-

Density.

—Ordinary bottle

and window

have densiapproximately

glasses

in

ductivity of glass varies with composition and increases with temperature; therefore, though glass is a good insulator at room temit is possible when it is raised to red heat to pass sufficient current through the mass to raise the temperature to 1,400° C. and continue melting by electrical energy. High alkali content gives (relatively) high conductivity, or low resistivity. Resistivity

perature,

10** to 10'** ohm centimetres. Lead glasses of good working properties have high resistivity and so are used in electric lamps to support the filament. Dielectric Constant. This value depends on composition and on the temperature and the frequency. It varies from 3.7 to 16.5. Pyrex-type glass has the low value of 4.1-S.O. Dielectric loss varies with frequency. For Pyrex-type glass the value changes from 1.9 X 10"- to 4 X 10~- as frequency falls from 10" cycles to 10^ cycles. Values for most glasses are around 1-2 X lO"-^. 10. Optical Properties. Refractive Index. The refractive index (for sodium D line; varies from 1.458 fused silica) through 1.478 for fluor crown, 1.517 for hard crown, 1.613 for dense barium crown, 1.613 for dense flint, 1.668 for dense barium flint to 1.717 for double extra dense flint. Dispersion. The dispersion (difference between refractive indexes for wave lengths in different parts of the spectrum; varies between (Fraunhofer lines C-F) 0.007 for fused silica and 0.024

ranges from

—

—

—

(

—

for double extra dense flint glass.

Stress Optical Coefficient.

metre. 4.

tory and consumer. properties achieved

—Under

axial optically negative crystal; that

stress glass is, it

On

That of lead crystal glass is "densest flint" optical glass 7.2 and of fused silica 2.2. 5. Thermal Expansion. This is important as a factor in the resistance of glass to heat shock and in determining the stresses

larization of light passing through

windows under alternating heating (solar radiation) and cooling (sleet and rain). A very powerful factor is alkah content, since both sodium and potassium oxides markedly increase the expansion. Values range from 5.6 X 10"'' to 140 X 10"'' cm. per centimetre per degree centigrade. (Silica glass 5.6 X 10"', Vycor glass 8 X 10"^ Pyrex glass 32-36 X 10"', bottle glass 82-88 X

glass plate at right angles to the surface,

10"', lead crystal glass 88 X 10"''.) In glass-to-metal seals the expansions of glass and metal must match closely over the range of temperature in which glass cannot yield to stress. Endurance. Thermal expansion, mechanical 6. Thermal strength, the dimensions of the article and the rate at which heat Glass rods of Pyrex type is spread all affect thermal endurance. in one test withstood, when dropped into cold water, a shock of 325° C, while soft lamp-working glass withstood only 112° C. and a commercial soda-lime glass 131° C. Tests to detect faulty ware are routine practice in many glassworks as thermal endurance is

lengths depends

ties in

the region of 2.5.

3.1, of

set

up

—

in

—

very sensitive to departures from normal technique. 7. Thermal Conductivity. Values range from 0.0078 to 0.0028 cal. per centimetre per °C. per second. High soda, potash and lead oxide contents decrease thermal conductivity while high

—

'

silica

and boric oxide increase

it.

— Glass

very strong in compresCompressive strength sion. When it breaks it does so in tension. ranges from 90,000 to 180,000 lb. per square inch, tensile strength from 4,000 to 1,500,000 lb. per square inch ("depending on the Young's modulus averages cross-sectional area of the specimen) 8.

Mechanical Properties.

is

;

6,500,000 lb. per square inch; Poisson's ratio (tr) is 0.14-0.271 (ordinary glass about 0.22). The strength determined from practical tests is always considerably lower than that predicted by theory, the discrepancy being thought to be due to the presence of microscopic unavoidable flaws in the surface. Considerably greater strength is obtained from simple shapes by a controlled sudden chilling instead of the normal anneaUng.

Such "toughened" glass, which is used as automobile windows, will withstand an impact roughly eight times that needed to break ordinary glass of the same thickness (see Safety Glass, below). Containers such as milk bottles make many trips between fac.

strated

it.

behaves as a uni-

rotates the plane of pothis property,

by D. Brewster, depends the working of the

demon-

strain viewer

used to test whether an article is properly annealed or not. Absorption and Transmission. When "white" light falls on a

—

some

is

reflected,

some

is

absorbed and some emerges at the other surface. The absorption is not the same for all wave lengths, so the emerging light is relatively stronger in some wave lengths than others in comparison with the incident light so that instead of being ordinary white light it

is

coloured.

extent of the absorption in the various wave upon the composition, thickness and temperature

The

Specially interesting are (1) glasses very low in iron content, which transmit ultraviolet light (quartz glass is best); (2) glasses of high ferrous iron content, which cut off both ultraof the glass.

and heat radiation, as that used in spectacles for furnace workers; and (3) glasses containing nickel oxide, which transmit ultraviolet but no visible light. violet

—

The most active rays 11. Ultraviolet Ray Transmission. that affect the photographic plate have a wave length shorter than 400 mm. (that is, shorter than the visible violet of the spectrum, the symbol m/x representing 1 millimicron, or ntrrffrrnns mm.). Fused silica or quartz glass transmits rays down to 190 m/z and

other glasses transmitting more or less in this range have been known for many years. E. Zschimmer in 1907 and O. Schott at

Jena (now in the German Democratic Republic) produced a number of them, including "Uviol." They are important in photography, especially that of the stars.

high ultraviolet Just after World War I much flat glass with transmission was made for windows in sanatoriums, factories and private dwellings as a result of studies of the good effect of high alpine sunlight in tuberculosis treatment. In 1925 E. Lamplough developed Vita-glass and several other similar products were made. Their chief characteristics were low iron and titanium contents, favours they usually contained a little boric oxide, which, like silica, ultraviolet transmission. in ultraOne, Corex D. was designed more particularly for use

"sun" lamps (mercury vapour arc lamps) and had a transstabilization. mission at 302 m/z of 64%, falling only to 62''c after result of Unfortunately, many of the commercial glasses as a

violet

solar

radiation

suffered a

considerable

reduction

transmission, and as they are only effective

if

in

ultraviolet

kept very clean

—

1

MANUFACTURE

GLASS

470

a purple colour in a potash glass but a smoky brown one in soda glass unless a relatively large amount is used, when the purple

See also

they are no longer used for ordinary glaring purposes. Spectroscopy; Photochemistry.

colour

m. MANUFACTURE Raw

1.

Materials.

—The oxides shown

in the conventional ex-

pressions of glass compositions are not always present as such in In the mixture, or "batch," charged into the melting furnace.

many

them

cases the material furnishing

sometimes

ate;

it

to the glass

a carbon-

is

window-glass sands may contain as much as 0.10%, obtained by blending good sands with poorer ones) other colouring materials should not be present in great enough amounts to give rise to detectable colour. Other natural materials used to furnish glass constituents include limestone (which provides calcium oxide), dolomite (calcium and magnesium oxides), feldspar, lepidolite, nephelite-syenite (alumina, silica and alkali metal oxides). Cryolite also contains aluminum but is used only when its fluorine content is required to produce opal glasses. Other raw materials used consist mostly of the carbonates, nitrates or oxides of the elements

a nitrate or sulfate or possibly a hydroxide.

is

may

be chosen for their cheapness or for some property Thus in addition to their capacity to yield a desired constituent. alkali nitrates, which are much more expensive than the carbonates per unit of oxide contributed to the glass, are sometimes employed because they assist melting and provide an oxidizing atmosphere that is desirable when melting lead glasses and certain coloured Materials

;

glasses.

Sundry

made

fluorides are used, primarily because they can be

to opacify the glass,

added

if

speed Colours

in sufficient quantity, or to

when used in small quantities. produced in two ways: (1) by solution, in which case the colour is due to ions; (2) by the separation from the clear melt under appropriate conditions of finely divided particles of material; for example, gold, copper or cadmium selenide in the case of ruby glasses, and cadmium sulfide or sulfoselenide in the case of some yellow and orange glasses. Of the solution colours, copper and cobalt compounds are used to produce blue glasses, green is produced by chromium compounds, amber by carbon and sulfur or by iron and manganese compounds. Nickel oxide gives up melting and in

glasses

refining

III.

Flat glass

window

.

type

Fourcault type

71.7

71-72.5

\

glass

Iron oxide/

Lime

.

Soda Potassium oxide

weighed out, the batch is tipped into a mixer, frequently of the well-known concrete-mixer type, and is either discharged to a hopper that holds one "mixing" or is elevated and conveyed to a

Very

storage bin.

special batches (e.g., for optical or coloured glass not

0.4-1.5

Amber

Amber

70.5

67.8

71.5-71.9* 0-0.15 \

Dark

tumblei

blue

green

and electric lamp bulb

71-72

67.2

70.1 0.7

V.l

2.1

13.7

Maojanese oxide

i.l

2.1

2.3

0.1

8.8-9.4 8-11.3 trace-0.4 0.1-3.5 14.1-15.5 13.8-14.3 0-0.2 0.3-0.9

8.9

8.6

11.5-12.5

1.4

1.3

1.1

16.0 0.6

13.9 0.4 3.8

(barium

i!9 2.4 8.1 1.5

11.5-12 0.3-0.8

14.8 1.0 2.5

2.6 5.4

3.6 16.8 0.3

oxide 0.1-0.4)

Cobalt oxide Cfaronuum oxide

0.1-0.3 0.1-0.17

electric

lamp stem assembly

Soda for lamp working

56.6

Silica

Boric oxide

70.0 0.6

0.2

.

Alumina

0.8 0.05

Iron oxide

Lime Magnesia .

Ampule Gauge Colour-

Amber

less

(Fiolax)

67.2 S.O

69.4

0.07 5.,'

.

6.5 0.1

3.5

Zinc oxide

glass

Clinical

thermom-

55. 7§

7-12 3-9

2.2

(manganese

0-5

Sealing

tlmgsten

to

77.0 15.4

5-10

0.2

0.02

1.1

0.2

0.4

oxide 3.1)

Lead oxide

.

(lithia

Soda Potassium oxide

5.1

17.2 0.2

7.2

Lead crystal (pot-

melted)

SUic* . Boric oxide

Alumina

Set

Iron oxide

Lime

clini,

Magnesia

cal ,

ther-

Zinc oxide

Lime

Ma-

(pol-

chine-

melted)

made

0-1.5 0-1 app. 0.03 5-8.5 0-3.5

.

.

Potassium oxide Arsenic oxide Fluorine

.

(U.S.)

See

12.0

— belowj below

II

4.6 1.9

Special illuminating glasses

Pyrex brand

Monax

and

ulass,

bulb

tube

Mercuryvapour Sodiumvapour lamp

screens

(H.P.)

76.7 11.1

65.3-69.1

0.08

2.7

3.2-6.2|

58.7 3.0 22.4

0.2

0.4

80.1 12.0

0-0.6 0-0.3

0.1

5.9 8.4

lamp

Projector

lamp

facture and

bove

0.02 0.02 0.005

3.9 0.3 0.3

4.8

—

1.5

.

—

by shovel. Glass-Melting Furnaces.

are usually filled

— Meltings

early times were

The

modern

lines,

producer gas from coal or lignite, oil, coke-oven gas and natural

3.4 1.9

on

process, still

gas are

where 0.2

in

carried out in clay pots heated by

Electric

1.1

It

wood.

(lithia

0.6-0.7) 7.2-8 6.6-7 0-0.4 0-1

called cuUet.

18.2 1.0 0.1 0.3

11.4-12)

this

is

should be of small-sized pieces. Batch Feeding. Large furnaces are generally fed automatically by screw or pusher feeding device, or by discharging a thin stream across the furnace to form a "blanket" of batch. Pots

75.0

Range of numerous composilions, from survey of trends over several years, 1AI«, Pyrrx brand glass, SPractically tWith carbon and sulfur added to the batch, English lead crystal ~j glass .v^. for table, . f,.— io,yieware. IIU.S patent 2.392,314; baiyu not more Uian 3%. OAnnmri,^... with in addition calcium vApproximate „__i.:J?ff composition ,___r"r from batch formula.

fluoride or

mixing a proportion of broken glass of the same composition as that to be made. This is supplied from the

40 22

oxide

table

in general beneficial

21.59

(barium

gla.sscs,

14-18 0-2 0-0.2

vision

3.1

cheap tumbler

bulb

above

Vycor

silica

96.3 2.9

lamp

table .

0.1

Tele-

Fused

electric

this

Soda

be avoided if the batch is briqueted (compressed into blocks) before conveyance. It is cus-

2.

mometer

Lead oxide

1.2-5.1 0.8-5.2

Chemical and heat-resisting glass

71-73

.

below t)

10.85 6.0

Tableware

fall" is of course a danger. Such segregation troubles are said to

waste glass incidental to manu67-67.511

10-20

0.1

0.2-0.5 0-1.5

Sealing to Fernico alloy

eter bulb

71-77t

3.4 1.8 2.3 9.2

3.7

belt conveyor, by "unit mix" hopper on a monoraO or by compressed air along a tube. Segregation by vibration or "free

to include in the

Tubing For

are

shovel in wooden tubs. The batch is conveyed by bucket or

tomary and

0.5-0.8

Fluorine

in quantity)

j

Dark

1.7-2.1

made

sometimes mixed by hand and Cheap

/

11.2

2.S-4.S 14.5-15.5 0.2-0.8

U.O

1960

72-74.5 0-0.2 0.14

7-9

9.7 4.3

.

U.S.;

British

1-2

'

Maf^nesia

When

Container Glass

glass

Boric oxide.

AlumiQa

may be automatic, material being fed in predetermined sequence to a weighing machine so interlocked that further use is impossible until correct weight is shown. large installations the weighing

Plate

Colbum

—

Batch Preparation. The raw materials are stored in bins, "silos" or sacks, and are weighed out, mixed and sent to the furnace. In

Percentage Compositions of Typical Commercial Glasses

Glass type

Silica

involved.

are

Table

again apparent.

is

Sand is a most important material. It must possess a reasonably uniform grain size with no large grains and little dusty material and, for colourless glass, must contain very little iron oxide (0.03% maximum for good-quality containers, 0.013% for lead crystal tableware and not more than 0.008% for optical glass;

the heating

electricity

more

persists,

common is

is

but

fuels.

employed cheap and

other fuels expensive (as, for example, in Switzerland) and its use as a boost to the other

methods of heating was, in the mid-1960s, becoming common in the U.K. and the U.S.

The

ad-

—

—

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

vantage of the all-electric melting furnace is that it gives off much less heat to its surroundings and the heat is generated where it is most needed in the material to be melted. Special glasses and those made in small quantity are generally melted in pot furnaces containing 1-20 pots (most often 8-12). The pots may be open or "closed" i.e., covered with a hooded side opening that abuts on a hole in the furnace wall in such a way that the flame gases have no access and cannot affect the glass. Their capacity ranges from a few pounds to 30 cwt., and their shapes vary. A common one has an egg-shaped horizontal section

—

so that the

maximum amount

of floor space of a circular furnace clay mixture of which the pots are made con-

be used. The raw clay with a percentage (30 or more) of carefully graded prefired clay ("grog"), sometimes composed of so-called siUimanThe pots are formed either by hand from rolls of plastic ite.

may

tains

mixture or by casting a fluid slip in plaster molds as in the pottery industry. Drying must be slow and very carefully controlled and, before being placed in the melting furnace, pots are heated in a "pot arch" to a temperature in excess of 1,000° C. and are transferred hot. A ring of clay is placed in each to define a clean area from which molten glass will be gathered. The flames come from ports, generally in the floor of the furnace but sometimes in the end walls in the case of rectangular furnaces (pots in two parallel rows), and, circulating over the pots, pass out by flues in the pillars supporting the crown or by a port at the opposite end When the pot has been brought to the correct temperature (1,350°-1,450° C.) in the furnace, the batch is "filled on." When melted down, a second filling, and generally a third, is made to produce a full pot when all the batch has melted (see The Melting Process, below) Larger amounts of glass are melted in tank f urnaces, based on the Siemens invention, in which the walls define the glass-melting area and the flame passes over the surface of the

tioned on

its

way

the other end.

471

to the feeding device supplying the

machine

at

—

Refractories. The life of glass-melting tanks was much increased, and the output raised, because of the higher melting temperatures made possible by the use of blocks cast from electrically fused high alumina melts (Corhart; or high zirconia (Zirconium

dioxide) ones (ZAC). attack by the glass.

These blocks are much more

resistant to

The Melting Process.— Dxinng the melting, carbonates,

sul-

fates, nitrates, etc. in the

batch decompose, with evolution of the corresponding acid gases (CO2, SO3, etc.). In addition, water is driven off from wet sand and from some crystalline salts; e.g.,

The more

borax.

easily fusible materials

form

a glaze,

which

speeds up reaction by increasing surface contact, and the proportion of molten matter increases. Finally even the grains of silica disappear. The resultant melt is full of bubbles, a state referred to as "seedy."

WORKING END OF TANK-

SUBMERGED CONNECTING PASSAGE

DOUBLE WALLED BRIDGE

(OOGHOLE) REFINING ZONE

FIRE CLAY

TANK BLOCKS

12 15 IN. THICK

OUTGOING PORTS CONNECTED TO CHIMNEY

INCOMING GAS PORT INCOMING AIR PORT

DOGHOUSE INTO WHICH RAW MATERIALS ARE FED

MELTING ZONE

.

1

I

IRON BUCKSTAV SILICA BRICK

CROWN

glass.

MIXING CHAMBER

size, i.e., with a capacity of from 2 to 10 tons, tanks" in which glass is melted overnight and worked out during the day, or their contents may be melted one day and night and then worked out. Bigger tanks are continuous, the batch being charged at one end into a "doghouse" and removed at the other as reasonably homogeneous glass for feeding to foming machines. Such tanks (see fig. 1) are divided into melting and working ends by a bridge wall. Communication is either through a "doghole" in the bridge or by a submerged "throat" that connects

Those of small

!

i

1

holes in the floor of each

compartment.

The

side to side (crossfiring) or, entering at the to the

flames

back

may

down

bridge and return (horseshoe firing) or, in small tanks, pass

down from

and out through ports at either side of In yet another form the furnace crown is hollow and the flame from the back wall returns from near the bridge between the false crown and the outer one to pass to a heat recovery system. Such systems may be (1) regenerative, in which the waste gases heat stacks of brickwork, which then, by reversal of flame direction, are used to preheat the combustion air and fuel gas, or (2) recuperative, in which the gas flow through the system is constantly in one direction and the waste gases pass over tubes through which the combustion air is led for preheating. Large tanks of the window-glass type are around ISO ft. long and 30 ft. wide and hold an approximately 5-ft. depth of glass; i.e., about 1,200 tons. Gas consumption for such a tank is about 50,000,000 cu.ft. per month. By the 1960s many furnaces had been converted to the use of oil from producer gas. The Glass Manufacturers' federation estimated that in 1960 about 65% of the British industry's production was melted by oil, consumption being around 350,000 tons. An oil-fired furnace needs only one set of regenerators to preheat the air at each side of the furnace. A similar construction holds for furnaces fired by natural gas since it is not customary to preheat this gas on account of its high hydrocarbon content. Unit Melter. The unit melter was developed in an attempt to provide the optimum conditions for supplying one forming machine. It consists of a narrow channel (6 ft, wide and 36 ft. long), at one end of which the batch is fed in, being melted and condithe back walls

the bridge.

'

I

I

w

—

AIR

REGENERATOR

- CHECKERS OF 12 15 IN. THICK FLUES CONNECTED, TO CHIMNEY

FIREBRICK INLET AIR FLUE

"INLET GAS FLUE FIG.

I.

—CROSS-FLAME TANK

SEEN FROM ABOVE:

pass from

wall, pass

AIRPORT GAS PORT

COMBUSTION CHAMBER

may be "day

(B)

FURNACE FOR MELTING GLASS:

(A)

PLAN AS

CROSS SECTION

—The

temperature is now raised somewhat to reduce complete decomposition so that the bubbles disAfter this the temperature is slowly reduced from the appear. 1,400°-1.500° C. (1,600° for Pyrex-type glass) at which melting was carried out to the working temperature of around 1.250°Refining.

viscosity

and

to

This temperature gradient from end to end of the tank achieved by using the proper location and size of burners and by screening the working end in some cases by a "shadow wall" built 1,400° C.

is

on the bridge.

—

3. Glass-Forming Processes. Hand Processes. These glassblowing processes are generally applied to pot-melted, good-quahty glass, frequently lead crystal because its working properties suit the leisurely sequence of manipulations involved. After the glass within the ring in the pot has been skimmed clean, an amount of glass is gathered on the blowpipe and withdrawn, the tail of glass

being dropped outside the ring at the instant of separation so that By blowing, rolling on it does not contaminate the next gather. a polished iron plate (marver), swinging, etc., the glass is formed into a hollow, pear-shaped bulb. The blowpipe may be rolled up and down the long arms of the glassmaker's chair while he works

on it with shearlike tools (pucellas or procellas) to constrict it, draw it out, flatten the base with a wooden "battledore" and so on. Extra glass may be cast on to form stems, bases, handles, etc. The glass is then attached at the base to a rod (punty) and is cracked off the pipe so that the other end of the article may be Production can be finished, using the rod as axis of rotation. speeded up by blowing the body of the article in a mold and then

Large articles such as illuminating globes molds, and the excess glass is cracked off, after

finishing at the chair.

are

mouth-blown

in

— GLASS

472 annealing,

by heating

at

a

diamond

scratch.

An

MANUFACTURE

alternative

blank method of removing the waste cap of glass is to rotate the pinpoint flames upside down and melt off the waste by very intense tumbler and applied at the line of separation. This is done for

some

electric

lamp

blanks.

Glass Blowing) —This is carried out are heated using glass tubing or rods of various diameters. They enriched with oxyin the flame of a gas-air blowpipe, the air being borosilicate glass is worked. The articles made include

Lamp Working (Bench

gen when chemical and other scientific and surgical apparatus (e.g., glass decorative figeyes, ampules, syringes, thermometers), egg timers, ures and animals, beads and Christmas tree ornaments. The making of such items as electric lamps, electron tubes and been tele\nsion tubes is a development of these processes, but it has

components of glass pipelines and heav-y chemical apparatus are handled by semimechanical Some use has been made of high-frequency electric processes. largely mechanized, while massive

welding.

Molds.— Molds,

When

for glass are mostly of fine-grained gray cast iron. is required or conditions are very exacting,

extra-high polish

special heat-resisting alloys of the stainless steel or Nichrome t>'pe Molds for most, purposes are used hot, sometimes at are used.

temperatures approaching 600° C; but for thin-walled hollow ware they are used wet and are coated with a paste (comprising carbonizable material with a binder') to retain the water so that a cushion of steam is provided between glass and mold when the former is rotated. Usually the molds are of two or more sections in the body, together with a base and in some cases (for example, for pressing) a ring to define the upper edge of glass and to locate the plunger in proper relation to the mold body. Molds used for automatic machines present problems in cooling. This factor largely controls the rate of working. Mechanical Methods. These include pressing, blowing, drawing, casting, rolling, either individually or in combinations of two or more processes. Thus bottles may be made by press and blow or blow and blow (or suck and blow) methods as described in the article Bottles: Methods of Mantijactitre. Feeding Glass to Machines. In the semiautomatic processes, which are still operated to deal with special shapes, this is done by hand. The glass is gathered on an iron rod with a ball-shaped end and is allowed to run off the latter into the mold. The machine operator shears through the stream when sufficient glass has been supplied. Fully automatic container-forming machines either

—

—

own mold

charges by suction from a pool of glass or receive separate charges extruded from a feeder channel running from the working end of a tank furnace and cut off by mechanically or pneumatically operated shears. Very accurate control of glass

gather their

homogeneity, temperature and feeder mechanism is needed to deliver charges of constant weight to make articles of level, glass

constant capacity.

—

Pressed Glass. The molds may be "block" (i.e., the body in one piece), with a movable base to eject the pressed article, or, for heavily decorated pieces, the body may be in three, four or more sections hinged to swing open to clear projections. For ware of

when a number of articles are desired at one molds are used, with cavities fed from a central reservoir at which the pressure is apphed by plunger and in which excess glass remains to form a means for removing the pressing from the mold. Automatic presses carry a number of molds on a circular table, rotated step by step to bring each in turn below a precise dimensions, or pressing, font

charging device (feeder), then to a pressing station and, after a interval for cooling, to a take-out point. Pressure in automatic machines is generally exerted by compressed air through a cylinder and piston and a toggle linkage. Hand presses operate as a rule by lever and crank. Glass blocks for Hght-transmitting walls are made by welding together at the edges two rectangular cup-shaped pressings.

sufficient

They and when

have good thermal- and sound-insulating properties, prismatic ribs are formed on the inside surfaces considerable

spreading of the transmitted light results. Light-Blown Hollow H.jre.— Blanks for making tumblers, electric lamp envelopes and the like are made on Westlake-type ma-

chines or on the Corning ribbon machine. The former machine follows to a considerable extent the motions of a hand worker but uses shorter pipes and gathers by suction. The Coming machine

takes a continuously rolled ribbon of glass bearing thickened hot portions spaced by thinner cold ones and from the hot "blobs" blows the blank, using blowheads on one continuous belt above the

ribbon and molds on another belt below it. Speeds of up to 1,000 or more bulbs per minute are attainable. 4. Drawing Processes. Tubing. When tubing is drawn by

—

hand a parison (a rounded mass of molten

glass

blown

at the

of the pipe into a thick-walled "bubble") of suitable shape

end

is at-

tached at the free end to a punty and is then drawn out. The drawn tube (or rod if not blown out) is rested on a ladderlike rack and is cut up into lengths. There is much waste glass attached to both pipe and punty. In one mechanical drawing process (Dauner), a stream of glass flows as a flat ribbon onto a revolving, hollow,

downwardly

in-

cUned mandrel, blends thereon to a uniformly thick coating and is drawn off the lower end as a tube if air is blown into the upper end at relatively low pressure (up to 18 in. water gauge). The size of mandrel nose, temperature and rate of feed and removal of glass together with the pressure of air determine tubing dimensions. Drawing speeds range from about 20 to 850 ft. per Removal is controlled by a drawing device, located minute.

100-200

ft.

away, consisting of two endless caterpillar belts whose

asbestos-faced shoes engage the tubing or rod, which is by that time almost cold. Various devices on the machine are used to cut the glass into lengths depending on its thickness and diameter.

—Suitable tubing

is passed round a sizing and a very accurate bore is produced by exhausting the air within the adjacent portion of tube and thus collapsing the glass round the mandrel. The tubing is then used to form barrels for hypodermic syringes and other precision instruments without the need for internal grinding, which would much reduce its strength and increase its liability to attack by chemicals and sterilizers. Glass Fibres.- See below. Sheet Glass. Early sheet glass was handmade (1) by blowing a large parison, attaching it to a punty, cracking it off from the pipe, and reheating and spinning the punty so that centrifugal force caused the glass to spread out to form a disk attached at its thickened centre to the punty; (2) by blowing and swinging the parison so that it elongated to form a long cylinder, which was then, after its ends had been cracked off, split longitudinally and opened out after transferring to a flattening kiln. The first step in mechanization, attributable to J. H. Lubbers, was the production of glass cylinders approximately 40 ft. long by 30 in. in diameter, which were treated by the latter method. Present methods are two. In the first the sheet is drawn upward from a pool of glass, the line of draw being located either by a slot in the bottom of a long fire-clay boat (Fourcault process) or by a cooling bar placed a little below the surface (Slingluff or Pittsburgh process). When the sheet is a few feet above glass level it is rigid enough to be engaged by the first of a series of pairs of asbestos-faced rollers, which continue to draw it upward. The ribbon is cut into sheets, which are removed as they emerge and are stored after washing in dOute acid to remove surface deposit. The second method is horizontal drawing (Colburn or LibbeyOwens process). Here, although the sheet is drawn vertically from the pool, it is bent horizontally over a Nichrome roller and passed between two endless belts, which draw it forward into a

Precision-Bore Tubing.

mandrel while hot and

plastic,

—

—

,

200-ft.-long roller annealing furnace (leer, or lehr), at the cold

end of which

it is

cut into sections.

The speed depends on

the

thickness of the sheet and is of the order of 100 in. per minute for thin glass. Production per machine is much greater with the

Colburn than with the Fourcault or SUngluff processes. Rolled Glass. Originally the demarcation between sheet and plate glass was sharp. One was blown, the other was cast, rolled and (generally) ground and polished to a flat surface on each side. The demarcation is not so clean-cut now. The first cast and rolled plate is ascribed to Lucas de Nehou in 1688. A process for casting molten glass onto an inclined table feeding a pair of rolls was de-

—

•

I

!

]

j

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

veloped by Chance Brothers and E. F. Chance in 1890 to produce figured (i.e., patterned surface) glass. The discontinuous processes reached

The

peak development in the Bicheroux process (1918). was rolled from the teemed contents of a pot and was

received on a train of cars that ble,

Since the glass has not been chilled on contact with cooler metal it retains its high polish.

its

glass

moved

where shears cut between them

past the inclined rolling ta-

to enable each in turn to be

hauled away to the annealing leer. Continuous methods for making polished plate are typified by those of the Ford Motor company

and Pilkington Brothers Limited. In the first the glass passes from the melting furnace through a channel where temperature and quantity are closely controlled. It then flows in a widening stream down an inclined spout to feed a large-diameter bottom roll working with a small-diameter top roll. The 40-in.-wide rolled ribbon passes directly into a leer 440 ft. long, which it traverses in about two and one-half hours. The glass is then cut into lengths, ground and polished. In the Pilkington process, the ribbon may be much wider, and in one form it passes directly without cutting from the leer to the grinding and polishing section in which it is operated upon on both upper and lower surfaces at once (twin plate process). 5. Grinding and Polishing of Plate Glass The old discontinuous process involved setting sheets of glass in plaster on huge 30-ft.-diameter, circular, cast-iron tables. Spaces between sheets

filled with waste glass. The tables were then taken to the motor and rotated below a "spider" carrying a number of cast-iron "tools," which had "nogs" on their undersurfaces to engage the glass, with spaces through which sand or emery could be carried by water as a slurry to do the abrading. Starting with fairly coarse sand, the size of abrasive was reduced stage by stage until a very smooth gray surface was obtained. The tools were then changed for polisher disks faced with felt, which was charged with rouge and water. This brought about the final polish. The irregularity of the surface of cast and rolled rough plate made necessary the removal of much material and encouraged the development of later methods, which employed pairs of rollers instead of a casting table and "rolling pin." The continuous grinding and pohshing methods of Ford and others involve bedding the glass on fabric and convey-

were

ing it on carefully leveled cars beneath a series of independent motor-driven heads that operate tools supplied with successively finer abrasive. After a space for cleaning and inspection, the glass is then passed beneath similarly driven polishing heads supplied with rouge paste. Elaborate arrangements for collecting, regrading and returning abrasive to the system may be provided. The glass, polished on one face, is rebedded and the process repeated, on a second line, on the opposite face. The Pilkington twin-plate process saves cars and double track. 6. Float Glass. A great saving of space is effected by the float glass process of Pilkington Brothers, Ltd. (British Patent

—

COOLING ZONE

Foam

7.

Glass.— Molds

grains and a substance

tained

is

purposes.

It is light

Annealing

8. it

solidifies first

enough

to float in

—When

water and

is

rotproof.

It

from the molten state Such material, being rigid, resists

glass cools freely

on the outside.

the inward pull of the hotter glass inside, which, in cooling down to room temperature, needs to contract more than the surface. Such a piece of glass is left when cold with the surface in compression if of simple shape (e.g., a sphere) and as such it strongly re-

mechanical shock. Surfaces with sudden changes of contour, on the contrary, are in similar circumstances very prone to disrup-

sists

by the application of slight additional stress, mechanical or To make commercial glassware safe to use it must, after receiving its final shaping, be cooled very slowly from a temperature at which it is soft enough for stresses to be relieved in a few minutes to a lower temperature below which it is not possible to introduce permanent stress by sudden cooling. This process is tion

thermal.

known

From the latter point the limit to the rate of the ability of the article to withstand the temporary

as annealing.

cooling

is

up by the thermal gradient at the moment. The procbe carried out (1) batchwise, in kilns that are charged with the hot, newly formed glass, heated and then cooled slowly. This method is usually reserved for optical glass and certain very stresses set ess

may

thick-walled goods. (2) Most often, the ware is passed on a conveyor belt down a tunnel leer, 2 ft. 6 in. to 1 1 ft. wide and 30 ft. to 440 ft. long, in which a suitable temperature gradient is established. The atmosphere in the leer may be controlled to affect the surface of the glass and improve durabihty. Heating is by gas, oil or electricity.

Modern

leers, because of good insulation and rapid transfer from machines, need little additional heat above that taken in by the hot glass itself. The time to anneal depends upon the wall thickness of the article. Very thin ware, such as electric lamp bulbs, needs only a few minutes; containers generally need one to two hours in leers 65-75 ft. long. Rolled plate glass needs very long leers because of the speed with which the ribbon is produced and fed forward; a slow speed in a roller conveyor or leer would allow the ribbon to sag between the rollers and destroy

of ware

its flatness.

—

9. Processes Applied After Formation and Annealing. Removing Waste Cap-s From Blanks. This is done (e.g., of tumblers and electric light bulbs) by (1) cracking them off. either by making a crack in the plane of separation and then heating in this

—

plane with needle-pointed flames, or by heating first and then scratching; or (2) melting off. (See also Glass-Forming Processes,

are held

—Dishes,

down on

abrasive and water. used.

-

are packed with a mixture of crushed

for example, limestone; that will give off

has been used as a substitute for cork.

etc.,

MOLTEN GLASS^ m/^/^^^m^^mMm,,,,,//. ^^^

surface by

temperature at which the grains are soft enough to cohere. are then suitably heated and the porous mass so obcooled and used for some thermal- and sound-insulating

a gas at a

Edge Grinding.

QQ

(

its

The molds

above.)

g

473

annealing.

globes, illuminating bowls, tumblers,

a horizontally rotating iron disk fed with

Alternatively, a fine-grit sandstone wheel

is

—

The ground edges are heated first in a soft flame Fire Finishing. in a high-intensity flame till fusion rounds them and re-

and then

Slow cooling follows. With tumblers less the grayness. bead is produced this way than by melting off. The design is roughed out on Decorative Cutting (Grinding.) the article in a water-resistant paint and is then cut on an abrasive wheel. Formerly this was an iron disk with a mitred edge that was fed with sand and water. The process, repeated with emery and water, gave a smoother finish, which was further improved by the addition of powdered pumice and finally by brushing with putty

moves GLASS TANK OR FURNACE

—

FLOAT BATH

ANNEALING LEER

FLOAT GLASS PROCESS: FROM THE GLASS TANK OR FURNACE. THE OLASS RIBBON IS DELIVERED ONTO THE SURFACE OF LIQUID METAL IN THE FLOAT BATH. THE RIBBON IS COOLED WHILE STILL ON THE MOLTEN METAL, WITH THE RESULT THAT THE SURFACE OF THE GLASS. AFTER ANNEALING, IS Fro. 2.

SMOOTH AND POLISHED 797,101/2, June 25, 1958), a major development in the production After rolling (fig. 2), the glass ribbon passes into a heated compartment where it floats on the surface

[of "polished" flat glass.

of a

molten metal

(e.g., tin)

maintained at such a temperature smoothed out and

that the surface irregularities of the glass are the sheet

flat. The temperature is reduced until the before the glass ribbon leaves to pass to the leer for

becomes quite

glass is rigid

—

powder

(tin oxide).

The modem method employs a siUcon carbide wheel of, say, 80 to 100 grit followed by an alumina wheel of, say, 150 to 180 The article is then immersed in an acid polishing bath congrit. taining strong sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids, worked warm. Cheap ware, mass-produced

in

molds

to standard dimensions,

may

GLASS

474

MANUFACTURE

present it be cut in machines that index the ware step by step and step. each at to the wheel cutOther Abrasive Processes.— Intaglio is siniilar to decorative wheels are much ting, but the spindle is overhanging and the process is intersmaller. The depressions are shallower and the uses mediate between cutting and engraving. The latter process diameters various of wheels copper with spindle overhanging an thicknesses and (e.g., from pinhead size to around four inches), abrasive edge' contours. These are fed with a mixture of oil and made to can be expert of the hands in the and generally) (emery,

\

Copper and gold may also be deposited by chemical reducGold films of controlled thickness may be obtained by heatDark-coloured mirrors are made ing an organic gold compound. by depositing films of lead sulfide on the glass. Films may be produced not only by chemical deposition but also by "sputtering" (high-voltage discharge between electrodes) in vacuo or by evaporating in vacuo; the latter process is used to make aluminum or

glass.

tion.

rhodium mirrors and, with certain fluorides, the "bloomed" lens that has a very high light transmission. Two kinds of film allow

In sandblasting,

the passage of sufficient electric current to warm the glass first, the rather thick sprayed aluminum grid that enables the glass plate

Designs can be produced quickly by this method. Metal stencils are used in sandblasting trademarks and the like on glassware. Sandblasting in stages, changing

to be used as a radiator; and, second, the film of tin oxide that can be heated to preserve clear vision through a windshield (glass screen) in vehicles. Some compounds of silver and other metals, if applied as Uquid suspensions to glass coming hot from the forming process, "Lustres" are give a surface that may be soldered to metal. produced by painting glass with organic sulfur compounds of

turn out the most artistic "drawings" on glass. sand grains entrained by a blast of air at pressures usually of 2-25 glass with a lb. per square inch (p.s.i.) will obscure the surface of pattern rather like that given by grinding. The portions to remain clear are protected by paper backed with a resilient sticky sub-

stance such as glue and glycerin.

:

an essential oil (a volatile Gentle heating smokes

the pattern of the resist (the protected area) at each stage as the depth of excavation increases, produces some very striking rehef In glass sculpture, hand tools operated by flexible drive effects.

gold, platinum or other precious metals in

or a motor of the Bosch t>'pe are used to execute designs in situ on large sheets of glass. A sandblasted glass surface is coated with Ice-Floii'er Patterns.

bright metallic mirror surface on the glass.

strong glue and slowly dried. At the proper stage the glass is placed in a warm enclosure and the shrinkage of the glue drags glass from the surface to produce a system of shallow conchoidal

Certain glasses (U.S. patent 2,515,275 Photosensitive Glass. of July 18, 1950) containing small amounts of gold, silver or cop-

—

considered decorative. Etching. Hydrofluoric acid attacks most glasses readily but the visual effect varies according to whether the material removed remains in solution or is left in the surface. This in turn depends fractures that

is

—

partly on the acid strength and partly on what other substances

are present in the etching mixture.

Clear etching

either dilute hydrofluoric acid alone or in glasses

is

produced by

cases (e.g., on lead

and some low

furic acid. off in

some

silicates) by strong acid used with strong sulIn the case of lead glass there is a deposit but it brushes

warm

water.

In other circumstances, rough mat or translucent surfaces can be produced; e.g., with potassium fluoride and a mineral acid a delicate satin finish is obtained, with ammonium bifluoride mixtures a "white" finish. The internal surface of a "pearl" electric hght bulb is produced in two stages: first a coarse etch is achieved with an internal spray of a strong ammonium bifluoride mixture, secondly a spray rinse with a more dilute solution that smoothes the too-sharp contours of the first etched surface and largely restores the original strength of the bulb.

Ammonium

bifluoride

is

the active constituent of inks for writing

on glass and of pastes for badging glassware through a wax resist (see Enameling, below). Encmeling. (1 ) A design cut in a brass or glass plate is charged with a mixture of enamel colour and medium (e.g., lithographic varnish). A sheet of transfer tissue paper is gently applied and then peeled off, bringing with it the design in enamel. The paper is applied to the clean glass surface, damped and peeled off, leaving enamel only on the glass, which is then heated carefully until the enamel fuses to it. The same transfer method is used for applying wax resists to glass to be etched. (2) A silk or other mesh screen carr>-ing light-sensitive material is exposed behind a negative and developed so that a design is produced in the apertures (the background is composed of the closed spaces). The screen is then placed on the glass and an enamel mixture is brushed over it with a squeegee. The mixture is forced through the apertures and the design emerges on the glassware. In the case of circular containers the ware is rotated below the screen. (See also Silk Screen Printing.)

—

Silvering,

Coppering, Gilding.

— Mirrors,

once made with tin amalgam, have, since the discoveries of Michael Drayton and Justus von Liebig, been made by the chemical reduction of silver-

ammonia compounds

to metallic silver.

Modern developments

include processes in which the "silver" and "reducer" solutions meet in a spray above the cleaned glass, which is passing on a conveyor, and deposit the silver immediately the spray falls on the

odoriferous vegetable off

the

oil; e.g.,

lavender).

medium and decomposes

the sulfur

compound, leaving a Glass stained with

sUver or copper compounds yields the yellow or red colours seen in stained glass

windows.

—

per are sensitive to light. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation no obvnous change occurs until the glass has subsequently been

heated to a temperature a little below that at which it softens. The Some of characteristic colour (yellow or ruby) then develops. the glasses are of such a composition that the "nuclei" produced By exposure to initiate devitrification and produce an opal effect. the radiation behind a negative or stencil, very decorative effects may be produced. The first of these nucleating processes was called the Fotohte process. It was followed by the Fotoform, in which the glass composition was so chosen that, after exposure behind a negative to ultraviolet light, the heat treatment caused a separation from the rest of the glass of a phase that could be dissolved away by suitable soludons (U.S. patents 2,515,937 to 2,515,943; July 18, 1950) to give a very precisely "machined" outline, e.g.,

patterns of minute holes to form screens for various purposes. Fotoform process is applied to remove developed material,

If the

and the remainder

then heavily exposed again to radiation, fur-

is

ther heat treatment at a high temperature produces a dense, hard,

This ma(M. Pn.) Fotoceram. 10. Safety Glass. This has been defined as glass so treated or so combined with other materials as to reduce the likelihood of instrong ceramic with good high-temperature properties. terial is called

—

jury to persons by objects entering from exterior sources or by the glass itself when it is cracked or broken. Such glass is made in one of two ways. The first consists in laminating a sheet of plastic

between two sheets of layer of glass.

glass

and the second

in heat-treating a single

—

Laminated Glass. The invention of this tj'pe of glass, popuand romantically ascribed to Edouard Benedictus cf France, was actually anticipated by the Englishman J. C. Wood (British larly

patent 9,972, 1905). After the first commercially successful Triplex glass made under the Benedictus patents, several important

developments took place. First,

Celluloid (a cellulose nitrate plastic)

acetate plastic, which

cellulose

is

inherently

was replaced by more stable than

Celluloid. A contemporary development was the use of ultraviolet-absorbing glass to protect the Celluloid plastic from the

damaging

In mid-20th century by far the major porof world's production of laminated glass was made with a polyvinyl acetal plastic, which replaced the older cellulose plastics because of its greater flexibility at low temperatures. A description of the operations involved with the vinyl type of plastic will indicate the principles on which all these processes have been based. The panes of glass to be reinforced can be either flat or curved; and although drawn sheet glass is sometimes used, tion

'

light rays.

the

i

j

]

{

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

prepared from thin, polished plate, the panes normally employed varying in thickness from in. to | in., depending upon the purpose for which the lamination is to be used. After cutting to the proper size, the panes of glass are thoroughly cleaned and dried and then sheets of vinyl plastic, also thoroughly cleaned and cut to the proper size, are placed between the panes of glass and the resulting sandwich is bonded together by the apphcation of the best type

is

^

The vinyl plastic is self-bonding and very water penetration. Hence, no additional adhesive and edge sealer are needed, as was the case in the older processes. The vinyl laminated glass is more resistant to impact than the Celluloid lamination, and its strength is more uniform over the range of temperatures normally encountered out-of-doors. When such a laminated glass is struck heavily, the cracks radiate from the centre of attack, but the splinters remain firmly adhering to the intermediate plastic layer. It is, therefore, used in the glazing of automobiles and airplanes to reduce injuries should the glass become broken. Bullet-resisting glass is a laminated glass genin. thick and made of several layers of glass interspersed erally heat and pressure. resistant to

U

with several layers of plastic.

—In

the manufacture of this glass, the below their softening point and then are uniformly and rapidly cooled with a blast of air. This rapid cooling puts the outside surfaces of glass under compres-

Heat-Treated Glass.

sheets of glass are heated to just

sional strain

and thus

this

product

glass to bending, twisting

,

is

much

and tensional

stronger than untreated stresses

— although

it

is

susceptible to the impact of sharp objects capable of puncturing the surface. When it fails, however, cracks develop throughout the

I

whole body of the glass and it breaks into a large number of comparatively small and harmless pieces. It is extensively used in automobiles and in places where glass is subjected to pressures uniformly distributed over the surface. (G. B. Wa. A. C. We.) 11. Chemcor Process The Fotoceram process led to the development of others in which nucleation was initiated without exposure to ultraviolet or X-radiation. The Pyroceram one (U.S. patent 2,920,971, Jan. 12, 1960) has been mentioned already (see Physical Structure of Glass, above). Later the Corning Glass Works patented, with S. D. Stookey and others, two processes for imparting enhanced strength to glass surfaces. The first (U.S. patent 2,998,675, Sept. S, 1961) is applied to lithia-alumina-silica glasses with a catalyst {e.g., titanium dioxide, boric oxide, lead oxide or sodium carbonate) and consists in heat treatment for a specified time within a specified temperature range. A film of crystals is developed on the surface, with the result that the outer surface is left in strong compression

—

I

j

j

I

:

when cold. The second process involves the immersion of an alkali-titanium

'

I

;

.

dioxide-alumina-silica sulfate bath (e.g.,

glass

in

a

fused lithium sulfate-sodium weight) at 860°-

95% ^,804, 5% NagSO^ by

900° C.

Lithium ions diffuse from the bath into the glass, dissodium ions and producing an opaque material of lower thermal expansion than the main glass, so that again the outer surface is in strong compression when cold. These are known as the Chemcor processes. The bending strength of glass treated placing

;

way may be as much as five times that of toughened (tempered) glass. 12. Glass Fibres. The possibility of drawing hot glass into threads was recognized very early in the history of glassmaking and such threads were wound around vessels as a decoration, for example in ancient Egypt and in the Rhineland of the late Roman empire (see Glass). In the 18th century finer threads were prepared by drawing down a heat-softened glass rod and the next development was the mechanization of the drawing process, the fibre from the heat-softened rod being attached to the surface of a large revolving drum that replaced the "spinning wheel" of in this

—

eariier processes.

In 1908 G. von Pazsiczky replaced the rods chamber that had a series of holes

Jwith a refractory glass-melting

the bottom to provide drawing points. In 1929, in Germany, F. Rosengarth, together with the Hager 'brothers, developed a different method of production that de'pended on the application of centrifugal force. A stream of molten glass fell on a fire-clay disk, provided with radial serrations, ro-

lin I

475

fating rapidly about a vertical axis. The glass was whirled o£f tangentially to give a tangled mass of fibres, unfortunately with a number of unattenuated slugs of glass. Harford and Stafford in the

worked in the 1920s on a centrifugal process. Interest in the centrifugal principle has revived, a rotating vessel charged U.S. also

with molten glass being provided with nozzles around the periphery. In some patents the interior is put under pressure to help the extrusion of the fibres.

Modern Manufacturing Methods.—The Owens-Illinois Glass company began to conduct research into glass fibre production 1931 and in 1938 formed a new, independent glass fibre firm with the Corning Glass works, which had meanwhile embarked on a similar program. The new company, the Owens-Corning in

Fiberglas corporation, sponsored the work of development. In three large-scale production methods were developed and were

all,

used to produce the two basic types of glass fibres, "continuous" and "staple." 1. Glass Wool. The first Owens-Corning process was unlike the two older methods already mentioned and was developed by G. Slayter, J. H. Thomas and several others. Molten glass from a glass-tank forehearth passes to a "bushing" of precious

metal provided with a number of orifices in its base through which fine streams of glass drain downward. They pass between two mutually converging,

downward

directed, high-pressure jets of air or

steam and are attenuated by these turbulent high-velocity gases to much finer fibres (0.00035-0.00080 in. diameter) than were previously common. The fleecy mass of glass staples, mostly about 9 in. long, passes a spray of "binder" (a thermosetting resin), is caught on a conveyor belt and is compressed to a suitable density. It is then baked in order to set the binder. Blocks, blankets, boards, pipe insulation, cements and acoustic insulation are some

of its

many

uses.

Glass Textile Fibre. The other two processes give fibre suitable for use in textiles. Constancy of fibre diameter is important and, as the depth of glass affects the pressure at which the glass is forced through the bushing and hence the diameter of the resulting fibre, a constant level in the tank is achieved by feeding the glass automatically to the bushing as small marbles at a predetermined rate to balance the withdrawal of the material as fibre. The bushings again are of a precious metal (e.g., a platinum alloy) 2.

and are heated electrically. The fibre produced, called spun glass, may be either staple fibre or continuous fibre. The first of these is made by blast process very Uke that for glass wool except that the 9-1 2-in. -long fibres from the blast are collected on a drum and are drawn off as a sliver (a loose strand), which is passed through an eye and wound on a spool. This material can then be drafted, twisted and plied to form a yarn as in ordinary textile manufacture. It may also be made into the bonded mat used to make bituminous wrapping to protect pipes against corrosion or Exceedingly fine fibre is profor retainer plates in batteries. duced by feeding drawn, thin, glass rods continuously into converging high-velocity blasts of hot gas from two burners. This is claimed to give staple fibre as fine as 2-^ microns in diameter (U.S. patent 2,489,242, Nov. 22, 1949). 3. Continuous Fibre. This is drawn from bushings provided with 100-400 small orifices. The threads falling from these are gathered together and passed over a sizing pad onto a spool on a high-speed winder. The resulting fibre has a diameter of around 0.00022 in. so that a strand of 100 fibres is still too fine for ordinary weaving. Continuous filament has a silky lustrous appearance, while staple fibre has a mat, rough one due to the free

ends of the

many

fibres.

Properties of Glass Fibres.— Glass fibres have the characteristic properties of glass; that is, they are incombustible, inorganic, nonabsorbent, are not hygroscopic and chemically are quite stable. Their small diameter, however, results in an exceedingly large

surface area in relation to their volume (one glass marble J in. in diameter yields about 97 mi. of single filament). The surface

become of paramount importance and composihave to be adjusted to ensure that, for example, attack by weathering does not impair the performance of the fibres, particuFor this purpose a lariy of those used for electrical insulation. properties thus tions

.

from

glass substantially free

55%

PAPER—GLASTONBURY

GLASS

476 silica, 10'ing" to plastics when used as a reinforcement. Uses of Glass Fibres. Glass wool, either loose or prepared

1

associated with transfer picture production. A moistened mezzo-

hour per square foot per inch thickness per °F. is 0.27, changing at 9-12 lb. per cubic foot to 0.24 and rising thereafter as the density Conducti\'ity becomes less as fibre diameter decreases is increased. and becomes greater as the mean temperature rises. Woven material has higher thermal conductivity than the loosely packed electric insulation, e.g., in

Glass transfer pic-

vogue from about

when colour prints started to replace them and their quality deteriorated. Famous engravers, such as J. and J. R. Smith. J. Mc-

values as low as 4,000 for more massive glass. The thermal conductivity of glass wool depends upon the bulk lb. per cubic foot, its density to which it is compressed. Thus at natural density, the conductixaty (K) in British thermal units per

wool;

in

the glass

light, the lines of off,

on

does,

The

a

as

so

that,

exposed to the

is

the design print

photographic negative the

paper.

sensitized

resulting print

is

therefore

the nature of a photograph, which, in fact, it closely resemin

bles.

3^ 1

Corot was perhaps the most

successful

maker

of these cliches-

verres. B1BL10GR.APHY. H. G. Clarke, I'he Story of Old English Glass Pictures, 1690-1810 L. (1928) Loewenthal, Georgian Glass Piclures and Needlework Pictures For glass prints, see G. (1934). Hediard, "Les 'Precedes sur verres' "' in Gazette des Beaux-Arts, vol. XXX (Xov. I, 1903) L. H.

—

;

COURTESY OF THE HETROPOLITAR HUSEUH ART, HEW YORK

;

Peintre-graveur Ulustre, •WOMAN EMPTYING A PAIL." A (iqio) FRANgOIS J. A. Rose, GLASS PRINT BY JEAN "English Glass Pictures, or the .^rt MILLET (1814-75) of Painting Mezzotinto circa 16901790," Paper No. 113, Circle of Glass Collectors, London (1959). (J. A. Re.) Delteil,

vol. v. sec. iv

GLASSWORT,

,

;

a group of about a dozen species of leafless

seashore herbs belonging to the genus Salicornia of the goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae) They are annual or perennial, tender or (

1

I

1

|

.

hardy fleshy herbs that are native in salt marshes of North America, Europe and Asia. They and other members of the family, which grow in large quantities in the Mediterranean region, were formerly used in making soap and glass, as a large percentage of soda was jielded on burning them. The ashes of these plants were known to the trade as barQla, especially those from 5.

1

1

;

;

;

;

'

'

;

;

seq.); Glas-Email-Keramo-Technik Ceram. Res. Inst. (1954 et seq.).

et

;

(

;

&

(1950

et

seq.);

^(X.;

Cen.

M.

Glass

Pn.)

herbacea.

GLASTONBURY,

(J.

M.

Bl.)

market town and municipal borough of Somerset. Eng., Ues 6 mi. S.S.W. of Wells and 26 mi. S.W. of Bath by road. Pop. (1961) 5,602. The town lies on the slopes of a group of orchard-clad hills that rise abruptly from the level meadowland of the Brue valley and culminate in the Tor 522 ft.), a green conical height crowned by the tower of St. Michael's a

(

I

GLASTONBURY church (c. 1400). In the neighbourhood lake villages of the later Iron Age have been excavated. The Benedictine abbey of St. Mary {see below) was perhaps the oldest and certainly one of the richest in England. The chief buildings in the town, apart from the abbey ruins, are the churches of St. John the Baptist (c. 1470) and St. Benedict (c. 1520); the

George hotel, built by the abbey to house pilgrims (c. 1470) the Tribunal, the abbot's law court (ISth century); and the Abbey barn (14th century), a beautiful cruciform building still used as a ;

barn.

The town

hall

was

built in the early 19th century

and exabbot, Richard

tended in 1930. Sharpham park, where the last Whiting, was arrested in 1539 and where the novelist Henry Fielding was born in 1707, is now a farmhouse. The Lake Villages. The level meadowland running northwest

—

from Glastonbury toward the Bristol channel was once a peat bog with winding watercourses, reedy pools and oak, willow and alder thickets. In 1892 low mounds in a field 1^ mi. N. of Glastonbury were found to contain remains of dwelhngs of the prehistoric Iron Age; these were excavated between that date and 1907 by A. Bulleid and H. St. George Gray, who began work in 1908 on two groups of similar mounds at Meare, 3| mi. N.W. of Glastonbury. At the Glastonbury lake village the peat has a depth of 15 ft. A substructure of timber and brushwood was laid and held in position by sharpened piles driven down into the peat, and on this foundation a floor of clay was spread and a hut, usually circular, built with a hearth of baked clay; these floors tended to sink in the soft peat and new floors and hearths were laid over them. Some huts had only one floor, but one had as many as ten. At Meare some of the huts were built without the timber substructure, the peat being drier, and there are few traces of the postholes of circular huts, suggesting that many may have been of lighter construction. A few huts at Meare were built on a rectangular mortised framework, and fragments of similar timbers at Glastonbury suggest that rectangular huts preceded the round ones. The Glastonbury village was surrounded by a timber palisade, a feature not found at Meare. The types of pottery found indicate occupation from about 60 B.C. At Glastonbury the village ended, possibly w-ith a massacre, a few years before the Romans came; at Meare the village continued a few years longer and part of the site was reoccupied in the 4th century. Otherwise the pottery types found are similar in the lower and higher levels and in the Glastonbury and Meare villages.

The discovery of parts of wooden looms, loom weights and many weaving combs and spindle whorls show that cloth was manufactured and that the people were skilled workers in wood; their cutting tools were of iron. Many bronze objects were found, fibulae (of the

!

La Tene

III type), finger rings, brooches, harness parts

bowl of excellent design ornamented with rounded rivets. The discovery of similar rivets, crucibles and slag show that this bowl was actually made in the village. Wheat, barley, peas and beans were grown and cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and dogs kept. Dugout canoes have been found and a broken axle shows that wheeled carts were used. Their trade goods included amber from the Baltic, jet from Whitby, Kimmeridge Shale for bracelets from Dorset and tin from Cornwall, Pottery of the same types has been found in Wookey Hole cave and in excavating Pouters Ball, an earthwork protecting the high land at Glastonbury from the east. Several timber causeways and, at Glastonbury, a

I

,

I

i

!

1

'

'

similar in construction to the subThe objects from the Glastonbury village are exhibited in the Glastonbury museum, now in the crossing the peat

marsh are

structure of the lake village huts.

Tribunal, and those from

Meare

at

Taunton.

—

The Benedictine Abbey of St. Mary. William of Malmesbury wrote his De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae between the years 1125 and 1130, when he was staying at the abbey, basing his

work on the documents and other evidence that he was able His book has been added to by later Glastonbury

to study there.

writers, but the original sections

can be distinguished.

He

says

good authority" state that the old church of the Blessed Virgin was built by missionaries sent from Rome at the request of King Lucius, a legendary hero reputed to be the first that "annals of

477

Christian king in Britain, in a.d. 166; he would not commit himself to earlier stories of which he was aware. This church built of limber and wattles, and later enclosed in wood, was still in existence when William wrote; on either side of the altar were the tombs of St. Patrick and St. Indract. Other places claim the tomb of St. Patrick, but there is no doubt that there was a Celtic monastery with strong Irish associations at Glastonbury before the time of the Sa.xon conquest. Excavations between 1951 and 1959, under

the direction of C. A. Ralegh Radford, have shown that there was Roman settlement, presumably a villa, on the site of the abbey from the 1st to the 3rd century a.d. Almost certainly pre-Saxon

a

bank and ditch that may have surrounded the monastery and, to the south of St. Mary's chapel, an extensive burial ground that once contained little timber and wattle buildings, probably chapels. At Beckery, on a little island 1 mi. W. of the town, excavations in 1891 proved the existence of a chapel of St. Bridget, standing in a Christian burial ground in use before the chapel was built; the name Beckery is Irish, meaning "Little are traces of a great

Ireland."

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that Ine, king of Wessex from 688 to 726, founded the abbey of Glastonbury. Apart from the evidence of a Celtic monastery on the site, the charters that William of Malmesbury was able to study confirm an earlier date than Ine. In 678 King Centwine granted the Island of Glastonbury to Hemgisl the abbot, free of all service, with six hides, and in 681 Baldred gave Hemgisl six hides on Pennard hill. These two grants madd up Glaston XII hides, the manor and hundred in which later abbots established wide privileges. None of the early charters granting land to the abbey has survived in the original, and many are only known in much altered copies of the 13th century or later; nevertheless they tell a consistent story; no later grant of Glastonbury itself to the abbey is recorded. Ine is said by William of Malmesbury to have built the church of St. Peter and St. Paul as an appendix to the old church. Excavations carried out between 1927 and 1929 by C. R. Peers and A. W. Clapham revealed the foundations of Ine's church and its later enlargements beneath the west end of the 13th-century nave. The proportions of the aisled plan correspond with churches at Canterbury, Rochester and Reculver built a few years earlier. At some date before the time of St. Dunstan (909-988) a narthex or porch was built joining Ine's church to the old church of St. Mary. Dunstan was made abbot of Glastonbury by King Edmund about 943 and was chief minister of state under Edred; exiled in 955 by Edwig, he returned to power as archbishop of Canterbury under He extended Ine's church eastward with a tower and Edgar. chapels. The importance of the abbey at this time was shown by the burial there of three kings,

and

Edmund

As

Edmund

the Magnificent, Edgar

Ironside.

Norman conquest, Glastonbury abbey lost Domesday Book shows that it remained one of

a result of the

several estates, but

the wealthiest churches in the country, holding rich Somerset, Wiltshire, Dorset, Gloucestershire and

manors

in

Berkshire.

Turstin (1078-1100), the first Norman abbot, was active in recovering lost properties and began rebuilding the church of St. Peter and St, Paul, but he fell foul of the monks, who refused to change their Gregorian chant in favour of new music attributed to Abbot William of Fecamp. Turstin called in archers who shot

arrows from an upper gallery at monks clustered round the altar, The long and vivid account in the kilhng 3 and wounding 18. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the year 1083 shows how deeply the English resented this incident. Herlewin (1101-20) pulled down Turstin's partly built church and began afresh on a grander scale, but in 1184 a disastrous fire destroyed his church (molten lead from the roof was found between its reddened paving stones). With it were burned most of the monastic buildings, whatever was of St. Mary. left of the Saxon church and the wattle church King Henry II appointed Robert Fitz Stephen to rebuild the abbey and a new chapel of St. Mary, of the same dimensions as Bishop Reginald the old church and on its site, was dedicated by archaic style of Bath in 1186. The contrast between the rich but interlaced arcadof this building, with roundheaded windows and then in progress at Wells, with ing, with Bishop Reginald's work

|

GLATIGNY— GLAUBER

478

may have been due to the venerable replaced. The rebuilding of the church

pointed arches, the church

and

St.

it

Romanesque

and romances connecting Arthur and Glastonbury are

of St. Peter

written.

a Gothic style that retained some and in particular the free use of the

Paul on a vast scale,

features of

antiquity of

in

completed. chevron ornament, began before St. Mary's chapel was in the Savaric. an able and ambitious cleric who took part with the negotiations for the ransom of Richard I, was rewarded abbacy bishopric of Bath, to which was joined by papal edict the In 1193 Savaric became bishop of Bath and of Glastonbury.

Glastonbury; the monks refused obedience, and a costly struggle succontinued with varying fortunes. In 1205 Jocelin Joscelinej settleceeded him as bishop of Bath and Glastonbury and made a ment with the monks in 1218; four manors were surrendered to Buildthe bishop, and the monks were allowed to choose an abbot. and St. ing was resumed 20 years later, but the church of St. Peter (

Paul was not completed for another 80 years. The galilee. linking the the nave with St. Mary's chapel, was built before the end of 13th century in a mature Early English style. Abbot Monington 1342-74 extended the choir, built the retrochoir, using the chevron ornament over the windows to harmonize with the earlier work, and refaced the interior of the choir with (

paneling

in

stone (as at Gloucester, 1337-40).

Abbot Richard

meadows. In 1550 the duke of Somerset installed a party of French and Flemish weavers in the abbey buildings, but as Protestant refugees they were forced to leave the country on Mary's accession. Her

government considered restoring the monastery, but the difficulties were too great. From that time the abbey was used as a quarry for building and road stone; the beautiful ruins of St. Mary's chapel remain, with enough of the galilee and of the choir, nave and transepts of the church of St. Peter and St. Paul to give some idea of the whole.

Since 1909 the abbey has been the property

Church of England. of

Malmesbury, who was

aware of Glastonbury records and traditions as they were

known

in

1135, refers to the

many

fanciful tales told of

King

Arthur and adds that his burial place is unknown. His contemporary. Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his romantic Historia Regum

many victories. After the last he Avalon iq.v.), the "Island of the Blest" of Celtic tradition, to cure his wounds. In 1191 a grave said to be that of Arthur and Guinevere his queen was discovered between two pyramids in the cemetery at Glastonbury; the bones were reinterred in the great church before the altar in the presence of Edward I. From that time the Isle of Avalon has been identified with Glastonbury Brilanniae, describes Arthur's retired to

—

The saint was supposed to have St. Joseph of Arimathea. brought the chalice of the Last Supper or, according to another traGrail, The dition, phials holding blood of the Crucifixion (see HoLVj. The earliest mention of the medieval legend that St, Joseph iq.v.) of Arimathea came to Glastonbury is in a mid-13thcentury addition to William of Malmesbury's book. The story was fully told before the end of that century by John of Glastonbury, who quoted from a book called the Holy Grail. The monks, however, ignored the Grail legend but claimed possession of St, Joseph's cruet. The story connecting the Grail with Chalice well or the "blood spring," whose waters gave Glastonbury a brief period of fame as a spa after 1751, seems to have originated early Chalice well (the name is derived from in the 19th century. is in a garden, now in trust, in a valley below the shrine in the crypt of St. Mary's chapel, which itself came to be known as St. Joseph's, was a place of pilgrimage where miracles are said to have occurred in the early 16th century. The

"Chalk"-well)

A

Tor.

Glastonbury thorn (Crataegus monogyna praecox), reputed to have blossomed miraculously at Christmas, is first mentioned in a poem of 1502; later a legend asserted that it sprang from the It is probably a perpetual sport from the staff of St. Joseph. common thorn obtained by grafting; trees raised from its seeds The original thorn supposedly grew on Wyrral revert to type. (Wearj'all) hill outside the town; a stone marks the spot. The Town. The name of Glastonbury has been the subject of speculation from Saxon times. A. G. C. Turner rejects previous theories and derives the name from Old Cornish glastann, "an oak." The dissolution of the abbey left the town with few resources other than agriculture, a weekly market and an annual fair. Some stocking making and w'orsted and silk spinning struggled on into the 19th century. Then the improved drainage and enclosure of The borough was inthe common moors increased prosperity. corporated in 1705. The chief local industries, apart from dairy farming, are dressing and dyeing wooled sheepskins and the manufacture of sheepskin rugs and gloves and of sheepskin-lined boots

I

\

—

,

and slippers. Bibliography.— Thomas Hearne {tA.),Adami de Domerham

Historia 2 vol. (1727, which includes William rebus gestis Glastoniensibus of Malmesbury's De Antiquilate Glastoniensis Ecdesiae), Johannis 2 vol. (1726); R. confratris el monachi Glastoniensis chronica Warner, An History of the Abbey of Glaslon and of the Town of Glastonbury (1826) R. Willis, The Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey (1866) W.Stubbs (ed.) Memorials of St. Dunstan (1874) A. Bulleid and H. St. T. S. Holmes, Wells and Glastonbury (1908) 2 vol. (1911, 1917), George Gray, The Glastonbury Lake Village The Meare Lake Village (1948, 1955) J. A. Robinson, "William of Malmesbury 'On the Antiquity of Glastonbury'," in Somerset Historical Essays (1921), Two Glastonbury Legends (1926); F. Bligh Bond, An Architectural Handbook of Glastonbury Abbey (1926) Reports of excavations, etc., in the Proceedings of the Somersetshire Archaeological (S. C. Md.) and Natural History Society (1S92, 1908, 1926). .

.

.

,

.

.

.

,

;

,

;

;

;

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

;

;

GLATIGNY,

JOSEPH

ALBERT ALEXANDRE

(1839-1873), French minor poet of the Parnassian school, whose adventures as journalist, playwright and strolling actor earned him a legendary reputation, was born at Lillebonne (Seine-Inferieure), May 21, 1839. He was apprenticed to a printer, but, inspired by reading Theodore de Danville's Odes junambulesques began to write poetry. Verses written in 1857 were published as Les Vignes folks in 1860; later collections included Les Fitches d'or (1864) ,

Specializing in little poems of sacurrent affairs and personalities, he became a regular contributor to Le Rappel. For a time he exploited his talent for extempore composition by giving public recitals and then

and

Gilles et Pasquins (1872).

tirical

King Arthur and Avalon.—William fully

being

i

Here (1493-1525) built the Edgar chapel east of the retrochoir, and hollowed out a crypt under St. Mary's chapel and part of the galilee. probably to provide a shrine for St. Joseph of Arimathea; in so doing the floor of the chapel was raised. Excavations south of the nave have revealed the foundations of the later monastic buildings and traces of buildings that preceded them, forming parts of the Saxon and Xorman monasteries. The di-scovery of small glass furnaces of the 9th or 10th centuries shows a considerable glass industry in the monastery of that period. The abbot's lodging was pulled down in the 18th century, but the abbot's kitchen stands. Probably early 14th century, but based on the design of the Romanesque kitchen at Fontevrault-l'Abbaye in .\njou. W. France, it is square in plan with huge corner fireplaces making the square an octagon; the stone roof rises to a central louvered octagon containing a ventilating shaft. Richard Whiting (abbot from 1525 till 1539) signed with his monks the declaration of royal supremacy in 1534. In 1539, however, he refused to surrender the abbey and was arrested and convicted of treason on a trumped-up charge of concealing the abbey treasure. He was executed on Tor hill with two monks; the abbey was forfeited to the king. The annual value of the abbey estates in 1539 was £4,228. A comparison between the values in Domesday Book and in 1539 shows the extent to which the abbey had improved land drainage near Glastonbury. A process which began with straightening and deepening watercourses led to the deposit of flood soil over new areas and the conversion of peat bogs and alder thickets into rich

of the

still

comment on

joined a traveling

company

of actors with

whom

he went

to

There a misunderstanding with the police led to temporary imprisonment: he used his experiences in a one-act comedy in verse, L'illustre Brizacier (1873) the hero, a disillusioned actor,j is a self-portrait. Other plays were La Singe and Les Folics-, Corsica.

;

Marigny (both 1872).

|

Glatigny died at Sevres, April 16, 1873. His life formed the subject of a book and a play, Glatigny, drame funambulesque (R. Dl. (1906), by Catulle Mendes. )

GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF

(1604-1668), German;

—

GLAUCHAU—GLAZING who because of his wide knowledge is sometimes called the German Boyle (father of chemistry). Born at Karlstadt, Bavaria, he settled in Holland, where he made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations. Though chemist,

his writings

abound

alchemists, he edge.

He

universal solvents and other devices of the real contributions to chemical knowl-

in

made many

clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric acid

by the action of sulfuric acid on common salt; he pointed out the manifold virtues of the residue, sodium sulfate sal mirabile, Glauber's salt; and he noticed that nitric acid was formed when potassium nitrate was substituted for common salt. He prepared

many

substances, including salts of lead,

antimony and

tin, iron, zinc,

copper,

arsenic.

He also made a number of useful observations on dyeing and gave a clear description of the preparation of tartar emetic (antimony potassium tartrate). One of his most notable works was his Teutschlands Woljarlli in which he urged that the natural resources of Germany should be develo[5ed for the profit of the country, giving various instances of how this might be done. He died in Amsterdam on March 10, 1668. His more important works are contained in Opera omnia, which was reissued under the title (R. E. O.) Glauberus concentratus in 1715.

GLAUCHAU,

town of Germany that, after partition of World War II, became a regional capital in the Bezirk of Karl-Marx-Stadt, German Democratic Republic. Pop, (1961 est.) 33,361. The town is about 19 mi. W. of Karla

the nation following

Marx-Stadt (Chemnitz) on the Zwickauer Mulde. It is a railway junction and adjoins the industrial town of Meerane; it has many textile plants and machinery factories. North of the town, near Callenberg, are extensive deposits of nickel, the exploitation of

which has been undertaken; the building of a nickel foundry southeast of Glauchau, near St, Egidien, was begun in 1955. The remains of a 12th-century castle are to be seen in Glauchau. see Eye, Human; Diseases of the Eye; Surgery of the Eye.

GLAUCOMA:

GLAUCONITE

is

a green, fine-grained crystalline mineral,

hydrous silicate of iron and potassium found in marine sedimentary rocks of all geologic ages since the Pre-Cambrian, and Glauconite occurs commonly as still in process of formation. a

green grains or pellets a millimetre It may also occur as irregular grains or flakes, or as clay. It may be confused with the minerals Some glauconite chamosite, celadonite, chlorite and greenalite. has natural bleaching qualities and can be used as a fuller's earth (q.v.) and glauconite marls, because of their base-exchange proplobate bright

globular

to

(0.03937

in.) or less in

erties,

diameter.

water-softening units (see Marl). composed of clay minerals and the name has been

have been used

in

Glauconite is used interchangeably both as a mineralogic and a morphologic term. It has been defined as a specific micaceous mineral, although it is commonly described as small green pellets of heterogeneous

forms in waters of normal salinity on contiand banks off coasts of crystalline land areas that lack important rivers. It is not known to form in fresh water deposits. The formation takes place principally in the upper part The temperature range of jof the 10- to 400-fathom interval. formation is apparently wide but markedly warm water is not mineral content.

It

nental shelves, swells

Very slow or interrupted sedimentation in more or agitated water, and at least slightly reducing conditions, which may be facilitated by decaying organic matter, are conducive to favourable.

'

less I

\

glauconite formation. Source materials are principally bottom jmuds and clays of terrigenous origin, although biotite, feldspars, Under the volcanic glass and other materials may contribute.

'

inecessary physiochemical environmental conditions, glauconitizajtion occurs as a marine alteration of terrigenous matter to glauconite.

'occur,

Formation of glauconite from a colloidal state may also as this process tends toward the same crystallochemical

equilibrium as that obtained in the alteration of clay. Common (coagulation of all these amorphous and cryptocrystalline products 'with selective absorption of potassium from the sea water leads to the formation of grains of glauconite, Glauconite grains are common in calcareous sediments but rare in pure clay rocks, pure quartz sandstones or chemically precipii

479

Glauconite is commonly found associated with remains of fecal pellets of sediment-ingesting organisms or as tated carbonates.

internal fillings of foraminifera.

It is rare

or absent in beds rich

in algae, corals or bryozoans.

Sediments rich

in

glauconite grains are

iq-v.).

GLAUCOPHANE,

a

known

as greensand

(H. D. G,) group of rock-forming minerals con-

sodium am[)hiboles (see Ami'Hibule). The glaucophane group have all the characteristics of the rest of the amphiboles but are distinguished by their distinct blue colour, sisting of the iron-free

especially in thin slices.

Glaucophane occurs exclusively in certain metamorphic schists. These schists present a problem in petrology. They contain sodium-rich amphiboles which form in a rock not especially enriched in sodium. In short, the sodium is present in the amphiboles rather than in the plagioclase feldspars where it is usually concentrated see Feldspar). Because of this peculiarity and because they are dense rocks and associated with other dense minerals, glaucophane schists have been thought to represent high pressure mineral assemblages. Other workers have shown that localized introduction of sodium, magnesium and iron into sedimentary rocks has caused the formation of glaucophane without the presence of relatively high pressures. Thus, glaucophane schists might form at high pressures and, on the other hand, might represent a peculiar sequence of sodium introduction into pre-existing mineral assemblages, Glaucophane schist is used by some writers as a separate metamorphic facies. Glaucophane schists are widely disi

tributed over the coast range of California but are unusual else-

where

in the

United States. of the glaucophane group vary

The members from

Na.,Mg,AI.,Si,KO.j.(OH).

to

in

composition

Na:iMg3Al2Si80220(OH)

NaXaMg:,ALSi„0.20o. See also Metamorphism.

(G.

to

W. DeV.)

GLAUCUS

("gleaming") is the name of several figures in Greek mythology, the most important of whom are the following; surnamed Pontius, a sea divinity. Originally a 1. Glaucus, fisherman and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, he ate a certain magical herb and leaped into the sea, where he was changed into a god and endowed with the gift of prophecy. Another story makes him spring into the sea for love of the sea god Melicertes, with he was often identified. He was worshiped in most parts of the Greek world by fishermen and sailors. In art he is depicted as a merman covered with shells and seaweed. 2. Glaucus, of Potniae near Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon, According to one legend he fed his

whom

mares on human

flesh

and was torn to pieces by them,

Glaucus, the son of the Cretan king Minos and his wife When a child, he fell into a jar of honey and was Pasiphae. smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest comparison for one of his cows, which had the power of assuming three different colours. The seer Polyidus likened it to a mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to black, Polyidus soon discovered the child, but on con3.

him to life was shut up in a vault There he killed a serpent and. seeing it revived by a companion which laid a certain herb upon it, brought the dead Glaucus back to life with the same herb. of Bellerophon. and 4. Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, grandson He was a Lycian above. Potniae, of Glaucus of great-grandson Priam in the prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Trojan War, When he found himself opposed to Diomedes. his Since guest-friend, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. that of Diomedes bronze. the equipment of Glaucus was golden and fessing his inability to restore

with the corpse.

the expression "gold for bronze" proverbially for a bad exchange. See Larousse Encyclopaedia of

(

Iliad, vi,

236) came to be used

Mythology (1959).

GLAZE: see Glazing; Pottery and Porcelain. GLAZING. In its simplest context, glazing means

the fitting

to form a window of panes of glass into suitable frames in order and up which will admit light into a building. In the middle ages

to the end of the 17th century this

meant the use of leaded

lights.

GLAZUNOV

480

strips small areas of glass fastened together with specially formed wrought iron. of lead ("calms") and held in a frame of wood or From the end of the 17th century until the end of the igth centur>' making of this principle was followed, but developing skill in the the panes large sheets of glass saw a gradual increase in the size of and window areas, while the leaded light was replaced by sashes

wood in which the glass was held with wood beads or putty. a Until the end of the 19th century the architectural conception of window was that of a comparatively small area of glazing placed of dayin a thick load-bearing wall and restricted to the provision buildings in light in a building, but the development of cast-iron the 19th century and the extensive use of steel and reinforced of

concrete framing in the 20th century considerably altered this. In framed structures the loads of floors and roof are concentrated on to comparatively slender columns, thus leawng large areas of walling which can as well be filled by glazing as by the more traditional materials such as brick or stone. Further technical develop-

provided the means to fill these large not only concerned with the transmission of light into a building but can also provide the whole external

ment

in the glass industry

areas, so that glazing

surface.

is

—

heat without reducing unduly the light transmission, is used in the glazing of schools, offices and airport control towers and where unusual climatic conditions make it especially suitable. An amber tinted antifly glass is an effective deterrent against houseflies and therefore used for glazing the windows of buildings storing or manufacturing food. Special Problems. The design tendency for the elimination of the load-bearing wall in favour of a framed construction and the

is

—

introduction of ever-larger window areas presents some special The highest standards of heat insulation are demanded in modern buildings to save both in cost of heating and

glazing problems. in actual fuel

consumption, but large areas of thin sheet or plate

glass cannot satisfy these conditions because large

windows mean

high heat loss and consequent problems such as excessive condensation. The solution is the use of double glazing, in which two sheets of glass are fixed instead of one so that there is a confined space between them. This may be done either by fixing the two sheets of glass in one frame or by ha\ang each in a separate frame. The use of two windows in double glazing has been practised for many years particularly to improve sound insulation, but it is cumbersome and expensive. However, manufacturers are now of-

Method. The normal process of glazing small windows into wooden or metal frames has changed little. The tools generally used are the diamond for cutting, laths or straightedges and T square for accurate measurement and setting out, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer. The materials used in addition to the

fering factory-made double glazed window units, simply fixed into a single frame, which consist of two sheets of glass separated by a suitable spacer at the edges, usually metal or plastic strip. This unit is hermetically sealed against the external atmosphere, the

glass are putty, priming or paint, glaziers' sprigs (small headless Putty is made of nails), wash leather or synthetic rubber strip.

ment has shown

whiting and linseed oil and it should be stored so that it is kept moist and workable. Wood sashes must be primed before glazing, this eni.e., given a thin coat of paint usually containing red lead ables the putty to adhere to the sash. When each square of glass is cut to size, allowing about -^ in. tolerance all round, the glazier with his hands runs the putty round the rebate in the frame into which the glass is to fit, pressing it firmly against the wood. He then beds the glass into it by pressing it down firmly on all the ;

edges and the glass is further secured by the glaziers' sprigs, knocked in on the rebate side. He then trims off the protruding putty and fills the remainder of the rebate, beveling it off on the outside of the sash with the putty knife. When a broken pane is to be replaced the hacking knife is employed to cut out the old

putty and remaining broken glass. Metal sashes are glazed in a similar way, although the putty used is usually modified by the addition of a dr>'er to enable it to set satisfactorily, as there is no absorption of the oil by a metal sash. Proprietary glazing com-

pounds are manufactured for this purpose also and some sashes incorporate spring clips and other devices for securing the glass. In glazed doors and sashes used internally the panes of glass are generally fixed with

wood

beads, held in place with screws.

In

doors subject to vibration or slamming the panels are usually bedded in wash leather or synthetic rubber strip and secured by

wood beads. Types of Glass. glass

—For

all

common

glazing in small sizes sheet

and thicknesses and in sizes depending on the thickness up to 80-100 in., length and width combined. For larger areas and for work where a high is

used.

It is available in several qualities

degree of transparency is required, polished plate glass is used. This can be supplied in very large sizes, but the practicable size for any particular job is governed more by problems of cutting, transporting and fixing than by manufacturing difficulties.

For work requiring specially strong glass, armour plate is used. is specially toughened by heat treatment after cutting to size and is therefore supplied by the manufacturers ready for fixing and must not be subsequently cut. Where resistance to fire or danger of breaking makes ordinary glass a po-

This glass

tential hazard, wired glass

is

used.

A

wire

mesh

is

rolled into the

glass during

manufacture and even if large areas are shattered the glass adheres to the wire and is not broadcast. This makes it suitable for roof glazing and skylights, where generally the building regulations

make

to refract light,

shadowed

its

use obligatory.

Prismatic glass, designed

of use in increasing the light to rooms overby adjacent buildings. Antisun glass, which absorbs is

ca\aty being filled with clean dry air at the time of sealing. Experithat an interspace of i in. gives the best insulation

but that an efficiency of 90% can be obtained if the space is as The smaller spacing is therefore generally used as little as i in. the resulting unit

is

more

easily

accommodated

in a sash of

normal

dimensions. The operation of assembly and sealing calls for skill and accuracy, so that such units made under factory conditions are relatively expensive, but the extra cost is soon offset by the saving in fuel consumption and there are a number of additional advantages such as the fact that condensation is eliminated, there is no "misting'' of the glass and there is a significant reduction in

sound transmission.

Where buildings,

large areas are to be lighted, particularly in industrial it is usually necessary to provide areas of glazing in

the roofs. Although it is not easy to measure the relative amount of light obtained from a unit of roof glazing as compared with the sam.e area in a vertical plane, it is probably as much as three times.

Almost called,

roof glazing, or patent glazing as

all is

of special design

wide range of

tj'pes

usually of steel or fixing clips

it

is

more

and patent manufacture.

usually

There

is

a

but basically the systems consist of a bar,

aluminum

of special section

on the upper part

which incorporates and condensation

to hold the glass

channels at the bottom.

Steel bars are usually covered with a thin

lead sheathing to protect mally placed at about 2

ft.

them against rusting. The bars are norcentres and spans up to about 10 ft.

can be obtained without extra support. Special devices are incorporated in each design to ensure that the roof remains watertight in spite of widely varying atmospheric conditions and most systems can be fixed at any desired angle.

—

Bibliography. Raymond McGrath and A. C. Frost, Glass in Architecture and Decoration (1937) J, E. Gloag, The Place oj Glass in Building (1943) E. Molloy, Windows and Window Glazing (1943)(A. Rd.) ;

;

GLAZUNOV, ALEKSANDR KONSTANTINOVICH (1865-1936), the chief Russian symphonic composer of the generation after Tchaikovsky, was born at St. Petersburg on Aug. 10, 1865. His family had been book publishers for three generations. His mother, a piano pupil of Balakirev, took her obviously talented son to her teacher who nicknamed him "the little Glinka" and This began| advised a course of study with Rimski-Korsakov. 1880 and the following year the boy wrote his First Symphony, which was publicly performed by Balakirev early in 1882; it was, however, revised several times before the millionaire timber merchant M. P, Belyaev printed it in 1886 and thus began Belyaev's famous music-publishing firm, which Glazunov later helped to direct. By that time Glazunov had also written two string quartets, two overtures on Greek folk tunes and the symphonic poem Stenka in

j

—

GLEBE— GLENCOE In 1886 he finished his Second Symphony. At this period he was the recognized heir of the great nationalist group and naturally composed in their styles; he also absorbed the influence of Razin.

whom he visited at Weimar in 1884. But other influences, notably Wagner's and Tchaikovsky's, later made themselves felt and Glazunov's music gradually deteriorated into a weak, though pleasant, eclecticism. Most of his best works the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies and his ballets, Raymonda, Ruses d'amour and Les Saisons date from the 1890s. He finished his last complete symphony, the Eighth, in 1906 just after he had become diLiszt,

—

—

rector of the St. Petersburg conservatory, where he had been Glazunov, who became professor of orchestration since 1899. more and more involved in teaching and administration, wrote few

works after 1906; two piano concertos (1911 and 1917 ), two string quartets (1920 and 1930) and a Concerto-Ballata for After the Revolution Glazunov recello and orchestra (1931). mained at his post until the summer of 1928, when, feeling completely isolated, he left Russia. After an unsuccessful concert tour in America in the winter of 1929-30 he made his home in Paris, where he died on March 21, 1936. large-scale

See

M.

O. Yankovski pisma,

rialy, pitblikatsii,

Glazunov: Pisma,

statii,

A. K. Glazunov: Issledovaniya, mate(1959-60) M. A. Ganina (ed.), A. K. vospominaniya (1958). (G. Ab.) et al.,

2 vol.

;

EngHsh and Scots ecclesiastical law, is the land GLEBE, forming part of the endowment of an ecclesiastical benefice, excluding the parsonage and its grounds; house and glebe together form the manse. The freehold of the glebe is vested in the inin

cumbent as a corporation sole for the benefit of himself and his successors in office, and he may make such use of the glebe as The is consistent with its due preservation for his successors. Ecclesiastical Leases act, 1571,

made void

all

leases of the glebe

except leases for 21 years or three lives. Subject to certain consents and restrictions, the Ecclesiastical Leases act, 1842, and the Ecclesiastical Leasing acts, 1842 and 1858, authorize farm-

14 years, improving leases for 20 years, mining 60 years and building leases for 99 years. Other acts, including the Glebe Lands act, 1858, confer powers of sale, exchange and other disposition of glebe lands, subject to various safeguards. In Scotland, the manse now signifies only the minister's dwelling house, and not the glebe, which is land to which he ing leases for leases for

is

entitled in addition to his stipend.

Sir See H. W. Cripps, Law of Church and Clergy, 8th ed. (1937) R. J Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England, 2nd ed. (R. E. My.) ^(1895).

481

maintained their popularitv into the 20th centurv.

GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG

(J- A.

Wh.)

(1719-1803), German poet, famous for the Preussisclie Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (1758), inspired by the campaigns of Frederick the Great, although Gleim took no active part in these. His poems are patriotic in the folk style. His Versuch in Schcrzhajten Gedichten (1744), light rhymeless verse in praise of wine and love in anacreontic style, also show his gift for versifying experience of which he had no personal knowledge. He was born on April 2, 1719, at Ermsleben, Prussia, and after studying law at Halle, where he formed one of the Anacreontik group, he was successively secretary to Prince William of Brandenburg-Schwedt, to Prince Leopold of Dessau and to the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt (1747), He corresponded with most of the poets of his time and his generosity to young writers won him the name of "Father Gleim." He died at Halberstadt, Prussia, on Feb. 18, 1803. BiBLiOGR.APHV. SdinlUche Werke, 8 vol. (1811-41); Kriegslieder, by A. Sauer in Deutsche Uterarische Denkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderls, vol. 4 (1882) G. Becker, Gleim und seine Freunde (1019). ed.

.

;

GLENALMOND,

.

.

a glen of Perthshire, Scot., southeast of

Loch Tay, comprises the upper two-thirds of the course of the Almond, a distance of 20 mi. For the greater part it follows a direction east by south, but at Newton bridge it inclines sharply and narrows to such a degree that this Sma') glen. At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs eastward as far as Trinity college. This well-known public school, the first in Scotland to follow the English model, is 4^ mi. N.W. of the village of Methven and was opened in 1847. In Sma'glen is Ossian's stone, the traditional grave of Ossian, the Gaelic warrior and bard. to the southeast for 3 mi.,

portion

is

known

as the Small (or

GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF.

The

1st eari of

Glencairn

in

the

was Alexander Cunningham (d. 1488), a son of Sir Robert Cunningham of Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord of the Scottish parliament as Lord Kilmaurs in 1463 or 1464, Cunningham was created earl ef Glencairn in 1488. A few weeks later he was killed at the battle of Sauchieburn while fighting for King James III against his rebellious son, afterward James IV. Alexander's son and successor, Robert (d. before 1492), was deprived of his earldom by James IV, but in 1503 this was revived in favour of Robert's son, Cuthbert (d. c. 1540), 2nd earl. Cuthbert's son Scottish peerage

William

(c.

1490-c. 1547), 3rd earl, an early adherent of the Ref-

;

GLEE, a form of vocal composition for three or more solo male voices, including a countertenor. The glee proper consists of a number of short sections of contrasting character, each expressing a different mood and each ending in a full close. The style is genThe poems set are erally homophonic rather than contrapuntal. varied in character and often of a high standard. The term glee is sometimes loosely applied to various forms of vocal composition of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries that do not conform to these characteristics; for example, the two-part drinking songs in John Playford's collection Musical Companion (1672) and some part songs with instrumental accompaniment composed by Sir Henry Bishop (1786-1855) were published as "glees." The word itself is derived from the O.E. gliw or gleo, which simply means "music." The glee is a purely English form and together with the catch made up the greater part of the repertory of the glee clubs that once played an important part in English musical life. The most famous of these was the Glee club that functioned from 1783 to 1857; the Noblemen and Gentlemen's

j

!

:

\

1

Catch club, founded in 1761, is still in existence; so also is the City !G!ee club (1853). There are many glee clubs in universities in the United States, but in this connection the term is generally ;

jused for a 1

'

male choral

society.

The best period of glee writing was roughly between 1 740 and 1830, some compositions reaching high standards of musical excellence. Among these, "Glorious Apollo" by S. Webbe the elder

;(1740-1S16), "Hail Smiling Morn" by R. Spofforth (1770-1827), '"Music All-Powerful" by T. F. Walmisley (1783-1866), "Bacchus, Great Bacchus" by C. S. Evans (1778-1849) and many others have

ormation, during his public life was frequently in the pay and service of England. William's son Alexander (d. 1574), 4th eari, was a more pronounced reformer than his father, whose English sympathies he He shared, and was among the intimate friends of John Knox. anticipated Lord James Stewart, afterward the regent Moray, in taking up anns (with 2,500 men against the regent. Mary of Guise, )

in 1558.

Stuart returned to Scotland in Aug. 1561, a member of her council; he changed sides

When Mary

Glencairn was

made

more than once and was found fighting against Mary at Carberry The eari, who was a violent iconoclast, died hill and at Langside. poem against the Grey Friars was satirical short His in 1574. printed by

James

Knox

(d.

c.

1

History of the Reformation. 6th earl, took part in the seizure of

in his

63

H

,

James VI,

(c. 1610-64), 8th called the raid of Ruthven. in 1582. William royalist during the Civil War. earl, was a somewhat lukewarm royalist forces Charles II gave him temporary command of the insurrection that followed in Scotland in March 1653, and the (1653_54) is generally known as Glencaim's rising. After its failmade his peace with Gen. George Monck but his estates were

ure he

At the Restoration he became lord chancellor of ScotHe died at Belton. Haddingtonshire, on May 30, 1664. The land (1750-96), 14th earidom became dormant on the death of John (P. G. B. McN.) earl. confiscated.

GLENCOE, river

a glen in the norih of Argyll. Scot., contains the

Coe or Cona,

traditionally associated with Ossian, legendary

derived from the Gaelic warrior and bard. Its name is probably relatively low valGaelic gleann-cumbann, "narrow glen." From a at 1 ,01 1 ft. the glen runs eastley watershed and pass to Glen Etive

west for about

5 mi.,

straight-sided, with steep walls, heavily glaci-

GLENDALE—GLENDOWER

482

andesite ated and about i mi. wide, amid glowering dark hills of as a rather lavas, rising to 3,000 ft. or more; it then turns northwest sea in broader glen amid softer hills and the river Coe enters the

Invercoe near the slate-quarrying town of Ballainclude on the south side Buachaille Etive, ft. i, Meall Mor and Sgorr Dhearg (south(3,766 Bidean-nam-Bian

Loch Leven chulish.

at

The summits

Glencoe west of Ballachulish while to the north are the Pap of (only 2,430 ft. but a striking landmark) and the ridge of Aonach )

Eagach across the eastern end of which the Devil's

Staircase, a

Leven and

steep bouLder-strewn path, strikes north for the river Fort William. Ossian's cave, by tradition his birthplace, is near Loch Triochatan midway along the glen. A motor road follows the

ahnost without permanent human habitation. A few on green patches in the valley bottom, grazed by sheep fed mostly land the rough pasture round, may mark what was once the arable glen, but

it is

of clansmen's townships.

A Celtic

cross erected

by

a

Macdonald

in

1884 recalls the tragedy of Feb. 13, 1692, when anti-Jacobite measures became involved in clan strife, being made the occasion of a treacherous massacre of many of the able-bodied men of the Macdonalds of Glencoe. The slaughter was decreed at the instigation of the earl of Breadalbane by soldiers under Campbell of Glenlyon {see Bread.^lbane, John Campbell, 1st earl of). About 13,000 ac in and around Glencoe belong to the Scottish National trust. (A. T. A. L.) a city of Los Angeles county, at the southern

GLENDALE,

extremity of the San Fernando valley in southwestern California, U.S., is 8 mi. N. of the civic centre in the city of Los Angeles. The land known as Glendale was first taken in a private land grant by Jose Maria Verdugo in 1784 as the Rancho San Rafael. Portions of the old rancho still remain as Glendale city shrines. The Verdugo title to Rancho San Rafael was confirmed by Mexico and again by the new state of California. In 1869, after the owners' failure to

pay

a mortgage, the rancho

was sold at public auc-

tion.

During the early 1880s, portions of the private holdings were pooled and a survey was ordered for a townsite, completed early in 1887. In March of that year, the town of Glendale was recognized by Los Angeles county. The name was chosen in 1884 from Glendale absorbed much of the six others by local residents. population influx of the 18SOs into the Los Angeles basin. During

boom, several buildings were constructed, including a hotel Although its 1910 population was only a newspaper plant. 2,700. it had grown to 75,000 by the outbreak of World War II. It is part of the Los Angeles standard metropolitan statistical area. The population of Glendale was 95,702 by 1950 and 119,442 in the

and

1960.

Glendale (junior) college was established as a pubschool in 1927. Forest Lawn Memorial park is a cemetery publicized for its elaborate statuary (which includes reproductions of famous works of art) and other special attractions. Glendale was incorporated as a city in 1906 and in 1914 adopted the counproducts.

lic

cil-manager form of government.

GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF

(J. M Wo.) (Gleann da Locha),

in

County Wicklow, Republic of Ireland, is about 20 mi. W. of Wicklow town by road. There are frequent tours from Dubhn along the road through the Wicklow mountains. The valley's monastic traditions date back to the 6th century, when St. Kevin (q.v.) settled there as a hermit. Though remote, Glendalough became the centre of a diocese until 1216, when it was united to Dublin. The series of churches scattered through the valley probably date from the 11th and 12th centuries, with earUer stone relics. Most of them have features of interest, such as fine Celtic carving;

all are in ruins except for the small church known as St. Ke\nn's Kitchen, which has a splendid high-pitched roof of stone and a round belfry. Close by is the cathedral, 73 ft. long and 51 ft. wide; St, Kevin's cross (an 11 ft. high granite monolith); and the Round tower, 1 10 ft. high. Such towers, built as refuges from

the Norse invaders, were entered by doorways at least 12 ft. from the ground. The Church of Our Lady is the legendary site of

St.

Kevin's grave.

many uncomfortable

OwAiN AP Gruffydd)

{c.

W. Fr.) Glyn dwr,

(T.

hours.

GLENDOWER, OWEN

(in

1354-c.

Welsh, Owain

1416), the last independent

was lord of Glyn Dyfrdwy and Sycharth in north possessed lands in Cardiganshire. Owen's father,

prince of Wales,

Wales and also Gruffydd Vychan, represented the line of princes of Powys Fadog, and his mother, Helen, was descended from the royal house of Deheubarth. Little is known of his early career but he was educated at the Inns of Court in London. He married, c. 1383, Margaret, daughter of Sir David Hanmer of Maelor, and he fought m the Scottish campaign of 1385. In the political struggles of Richard IPs reign his sympathies were apparently with the king's opponents; he is said to have been sometime in the service of Richard, eari of Arundel, and also in that of Henry of Lancaster (later

Henry IV). from a perRuthyn. The rebels are said to have proclaimed Owen prince of Wales, but the rising collapsed in north Wales after a defeat near Welshpool on Sept. 24. However the insurrection spread in 1401 to south Wales, where the king's campaign in October was largely ineffective, as were similar expeditions in the autumn of 1402 and 1403. Perhaps unwittingly, Owen had put himself at the head of a movement that became a Welsh national rebellion, provoked by the oppressiveness Owen's

rebellion,

which began

in Sept. 1400, resulted

Lord Grey

sonal feud with his neighbour Reynold,

of English rule.

Henry

many

IV's

disloyalty in England, explain

of

troubles, especially baronial

Owen's triumphs

in the next

few

the good fortune, in April 1402, to capture Lord Grey of Ruthyn; his ransom was 10,000 marks. Owen's victory at Bryn Glas, near Pilleth, in Radnorshire on June 22 gave him

years.

He had

another notable prisoner. Sir

Edmund Mortimer, whose

nephew,

the infant earl of March, was a potential claimant to the English throne.

In Nov. 1402 Mortimer came to terms with his captor and marThis alliance probably enabled Owen to make contact with the discontented Percies, the eari of Northumberland and his son Hotspur (Mortimer's brother-inlaw). Serious reverses followed in 1403; in May Prince Henry ravaged Sycharth and Glyn Dyfrdwy unopposed, the Percy rebelried Glendower's daughter Catherine.

overthrow Henry IV, and Hotspur was killed at the Shrewsbury on July 21, ten days after Owen's defeat near Carmarthen. Despite these checks, 1404 marked the climax of his fortunes. The capture of Aberystwyth and Harlech castles gave him the status of a de facto ruler, controlling most of Wales between Anglesey and Glamorgan. Owen now formally styled himself prince of Wales, dating his reign from 1400. According to Adam of Usk, he summoned a "parliament" to meet at Machynlleth and concluded an alliance with Charles VI of France in July 1404. Ecclesiastically as well as politically, he was aiming at complete independence; the terms on which he was prepared to transfer allegiance to the Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, in 1406, included the

lion failed to

battle of

Industries include the manufacture of airplanes and aircraft products, optical instruments, pharmaceuticals and clay and plastic

place, but one of majestic beauty. The valley has two lakes, with very hmited farmland. Extensive areas on the valley sides are covered with woods, partly the natural oak-birch type and partly modern plantations supplied from a forest nursery between the two lakes. Visitors may be rowed across the upper lake, allegedly bottomless, to see a cleft in the rocks where St. Kevin may have spent

The

original

monks

settled in a wild

and desolate

establishment of a separate province of Wales, with St. David's as an archbishopric, and the founding of two Welsh universities. The tide began to turn in the spring of 1405. The Welsh were

defeated at Grosmont in March and at the disastrous battle of Pwll Melyn, near Usk, in May, when Owen's eldest son, Gruffydd, was captured. It was probably in Feb. 1405 that the alliance be-

tween Owen, Mortimer and the bodied

was agreed.

Northumberland was emby which a partition of England

earl of

in the tripartite indenture,

Archbishop Scrope's Yorkshire rebellion, the last Henry IV's position, was put down in June, and Northumberland fled to Scotland. Thenceforth only foreign intervention could save Owen from ultimate defeat; a French force of a few thousand men landed at Milford Haven in Aug. 1405, and Owen was able temporarily to threaten Worcester. His French allies withdrew from Wales early in 1406. The reconquest of the principality was the achievement of the future Henry V, and the serious threat to

GLENEAGLES—GLIDING recovery of Aberystwyth and Harlech in 1408 destroyed the main basis of Owen's power. He was still active as a rebel as late as 1412,

and he probably died

in 1416.

Owen had

and daughhave survived his father. Glendower's rebellion was destructive in its consequences; but in modern times he has come to be regarded as a national hero. Bibliography. Contemporary sources include Chronicon Adae de Vsk, ed. by E. Maunde Thompson (1904); Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 2nd series, vol. i, ed. by Sir H. Ellis (1S27). Sec also J. E. Lloyd, Owen Glendower (1931) D. R. Phillips, A Select Bibliography of Owen Glyndwr (1915). For the Welsh church and Glendower's rebellion, see Glanmor Williams, The Welsh Church from Conquest to Reformation (1962). (X. B. P.) ters, but,

of his sons, only

several sons

Maredudd appears

to

—

;

GLENEAGLES,

narrow picturesque glen in Perthshire, Scot., runs southward through the Ochil hills from Strathearn, 10 mi. S. of Crieff. Its beauty is much enhanced by the matching outThe name is reputedly derived from the line of its flanking hills. Gaelic Glen Eaglais, "glen of the church." At the foot of the glen set in a sheltered wooded estate stands the old mansion house of Gleneagles, ancestral seat of the Haldane family who have been in possession of the land for more than 800 years. A fine avenue of lime trees leads from the house to a small private chapel of medieval origin, now restored as a family memorial, and on a a

nearby knoll are the remains of the ancient keep of Gleneagles castle. The main road south into Kinross-shire passes through the glen on its eastern side and the track of a disused Roman road and old drove route leads through on the western side. About 2 mi. N.W. of the glen is a railway station (but no village) and a large railway hotel with golf courses which, though called the Gleneagles hotel, is in no way connected with the Gleneagles estate.

(A.N.C.-H.) town of South Australia, is situated on Gulf St. Vincent 64 mi. S.W. of the city of Adelaide. Pop. (1961) 14,492. It is built on a plain and has a magnificent sandy beach. Glenelg is connected with Adelaide by bus and interurban Safe anchorage is provided for small craft by streetcar systems. the Patawalonga harbour, which has been formed by the building

GLENELG,

a municipal

of a weir incorporating a lock across the

mouth

Patawalonga

of

Governor Sir John Hindmarsh landed 1836 (the year in which the

first settlers

GLENGARRIFF

Dec. South Aus-

in the vicinity in

were sent

to

traHa) and proclaimed the creation of that province.

(Gleann Garbh),

a

(F. A. L.)

village

of

County

on an inlet of Bantry bay 62 mi. S.S.W. of Cork city by road. Pop. (1961) 392. IlnacuUin (or Garinish Island is at the entrance to Glengarriff harbour surrounded by numerous smaller islets. Because of the beauty of its situation in a deep, wooded valley surrounded by mountains (notably the Sugarloaf and its warm climate, which enables semitropical plants to grow, Glengarriff is a well-known tourist and Cork. Republic of Ireland,

lies

)

)

health resort.

,

Its attractions include sea, lake

and

river fishing,

rough shooting and climbing.

GLENN, JOHN HERSCHEL, make an

JR. (1921-

),

first

U.S.

was born July IS, 1921, in Cambridge. O, Commissioned in the U.S. marine corps in 1943, Glenn flew 59 missions during World War II and 90 during the Korean War. Oldest of the seven astronauts selected in 1959 for Project "Mercury" space-flight training, he served as "back-up" pilot for Alan B. Shepard, Jr,, and Virgil I. Grissom, who made the first U.S. suborbital flights. Glenn was selected for the orbital flight on Nov. 29, 1961, and on Feb. 20, 1962, his space capsule. "Friendship 7," was lifted off from Cape Canaveral, Fla,, and put into an orbit that ranged from approximately 99 to 162 mi. in alti-

astronaut to

;m.p.h., t

syndicate that opened the first telephone exchange in Lowell and built the first line between Lowell and Boston. This led to a career as promoter of telephone corporations from which he retired in 1900. He helped found the A.A.A. and organized the first GJidden ,

(1905-13) to demonstrate the reliability of early automobiles. He motored some 46,500 mi, in 39 countries, and made 49 balloon ascensions in America and abroad. Glidden died Sept. II, 1927, at Boston, Mass. tours

See

M. M. Mussetaian, Get A Horsel Up (1952)-

(1950); Bellamy Partridge,

Fill 'er

GLIDING,

a phase of flight

(Rii. E.

by which a bird or

M.)

aircraft de-

scends on an inclined path toward the ground. Man-made gliders are heavier than air and have no engines. Soaring is the term applied to

unpowered

flight

pulsations in the wind.

using the upward motions of the air or man to fly long distances,

Soaring permits

and to remain aloft form of power except that in the air mass. to reach high altitudes

for days without

any

HISTORY OF GLIDING EXPERIMENTS The

history of gliding in the U.S. is mainly a record of the scienachievements of the great pioneers, Samuel P. Langley, Octave Chanute and Wilbur and Orville Wright (qq.v.). In the first half of the 19th century the English pioneers, George Cayley, W. S. Henson and John Stringfellow, made valuable theoretical investigations and model flight experiments. It is this group of workers who may be said to have "invented" the airplane. But their invention would never have been reduced to practice without the subsequent efforts of the early exponents of gliding. Captain Le Bris, a French sailor, carried out the first significant glider work in the 1870s, building gliders with wings shaped like those of an albatross and with boat-shaped bodies. Le Bris made many remarkable glides, but he succeeded more by instinct than by scientific skill and did not make any substantial contribution to the science of flight. He merely imitated the bird's form and his gliders lacked any vertical stabilizing surface such as a fin or rudtific

der.

The most famous exponent of gliding was undoubtedly Otto Lilwho with his brother Gustav began to make experi-

ienthal (g.v.),

creek.

tude.

483

He made

orbital space flight,

three orbits in 4 hr. 56 min. at about

17,545

landing in the Atlantic near the Bahamas,

GLroDEN, CHARLES JASPER

(1857-1927), best-known connection with the tours for antique or classic motorcars conducted by the American Automobile association (A.A.A.) and

that data were needed for information from a study of the He was perhaps the first man to understand the flight of birds. superiority of the cambered or curved surface over the flat plate as a lifting surface. In iSgi he built his first man-carrying glider, with a framework of peeled willow rods covered with tough cotton

ments

in

1867.

Lilienthal

success and accumulated

realized

much

He attached himself to the glider by thrusting his arms fabric. through padded rubber tubes and holding on to a crossbar. His body hung in the air during flight and he attempted to control and Lilienthal even built a stabilize the plane by moving his body. conical hill of earth from which to launch himself and his glider. Lilienthal's great contribution to the aeronautical sciences was to improve the behaviour of wing lift and thereby show the feasibility

many scientists held impossible at that time. In 1896, at the age of 64, Octave Chanute began to make gliding He built a five-deck glider and folflights in the United States. of flight, which

lowed this by a triplane and finally by a biplane. Chanute discarded Lilienthal's method of securing control and substituted a rudder and articulated wings. The wings could be swerved fore and aft to provide both longitudinal and lateral control although So stable did he the pilot's body still hung beneath the glider. make his gliders that they made 2,000 flights without a single accident.

One of America's great scientists, Samuel P. Langley, secreon tary of the Smithsonian institution, did fundamental research With a large lelephoto stereoscopic the soaring flight of birds. camera he photographed turkey buzzards

iin

flight.

He made

explain

dynamic

'named in his honour, also was a telephone pioneer and balloonist. iBorn Aug. 29, 1857, in Lowell, Mass., he became a telegraph mes:senger there at the age of 15. Later, as a telegraph operator, he Intro'held positions with two New England telegraph companies. |duction of the electric telephone in 1877-79 led him to join a

gusts of wind. entitled

in their circling effortless

studies of the nature of the wind in an effort to soaring, that is, soaring by extracting energy from

One of Langley's assistants. Huflaker, wrote a paper "On Soaring Flight" in 1898, in which he explained how

of warm air. Man birds achieved thermal soaring on rising drafts years. did not duplicate this process for another 30 The next great U.S. exponents of gliding were the Wright broth-

;

GLIDING

484

Their first plan was to construct a craft which could be used as a man-carry-ing kite in a steady breeze. For their flights they selected the Kill Devil sand hills near Kitty Hawk, N.C., which ers.

provided strong steady breezes. Through some errors in calculation, the device, tried out in 1900, proved a failure as a kite and they turned to ghding. The Wright glider of 1900, though a biplane, differed in many respects from the Chanute glider. The pilot lay prone on the upper wing to reduce resistance the vertical rudder was discarded and the horizontal rudder was placed forward. By warping the ;

wings they secured lateral control. The Wrights' most successful glider was built in 1902. As a result of previous experiments, they now decided to use a vertical rudder, and later they made the rudder adjustable. In Sept. and Oct. 1902, nearly 1,000 flights were made, several of which covered distances of more than 600 ft. The great glider achievement of the Wright brothers was in securing complete control by combining the horizontal rudder with an adjustable vertical rudder and warping the wings. It was this perfect control that made their gliding so safe and which enabled

them

powered

to proceed to the building of the first successful

While the Wrights from 1903 onward devoted the greater part of their energies to power-driven craft, they never lost their plane.

interest in gliding.

In 191 1 the W'rights returned to gliding and soaring because Wilbur had made some studies of dynamic soaring and wished to test his theories. With more powerful controls, and with the horizontal rudder in the rear, the brothers made many long glides, the longest This remained the record until lasting 9 min. 45 sec. in 1911. W. B. Klemperer, a German, on Aug. 30, 1921, soared over the Rhine valley for 13 min. From the time of the Wrights' endurance record in 1911 until Glen Curtiss, whose interest was awakened by the German flights in 1922, began glider construction, no experiments were carried on in the United States. Curtiss built a flying boat hull with the The glider weighed 150 lb. tail surfaces carried on outriggers. and was launched by being towed by a motorboat. It performed admirably. The year 1922 also saw the first experimental congress

Br

COURTESY OF SCHWEJZEH AIRCRAFT CORP.

MODERN EXHIBITION SAILPLANE

thunderstorm.

After 1929, constant refinement in glider design flight resulted in continuously better

and improved methods of performance.

Until the early 1930s, all gliding records were held by Germany and Austria with little or no competition from other countries. Later, however, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R. and the United States took an active interest in gliding with the result that records moved back and forth between countries with amazing rapidity. In 1932 the Soaring Society of America was established to foster gliding and soaring in the United States. In 1926 Max Kegel of Germany astonished the aeronautical world by flying 34 mi. in a thunderstorm. The world's distance record, held by the American Richard H. Johnson, was 535 mi., set in 1951. A flight of 21 hr. 34 min. by Lieut. WiUiam Cocke, Jr..

although established in 1931,

still

stood in the early 1960s

by a U.S. citizen. The international duration rec15 min,, was made by a Frenchman, Charles Atger, in

as the longest ord, 56 hr,

1952.

Modern

soaring planes, flown

by

skilled pilots using

modem

technique, are capable of really amazing performances. They can be put through most of the acrobatic maneuvers practised by pilots

two reasons: the Versailles treaty forbade the construction of powered airplanes; and meteorological conditions in the Rhine valley provided upward currents of air that were extremely favourable to soaring flight. In the United States, on the other hand, gliding was neglected because full sway was given to the construction of powered craft, and meteorologically suitable localities such as Kitty Hawk were not readily accessible from

powered planes. In 1933, an American. Jack O'Meara, made 96 consecutive loops; his record was broken by a Russian, Simonov, who made 300 loops in 1935. Gliders have been flown with as many as 130 men aboard. The world's record flight with two persons aboard was extended to 513 mi. by the Russian V. Ilchenko and a passenger in 1954. During the German attack on Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in May 1940, the Wehrmacht, in order to take certain bridges and the Albert canal in Belgium, used glider trains, consisting of gliders towed by transport planes. Each Gliders were glider contained six fully armed German soldiers.

large cities.

also used in taking the Belgian forts, particularly the

for gliding held in France.

Gliding reached a high state of popularity in

World War

The remarkable radical departure

of the

first

Germany

after

I for

flights of

from the

1922 in

past.

The

true sailplane.

Germany were achieved by a

That year witnessed the advent

sailplane, unlike the heavier, cruder

machines hitherto used, is a highly refined glider, light and as near as possible to aerodynamic perfection. It has a sinking speed of 2.6

ft.

per second which

that will soar in a

The

first

is

equivalent to saying that

wind that

machine of

this

rises vertically at

type was the

it is

a

machine

a speed of 1| m.p.h.

German "Vampyr."

NEW TECHNIQUES AND FLIGHT RECORDS

of

Eben Emael which resisted for approximately a week. The conquest of the island of Crete by the Germans in May 1941 was almost entirely by an air invasion in which gliders played a very prominent part as troop transports. (See Air-Borne Troops.) Soaring, spurred by the return of technically trained students to its rank after World War II, took on the methods of science to improve performance. Ben Shupack, secretary of the Soaring Society of America, instituted a series of conferences on motorless forts,

with the idea of exchanging ideas among progressive sailIn 1948 a meeting under the auspices of the Soaring Society of America and the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences produced the basic concepts for a world record-breaking sailplane. Richard H. Johnson, a student at Mississippi State university, built such a sailplane and flew it, on Aug. 5, 1951, to an international distance record of 535 mi. from Odessa. Tex., to Salina, Kan., bettering by 70 mi. the former record held since 1939 by a Russiah w'oman. The actual ground distance flown was 575 mi. in 8 hr. flight

pianists.

Up

to

1929 soaring was of a strictly topographical nature using

upward by local hills. Such flights were by the extent of the range of hills. An increased knowledge of meteorology gave rise to several methods of soaring by which long-distance flights could be made. Of these, thermal soaring and thunderstorm flight are most important. Thermal currents are formed by heat rising from the ground under certain conditions, air currents deflected

limited

example, those existing on a hot summer afternoon. On reaching the cooler upper atmosphere, the moisture in the thermal current sometimes condenses, forming a cumulus cloud.

as, for

A cumu-

lus cloud indicates a thermal current and soaring flights can made by circling in this current. Thunderstorm flight is

plished by keeping near the

be accom-

boundary between two masses of air, one warm and the other cool, a condition that accompanies a

40 min.. making an average speed of 65.2 m.p.h. From 1935 onward the glider gained in reputation as a tool for meteorological and aeronautical research. Gliders equipped with radio and recording instruments were used in thunderstorm research sponsored by the U.S. weather bureau. Paul Tuntland flew one of these gliders into the core of a thunderstorm in order to collect data on the structure of this air mass.

4

GLINKA As- a result of these meteorological studies a project to study the air flow over the Sierra

Nevada mountains by means

of sail-

planes was sponsored by the U.S. air force in 1950 and 1951. During the latter study, Lawrence Edgar and Harold Klieforth reached

an altitude of 44.255 ft- above sea level and established two international records, one for absolute altitude and one for altitude The source of lift for this flight was a mountain wave gained.

which extends to high altitudes.

The glider was again used, following 1952, in Germany as a means of youth training for aviation. The Germans also rejuvenated a prewar institute for glider research at Munich.

Modern

soaring planes

owe

performance characteriswing (see Aspect Ratio). Wing spans are generally from 30 to 50 ft., chord depths from 4 to 5 ft. They also have an extremely "clean" aerodynamic tics in large

measure

their high

to a high aspect ratio of the

shaping of the streamlined fuselage and other parts. They are of light, although adequately rigid construction, generally of plywood and fabric but in many instances of duraluminum metal. The con-

and sailplanes are similar in action to those of airInstruments most commonly carried are the air speed indicator, the bank-and-turn indicator, the altimeter and some type of sensitive instrument to indicate rate of climb or descent. (See trols of gliders

planes.

Aircraft Instruments.)

Launching Techniques

As

noted above, extensive gUding and soaring activities were at first limited to regions in which air-

men

could find reasonably steady

485

oped in Germany in the first decade after World War I. Young Americans were quick to substitute the auto-tow and the winchtow techniques. In the first, a rope or cable 500 ft. or more in length is connected between the glider and the rear of an automobile. As the automobile moves across the field the glider rises much as a kite rises until several hundred feet in the air. At this point a hook and ring mechanism attached to the nose of the glider disengages the rope and the pilot is free to practise turns or other evolutions in a glide back to the field (or out over the valley if the launching takes place on a hilltop, but this is obviously no longer necessary). High-speed winches driven by automobile engine power have come into use as substitutes for the moving automobile.

A

final

launching technique, used only by the most ex-

perienced pilots,

is the airplane tow in which the sailplane is actually towed into the air behind a power-driven aircraft to be cut loose at any desired altitude.

Once launched, the pilot must, if he wishes to soar, immediately search out some current of air which is actually rising in relation to the surface of the earth beneath him. E.xperienced pilots find such currents along hillside slopes, beneath and within cumulus clouds and along fronts between warm and cold air masses. Longdistance flights are frequently achieved through the use of all three types of currents. Altitude records are almost invariably set on Ridge soaring is of limited use flights within thunderhead cumuli. except in attempts merely to remain in the air for long periods. See also references under "Gliding" in the Index volume. Bibliography.

—O. Chanute, Aerial Navigation

(1894)

;

E.

W.

Teale,

The Book of Gliders (1930) L. Howard-Flanders and C. F. Carr, Gliding and Motorless Flight (1930) Percival and Mat White, Gliding and Soaring (1931) L. B. Varringer, Flight Without Power (1940) Soar;

winds blowing up hillside slopes. For best results, slopes were ing, official periodical of Soaring Society of America, Inc. (1937 et sought rising from plains or from seq.) Terence Horseley, Soaring Flight (1946). (A. Kl.; D. Se.; A. W. Rx.) broad valley floors to a hilltop DIMITRIEVICH (1867from 200 to 300 ft. high. An GLINKA, ideal slope was one which rose 1927), Russian soil scientist whose work had a tremendous inslowly from the plain at first and fluence throughout the world, was born in Smolensk in Aug. then rose more abruptly as it 1867. While working for a degree in geology at the universities of BY COURTESY OF SCHWEIZER AIRCRAFT CORP. From Moscow and St. Petersburg, he became a student of V. V. Dokuneared a rounded crest. INSTRUMENT PANEL AND COCKPIT OF such a hilltop, gliders were chaiev, the founder of modem soil science (pedology). For the A SAILPLANE launched most commonly by the next 18 years he served as lecturer and professor at the NovoA hook attached to the nose of Alexandria institute. In 191 1 he returned to St. Petersburg and so-called "shock-cord" method. Between 1908 the glider engaged a ring to which was fastened two long lengths developed the first course in soil science there. of rubber-stranded rope similar to that used in the shock-absorbing and 1914 Glinka organized more than 100 soil-survey parties. units of airplane landing gears. One or more persons would hold He directed the soil survey of Siberia and of a part of European the glider stationary by grasping a short Hne fixed to its fuselage. Russia. He published about 123 scientific books and papers and ;

;

;

;

KONSTANTIN

Usually at least two other persons would stretch out each rubberstranded rope until it reached its maximum stretch. Then at a shouted signal, those holding the ghder released it. Those stretching the ropes ran forward. The glider sprang forward and rose into the air, dropping the ring from its nose hook as it did so. From this point the subsequent flight varied with the nature of the aircraft involved. If it was of crude design its pilot could proceed out over the valley only in ever-descending flight. If of more advanced design, the craft frequently was able to climb in the winds blowing up the face of the slope and remain for substantial periods

i

!

'

"crabbing" back and forth along the crest of the ridge. Such were the main elements of the launching technique devel-

in flight

in 1927, with L.

I.

Prasolov, a

soil

map

of the Soviet Union.

Although the general theory of soils as independent natural bodies had been proposed by Dokuchaiev and developed further by N. Sibirtsev, it was GHnka who organized the subject. His textbook, Soil Science, was first pubhshed in 1 908 and went through Because of the language barrier, few three subsequent editions. outside Russia read it. A German version, Die Typen der Bodenbildung. Hire Klassifikation und geographische Verbreitung, was pubUshed in 1914. and Curtis F. Marbut's English translation appeared as The Great Soil Groups of the World and Their Development, 2nd ed. (1937). Ghnka's influence reached its climax just before his death when he took an active part in the First International Congress of Soil Science held in the United States in 1927.

Glinka died on Nov. 2, 1927. See also Soil: Soil 'Classification.

(C. E. K.) 804- 1 85 7 ). the first Russian composer to win international recognition and the acknowlviledged founder of the Russian national school, was born in the on June 1, 1804. lage of Novospasskoe (Smolensk government) He was 10 or 11 years old before his interest in music was aroused

GLINKA, MIKHAIL IV ANOVICH

f

1

From 1817 to 1822 he studied his uncle's private orchestra. Petersburg, also taking the Chief Pedagogic institute at St. From 1824 to piano lessons from John Field and Charles Mayer. was too inin the ministry of communications, but

by at

BY COUfiTESY OF I

SCHWEIZER AIRCRAFT CORP.

SAILPLANE BEING TOWED ALOFT BY AN AIRPLANE

1828 he served dolent and unambitious for an composed songs and a certain

As a dilettante he chamber music. Three of Bellini and Donuetti,

official career.

amount

of

years in Italy brought him under the spell

GLIWICE—GLORY

486 though ultimately "homesickness gradually led

me

to the idea of

writing music in Russian." First he studied composition seriously for six months with Siegfried Dehn in Berlin, where he began a Sinfonia per I'orchestra

sopra due motive russe (1834). Recalled to Russia by his father's death, he married and settled down to the composition of the opera that first won him fame. Life for the Tsar (originally named, and since the Revolution re-named, Ivan Susanin) this was produced at St. Petersburg on Dec. 9, 1836, in the presence of the tsar. A month later he was appointed master of the Imperial chapel, though he resigned this post in 1839. At this period Glinka composed some of his best songs and in 1840 the music to N. V. Kukolnik's ;

play Prince Kholmsky. In 1842, on the sixth anniversary of Life for the Tsar, his second opera, Ruslan and Lyiidmila, was produced; the fantastic-oriental subject and often boldly original music of Ruslan won neither imperial favour nor popularity, though Liszt

once struck by the novelty of the music. Disgruntled, and with his marriage broken though not finally dissolved. Glinka left Russia in 1844 and consoled himself with a succession of mistresses. He had the satisfaction of hearing excerpts from both his operas performed in Paris under Berlioz (March 16, 1845 the first performance of Russian music in the west) and others. From Paris he went to Spain, where he stayed for two years (until May 1847) collecting the materials used in his two "Spanish overtures," the Capriccio brillante on the Jota aragonesa (1845) and Summer Night in Madrid (1848). Glinka returned to Russia for a short period but spent most of his time

was

and the partition of Silesia (1921) it remained German. of the town was destroyed in World War II, after (K. M. Wi.) which it returned to Poland. any plant of the genus Trollius of the family Ranunculaceae {q.v.), of which there are about IS species They take their name from the globeUke in northern regions. shape of the flower. There are several North American and more Eurasian species, including the American globeflower {T. laxus), native to eastern North America, and the common European globe-

War

I

About 30%

GLOBEFLOWER,

flower

(7".

europaeus).

1851 in Warsaw, where he wrote Kamarinskaya, an two Russian folk tunes (1848). Between 1852 and 1854 he was again abroad, mostly in Paris, until the outbreak He then wrote his of the Crimean War drove him home again. highly entertaining memoirs (first published in St. Petersburg, 1887), musical, social and amorous, which give a remarkable unconscious self-portrait of his indolent, amiable, hypochondriacal character. His last notable composition was Festival Polonaise for Alexander II's coronation ball (1855). After the war he decided

until Oct.

orchestral piece on

to study

and

Bach and "the old church modes" with Dehn

in Berlin,

that city he died on Feb. 15, 1857.

in

Glinka may be fairly described as a dilettante of genius. His work, small in bulk, is the foundation of practically all later Russian music of any value. Life for the Tsar, Italianate as some of it

showed how music could be written "in Russian" Ruslan provided models, not only in its oriental and "fantastic" conventions (whole-tone scale, etc.) but also in lyrical melody and colourful, transparent harmony and orchestration, on which Balakirev, Borois,

;

din and Rimski-Korsakov formed their styles.

Tchaikovsky, who

preferred the earlier of the two operas, wrote that "the present Russian symphonic school is all in Kamarinskaya just as the whole oak

Likewise the clear, brilliant scoring of the "Spanish overtures" provided the basis of Rimski-Korsakov's orchestral is in

the acorn."

technique.

Bibliography.— M. D. Calvocoressi, Glinka (1913)

A. V. Ossovski M. I. Glinka: Issledovaniya i materialy (1950) and M. I. Glinka, Lileraturnoe nasledie, 2 vol. (1952-5.!); V. Protopopov et at., Pamyati Glinki (1SS7-1957 ) : Issledovaniya i materialy (1958); B. ;

(ed.),

Dobrakhotov

M

I. Glinka: Sbornik Statei (1958). (G. As.) (Ger. Gleiwitz), a town of southern Poland, the district capital of the Katowice wojewodztwo (voivodship). Pop. (1961 134,900. Gliwice forms part of the urban group and is one of the oldest towns of the Upper Silesian industrial region, and is a junction on the Wroclaw (Breslau)-Cracow railway line. It has an inland port and dock installations on the Gliwice canal, which

et al.,

GLIWICE )

links the Silesian coal basin via the

Oder river with the Baltic sea. of Gliwice as an industrial centre started at the end of the 18th century with iron casting and a foundry. Nearby deposits of coal suitable for coking facilitated the development of the coke and chemical industries, and there are a number of heavy industries and food factories. The town has a college of engineer-

The development

ing (opened 1945) and two theatres. From 1312 Gliwice (chartered in 1276) was the capital of the Gliwice principality, which along with other Silesian principalities became a vassal of Bohemia,

from which rated in the

it

passed to the Habsburgs.

kingdom of Prussia with most

In 1742

it

of Silesia.

was incorpoAfter

World

latter is often cultivated, especially

one of which has orange flowers Also cultivated is the handsome T. ledebouri from Siberia, often two to three feet high. (N. Tr.) GLOCKENSPIEL, a percussion instrument of definite musiThe glockencal pitch consisting of steel bars of varying lengths.

though most species are yellow.

spiel

graduated bells; later, steel bars, arranged chromatically in two rows on a frame, were substi^^^^^^^^

was originally a

at

—

The

in several of its horticultural forms,

set of

A'WxmW m\^iXiw!rV

^\ «^\l|^j.\^:^vV^v^^k J^Xy\ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^^aP^y

\\\\\\^^bB^^^^

The compass is from 2^

'"ted.

octaves; the music

to

written two octaves lower than the notes heard. The keys are struck with wood or small hammers of ebonite; occasionally metal hammers are used. A glockenspiel 3

is

with a keyboard mechanism is used when chords are to be played, as, for example, in Mozart's Magic Flute. The glockenspiel is used with great effect in Handel's Saul; in "The Bell Song" from Delibes' Lakme; in Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite; in Die Walkiire and Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg by Wagner by Elgar in The Dream of Gerontius. A lyre-shaped glockenspiel is used in military bands. (J. Bl.) (Glama), a river in the eastern part of south Norway. Its sources are small lakes close to the Norwegian-Swedish frontier southeast of Trondheim, and streams from these drain into Lake Aursunden at 689 m. (2,260 ft.) above sea level. Below this lake the river is known as the Glomma. It flows southward through the Osterdal valley to Kongsvinger where it turns westward for a few miles, then southwest into Lake Oyeren (103 m. or 338 ft.) it then continues southward to Sarpsborg and empties into the Skagerrak at Fredrikstad on the eastern side of Oslo fjord. Its total length is 365 mi. The biggest tributaries in Osterdal are the Folia, Atna and Asta from the west, the Rena and Fhsa from the east, but its important tributary is the Vorma from the north, between Kongsvinger and Oyeren. The Vorma is the outlet of Lake Mjosa, fed by the river Lagen. The total catchment area BOOSEY

a

HAWKES

LTD.

MODERN GLOCKENSPIEL

;

GLOMMA

;

of the

Glomma

is

16,236 sq.mi.

The

waterfalls of the river are

low and where they are exploited for hydroelectric production sevFlumes eral are usually dammed together to make a larger fall. (artificial channels) have been constructed as bypasses at falls and power plants. The available water power is about 700,000 kw. more than 30 power plants have an aggregate installation of 410,000 kw. Flood disasters have often caused damage to houses and farmland along the river, especially in the flat valley north of Kongsvinger, but the banks have now been strengthened. The ;

Glomma

is navigable for ships up to Sarpsborg. About 12,000,000 timber logs are floated yearly on the Glomma. (L. H. He.) GLORIA, in general a doxology or ascription of praise, specifically two ancient Latin hymns Gloria in excelsis and Gloria Patri. See Doxology. GLORIOSA, a small genus of tuberous rooted plants of the lily family (Liliaceae; q.v.), natives of tropical Asia and Africa. They have slender stems that climb by tendrillike prolongations of the narrow generally lance-shaped leaves. The flowers, which are borne

upper leaf-axils, are very handsome; the six, generally narrow, mostly red and yellow petals are bent back and stand erect, the six stamens projecting beyond them. They are grown as green-

in the

house plants or outdoors

in

summer and

often called climbing-lily

or glory-lily.

GLORY, in works light

of art, is a general term for any radiance of appearing around the body of a holy person, such as a nimbus,

|

AND GLOSSARY

GLOSS halo, aureole,

mandorla or vesica

piscis.

Its

purpose

to repre-

is

Athenaeus the grammarian

character through the symbolism of light. The sun disk was used in ancient Egypt to symbolize a divine being's In Hellenistic and Roman art the specific relation to the sun.

than 35.

sun-god and emperors appear with a crown of rays. Because of its pagan origin, this form was avoided in early Christian art. By the 5th century, however, a disk-shaped form behind the head,

his disciple

sent spiritual

nimbus or halo, was fuOy accepted. Originally reserved and the Virgin, the nimbus was soon used for the also. A cross within a round nimbus became identified

called a

for Christ saints

The

with representations of Christ in the middle ages.

triangular

nimbus symbolized the Trinity. For some time, in the 5th century, living persons of eminence were equipped with a square nimbus the memory of this custom is preserved in the academic ;

mortarboard.

The aureole consists of a large circular or oval (from which the ItaUan name mandorla, "almond") area representing illumination around the figure. Frequently a nimbus was added. The aureole appeared only toward the end of the Romanesque period, probably Its greatest inspired by the light symbolism of the Apocalypse. artistic realization was reached in the i6th century when the abstract shape of the mandorla had changed into a more naturalistic representation of a radiating light (e.g., Grunewald, "Ascension," Colmar; Raphael, "Liberation of St. Peter," Vatican). In its development from the middle ages to the baroque the nimbus underwent a fuller artistic evolution than the aureole. Originally it appeared as a disk behind the head of the holy person. In Florentine painting of the Renaissance the disk began to be shown

in perspective, following the

creasingly, the

movements

of the figure.

nimbus became a material object and

In-

lost its spirit-

ual quality (e.g., angel in F. Cossa's "Annunciation," Dresden).

Another form of the nimbus became popular painting of the 15th century.

in Netherlandish

It consisted of a representation of

emanating from the head of the holy person (e.g., the altarpiece at Ghent). In this form the historic character of the nimbus as a symbolic light was recovered. A new idea was expressed by the German painters of the early 16th century who gave to the nimbus the character of a real light (e.g., A. Dijrer's engraving of "St. Jerome"). But it was only with Tintoretto in the middle of the 16th century that all these ideas were combined in one new form. The nimbus was now represented as a supernatural light emanating from the head of the holy person. This new interpretation was the standard form in the baroque period (e.g., Rembrandt, "Christ at Emmaus," Louvre). The nimbus as w-ell as the aureole is also found in the Buddhist art of India. Their earliest date of appearance is the late 3rd century B.C. and it is likely that these ideas were originally brought to India by the Greek invaders. See Joseph Wilpert, Die roemischen Mosaiken und Malereien der

light rays

Van Eyck

kirchlichen

GLOSS

Bauten

vom

4.-13. Jh. (1917).

AND GLOSSARY.

The Greek word

(P.

M.

glossa,

L.)

meancame

ing originally a tongue, then a language or dialect, gradually

487

Among

the elegiac poet,

(c. a.d.

250) alone alludes to no fewer

the earliest was Philetas of

who was

Cos

(d. c.

290

Atakta or Glossal (sometimes Ataktoi glossai). Zenodotus of Ephesus (early 3rd century B.C.), the compiler of Glossai Homerikai (uncommon words in Homer); he was succeeded by his greater pupil, Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 260-180 B.C. ), whose great compilation. Peri Lexeon (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to have included Attikai lexeis, Lakonikai glossai, and the like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of name Diodorus, Artemidorus (Glossai, and a collection of lexeis opsartytikai), Nicander of Colophon (Glossai, of which some 26 fragments survive) and Aristarchus (c. 210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary titled

—

Contemporary with the last making several new conGreek lexicography and dialectology, was the first to

(lexeis) in the order of the books.

named was Crates tributions to

create at

Rome

of Mallus, who, besides

a taste for similar investigations in connection with

the Latin idioms.

From

his school proceeded

the compiler of Ethnikai lexeis or glossai, a

Zenodotus of Mallus, said to have been

work

designed chiefly to support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of Homer. Of later date were Didymus Chalcenterus (c. 63 b.c.-a.d. 10), who made collections of lexeis tragodoumenai komikai, etc. Apollonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come down ;

modem

glostimes; and Neoptolemus. known distinctively as In the beginning of the ist century of the Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other predecessors with glossai Homerikai, and a treatise Peri

to

sographos.

Rhomaikes dialektou; Heliodorus, or Herodorus, was another almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of HippocTo this period also Pamphilus, the author of the Leimon, rates. from which Diogenianus and Julius Vestinus afterward drew so largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus, whose treatise Peri monerous lexeos has been edited in modem times, and whose Epimerismoi survives in an abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenianus (Lexeis pantodape), Julius Vestinus (Epitome ton Pamphilou glosson) and especially Phrynichus, who flourished toward the close of the 2nd century, and whose Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum has frequently tes

been edited.

To the 4th century belong Ammonius who wrote Peri homoion, kai diaphoron

of Alexandria (c. 389), lexeon, a dictionary of

words used in senses different from those employed by older and approved writers; Hesychius, whose Lexikon has come down only

From the 5lh century date Cyril, (one form of his work is Alexandria of patriarch celebrated the the basis of Synagoge lexeon chresimon); Orus of Miletus (Peri in a 15th-century recension.

to

polysemanton lexeon), and Orion of Egyptian Thebes who

peculiar

ished in Alexandria,

denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or otherwise word or use of a word. In late classical and medieval Latin, glosa was the vulgar and Romanic, glossa the learned form. The diminutive glossula occurs The same meaning is borne by glosin Diomedes and elsewhere. sarium, which also occurs in the modem sense of "glossary," as do the words glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata, expressed in later times by dictionarium, dictionariiis vocabularium, vocabularius ,

Dictionary). Glossa and glossema are synonyms, signifying (i) the word which requires explanation; or (2) such a word

{see

lemma) together with the interpretation (interpretamenor (3) the interpretation alone. Early History. The making of collections and explanations of such glossal was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized (called

tum)

;

—

form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled Peri Bomerou e orthoepeies kai glosseon. It was not, however, until the

Alexandrian period that

the

became numerous. these perhaps even the names liave perished; but

(writers of glosses), or glossators,

Of many of

glossographoi,

glossographers

B.C.),

work enNext came

the compiler of a lexicographical

c.

flour-

425.

Compilations of Justinian.—10 a special category of technical and important class of works relating the emperor forto the law— compilations of Justinian. Although bade under severe penalties all commentaries (hypomncmata) on glossaries belong a large

and references (paratitla), as (herwell as translations (hermeneiai kata poda) and paraphrases produced. lavishly and permitted, expressly were platos), eis meneiai Among the numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged Lexeis or Lateinikdi, and glossae nomikae, Cyril and Philoxehis legislation, yet indexes (indikes)

Rhomaikai

paragraphai or

nus are particularly noted; but the authors of too numerous semeioseis, whether exothen or esothen keimenai, are ton palaion, comparagraphai these of collection A mention. to called ta basilika, bined with neai paragraphai on the revised code about the middle of the 12th century by a disciple of

was made Michael Hagiotheodorita.

The

collection of these glossaries

is

as the Glossa ordinaria ton basilikon. Latin.— \n Italy, also, during the period of Byzantine ascend-

known

sway in the West, ancy, and later, after the extinction of Byzantine

GLOSS

488

AND GLOSSARY

various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code and various legal treatises were produced. The series of legal glossacompilation tors was closed by Accursius (i 182-1260) with the

known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the authority of which soon became very great. For some account of the glossators on the canon law, see Canon Law. {See also Glossators, Legal.) Latin glossography, hke Greek, had its origin chiefly in the practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only a few. No doubt even in classical times collections of glosses (glossaries) were compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro and Verrius-Festus. The scriptores glossematorum were distinguished from the learned glossographers like Aurelius Opilius,

know

Servius Clodius, Aelius Stilo and L. Ateius Philologus, whose liber glossematorum Festus mentions. Verrius Flaccus (who died under Tiberius), and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved many treasures of early glos-

sographers no longer extant. He copied Aelius Stilo, author of De verborum significatii, Aurelius Opihus, Ateius Philologus and the treatise De obsciiris Catonis. He often made use of Varro and

was

also acquainted with later glossographers.

Perhaps the glossae

be ascribed to him. Festus was used by PseudoPhiloxenus (see below). Bilingual Glossaries.—The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early period, and were used by the grammarians (i) to explain the peculiarities (idiomata) of the Latin

may

asbestos

language by comparison with the Greek; and (2) for instruction in the two languages. The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known lexica; one (Ladn-Greek), formerly attributed, but wrongly, to Philoxenus consists of

two closely

(consul a.d.

525), clearly

allied glossaries (containing glosses to

Latin

authors, such as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus)

,

worked

into one

by some Greek grammarian,

influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, etc.) the other (Greek-Latin) is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than the 6th cenFurthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had tury. their origin in old lists of plants, as Pseudo-Apuleius in the treatise De herbarum virtutibus, and Pseudo-Dioscbrides the glossary, en-

or a person

who worked under Greek ;

;

Hermeneuma, printed from the Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases. Somewhat similar are names of anititled

mals

in

Polemius

Silvius.

Of Latin glossaries of the first five or six centuries of the Roman emperors few traces are left, if Verrius-Festus is excepted. Of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus. All that is known of the second of these tends to show that he lived in north Africa in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of the Liber glossarum {see below). These glosses are known from (i) Codices Romani (15th and i6th centuries); (2) the Liber glossarum; (3)

(nth

century), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the the Cod. Paris, nov. acquis. 1298 others.

(P'abius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. a.d.

Expositio

a

lemma

sermonum cntiquorum

468-533) wrote

paragraphs, each containing (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quoin 62

and names of authors. Next to. him come the glossae Nonianae, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Marcellus' work being written in the margin without the words of the text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and tations

afterward copied for other collections. In a similar way arose the glossae Euchcrii or glossae spiritales secundum Eiicherium episcopum found in many manuscripts, which are an alphabetical ex-

from the formulae spiritalis intelligentiae of St. Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, c. 434-450. The so-called Malberg glosses, found in various texts of the Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul from the Romans at the end tract

of the 5th century.

The

antiquity and the philological importance be realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the end of the 5th century. (See J. Grimm's preface to J. Merkel's edition [1850], of these glosses

may

and H. Kern's notes to Salica.)

The Middle Ages.

J.

H. Hessels's edition [1880] of the Lex

—During the

6th, 7th

and 8th centuries

glos-

sography developed in various ways old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or amalgamated with niore recent ones. It ceased, ;

moreover, to be exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. Among Celtic glosses the most important are Old Irish, and of these Bishop Cormac's and O'Davoren's have been edited by Whitley Stokes, the former also by Kuno Meyer. The origin and development of the extant late classic and medieval glossaries can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-theway words which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above the line are called interlinear, those written in the margins of the manuscripts marginal glosses. Again, manuscripts of the Bible were often provided with interlinear literal

translations.

Types of Glossaries.— i. From these glossed manuscripts and were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared in the manuscripts, with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were taken or placed at the head of each separate collection. In this arrangement each article by itself when reference is made only to the word explained is called a gloss it is called the lemma, while the explanation is termed the ifiterpretamentum. In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and explained by a single word, so that lemmata appear in the accusative, dative and genitive, explained by words in the same cases the forms of verbs were treated in the same way. Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved in the late 8th century Leyden Glossary, where chapter iii contains words or glosses excerpted from the Life of St. Martin by Sulpicius Severus ch. iv, v and xxxv glosses from Rufinus, and so forth. 2. By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in alphabetical order according to the first letter of the lemma, but Of this second stage the Leystill retained in separate chapters. den Glossary contains traces also. interlinear versions glossaries

;

;

;

3.

The

third operation collected all the accessible glosses in al-

phabetical order, in the

first

instance according to the

first letters

Here the names of the authors or the titles could no longer be preserved, and consequently the sources of the glosses became uncertain. of the lemmata.

A

fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv, I sgq.), where even many attempts were made to arrange them according to the A peculiar arrangement is seen first three letters of the alphabet. 4.

first

two

Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv, 471 sqq.), where all words first according to the initial letter of Lhe word and then further according to the first vowel in the word (a, e, in the

are alphabetized,

i,

u).

o,

No

date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the Leyden Glossary (end of Sth century) whereas the Corpus Glossary (beginning of 8th century) represents already the fourth For the purpose of identification titles have been given stage. to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae abstrusae; glossae abavus m^jor and minor; g. affatim; g. ab

absens;

num

;

g.

abactor; g. Sangallemes.

g.

Abba Pater;

g. a,

a;

g.

Vergilianae;

g.

nomi-

A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the Origines (Etymologiae) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopaedia in which he, like Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together, and the et\Tnological part of which (book x) became a great mine for

>

;

GLOSSATORS His principal source is Servius, the fathers Next comes the Liber glossarum, of the church, and Donatus. chiefly compiled from Isidore, but with all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c. a.d. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but this name may be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book. Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations: (i) the Corpus Glossary (eds. J. H. Hessels, W. M. Lindsay), of the beginning of the 8th century, in Corpus Christi college, Cambridge; (2) the Leyden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. J. H. Hessels, Plac. Glogger), in Leyden manuscript Voss. Q° Lat. 6g; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the gth century and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society from the manuscript at Epinal; (4) the Glossae Amploniatiae , i.e., three glossaries preserved in the Amlater glossographers.

plonian library at Erfurt,

known

as Erfurt', Erfurt-,

which are arranged alphabetically according to the two letters of the lemmata.

The

first

and Erfurt^,

first

or the

first

great glossary or collection of various glosses and glosSalomon, bishop of Constance, who died a.d. 919.

saries is that of

An

was printed

1475 at Augsburg as Salemonis ecex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus. Its sources are the Liber glossarum, the glossary preserved in the gth-century manuscript Lat Monac. 14429, and the Abavus major Gloss. The Liber glossarum has also been the chief source for the important (but not original) glossary of Papias, of a.d. 1053, who also wrote a grammar chiefly compiled from Priscian. It is also the source of (i) the Abba Pater Glossary, published by edition of

it

c.

clesie ConstantieTisis episcopi glosse

M. Thomas

{Sitz. Ber. Akad. Munch., 1868, ii, 369 sqq.); (2) Greek glossary Absida hicida; and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the Cod. Leid. Seal. Orient. No. 231 (published by Seybold in Semit. Stiidien, Heft xv-xvii, 1900). The Paidus-Glossary is compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti magistratus), the Abavus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of Hebraica. Osbern of Gloucester (c. 11 23-1 200) compiled the glossary entitled Panormia (ed. Angelo Mai as Thesaurus novus Latinitatis, from Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1392), giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected from Paulus, Priscian, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, etc. Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still more extensively used (Goetz enumerates 103 manuscripts of his treatise). The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled Summa quae vacatur cathoUcon, dates from the year 1286, and mostly uses Hugucio and Papias; its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the Vulgate by preference; it excerpts Pris-

G.

the

Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the church; it borrows glosses, especially from Jerome; it mentions the Graecismus of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of Rabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa Dei, and the Aurora cianus,

many Hebrew

of Petrus de Riga.

and loth centuries are numerous, but a diminution becomes visible toward the nth. A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanical glossaries based on earlier ones. The additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic interchange with English, French, Italian and German forms. Glossaries of this kind are (i) the Glossae alphita; (2) Sinonoma

The

gloss manuscripts of the gth

Bartholomei, of the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat; of (3) the compilations of Simon de Janua (^Clavis sanationis, end 13th century), and of Matthaeus Silvaticus {Pandectae medicinae, 14th century). There are many biblical glossaries, mostly mixed with glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate in genThere is the Glossae eral, and the prologues of Hieronymus. veteris ac novi testamenti (beginning "Prologus graece latine praelocutio sive praefatio'') in numerous manuscripts of the gth to

14th centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who

headings.

1250, and compiled a Summa (beginning "difficiles studeo partes quas Biblia gestat pandere") which gave rise to the lived about

489

Mammotrectus

of J. Marchesinus. about 1300, of which there are See also Dictionary.

editions of 1470, etc.

Modern History

—The modern

and glossaries began with

J.

historical interest

Scaliger (1540-1609

),

who

in

glosses

in his edi-

tion of Festus made great u.se of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled 0. MuUer, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. Scaliger also planned the publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left behind a collection of glosses known as glossae Isidori. The study of glosses was greatly furthered through the publication, in 1573, of the bilingual glossaries by Henri Stephanus (Estienne).

In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding (i) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared for the first time; (2) the Onomasticon; (3) notae and castigationes, derived from Scaliger. In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, by Du Cange, after which the 17th and i8th centuries produced no further glossaries, though glosses were constantly used or referred to by scholars at Leyden, where a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the Vossius library. In the 19th century came Osann's Glossarii Lutini specimen (1826) the glossographical publications of Angelo Mai Clas(

;

auctores, vol.

1831-36, containing Osbern's Panormia, Placidus and various glosses from Vatican manuscripts) sici^

iii,

vi,

vii,

viii,

on the Codex Amplonianus of Osbem, and his edition of the three Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris, lat. 7690; in 1857, Thomas Wright's vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 18S4 by R. Paul Wiilcker under the title Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies; L. Diefenbach's supplement to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae et itifimae aetatis; Ritschl's treatise (1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus by Deuerling; G. Loewe's Prodomus Corporis Glossariorutn Latinorum (1876), and other treatises by him, pulilished after his death by G. Goetz (1884); in 1SS5. H. Sweet, LatinAnglo-Saxon glossaries in Oldest English Texts ; in 1890, J. H. Hessels, apograph of the Corpus Glossary, 1906 of the Leyden Glossary ; and in 1900, Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses, collected chiefly from Aldhelm manuscripts. Goetz's own great Corpus glossariorum Latinorum, appeared in seven volumes between 18S8 and 1923, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum, containing many emendations and corrections of In the 20th earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars. century appeared W. M. Lindsay's Corpus Glossary and The Corpus, Epinal, Erfurt, and Leyden Glossaries, both in 1921, and Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)

his

Palaeographia Latina,

in 1922.

W. M.

Lindsay, with the col-

laboration of J. Whatmough, J. F. Mountford, J. H. Thomson et al., edited Glossaria Latina (four volumes) in 1926-1930 for the British

Academy.

—

Bibliography. Among encyclopaedic articles the chief are J. Tolkiehn's article "Lexicographie" and G. Goetz's article "Lateinische GlosReal-Encyclopiidie der classischen sogr.iphie" in Pauly-Wissowa,

Comparable to Goetz's Corpus is the great coland Sievers, Die allhochdeutschen Glossen, 4 vol. (1S79-98), containing a vast number of glosses culled from Bible manuSee also many scripts and manuscripts of classical Christian authors.

Altertumswissenschajl. lection of Steinmeyer

articles in Anglia, Englische. Studien, .Irchiv f. latcin Lexicographie, Romania, Zeitsckr. fiir deulsches Alterlhum, Journal of English and Germanic Philology, American Journal of Philology, Classical

important

On glossal see J. Whatmough, Poetic, Scientific, and Other Lindsay and J. H. Thomson, Ancient of Discourse, ch. 4 (1957) Lore in Mediaeval Latin Glossarie'pt are remains of Grey-

and Blackfriars priories and of the city wall. There are endowed schools: the King's Cathedral school (1545); the Crypt grammar school, founded by Dame Joan Cooke (iS39) ^nd friars

three

J

Sir

Thomas

Rich's school (1666).

Robert Raikes held the

first

the

"Hesperus," immortalized in Longfellow's famous poem; castle; and the well-known bronze statue of a fisher-

Hammond's man,

a

memorial

to

Gloucestermen

lost at sea.

In the later 19th and early 20th centuries, immigrants from Portugal, Italy and a few from the Scandinavian countries settled in Gloucester, adding their traditions to its culture. Incorporated as a town in 1642 and as a city in 1873, it adopted For comparathe council-manager form of government in 1949. tive population figures see table in Massachusetts: Population. Gloucester is described in many books including; Rudyard Kipling, Captains Courageous ; James B. Connolly, Gloucestermen

(1930) and Percy MacKaye, Dogtown Common (1921 ). Samuel Chamberlain's Gloucester and Cape Ann (1938) includes many (F. L. S.) photographs of the area. ;

GLOUCESTER CITY, originally the seat of Old Gloucester county, became a part of Jersey, U.S.,

Camden

county, in southwestern

when Camden county was detached

New

in 1844.

Gloucester city is on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia, and adjoins the city of Camden on its southern boundary. The first settlement occurred in 1623, when Fort Nassau, the first Dutch outpost in the Delaware valley, was built near the mouth of Big Timber creek. In 1664 the English gained control and in 1677 a group of Irish Quakers occupied what the Indians called Arwamus. This was renamed Gloucester point after a place Pa.,

on the Severn river in England. Prior to the American Revolution, Elizabeth Griscom, better known as Betsy Ross, eloped from Philadelphia to Gloucester City where she married John Ross at Hugg's tavern. For this she Hugg's was "read out of meeting" by the Quakers in 1774. works, shipengineering and light heavj' and has cameras, etc., yards and many long-established timber mills. Its principal im- tavern was razed in 1929 to make way for a county park. Incorporated as a city in 1S6S, Gloucester City grew with the ports are timber, grain and petroleum products; its main exports expansion of the nearby shipbuilding works started in 1899 in are its own manufactured goods. It is also a market town. The Severn fisheries for salmon and lampreys are important Camden. In the second half of the 20th century its industries and in 1953 the city high sheriff revived the custom (begun included the manufacture of building materials and roofing, paperboard boxes, cork products, infants' dresses and chemicals. In in the reign of Henry I) of sending a lamprey pie to the sover1957 it became the site of the New Jersey end of the Walt Whiteign. The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height, 9 ft., man bridge over the Delaware. For comparative population figjust below the city, at Stonebench. (H. F. Wi.) History. Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre) was the ures see table in New Jersey: Population. Roman municipality or colonia of Glevum, founded by Nerva, a.d. GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a west-midland county in England, 96-98. Its situation and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of is divided into two unequal parts by the Severn and its estuary. St. Peter by King Osric favoured the growth of the town. The greatest length from northeast to southwest is 60 mi. (97 km.), It became the capital of Mercia and before the Conquest was a and the greatest breadth 43 mi. (69 km.). Bristol, since 1373 a borough with a royal residence and a mint. It has been granted county in itself, is geographically (but not administratively) part numerous fairs and charters, the first by Henry II, and was in- of the county. The geographical area of Gloucestershire, includcorporated by Richard III in 1483, being made a county in itself. ing the county boroughs of Bristol and Gloucester, is 1,258.1 sq.mi. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. James I (3,258 sq.km.) of land and inland water. Physical Features. The county shows three distinct areas: raised Gloucester to city status in 1605. Its iron trade dates from before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of the Cotswolds, the Severn valley and the Forest of Dean. Richard III, bell-founding was introduced in the 14th and pinThe Oolitic uplands of the Cotswolds (q.v.) on the eastern half making in the 17th century, and the long-existing coal trade be- extend from Meon hill in the north to Lansdown, near Bath came important in the i8th century. The cloth trade flourished (Somerset), in the south. Their height averages about 700 ft. from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in grain (213 m.), though Cleeve and some other points exceed 1,000 ft. and wine existed before the reign of Richard I. (305 m.). They form an undulating tableland of about 300,000 The town formerly returned two members to parliament, but ac, with parts considerably dissected with steep valleys, as near after 1885 returned one member. Stroud. The valleys of the Thames headwaters, to the southeast, See also references under "Gloucester" in the Index. and those of the Churn, Coin, Leach and Windrush, have a characGLOUCESTER, a manufacturing, fishing and summer resort teristic charm, as do the Cotswold \'illages, built of the native stone city of Essex county on Cape Ann in northeastern Massachusetts, and in the native style. Where wooded the Cotswold escarpment U.S., was originally settled in 1623. During the 17th and 18th is one of the country's most striking features. centuries, Gloucester flourished as a shipbuilding, maritime and Next comes the level Lias and Trias clay country of the valley fishing centre, in competition with nearby Salem and Newburyport. of the Severn, lying between the foot of the Cotswold escarpment The first ship to be called a schooner is said to have been built and the river's banks. In the north it forms the Vale of Evesham in Gloucester about 1713. Along with manufacturing, fishing and which merges into the fertile vales of Gloucester and Berkeley, a declining foreign commerce dominated Gloucester's economic life when it later proceeds to widen out. The Severn enters the county during the 19th century. After 1900 the economy was primarily near Tewkesbury and is joined by the Warwickshire Avon, dividindustrial, with fish processing the leading industry. Secondary ing into two round Gloucester, and slowly expanding to form the dependence was on fishing and on a large seasonal tourist and re- Bristol channel. The tidal wave or "bore" may be seen to adsort business, drawn to Cape Ann by historical associations, the vantage near Gloucester. Nearly all the Severn's tributaries, scenic rocky coast and salt-water recreational facilities, and to the such as the Swilgate, Chelt, Frome or Stroudwater and the Little city by its picturesque water front, narrow streets and weathered Avon, enter on the left bank, the Leadon near Gloucester, and the colonial buildings. Of special interest are the reef of Norman's Wye entering on the right bank. The Bristol Frome and the Boyd Woe on the east coast of Cape Ann where occurred the wreck of flow south to the Bristol Avon, which joins the Severn at Avon-

Sunday school

in

Gloucester

in

1780.

Gloucester possesses factories for making railway rolling stock, aircraft and components, agricultural implements, insulating material, aluminum bungalows, furniture, matches, motion-picture

—

—

GLOUCESTERSHIRE mouth, as the county boundary with Somerset, Clifton gorge (see

The

in the

impressive

Avon).

third county area

the hilly, elevated tract between the Severn and Wye, reaching to more than 800 ft. at Ruardean, being mainly occupied by the now restricted Forest of Dean with its oaks and poor peaty soil of the coal measures. It is bordered on Severnis

farm land, and on the west by the limeWye valley. (See also Dean, Forest Geologically, the strata have generally a descending order OF.) from east to west. On the extreme southeast, by Fairford and Cirencester, is an intrusion of Oxford Clay, succeeded by the side

by

stone

a strip of fertile

cliffs

of the attractive

Oolitic area of the

Cotswolds, with outlying

hills

such as Bredon,

The Oolite yields the buildingstone which weathers to give the typical Cotswold grayish tint. Next come the Liassic lowlands of the vales of Evesham and Churchdown and Robinswood.

493 The Roman occupation is reflected in its Fosse way and Ermine street), its villas and

Belgic site at Bagendon.

roads (such as the towns. One of the most remarkable

courtyard type being periodically uncovered. Many villas, formerly excavated, are no longer on view. The important Roman towns of Glevum ( Gloucester) and Corinium (Cirencester) are constantly producing remains of the occupation. The Roman station at Lydney has a temple to the god Nodens. In Saxon times much of the district was peopled by the Hwicca tribe in the kingdom of Mercia, when at

and Tortworth on the north and the Forest of Dean, while associated with the latter is a limited area of the Devonians. Silurian rocks occur at Tortworth and May hill (969 ft.). In the northwest are the Archaean rocks of the south Malverns. In the Forest of Dean coal measures (there about 2,765 ft. thick) the strata form a basin between Mitcheldean, Coleford and Lydney. On the outside are rings of Carboniferous limestone (in which hematite occurs), Millstone Grit and Old Red Sandstone. The iron from the hematite was formerly worked locally. Climate is temperate and the prevailing winds westerly and southerly. The rainfall varies throughout the county, averaging about 32 in. annually, April and May being apparently the driest months. The average annual mean temperature at sea level is roughly between 50° and 51° F. (10° and 10.56° C). In the sheltered Vale of Gloucester the soil is rich and this area is the chief seat of tillage, with the Cheltenham district having market gardening. The Forest of Dean is cold and much The of it barren, but elsewhere there are woods and coppice. Oolitic Cotswolds are covered with a thin soil of calcareous brown loam, while its valleys have patches of rich land. Sand and gravel deposits occur at, among other places, Frampton-on-Severn and

bury

Charlton Kings.

of

About 80% of Gloucestershire is agricultural or semiagricultural Roughly speaking the Cotswolds are beech country, the Severn valley elm country and Dean forest oak and fern country. The higher parts of the Cotswolds, predominantly grassland, have an abundant and varied flora, particularly in the valleys and woods. Orchids and the fritillary abound, the latter by the river meadows in the east.

The Newent

area has extensive daffodil no longer occur.

fields.

Vine-

yards, important in medieval times,

Many typical British mammals are found (such as the fox, badger, stoat and weasel) and a few red squirrels and fallow deer inhabit Dean forest. There is a wide variety of bird life, with an important sanctuary at the Wildfowl trust near Slimbridge on the Severn, which is also a noted salmon-fishing river, the fish being netted between Tewkesbury and the estuary. The young of the eel (elvers) are taken in large quantities, being mostly eaten locally. The lamprey, formerly a royal delicacy, is no longer sought for food. The river Coin at Fairford and Bibury is well stocked with trout. The National trust has taken over a number of historic and scenic sites, such as the Chedworth Roman villa, Hailes abbey (near Winchcombe) and Snowshill manor, together with Minchinhampton and Rodborough commons (580 and 242 ac), Haresfield beacon and Standish wood (348 ac), Hidcote Manor garden and other places. In 1 939 the Forest of Dean became a National Forest park.

History and Antiquities.

— Gloucestershire

contains

many

being particularly rich in long barrows (e.g., Belas Knap, above Winchcombe, Hetty Pegler's Tump, near Uley, and others at Nympsfield, Notgrove and elsewhere) together with numerous round barrows. The Cotswolds have the remains of many camps and settlements of the Iron Age, with an important relics of its past,

sq.ft.)

was constructed, part passing through the county. About the year 1000 the old kingdom of Hwicce was divided, the southern part and the forest forming the county much as it is today, as is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of A.D. 1016. The great castles of Berkeley, Bristol, St. Briavels and Gloucester were built during the

land.

('49

the great Offa's dike

To the Lias succeeds a narrow belt of New Red Sandstone, broken by the upper part of the Severn estuary. On the extreme southwest are Carboniferous rocks in the coal fields of the Bristol basin (between Bristol and Kingswood on the south Gloucester.

villas is of the

Woodchester. the extensive pavement

the county

Edward

was the

II's reign

Norman

times of turmoil, and

chief theatre of the wars in Stephen's reign.

war again broke out

in

the shire,

when

of the county rose against the unpopular Despensers.

the

In

men

At Tewkes-

1471 Queen Margaret was defeated in the Wars of the Roses. It was in Henry VIII's reign that the Gloucester diocese was created (1541) from those of Worcester and Hereford. In the Civil War of the 17th century the county was mainly on the side of parliament, and though Cirencester and Bristol fell to the king's forces, parliamentary Gloucester successfully withstood a in

siege in 1643.

Meanwhile the Forest of Dean was assuming an importance not only for its ironworks but also for its coal mining and timber production for shipping, in Stuart times and later. During the 14th century the wool trade of the Cotswolds was developing, and rearing sheep for w-ool replaced corn growing as the main agricultural pursuit. In the reign of Edward III Flemish weavers were introduced into the county and the manufacture of cloth was established. Stroud, with its good water supply, was an important centre for broadcloth. Bristol was prospering as a port and as a clothing district, the Canynges family there being of considerable influence in the ISth century.

Several of the main trade centres

of the Cotsw-olds were Cirencester, Northleach, Fairford, Chipping Campden, Tetbury and Winchcombe. The prosperity of the local in their financing the building and adorning Cotswold and Bristol churches, and the fine houses, market places, grammar schools and almshouses remain as monuments to the wealth of such men as William Grevel and Baptist Hicks (Viscount Campden) at Chipping Campden. The weavers and dyers enjoyed a fair prosperity until the late 18th century, when the industry began to decline, and the long-famous handloom weaving finished with the advent of mechanization, though Stroud still manufactures high-grade cloth. A single flock remains of the old Cotsw-old sheep or Cotswold "lions'" as they were called. By the 1960s the wool towns had increased in popularity as va-

merchants

many

is

shown

of the

cation centres.

With the 18th-century fashion

for spas, Cheltenham, Hotwells

and Clifton attained great fame. In World War II Bristol, in particular, received damage from air attack, the cathedral also being damaged. Many interesting examples of architecture remain to reflect the county's past. At Deerhurst church and elsewhere is Saxon work, with Norman work in Gloucester cathedral, Tewkesbury abbey and Bishop's Cleeve, many of the churches of

this period

having

In Gloucester cathedral, Chipare examples of PerWinchcombe and Northleach ping Campden, pendicular work. Fairford church has notable stained glass, and

tympanum heads

to the doorways.

Kempley and Stoke Orchard have restored wall paintings. Mothe adage "as nastic houses were numerous (the basis perhaps for at Gloucester, sure as God's in Gloucestershire"), with abbeys remains at important and Cirencester, and Bristol Tewkesbury,

Hailes, Flaxley

and Kingswood.

Many

churches

still

have

bells

famfrom the eariy foundries at Gloucester. The ancient local Berkeley, Tracy and others, ilies, those of Guise, Ducie, Bathurst, that at have all left their marks, and important houses such as

Badminton, the home of the duke of Beaufort,

Population and Administration.

—The

still

remain.

total population, in-

494

GLOVERSVILLE— GLOVES

estieluding the county boroughs of Bristol and Gloucester, was partly since 1951. of increase an in 1961, 6,5^r 1,000.493 mated at due to a large influx of people during World War II with the evacuation of key industries from London. The chief centres of as' follows: Bristol (1961) 436.440; Gloucester 69,687; Cheltenham 71.968; Kingswood 25,419. There are two county boroughs (Bristol and Gloucester) and two municipal boroughs CCheltenham and Tewkesbury) together

population are

with 6 urban and 15 rural districts C298 constituent parishes). There are two courts of quarter sessions and 21 petty sessional diThe assizes (Oxford circuit) and quarter sessions are visions. held in the Shire hall, Gloucester, the county's seat of administraBristol returns six members to parliament, Gloucester and tion. Cheltenham one each, with one for each of the four county divisions (Cirencester and Tewkesbury. West Gloucestershire,

Stroud, and South Gloucestershire). Ecclesiastically the county is in the province of Canterbury and mainly in Gloucester diocese, divided into the archdeaconries of Gloucester and Cheltenham. with parishes in and near Bristol in the Bristol diocese, established

There is a Roman Catholic diocese of Clifton. Industries and Communications. Agriculture remains the county's main industry. The Severn valley is the great milk and cheese area, the most popular herd being the British Friesian. Gloucester, the main market town, is also an artificial insemination centre. Gloucestershire gave its name to the Old Spots pig. There in 1897.

—

are also dairy herds on the Cotswolds. traditional sheep-farm.ing land. Cotswold farms are generally large by English standards,

250-700 ac. and above, several estates having extensive and welltimbered parks. The hills are an important farming area with cornlands producing about 30 cwt. an acre, winter wheat and barley being the main crops. The county has only 32,000 ac. of rough grazing, as against 600.000 ac. of crops and grass. The Forest of Dean has about 10.000 ac. of rough common grazing, some unfenced. There is also mixed farm land, for milk production, with stock raising and sheep farms. The county has several large poultry farms. Apple and pear orchards (for cider and perr>') are to be found in the Newent and Berkeley vale areas, with extensive plum orchards in the Huntley and Blaisdon area. and with fruit growing near Toddington. The farmers and horticulturalists join the neighbouring shires of Hereford and Worcester in the Three Counties show. Gloucestershire had. by mid-20th century, increased in importance as a manufacturing county, though many of its traditional industries had practically disappeared.

World War

II brought

about a great industrial expansion, particularly in the aircraft and ancillary industries las at Brockworth near Gloucester, and Filton near Bristol). The university city of Bristol is the main industrial centre with its large port and docks at Avonmouth and its wide variety of manufactures such as engineering, tobacco, chocolate and paper. Gloucester, an inland port, is engaged primarily with engineering, timber, matches, railway carriages and the nylon inIt is an important gas-manufacturing station, Cheltenhas industries connected with aircraft, clocks and brewing, and the Stroud, Nailsworth and Dursley area also has a vnde

dustr>'.

ham

COTSWOLD SCENE DURING HARVEST TIME NEAR PAINSWICK VILLAGE GLOUCESTERSHIRE

A

variety of industries, such as plastics, engineering and scientific

Paper is made near Winchcombe, and Tewkesbury has flour mills and boat building. The nuclear power station at Berkeley and a large chemical works at Thornbury are modem developments. There are several deep coal mines in the Forest of Dean, forming part of the South-Western division of the National Coal board, with an annual output of about 500,000 tons. There are also some small mines licensed for private operation. instruments.

The Freeminers have ancient

rights for

working

local coal or iron,

confirmed as an act of 1838, There are also wire and cable works, fruit, food and rubber factories and stone quarrying, but the tin-

works

plate

at

Lydney was

coal deposits are centred

closed in 1957,

The strontium

about 2,000 ft, thick. "pockets" at Yate,

North of Bristol the in two series, each celestite, is found in

on Coalpit Heath, ore,

Two main regions of British railways serve the county. The Western region line runs from London and continues to south Wales via Gloucester, while the Midland region line from the midlands and the north passes to Bristol and the south, each having branch lines. A tunnel under the Severn also connects London The Severn is navigable direct with south Wales and Fishguard. throughout the county for small vessels but the Gloucester and Berkeley canal (completed in 1827) enables shipping up to 650 tons to reach Gloucester and the midlands. Another canal, the Thames and Severn, formerly of importance, was opened in 1789 and begins at Lechlade on the Thames and joins the Stroudwater canal to enter the Severn at Framilode. Part of the great Ross Spur motorway passes through the northwest of the county Gloucester and Cheltento join the midlands with south Wales.

ham

share a

civil airport at

Staverton.

—

Bibliography. Gordon E. Payne, A Physical, Social and Economic Gloucestershire County Survey and Plan of Gloucestershire (1946) Handbook, 1959-1960; J. C. Cox, Gloucestershire, 8th ed., rev. by H. Stratton Davis (1949); Cotteswold Naturalists Field Club, Flora of Gloucestershire (1948); Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Lewis Wilshire, The Socielv, Transactions for 1876, etc. (IS76) Vale of Berkeley (1954) Cvril E. Hart, The Free Miners of the Royal Forest of Dean and Hundred of St. Briavels, etc. (1953); H, P. R. (B. C. F.) Finberg (ed.), Gloucestershire Studies (1957). ;

;

;

GLOVERSVILLE, N.W.

a

of Albany, in eastern

Fulton county about 45 mi. York, U.S., forms with adjoining

city of

New

in the industrialized Moadjacent to the Adirondack State

Johnstown a small metropohtan centre

hawk

valley.

The

cities are

park; forest land covers over dO'^c of the county and there are many lakes and streams in the immediate vicinity. Small dairy

farms are the principal form of agriculture. Glovemaking and the tanning of leather, which remain the most important industries of the region, began in the colonial period. After ISOO, ^\ide-ranging peddlers from Glovers\nlle exchanged tinware for deerskins with the settlers in the Mohawk valley. The greater supply of skins, the large amount of tannin available and the abundant water supply accelerated the expansion of the industries. By 1900 the region made 80% of the gloves manufactured in the United States. The factories were usually small and the workers often of English or German origin. Located within ten miles of the New York State Barge canal, the New York State Thruway and the New York Central railroad, Gloversxnlle became a wholesale and retail distribution centre. It was called Stump City until 1828. Incorporated as a village in ISSl. it became a city in 1890. For comparative population figures of both Gloversxille and Johnstown, see table in New York: Population. (H. S. Pr.) GLOVES. Glovemaking is an ancient art. as attested by the well-formed linen gloves with a drawstring closing at the wrist found in the tomb of the young Egj^jtian king Tutankhamen. Greek and Roman literatures contain many allusions to gloves. In medieval Europe both fabric and leather gloves, often richly jeweled and embroidered, were worn by princes and prelates, and to the glove of the period there was attached not only a due economic, aesthetic and utilitarian value but a rich depth of symbolism as well. By the 14th century gloves were worn by the upper classes generally, particularly by men; however, it was not until the 16th century, when Catherine de Medicis, queen of France, set the fash-

GLOWWORM

495

—

same appearance on each side the The simplex machine uses two

the

fabrics.

so-called "double-woven" sets of spring needles set

back to back with two guide bars that feed yarn to both sets of needles.

Glove fabrics are processed by scouring; i.e., treatment with soap and a mild alkali followed by a thorough rinsing and partial drying. They are then impregnated with a solution of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide to produce maximum shrinkage. All traces of caustic soda must then be removed by an acid bath. The fabric is next immersed in a dye bath, rinsed and dried. The material may be given the appearance of su^de leather by running it over rollers covered with glass cloth or emery. )

The

finished fabric

is

cut into glove-size squares, arranged face

and right hands may be cut together, through which a knife-sharp glove die is forced. Between-finger gores and thumbs are cut separately and are attached when the cutout glove is folded over and stitched together. An additional seaming imparts a tubular form to the side to face side so that left

and

up

built

As

in layers

fingers.

in the case of the leather glove, the fabric glove is

on an electrically heated metal hand. Knit Gloves. Machine-knit gloves, rivaling in colour, pattern interest and stitch variation those kriit by hand, are made of wool, man-made fibres and heavy cotton yarns and can be produced with tailored

—

BY COURTEsr OF THE METROPOLITAN (RrOHT) ROGERS FUND, I92B

MUSEUM OF

ART.

(LEFT)

PHOTOGRAPH BY HARRY BURTON;

(LEFT) TAPESTRY WOVEN GLOVE WITH DRAWSTRING CLOSING AT THE WRIST BELONGING TO THE EGYPTIAN KING TUTANKHAMEN. IN THE CAIRO MUSEUM. EGYPT. (RIGHT) EMBROIDERED LEATHER GLOVE; ENGLISH. LATE 16TH CENTURY

they became a standard item of dress for women. Anwas Queen Elizabeth I of England, who favoured rich, ornate gloves. During this era ladies' gloves of soft kidskin were introduced, and Grenoble, France, became the centre of kid glove manufacture. In 1S34 a citizen of Grenoble, Xa\-ier Jouvin, made an important contribution to the industn,- by inventing the cutting die that made possible a glove of precise fit; there-

ion, that

other influential figure

became more and more common. Leather Gloves. Although the kid glove retains its supremacy as the aristocrat among gloves, other skins, including tho:^e of after, gloves

—

young lambs (also called doeskin), capeskin, cabretta, pigskin, buckskin and reindeer, are utilized in modern glove manufacture. The skins are converted into leather by tanning (see Leather). Certain tanning processes produce glove leather that is washable.

A smooth, bright finish, commonly produced by buffing on plush-covered wheels. A suede or nap finish is produced by shaving or skiving off the top-grain or hair side of the skin, either by hand or by machine, and then buffing the leather with emery. There are generally eight components of a leather glove: palm and back ("one piece), thumb, three forks or fourchettes slender pieces of leather that form the sides of the fingers and three quirks, or diamond-shaped pieces, inserted at the bottom between

or without seams.

Seamless gloves

may

in two ways: the cuff and palm machine and then transferred to a flat fingering machine, or the entire glove may be fashioned on a flat machine. When two machines are used, the operator must

body may be

be knit

knit on a circular

exercise great care in transferring the loops of yarn, or stitches, of the palm body from the needles of the circular machine to those of the

flat

fingering machine.

Seamed, or wrought, gloves are produced as straight selvage pieces on a flat knitting machine. The glove is completed by folding the piece so that complementing parts fall together and then closing the glove by stitching. Machines for knitting gloves are equipped with patterning devices that produce predetermined decorative designs in desired colours during the knitting process.

—

Other Gloves Many types of special protective gloves have been developed, such as the surgeon's gloves of very thin rubber and the much heavier ones used by electrical workers. Asbestos gloves protect against burns, as do gloves made of a hea\y, twisted Thousands of tiny

Various finishes are used.

loop pile fabric similar to terry cloth.

called grain or glace, is

in the fabric proNade insulation against heat; the cushioning quality

—

the fingers.

—

In cutting gloves, a single trank, or rectangular piece may be cut by hand to a desired

of leather the size of the glove,

pattern with shears, or a number of tranks may be cut simultaneously by a weighted, sharp, steel die. The glove is closed by stitch-

thumbs, quirks and fourchettes being set in and sewed with Some sewing is done by hand but most is done by machines, which have been developed so that their stitching closely resembles that done by hand. The completed glove is dampened, tailored on an electrically heated metal hand of the exact size and shape of the glove and then buffed. Fabric Gloves. Unlike the fabric gloves of antiquity, which were made of woven material, modern fabric gloves are knit. Prior to World War II silk was a favoured material, but cotton and manmade fibres, such as rayon and nylon, have since become the staples

ing, the

great care.

—

of the glove industry.

Early fabrics were knit on tricot knitting machines equipped with needles resembling crochet hooks. The resulting fabric was not tightly knit, and two layers of material were bonded together with adhesive to furnish a duplex fabric of sufficient body. This led to the development of the simplex knitting machine that produces a single-knit but double-faced fabric of good body that has

air cells

of the material also protects the hands against cuts and abrasions.

Treating Canton flannel gloves with semifluid polyvinyl plastic

produces a remarkably versatile plastic-coated work glove that is heat resistant, impermeable to most fluids and proof against acids, alkalies, industrial oils and greases and many chemical solvents. The hands of the X-ray technician may be shielded against radiation by gloves impregnated with lead. See C. Codv Collins, Love of a Glove (1947); Justine Randers(E. L. Y.) Pchrson. The 'Surgeon's Glove (I960).

GLOWWORM,

a

name

loosely applied to crawling luminous

insects emitting light either continuously or in prolonged glows

Principal types rather than in brief flashes as do most fireflies. of glowworms are: fl) wingless adult females of certain lampyrid beetles (the

European genus Lampyris [C, D]

is

the

glowworm

of literature); (2) larvae of lampyrid fireflies (A, B; common in the Americas) and of elaterid fireflies ('tropical); (3) lar\'ae and

larxiform adult females of certain beetles of the genera Phengodes (North America; E) and Phrixothrix (South America) and (4) larvae of certain gnats (e.g., the cave-dwelling Bolilophila of New

Zealand and Platyura of the central Appalachians). Glowworm photogenic organs vary widely in size, number location and structure, suggesting independent evolutionary origins of In Phengodes the light is emitted by light-producing ability. solitary giant cells; in Bolilophila by modified excretory organs; Lamin Platyura by modified salivary glands; and in Phrixothrix, pyris and lampyrid larvae by organs similar to. but simpler than, the "lanterns" of flashing types of fireflies. The light is usually greenish, but the "railroad worm" {Phrixothrix) has a red head-

GLOXINIA—GLUCK

496

from 1939

to 1956,

was

bom

at Preston. Lancashire,

on April

16,

1897, the son of Maj. Gen. Sir F. M. Glubb. He was educated at Cheltenham and the Royal Military academy, Woolwich. Glubb

was first drawn to the Arabs when, after being thrice wounded in World War I, he went to Iraq as a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. Working among the tribes there, he learned their language and customs, eventually resigning his British army commission the more freely to strive for Arab betterment. In 1930 he joined the Arab legion and used his skill with the tribes to put down border raiding between Transjordan and Saudi Arabia. His talent lay in transforming the hitherto lawless but naturally martial Bedouins modern soldiers; they formed the elite of the legion when he assumed command in 1939. His devotion to the Arabs was coupled with a profound beUef that their future lay with the west. He was thus a sensitive interpreter of King Abdullah's pro-British But as .\rab nationalism developed after the Palestine policies. war ("1948) his influential position in Jordan aroused so much criticism that in 1956 King Husain, under great political pressure, On returning to England Glubb peremptorily dismissed him.

into

was knighted. Glubb also proved himself a writer of distinction. His works include The Story of the Arab Legion ("1948), A Soldier With the Arabs (1957), Britain and the Arabs (1959) and War in the Des(A. De.) ert: an R.A.F. Frontier Campaign (1961).

GLTJCINUM:

see Berylliu^i.

GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD

ri714-17S7\ Gerreformer of music drama during the second half of the 18th century, was born on July 2, 1714, at Erasbach, near Berching. in the Upper Palatinate. His paternal forebears, mostly foresters, came from the border territory between the Upper Palatinate and Bohemia; nothing is known of his ancestors on his mother's side. His father, Alexander Gluck (born Oct. 28, 1683), had come to Erasbach as ranger in 1711-12; the family then moved to Reichstadt near Bohmisch-Leipa in Bohemia. Between 1722 and 1727 they lived near Bohmisch-Kamnitz and after this, until 1736, in Eisenberg (near Komotau), where Alexander Gluck held the post of master forester to Prince Lobkowitz. Christoph Willibald, whose father probably intended him to continue in the family employment of forestry, at an early age showed a strong inclination toward music. In order to escape from disagreements with his father, the young Gluck finally left home. Supporting himself by his music he made his way to Prague, where he played in several churches and presumably completed his musical studies, though probably not with the composer B. M. Cernohorsky. as has often been maintained. He went to Vienna in the winter of 1735-36. There he was discovered by a Lombard nobleman, A. M. Melzi. who took the young musician with him to Milan, where Gluck, apart from fulfilling his duties in the Melzi family chapel, spent four years studying composition w-ith G. B. Sammartini, from whom he learned the new Italian style of instrumental music. Probably the six trio sonatas printed in London in 1746 were the fruits of his studies with Sammartini in Milan. They show Gluck fully conversant with the Itahan setting a tre; occasionally there are somewhat buffoonesque effects after the style of Pergolesi. As to the sequence of the movements, Gluck follows no model; all six sonatas are like divertimentos and they Besides consist of two movements with a minuet as conclusion. the six "London" sonatas, Gluck probably composed further trio sonatas under Sammartini. The only other surviving ones one in E major and one in F major) seem from their style, however, to

man composer and

D

C 'lic acids, Hnear polyesters are obtained; the fibre Dacron (Terylene), for example, is such an ester with terephthalic acid (see Phthalic .\nhydride and Phth.^lic .\cids Phthalic Acids). :

Commercial ethylene glvcol condensation polvmers (polyethylene glycols) have the general formula HOCHXHot OCHoCH,)^OH. They are produced from ethylene oxide or by combining ethylene glycol with ethylene oxide, and range from liquids to waxlike

solids.

ethers of ethylene glycol are of considerable importance, particularly as organic solvents. They are made by the direct ad-

The

dition of ethylene oxide to the corresponding alcohol.

glycol monoethyl ether (2-ethox\'ethanol),

Ethylene

CoHjOCHoCHoOH,

produced by the action of ethylene oxide with ethyl alcohol.

is

The

C

:

GLYCONIC— GLYCOSIDES corresponding ethers of diethylene glycol (i.e., dioxane) and other ethylene glycol condensation polymers are prepared in a similar

manner. Propylene glycol, also known as 1,2-propanediol, has the formula CH3CHOHCH0OH. Its properties and uses generally resemble those of ethylene glycol fits boiling point, for instance, is 189° C.) with the important exception that propylene glycol has It is produced commercially through a low order of toxicity. propylene oxide either by direct oxidation of propylene or from propylene chlorohydrin. Propylene glycol is used in antifreezes, resins, plasticizers, brake fluids, tobacco, food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and printing inks. Propylene condensation polymers are produced from propylene oxide or by combining propylene glycol with propylene oxide and range from liquids to waxlike solids. Ethers are produced by reacting propylene oxide with monohydric

nonsugar portion termed the agiycon.

This change can also be by naturally occurring substances present in trace amounts in neighbouring cells. These substances are known as enzymes and are effective only for one glycoside or for a group of closely effected

(CH3)2C(OH)CH2-

glycol, 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol,

Hexylene

CH(0H)CH3, which, in turn,

obtained by the reduction of diacetone alcohol, produced by the dimerization of acetone under the

is is

influence of alkalies.

Hexylene glycol

boils at 198.27° C.

and

is

The aglycons are widely diversified in chemical contain a hydroxyl (OH) group through which

related glycosides.

structure but

all

they combine with the sugar. From the standpoint of chemical structure, a glycoside is a mixed acetal and shows all the properties of such a combination. Most of the natural glycosides have been assigned names derived from the botanical names of their plant sources. Thus arbutin is a colourless, crystalline, bitter substance that was first extracted from the leaves of the small evergreen shrub Arbutus uva-ursi; later it was found in other plant sources, such as the

and roots of many

leaves, bark

pear.

is

miscible with aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, water, fatty acids and alcohols. It finds application in brake fluids, as an anti-

side.

agglomerate in the manufacture of portland cement and as a solvent It is used in the synthesis of for dyes and synthetic-based inks. sulfoiane that is used in liquid-vapour and liquid-liquid extraction

acetal in the sugar

The term "pyranoside"

refers to the size of the internal cyclic

moiety and

"j3-d" designates the spatial orienta-

tion of the "glycosidic carbon,"

marked with an

asterisk in the

following formula

CH2OH

processes of the petroleum industry. Pinacol, tetramethylethylene glycol, 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-butanediol, (CH3).,C(OH)C(OH)(CH3)2, is obtained from the bimolecular

/

most im(CHg^jits rearrangement to pinacolone, CCOCH3, by dehydration with acid reagents. Some commercial interest was shown in this compound in Germany during World War I, for by catalytic dehydration it is possible to convert pi-

reduction of acetone portant reaction is

common

varieties of the

hydrolyzed by acids or by the enzyme /3-D-glucosidase present in the mixture of enzymes known as almond emulsin, extractable from the bitter almond. Arbutin thus can be split into the sugar D-glucose and the agiycon hydroquinone; its rational chemical name is therefore />ora-hydroxyphenyl-^-D-glucopyrano-

Arbutin

alcohols.

501

by amalgamated magnesium.

Its

-C

nacolone to 2'3-dimethyl-l,3-butadiene (also called diisopropenyl), (D. G. Z.; N. C. S.) from which synthetic rubber can be made. a type of aeolo-choriambic colon isee Prosody, Classical), employed in Greek and Latin lyric verse, consisting

CH— CH

HOH \ C—OH /

\ CH = CH

Arbutin

GLYCONIC,

w WWand_^u-^-;

of aeolic base (^i^) I

\J

a)

montium dominfa)

CH-CH

e-S->

CeHijOe -H

ut fores

HO—

CH = CH

b) silvarumque virentium c)

Dianae sumus

The base

i

in fide

rarely takes the

takes the

form--,

as in

form w(b) and

In Horace

as in (c).

it

The

catalectic version of the glyconic is the "pherecratean"

;

e.g.,

amniumque sonantum be composed of three or four glyconics followed by a pherecratean; e.g., Aeschylus, Agamemnon 381-384, Catullus with xxxiv and Ixi. Horace combines glyconics and pherecrateans

may

asclepiads

(see

Odes

v, vi.

I, iii,

cratean

is

Choriambic Verse) in A verse compounded of

his

lyric

a glyconic

stanzas;

e.g.,

and a phere-

11

ponte ludere longo.

(L

GLYCOSE: see Sugar. GLYCOSIDES, NATURAL.

The term

j

!

glycoside

is

ap-

number of substances found mainly in plants. Formerly the names glucoside and aglucone were used, but these terms came to be restricted to those glycosides that contain only While the exact biological glucose as their sugar component.

\

function of the plant glycosides is not established, it is probable that their formation provides the plant with a means of storing, in a harmless form, toxic and physiologically active materials

which I

I

i

may

be liberated by enzymes, in small quantities, when

the elements of

water

(H-OH)

crystalline,

Glycosides are usually at least sparingly soluble in water and since only soluble substances are transportable in a plant by movements of sap, it is at least useful as a working hypothesis to

assume that the plant converts into glycosides: (i) harmful or barks, fruit useless substances which must be transported to the eventually rinds or seed coats, where they can do no harm and will be usemay which substances, harmful but necessar>' be shed; (2) decorative or attractive substances, such as floral pigseason in the leaves and transported at the proper Experimental support for the theory that to the flowers or fruits. mechanism is glycoside formation in the plant is a dctoxication the finding that 2-chloroethanol (ClCHXHoOH), a ful later; (3

)

plant

tissue

to

is

converted by

also operates in animals.

urine:

CO2H

CH-CH

/ _C

\ C-OH

CH = CH

and most have a

the property of rotating the Under the influence left.

the

can be

split

into one or

(hydrolyzed) by

more sugars and a

Such

a

dc-

Thus, when hydroin the fed to a dog, the following substance appears

toxication mechanism

quinone

is

2-chloroethyl-/3-D-glucopyranoside.

re-

quired.

Glycosides are solids, generally bitter taste. Their solutions show plane of polarized light, usually to of aqueous solutions of acids they

,4-dihydro.xy benzene)

provided by substance which breaks the dormancy of tubers,

P. E. P.)

plied to a large

'1

( 1

ments, formed

called a "priapean"; e.g., Catullus xvii:

Colonia quae cupis

\ C-OH /

Hydroquinone

D-Glucose

usually

in Catullus _w, as^in (a).

I

Lyric stanzas

/

Paro-hydroxyphenyl-(3-D-gIucopyranosiduronicacid

;

G-MEN—GNAT

;o2

glycosides of D-glucuronic acid with steroidal fragments are normally present in urine and the nature of these materials is modified by such biological conditions as pregnancy.

Many

The plant glycosides exist in a bewildering variety both in regard to their sugar components and, especially, in the nature of To their presence in plants are ascribable the their aglycons. many uses of plant materials established by primitive peoples and exploited by modem civilization. The medicines, condiments and dyes from plant sources occur largely as glycosides. As their chemical nature has become established, most, but not all, of these substances have been replaced by synthetic products. This has been especially true of plant or vegetable dyes, but many condiments and some medicines are still derived from plant extracts. Arbutin, described above, is an example of a simple, colourless, phenolic glycoside, many varieties of which are found in plants. Arbutin is accompanied by methylarbutin, which contains

hydroquinone monomethyl ether as

its

ing the dye

aglycon.

the active constituent of willow (Salix) bark and has long been used as a remedy against fever and in acute rheumatism. Salicin

is

products are D-glucose and saligenin [salicyl alcohol, or'benzyl alcohol, C,;H4(OH)(CHoOH)]. JPhloridzin (phlorizin, phlorhizin), from the bark of the Rosaceae (apple, pear, cherry and plum tree), is the D-glucoside of a rather compliIts hydrolytic

cated phenolic aglycon. Its administration produces a tj^se of diabetes in the dog and this circumstance has been utilized in studies of the disease.

Glycosides of aliphatic alcohols are represented by the purgaand jalapin, whose sugars are in glycosidic combination with the hydrox)'! groups of hydrox>lated fatty acids and are thus related to the constituents of castor oil. The j3-D-glucopyranoside of the terpene alcohol geraniol occurs in Pelargonium odoratum. Although most glycosides are characterized by their bitter taste, stevioside is one of remarkable sweetness. It is extractable from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana, a wild shrub of tives convolvulin

the Compositae family, native to Paraguay.

Ste\-ioside contains three units of D-glucose, two of which are in combination with each other; its aglycon, steviol, is a diterpenoid.

The saponins of

and are widely characterized by their property

are glycosides of aliphatic alcohols

They are producing foams when shaken

distributed in plants.

in aqueous solution. They are and were used as a fish poison by primitive peoples, since the fish so killed were not toxic to humans when eaten. The saponins yield a variety of sugars on hydrolysis; some yield D-glucuronic acid. Their aglycons are termed sapogenins and may be classified as either triterpenoid or steroid. GlycyrrhLzin, the

toxic to fish

saponin of licorice [Glycyrrhiza glabra) root, contains a triterpenoid sapogenin, while sarsasaponin, from Mexican sarsaparilla root, contains the steroid sarsasapogenin.

{See Saponins and Sapogenins.) Another large group of steroid glycosides that are not saponins are collectively known as the cardiac glycosides. These are powerful heart poisons but are useful heart stimulants in minute dosages.

The

primitive tribes of Africa

employ extracts

The cardiac glycosides from all of these divergent plant sources are related chemically. On hydrolysis they yield a large variety of unusual sugars but their physiological action lies in the aglycons which possess chemical structures related to those of the steroids. extracts.

A group known as the cyanogenetic glycosides is found in the kernels of peaches, cherries and plums and in other parts of a variety of plants. These are mainly clycosides of

mandelonitrile hydrolyzed by enzymes or by acids they liberate poisonous hydrocyanic acid together with benzaldehyde and one or more sugars, chiefly D-glucose. To this group belongs amygdalin, one of the earliest investigated glycosides. The sugars of amygdalin are two molecules of D-glucose combined

OH

1

.CN

).

When

as

the disaccharide gentiobiose.

prepared by grinding mustard seed

is

from the

urine.

It is a glycoside of

D-glucuronic acid

attached to a structure quite closely related to alizarin and known as 4,7-dihydroxyxanthone. The wide variety of pigments present in flowers and fruits are largely mixtures of glycosides with carotenoids. Most of the blue colours and some of the red are glycosides (anthocyanins) of aglycons known as anthocyanidins, which are reduction products of

Glycosides of the latter hydroxylated phenyl-benzo-7-pyrones. constitute a large group of yellow pigments widely distributed in fruits, flowers, bark and other pigmented plant structures. A typical yellow glycoside is quercitrin, present in oak bark (see

Quercitron Bark).

—

J. J. L. van Rijn (H. Dieterle), Die Glykoside G. Klein, Handbuch der Pfianzenanalyse, vol. iil, pt. 2 (1932) R. J. Mcllroy, The Plant Clycosides (1951). (M. L. Wm.)

Bibliography.

(1931)

;

G-MEN,

or government men, a journalistic term for special agents of the United States department of justice, bureau of investigation. The phrase is supposed to have obtained currency after the capture of a notorious criminal. George ("Machine Gun") Kelly, in Sept. 1933. (See Federal Bureau of Investigation.) By analogy, investigative agents of the U.S. department of the

became known

T-men. for any of several species of small In flies, particularly those that are annpying or that bite man. North America the term is often applied to the black flies, biting midges and certain other small flies that hover about the eyes of man and other animals. In Britain the name usually refers to treasur>'

GNAT,

a

as

common name

mosquitoes (see Mosquito) or

less

commonly

to crane

flies

(,

family

Tipulidae).

Black

flies

(family Simuliidae) include

many

species that are

hump-backed between the bases of the wings and are therefore also known as buffalo gnats. Female black flies suck blood, and their bites can cause painful swelling. Several species attack hvestock; severe infestations occasionally cause the death of a victim. Certain other black flies are pests of poultry and are lo-

of the seeds of

Sirophanthus and of the wood and bark of the ouabaio as arrow poisons. Extracts of the bulbs of the squill have been utilized in medicine since ancient times, but better known in modern medicine are the extracts of the leaves of Digitalis or common garden foxglove. The flower of the lily of the valley also yields such

(C,iH.vrH|

The condiment mustard

with salt, spices and vinegar. A variety of mustard seeds are used, but all contain a glycoside in which a D-glucose entity is directly attached to a sulfur atom rather than to an oxygen atom. Many of the vegetable dyes formerly so widely used were One of the chief of these was madder (Rubia tincglycosides. tonim), formerly grown commercially in the near east. The main glycoside of the madder root yields on hydrolysis the sugars D-glucose and D-xylose, present in disaccharide combination in the glycoside, and 1,2-dihydroxj'anthraquinone, or alizarin. Alizarin is employed with mordants (certain metallic salts) to form lakes It was the first vegetable dye in a wide variety of colours. whose chemical structure was determined and as a result of this the natural product was replaced by a synthetic preparation of better quality. An interesting yellow dye, known as Indian yellow, is prepared in Bengal by feeding mango leaves to cattle and isolat-

COURTESY OF A, E. CAMERON AND THE CANADIAN DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

cally

known

as turkey gnats.

The

tiny

biting midges

(family Ceratopogonidae), so small that the)- can easily crawl through FEMALE BLACK FLY (SIan ordinary mosquito screen, are someMULIUM SIMILE) times called gnats. Species of Culicoides especially are familiar pests along the seashore, in wet forests and near inland waters {see Sand Fly). Their bites carry no known disease but are extremely annojing. Some flies, several species of Hippelates (family Chloropidae), are a nuisance to man because they congregate near the eyes to feed on available exudate or merely swarm about the face; they are popularly known as eye gnats. Although they do not bite, they may carry the bacteria of pinkeye, an acute conjunctivitis. Also known as gnats are several kinds of small, nonbiting flies, such as the midges (family Chironomidae), some of which superficially resemble mosquitoes. In summer adult midges may emerge from streams or lakes, where the immature stages are spent, in such numbers that the air is filled with the hum of their wings, and they may be attracted to lights by the thousands. Fungus

'

;

I

GNATCATCHER— GNEISS common where they congregate in great numbers in darkened crannies, as beneath overhanging banks and in Certain small, dusky species, the culverts {see Fungus Gnat). in forests,

gnats are

larvae of which feed on fungi associated with potted plants, are Winter gnats (family Trichoceridae) are 'often seen in houses. slender, dark brown or gray flies resembling crane flies. They are

1

;

'

occasionally seen on sunny days in late autumn, winter and spring. Small fruit flies, or vinegar flies, species of Drosophila {q.v.), are

known

locally

as vinegar gnats.

(G. W. Bs.) given to birds of the American subfamily Polioptilinae (family Regulidae. kinglets). About 12 Gnatcatchers are small, slender, grayi.sh species are recognized. and white birds with relatively long, slender tails. They build

See also Fly.

GNATCATCHER,

the

name

compact nests of plant down and other

beautifully symmetrical

503

Jena as a company commander. The successful defense of Kolberg against the French in 1807 laid the foundation for his advance-

ment. When in 1808 King Frederick William III dismissed Stein and the reform party, Gneisenau relinquished his commission and went on secret missions to London and St. Petersburg to explore the possibilities of further resistance to Napoleon. At the beginning of 1813 he joined G.J. D. von Scharnhorst 9.11. ), then chief of staff, as his "first general staff officer." In this capacity he was largely responsible for the plan of operations of the Prussian and (

Russian armies for the spring of 1813. After Scharnhorst had died of wounds at Prague June 28, 1813), Gneisenau became chief 1

of the general staff.

The

strategic plan of the battle of Leipzig

and

the winter campaign of the allies was mostly his work and in March 1814 he had the satisfaction of seeing allied troops enter Paris.

(See Napoleonic Wars.)

Gneisenau was a remarkable and unusual man in many ways. He clearly that the mercenary Prussian army had to be transferred into a citizens' army animated by liberal ideas and that a staff system of educated officers had to be substituted for control by the king. His sojourn in England had led him to hope that the Prussian monarchy and nobility might be remodeled on the British pattern. He combined to an unusual degree the qualities of a military thinker and a man of action. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he became chief of staff to G. L. von Blijcher (q.v.). It was largely his drive and organizing ability which brought about the countermarch of the Prussian army to attack the French flank at Waterloo on the evening of June 18,

saw

1S15.

In IS16 he resigned because his liberal convictions were in conwith the government pohcy of reaction. It was not until 1825 on the anniversary of Waterloo that he was made a field

flict

—

—

In 1831, during the Polish revolution, he was appointed

marshal.

commander

of the forces protecting Prussia's eastern frontier. died of cholera at his headquarters at Posen on Aug. 2S. 1831. See H. Deibruck, Leben des Feldmarschalls Gneisenau, 2 vol., 4th ed. 1920) Walter Gorlitz, The German General Slag Its Histor\ and Structure, 1657-1045, Eng. ed. (1953). (C. N. B.)

He

(

BY

COURTESY OF

L.

H.

WALKtNSHAW

GNEISS, in

BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER (POLIOPTILA CAERULEA CAERULEA) soft materials

70

IS

bound together with spider webs and covered with

The

ft.

and other insects.

The best-known Vaerulea caerulea

)

species is the blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila of the eastern United States, in which the male

amoenis\ima) breeds from California and Colorado south into Mexico. Fhe plumbeous gnatcatcher {P. melanura melanura) breeds from a black forehead.

^las

The western gnatcatcher

(P.

c.

southeastern California, southern Nevada and the Rio Grande valey southward; the black-tailed gnatcatcher {P. m. California) occurs in the San Diego district of California. ppecies occur in Central lis

Other races and

and South America, extending

as far south

(G. F. Ss.; Ht. Fn.)

Argentina and Chile.

geology a generic term signifying a large and varied

banded and usually foliated structure in which layers of minerals w-ith a granular texture alternate with series of rocks with a

nests occur at elevations of a few feet to as much above the ground. Although the name gnatcatcher has come to be applied generally to these birds, they by no means are restricted in diet to, or even show any noticeable partiality for, these insects. They feed on all small insects, and occasionally have been known to seize others large enough to require tearing apart before they can swallow them. Stomach contents of these {birds have revealed longicorn beetles, jointworm flies, caddis flies lichens.

:

;

GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, Graf MEIDHARDT von (1760-1831 Prussian field marshal and one I

thin layers

composed of lamellar or

fibrous minerals, usually in

The term originally was used by the miners of the Erzgebirge in Germany to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur. The word is of Slavonic origin

parallel arrangement.

rotted, or decomposed, in allusion to the altered character of the country rock in the immediate vicinity of the ore veins. The foliation of gneiss may be frequently interrupted and the

meaning

ease of splitting of the rock is usually much less in evidence than Gneisses, however, may also be in the case of schists (q.v.). built up wholly of granular minerals, the gneissose structure being

given by the alternation of bands of different mineral composition; e.g.,

pyroxene gneiss.

As used

in its w'idest sense, gneiss is a structural

term rather

applied to rocks of a particular mineral composition Thus gneisses may be of igneous or metamorphic or genesis. The origin, and have a great range of chemical composition. minerals of the granular bands usually consist of quartz, feldspar (orthoclase, microcline, plagiodase) or both, and the lamellar or (muscovite, fibrous bands are usually composed of chlorite, mica

than a

name

biotite). graphite, amphibole, sillimanite, etc. According to ttieir origin, gneisses are subdivided broadly into

),

i'jf

was born at 760, of a noble but impoverished

the chief organizers of victory against Napoleon,

Torgau, on Oct. 2 7, 1 amily of Upper Austria. His mother died when accompanying ois father (a Saxon artillery officer) on service during the Seven Years' War. Brought up in poverty, he was eventually educated After n Wiirzburg at the expense of his maternal grandfather. fhort periods at Erfurt university and in an Austrian cavalry regijnent, he was in Canada in 1782-83 as a lieutenant in an Ansbach Schilda, near

;mit

hired

by the British government. employment in the Prussian army, but

In 1786 he obtained

nained on garrison duty in Silesia until 1806,

when he fought

re-

at

four groups: (i) primary gneisses, (2) injection gneisses, (3) orthogneisses and (4) paragneisses. Primary gneisses are plutonic igneous rocks possessing a banded lamellar or structure, in which a parallel arrangement of the

These rocks owe their fibrous minerals (if present) is evident. crystallization structures to a flow movement in a magma in which Primary gneisses are often of granitic has already progressed.

Archean composition and build up great areas of Pre-Cambrian Much of the Lewisian gneiss of Scotland, the formations. other conLaurentian gneiss of Canada and the igneous gneisses of tinental shields

may

be rocks of this character.

The

setting

up of

;

GNEIST

50+ gneissic banding in a fluid

character, chemical or mineralogical, can their original nature be (C E. T.)

magma

definitely established.

by flow movement presupposes a magmatic heterogeneity which in nature arises either by imperfect differentiation or by the incorpo-

GNEIST, of

magma.

In

many Archean

shields the

granite gneisses are characterized by containing numerous bands of rock, usually

of

the

nature

of

hornblende or amphibolites schists, representing basic igneous rocks of eadier date incorporated

German

BY COUBTESY OF WARD'S NATURAL SCIENCE ESTABLISHMENT, INC., ROCHESTER, N.Y.

BIOTITE GNEISS

magma during intrusion. These basic bands become injected along planes of bedding or foliation by the granitic material and ultimately in places become so intimately intermingled with

in the

magma as to produce a gneiss of hybrid origin. Less advanced stages of this process where injection takes place along the foliation planes of inclusions or of the country rock adjacent give rise to the

(1816-189S), German

jurist

and

who

exercised a profound influence on the growth administrative law, was born in Berlin on Aug. 13,

tribunal. From 1833 to law under Karl Friedrich von Savigny, at Berlin university. In 1841 he became a judge, and from 1847 he sat in the high court in Berlin. Though he was a no revolutionary, he soon had to resign because of his opposition to the reactionary policy of the Prussian government after 1848. After resigning his judgeship, Gneist devoted himself to aca^ demic studies. Already in 1842 he had become a reader in Romanlaw at Berlin university. Gradually, however, he turned his attention from this subject and won a growing reputation with \to tures on assizes, on public and oral proceedings, on Enghsh and French judicial organization and on Prussian, German and English Between 1850 and 1860, constitutional and administrative law. completely withdrawn from political affairs, he wrote his great

1816, the son of a judge of the 1336 he studied law, especially

ration of foreign material within

the

RUDOLF VON

political thinker

supreme

Roman

work on Enghsh constitutional law. Though he had remarkable success as a teacher, it was only itf! Migmatite gneisses (from the Greek migma, "a mixture") are 1858 that he became a full professor in Berlin a position that he was to hold until his death. In all his works, most of which mixed, composite or injection gneisses sometimes extensively deeven carried the words "English" or "self-government" in their veloped in crystalline schist formations which have been invaded His titles, he drew upon English conditions past and present. by granitic intrusions. They develop both by mechanical injection of fluid between writings earned him a widespread reputation. For more than 20 years (from 1868). he was president of the German jurists' assothe folia of schists and by intimate soaking and metasomatism whereby new feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase) arises in the ciation and he received honorary degrees from Edinburgh, Berlin body of the schist, conspicuously in the form of porphyroblasts, (doctor of philosophy), Bologna and Rostock.

injection gneisses.

—

;

or large pseudoporphyritic crystals, but also in finer elements in the ground mass. In advanced stages, particularly where the schist is

of argillaceous or clayey type, the resultant rocks

may

simulate

primary granite gneisses with but vague remnants or "ghosts" of the original schist to

tell

The term orthogneiss

the story of their origin.

which metamorphism, but the name is used by some writers to include also primary gneisses. Criteria for the distinction of orthogneisses from primary gneisses are sometimes difficult to establish, and are chiefly provided in the textural and structural relations of the rocks. They may be evidenced by signs of crushing (cataclastic structure), relict textures, or where the whole rock has been totally recrystallized by the textural relations of the minerals. In primary gneisses the form development of the crystals is largely dependent on the order in which the minerals have crystallized from the magma, while in totally recrystallized orthogneisses the growth of the minerals has taken place in an essentially solid environment, and the form development is dependent on the crystallizing power of refers strictly to igneous rocks in

a gneissic structure has been superimposed by

the several minerals, giving rise to crystalloblastic texture

Metamorphism). those

of

the

Some

granulite

{see

of the best-known orthogneisses are

districts

of

Saxony and the Austrian

Waldviertel near Krems.

Many

gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks brought to by such agents of metamorphism as heat, move-

their present state

ment, crushing and recrystallization. This may be demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence; they accompany limestones, graphite schists, quartzites and other rocks whose sedimentary origin is never in doubt. In many cases bulk chemical composition a certain clue to their origin, since they correspond in this particular to normal sediments and not to any known igneous rocks. Structural or textural criteria, such as bedding, evidence of is

original pebbly or clastic character, are not infrequently to

found.

The chemical composition

of paragneisses

is

be

reflected in

their mineralogical consritution.

Gneisses derived from argillites cordierite, sillimanite,

may be rich in biotite, muscovite, almandine garnet, staurolite, chloritoid, kyanite and some of which minerals are practically unknown in

metamorphosed igneous

rocks, while gneisses derived

from lime-

stones or dolomites carry such characteristic minerals as grosidocrase, woUastonite, scapolite or forsterite. Some paragneisses are rich in feldspar and quarU and may show so close a resemblance to gneisses of igneous origin that by no sularite,

single

Gneist's political career began in 1845 with his election as a. This gave him considerable experience in Berlin.

town councilor

which was of great value to him for his later academic treatises on "self-government." He lost his seat because of his views on the reaction after 1848, but regained it in 1858. He was also a member of the Prussian house of representatives from 1859 to 1893, of the Reichstag from 1867 to 1884 and of the in local politics,

A liberal by conviction, he, Prussian state council from 1884. joined the moderate National Liberal party in 1866, though originally he had been inclined more to the Progressive party. Later he turned to a more conservative liberalism, under the influence developed about 1850 is of Lorenz von Stein (Stein's theory based on the dualism of state and society). Bismarck frequently asked his advice. In the Kulturkampj period (1871-78) Gneist opposed the Jesuits and the demand for denominational schools. He took a strong interest in political matters without holding any extreme views. This position is particularly apparent in his writings. Though these do not always stand up to scholarly criticism, they reveal a powerful and practical political mind that could at the same time present clearly defined legal conceptions. These assets also explain Gneist's great popular success. At the height of his success Gneist resumed his career as a judge. His untiring advocacy of an independent administrative jurisdiction was rewarded when, at the founding of the Prussian supreme administrative court in 1875, Gneist was invited to become a member of it. This court was then the highest of its kind in Germany,'

—

—

and Gneist exercised a decisive influence in the development of its jurisdiction. Gneist died in Berlin on July 22, 1895. Gneist's main field of work was public law. Here he emphasized! the idea of "self-government"; by this he understood the adminis-! tration of public affairs by self-responsible, honorary officials ap-' pointed by the king from among the aristocracy and the middlei classes, in contrast to an administration from above by professional! civil servants or elected bodies. His model was the administra-, tion of the English counties by the justices of the peace whereas; most other contemporary advocates of "self-government" inclinedj |

rather to the Franco-Belgian systems. tion of English conditions

Though

Gneist's presenta-|

was not always accurate,

since he some-j

times saw them in the light of preconceived political notions, his; w-ritings nevertheless provided a basis on which the German mid-, die classes came to participate widely in public administration The greater part of the German administration remained, how-i ever, in the

hands of the professional

civil service,

mainly becausfi

GNIEZNO—GNOSTICISM the needs of the

modern

tion in this field,

state favoured the

growth of specializaso that the term "self-government" is hardly

See Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encvclopadie der classischen Allerlums6, col. 74-90 (1935) B. C. WilUams, Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon (1914). wissensckaft, suppl. vol.

meant an instrument for allowing one In its simple and primitive form it seems to have been a rod placed vertically on a plane surface, and later upon the surface of a hemisphere. The term was at one time substantially synonymous with vertical line. From this early use it came to represent a figure like a carpenter's square, but usually with equal arms. Seeking to relate number to geometric forms, the

Das heutige englische Verfassungsund Verwaltungsrecht, 2 vol. (1857-60; later editions under different titles); Englische Verfassungsgeschichte (1882; Eng. trans.. History of the English Constitution, 1886); Verwaltung, Justiz, Rechtsweg: Staatsverwaltung und Selbstverwaltimg nach englischen und deutschen V erhdltnissen (1869); Das englische Parlament (1886; Eng. trans., English Parliament, 1889). Bibliography. 0. von Gierke, Rudolf von Gneist (1896) E. SchifE. Meister, Kampf der Konservativen fer, Rudolf von Gneist (1929) Gneistschen Verwallungsreformen (1929) und Liberalen um die H. Heffter, Die deutsche Selbstverwaltung im 19. Jahrhundert (1950). (W. M.-F.) a town of Poland, in the Poznan wojewodztwo

and so on, are squares, and that the odd numbers in a figure like this were related to the geometric gnomon. Such numbers were, therefore, themselves called gnomons. The early idea of a geometric gnomon was extended by Euclid (q.v.; c. 300 B.C.) to include a figure consisting of two parallelograms forming an L. Four or five centuries later Hero of Alexandria extended the term to mean that which, added to any number or figure, makes the whole similar to that to which it is added. This usage is also found in the writings of Theon of Smyrna (c. 125) in connection with figurate numbers (q.v.). For example, the pentagonal numbers are 1 + 4, 1 + 4 + 7, 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 and the gnomons in this case are 4, 7, 10 ... i.e., they consti-

is a district capital and one of the two capitals of Warsaw-Gniezno Roman Catholic archdiocese. Pop. (1960) 44,000. Situated on the Poznan-Torun railway in a region of many lakes, it is a trade centre and has industries processing local ag-

tute an arithmetical series with a

—

;

;

.

.

.

;

GNIEZNO,

(province),

GNOMON know

to

ricultural produce.

which the cathedral

Gniezno is

is

among Romanesque

rich in fine old buildings,

outstanding.

Its 12th-century

from the life of St. Adalbert Wocjciech), is one of the finest examples of early medieval Polish art. Gniezno was one of the oldest fortresses of the Polan tribe (8th century a.d.) and the first capital of the Piast state. Its importance increased greatly after the burial in the cathedral of In a.d. 1000 the town became the the remains of St. Adalbert. capital of the archdiocese the first in Poland independent of the German) and the place of coronation of Polish kings. It obtained town rights in 1243. Gniezno came under Prussian rule (1793) and passed to Poland in 1919. During World War II the Germans established there one of the first forced-labour camps in Poland. The cathedral, damaged by incendiary bombs in 1945, was being door, cast in bronze, showing episodes (St.

(

restored after its original Gothic style in the 1960s.

(K.

M. Wi.)

GNOME AND GNOMIC POETRY. gnome means moral aphorism

or proverb.

The Greek word Short memorable sen-

wisdom are found in early Greek and prose, from Homer and Hesiod onward. Their form may be either imperative, as in the famous command "know thyself," or indicative, as in the couplet by Theognis of Megara (6th century b.c.) "No mortal who misled a stranger or a suppliant, Polypaides, has gone unheeded by the immortal gods." (The tense of the last verb is the so-called gnomic aorist, often used in Greek to express truths of permanent validity; English tences enshrining traditional hterature, both poetry

:

usage generally prefers the present tense;

I

j

e.g.,

"Too many cooks

Such aphorisms were collected into anthologies, called gnomologia, and used in instructing the young. Aeschines, the 4th-century B.C. Athenian orator, remarks that as children we learn the gnomes of the poets-so that as adults we may practise them. One of the best known gnomologia was compiled by Joannes Stobaeus iq.v.) in the Sth century a.d., and such collections remained popular in the middle ages. Gnomes appear frequently in Old English epic and lyric poetry. In Beowulf they are often interjected into the narrative, drawing a moral from the hero's actions with such phrases as "Thus a man ought to act" and "Fate often aids a man not doomed to die, when his courage holds good" (the equivalent of the modern saying "God helps those who help themselves"). The main collections of Old English gnomes are to be found in the 10th-century Exeter Book iq.v.) and the Cotton Tiberius manuscript (early llth century), clearly examples of early verse, abrupt and disconnected, yet picturesque and of great power. spoil the broth.")

originally

the time.

early Greek mathematicians imagined squares as built up of gnomons added to unity. For example, they saw that 1+3, 1

+

3

5,1

+3+5+

+

7,

.

.

.

,

;

The

the

j

;

any longer applied in the specific meaning used by Gneist. The most pregnant of Gneist's ideas proved to be his demand for the establishment of independent administrative courts run by legal and administrative experts charged with the control of the administration. The German states one after another set up an independent administrative jurisdiction which was repeatedly extended. The opening of the federal administrative court in Berlin on June 8, 1953, and the promulgation of the federal code for administrative procedure on Jan. 21, 1960, completed the development which Gneist had initiated. Gneist's writings include

J

505

sundial (q.v.), with a

common

gnomon

difference of

3.

as a vertical needle,

is

said

have been introduced into Greece by Anaximander (q.v.; c. 575 B.C.). (D. E. S.; X.) GNOSTICISM, derived from the Greek word gnostikos (one who has gnosis, "knowledge"), is a term used by modern scholars to designate a religious movement of late antiquity, with which the Christian church came into contact. Gnosticism is not prito

marily or exclusively a Christian heresy but rather a religion in its own right, which is also known from pagan sources such as the Corpus Hermeticum and the Oracida Chaldaica, and from the oldest sources of Jewish mysticism, which can be traced back Though it is not always easy to to the 1st and 2nd centuries a.d.

from Greek philosophy and the Christian has certain characteristics of its own which are alien to Greek or Christian tradition, such as the depreciation of the cosmos and the rejection of atonement. Historically most important is Christian Gnosticism, the systems of which can be proved to have existed in the 2nd century and which extended into Mani-

distinguish Gnosticism

rehgion,

it

chaeism (q.v.), a Gnostic world religion. Origins. In the Dead sea scrolls (q.v.) the knowledge of God and the opposition of light and darkness are strongly stressed. Their authors, probably the Essenes, may be considered as forerunners of Gnosticism, though no coherent Gnostic system can be More important for proved to lie behind their conceptions. Gnosticism are the early Merkaba mystics of Palestinian Judaism, who conceived their doctrine concerning the ascent through the heavens and the "measuring of the body of God" as an esoteric lore for the elect, a higher knowledge of things heavenly and This current may have been stimulated by the magic divine. and syncretism of the contemporary Hellenistic world, but it developed in the very midst of Judaism itself. It has been shown that both the terminology and the concepts of this Jewish mysticism survive in later Gnosticism. At its Jewish stage, however,

—

Gnosticism remained monotheistic and preserved the distinction between man, even at the highest point he can reach, and the transcendent God. The first Gnostic about whom something can be said with confidence is Simon Magus (q.v.), a Jewish heterodox teacher from magical Gitta in Samaria, who may have considered himself as the In incorporation of the great power of God (Acts viii, 9-10).

Helen was venerated as the image of Sophia, who generated the world and fell. This with seems to be mainly a combination of a local cult of Helen fundaThe philosophy. Greek and wisdom elements of Jewish Godhead mental conception that evil is due to a break within the and remained characteristic for all Gnostic schools. There

his school a certain

the "first idea of God,"

is

is,

new

distinhowever, no trustworthy evidence that Simon Magus

—

GNOSTICISM

5o6

His gnosis guished between the creator and the highest God. earliest was still Jewish and monotheistic. This is Gnosticism in its which form. The same must be said about the gnosticizing circles especially are alluded to in the later part of the New Testament, Stress on "knowledge," cult of in the Epistle to the Colossians. already angels, ascetic or libertinistic tendencies, though perhaps

imply dyotheism. This duahstic phase was reached after the expansion of Gnosticism into the Hellenistic world and under the influence of Platonic philosophy (especially that of the Timaeus) from which the docgnostic, did not yet

was borrowed that a lower demiurge was responsible for This teaching is to be found in the the creation of this world. Apocryphon of John (early 2nd century) and other documents of popular gnosis found near Naj' Hammadi in upper Eg>T3t in the 1940s and in the Pistis Sophia, a 3rd-century Gnostic work in CopThe learned gnosis of Valentinus, tic belonging to the same school. Basilides (qq.v.) and their schools presupposes this popular gnosis which, however, has been thoroughly Hellenized and Christianized and sometimes comes ven,' near to the views of middle-Platonism Eastern Gnosticism (especially the teaching of Numenius). trine

took a somewhat different course. Under the influence of the Iranian religion Manichaeism developed an absolute cosmic dualism between soul and matter. Moreover, it shows the enormous influence of Syrian asceticism, but it is equally rooted in popular

Gnosticism and has preserved its essential doctrines. Nature. Gnosticism has its own conception of man, the world and God, expressed in various ways and based on a typical religious experience. The unconscious self of man (or some man) is consubstantial with the Godhead, but because of a tragic fall it is thrown into a foreign world which is completely alien to its real being. Through revelation from above man becomes conscious of his origin, essence and transcendent destiny. This revelation is often identified with the call of Jesus (not to be found in the Gospels, which the Gnostics regard as merely an exoteric allegory, but rather in a visionar>' experience or the initiation into a secret doctrine). So Gnostic revelation is to be distinguished both from philosophical enlightenment, because it cannot be acquired by the forces of reason, and from Christian revelation, because it is not rooted in history and transmitted by Scripture. It is rather the intuition of the mystery of the self. The world, produced from evil matter and possessed by evil demons, cannot be a creation of a good God; it is mostly conceived of as an illusion, or an abortion, dominated as it is by Yahweh, the Jewish demiurge, whose creation and history are depreciated. This world is therefore alien to God, who is for the Gnostics depth and silence, beyond any name or predicate, the absolute, the source of good

—

who form together the pleroma or realm of light. These conceptions are expressed in various myths, which have used maspirits

terial from many oriental and Greek religions, but serve to express a basic experience which is new, the discovery of the unconscious self or spirit in man which sleeps in him until awakened

by the Saviour. Gnosticism

still existing in Iraq, may have developed out of a Jewish under the influence of Syrian Gnosticism in the 3rd century. It seems doubtful whether the nucleus of their teachings influenced primitive Christianity, though their writings contain many striking parallels to the Gospel of John. If Gnosticism is mainly a product of the 2nd century, it may preserve Christian elements which have been gnosticized and for the inexperienced eye appear to be So the influence of the learned gjwsis of Valentinus, Gnostic. Basilides and others upon Christianity seems to have been mainly

sect sect

negative: 1. They considered Christ primarily as the exclusive revealer, but they denied the reality and necessity of atonement. Therefore they very often negated the humanity of Christ, which led to Against this view the Fathers of the so-called docetism (q.v.). Church, especially Irenaeus, underlined the reality of the incarna-

tion 2.

and stressed the importance of the work of Christ.

They denied

the reality of the creation as the theatre of

God's glory, and the place of fulfillment of his designs and of obedience to his commandments, thus rejecting the Old Testament. Against this the Fathers maintained the identity of Creator and Saviour and developed a theolog>' of history. 3.

They annulled

the unity of the

and material

race

by dividing

it

classes.

tainty.

After the opinions of the Gnostics had become known in the 16th century through the edition of the works of their opponents, the antiheretical Fathers, which contained large

in the technical sense of the

word should be

dis-

their teachings,

extracts from and after the new appraisal of the heresies through

tinguished from Encratism. which taught the rejection of marriage

the

as well as the heavenly origin of the soul

(in the late 17th century)

and "knowledge" but did myth and knew of no split within the

not express this view in Godhead. It is misleading to quote (as is often done) the Odes of Solomon, the teaching of Talian, the Gospel of Thomas or the Acts of Thomas, which are encratic, as witnesses of Gnostic doctrine. Encratism. which is deeply rooted in primitive Christianity and for a long time and in various countries remained a current within Christianity, was rather older than classical Gnosticism. It ser\-ed as a starting point for

Gnostic speculations and made it possible for the Gnostics to link up their views with Christianity.

Influence.— Scholars

human

This led the Fathers to extol free will and personal responsibility of each individual. Thus the development of Christian doctrine was to a large extent Some Christians, however, espea reaction against Gnosticism. cially Clement of Alexandria and Origen (qq.v.), tried to integrate Gnostic values into their own religion: Christ is the revealer of "true gnosis," pre-existent fall of the spirits, image of God in man, return of all to their spiritual origin. It was, however, more an atmosphere and a certain attitude than specific teachings that were adopted. It is difiicult to discern when and where the Gnostic movement was halted by the church. In Rome the Gnostics Valentinus and Cerdo as well as the semi-Gnostic Marcion (q.v.) were excommunicated as early as a.d. 150, but at the same time the Gnostics seem to have remained members of the church in EgjTst. In the west the last remnants of Gnostic groups were dissolved in the 4th century only with the help of the state. In the Syrian east all sorts of Gnostic conventicles seem to have continued their existence and may even have influenced the Paulicians and so the Bogomils and Cathari (qq.v.) of the middle ages. Moreover, Gnostic Manichaeism spread in Asia as far as Turkistan and China. On the w'hole the history of extension and extinction of the Gnostic groups after the 4th century (with the exception of Manichaeism) remains largely unknown; therefore the relation of medieval Gnosticism (Catharism. Bogomilism, etc.) to ancient forms of gnosis, probable though it is, cannot be demonstrated \vith cerinto spiritual, psychic

differ in their

assessment of Gnostic influence. Following R. Reitzenstein. R. Bultmann supposes that a pre-Christian Gnostic myth of the saved Saviour, of Iranian origin, had a considerable influence on St. Paul, on the author of the Gospel of John and on the Christology of the Synoptic Gospels. Neither the Valentinian "Gospel of Truth" nor the Dead sea scrolls contains such a myth and it remains uncertain that it existed at all before Manichaeism. The Mandaeans {q.v.), a Gnostic

work

German

Protestant theologian Gottfried .Arnold and others. Gnostic ideas had a considerable influence upon such idealists as Goethe, Novalis and Hegel. The theosophical movement of the 20th centjry, with which Gnosticism has much in common, rightly claims the Gnostics as its spiritual ancestor (see Theosophy). Jungian psychology, which owes not a little to this movement, can be of some help of the

Gnostic mythology and may help to show that behind it there is a religious experience of a certain type. Modern Gnosticism, however, is monistic, whereas ancient Gnosticism is in interpreting

;

basically duahstic.

See also references under "Gnosticism" in the Index volume,

BiBUOGRAPHY.

Collections of Gnostic works: \V. Volker, Quellen sur Geschichte der christlichen Gnosis (1932); W. Till, Pistis Sophia, 2nd ed. (1954), Apokryphon Johannis (1955); M. Malinine, H. C. Puech and G. Quispel, Evangelium Veritalis (1955) Kendrick Grobel, The Gospel of Truth (1960). General works: H. Jonas, Gnosis und spdtantiker Geist, 2 vol. (193354), The Gnostic Religion (1958); A. J. Festugiere, La Revelation d'Hermes Trismegistos, vol. i-iv (1949-54); H. C. Puech, Le Mani;

j

GNU— GOA chiisme (1949) R. M. Wilson, The Gnostic Problem (1958) G. Quispel, Gnosis als Weltreligion (1951); R. Reitzenstein, Das iranische Erlosungsmysteriiim (1921) R. Bultmann in Zeitschrijt fiir die NeutestamentUche Wissenschaft, vol. 24 (1925). Na'f Hammadi: F. L. Cross, The Jung Codex (1955) J. Doresse, Les Livres secrets des Gnostiques d'Egypte (1958); H. C. Puech in Hennecke-W. Schneemelcher, Neulestamentliche Apokryphen, 3rd E. ed. (1959); W. C. van Unnik, Newly Discovered Gnostic Writings ;

;

by India

507 in Dec.

1961. It is situated on the western coast of India about 250 mi. S. of Bombay. The population of the settle-

;

[

;

(1960).

Gnosticism and Judaism

G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish MystiMerkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition (1960); R. M. Grant, Gnosticism and Early Christianity (1959). (G. Q.) :

cism, rev. ed. (1946), Jewish Gnosticism,

1

reasonably abun-

dant over much of central and southeastern Africa, from north-

viving buildings include the cathedral, founded by Affonso d'Albu-

GNU

gnou).

is

common name

mane The

and long, flowing white tail. horns, present in both sexes, grow forward and downward and then turn upward at their tips. Black wildebeest no longer exist as truly wild animals, but are preserved within fences on a number of southern African farms. The

I

.

,

I

for

dark brown with long black tufts on the snout, chin,

throat and chest, a black

1

(C. taitrmus)

,

is

•'

*

'

(

(

Old Goa

em

Zululand to Kenya. It is with dark vertical bands on the sides, and has a silvery-gray

I

BRINDLED tail and face, whitish TAURINUS) cheeks and a tuft of dark hair on

j

black mane,

I

chin

and throat, but no

tuft

hairs of the tail are whitish.

up I

I

GNU

(CONNOCHAETES

on the face or chest. The shorter The horns spread sideways and turn

at the tips.

Both kinds of gnus stand higher at the withers than at the rump. Gnus live in herds, often of very large size, and graze on the grasses and low scrub of open plains. When disturbed they dash away to a short distance and then wheel round to gaze at whatIn flight they toss their heads, prance about and throw up their heels in a wild erratic manner ludicrous to the human onlooker. They do not move more than 20 or 30 mi.

ever has frightened them.

from water sources, which they visit every two or three days. A young is born after a gestation of eight to nine months. After the birth of the calves, the bulls and cows move off in (L. H. M.) separate groups. See also Antelope. (I-Go), a skilled maneuver game for two players, probably Japan's most popular board game, originated in China as wei-ch'i. An ancient Chinese encyclopaedia attributes its invention to Wu Ts'an; other sources credit it to the emperor Gio in 2356 B.C. It is also attributed to the emperors Yan and Shun. It was reportedly brought to Japan in a.d. 735 by Kibi Dajin. The Go institute was founded by the first national champion, Hon-inbo-Sansa; the earliest recorded game is dated a.d. 1253. Go is played on a square wooden board igoban) checkered by 19 vertical hnes and 19 horizontal lines. It is played with 181 black and 180 white go-ishi or flat, round "stones." Each player in his turn places a stone on the intersection of two lines (a me) which constitutes one unit of territory. A stone or group of stones can be captured if it can be completely enclosed by the opponent, leaving no connected vacant point. The winner is the player who has conquered the largest Go territory by establishing a boundary made of his own stones. demands great skill, strategy and patience, and is capable of infinite variety; yet the rules and pieces are so simple that children can play. Special handicap rules allow players of unequal skill to play together. A Japanese Go association, founded in 1924, supervises tournaments, rules and players. Gobang was an English versingle

GO

sion of the 19th century.

GOA,

the

name

;

;

brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest

;

ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of

Goa, who is primate of the east and patriarch of the East Indies. There were legislative and executive councils which worked in collaboration with the governor. Goa settlement comprised the four districts conquered early in the 16th century (1510) and known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests) seven districts acquired later (Xovas [New] Conquistas) and the island of .^ngediva or Anjidiv. The settlement, with a coast line of 62 mi., is hilly, especially in the Novas Conquistas. including a portion of the Western Ghats rising to nearly 4.000 ft. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa Ilhas), being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island is triangular, the apex (called the cabo or cape) being a rocky headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages: -\guada at the mouth of the Mandavi on the north and Mormugao Marmagao) at the mouth of Juari on the south. There are three cities in Goa: Old Goa, New Goa (Pangim) and Mormugao.

(Wildebeest), the

two kinds of large African antelopes, about the size of a pony. The southern African form, the white-tailed gnu, or black wildebeest (Connockaetes

I

ment in 1960 was 589.120, and the area, 1,394 sq.mi. Goa is bounded on the north by the Terakhul or Araundem river (beyond which is the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra state), east by the Western Ghats, south by North Kanara district of Mysore state and west by the Arabian sea. With Damao and Diu (qq.v.), Goa settlement formed a single administrative province ruled by a governor general, and a single

(P. Fr.)

of the capital of former Portuguese India

(Estado da India) and of the surrounding territory, which was more exactly described as Goa settlement, prior to its annexation

is,

for the

most

part, a city of ruins.

The

chief sur-

querque in 1511, rebuilt in 1623 and still used for public worship; the convent of St. Francis (1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661 (with a portal of carved black stone), the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St. Catherine (1551); the fine church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603) containing the shrine of St. Francis Xavier (see Xavier, St. Francis) and the 17th-century convents of St. Monica and St. Cajetan. The college of St. Paul is in ruins. ;

New

Goa), originally a suburb of Old Goa, left bank of the Mandavi estuary. Pop. (1950) 31,950. It is a modern port and contains the archbishop's palace, government house and barracks; it has a medical school, teachers' training college and several secondary and primary schools. Pangim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese India in 1843. Mormugao, with its modern breakwater and quay and sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is the best port between Bombay and Kozhikode (Calicut). A railway connects it (south of the Juari estuary) with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats and so with the Southern railway (narrow or metre gauge). Goa exports coconuts, fruit, spices, manganese and iron ores, fish and salt, but Rice is the staple its trade is small and its manufactures few. product, with fruit, salt, coconuts and betel nut. The population of the Velhas Conquistas is largely Christian and that of the Novas Conquistas, Hindu. The Christians genEconomic erally speak Portuguese. The Hindus speak Konkani. conditions in Goa caused emigration on a large scale, mainly to the eastern coast of Africa and to India. Large Goanese colonies

Pangim (Panjim or

is

built

(like the

parent city) on the

have consequently been formed in Bombay, Mozambique, Natal, etc. Many Goanese are partly of Portuguese descent and bear Portuguese names as a result of intermarriage between eariy Portuguese settlers and the local inhabitants. They inherit the seafaring habits of their ancestors and many find employment as stewards, etc., in

hners.

—

History. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the and history. In island and it was famous in eariy Hindu legend appears as Gove, the Purmas and certain inscriptions its name knew Govapuri. Gomant, etc. The medieval Arabian geographers Velha. Goa as Portuguese and the Sandabur or Sindabur it as from the 2nd century a.d. to It was ruled by the Kadamba dynasty 1312andby Muslim invaders of the Deccan from 1312 to 1367. It later was then annexed by the Hindu kingdom of \'ijayanagar and conquered by the Bahmani dynasty, who founded Old Goa in 1440.

GOALPARA

5o8 With

the subdivision of the

Bahmani kingdom

after 1482,

Goa

passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, the Muslim king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the starting point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a market with no rival except

Kozhikode on the west coast and especially as the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea, and was attacked in March 1 510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. The city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered it

in

triumph.

Three months

later

Yusuf Adil Shah returned with 60,000

troops,

forced the passage of the ford and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the cessation of the mon-

In November Albuquerque soon enabled them to put to sea. returned with a larger force and, after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city, massacred all the Muslims and appointed a Hindu, Timoja, governor of Goa. Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in Asia. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, only abolishing the rite of suttee (q.v.).

A

register of these

customs

(Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526.

Goa became

the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. In 1542 St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1600. The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual decline of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. In 16S3 only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture by Maratha raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was attacked by the same enemies and only saved by the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with east.

a

It

fleet.

The

seat of the

government was moved to Mormugao and

in

1759 to Pangim. Cholera epidemics were one of the chief reasons for the migration of the inhabitants from Old Goa to New Goa. Between 1695 and 1775 the population of Old Goa dwindled from 20,000 to 1,600 and in 1835 it was inhabited by only a few priests,

monks and

nuns.

During the 19th century events of importance affecting the settlement were its temporary occupation by the British in 1809 as a result of Napoleon's invasion of Portugal the governorship (1855-64) of Conde de Torres Novas, who inaugurated a great ;

number

of improvements, and the military revolts of the second The most notable of these was the revolt of

half of the century.

Sept. 3, 1895, which necessitated the dispatch of an expeditionary force from Portugal. The infante Affonso Henriques, duke of

Oporto, accompanied this expedition and exercised governor's powers with the title of viceroy from March to May 1896. After Indian claims on Goa in 1948 and 1949, Portugal came under increasing pressure to cede Goa, with its other possessions in the subcontinent, to India. A crisis was reached in 1955 when satyagrahis (non\iolent resisters) from India attempted to penetrate the territory of Goa. At first the satyagrahis were deported, but later when large numbers attempted to cross the borders the Portuguese authorities resorted to force and casualties were inflicted. This led to the severance of diplomatic relations between Portugal and India on Aug. 18, 1955. Tension between India and Portugal came to a head when on Dec. 18, 1961, Indian troops supported by naval and air forces invaded and occupied Goa Damao and Diu. Portuguese India was, by constitutional amendment incorporated into the Indian Union in 1962.

Christianity.—

Some Dominican friars came out to Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. A Franciscan friar,

Joao

de Albuquerque, came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538 In 1542 Francis Xavier took over the Franciscan college of Santa Fe for the traimng of native missionaries; this was renamed the College of St. Paul and became the headquarters of all Jesuit missions in the east, where the Jesuits were commonly styled Paulistas By

ARD MOOSBRUGGEH

FROM BLACK STAR

RELIGIOUS PROCESSION IN THE PORT OF MORMUGAO. A CITY OF GOA. THE GOANESE HAVE BEEN MOSTLY CATHOLIC SINCE THE 16TH CENTURY. AND THE BAROQUE CHURCH IS IN THE STYLE OF PORTUGUESE CHURCHES OF THAT TIME a bull dated Feb. 4, 1557, Goa was made an archbishopric with jurisdiction over the sees of Malacca and Cochin, to which were

added Macao (1575), Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur; 1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique, which included the In 1606 the archbishop received the of primate of the east, and the king of Portugal was named

entire coast of east Africa. title

patron of the Catholic missions in the east his right of patronage was limited by the concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India. The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560; five ecclesiastical councils, which dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa in 1567, 1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606. By the concordat and missionary agreement with the Vatican (May 7, 1940), Goa recognized the lawful existence of the Catholic church and the exercise of its spiritual mission according to the canon law. The additional protocol signed on Sept. 25, 1953, made the archdiocese of Goa coincident with Portuguese India. ;

—

—

Bibliography. J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeological Sketch of Goa (1878) the travels of Varthema (c..l505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608); J. Fryer, .4 New Account of East India and Persia (1698) A. Hamilton, .4 New Account of the East Indies (1774) Silva Rego, Documentos para a Historia do Patroado Portugues do Orients, 10 vol, (1947-54); Goncalves Pereira, hidia Portugesa (1954). (A. A. G. P.; L. D. S.; X.) ;

;

;

GOALPARA,

a town and district in the Brahmaputra valley (pop., 1961, 13,692) stands on the left bank of the Brahmaputra, 75 mi. W. of Gauhati, with which it is connected by road. It was the frontier outpost of the Muslinl of Assam, India.

The town

power, and has long been a great centre of river trade. It has a college affiliated to Gauhati university. The town declined in importance after the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879.

GoALPARA District covers an area

of 4,007 sq.mi.

Pop. (1961)

Brahmaputra where the river bends southward from. Assam into East Pakistan. Along the banks of the river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch 1,543,892.

It is situated astride the

j

GOAT broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the villages; and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the Himalayas. The Brahmafields of rice cultivation,

putra annually inundates vast tracts of country. Extensive forests yield valuable timber and there are about 900 sq.mi. of

reserved forest where wild elephants, buffalo, boars, sambar and deer abound. Rice forms the staple crop of the district but jute

important in the flood plain, and pulses, mustard, tobacco, sugar and a little tea are also grown. Dhubri fpop., 1961, 28,355), the administrative headquarters of the district, stands on the right bank of the Brahmaputra where that river takes its southward bend. GOAT. Goats belong to the family of hollow-horned ruminants, or Bovidae (q.v.), and are members of the genus Capra, Domesticated goats are descended closely allied to the sheep. from the pasang (Capra aegagnis). Probably the east was its is

home, the earliest records being Persian. C. aegagnis is probably represented in Europe by the Cretan and Cyclades races, now crossed with the common goat (C. hircus). For other wOd goats see Ibex; Markhor; Mountain Goat; Tahr. Products. In China, Great Britain, Europe and North America the domestic goat is primarily a milk producer. By good management its limited breeding season and the consequent difficulty of maintaining a level supply of milk throughout the year can be largely overcome. For large-scale milk production, goats are inferior to cattle in the temperate zone but superior in the torrid or original

—

The goat

—

Distribution and Kinds. There are many breeds of goat, which may be roughly grouped: the prick-eared, e.g., Swiss goats; the eastern or Nubian, with long drooping ears; and the wool goat, While it is usually easy to distinguish goats from e.g., Angora. sheep, certain hair breeds of the latter are, to the layman, only distinguishable from goats by the direction of the tail, upward in goats,

is

especially adapted to small-scale production of milk

for the family table.

One

or two goats will supply sufficient milk

and can be maintained economwould not be practical to keep a

for a family throughout the year ically in small quarters

where

it

downward

goats,

are derived, the

held in high esteem.

The Maltese goat probably contains eastern blood and is an important source of milk on the island of Malta. Many goats are found in Spain, northern Africa and Italy, among them the MurGrenada and La Mancha. Nubians are African goats, chiefly Egyptian.

cian,

large, short-haired goats with large lop ears

They may be

They and

are usually

Roman

noses.

any solid colour, parti-coloured or spotted. The goats in Israel and Syria have long hair and large lop ears. Black, with or without white, is the commonest colour. Most Indian varieties have lop ears, the best coming from the Jumna river area. In Britain the native goat was small, with short legs, long hair, usually gray but of no fixed colour and with no definite markings. of

The widespread use

of pedigree males, mostly of Swiss extraction,

improve the milk

yield, resulted in the

almost total disappear-

ance of the native types. In 1896, a Jumna Pari (Indian) male goat (Sedgemere ChanSince 1850 goats of cellor) was imported by a British breeder. Nubian and other lop-eared breeds had come to England in various

These eastern-type goats, variously described as Persian, etc., and characterized by long pendulous ears and

cow.

ways.

Goat's milk is pure white in colour and compares favourably with cow's milk in flavour and keeping qualities under sanitary conditions. It has certain characteristics differing from cow's milk which make it more easily digested by infants, invalids and persons allergic to cow's milk. The curds of goat's milk are much The fat globules are smaller, more flocculent and very soluble. smaller, finer, more easily assimilated and remain by nature in

Indian, Syrian,

emulsion, so homogenization is unnecessary. These qualities explain why the goat has long been known in Europe as the "wet nurse" of infants. It has been estimated that the annual retail value of goat's milk sold in the United States is over $10,000,000.

in sheep.

from which many of the best modern breeds Toggenburg and Saanen are most important. The French breeds have much Swiss blood. In Germany the many varieties trace to Swiss breeds. There are many goats of Swiss type throughout Scandinavia and the Netherlands, where they are

Of the Swiss

to

frigid zone.

509

convex facial outline, won prizes at shows and found public favour. With the importation of Chancellor, serious breeders took up the project of developing an improved Nubian-type goat. Eventually the Anglo-Nubian name was adopted for tliis made breed and a section of the herdbook established

for

registering

ap-

j

i

\

The retail price per quart varies from 40 to 55 cents. Large commercial dairies milk as many as 400 goats. Goat's milk is also used (For world production statistics see Dairy Into make cheese.

proved progeny.

dustry; Milk.) The Angora and Cashmere goats produce wool or mohair {q.v.). {See also Cashmere.) The flesh is edible, that from young kids being quite tender and more delicate in flavour than lamb, which

in

The goat has long been used as a source of milk, mohair and meat and its skin has been valued as a source of leather. (For world production and uses see Leather: Major Types of Leather.) Goats are also used to keep sheep spread out and on the move.

it

resembles.

cheese,

\

Interest in this new breed spread to the United States and 1 9 10

three

Anglo-Nubians

COURTESY

OF

MRS,

CARL

SAK0BDB8

Saanen doe

of a long In time this breed, its name shortened to Nubian, became one of the most popular goat breeds in the United of States. In the second half of the 20th century about one-third

were imported, the

first

line of importations.

the goats registered annually

by the American Milk Goat Record

The four breed clubs were the Alpine, Nubian, Saanen and Toggenburg. The record association handles association were Nubians.

and goat shows for all four breeds. goats of India, north Africa and Syria have been maintained surprising that since early times chiefly for their milk, and it is not Nubians have made fine milk records. In England a Nubian set a days of breed record with more than 4,250 lb. of milk in 365 lacta305-day with a favourably compared record This lactation. which produced just tion record made in California by a Nubian

registry, official testing

The

under 4.250 lb. of milk and 185 lb. of butterfat. are conIn both England and the United States the Swiss breeds of milk produced, sidered, on the average, superior in quantity butterfat production. while the Nubians are known as leading in produced more than 6,400 lb. of V Saanen goat in Great Britain reputation of the milk in 365 days of lactation, bearing out the to which countries in the and homeland Swiss its in

Saanen breed

more than breed has spread. In the U.S. a Saanen produced lb. of butterfat; a Toggenburg produced 180 and milk of noo lb 4 and a French more than 4,400 lb. of milk and 150 lb. of butterfat; and 130 lb. of butterAlpine produced more than 4,600 lb. of milk this

[

COURTESY OF MRS.

CAHL SANDBURG

Four toggenburg does

GOATSUCKER—GOBELIN

5IO

records are for 305 days of lactation. Of the wool goats there are two main types: the Angora, or Moestabhair, and the Cashmere, or Shawl, goat. Angoras have been Canada. lished in South Africa, Australia, the United States and About three-quarters of the mohair produced in the United States

The

fat.

last three

comes from Texas.

The Angora

is

The

a poor milker.

soft, silky

of the legs with close-matted If not shorn in spring the fleece drops off naturally as ringlets. summer approaches. There is an undergrowth of short hair. The

body and most

hair covers the whole

average weight of fleece yield

up

to 12 lb.

is

about 2^

though good specimens a dry climate and then

lb.,

The Angora must have

stands cold well. In the Cashmere, which

Angora, hair, the

it

is

is

more

like the

the undergrowth which

more abundant the

fine

is

common

undergrowth.

goat than the the

The longer

valuable.

These goats are

rather small, with lop ears and twisted horns. Husbandry. Five dairy goats can be housed in a 10

—

ft.

by

than one cow. They produce best on alfalfa or other leguminous hay as roughage, with a grain mixture coarsely ground of about 15% protein content. The 12

ft.

shelter

and

will require less feed

of grain daily.

Milking

subsistence ration for the dry doe goats are fed i lb. of grain daily, above the subsistence ration, for and 3 lb. of milk produced. They should have free access to salt is

i

lb.

water. If they are kept dry, sufiSciently exercised in fresh air and simshine and intelligently fed, they are very hardy animals. If they are on pasture, or tethered, they should be moved frequently to

fresh ground as a precaution against infestation by worms. They prefer browse to pasture, and goats that are stall-fed should have branches and leaves brought to them. They are relatively free

from tuberculosis and

goat's fever, or brucellosis

(g.v.), in the

GOBAT, CHARLES ALBERT

(1843-1914), Swiss philanworker for international peace, awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1902 jointly with his compatriot Elie Ducommun, was born at Tramelan in the Bernese Jura, on May 21, 1843. After studying at Basel, Heidelberg and Paris, he took his degree in law and set up practice in Bern. Concurrently he lectured on French civil law at the Paris Sorbonne. On transferring his office to Delemont, he took an increasingly active part in local government and public administration. He was elected to the cantonal council in 1882, presided over the government board of Bern in 1886 and 1887, and in 1884 was elected to the national coimcil. In 1890 he became a member of the Swiss federal council. Gobat was president of the fourth conference of the InterParliamentary union held at Bern in 1892. In this capacity he helped to found its permanent bureau. Henceforth, for more than 20 years, the work of the bureau absorbed his time and his energy, and in 1906 Gobat succeeded Ducommun as director. He wrote several books on international affairs and on history, including Le Cauchemar de I'Europe (1911). He died at Bern on March 16, thropist and

(L. R. A.) (1799-1879), second Anglican bishop in Jerusalem, was born at Cremines, Bern, Switz., on Jan. 26, 1799. Trained as a missionary in Basel, Paris and London, he was sent by the Church Missionary society overseas, chiefly to Ethiopia. He became widely known as a missionary and linguist. The Jerusalem bishopric had been founded as a joint AngloPrussian venture in 1841, on the suggestion of Frederick William IV of Prussia, to protect Protestant Christians in the middle east and to combine a united Protestantism with the Orthodox Eastern Church to counteract Roman Catholic influence in Jerusalem. Efforts were to be made to convert Jews but not members of other Christian churches. Co-operation between Anglicans and Lutherans was uneasy, since Tractarians in England disliked working with a nonepiscopal body and German Protestants opposed any

1914.

GOBAT, SAMUEL

form of episcopate.

On

1845 of Michael Alexander, first Anglican of the Prussian crown to nominate a successor, and Frederick William chose Gobat, who was consecrated in 1846. He was allowed some latitude in applying the canons of the Church of England but disregarded the terms of his> appointment in proselytizing, particularly from the Orthodox Church, which caused bitter controversy at a time of deteriorating political relations. From 1851 Gobat was aided by the Church Missionary society in establishing schools and in starting medical work among the Muslims. He died in Jerusalem, May 11, 1S79. In 1886 the connection with the Lutheran Church ended and the reconstructed bishopric became fully Anglican. See Samuel Gobat, His Life and Work, Eng. trans, by S. M. S. Clarke (1884). (J. D. Ta.) the death in

bishop,

it

became the turn

JEAN

COMMON OOAT (CAPRA HIRCUS)

of the diocese of Basel.

United Slates and Great Britain. The diseases and parasites that affect goals and sheep are discussed in the article Sheep. The normal hfespan of a goat is 8 to 12 years. They average two kids in a litter. Triplets are very common and quadruplets and quintuplets are occasionally dropped. The female goat, variously called "Nanny" or "Doe," is ready for the male ("Billy or "Buck") between September and February, during which time they come in heat every three weeks. The gestation period is 21-22 weeks. Goats are sexually mature at 6 months, but it is unwise to mate females before they are 15 months old. and a male should be used sparingly untD 12 months old. See also references under "Goat" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— C. G. Potts and V. L. Simmons, "Milk Goats," Farmers Bulletin A'o. 920, U.S. Department of Agriculture (1955); W. L. TcWalt, Improved Milk Goats (1942); D. Mackenzie, GoatHusbandry (1957); British Goat Society Herd Books (annual); American Milk Goat Record Association Handbooks (annual) Dairy Goat Journal (monlhly). (H. E. J.; M. L. F.; L. P.' So.) '

;

GOATSUCKER, jars, birds of the

JOSEPH

(1727-1794), archBAPTISTE GOBEL, bishop of Paris and Hebertist, was born at Thann, Alsace, on He became suffragan bishop of the French port Sept. 1, 1727.

a misleading common name for the nightfamily Caprimulgidae. See Nightjar.

As deputy

to the estates-general of

1

789

he took the oath of the civU constitution of the clergy, and in 1791 was consecrated archbishop of Paris. On Nov. 7, 1793, he came before the bar of the Convention and resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for their wishes. The followers of J. R. Hebert (q.v.). who were then pursuing their "worship of reason," claimed Gobel as one of themselves, and he was thus involved in the fate of the Hebertists, being condemned to death with P. G. Chaumette Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots. He was guillotined on April 12 1794See G. Gautherot, Gobel, ivique mitropolitain constitutionnel

de!

Paris (igii).

GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers and clothmakersj who probably came from Reims and in the middle of the 15th cen-i tury established themselves in the Faubourg St. Marcel, Paris. The first head of the firm, named Jehan (d. 1476), discovered ai scarlet dyestuff and spent so much on his establishment that it was named la jolie Gobelin. In the third or fourth generation some Balthasar Gobelinj of the family purchased titles of nobihty. 1

GOBI—GOBINEAU 1617). who became successively treasurer general of artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councilor secretary of the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councilor of state and presi(d. c.

dent of the chamber of accounts, in 1601 received from Henry IV the lands and lordship of Brie-Comte-Robert. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found later than the end of the i6th century. In 1601 the Gobelins lent their works to Henry IV, who

up there 200 workmen from Flanders, to make tapestries; in Gobelin family had never produced any tapestry. In 1662 the works in the Faubourg St. Marcel were purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV and transformed into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs were executed under the superintendence of the royal painter, Charles le Brun The establishment, closed in 1694, was reopened in 1697 (17.1;.). for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and presentation. The industry was suspended during the Revolution but revived by Napoleon; in 1826 the manufacture of carpets was added. See also Tapestry. GOBI, one of the world's largest deserts, mostly in the Mongolian People's Republic and the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China and covering parts of the province of Kansu and set

fact the

the Ningsia Chinese

Muslim Autonomous Region.

It occupies a

Mongolian plateau, 300-600 mi. wide and over 1 ,000 mi. long, running southeast from the eastern borders of Chinese Turkistan and the Mongolian Altai, and then east and northeast to the Hsing-an (Khingan) mountains of Manchuria. The south slopes of the Khangai mountains in central Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People's RepubUc) bound it in the north and the plateau of Tibet and the Ho-lan Shan (Ala Shan) and Yin Shan ranges in the south. The term Gobi desert often has not been well defined. At times it has been applied to all the desert and semidesert lands east of the Pamirs and north of the plateau of Tibet and the Great Wall. Properly, the Tarim (including Takla Makan; q.v}) and Dzungarian basins of Chinese Turkistan are separate from the Mongolian Gobi, as is the' Ordos desert south of the Yin Shan. Gobi to the Mongol refers to the level, alkaline, often marshy and sometimes grassy bottoms of the broad, shallow basins which the Mongols call tals. Gobi is thus associated with basin structures believed to have been scoured out by the wind and is descriptive of terrain. By transference, the term Great Gobi or Gobi desert has come to be applied to the area here defined. Although the vast arc of land in the

Gobi surface is a plateau with an altitude of about 3,000 ft. in the east and about 5,000 ft. in the west and south, the bounding mountains on all sides give it a basin character. In addition to the low swells separating the basins in the Gobi desert, its surface is interrupted occasionally by worn, flat-topped folded ranges and in the west by the complex uplifted fault blocks of the Altai which extends at diminishing altitude into the Gobi. Sometimes in the plains the edges of the sedimentary strata lare exposed to view, and these form the great fossil fields of Mongolia, indicating that a change has occurred from a past humid cHmate to the present desert state. Lakes such as the Ulan Nuur, Drog Nuur and Boon Tsagaan Nuur northwest of Dalan Dzadagad in Outer Mongolia are only a small fraction of the size that elevated strand lines show they once were. Several culture horizons have been distinguished in the Gobi area. Finds have been made of relics representing Eolithic, Upper Paleolithic, Azilian (Mesojlithic).

Neolithic and Metallic cultures.

The Chinese name Sha-mo (sand

1

desert) often applied to the

JGobi gives a misleading impression of its character, for only small

Gobi comprise sandy or dune deserts. Much of is of bare rock over which one can drive by car easily for long distances in any direction. Toward the north and southeast of [he desolate centre, the precipitation gradually increases from 1 or 2 in. to 6 or 8 in. Scattered bunch grass appears, then the short grass steppe grazed by livestock watered from wells or it rare streams. Such streams entering the Gobi are seasonal in cheir flow. The largest in the eastern Gobi is the Kerulen i(Hereleng) which flows out of the Henteyn Nuruu (Khentei mountains and diminishes in volume to terminate in Hu-lun Chih [Hulun Nuur), but during floods may continue on to become a

''Sections lit

)

of the

511

tributary of the upper

Amur. Flowing into the Gobi from the Tibetan rimlands in the south and irrigating oases are the branching 0-Chi-na Ho (Etsin Gol) and, farther west, the Su-lo Ho. Gobi rivers terminate in salt lakes or disappear in the sand. Trees are almost nonexistent, although xerophytic shrubs such as saxaul may be found as well as stunted willows and tamarisk near streams and wells. Although the water table is high and water often may be found within 20 ft. of the surface, the water may be brackish. In the Gobi Altai which rises to over 9,300 ft. and in other similarly high mountains, desert steppe grass covers the entire lower twothirds of the slopes. Above this, there appears a mountain variant of feather grass.

The animal

Gobi includes the Djejran gazelle and or ground squirrels feed on grass seeds, and their holes are numerous in the steppelands. Sheep and goats are the most important domestic animals, constituting 57% of the total, followed by cattle (24%). Horses form only about 4% and with the cattle are concentrated in the moister southeast. About 15% are the two-humped camels that comprise life

of the

Marmots

the Dzeren antelope.

the desert transport animals. In the southeast, Chinese farmers long have invaded the nomad grasslands. Under the Communist

regime nomad and farmer alike were regimented. State directed collectives were organized both in Outer Mongolia and in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region for livestock breeding and, in the latter, for mechanized farming. The Chinese Communist collectives were changed to communes in 1958, the latter being similar in character to the former state farms. Soviet-Mongol exploration located coal deposits at Tawan-Tolgoi and an oil field at Sayn Shanda on the Trans-Mongolian railroad. In the western Gobi, exploitation of the Yij-men (q.v.) oil field was expanded by the Chinese Communists in the late 1950s. The extension of the Kansu raUroad to the oil field brought large population increases to the oasis tovms in the southwest Gobi sections of the Kansu corridor. See also Mongolia. (H. J. Ws.)

GOBmEAU, JOSEPH ARTHUR, man

who

Comte de (1816-

diplomat behaviour reflected in his ethnological, historical and imaginative writings, was born at Villed'Avray, near Paris, on July 14, 1816, of a Bordeaux family. Educated by private tutors and at a college in Switzerland, he developed an enthusiasm for languages, both European and oriental, and, after failing to enter the military academy at St. Cyr, 1882), French

formed ideas on

of letters

social

and

in

his career as a

racial

where he was received into the aristocratic circles He wrote some romans-feuilletons, St. Germain. married (1845) and, in 1849, was appointed chej de cabinet by settled in Paris,

of the

Faubourg

Alexis de Tocqueville during the latter's brief period as foreign minister. Subsequently he was first secretary to the French lega-

Bern (1851), held posts at Hanover and at Frankfurt and, was sent to Teheran, where he remained for four years. After a period in France he was sent back to Teheran as minister (1861), then to Athens (1864) and to Rio de Janeiro (1869). .\bsent without leave in 1870, he witnessed the Franco-German War and the Paris commune. His last diplomatic post was at Stockhohn (1872). His liaison with the comtesse de La Tour (Marie Mathilde Ruinart), separating him from his wife and Thenceforward he lived children, led to his retirement in 1877. mainly in Italy. He died at Turin on Oct. 13, 1882. Gobineau's reputation as a writer has passed through two phases. tion at

in 1855,

At

first

he was acclaimed as an ethnologist for his Essai

sttr

I'Mgal-

iU des races humaines, 4 vol. (1853-55; partial Eng. trans.. The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, 1856, and The Inequal-

Human Races, 1915). In the second half of the 20th cenhe was chiefly respected for a novel, Les Pleiades however, tury, Essai proposed that (1874; Eng. trans.. The Pleiads, 1928). The preservation Aryan' racial purity could be maintained only by the became theory This strains. Nordic its of and strengthening latent antifashionable in German intellectual circles, and its GobiSemitism was exaggerated to produce that gobinisme which neau himself regarded as a distortion of his views. essay Gobmeau In the years that followed the appearance of this continued to be the He Persia. of experience liberating had the dentures amateur, publishing such works as the Traiti des

ity of

gifted

GOBLET— GODALMING

512

vol. vol. (1864), and the Histoire des Perses, 2 The was however, him, on influence formative The (1869). of Thousand and One Nights, from which he took over the figure of Les Pleiades: inspiration central the as using it son," "king's the opposes the conver"the book of an aristocrat," he wrote, "which clamour of the sation of exceptional beings to the confused "king's sons"; are heroes, his men, young three masses." The they are they travel, thev converse, they tell each other stories and Gobineau's happy. Apart from Les Pleiades, the best works of Eng. trans., The Crimlast years were Souvenirs de voyage (1872 Eng. son Handkerchief, 1929), Les Nouvelles asiatiques (1876; Tales of Asia, trans.. The Dancing Girl of Shamakha, 1926, and 1947Vand La Renaissance (1877; Eng. trans., 1913 and 1928), the figures as latter a volume of dialogues in which, through such his unproclaimed Gobineau Michelangelo, and Borgia Cesare of changing creed of individualism. There are critical editions and Les Pleiades and of La Renaissance by Jean Mistier (1946

cuneijormes,

2

ing disc (in the Gobiidae, or gobies proper).

Most

of the several

hundred known species range in length from one to four inches, but a few of the sleepers exceed one foot; some, like Pandaka pyginaea of the Philippines, are the smallest known vertebrates, only about one-half inch long. Male gobies guard encapsulated oval eggs, which are attached at one end by short adhesive threads, Most gobies are botin a layer on discarded shells or in crevices.

tom

dwellers;

many,

Bathygobius species, are limited to the

e.g.,

edge of tropical shores.

Well-known species include: a ten-inch rock-pool inhabiting

;

1947V

GOBLET, RENE

(1828-1905), French statesman, prominent in the crises ol" the 1880s and prime minister in 1886-87, was born at Aire-sur-la-Lys, Pas-de-Calais, on Sept. 26, 1828. He studied law and was elected deputy for the Somme. He was appointed undersecretary for justice under William Waddington (1879 I, minister of the interior under Charles de Freycinet (1882) and minister of education and cults first under Henri Brisson (1885) and again in Freycinet's third government (1886). He sat with the extreme left in the chamber, but was frequently in On conflict with his political associates, including Leon Gambetta. Dec. 16, 1886, Goblet formed a government in w^hich he took over His appointment of the portfolios of the interior and of cults. Gen. Georges Boulanger (q.v.^ as war minister brought Goblet into open conflict with Maurice Rouvier and Jules Ferry, and in April 1887 a crisis was precipitated when Boulanger pressed the government to deliver an ultimatum to Germany about the arrest of a French official, Guiilaume Schnaebele, on the frontier. The government was defeated on May 17 on a budget vote. Goblet held office as minister for foreign affairs in Charles Floquet's government (1888-89). He was defeated at the elections of 1889 last

by a Boulangist candidate, but sat on the extreme left in the senate from 1891 to 1893, becoming violently anticlerical and urging the suppression of the concordat. He was re-elected to the chamber as a Radical deputy for Paris in 1893, but failed to obtain a Goblet died in Paris on Sept. 13, 1905, seat in 1898, See .\. Dansette, Le Boulangisme, 1S86-1890 (1938); J. Chastenet, La Repuhlique des Republicains (1954) and La Republique triom-

phante (1955).

GOBY, generally, any one of a numerous group— the

Gobioidei marine and warm-water spiny-rayed fishes, characterized by having a few (usually six) flexible spines in the separate

—

of largely

first

dorsal fin;

the pelvic fins are either set close together

the family Eleotridae.

known

(in

as "sleepers") or united into a suck-

species of Europe, Gobiiis capita; the mudskippers {Periophthalnuts), bulging-eyed little fishes that inhabit mud flats around the

Indian ocean and the East Indian region, usually resting with the front parts out of water; the very hardy, burrow-inhabiting mudsucker, or long-jawed goby {Gillichthys niirabilis), the chief bait fish of southern California, with the upper jaw prolonged in the adult to beyond the gill opening; and a blind, pink species, Typhlogobius calif orniensis, which hves with a blind shrimp (a Callianassa species) in burrows under stones between tide marks along the shores of southern California. See also Fish: Survey of the Bony (C. L. Hs,) Fishes: Perches and Perchlike Fishes.

GOD: see Theism; Religion. GOD, CHURCHES OF, a group

of 20 or more pentecostal denominations that developed from the so-called Latter Rain revival early in the 20th century. They adhere to the ultraconservative or fundamentalist theology, including holiness as a

work

of

grace subsequent to conversion or justification, and "speaking in other tongues as the Spirit gives utterance."

The revival began in the Great Smoky mountains in 1886 under the leadership of R. G. Spurling and his son. Baptists, and W, F. J. Tomlinson, a 1906 at Camp creek in Cherokee county, N.C. Two years later he established headquarters at Cleveland, Tenn., under the name of Church of God. He promoted the movement with vigour, and churches were

Bryant, a Methodist. colporteur,

was taken over by A.

It

who convened an assembly

in

established in various parts of the country.

began to occur in 1917 when the Chattanooga congregaand took the name of the Original Church of God. Other divisions follow^ed and numerous independent groups were formed. The causes were not theological but were due to rivalries among local leaders and opposition to Tomlinson's absolute power as general overseer. He was virtually deposed in 1922. On Tomlinson's death in 1943 disputes between his sons led to further schisms. Homer A. Tomlinson set up the Church of God, World Headquarters, at Queen's Village, N.Y., and his brother became head of the Cleveland group known as the Church of God Over Which M. A. Tomlinson Is General Overseer. Another Splits

tion seceded

Cleveland body is the Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.), called the Elders' Church, from its form of government. Among the sects growing out of the Tomlinson movement are the Mountain Assembly Church of God; Church of God. Incorpo-

Church of Jesus; Bishop Poteat's Church of God; Bible Church of God; Jesus and Watch Mission; Churches of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith; Remnant Church of God; Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ; Non-Digressive Church of God; Justified Church of God; Holstein Church of God; Church of God of the Bible; Glorified Church of God; and several otheis. The Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) is not a pentecostal body and repudiates speaking in unknown tongues. The Church of God See also Pentecostal: (Oregon, 111.) is an Adventist body. rated;

Churches.

—

Bibliography. C. W. Conn, Like a Mighty Army Moves the Church God, 1886-1955 (19S5) E. T. Clark, The Small Sects in .America (1957) H. A. Tomlinson (ed.). Diary of A. J. Tomlinson, i vol.; F. S. Mead, Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 2nd rev. ed. (E. T. Cl.) Yearbook of .American Churches. (1961) a municipal borough of Surrey, Eng., lies across the river Wey on the old London-Portsmouth road, 33 mi. of

;

;

;

GODALMING,

15,780. It is a (53 km.) S.W. of London by road. Pop. (1961 town with an attractive shopping centre on busy High street. The church of SS. Peter and Paul is principally Earlyl English and Perpendicular, built of local Bargate stone which is no longer quarried. A fine old group of almshouses, dating from 1622, )

residential

MALE FHILLFIN OOBY (BATHYGOBIUS SOPORATOR) TACHED TO AN EMPTY BIVALVE SHELL

GUARDING EGGS

AT-

GODARD—GODDARD administered by the Carpenters' company. Westbrook house home of Gen. James Edward Oglethorpe, founder of the colony of Georgia, is now the Meath Home for Incurables. The old town hall, built in 1814 on the site of market house, is now a local history museum. Public open spaces include the Phillips Memorial ground, with a cloister to the memory of Jack PhiUips, wireless operator of S.S. "Titanic." Charterhouse school, 1 mi. N. of is

Godalming, was transferred from Charterhouse square, London, 1872 and has 120 ac. of grounds with spacious buildings in the Gothic style. (See also Charterhouse.) Godalming's industries include woolen manufactures and light engineering. in

Local excavations have revealed evidences of a former KomanoGodalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred and was a royal manor at the time of Domesday. It was granted to the see of Salisbury by Henry II but reverted to the British settlement.

Henry VIII. In 1563 it was constituted town by Elizabeth I who granted it a charter of incorporation with powers to hold a market, annual fair and a court of piepowder or piepoudre (a summary court of record formerly held at fairs and markets to administer justice in transactions) in 1575. This charter was confirmed in 1620 and a new charter granted by Charles II in 1666. Extensions were made to the borough in 1892, 1928 and 1933. (S C D ) crown

in the reign of

a market

GODARD, BENJAMIN

PAUL

LOUIS (1849-1895), French composer of operas, light piano pieces and songs, was born in Paris, Aug. 18, 1849. He was a child prodigy on the violin. He studied composition under Henri Reber and in his youth wrote symphonies, concertos, chamber music and piano pieces. His opera, Pedro de Zalamea (1884), was produced at Antwerp, and his Sympho?iie legendaire, op. 100, was performed in Paris in 1886. His other operas include Jocelyn (1888), long known for its "Berceuse," and La Vivandiere (1895). Godard's music is slender and sentimental, showing at its best an afiinity with Chopin and Schumann. He died of tuberculosis at Cannes, Jan. 10, 1895. See M. Clavie, Benjamin Godard (1905). (E. Lr.)

GODAVARI, em Deccan

a river of central India, flows across the north-

from the Western Ghats

to the Bay of Bengal. Its within 80 mi. of Bombay, near the Thai Ghat where the main railway from that city to the lower Ganges basin crosses the Ghats. Its general course is somewhat south of east. With

source

is

main southern tributary, the Manjra, it drains the larger part former state of Hyderabad, now partly in Maharashtra, partly in Andhra Pradesh. Near the 80th meridian it is joined by the Pranhita bringing from the north the drainage of the Mahadeo hills. Above this point the main river flows in a wide valley and frequently breaks up into several channels. At the Pranhita junction it leaves the lava plateau country and enters a its

of the

trough of easily eroded rocks that extends to the sea.

It is this

feature which accounts for the wide break in the Eastern Ghats

and the great depth of the coastal plain at the mouths of the Godavari and Krishna. Sixty miles from the sea it leaves the trough and breaks through the Ghats in a magnificent gorge only 200 yd. wide. The extensive delta is virtually continuous with that of the Krishna and is connected with that river by canal. The upper river is almost dry during winter and spring and is almost useless for irrigation. The delta on the other hand is one of the richest rice-growing regions in India. The water is derived from the Godavari by an anient a low dam directing the stream flow into the head of the canal system. The Godavari is one of the rivers sacred to Hindus. (T. Her.; L. D. S.) WEST, two districts of Andhra Pradesh, India, which were formerly part of Madras, comprising

—

GODAVARI, EAST AND

three dissimilar natural regions; the

Agency

tract in the north-

underdeveloped and infertile; the exceedingly rich and fertile delta of the Godavari along the coast which is the largest rice The granary of south India; the intermediate upland taluks. Godavari river, after which they are named, divides the districts. jForty miles from the sea, at Dowlaishwaram, is the famous anient (dam) nearly 2+ mi. in length, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton west,

I

in 1890, which has made the delta a perennial rice field. At the beginning of the 16th century this region was overrun by the Muslims. At the end of the struggle with the French in the

513

Carnatic, Godavari with the Northern Circars was conquered by the British and finally in 1765 ceded to them, except for the sniall territory of Yanam (6 sq.mi.) which remained a French possession till 1954, when it was transferred to India. The districts were created in 1925 from the old Godavari and Krishna districts.

East Godavari

district has

lation (1961) of 2,608,375. lies

on one of the mouths of

The port

old capital.

an area of 4,181 sq.mi. and a popu-

The present headquarters, Kakinada. the river, while Rajahmundry was the

Kakinada are poor because of Godavari and ships must lie several miles offshore. There is an engineering college and a medical college. Rajahmundry has also an arts college, a government training college and two oriental colleges (one exclusively for women), all the

heavy

facilities at

silting of the

affiliated to

Andhra

university.

At Samalkot,

sugar-growing tract of the delta,

is

in the heart of the a large distillery and sugar

refinery.

West Godavari district has an area of 2,980 sq.mi. and had a population (1961) of 1,978,257. The district was car%-ed out of the Krishna district in 1925.

Its capital

is

at Eluru,

noted for

its

woolen carpets, the dyes and wool for which are produced locally. Both districts were once famous for the manufacture of fine cotton cloths, especially saris, at such centres as Peddapur in East Godavari and PalakoUu. (G. K.\.)

GODDARD, CALVIN HOOKER officer,

(1891-1955), U.S. army

military historian and criminologist

who

is

chiefly

remem-

bered for his pioneering work in scientific crime detection and for his writings on the history of firearms, was born in Baltimore, Md., Oct. 30, 1891. He graduated from the Johns Hopkins university school of medicine in 1915, served with the U.S. army medical corps in World War I (becoming a major in 1918). with the ordnance department in World War II, and with the corps of military police in the Korean War. He was promoted to the rank of colonel

A

Ufelong interest in guns, combined with medical knowlGoddard as an e.xpert witness in many famous legal cases of the 1920s and led him in 1930 to organize a scientific crime detection laboratory in Chicago, 111. He developed instruments and techniques for identifying the weapon from which a given bullet was fired. A talented writer, he contributed scores of in 1950.

edge, quahfied

articles to military

and

scientific publications.

He

died in

Wash-

ington, D.C.. on Feb. 22, 1955.

(H. C. T.) Baron, of Aldlord chief justice of England whose work in

GODDARD, RAYNER GODDARD, BOURNE (1877-

),

wave that followed World War II was of outHe was born in London 1877, and educated at Marlborough college and at

controlling the crime

standing social importance at that time.

on April

10,

Trinity college, Oxford, where he graduated in i8g8. After being called to the bar at the Inner Temple he became recorder of Poole

and took silk in 1923. From 1925 to 1928 he was recor.der and from 1928 to 1932 recorder of Plymouth, being raised to the bench as a judge of the high court (king's bench division) in 1932. At the bar his most important practice was in

in 191 7

of Bath,

cases, but his experience as recorder doubtless laid the foundation of his wide knowledge of the criminal law, with which the general public learned chiefly to associate his riame. In 1938 Goddard became a lord justice of appeal and in 1944 a lord

commercial

of appeal in ordinary, being also in that year created a life peer. The most distinguished part of his career, however, started when, and near an age when many judges contemplate retirement, in

1946 he was appointed lord chief justice. He found himself confronted with a wave of crime following the end of World War II, and, by scrupulous a combination of a certain measure of severity with a regard for legal proprieties, he was the inspiration of the judiciary and magistracy in bringing this situation under control. He re-

(W. T. Ws.) (1882-1945), the father of U.S. rocketry, was born Oct. 5, 1882, at Worcester. Mass. As a student at Worcester Polytechnic institute he began to speculate on means of reaching the fringes of outer space by the use After taking his Ph.D. at Clark university in Worof rockets. cester in 1911 he became a member of the Clark faculty and later tired in I9S8.

GODDARD, ROBERT HUTCHINGS

attained the rank of full professor.

In 1919 the Smithsonian institution published Goddard's

now

7

GODDARD AND TO WNSEND— GODFREY

514 classic report entitled

"A Method

of Reaching

Extreme

.\ltitudes"

1920s he and provided funds for his rocket research. During the his first turned from solid to liquid propellants and in 1926 fired Guggenthe and university Clark by Supported rocket. fuel liquid he continued his experiments with liquid fuel

heim foundation, N.M, rockets and g>'roscopic controls at a desert site near Roswell, than better vacuum in a operated rockets that He demonstrated consisting in atmosphere and developed the theory of step rockets was of several stages as a means of reaching the moon. Progress his slow and few people recognized the potential importance of work, and he was often derided as being "moon mad." During World War II the U.S. navy employed Goddard to develop rocket motors and jet-assisted take-off (Jato) devices for aircraft

and moved

his laborator>' to

AnnapoKs, Md.

He was

en-

time of his death on Aug. 10, 1945. His patents were, however, used by the Nazi government in its V-2 rocket program and later by the U.S. in its space-probe efforts. In 1960 the U.S. government paid the Guggenheim foundation

gaged

in this

work

at the

$1,000,000 for infringing Goddard's patents, and in 1962 the National Aeronautics and Space administration (NASA) dedicated the Goddard Space Flight centre at Greenbelt, Md. See Robert H. Goddard, Rocket Development, ed. by Esther C. (S. P. J.; X.) Goddard and G. Edward Pendrav (1948). two families of cabinetmakers of Newport, R.I.. during the 1 7th and 18th centuries. Both families were Quakers of English ancestry and they intermarried. In four generations, 20 Goddard and Townsend craftsmen are

GODDARD AND TOWNSEND,

known, and the high point of their excellent productivity was reached during the early and mid- 1 8th century. These cabinetmakers were especially noted for furniture in the Queen Anne and Chippendale styles, identified by an original t>pe of shell carving, and a surface treatment called Ijlocking. No exact European prototypes existed for their innovations. Many of the best-known pieces, high chests of drawers and secretary bookcases, generally executed in mahogany from the West Indies or South America, have well-documented histories. Noted individual craftsmen were Christopher Townsend (170192) and his son John (1732-1809); Job Townsend (1699-1765) and his sons Job, Jr. (1726-78). and Edmund (1736-1811); and John Goddard (1724-85) and his son Townsend (1750-90), See Wendell D. Garrett, "The Newport Cabinetmakers: a Corrected Check

List," Antiques, 73:558-561

GODEFROY

(June 1958).

(Gothofredus),

(J. T. Br,)

French noble family which numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and historians. The family claimed descent from Sj-mon Godefroy, who was bom at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx near Berry-au-Bac, now in the departement of Aisne. a

Denis Godefroy (Dionysius (Gothofredus; 1549-1622), jurist, son of Leon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was bom in Paris on Oct. 17, 1549, and died at Strasbourg on Sept, 7, 1622. He studied law in the Low Countries and in Germany, and embraced CaKinism, This change of faith led to his residence abroad, first at Geneva (1580-89), where he became professor of law, and then at Heidelberg (1600), where he was head of the faculty of law and was employed from time to time on diplomatic missions by the elector Palatine. His most important work was the Corpus juris civilis (Geneva and Lyons, 1583), which went through 20 editions, the most valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam in 1663 and the Leipzig edition of 1740, His eldest son, Theodore Godefroy (1580-1649), was bom at Geneva on July 17, 1580. He abjured CaKanism and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer of France in 161 and was employed from time to time on diplomatic missions. He was employed

at the congress of Miinster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648 as charge d'affaires until his death on Oct, 5, 1649.

The second son

of Denis,

Jacques Godefroy (1587-1652), He was educated in France but returned to Geneva, where he held various important public offices. He died on June 22, 1652, His edition of the Codex Theodosianus (4 vol., Lyons, 1665; 6 vol., Leipzig, 173645), on which he worked for 30 years, became a standard authority jurist,

was

bom

at

Geneva on

Sept. 13, 1587,

on the decadent period of the western empire. Jacques Godefroy was held to be the most learned jurist of his time. Among his numerous other works were several dealing with historical and political questions,

Denis Godefroy (1615-81),

eldest son of Theodore, succeeded

his father as historiographer of France.

GODFREY

OF Bouillon (Godefroy de Bouillon) (c. 1060iioo ). a leader in the first crusade, was the second son of Eustace II, count of Boulogne, by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II of Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his successor; but the emperor Henry IV gave him only the mark of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included (1076). He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and in the siege of Rome, and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His career as duke was not especially distinguished, but he seems to have been notably pious, and when the first crusade was preached, he soon joined the expedition at considerable personal sacrifice. He sold to the bishop of Verdun his rights and possessions in that county and pledged his county

and castle of Bouillon to the bishop of Liege. Godfrey began his march in Aug. 1096. Accompanied by his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I [q.v.'\ of Jerusalem), he led a body of perhaps 15,000 crusaders from the lands He took the route through of the Meuse and the lower Rhine. Hungary and the Balkans and arrived at Constantinople on Dec.

23, 1096.

As the

first

of the crusading princes to arrive he

problem of reaching a satisfactory relationship with the emperor Alexius. Godfrey was at first unwilling to swear the oath of allegiance that the emperor required, but was prevailed upon to do so in April 1097. His example was followed by the other princes. From this time until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey had the

difficult

appears as one of the minor princes, while men like Bohemund and Ra>'mond, Baldwin and Tancred were determining the course of events.

In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the crusaders were weary of the political factions that divided some of their leaders, and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim than a politician,

became the natural representative

of this feeling.

He

was thus able to play his part in prevailing upon the reluctant Raymond of Toulouse to march southward to Jerusalem, and he was prominent in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymond refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected ruler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He refused the title of king, assuming that of "advocate" of the Holy Sepulchre, The new dignity proved more onerous than honourable, and during his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of Egj'pt and the opHe was sucposition of Ra\Tnond and the patriarch Dagobert, cessful in repelling the Eg>'ptian attack at the battle of Ascalon (Aug, 1099), but he failed to acquire the town of Ascalon after

the citizens would surrender only to Ra>Tiiond, and Godfrey refused to accept these terms. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an army of about 2,000 men, Godfrey w^as yet able, in the spring of iioo. probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute from towns like Acre, Ascalon. Arsuf and Caesarea. But already at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been substituted as patriarch for Amulf (who had been acting as vicar) by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to have forced him to an agreement in April iioo, by which he promised Jerusalem and the battle

;

Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die without issue. Thus were the

foundations of a theocracy laid in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July 1100) he left the question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy should be the government of the Holy

Land. Because he had been the

ruler in Jerusalem, Godfrey was depicted as the leader of the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid down the He was none of these things. Bohemund assizes of Jerusalem. was the principal leader of the crusade; Baldwin was the first king; idolized in later saga.

first

He was

;

GODFREY— GODIVA were the result of a gradual development. In reality he would seem to have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities and no obvious defects. Godfrey was the principal hero of two French chansons de geste dealing with the crusade, the Chanson d'Antioche (ed. by P. Paris 2 vol., 1848) and the Chanson de Jerusalem (ed. by C. Hippeaui In addition, the parentage and early exploits of God1868). frey were made the subject of legend. His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with some variation, in the famihar fairy tale of "The Seven Swans," almost identical with the Lohengrin (q.v.) legend. See also Crusades. the assizes

^

;

Bibliography. ^

\

— Godfrey

in the history of that

modern work

is made the central figure of the first crusade expedition by Albert of Aix, written c. 1130. For

Andressohn, The Ancestry and Life oj Godfrey of Bouillon (1947); S. Runciman, History of' the Crusades, vol. 'i (1951); H. Pigeonneau. Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de Bouillon (1877); .\. Hatem, Les Poemes epiques des croisades (1932). Two later and interesting attempts to reassess Godfrey's character and achievement are H. Glaesener, "Godefroid de Bouillon etait-il 'un mediocre,' " Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique, vol. x.xxix (1943), and M. Lobet, Godefroid de Bouillon: Essai de biographic antileeendaire

,

j

see J. C.

(1943).

!

(112 5-c. 1 200 ) chronicler, of Italian probably some of his early years and his old age at Viterbo, where his family had property. He was eduor

!

German

,

origin, spent

reign

from 1155

to 1181.

controversial.

is

— Works

ed. by G. Waitz in Monumenta Germaniae Scriptores, vol. xxii (1872); see also W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichlsquellen im Mittelalter vol. ii, 6th ed. E. (1894); Schuiz, "Die Entstehungsgeschichte der Werke Gotfrids von Viterbo," Neues Archiv der Gesellschafl fUr dltere deutsche 'Gtschichtskunde, vol. 46 (1925). (N. R.)

Bibliography.

\historica,

.

.

GODFREY, lish

magistrate,

plot,"

SIR

EDMUND BERRY

remembered

was born on Dec.

.

,

(1621-1678). Eng-

chiefly for his part in the "popish

2i, 1621.

and was educated

at

Westminster

He entered Gray's commerce. He was later made

school and Christ Church, Oxford.

Inn but soon abandoned law for a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster and was knighted in Sept. 1666 for his services during the Great Plague of

London (1664-

65).

In Sept. 1678, Titns Dates iq.v.) and two other men laid before him information which "revealed" a Roman Catholic plot to murder Charles II and put his brother James on the throne. Feeling ran high and Godfrey felt his life endangered but took no precautions. He failed to return home on Oct. 12; five days later his body was discovered in a ditch on Primrose hill, Hampstead. The evidence strongly suggested murder. Two months later Miles Prance made a confession in which he claimed to have been present when Godfrey was murdered by hirelings in the courtyard of Somerset house, London, while Roman Catholic priests looked on. On his evidence Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry were tried and hanged in 1679. Prance's later confession of perjury was too late to save them and the mystery of Godfrey's death remains unsolved.

GOD

IN CHRIST,

jSmall religious

CHURCH

denominations

in

OF,

is

the

name

of several

the United States.

(Mennonite) is a branch of the jmovement founded by Menno Simons (q.v.). This branch arose |in 1858-59 in Wayne county, 0., under the leadership of John

The Church

of

God

{See

Pentecostal Churches.) Another Church of God in Christ is a Negro pentecostal sect founded by C. H. Mason, who withdrew from the Baptist Church at Memphis, Tenn., in 1895 to become the "chief apostle" of a group emphasizing entire sanctification and speaking in "unknown tongues." The first congregation was formed in a cotton gin at Lexington, Miss.

In 1921 a sect that had been formed in 1915 by H. Moore and his son at Enid, Okla., also under the name of Church of God in Christ, united with the Mason group but withdrew in 1925 in a dispute over a state charter and reorganized as the Free Church of God in Christ. Holiness, divine healing and speaking with tongues constitute its leading principles. A

a result of a disagreement over church finances.

VI, in verse,

i

"speaking with other tongues as the Spirit gives utterance." also

similar

Although generally of scant value as a historical source, it contains accounts of events which Godfrey himself had witnessed. His Speculum regum, in verse, which he dedicated to Henry VI, is a mirror of princes in the form of historical narratives from the Deluge to Pepin III, in which he tries to trace a common Trojan origin for the Romans and Franks. He was best known for his universal history, in verse and prose, from the Creation to 1186. entitled first Memoria secidonim and in its final version. Pantheon. His authorship of the short Gesta Heinrici

!

The Church of God in Christ (Pentecostal) is a small pentecostal body related to the Churches of God (see God, Churches of) founded in the early 19305 with headquarters at Bluefield, W.Va. It grew out of the so-called Latter Rain revival led by A. J. Tomlinson and embraces the ultraconservative fundamentalist theology, holiness as a second work of grace subsequent to justification, and

Frederick I Barbarossa {q.v.), who employed him on many diplomatic missions. His most important historical work is the Gesta sa's

I

regarded itself as the only true church. The tenets depart from conventional Mennonite theology and practice isee Me.vnonites) only in refusing to accept interest on loans and laying on of hands following baptism.

cated at Bamberg, and after being chaplain to Conrad III he spent nearly 40 years as chaplain and notary in the service of Emperor

Friderici I, a panegyrical account, in verse, of Frederick Barbaros-

,

Holderman, who, as a result of visions, felt called to preach, although he was not chosen by lot according to custom. He led about 20 followers from the Old Mennonite Church. This group

J.

GODFREY OF Viterbo

j

515

in Christ

Negro holiness sect, the Free Christian Church of Christ, was formed by E. D. Brown, a Methodist, at Redemption, Ark., as

—

E. T. Clark, The Small Sects in America (1949); Mead, Handbook of Denominations in the United Stales (1961) Yearbook of American Churches; for the pentecostal or Latter Rain movement see C. W, Conn, Like a Mighty Army, Moves the Church of God, 1886-1955 (1956) Homer A. Tonilinson' (ed.), Diary of A. J.

Bibliography.

F. S.

;

Tomlinson,

i

vol.

GODIVA

(1949).

(GoDGiFu)

(E. T. Cl.) (fl.

c.

1040-1080), famous for her

leg-

endary ride through Coventry. With her husband Leofric iq.v.), earl of Mercia. she founded 1043 a monastery at Coventry and endowed it with half the land of Coventry and 24 lordships. Godiva appears several times in Domesday Book as one who held land in King Edward's time; but she must have been living after the Norman conquest since she is recorded as holding the village of Madeley. Staffordshire, "even after King William's accession." The earliest extant source for the story of Lady Godiva 's ride through Coventry is the Chronica (under the year 1057 of Roger of Wendover d. 1236). He recounts that Godiva's ceaseless importunity in imploring her husband to reduce Coventry's hea\'y taxes led him in exasperation to declare that he would do so if she rode naked through the crowded market place. After ensuring that she had his permission, Godiva undertook the ride, accompanied (

)

)

(

by two

soldiers, her hair covering all her

body except her

legs.

On

her return Leofric issued a charter freeing Coventry "from serviOther chronicles repeated the story with variations, the tude." Ranulf Higden soldiers quickly disappearing from the accounts. (d.

1364) in his Polychronicon, and Henry Knighton

(d. c.

1396)

morning and say that Leofric freed the town from all tolls save those on horses. An inqiiisitio or inquiry made in the reign of Edward I shows that at that time no tolls were paid in Coventry except on horses. The Chronicle at Large of Richard Crafton (d. 1572) asserts that Godiva first required "the rulers of the city" to order all to remain indoors at the time fixed for the ride. She then galloped through the town, accompanied by her husband, escorts and her gentle-

who followed him. put

woman,

the ride early in the

so that the people heard the horses but did not see her.

"Peeping Tom" did not join the legend until the 17th century; a manuscript in Coventry archives states that Godiva's horse neighed during her ride, whereupon a citizen let down his window and looked out. All other accounts seem to mention Tom's punishment he was immediately struck either blind or dead. The Godiva procession, which from 1678 formed part of Coventry fair, has ;

at intervals of seven or eight years ever since. medieval chroniclers such as Florence of Worcester or Roger of Hoveden, who mention Leofric and Godiva with respect,

been held

Many

GODKIN—GODOLPHIN

5i6

does not feature in the chronicles of a benemonasteries such as Ely or Evesham, of which Godiva was derived from It has been suggested that the story really

do not

refer to the ride

and

it

factress.

the long continuation at Coventry of

some pagan or semipagan

fertilitv rite.

See F B. Burbridge, Old Coventry and

Lady Godiva

(1952).

GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE

(1831-1902), AngloMoyne, County U.S. editor and founder of the Nation, was born in from Queen's in graduating 1851 After 1831. Wicklow, Ire.. Oct. 2, special corcollege, Belfast, and studying law in London, he was respondent for the London Daily News in the Crimean War. After editorial

work on the Belfast Northern Whig, he went

to

America

for the late in 1856, writing letters descriptive of a southern tour London Daily News. He continued his connection with this journal

New York. He was admitted to the bar in impaired health he and his wife, Frances of his because 1858. and Elizabeth Foote. traveled in Europe 1860-62. At about this time

while studying law in

New

York Times by its the editor, Henry Jarvis Raymond; but although attracted by founding offer, he in 1865 carried out a long-cherished dream by This quickly became the foremost review in the the Nation. country as James Russell Lowell put it, because of the "ability, information and unflinching integrity" of the editor. Indeed, the periodical was so superior that Charles Dudley Warner, editor of the Hartford Coiirant, styled it the "weekly judgment day." In 1881 Godkin sold the Nation to Henry Villard, owner of the New Yorl: Evening Post, of which paper the Nation became the weekly edition. Godkin himself became associate editor of the Post, succeeding Carl Schurz as editor in chief, 1883-99, and shaping the policy of that journal. Under his leadership the Post broke with the Republican party in the presidential campaign of 1884,

Godkin was offered

a partnership in the

—

to Blaine did much party (see Mugwump), and his organ became completely independent. He consistently advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were so frequent and so fearless that he was several times sued for libel because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that organization, but the cases were dismissed. His opposition to "jingoism" and to imperialism was able and

to create the so-called

when Godkin's opposition

Mugwump

forcible.

Godkin retired from his editorial duties Greenway, Devonshire, Eng., May 21, 1902. Bibliography. Rollo Ogden (ed.), Life and

in 1899

and died in

—

Letters oj Edwin Lawrence Godltin, which has a list of Godkin's writings, 2 vol. (igo?) accounts in W. G. Bleyer, Main Currents in the History oj American Journalism (1927); 0. G. Villard, Some Newspapers and Newspapermen ( 1926) .\llan \evins, The Evening Post (1922) and H. F. Pringle, "Godkin of the Po.st" in E. H. Ford and E. Emery (eds.), Highlights in the History of the .imerican Press (1954). ;

;

;

GODMANCHESTER,

a municipal borough in the Huntingdonshire parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire. Eng., on the right bank of the Ouse, 1 mi, S.S.E. of Huntingdon (its twin town) and 15 mi. (24 km.) N.W. of Cambridge by road. Pop.

(1961) 8,821. A Romano-British settlement, Durolipons, is said have occupied the site of Godmanchester. The town (Godmundcestrel belonged to the king before the Conquest and in 12U King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee farm of £120 yearly. James I granted an incorporation charter in 1605, which recited that the burgesses were chiefly engaged in agriculture, and granted them a fair, which is now discontinued. to

The

spire of the interesting Perpendicular church of St. Mary the is a landmark for miles over the fens; it contains miserere

Virgin

traditionally from Ramsey abbey, Huntingdonshire. The 13th-century stone bridge over the river, the habitat of swans, connects the town with Huntingdon; the two Huntingdon arches

stalls,

are Decorated, Godmanchester's are plain. mar school is one of many Tudor houses in

The Elizabethan gram-

Godmanchester and of these and the Georgian buildings, more than 70 have been listed for preser\'ation. The trade is agricultural, but many people find

employment

in Huntingdon. Many old customs survive, including the ringing of curfew. The court leet of the freemen appoints a swanherd and pinder (an officer who impounds stray beasts).

GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY (1610-1643), English Royalist and poet, born at Godolphin hall, Cornwall, was baptized on Educated at Exeter college, Oxford, he became Jan. 15, 1610. intimate with Ben Jonson, Thomas Hobbes and other men of letHe was a member of parliament for Helston from 1628. A ters. staunch Royalist, he was one of the last to leave the house of commons when the king ordered his supporters to withdraw. He joined the Royalist forces under Sir Ralph Hopton and on Feb. 9, 1643, was killed in action at Chagford, Devonshire.

,

earl of Clarendon pays a notable tribute to Godolphin in History and Hobbes praises him in Leviathan. A few of his poems were published in the 17th century; of these the chief is The Passion of Dido for Aeneas, a translation from the Aeneid, apparently unfinished at his death and completed and published by Edmund Waller (1658). Other poems survived in manuscript Godolphin's best lyrics have a fine strength and delicollections.

The

his

cacy.

The first complete edition was by G. Saintsbury, in Minor Poets of See also Poems, ed. by W. Dighthe Caroline Period, 3 vol. (1905-21) (V. de S. P.) ton (193 1 ), with a biographical introduction. .

GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN,

Earl of (1645-

1712), English statesman and skilled financier, who remained almost continuously in office throughout the successive governments of 1679 to 1710. He was born at Godolphin hall, Cornwall, and christened on June 15, 1645, a cadet of an ancient Cornish family. In 1662 he became page of honour to the king, beginning a lifetime of court service and court politics. As page he became intimate with John Churchill (later duke of Marlborough), his lifelong' political ally, who was then page to the duke of York. During that period also he met his future wife, Margaret Blagge, a maid of ;

Churchill and Godolphin remained in conand the two families became linked by marriage and by their common kinsmen, the Boscawens and Lord FitzhardThe Godolphins and Boscawens controlled several Cornish ing. constituencies Godolphin himself was returned for Helston. 166879, and St. Mawes, 1679-81 ) and by 1701 the whole MarlboroughGodolphin connection mustered 12 members of parliament. The strength of Godolphin's and Churchill's position lay in the favour they enjoyed at court. After holding several court and diplomatic offices, Godolphin became a lord of the treasury on, March 26, 1679, under the influence of Lord Sunderland. Godol-,

honour

to the duchess.

stant association,

(

;

phin now revealed his character as a court politician. He sup-' ported Sunderland's negotiations with William of Orange in 1679, and concessions to the exclusionists, but retained favour when, Sunderland fell in 1681. In 1684, after the latter's return to power, Godolphin became secretary of state and then first lord of the He continued to serve at the treasury, and was created baron. treasury in various capacities under James II and almost continuously under William III till 1696. He was lord treasurer from

1700 to 1701 and from Anne's accession in 1702 until 1710. Godolphin's long service at the treasury during this generation exemplifies not only his own aptitude in making himself acceptable to successive courts but the premium put upon financial skill by the pressing difficulties of English government. Under his protection a corps of officials

who embodied

the fiscal expertise painfully

acquired under Charles II survived in office for 20 years after the revolution of 1688 and did much to preserve the machinery of state from the worst effects of parliamentary faction. He was created earl of

Godolphin

in 1706.

Godolphin's adroitness was revealed to the full in 1688. He served James II to the end and voted for a regency, but he immediately obtained office under William III, and while the king was abroad in 1695 and 1696 was one of the lords justices who managed the government. Godolphin nevertheless insured his prospects by contact with Jacobite agents and just before the publication of| Sir John Fenwick's revelations in 1696 his differences with the; Whig Junto came to a head and he resigned. In opposition Godol-j phin co-operated with Robert Harley (later earl of Oxford) and, the New Country party to such good effect that he was taken back! as head of the treasury in 1700 and Harley became speaker of the

house of commons. In Anne's reign Marlborough, Godolphin and Harley formed the

j

GODOWSKY—GODUNOV core of the

new ministry

to the chagrin of

Lord Rochester, the

queen's uncle, and his High

Tory alHes. The party tactics of the pursuit of the Occasional Conformity bill, their attacks upon the Junto and William Ill's grants were extremely inconvenient to the government, and Godolphin persuaded the queen gradulatter, their

ally to eject the

Tories from those

offices

they possessed.

By

the

the

and Arab j

Godolphin was a confirmed gambler, and was improve English race horses by importing Barb including his famous stallion, the Godolphin Ara-

life

first

sires,

to

bian.

See H. Elliot, The LHe of Sidney, Earl of Godolphin (1888) Sir Tresham Lever, Godolphin, His Life and Times (1952), (W. R, Wd.) ;

GODOWSKY, LEOPOLD

(1870-1938), Polish-American and composer, whose fame rests chiefly on his remarkable transcriptions and paraphrases for the piano, was born at Soshly pianist

I

1

I

near Vilna on Feb. 13, 1870. He made his debut as a pianist there as a child and then toured Russia, Poland. Germany and the U.S. He interrupted these tours to study in Berlin with E. F. K. Rudorff

and in Paris with Saint-Saens. In 1891 he married Frieda Saxe and became a U.S. citizen. He taught at Philadelphia (1894-95), Chicago (1895-1900) and Vienna (1909-14). From 1918 he toured throughout the world as a concert pianist, his career being cut short in 1930 by illness. His compositions include a piano sonata in E minor and many compositions for piano and violin. His transcriptions and paraphrases for the piano are not only brilliantly idiomatic but also are full of musical invention, so that at their best they are thoughtful commentaries on existing music. High among these come Godowsky's 53 studies based on the etudes of Chopin, some of them extravagantly elaborate but always fresh and stimulating. He died in New York city, Nov. 21, 1938. (Wi. S. M.) (1767-1851), duque de Alcudia and principe de la Paz, Spanish royal favourite and statesman, was born of a minor noble family in Badajoz on May 12, 1767. He entered the royal bodyguard in 1 784 and soon established himself as the lover of Maria Louisa of Parma, whose husband became king las Charles IV in 1788. Godoy, clever enough to win the king's as well as the queen's favour, was created duke of Alcudia in April 1792 and eventually made prime minister (November). His support of the king's Bourbon sentiments in interceding for Louis XVI of France led to the French republic's declaring war in 1793, but after the French victories in Catalonia he negotiated the'peace of Basel (July 1795), in which he ceded San Domingo but for which he was rewarded with the title "prince of the peace." A disastrous war with England followed the Franco-Spanish treaty of San Ildefonso (Aug. 1796). The archbishop of Seville and the grand inquisitor were exiled for plotting against Godoy in March 1797, and he was married to Maria Teresa, countess of Chinchon, a natural daughter of the king's uncle, in September, but in March

GODOY, MANUEL DE

j

I

!

l

;

I

office.

with the French DirecYet he remained influen-

and returned to office in 1801. He personally commanded the Spanish troops in the War of the Oranges, which won Olivenza from Portugal. War with England having been renewed after the peace of Amiens, his relations with Napoleon gradually deteriorated, though under the secret treaty of Fontainebleau'(Oct. 27, 1807) Godoy was offered the kingdom of the Aigarves for himself. tial

Godoy attempted to destroy the faction, but popular resentment culminated in the riots of Aranjuez (March 1808), which enabled Ferdinand to arrest Godoy. Sent then on Napoleon's orders to

among

I

Godoy from

union with Scotland (1 706-07"), but his efforts to dispose of ecclesiastical patronage in their favour led to a breach with Harley in 1708 and undermined his credit with the queen whose church-

15,1712. In private

'i

tory's mistrust, drove

the future

manship Harley flattered. Godolphin moreover had suffered badly from the attacks of the Tory propagandists and looked for protection to the Whigs. To the Whigs Godolphin was also drawn by his support of the war. The war effort had been sustained largely by Marlborough's efforts in the field, by Godolphin's handling of finance and by Harley's parliamentary management. The latter was replaced in 1708 by the Whig Junto. Committed now to war to the end in Spain, Marlborough and Godolphin lost office with their new allies when Anne, prompted by Abigail Masham and Harley, encouraged by the unpopularity of the war and the prosecution of Henry Sacheverell (g.v.), dismissed the Whigs in 1710. Despite long personal friendship Anne dismissed Godolphin without an audience, and after his fall the fiscal administration became subject to a political spoils system. He died at St. Albans on Sept.

!

517

his position at court, together

was comolete, and for the next two years Godolphin sought to keep the Whig Junto from acting with the Tories in opposition by making the minimum of concessions. He secured valuable services from them in the negotiation of the election of 1705 the breach

I

1798 en\^ of

Meanwhile the Fernandistas, supporters of the prince of Asturias, King Ferdinand VII. were plotting to displace him;

Bayonne, Godoy stayed with Charles IV till the latter's death in (1819). Having failed to recover his confiscated estates even after Ferdinand's death (1833). he had to live as Louis Phi-

Rome

lippe's pensioner

till Isabella II restored Paris on Oct. 4. 1851.

them

GODUNOV, BORIS FEDOROVICH

in 1847.

(J (c.

He

died in

G R

-S

)

1551-1605), tsar

Muscovy from 1598 to 1605, was the most famous member of the ancient Russian family of Saburov-Godunov, of Tatar origin, of

which migrated from the Golden Horde to Muscovy in the 14th century. Boris' career of service began at the court of Ivan IV the Terrible. In 1571 he strengthened his position by his marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan's favourite. G. L. Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irina, the sister of Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Fedor, on which occasion Boris was promoted to the rank of boyar. On his deathbed, in 1584, Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of Fedor, his successor, who was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of Fedor Ivanovich began with a minor rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich Dimitri, the son of Ivan's seventh wife, Maria Fedorovma Nagoi. This resulted in the banishment of Dimitri, with his mother and her relations, to their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of Fedor's coronation (May 31, 1584), Boris was given honours and riches, but he held only the second place in the regency during the lifetime of his co-guardian, Nikita Romanovich Yuriev: on the death of Yuriev, in 1585, Boris was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy against him by all the other great boyars and the metropolitan Dionisi, which sought to break Boris' power by divorcing the tsar from the childless Irina, ended in the banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents.

Henceforth Godunov was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal. The English referred to him as the lord protector. His policy was generally pacific but always prudent. In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the reign of Ivan IV. Four years previously he had defeated a Tatar raid on Moscow, for which service he received the title of sluga, a digToward Turkey he mainnity even higher than that of boyar. tained an independent attitude, supporting an anti-Turkish faction

Crimea and furnishing the Holy Roman emperor Rudolf II with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov encouraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting them from He civilized the northeastern and southeastern borders of tolls. in the

numerous towns and fortresses to keep the Samara (Kuibyshev), Saratov and Tsar(Stalingrad) and a whole series of lesser towns owe their

Muscovy by

building

Tatar tribes

in order.

itsjTi

existence to him.

He

also recolonized Siberia,

which had been

slip-

ping from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settlements, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during his government that the Muscovite Church received its patriarchate, which placed it on an equality with other Eastern churches. It was Boris' internal policy to support the middle classes at the expense of the old nobility and the peasants; his ukaz (decree) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves from one landowner to another and thus binding them to the soil led to the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden death of the tsarevich Dimitri at Uglich (May 15, 1591) has been attributed to Boris, but historians are not in agreement over this question. On the death of the childless tsar Fedor (Jan. 7, 1598), a na-

i

tional

assembly unanimously elected Boris

tsar

on Feb. 21.

The

GODWIN

5i8

were disgraced teachers foreign import and banished. be on a great scale, the first to send young Russians abroad to Russia. educated, the first to allow Lutheran churches to be built in He also felt the necessity of a Baltic seaboard and attempted to

Romanov

family,

who had been

Boris

was the

first

his chief rivals,

tsar to

obtain Livonia by diplomatic means. Muscovite Boris was undoubtedly one of the greatest of the The opposition with which he had to contend arose mainly tsars.

because dynastically he was an upstart and tsar only by election. His great qualities, however, were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness. He encouraged informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. The Romanov family especially In 1603 a pretender suffered severely from such denunciations. appeared in Poland, claiming to be the tsare\dch Dimitri (see DiMiTRi, False). With the support of King Sigismund of Poland. small army, reinforced by the Don

pretender was leading a Cossacks, into southwestern Russia when Boris died suddenly (April 13, leOS), leaving one son who succeeded him for a few months as Fedor II and then was murdered by enemies of the this

Godunovs. See S

F. Platonov, Boris

Godounov,

tsar de Russie

(1929).

(R.N. B.; N. An.) (Godwine) (d. 1053), earl of Wessex and Kent from c. 1018 to 1053 and the most powerful Englishman in the reign of Edward the Confessor, was the son of one Wulfnoth and became a favourite with Canute, whom he accompanied to Den-

GODWIN

He married Gytha, sister of Canute's brother-inCanute's death he supported Hardicanute. but later joined Harold's party. He arrested the atheling .\lfred when he came from Normandy in 1036. and was held responsible by Hardimark

in 1019.

law. Ulf

.

On

He had great power an earldom, including Herefordshire. Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire. Berkshire and Somerset, for his son Sweyn in 1043. and East Anglia for Harold (afterward Harold II) in 1044. and in 1045 he married his daughter Edith to the king. He got Sweyn reinstated in 1050, although he had seduced an abbess and murdered his cousin. Beorn. In 1051, however, he defied the king by refusing to punish the men of Dover for their affray with Eustace of Boulogne, and with his sons he gathered forces, declaring their intention of avenging insults against the king and his people perpetrated by Normans in Herefordshire. Earl Leofric of Mercia and Earl Siward of Northumbria supported the king, and when Godwin and his sons refused to appear before the witan in London unless hostages were given them, they were outlawed and the queen sent to Wherwell abbey. Edward's favouring of foreigners caused a reaction in favour of Godwin. He had gone with his wife and his sons SwejTi, Tostig and Gyrth to Flanders; he returned with a fleet in June 1052 and won much support in Kent. Surrey and Sussex before returning to Flanders. Later he made contact with Harold, who with his brother Leofwine had gone to Ireland, and they went together in September to Southwark. Edward was unable to resist, and Godwin and his family were restored to their former possessions and offices. Half a year later Godwin was taken ill while at the king's table, and died on April 15, 1053. Later sources contain much legendary matter and there may have been a vernacular saga current about him. canute for his murder, but bought his peace. in the early part of

Edward's

reign, securing

—

Bibliography. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; F. M. Stenton, AngloSaxon England, 2nd ed. (1947); C. E. Wright, The Cultivation of Saga in Anglo-Saxon England (1939). (D. Wk.)

GODWIN, EDWARD WILLIAM

(1833-1886). English

and writer, was mainly responsible for the Vicwas an important contributor to the "aesthetic" movement. Born in Bristol, he was articled in 1849 to the city surveyor there and in 1854 set up his own practice, specializing in ecclesiastical architecture in the west of England and in Ireland. In 1861 he won a competition for Northampton town hall and its decorations and furniture with a design in the personal French Gothic revival style of all his early work. In the following year he married and is said to have decorated his house in the Japanese manner, the first of its kind in the countn.-. He moved to London in 1865 and designed Dromore castle and Glen-

architect, designer

torian Japanese vogue and

both built in Ireland between 1867 and 1871. His work was on a smaller domestic scale and included houses for artists at Bedford Park (1875) and the White House (1877) in Chelsea for his friend James A. M. Whistler, whose paintings were often framed to Godwin's designs. From 1865 onward he designed furniture, textiles and wallpapers for commercial production and private clients. As a result of his association with Ellen Terry he had a great interest in all aspects of the an interest inherited by their son Edward Gordon Craig theatre and designed costumes and sets for many Shakespearean (g.v.) and other productions. He died in London on Oct. 6, 1886.

begh

castle,

later architectural

— —

See Dudley Harbron, The Conscious Stone (1949).

GODWIN, FRANCIS writer whose

The

Man

in the

(E.

M.

As.)

(1562-1633), English bishop

Moone

is

the

first

and

story of a space

English literature, was born at Hannington, NorthampHe was a student at Christ Church, Oxford, when, in 1583. the Itahan philosopher Giordano Bruno attempted to convert After holding two the university to the new scientific ideas.

voyage

in

tonshire.

Somersetshire livings. Godwin was successively subdean of Exeter (1587). bishop of Llandaff (1601) and bishop of Hereford (1617).

He

died in April 1633,

Godwin's literary w-orks include the Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first plantijig of the Christian Religion in this Island (1601), Rerum Anglicanim, Henrico VIII, Edwardo VI et Maria regnantibm, Annales (1616), and Nuncitis inanimatus in Utopia (1629), published in defiance of Charles I's decree of 1626 Godwin's The Man in the renewing censorship of the press. Moone, or a Discourse of a Voyage thither by Domingo Consoles, the Speedy Messenger was influenced by the writings of Galileo in its description of the moon and its discussion of magnetic force

and the diurnal rotation of the earth. It was published posthumously in 1638 and by 1768 had been through 25 editions in four languages. Its great popularity is an indication of the new interest in science after the invention of the telescope;

it

influenced,

among

Cyrano de Bergerac and probably also Jonathan Swift. See G. McColIey, The Man in the Moone and Nuncius Inanimatus

others, (1937).

GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

(1759-1797),

English miscellaneous writer, a passionate advocate of woman's right to a place in society equal to that of man, was an influential figure in the radical group that included her husband William Godwin, Thomas Paine. Thomas Holcroft and William Blake. Of Irish extraction, she was born, probably at Hoxton, London, on April 27, 1759, Her father, Edward John WoUstonecraft. after dissipating the greater part of his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, but increasing difficulties forced the family to a wandering existence, from Hoxton to Edmonton, to Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laugharne in Carmarthenshire and back to London. After in 1 780 and her husband's second marMary, Everina and Eliza, tried to earn their own living. Mary at first lived with Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age whose father, like WoUstonecraft. was addicted to drink. Everina lived with her brother Edward, and Eliza married a Mr. Bishop. After this unhappy marriage had ended in a legal separation, the three sisters lived with Fanny Blood at Islington and at Newington Green, and opened a school which survived for two years. At Newington Green Mary was introduced to Dr. Johnson, who, Godwin says, "treated her with particular kindness and atten-

Mrs, WoUstonecraf t's death riage, the daughters,

tion."

In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys. a merchant, and went with him to Lisbon where she died in childbed. Mary was deeply moved and vrtote to Fanny's brother. George Blood, 'T have lost all relish of pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too hea\^' to be endured." She left Newington Green and became governess

—

family of Lord Kingsborough in Ireland too successfully, was dismissed after a year on the grounds "that the children loved their governess better than their mother." She next

in the

for she

undertook work for James Johnson the publisher, of St. Paul's churchyard, but left England because she wished to observe the Revolution in Paris in 1792. remaining there throughout the Terror and passing as the wife of Capt. Gilbert Imlay. an American. They had not been formally married but Imlay terms her in a legal docu-

GODWIN ment: "Mary Imlay,

my

best friend and wife." Two groups of letters, among the best of her writings, were written to Imlay in these years, during his absence in Le Havre for several month's in 1793, and again in 1795, when she went on business to Norway on his behalf. Meanwhile, in the spring of 1794, Mary gave birth

Le Havre, whom she named after her friend, Fanny But her relationship with Imlay was deteriorating: he left her for a period at Le Havre and on her return from Norway in 1795 he proposed to separate from her, offering her and her child an annuity which she refused. There was a brief reconciliation but their relationship finally broke down. She attempted to drown herself by leaping from Putney bridge but was rescued by watermen. She had returned to London late in 1795 to work for Johnson and in 1796 met William Godwin. Their mutual admiration and respect became a profound affection and they lived together for several months, Godwin writing later that "ideas which he is now willing to denominate prejudices, made him by no means willing to conform to the ceremony of marriage." But for the sake of their future child Mary (who was to become the wife of Shelley) they were married at St. Pancras church on March 29, 1797, concealing the fact with some diffidence from their friends. The marriage was wholly happy. Godwin's description of his wife, "that to a child at

Blood.

smile of bewitching tenderness," has a tone remarkable in a man of his austerity, and there is an unmawkish but tender playfulness

courteous determination to respect each other's way of writes to him, "Did I not see you, friend Godwin, at the theatre last night? I thought I met a smile, but you went out without looking round. We expect you at half-past four." This time of happiness was brief. On Sept. 10, 1797, ten days after her daughter's birth, she died, and was buried in the churchyard of Old St. Pancras, but her remains were later removed by Sir Percy in their life:

Mary

Shelley to the churchyard of St. Peter's, Bournemouth.

Many

Mary WoUstonecraft's

519

sensualists are in the right when they endeavour to keep women in the dark, because the former only want slaves, and the latter a plaything." Her central theme was argued with a vigorous

freedom of speech which caused deep offense: "Marriage will never be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men. are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses." But, as

Godwin made more

qualifications in the rigour of his

argument

than is popularly supposed, so Mary Wollstonecraft advocated no mechanical equality between the sexes: "Whatever tends to incapacitate the maternal character takes woman out of her sphere." This balance of intellectuality with ardour, of passionate advocacy

with

warmth

of

sympathy made her one

fluential writers in her

of the permanently in-

powerful group of friends.

—

BIBLIocR.^PHY. Editions of her works include: Posthumous Works, 4 vol. (1798); Original Stories, ed. by E. V. Lucas (with Blake's illustrations, 1906) Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert ;

Imlay, ed. by Roger Ingpen (1908). See E. R. Pennell, Marv WoUstonecrajt Godwin (1SS5) E. R. Clough, Mary Wollstonecrajt'and the Rights of Woman, (1898); De Routcn, Mary Wollstonecraft and the Beginnings of Female Emancipation (1923) M. Linford, Mar\ Wollstonecraft (1924); R. M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft (1951); and the bibliography for Godwin, William. (W. M. Me.) ;

;

GODWIN,

'WILLIAM (1756-1836'l, Enghsh writer and philosopher whose rationalistic and anarchical views influenced the work of the romantic poets, was born on March 3, 1756, at Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, the son of a Nonconformist minister. Both his parents were Calvinists and Godwin was educated for the dissenting ministry at Hoxton academy, by Andrew Kippis and Abraham Rees of the Cyclopaedia, and, more Calvinist than his became a Sandemanian, or follower of John Glas ', as he understood it, was whether the systematic study of formation and transformation let

—

of rocks, clouds, colours, plants, animals or the cultural phenomena of human society as these present themselves to sentient experi-

—

He

ence.

did not propose

as a substitute to the quantitative

it

which break down forms as we know them and by converting them into mathematical terms ensure a measure of preHe was not, contrary to common belief, diction and control. opposed to analysis one of his favourite maxims was that analysis and synthesis must alternate as naturally as breathing in and breathand his only objection to physics was its increasing tending out ency to claim monopoly of understanding, What he was aiming at was rather a humanizing supplement, an understanding of nature in all its qualitative manifestations, and one of his most impassciences,

—

—

sioned pleas all t>'pes

is

for a concert of all the sciences, a co-operation of

of method and mind.

This impulse, to find a

one can always find among them a twin which expresses the complementary opposite. And they have something of the banality of proverbs too. But it is, as Andre Gide observed, "une banalite siiperietire." What makes it "superior" is that the thought has been And for all felt and lived and that the formulation betrays this. his specialized talents there was a kind of "superior banality" about If he himself felt it was "symbolic" and worth Goethe's life. presenting as such in a series of autobiographical writings, it was not from arrogance but from a realization that he was an extraordinarily ordinary man in whom ordinary men might see themselves reflected. Not an ascetic, a mystic, a saint or a recluse, not a Don Juan or a poet's poet, but one who to the best of his ability had

form of I'homme moyen

tried to achieve the highest

—

setisuel

perhaps what Napoleon sensed when after their meeting in Erfurt he uttered his famous "Voild iin homme!" See also references under "Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Works, Drawings, Diaries, Correspondence, Conversations: Goethes Werke (VoUstdndige Ausgabe letzter Hand) 40 vol.

which

is

—

,

scientific as well as

an aesthetic correc-

(1827-30) a continuation of this; Nachgelassene Werke,^ 20 vol. (1832-42) both also in a Taschenausgabe. The standard critical edition was published in Weimar at first under the auspices of the grand duchess Sophie (hence known as the Weimar Ausgabe or Sophienausgabe), 133 vol., including the scientific works, diaries and letters (1887a new critical edition by the Deutsche Akademie der Wis1919) Of modern editions senschaften zu Berlin is in progress (1952). ;

;

tive to the inevitably esoteric tendencies of specialization, is no-

where more apparent than in his two elegies on plant and animal metamorphosis in which he tries to present to imagination and

what has been understood by the mind. They eventually took their place in a cycle of philosophical poems entitled Gott

feeling

und Welt ("God and World"). Though no orthodox believer, Goethe was by no means the pure pagan the 19th century liked to imagine.

Spinoza's pantheism

chord, for the deist idea of a

certainly

a sympathetic created the world,

struck

God who, haxing

;

the most noteworthy are: the Jubilaums-Ausgabe, ed. by E. von der Hellen, 40 vol., plus an invaluable Registerband, with introductions and notes (1902-12); the Gedenkausgabe, ed. by E. Beutler, 24 vol., including selections from the scientific works, correspondence and conversations, with useful indexes (1948-54) plus Erganzungsband I: the Hamburger Ausgabe, ed. by E. Brieje aus dein Elternhaus (1960) Trunz, 14 vol., the most up-to-date in its introductions and biblioothers often quoted are those by G. graphical surveys (1948-60) Hempel, 36 vol. (1868-79), and by C. Hofer and C. Noch, Propylden Ausgabe, 49 vol., presenting the writings in chronological order (1909;

then

left it to

revolve,

was repugnant

to him.

But he was and

remained a grateful heir of the Christian tradition rooted in the Bible

was from

—

Bibelfesi,

as his language constantly proclaims.

And

he extended sjTnpathetic understanding common ground without destroying their individual excellencies, seeing them as different manifestations of an Ur, or archetypal, religion and thus giving expression, in this field as elsewhere, to the essentially morphological temper of his mind. "Panentheism" has been proposed as a more exact term for his belief in a dixnnity at once immanent and transcendent, and he rebuked those who tried to confine him to one mode of thought by saying that as poet he wms polytheist, as scientist pantheist, and that when, as a moral being, he had need of a personal God, "that too had been taken care of." This was one of the meanings he attached to the text: "In my father's house are many mansions." it

this centre that

to all other religions, seeking their

—

Appraisal. A day will come, Carlyle predicted in a letter to W. Emerson, when "you will find that this sunny-looking courtly Goethe held veiled in him a Prophetic sorrow deep as Dante's." And since World War II there have been many attempts to replace the image of the serene optimist by that of the tortured skeptic. The one is as inadequate as the other as inadequate as T. S. Eliot's conclusion that he was sage rather than poet though this is perhaps inevitable when a writer is such a master of his own medium that even his prose proves resistant to translation. Even his Werther knew that the reahties of existence are rarely to be grasped by Either-Or. And the reaUty of Goethe himself certainly eludes any such attempt. If he was a skeptic, and he often was, he was a hopeful skeptic. He looked deep into the abyss; but he deliberately emphasized hfe and light. He lived life to the full at every R.

—

—

but never to the detriment of the civilized virtues. He remained closely in touch with the richness of his unconscious mind; but he shed on it the light of reflection without destroying the spontaneity of its processes. He was, as befits a son of the Enlightenment, wholly committed to the adventure of science; but he stood in awe and reverence before the mystery of the universe. level;

Goethe nowhere formulated a system of thought. He was as impatient of the sterilities of logic chopping as of the inflations of metaphysics, though he acknowledged his indebtedness to many philosophers, including Kant. But here again he was not to be confined. Truth for him lay not in compromise but in the embracing of opposites. And this is expressed in the form of his

Maximen ("Maxims" which, together with his Gesprdche ("Conversations"), contain the sum of his wisdom. As with proverbs, I

;

Goethes Amtliche There are innumerable Selected Works. 32). Goethe's drawings Schriften, ed. by W. Flach (1950; in progress). and sketches are being published in the Corpus der Goelhe-Zeichnungen: vol. i. Von den Anfdngen bis zur ilalienischen Reise von 1786, ed. by G. Femmel (195S) see also L. Miinz, Goethes Zeichnungen und Radierungen (1950). Goethes Gesprdche,. ed. by W. von Biedermann, 10 vol., 2nd ed (1909-11); J. P. Eckermann, Gesprdche mit Goethe ;

1823-32, 3 vol. (1836-48, many times reprinted). The only complete collection of Goethe's letters is in the Weimar Ausgabe {see above) see also letters to Goethe ed. by R. K. Goldschmidt-Jentner, Eine Welt schreibt an Goethe (1937). His correspondence with particular individuals, German and foreign, is conveniently listed in the Hamburger see also D. F. S. Scott, Some English Ausgabe, vol. 14 {see above) ;

Correspondents of Goethe (Matthew ["Monk"] Lewis, T. Holcroft, Sir Walter Scott, P. P. Gillies, Sir John Bowring, Lord Leveson-Gower, Sarah Austin, etc.; 1949). Translations: There is still no uniform edition in English (but see the chief works J. Porchat, Oeuvres Completes, 10 vol., 1860-63) though have been frequentlv translated and many of them are to be found in' Bohn's Standard Library, 14 vol. (1846-90). For details see L. and E. Oswald, A. Dickson, Goethe in England {and America) in Publications of the English Goethe Society, 2 vol. (1909, 1951). Translations include: Wilhelm Meisler's Theatrical Mission bv G. A. Page (1913); Wilhelm Meister by Thomas Carlvle (1824; Everyman ed., 1912). Faust I and II h\ K.G.'Lat.hSim (1902-06; Even>-man ed., 1908); other translations of Faust by B. Tavlor (1870-71; World's Classics, 1932) P. Wayne (Penguin ed., 1949); Louis MacNeice (1951); B. Jessup (1958). Egmont by Michael Hamburger in The Classic Theatre, II, ed. by E. Bentley (1959); Kindred by Choice {die Wahlvdrwandtschaften) by H. M. Waidson (1961); Werther by W. Rose (1929); Werther by B. Q. Morgan (1957) Die leiden des jungen Werther, DualLanguage book, ed. by H. Steinhauer (1962); Werther: the New Melusine, Novelle by V. Lange (1949); Novelle by C. P. Middleton (1959); The West-Eastern Divan by Edward Dowden (1914). The Briefwechsel with Schiller and a collection of early and miscellaneous letters are in Bohn {see above) that with Carlyle, ed. by C. E. Norton (1887). Letters From Goethe, selected and trans, by M. von Herzfeld and C. M. Sym (1957). Conversations With Eckermann by John0.xenford, 2 vol. (1850; vol. 6 of Bohn) by R. 0-. Moon (1951). Biography and Criticism: The best introduction in English is still G. H. Lewes, Life and Works of Goethe (1S55; ISth ed., 1903). Others B. Croce available in English are by A. Bielschovvsky, 3 vol. (1905-08) (1923) G. Brandes, 2 vol. (1925) also E. Ludwig, Goethe: the History of a Man, 2 vol. (1928); H. W. Nevinson, Goethe: Man and Poet (1931) J. G. Robertson, Life and Works of Goethe, 2nd ed. (1932) L. Lewisohn, Goethe: the Story of a Man (1949) A. Schweitzer, Goethe (1949); K. Victor, Goethe the Poet (1949). German biographies by F. Gundolf (1916); H. Meyer (1951); E. Staiger, 3 vol. (1952-59); ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

GOETHITE—GOGH Giinther MijUer, 3rd ed. (1955). French works by J. M. Carr6 (1927) H. Lichtenberger, 2 vol. (1937-39) ; A. Fuchs (1946) E. Jaloux, 2nd cd' (1949) J. F. Angelioz (1949) C. du Bos (1949). Criticism in EnRlish includes B. Fairley, Goethe as Revealed in His Poetry (1932), .-1 Study of Goethe (1947); Thomas Mann, Three Essays (Eng. trans. 1932)'; Essays on Goethe, ed. by W. Rose (1949) A. R. Hohlfeld, Fifty Years With Goethe (1953) E. M. Wilkinson and L. A. Willoughby, Goethe: Poet and Thinker (1962); R. Peacock, Goethe's Major Plays (1959). On Faust: Vrjausl and Fragment, ed. by L. A. Willoughby (1943); Faust I and II, ed. by R.-M. S. Heffner, H. Rehder and W. F. Twaddell (1954-55); H. G. Fiedler, Textual Studies of Goethe's Faust (1946). Further interpretations of Faust in English by F. M. Stawell and G L Dickinson (1928); R. D. Miller (1939); D. J. Enright (1949); B. Fairley, Goethe's Faust (1953) A. GiUies (1957) Stuart Atkins (1958) see also E. M. Butler, The Fortunes of Faust (1952) A. I. Frantz, Half a Hundred Thralls to Faust (1949). Science, Philosophy, Aesthetics, etc.: Sir Charles Sherrington, Goethe on Nature and on Science, 2nd ed. (1949 unsympathetic) as corrective, Agnes Arber, Goethe's Botany, including trans, of Die Metamorphose der Pfianz^ (1946) and The Natural Philosophy of Plant Form (1950); R. Michea, Les Travaux scientifigues de Goethe (1943) R. D. Gray, Goethe: the Alchemist (1952); E. Heller, The Disinherited Mind (1952); C. G. Carus, Goethe., dessen Bedeutung (1863); O. Harnack, Goethe in der Epoche seiner V ollendung, 3rd ed. (1905) G. Simmel, Goethe (1913); A, FarinelU, Goethe, Saggio (1933); E. Spranger, Goethes Weltanschauung (1946) L. L. Whyte, The Next Development in Man (1944) K. J. Obenauer, Goethe in seinem Verhdltnis zur Religion (1921); P. Deraetz, Goethes "Die Aufgereglen" : Zur Frage der ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Dichtung in Deutschland (1952); K. Vietor, Goethe the Thinker (1950); H. M. Wolff, Goethes Weg zur Humanitdt (1951); F. J. von Rintelen, Der Rang des Geistes: Goethes Weltverstdndnis P. Stocklein, Weg.e zum spdlen Goethe: Dichtung, Gedanke, (1955) Zeichnung, 2nd ed. (1960); M. Jolles, Goethes Kunstanschauung (1957) H. J. Weigand, Goethe: Wisdom and Experience, selections in English (1949); Giinther Miiller, Maximen und Reflexionen (1943);

politischen

;

;

Thomas Mann, The Permanent Goethe (1948) W. Leppmann, The German Image of Goethe (1961). Wellliteralur: J. M. Carre, Goethe en Angleterre (1920); W. Rose, From Goethe to Byron: the Development of "W eltschmerz" in German ;

Literature (1924) J. G. Robertson, Goethe and Byron (1925) Stuart Atkins, The Testament of "Werther" in Poetry and Drama (1949); E. M. Butler, Byron and Goethe: Analysis of a Passion (1956) F. Norman, Henry Crabb Robinson and Goethe, 2 vol. (1930-31), and J. B. Orrick, Matthew Arnold and Goethe (1928): both in Publications of English Goethe Society; F. Strich, Goethe and World Literature (1949) H. Trevelyan, Goethe and the Greeks (1941; a corrective to E. M. Butler, The Tyranny of Greece Over Germany, 1935) J. Boyd, Goethe's Knowledge of English Literature (1932) B. Barnes, Goethe's Knowledge of French Literature (1937); H. Oppel, Das Shakespeare-Bild Goethes (1949) A. Federmann, Der junge Goethe und England (1949). Cultural Background: H. A. Korff, Geist der Goethe Zeit, 5 vol. (1923-58) E. Beutler, Essays um Goethe, 2 vol. (1941-47) Goethe und seine Welt, with 580 illustrations, ed. by E. Beutler, H. Wahl, A. Kippenberg (1932). A. Bergstraesser, Goethe's Image of Man and Society ;

;

;

I

j

\

;

I

;

i

;

\

j

;

j

\

;

;

\

(1949)

t

W. H.

;

Bruford, Theatre,

Drama and Audience

imany (1950) and Culture and Society

in Classical

in

Goethe's Ger-

Weimar, 1775-1806

close-packed arrangement of large oxygen or hydroxy! ions, with ferric ions between alternate layers. The packing gives a symmetry of structure and form that is pseudohexagonal (orthorhombic) and

;

!

;

GOETHITE,

a very

common

jdrated iron oxide, the principal thite

is

the stable

iron mineral consisting of hy-

Goeof rusted iron. under the hydrous, oxidizing

component

iron mineral

conditions near the earth's surface.

It occurs as

a direct pre-

and as a weathering product of other iron minerals, sometimes making an important ore of iron, as in Alsace. In most deposits goethite is very fine-grained, occasionally as fibrous radiating masses. The name goethite was originally given, in honour of the poet and natural philosopher Johann Goethe, to cipitate (e.g., in bogs),

a less

common

iron mineral

(now known

identical composition but different structure.

as lepidocrocite) of Ordinarily the two

minerals can be distinguished only by X-ray diffraction; undifferentiated fine-grained material is usually called limonite (q.v.). 'The composition of goethite is FeOOH, equivalent to the chemical compound FeaOs.HjO. The structure is based on a nearly

a—

weak

the

interlayer bonding results in one perfect cleavage

in a tabular or

prismatic external form. brown in single crystals, ranging through yellow as the size of crystals decreases. specific gravity 4.2.

GOFFE

(Gough),

WILLIAM

The colour

is

and

blackish

shades of brown and The hardness is 5 and (W. T. Hr.

all

1

1679), English soldier and regicide active in the military affairs of the Commonwealth, was the son of Stephen Goffe, rector of Stanmer, Sussex. He was (d. c.

New Model army in 1645 and took part in the Windsor prayer meeting of 1648 when the army decided to put King Charles I on trial. He was one of Charles's judges and signed a captain in the

the king's death warrant.

Dunbar and

Goffe

commanded

a regiment both at

and he was one of the major generals in In 1654 also he became member of parliament for Yar1654. mouth, and in 1656 for Hampshire, and then he sat in the upper house. He succeeded John Lambert as major general of the army in 1658. After Oliver Cromwell's death, Goffe supported Richard Cromwell as lord protector. Goffe was excepted from the royalist Act of Indemnity but escaped with his father-in-law, Edward Whalley, to New England. There they were befriended and lay in hiding until the hunt for them had died down. From 1664 onward they lived in Hadley, Mass. When in 1675 Indians attacked the place, Goffe is said to have rallied the inhabitants and to have driven off the raiders. This traditional story was incorporated by Sir Walter Scott in his Peveril of the Peak. S. R. Bt.) GOG, in the Bible, a hostile power that is to manifest itself in Ezek. xxxviii the world immediately before the end of things Magog, who is joined with Gog in the passage in seq., Rev. xx). Revelation, is the name of Gog's origin in this passage in Ezekiel. In Gen. x, 2 (and Ezek. xxxviii, 2) Magog appears to represent a locaUty in Armenia. The legends attached to the gigantic effigies of Gog and Magog According to the in Guildhall, London, are of unknown date. Recuyell des histoires de Troye, Gog and Magog were the survivors of a race of giants descended from the ii wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been slain by Brut and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought to London (Troyat Worcester,

(

(

novant) and compelled to

officiate as porters at the gate of the

have existed in London from the time of Henry V. The earlier ones, destroyed in the Great Fire, were replaced in 1708; these were burned in an air raid in 1940 and new figures were installed in 1953. Effigies similar to the present

royal palace.

GOGH, VINCENT WILLEM VAN

(1962).

Bibliography: Only the researcher will consult the vast compilation in Goedeke's Grundriss, iv (1910-13), to be superseded by H. Pyritz, Goethe-Bibliographie (1955 in progress). Vol. xiv of the HamburgerAusgabe (1960) is adequate for most purposes. The Goethe Handbuch, ed. by A. Zastrau (1955; in progress), provides alphabetical references to all topics relating to Goethe. H. Kindermann, Das Goelhebild des XX. Jahrhunderts (1952), is in effect a lively catalogue raisonne of European and American critical literature during the 20th century. Goethe Societies: Wiener Goethe Verein, 1878; Weimar Goethe Gesellschaft, 1885; English Goethe Society, 1886, with sister societies in the Commonwealth of Nations from 1949; Goethe Society of Maryland and the District of Columbia, 1932 Japanese Goethe Gesellschaft, (E. M. Wi.) 1932. All issue publications.

529

greatest and

most revolutionary Dutch painter

(1853-1890). the after

Rembrandt,

on March 30, 1853, the eldest of six children of a Protestant pastor, at Groot Zundert (Brabant). The artistic career of Vincent van Gogh was extremely short, lasting only ten years (1880-90); during the first part he was acquiring technical proficiency and confined himself almost entirely to drawings and

was

bom

water colours.

His

first

productive period of

oil

painting begins

During the ensuing six years, he produced about 700 drawings and 800 oils, only one of which was sold during his hfesustained time. Vincent was always desperately poor, but he was by a by faith in the urgency of what he had to communicate, and in his younger brother, Theo (1857-91), who beheved implicitly earnings. The genius and provided for him out of his own meagre give a graphic on) (from 1872 Theo wrote to Vincent letters which of his account of his aims and beliefs, hopes and disappointments, methods and fluctuating physical and mental state, of his pictorial vividly and anaof his daily life. Van Gogh expressed himself so Correspondence ranks lyzed things so acutely that his Collected in

1884.

great literanot merely as a great autobiographical record but as into two Vincent's working hfe can be roughly divided ture. wrestled with temperiods. The first (1873-85). during which he peramental difficulties and sought his true means of self-expression,

and changes of was a period of repeated apprenticeships, failures period of dedication, was a (1886-90) second The direction. his progress was interrapid development and fulfillment, until ending in an atrupted by a succession of mental crises (1889-90)

GOGH

530

27, 1890. and his death two days later. Vincent's early years in his father's parsonage were happy, and he loved wandering in the countryside. At 16, he was apprenticed to the art dealers Goupil and Co., of which his uncle was a partner.

tempted suicide on July

at their branch in The Hague, going later to London (1873-74) and Paris (1874-75). Daily contact with works of art aroused Van Gogh's artistic sensibility and he soon formed a taste for Rembrandt, Hals, J. van Ruisdael, C. Troyon, Jules Dupre and his preference was for Millet and Corot, whose J. Maris, although influence was to last throughout his life. Vincent disliked art dealing; moreover, his approach to life darkened when his love was rejected by a London girl ( 1874 ), for his burning desire for human affection had been thwarted. From then on he became increasingly solitary. He became a language teacher and lay preacher (England), and later (1877) a bookseller in Dordrecht. Impelled by a longing to give himself to his fellow men, Vincent envisaged enter-

Vincent began

ing the ministry

and took up theology, but abandoned

this project

for short-term training as an evangelist in Brussels (Aug. 1878).

A conflict

with authority ensued, for Vincent disputed the orthodox failed to get a nomination and after three

doctrinal approach,

do missionary work among the mining population There he experienced the first great spiritual He was sharing the life of crisis of his life (winter, 1879-80). the poor completely, but in an impassioned moment gave away all his worldly goods and was thereupon dismissed for too literal an interpretation of Christian teaching. Penniless and with his faith destroyed, he sank into despair, cut himself off from everyone and began seriously to draw, thereby discovering (Aug. 1880) his true vocation. Vincent decided that his m.ission from then on would be to bring consolation to humanity through art. and this He realization of his creative powers restored his self-confidence. immediately went to study drawing at the Brussels academy, then in April 1881 moved to his father's parsonage at Etten and began to work from nature. Van Gogh worked hard and methodically but soon perceived the difficulty of self-training and sought the guidance of more ex-

months

left to

of the Borinage.

artists. In Jan. 1882 he settled at The Hague to work with Anton Mauve; he made visits to museums and had meetings with painters such as Van Rappard and G. Breitner. Vincent thus extended his technical knowledge and experimented (summer 1882) with oil paint. In Sept. 1883 the urge to be "alone with nature" and the peasants took him to Drenthe, a desolate part of northern Holland frequented by Mauve, Van Rappard and Max Liebermann, where he spent three months before returning home,

perienced

which was now at Nuenen. Vincent remained at Nuenen from Dec. 1883 till Nov. 1885 and during these years his art grew bolder and more assured. He painted three types of subject still life, landscape and figure all interrelated by their reference to the pea.sants' daily life, to the hardships they endured and the countryside they cultivated. Emile Zola's Germinal had greatly impressed Van Gogh, and in many of his pictures, e.g., "Weavers" and "The Potato Eaters," sociological criticism is implicit. Eventually Vincent felt too isolated in Nuenen. His understanding of the 'possi-

—

—

was evolving through studying Hals he saw that academic "finish" debilities

of painting

rapidly;

stroys the freshness of a visual impression, while Veronese and

/I

Delacroix taught him that "colour expresses something by itself." This led to enthusiasm for Ru-

m—

y-

'

bens and a sudden departure for Antwerp, where the revelation of

r

Rubens' "simple means," of his and of his abihty

•

direct notation,

mood ... by a combination of colours" proved tSSEN. decisive. Simultaneously, Van "discovered" Portrait OF ARMAND HouLiN- BY Gogh Japanese VINCENT VAN GOGH (IN THE MUSEUM prints and began to use pure colFOLKWANG ESSEN, ours. His Tcfusal to follow acato "express a

T

COURTIST op HUSEUH ecRyANT

WANG,

demic principles led to rows at the Antwerp academy, where he was enrolled, and after three months of hard work and near-

March 1886) to join Theo concerned with improving his drawing, Vincent worked for three months under F. Cormon, in whose studio he met Toulouse-Lautrec and Emile Bernard, who opened his eyes to the latest developments in French painting and subsequently introduced him to Paul Gauguin; at the same time, Theo showed him Impressionist paintings at Goupil's and introduced him to Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat and others of the group. By this time Vincent was ready for such revelations, and the changes which his painting underwent in Paris (1886-88) led to the expansion of his personal idiom. His palette at last became colourful in a series of "Flower Still Lifes" (summer 1886) executed under the influence of Adolphe Monticelli; thereafter his vision became less traditional and his tonalities lighter (first views of Montmartre) until (spring 1887) the Impressionist influence became paramount (more views of Paris). Later (summer 1887), in outdoor views of Montmartre, Suresnes, Asnieres and Chatou, Vincent was painting in pure colours and using a broken brushwork which is at times pointiUistic. Finally his post-Impressionist style crystallized (Dec. 1887-Feb. 1888) in some interpretations of prints by Hiroshige and in masterpieces such as "Portrait of Pere Tanguy" and "Self Portrait in Front of an Easel." starvation he left precipitately (early in Paris.

There,

still

After two years. Van Gogh was tired of city life, physically exhausted, and longing "to look at nature under a brighter sky,"

because he realized that the veiled light of the north obliged him to "respect tonal values," whereas his passion was for "the Japanese way of feeling and drawing" and for "a full effect of colour." He left Paris on Feb. 20, 1888, for Aries. In his pictures of the following 12 months his first great period Vincent strove to

—

—

respect the external, visual aspect of a figure or a landscape, but found himself unable to suppress his own feelings about the subject.

These found expression

in

vivid formal simplifications or exag-

gerations and an almost arbitrarily intense use of colour.

Vincent's thus partly expressionist and partly symHis procedure was not scientific or calculated, however,

pictorial conception bolist.

is

but spontaneous and instinctive, for he worked with great speed and intensity, determined to capture an effect or a mood while it possessed him. His Aries subjects include blossoming fruit trees, views of the town and surroundings, self-portraits, portraits of Roulin the postman and his family and other friends, interiors and exteriors of his house, a series of sunflowers and a "starry night." Van Gogh knew that his approach to painting was revolutionary and individualistic, but he also knew that some tasks are beyond the power of isolated individuals to accomplish. In Paris he had hoped to form a separate Impressionist group with Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec, Bernard and Anquetin, whom he supposed to have similar aims. He rented and decorated "a yellow house" in Aries with the intention of persuading them to join him and found a working community of "Impressionists of the South." Gauguin arrived on Oct. 20, i888, and for two months they worked together; but while each influenced the other to some extent, their relations rapidly deteriorated because they had opposing ideas and were temperamentally incompatible. On Christmas Eve, 1888, Vincent

broke under the strain and cut off part of his left ear. Gauguin left and Van Gogh was taken to a hospital; he returned to the "yellow house" a fortnight later and resumed painting: "SelfPortrait With a Bandaged Ear," still lifes, "La Berceuse." Within a month he was back in the hospital. At the end of April 1889, fearful of losing his "capacity for work," which he felt returning and regarded as a guarantee of sanity, he asked to be "temporarily shut up" in the asylum at St. Remy de Provence in order not to be alone and to be under supervision. Vincent stayed there for 12 months, haunted by recurrent attacks, alternating between calm and despair and working intermittently ("Garden of the Asylum," "Cypresses," "Olive Trees," "Les Alpilles," portraits of doctors, interpretations of

Rembrandt, Delacroix, Millet).

The

keynote of this phase (1889-90) is fear of losing touch with reality and a certain sadness. Confined for long periods to his cell or the asylum garden and having no choice of suljjects, Van Gogh fought against having to work from memory his inspiration depended on ;

—

GOGOL

531

Leymarie, Van Gogh (1951) D. Cooper, Drawings and Watercolours by V. van Gogh (1955); M. E. Tralbaut (ed.), Exhibition catalogue V. van Gogh, Leben und Schaffen (Oct. 1957). (Ds. Cr.) ;

GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILEVICH

(1809-1852), Rusand dramatist, author of the novel Mertvye dushi ("Dead Souls"), was born in the Ukrainian township of Sorochinsk on March 31 (new style; 19, old style), 1809. The son of a small Ukrainian landowner, he received his education first at a preparatory school in Poltava and, from May 1821 to June 1828, at the Nezhin grammar school. At Nezhin he made a name for himself as a talented boy-actor and as a versatile contributor to the different school magazines, for which he wrote "an historical tale"; a "satire" on the inhabitants of Nezhin; a ballad, "Two Fishes"; "The Robbers," a tragedy in iambic pentameters; and an epic poem, on "Russia Under the Tartar Yoke"; none has been preserved. Already during his last years at school he decided to seek literary fame in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He left for St. Petersburg in Dec. 1828, a few months after passing his final examinations, taking with him the manuscript of Hans Kiiechelgarten, a long, sentimental narrative poem, which he published in 1829 at his own expense under the pseudonym of V. Alov. The poem ("the creative work of a young man of talent," as Gogol described it in his introduction) received hostile notices in two prominent St. Petersburg and Moscow periodicals, which hurt his pride so much that he collected all the copies of the poem from the bookshops and burned them. Having previously failed to obtain a job as an actor at the St. Petersburg state theatre and determined not to apply for a job in the civil service, in spite of the letters of recommendation he had brought from home, he made up his mind to emigrate to the United States, which he regarded as "the ideal land of happiness and productive labour." He embarked for Liibeck on the first stage of his journey, traveled as far as Sweden, then changed his mind and sailed back to St. Petersburg. "God has humbled my pride," he wrote to his mother on his return, sian humorist, short story writer, novehst

•THE STARRY NIGHT" BY VINCENT VAN GOGH. 1889.

IN

THE MUSEUM OF

MODERN ART

and he distrusted Gauguin's process of "abstracReniy Vincent toned down his violent colour contrasts of the previous summer and tried to be calmer; but as he repressed his excitement he involved himself more imaginatively in the drama of the elements and of natural growth and decay, developing a style based on dynamic forms and a vigorous use of direct observation

At

tion."

St.

The best of his St. Remy more moving and more visionary than

often equated with colour).

line (line

pictures are thus bolder,

those of Aries.

Vincent himself brought this period to an end. Oppressed by homesickness he painted souvenirs of Holland and loneliness, he longed to see Theo and the north once more and arrived in Paris on May 16, 1890. Four days later he went to stay with Dr. Gachet, a friend of Pissarro and Paul Cezanne, at Auvers-sur-Oise. Back in a village community such as he had not known since Nuenen (1885), Van Gogh worked enthusiastically and his choice

—

—

of subjects (fields of corn, the river valley, peasants' cottages, the

church, the town

hall) reflects his spiritual relief.

A

modification

forms are less contorted, pale fresh broader and more expressive, the Everything in Van Gogh's pictures vision of nature more lyrical. seems to be moving, living. But this phase was short. Quarrels with Gachet, feehngs of guilt at his inescapable dependence on of his style follows; natural

tonaUties,

the

brushwork

is

Theo (now married and with a son) and inability to succeed, despair of ever overcoming his lonehness or of being cured, drove him to suicide (July 1890). Six months later Theo, too, was dead (Jan. 25,1891).

The name

of

Van Gogh was

virtually

unknown when he took

his

exhibited a few canvases at the Salon des Indein Brussels (1890), and both pendants (1888-90) and at Les salo?is showed small commemorative groups of his work in 1891;

life.

He had

XX

one-man shows were posthumous (1892). Only one in article on him appeared during his lifetime (Albert Aurier Mercure de France, Jan. 1890). His fame was made largely by other painters (E. Bernard, M. Denis) and dates from the early

but his

first

years of the 20th century; since then his reputation has never ceased to grow and he has exerted a powerful influence on the development of modern painting (Matisse, Derain, Vlaminck, the

German

Expressionists, Picasso), especially in the field of colour.

Painting; Postimpressionism; see also references under "Gogh, Vincent Willem Van" in the Index volume.

See j

'V.

—

Vermmelde Brieven van V. van Gogh, 4 vol., ed. by W. van Gogh (1952-54; original texts of all existing letters);

Bibliography.

'

[Complete Letters oj Vincent van Gogh, i vol. (1958). See also J. B. de la Faille, Catalogue de I'Oeuvre de V. van Gogh, 4 vol. (1927), also lies Faux van Gogh (1930); W. Scherjon and J. de Gruyter, Fan .Gogh's Great Period (1937); C. M. Brooks, Jr., V. Van Gogh: a Bibliography (1942); W. Weisbach, V. van Gogh, 2 vol. (1949); J. :

\

is His sacred will." Left without means, Gogol had to look for a job in the hated civil service. He obtained one in the department of public works, but stayed there for only three months, transferring to the department of the royal estates, where he remained from April 1830 to March 1831. He spent all his free time working feverishly at his Ukrainian tales, the first volume of which was published as Vechera

"It

na khutore bliz Dikanki ("Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka") under the pseudonym of Rudy Panko ("Red-haired Panko") in Sept. 1831. The second volume followed in March 1832. These They still remain stories made him famous throughout Russia. the most imaginative and least dated works in Russian literature, for in re-creating the customs and popular beliefs of Ukrainian country folk, Gogol did not attempt to paint a true picture of their but mingled realism with fantasy. The remarkable feature Sorochinskaya yarmarka ("The stories these of most of Sorochinsk Fair"), Vecher nakaniine Ivana-Kupala ("St. John's Eve"),Maiskaya noch ("A May Night") and Propavshaya gramota ("The Lost Letter") in the first part, and Noch pered Rozhdeslvom ("Christmas Eve") and Zakoldovannoye mesto ("The Bewitched Spot") in the second— is, as the critic Vissarion Belinski expressed which the author pretends it, "their quiet, good-natured humour, in lives

method of to be a simpleton"; and indeed, Gogol's characteristic projecting his own personality into the story, superimposing his own emotional life upon it and conducting the narrative on the subbe clearly jective and objective planes simultaneously can already the detected in these stories. The first of the two other stories of Vengeance," Terrible "The namely, Evenings, of the second volume deals with the universal

theme

of the conflict of

good and

evil,

and

and His Aunt," Gogol in the second, "Ivan Fedorovich Shponka makes effective use of the insignificant details of the most ordinary extraordinary from situation in order, as he put it, "to extract the the ordinary."

•

,

.

includmg Gogol had earher published some articles and stories, magazines. some chapters from an unfinished historical novel, in romantic The editor of one of the magazines introduced him to the him to Aleksandr poet Vasili Zhukovski who, in turn, introduced subject Pushkin in May 1831. It was Pushkin who gave Gogol the

—

GOGOL

532

of his play Revizor (1836; The Government Inspector; also translated as The Inspector General) and his novel Mertvye dushi (1st part, 1842; English translation, £)ea(f 5oh/5, 1922). For the time being, however, Gogol showed an enthusiasm for

education, histor>' being the special subject of his choice. Having resigned from the civil ser\'ice, he obtained a job at a St. Peters-

burg boarding school for the daughters of the nobility, which he held for several years. At the end of 1831 he began writing a history of the Ukraine and announced his intention of writing a history of the world, neither of which he ever published. He did succeed, however, in obtaining the post of reader of medieval history at St. Petersburg university in 1834, a post which he held for only one

two volumes of articles and short stories, Arabeski ("Arabesques") and Mirgorod, and completed The Government Inspector. Besides the articles dealing with history, art and architecture. Arabesques included three of Gogol's St. Petersburg stories: Portret ("The Portrait"), Nevski Prospekt ("Nevsky Avenue") and Zapiski sitmasshedshago ("The Diary of a Madman"), while Mirgorod included three of his most famous stories Starosvetskie pomeshchiki ("The Old World Landowners"), as deeply moving a tale as any he ever wrote, Kak possorilsya Ivan Ivanovich s Ivanom Nikijorovkhem ("The Story of the Quarrel of Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich"), written in 1833, one of his most famous comic stories, and Viy, the last fantastic story Gogol wrote as well as his historical novel Toras Biilba. Before leaving Russia for Italy in 1S36 Gogol published two more stories: Nos (1835; "The Nose"), a bitingly satirical exposure of the stupidity of officialdom and the snobberj' and self-complacency of the Russian upper classes, and The Carriage (1836), a satire on provincial life. Gogol wrote his dramatic masterpiece The Government Inspector in less than two months, finishing it on Dec. 4. 1835. It was performed for the first time on April 19, 1836. in the presence of the emperor Nicholas I, who is said to have remarked: "Everyone has caught it, but I have caught it more than anyone." The play, however, was violently criticized by many influential people w-ho interpreted it as an attack on the established order. Gogol wrote year. At the beginning of 1835 he published

—

a defense of

it in dialogue form, Teatralny raze'zd ("After the Play"), published in his collected works in 1842. He defended his play on the score that abuses by government officials could

be rectified by exposing them on the stage, and, in reply to his critics who claimed that there was not a single honest character in the play, he claimed that there was one such character, namely laughter for, he wrote, "even he who is not afraid of anything in the world is afraid of ridicule," an opinion which he was shrewd enough to modify by remarking a little earlier in After the Play that "some of us who are ready to have a good laugh at a man's crooked nose, have not the courage to laugh at a man's crooked soul." But as the play deals with those abuses due not to national and historical causes but deeply rooted in man's character, its significance as a work of art has been generally recognized and it is universally acknowledged to be one of the masterpieces of European drama. Gogol's other plays include Zhenit'ba ("Marriage"), a comedy

—

in

two acts subtitled "An Utterly Incredible

1835 and revised a one-act

Affair," finished in the spring of 1836; Igroki ("The Gamblers"), dealing with cardsharpers, written in 1832 and

in

comedy

revised in 1842; four dramatic scenes, Vtro delovogo cheloveka ("A Morning of a Business Man"), Tyazhba ("A Lawsuit"),

Lakeiskaya ("The Servants' Hall") and Otryvok ("A Fragment"), the three last representing fragments of his first play Vladimirtretiei stepeni ("Vladimir Third Class"), written in 1831-32; and the first act and two scenes of the second act of a historical play, "Alfred the Great," the only artistic remnant of his studies of European medieval history, written

in 1835, in which he portrays the Engking as the ideal ruler who curbs the lust for power of his nobles and fosters the spread of learning. lish

criticism which The Government Inspector aroused fi A^^ conlirmed Gogol s belief in the moral influence of art, but it also drove him out of Russia where he felt he could not find the necessary peace of mind to write Dead Souls. He left St. Petersburg by sea lor Lubeck on June 18, 1836, and remained abroad for 12 years,

returning to Russia only twice, in 1838-39 and in 1841-42, for a

months each time. He lived mostly in Rome, which deep impression on his mind, though the only artistic result of his stay there is the fragment of a novel of Roman life published in 1842 under the title Rim ("Rome"). Most of his time in Rome was occupied with the writing of the first part of Dead Souls, though by the end of 1841 he had also completed his famous story Shinel ("The Overcoat") and thoroughly revised Taras Bulba and stay of eight

left a

The

Portrait.

Gogol spent eight years, from 1834 to 1842, on the writing of the first part of Dead Souls, and ten years, from 1842 to 1852, on the second part. The third part, in which he plaimed to show the conversion of his hero Chichikov to a life of virtue, was never Gogol had never been in doubt about the sensation the written. publication of the first part of Dead Souls (in May 1842) would produce in Russia, but as his work on the second part proceeded, the theme of the novel took on more and more grandiose proportions in his mind. Writing to Zhukovski shortly after, Gogol declared that the first part of his novel was "quite insignificant" when compared to the other parts which were to follow it. "It reminds me," he declared, "of the steps of a palace of colossal dimensions hastily constructed by some provincial architect," But the difficulties of building such a palace in which, as he wrote at the end of the first part, "the untold riches of the Russian soul" would bring about the spiritual regeneration of so consummate a crook as Chichikov, became apparent to Gogol as soon as he reached Rome in 1842. By the beginning of 1845 his attempt to write the second part had driven him into a state of nervous collapse and at the end of June he burned all he had written of it. He then attempted to achieve the same result of bringing about the lasting reconciliation of the hostile social and economic forces in Russia by a book published in 1847, Vybran7iye mesta iz perepiski s druzyami ("Selected Passage From Correspondence With My Friends"). The Selected Passages, which consist of 32 articles, most of which are based on letters written to a small circle of his friends and in which he tried to justify serfdom and the reactionary policies of Nicholas I, were condemned even by Gogol's closest friends. One of them, Sergei Aksakov (q.v.), the author of Semeinaya Khronika ("A Family Chronicle"), wrote to Gogol in Jan. 1847 that he had been grossly mistaken and that, "while thinking of serving God and humanity," he had "insulted God and humanity." The most biting denunciation of the Selected Passages, however, came from Belinski who had been the first to hail Gogol as the greatest genius Russia had produced, but who now denounced him as "a preacher of the lash, an apostle of ignorance, a champion of obscurantism and a panegyrist of Tartar customs." The failure of the Selected Passages made Gogol resume his work on the second part of Dead Souls, but not before he had gone on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he arrived on Feb. 15, 1848, and where he hoped, as he expressed it in the prayer he had composed for the occasion, to obtain renewed strength to return to his work with zeal and courage for the benefit of his country. The pilgrimage, too, was a failure. "Never before," Gogol wrote, "have I been so httle satisfied with the state of my heart as when I was in Jerusalem." The resumption of his work on the novel was laborious and painful. By the time he had finished the second part he had fallen completely under the influence of a religious fanatic. Father Matthew Konstantinovski, who demanded that he should destroy it and enter a monastery. After a tremendous inner conflict. Gogol carried out Father Matthew's demand and burned the completed second part oi Dead Souls on the night of Feb. 24 (N.S.; 12,0.S.), 1852. He then took to his bed, refused all food and died in great pain on March 4 (N.S.; Feb. 21,0.S.), 1852. What Gogol meant to the great Russian writers of the 19th century is perhaps best expressed in the tributes paid to him by Turgenev and Dostoevski. "Gogol," Turgenev wrote, "was more than a writer to us: he has revealed us to ourselves." To Dostoevski Gogol's significance lay in the fact that "he laughed all his life at himself and us and we all laughed with him and we laughed so long that in the end

we began

." "Gogol," Dostoevski conwhole gallery of money-grubbers, landsharpers and plunderers. All he had to do was to point a finger

tinues, "put before us a

to cry.

.

.

GOGRA—GOIS mark appeared branded on their foreheads which stayed there forever so that we never forgot who they were and, above all, what their names were." It was, indeed, Gogol's them and

at

at once a

remarkable gallery of different types of the Russian ruling class that was finally instrumental in destroying the respect of the RusThis Dostoevski clearly perceived sian people for their rulers. when (in his Diary of a Writer) he stressed the revolutionary sigAfter describing Gogol's characters in nificance of Dead Souls. his novel as "the most profound creations of the Russian genius," Dostoevski declared that they gave rise in the Russian mind "to the most turbulent ideas which one cannot help feeling it is impossible to solve now, if indeed ever." But the human types created by Gogol transcend their purely national character and are truly universal. They are as true of the Russians as of every human being, for they reveal characteristics common to all mankind. In this sense they are, in fact, immortal. Bibliography. Works, trans, by Constance Garnett, 6 vol. D. Magarshack, Tales of Good and Evil (1949), includes (1922-28) trans, of Taras Bulba, The Terrible Veweance, Ivan Fyodorovich Shponka and His Aunt, The Portrait, Nevifcy Avenue, The Overcoat and The Government Inspector. See also J. Lavrin, Gogol (1926) (D. Mk.) D. Magarshack, Gogol: a Life (1957). (Ghaghara), a river of northern India, rises in Tibet near Lake Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej. It passes through Nepal as the Karnah and becomes the most important waterway in Uttar Pradesh. It joins the Ganges (Ganga) at Chapra after a course of 600 mi. Its tributary, the Rapti, is also commercially important. The Gogra is also (L. D. S.) called the Sarju, and in its lower course the Deoha.

—

;

;

GOGRA

GOHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Land of Lower Saxony, imm.ediately west of the Elbe, between Wittenberg (in the

German

Democratic Republic) and Liineburg (in the Federal Republic of Germany). It has an area of about 85 sq.mi. and is famous for The Hohenzollerns formerly its oaks, beeches and game preserves. had a hunting lodge within the forest. In an encounter there on Sept. 16, 1813, Napoleon's forces were defeated by the aUies under The small village of Gohrde the Russian general Wallmoden. had 199|nhabitants in 1961. GOIANIA, capital of Goias state, Brazil, located on the The city was planalto central, about 2,S00 ft. above sea level. planned in 1933 to replace the old, unhealthful state capital, Goias, about 70 mi. N.W. Built along modern hnes and situated on the Meia Ponte, a tributary of the Paranaiba river, it has wide avenues, new buildings and attractive parks. In 1937 the state government moved in and the official inauguration was held in 1942. Goiania is connected by railway (via Leopoldo de Bulhoes) to Anapolis (40 mi. N.E.) and to other parts of Brazil by airhnes. It is primarily an administrative centre, and is the seat of the state university, but is less important in the economic life than

AnapoUs.

Nevertheless,

in 1950) as people

its

population has grown rapidly (39,871

have been attracted to

it

from the

rural areas.

(P. E. J.) an inland state of Brazil, formerly spelled Goyaz and Goiaz, was selected in 1956 as the site of the federal district and The state of Goias is bounded capital of Brazil, Brasilia (q.v.). '

'

GOIAS,

by the states of Maranhao on the north, Mato Grosso and Para on the west, Maranhao, Bahia and Minas Gerais on the east, and Minas Gerais and Mato Grosso on the south. Its area is 247,912 sq.mi. Its population (1960) was 1,954,862. The chief cities, in addition to Brasiha, are Goiania, the state capital since 1937, Goias, the old state capital, Anapolis, Ipameri, and Catalao, all

located in the southern part of the state. Goias lies wholly within the Brazihan highlands. In the south it occupies the larger part of the planalto central, or central plateau, the vast level surface of which stands between 2,500 and 3,000 ft. above sea level. A few rounded ridges stand higher than this, the highest being the

Chapada dos Veadeiros (5,505

ft.).

The

planalto

between three of Brazil's largest river systems: to the south Goias is drained through the Paranaiba, a tributary of the Parana to the east it is drained by tributaries of the Sao Francisco; and the greater part of the state is drained northward through the Araguaia and the Tocantins. None of central forms the divide

is

navigable except for short distances.

The southern

is

Only a few isolated settlements are scattered throughout the northern two-thirds of the area. The chief concentration of settlement is in the southeast, across the border from Minas Gerais. Anapolis, reached by rail from Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, is a rapidly growing frontier town, serN-ing the new zone thinly populated.

of pioneer settlement in an "island" of forest to the northwest, the Mato Grosso de Goias. Farm settlement has also moved into

The smaller forested areas along the valleys of the southeast. open campos, however, offer only poor pasturage, and their use for agriculture remains uncertain. 'The state produces quartz cr>'stals, diamonds, titanium, nickel and chromium.

(P. E. J.)

GOIDANICH, PIER GABRIELE

(1868-1953), Italian

whose main scholarly interest was in the Romance languages, Old Latin and Indo-European, was born on July 30, 1868, He obtained his doctorate at the University in Volosca (Istria). of Pisa, where he also was professor of the comparative history of

linguist,

the classical and neo-Latin languages from 1899 to 1906. He then was transferred to the University of Bologna, where he remained until his retirement.

A prolific writer, he was, in philosophy and methods, in continued disagreement with the neolinguistic school, created and guided by his compatriot Bartoh. Goidanich's arguments can be seen in his "NeoKnguistica o linguistica senza aggettivo?" Archivio glottologico italiano

mio insegnamento

(AGI),

vol. 21, pp.

di glottologia,"

AGl,

59-105 (1927), and "II

vol. 30, pp.

1-51 (1938),

the latter of which, written in the year of his retirement, is his He was editor of the AGI from 1910 to scholarly testament. his rival 1926, and coeditor from 1926 to 1953 (until 1946 with articles. numerous published he journal this In Bartoli). (E. Pm.) Goidanich died on Nov. 1, 1953, at Bologna.

GOIDELIC DIALECTS: GOIS, DAMIAO

DE

see

Celtic Languages.

502-1 5 74) among the most outstandwas born of a patrician family at humanists, Portuguese of ing Alenquer on Feb. 2, 1502. Under King John III he was employed and he abroad after 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, ( 1

,

scholars intitraveled widely in Europe. He knew many leading and in 1532 mately, was acquainted with Luther and Melanchthon degree at became the pupil and friend of Erasmus. Gois took his

He married in Flanders and settled at Louvain, in 1538. where he was livmg then the literary centre of the Low Countries, Taken prisoner, he town. the besieged French the in 1542 w^hen rewarded later was confined for nine months in France, but was Charles V. He returned from arms of grant a by services his for was appointed chief keeper of to Portugal in 1545 and in 1548 was commissioned archives and royal chronicler. In 1558 he Padua

the

to write a history of the reign of

appeared

King Manuel, and the

in 1566.

.

first

part

,

and genial manners, and Latin with Portuguese both wrote He musician. and a skilled His portrait, by Albrecht Durer, classic strength and simplicity. of his life proves shows an open, intelligent face, and the record historical work his But fearless. and upright him to have been

Damiao de Gois was a man

gave offense

;

these rivers

533

covered with a woodland savanna known in Brazil as campo cerrado. To the north, where the Araguaia and Tocantins have eroded deep valleys, the land is covered with tropical rain forest, or selva. The whole area enjoys moderate temperatures, except in the deeper valleys which are warm enough to permit survival of malaria mosquitoes. The year is divided into a rainy season (October-March) and a dry season (April-September). The first Portuguese exploration of this interior part of Brazil was carried on by expeditions from Sao Paulo in the 17th century. In a few places gold and diamonds were found in the stream gravels; one of the chief mining areas was in a tributary of the Araguaia and there the old colonial town of Goias was located. In 1 744 this large inland area, much of it still unknown by white men, was made a captaincy general, and in 1822 it became a province of the empire of Brazil. It became a state in 1889. Outside the federal district the greater part of Goias is still very

part of the state

tion in

denunciation to the Inqu^ito the great families; a later, and in 1571 he was arrested.

1545 was taken up

He

term of strict redusion at the monastery of Alenquer where he Later he seems to have returned to

was sentenced Batalha

of wide culture

to a

GOITRE—GOLD

534 died suddenly on Jan. 30, 1574.

For portrait see

article

(E. P.; A. B.; N.

guese Literature.

PortuJ.

L.)

BiBLiocR.*PHY.— Gois's Portuguese works include the Cronica do Dom Emanuel, 4 pt. (1566-67), also ed. by D. Lopes and J. M. Tei.xeira de Carvalho in 4 vol. (1926) Cronica do principe Dom Jodo (1567), ed, by A. J. Gongalves Guimaraes (1905). Among his major Latin works are Fides, religio, moresque Aelhiopum (1540) and Deploratio Lappiae Gentis (1540). Some of his Latin treatises are available in Portuguese translation in Opusados historicos de Damido de Gois (1945). See also G. J. C. Henriques, Ineditos Goesianos, 2 vol. (1896-98) J. de Vasconcelos, Damido de Gois (1897) M. F. M. de Sousa Viterbo, Estudos sobre Damido de Gois (1900) Bataillon. "Le Cosmopolitisme de Damiao de Gois," in £.tudes sur le Portugal au temps de I'humanisme (1952) .\. F. G. Bell, "Damiao de Gois, a Portuguese Humanist," in Hispanic Review (1941). (N. J. L.)

felicissimo ret

;

;

;

;

;

GOITRE:

see

Thyroid Gland, Diseases

of.

GOJAM

(Gojjam'), a western province of Ethiopia south of Lake Tana, is encircled east and south by the Blue Nile (Abbai). Pop. (1960 est.) 1,400,000. Area, 23,166 sq.mi. (60,000 sq.km.). The provincial capital is Debra Markos (pop. 8,000). In the east the Choke mountains rise to 13.622 ft. (4,152 m.) in Mt. Birhan. The west slopes toward the Sudan plains with a peak at Mt. Belaya (about 10,500 ft. [3,200 km.]). The Abbai gorge (5,000 ft. below the level of the plateau) and the mountainous country have

encouraged an independent spirit among the peoples of Gojam. It was a powerful medieval kingdom and remains of important centres exist in the east at Bichena, Debra Work and Martula Mariam. In western Gojam dwell Nilotic groups and an interesting isolated group of Sidama people, the Shenasa, live on the northern bank of the Abbai opposite its confluence with the Didessa. From Debra Markos the road to Addis Ababa is carried by a

modern concrete bridge over the Abbai. North of Debra Markos the road extends to Bahr Dar on Lake Tana and there is regular communication across the lake with Gorgora in Begemdir province. Gojam is a rich agricultural region producing livestock, grain, oilseeds and (near Lake Tana) coffee. Its honey is used in making the national drink tej which resembles mead.

(G. C. L.) Ziya) (18751924), Turkish sociologist, writer and nationalist leader, was born in Diyarbakir, He entered the Istanbul Veterinary school in 1896

GOKALP, ZIYA

(pseudonym

of

Mehmed

but his active membership in a secret revolutionary society led to imprisonment and then "exile" to his home town. After the Young Turk revolution (1908) Gokalp took part in a committee conference of the secret Society of Union and Progress in Salonika

and, settling there, played an important part in the activities of the committee which later virtually ruled the country.

His con-

Gench Kalemler gave impetus language reform. When the Balkan War

tributions to the literary periodical

campaign for broke out he was appointed to the chair of sociology at Istanbul university, soon becoming the intellectual leader of the Nationalist movement. After the 1918 Armistice, he was exiled to Malta with a number of leading Turkish politicians. Freed after the Nato

the

he returned to Diyarbakir, publishing there the Later he moved to Ankara, worked the ministry of education and was elected member of pa-tliament 1923, He died in Istanbul on Oct. 25, 1924. An ardent ideologist of Pan-Turanism, Gokalp greatly influenced

tionalist victory,

periodical Kiicliiik Mecmiia. in in

the politicians

and writers of

his generation.

See Z, Fahri, Ziya Gokalp, sa vie el sa sociolosie (1936); U. Heyd, Foundations of Turkish Sationalism (1950). (F. I.)

GOKHALE, GOPAL KRISHNA

(1866-1915), political

leader of the moderate nationalists in India, was born on May 9, 1866, in Kotluk village, Ratnagiri district (Bombay state), of a Chitpavan Brahman family. After graduating from Elphinstone

Bombay, in 1884, he became professor of history and poeconomy at Fergusson college, Poona, He resigned in 1902,

college, litical

For long an influential member of the Indian National Congress Gokhale advocated constitutional methods of agitation. He was a brilliant exponent of financial problems. He was also party,

known

for his scrupulous honesty. When in England in 1897 witness before the royal commission on Indian expenditure, he repeated allegations made to him against British soldiers

as a

employed on plague prevention in the Deccan, On returning to India, he found that these allegations were unsubstantiated,

and therefore made a public and unqualified apology, which was much criticized by the extreme nationalists. In 1899 he became a member of the Bombay legislature, and in 1902 represented its nonofficial

members

in the central legislature.

In 1905 he became

president of the Congress party.

Gokhale was much concerned with social reform, and in 1905 founded the Servants of India society, whose members took vows of poverty and lifelong service to their country in a religious spirit. He opposed the ill-treatment of untouchables by caste Hindus, and took up the cause of the Indians in South Africa, which he visited on their behalf. In 1912 he was appointed a member of the Islington commission on the public services in India. He died at Poona on Feb. 19,1915. (Ke. A. B.) See T. V. Parvate, Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1959).

GOLASECCA, one of a number of sites on the Somma plateau end of Lago Maggiore, Italy, where cremation cemeIron Age have been found. Each tomb contains a jar-shaped burial urn covered with an inverted bowl; the urn

at the southern

teries of the early

holds the ashes of the dead, together with a small accessory vase and weapons, fibulae and small objects of bronze, iron, amber or

The burial was almost always surrounded by a circle of unworked stones. The pottery found in the burials is of two styles, one hand-made and decorated with incised geometric patterns, the other generally wheel-made, slipped and patterned with darker clay and highly burnished, but the presence of both types in the same burials indicates that they are contemporary. The second type was exported to Este, though Atestine pottery is not found

glass.

at Golasecca.

Swords of Hungarian and other northern types, and bronze ornaments identical with some found in Picenum, indicate other trade connections.

The

civilization,

corresponding in date with the Ar-

noaldi period at Bologna (c. 650-500 B.C.), is closely connected with that of the Comacines, whose earliest graves, however, are The most famous Golaseccan earlier than the Golaseccan group. tomb, that of a warrior from Sesto Calende, is datable by a bronze

Certosa shape but of local manufacture to the end of the 6th century B.C. Material from Golasecca is to be seen at Turin in the Palazzo deir Accademia delle Scienze, and in the Sforza castle in Milan. situla of

See also Archaeology: The Iron Age in Europe. Bibliography,— D. Randall-Maclver, The Iron Age in Italy (1927); F, von Duhn, Italische Grdberkunde, vol. i, pp. 130 ff. (1924); J: Whatmough, The Foundations oj Roman Italy, ch. S (1937). (E. H. Ri.)

GOLCONDA, Deccan,

lies 5

ite hill, is

mi.

and ruined city of India, Hyderabad city. The fortress, on

a fortress

W.

more than

of

3 mi. in

in

the

a gran-

circumference with concentric

cur-

masonry blocks; some palaces, mosques and other buildings remain. About 600 yd. to the northwest Golconda has are the arcaded and domed Qutb Shahi tombs. given its name in English literature to the diamonds which were found in the southeast of the Qutb Shahi dominions and cut at tain walls built of cyclopean

Golconda. From 1518 to 1687 Golconda was the capital of a powerful| Shi'a kingdom, one of the five Muslim sultanates established in the Deccan (q.v.) after the disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom. Its rulers, the Qutb Shahis, were overthrown by the Mogul; emperor Aurangzeb in 1687, whereupon Golconda was annexed| to the

Mogul empire.

'

See Abdul Majeed Siddiqui, History oj Golcunda (1956). (J. B.-P.)

GOLD

i

i

an extremely dense, valuable, bright yellow metal' with a resplendent lustre. Because of its brilliant appearance, unalterability and occurrence in the native condition, gold was one of the first metals to attract the attention of man. It was knowr] and highly valued by the earliest civilizations, Egyptian, Minoan Assyrian and Etruscan, and from all these periods ornaments o) great variety and of beautiful and elaborate workmanship havf survived, many of them being as perfect as when they were firsi made several thousand years ago, (See Silver and Gold Work." The making of gold from base metals by means of the philoso pjier's stone and discovery of the eUxir of life were the chie is

GOLD aims of the alchemists of the middle ages, and many of the advances in early chemistry were the direct outcome of such experiments. In this atomic age the transmutation of base metals into isotopes of gold is regarded as scientifically possible. The chemical symbol for gold is Au its atomic number is 79 and atomic weight ;

196.967.

(W. E. Cl.) of chief interest physically for its great density (19.3 times the weight of an equal volume of water), remarkable ductiUty and malleability, and high resistance to corrosion. A cubic foot of solid gold weighs about 1,200 lb., and the standard gold Gold

is

"brick," or bullion bar, contains 1,000 troy ounces (nearly 70 lb. avoirdupois). Gold can be drawn into extremely fine wire and beaten into the well-known gold leaf. With the exception of hot acjua regia, the alkali cyanides and free chlorine, gold will not

combine with other chemical elements or compounds. Gold has been the symbol of wealth in all of the great civilizations of which there is any record. Throughout history men have fought and toiled for this beautiful and enduring metal. It is estimated that the greater part of all the gold won from the earth in the last 10,000 years could still be accounted for in bank and government vaults, and in the widely distributed wealth of ornar ments, jewelry and other artifacts throughout the world. No other possession in all time has been so zealously and effectively guarded. (See Gold Reserves; Gold Standard.) (F. L. Bl) Occurrence. Gold is generally found in the native or uncomreadily

—

bined state since

the least chemically active of the metals. It is widely disseminated throughout igneous rocks in extremely small percentages, but hydrothermal waters have effected some it

is

concentration of it in quartz veins. As various other minerals, such as iron pyrites (FeSo), galena (PbS) and chalcocite (CuoS), have been geochemically precipitated in underground fissures, gold has been deposited in association therewith, much of the gold being as the element or with sulfides. is

in

the mineral calaverite (AuTco).

A minor

occurrence of gold

As weathering and stream

erosion of earth masses containing gold in rock matrix have taken place, alluvial or placer gold has resulted.

are about seven times as

heavy

Because gold particles

as like-sized siliceous particles, an

accumulation of gold as nuggets, flakes and specks has taken place in certain water-deposited gravels and sands near bedrock; water flow has carried aw-ay the bulk of the siliceous land mass in which the gold was originally deposited. Placer mining has the purpose of recovering this stream-deposited gold, whereas lode mining aims at obtaining gold from veins or reefs (hard-rock mining). The mother lode is a fictional vein which men seek and is said to be fabulously rich; it supposedly is the source of gold that has given rise to rich placer deposits in

downstream channels.

Many

have been written about gold in sea water, and numerous patents have been issued on processes for recovery of gold from the sea. As methods for analysis for gold in sea water became more exacting, it was found that there is less than 0.1 mg. of gold in a metric ton of sea water and it is not considered an economically feasible project to try to recover this amount. Naturally occurring metallic gold usually has variable amounts ^of silver, copper, platinum, palladium or certain other elements admixed with it. Purity of gold is reported as fineness, parts of gold per 1,000; pure gold is called 24 carat, whereas alloy gold may be 12, 14, 16, 22, etc., carat depending on the percentage articles

535

During the second era of intensive gold production, the 25 years following 1850, more gold was produced in the world than in the 358 years immediately previous, chiefly because of discovery of gold in California and Australia. A third marked increase in world gold recovery was in the period from 1890-1915, when gold discoveries in Alaska, the Yukon and on the Rand in Transvaal, S. Af.,

were made. Beginning in the 1920s, gold production was increased by the development of gold fields in Canada. A big factor in the increase in the world supply of gold was the introduction of the cyanide process iq.v.) for recovery of gold from low-grade ores and ores containing minute particle-size gold. Throughout the years gold production increased until the average yearly production was about 40,000,000 oz., which was greater than production between 1493-1600 or 1600-1700. Since most mined gold goes through countinghouses and mints, a fairly accurate account of all gold mined since 1493 is recorded.

(W. E. Cl.)

GOLD MINING AND REFINING The

mining work of which traces remain was on gold ores Egypt, and gold washing is depicted on monuments of the 4th dynasty (2900 B.C.). The legend of the Golden Fleece, stripped earliest

in

of

its

heroic dress, describes an expedition (about 1200 B.C.) to which was being laboriously washed out of the river

seize gold

sands with the aid of sheepskins by the people of Armenia. It is interesting to note here, as an example of the value of some old ideas, that modem practice in the Transvaal frequently includes the use of corduroy blankets. Ore Deposits. Gold occurs in minute quantities in almost all

—

rocks.

It exists in

gold

is

i

gold in the alloy.

A

12-carat gold alloy

is

50%

gold.

followed the discovery of America was in all probability the greatest the world had witnessed to that time. The exploitation of mines by slave labour and the

The

era of gold production

that

and graves in Central and South Ameran influx of gold that unbalanced the economic

looting of palaces, temples ica resulted

in

Europe and disturbed its political structure. From America by Columbus in 1492 to 1600 more than 8,000,000 oz. of gold came from South America, which was iS% of the world production during that time. That amount of gold would have the bulk of an 8-ft. cube and a value of $160,;000,000. South American mines (especially Colombian mines) icontinued in the 17th and 18th centuries to account for 61% and structure of

the discovery of

:80%, respectively, of world gold production; 48,000,000 oz. were imined between 1700 and 1800.

most copper and lead minerals is

often extremely small, the

readily recovered as a by-product in the electrolytic or

refining of the base metals. Disseminations throughout large masses of rock rich enough to be called ores are unusual, and gold is generally obtained from quartz lodes or veins, or from deposits derived from them by denudation; e.g., river gravels and the "banket" or gold-bearing conglomerate of the Transvaal. The origin of vein enrichment is not fully known, but it is believed that the gold was carried up from great depths with other minerals, at least partly in solution, and later precipitated. The mineral most commonly associated with gold, other than quartz, is iron pyrites, the yellow sulfide of iron, which is often mistaken for gold on casual examination. Others include copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, zincblende sphalerite) and stibnite, the antimony sulfide. Thus, where these sulfides have weathered to oxides at or near the surface of the ground, rich deposits of gold are sometimes encountered. The gold in ores is generally in the free or "native" state, and rarely in chemical combination with other elements, the tellurides fire

(

Even the gold in iron pyrites is metallic, consisting of minute inclusions within the crystals or as thin films along their cleavage planes. For the most part the gold in rock occurs in grains or is invisible to the naked eye, but sometimes it being an exception.

I

jof

association with

and although the quantity present

flakes large

enough

to

be seen, and more rarely,

in

"specimen

Crystals an inch or more across rock," in considerable masses. (belonging to the cubic system) have been found in alluvial deTellurides are found principally in western posits in California. Australia and Colorado. The mineral calaverite. a bronze-yellow mineral, telluride, contains 40% gold; and sylvanite, a steel-gray contains up to 28% gold combined with some silver. Alluvial deposits or "placers" are the sands, gravels and detritus of of ancient or existing streams derived from the disintegration of prolific source the most were They rocks. or veins auriferous of little gold in the past, although by the 1920s they had become The gold, which importance, with lode mining predominating. may occur in the form of "gold dust," larger grains and irregularly mas.ses or occasional "nuggets," is dispersed through the

shaped deposits sand or caught in crevices of the rocks. Sometimes the even lava flows, are covered by thick beds of barren detritus or tunnels. and can be reached only by sinking shafts and driving

The

largest

known

mann nugget"

gold mass, larger than a nugget, was the "Holteroz., net weight 3,000 oz.) found

(gross weight 7,560

1;

GOLD

536 in

1872 at Hill End,

New

—

Placer Prospecting and Mining. Prospecting and one-man (fig. 1). mining operations still employ the miner's pan and batea A few handfuls of the "dirt" are stirred and shaken with water bottom. The upper in the pan to enable the gold to settle to the layers are gradually washed away 2h in. ^ by dipping the pan into water \\\\\\\||//////^ and pouring it off, while impart:

ing a twisting motion. Eventually only the gold and heavy minerals are left. The "cradle" or rocker

which resembled a child's cradle, was used to process larger quantities of earth and was more /-. LI T^L profitable. The gravel was shov.(fig.

onto

eled

the

.,

..1

perforated

FROM R. H. RICHARDS, "ORE DRESSING"; BY ,„„,,Est of emg.neerikg and hiking jou».

iron 1

—

which is any strip, bar or groove placed at right angles to the flowing stream to provide a protected spot where gold can settle,

itself,

widely used in sluice boxes (fig. 3) and corduroy tables. latter consist of wide, sloping plates with shallow sides on

is still

The

Only the

fine sands, containing the gold, pass

through to the sluices or jigs. The coarser rock and fine tailings (after dewatering) are run out over the stern on a belt conveyer and stacked on the bank. Dredging originated in New Zealand and attained its greatest popularity on the rivers there and in

;

"Paddock dredging," a later development in the western U.S., all placer ground to be treated even if not in or near a The dredger floats in a pond continuously extended river bed. by its digging equipment at one end while the pond is filled up by In this way the dredger moves across the waste at the other. country taking its pond, or reservoir with it. By piling more gravel around the reservoir and increasing the water level, the dredger can be made to work its way up hill. In 1910 there were

1

enables

SFDE AND TOP VIEWS OF and water poured on. The FIG. (LEFT) GOLD M[NERS' PAN AND through dropped finer material BOTH ARE USED (RIGHT) BATEA. onto the apron which distributed FOR SEPARATING GOLD FROM RIVER it across the "rifHes," rocking beGRAVEL BY VlfASHlNG WITH WATER The gold was ing continuous. caught in these riffles, which were cleaned out after enough had accumulated. This device is largely obsolete, though the riffle

plate

in revolving screens.

California.

2),

t

chain of buckets provided with hardened steel lips is supported by heavy steel cables from a bridge across the foredeck contours of of the vessel, and can be raised or lowered to suit the is broken up the deposit. The gravel brought up by the buckets endless

South Wales.

which are placed a commercial (coarser) form of the familiar corduroy cloth. Periodically the corduroy is removed and washed by hand in boxes partly filled with water, and the gold-rich concentrates further treated by amalgamation (q.v.). In California, thick beds of gravel on hillsides were extenrROH R. H. RICHARDS. 'ORE DRESSING"; B1 sively worked by hydraulic mincouRTCsr or ingineering and mining jour Powerful jets of water at ing. HAL FIG. 2.— ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF hundreds of pounds per square CRADLE OR ROCKER. USED FOR inch pressure were passed through washing AURIFEROUS GRAVEL ON A giant swivcl-mounted nozzles to SMALL SCALE break down the gravel banks and wash the material through lines of sluices. Great volumes of water and many miles of pipes and flumes were required. The cost of treatment was only a few cents per cubic yard poor ground could be treated at a profit. The millions of tons of tailings, however, which were washed into the Yuba and Feather rivers had such an adverse effect on farming farther down the valleys that an injunction was obtained against the hydraulic miners in i88o and their work thereafter was strictly limited. In the period igoo-15 dredging became the most important branch of placer working. The chain bucket dredge generally used is similar to those employed in deepening harbours and rivers. An PERFORATED IRON PLATE

;

i

!

(

|

j

j

World War II only a deposits are worked by

72 operating dredges in California, but after

few remained

in operation.

Most

placer

bucket-line dredges.

Vein Mining and Ore Treatment.—-The methods of mining and exploration of gold deposits are similar to those used for other Immense tonnages of gold ore metals {see Mining, Metal). are treated throughout the world. A typical treatment plant with a capacity of 4,000 tons per day employs hundreds of men and its buildings, storage bins and tanks cover many acres of ground. Gravity concentration, amalgamation, the cyanide process (q.v.) and various combinations of these methods are employed, depending upon the nature of the ore. Where much of the gold is closely associated with sulfides, the flotation process may also be a part of the treatment, and the enriched sulfide "concentrate" selectively treated {see Metallurgy: Ores and Ore Treatment). The first is the crushing and wet grinding of the ore to a particle size such that the gold is sufficiently released from the enclosing minerals to be attacked and dissolved by the cyanide solution. Following separation of the waste solids from the clear gold-bearing solution, the latter is treated with zinc dust and the gold is precipitated in the form of a black powder, which is dried and melted with In some instances concentrated portions of the suitable fluxes. ore must be roasted before the gold can be extracted. Refining. Gold bars produced at the mines and gold dust and

step

—

|

nuggets from placers are impure, containing about 90% gold withj 8%-g% silver and smaller quantities of other metals. The gold is often brittle and is refined to make it suitable for use in industry. The ancients refined gold by "cementation." Plates of gold werCj stacked in an earthen pot and were surrounded and separated by \

J

powdered porous stone or brick dust, mixed with common saltj and sulfate of iron. The pot was covered and heated to redness, but the temperature was not high enough to melt the gold. The, silvqr and other impurities in the gold were gradually converted, into chlorides, which melted and oozed out of the gold and were; absorbed by the brick dust, and the gold was purified. Nitric acid was in use for refining gold in the i6th century. The gold was melted with at least three times its weight of silver (process The of "inquartation"), and granulated by pouring into water. granules were boiled in nitric acid which dissolved the silver and |

gold unchanged. chlorine process, invented in 1869 in Australia where acid was e.xpensive, has become the usual method of refining. Thej gold is melted in clay pots and a stream of chlorine gas is bub-1 The chlorine reacts chemically with the silver! bled through it.

left the

A

which

is

present, and the silver chloride which

3—

SLUICE BOXES, INCLINED WOODEN TROUGHS FOR SEPARATING GOLD FROM GRAVEL. SHOWING PLAN (TOPI. GRAVEL. CONTAINING GOLD, IS CARRIED DOWN THE SLUICE BY A STREAM OF WATER. THE GOLD SINKS TO THE BOTTOM AND LODGES BEHIND THF CROSSBARS

it

formed

rises

-to,

is

recovered by electrolysis in other metals react with chlorine Hke silver; but the gold is not attacked until nearly all the silver has been removed. Platinum isi not recovered by the process and, if present, remains in the goldJ but the impurities which cause brittleness in minting are alwaysj silver is

FIG

is

skimmed off. The| another vessel. Most of thej

the surface of the molten metal where

removed.

1

In U.S. mints the electrolytic process, introduced there in 1902 has since been in general use. The gold is cast into thick plates,;

GOLD

537

precipitated gold

is bro\vn, but black, purple, blue In very thin sheet or leaf, gold is transmits a greenish light. When pure, it is the and ductile of all the metals; it can be beaten to thickness (see Goldbeatingi, and a single gram

are known. RODS SUPPORTINQ

i

PLATES '

H-EVELOF SOLUTION

and pink shades translucent and most malleable

0.00001 mm. in has been drawn into a wire 2 mi. long. Traces of other metals reduce considerably the malleability and ductility, lead being especially injurious in this respect. Cadmium, tin, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tellurium

and zinc act in like manner. Gold is one of the softest metals, its hardness varying according to treatment and being between 2.5-3 on the Mohs' scale. Gold crystallizes in the face-centred cubic system, with a unit cell di-

mension of 4.0701 angstrom ELECTROLYTIC REFINING, IN WHICH ANODE PLATES OF IMPURE GOLD HUNG BY HOOKS IN HOT ACID ARE BROKEN DOWN BY THE ACTION OF A CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY PASSING FROM THEM THROUGH THE LIQUID TO THE THIN CATHODE PLATES. WHERE PURE GOLD IS DEPOSITED FIG.

4.

which are suspended on gold or silver hooks in a porcelain cell with a solution of gold chloride containing some hydrochloThe hooks are hung on metal rods and the whole series of ric acid. plates and hooks are connected and are made the anode (fig. 4). A series of thin rolled plates of pure gold are suspended in the cell alternately with the impure plates and connected to form the cathode. The liquid in the cell is heated to about 6o° C, and is continuously stirred. A current of electricity is passed from the anode plates to the cathode through the liquid. The gold is dissolved from the anodes and is precipitated on the cathodes. At the end of the run it is stripped off the cathode plates and melted into bars. The silver is converted into insoluble chloride which falls to the bottom of the cell, and other metals, including platinum, dissolve in the liquid and remain in solution. The platinum is, however, subsequently recovered and sometimes pays for the whole operation. The process is somewhat slow, occupying three or four days, but the cathode gold is over 999 fine (99.9% pure). Alloys of Gold. Gold can be alloyed with silver in all proporThe colour tions and the alloys are soft, malleable and ductile. of gold gradually changes from yellow to white as the proportion of silver increases. When the silver is over 70% the alloys are white. "Green gold" (gold 75%, silver 25%) is used in jewelry. Gold-silver alloys are used to make trial plates, or standards of reference, with which the fineness of gold wares and coins are compared. Copper hardens gold and forms alloys of reddishyellow colour at conveniently low melting points. These alloys filled

—

The

units.

and is dependent on For practical purposes the specific gravity of pure gold may be taken as 19.3, and such is the specific gravity of cast gold. Distilled gold has a specific gravity of 19.26, drawn gold 19.25, cold rolled sheet 19.296 and gold precipitated by formaldehyde 19.39. This last figure indicates that precipitated gold has a greater specific gravity and that this property varies with the precipitant employed and the temperature of precipitation. The melting point of gold is 1,063° C. and constitutes a fixed point for pyrometry. Liquid gold just above its melting point has a specific gravity of 17.1. Gold is comparatively easily volatilized specific gravity of gold varies slightly

treatment.

at high temperatures; at its melting point the loss is insignificant but becomes appreciable at high temperatures, and at 1,250° C. it is 2.6 parts per 1,000 per hour (T. K. Rose). In all mints and gold refineries the flues are carefully swept periodically, and considerable quantities of the metal are thus recovered. Liquid gold boils at 2,966° C. and yields a purplish vapour. The heat of fusion of gold is 14.96 cal. per gram atom and the heat of vaporization is

415

per gram atom. The mean specific heat of gold is number which agrees well with the law of Pierre Dulong

cal.

0.0312, a

and Alexis Petit. Its coefficient of linear expansion is about 14.2 X 10-« for 1° C. The spark spectrum of gold is comphcated; the most prominent hnes in the visible spectrum lie at 6,278 and 5,957 A in the orange and red, 5,837 and 5,656 in the yellow, 5,065 in the green, 4,793 and 4,437 in the blue and 4,065 and 3,898 in the violet. The electrical conductivity of gold is greatly influenced by traces of impurities. The electrical resistance, which is the converse of conductivity, is 2.44 X 10^^ ohm/cm. for pure gold at 20° C; for silver and copper the values are 1.59 X 10"^' and 1.69 X 10"" ohm/cm., respectively, at 20° C. The electrical re-

when heated, but the discoloration is removed by sulfuric The triple alloys of gold, silver and copper are malleable and ductile, with a rich gold colour. They are much used for the

sistance steadily diminishes with a lowering of the temperature, and at the boiling point of helium in vacuo (i.e., below 5° K.)

production of gold wares. Some zinc is often present in g-carat gold. Hot nitric acid attacks all but the richer alloys of gold with silver or copper or both, and if the proportion of gold is no more than ii%, practically the whole of the silver and copper are

gold

Some of the gold-palladium and goldin solution. platinum alloys are ductile and fit for use in jewelry. The alloys containing io%-20% of palladium are nearly white. Amalgams are alloys of gold and mercury. A piece of gold rubbed with mercury is immediately penetrated by it, turning white and becoming exceedingly brittle. The ductility is not always restored on driving off the mercury by heat. Solid amalgam contains 40%

ion in solids

blacken acid.

removed

or more of gold, but any excess of mercury over 60% makes the amalgam pasty. The amalgam produced in gold mills is not a true amalgam but a collection of little nuggets of gold, coated and partly saturated with mercury. Gold is extracted from molten lead by adding zinc. The zinc and gold form a solid crust which floats on the surface of the lead. Advantage is taken of these properties 'in smelting. Gold forms alloys with many other metals but most of them are brittle, and none is of metallurgical importance. Even a minute quantity (0.02%) of tellurium, bismuth or lead makes

(T. K. R.; F. L. Bi.)

[gold brittle. i

PROPERTIES In the finely divided state the colour of gold is variable, deThe usual colour of pending upon the size of the particles.

has practically disappeared (H. K. Onnes), or, in other words, is then a perfect conductor of electricity. The ionization potential of gaseous gold atoms is 9.18 v. »Au"^ -f e"" compared with The potential of the electrode the hydrogen electrode as zero is —1.68 v. The radius of gold it

Au—

system as

is

gold atom

is

Is^

2s=,

is

1.37

X

true of

10~* cm.

many

Gold

metals.

crystallizes in the isometric

The

electron structure for a

designated as follows:

2p'; 3s=, 3p", 3d'°; 4s=, 4p', 4d'°, 4f"; Ss', Sb', Sd"; 6s',

thus accounting for its atomic number of 79. It is evident gold will exhibit a chemical valence of one, and possibility of valence of two or three. One stable form of gold (mass number 197) and several radioactive isotopes of

203 are known. Chemical Properties.

mass numbers 187-189 and 191-

—The

position of gold in

B group

of

family I of the periodic table along with copper and silver, and Lhe placement of gold at the bottom of the electromotive series of the the metals, best indicates the general chemical properties of Its characteristic valence is plus one in aurous compounds and plus three in auric compounds. Gold ions will receive viz., electrons from any other metal to resume the metalhc state, Gold exhibits a co-ordination 3 Pt -f 2Au'''*" -^3 Pt-+ + 2Au. number of four which helps to explain its complex compounds.

element.

hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, but soluble acid also hot selenic acid forming gold selenate. Hot telluric

It is insoluble in nitric, in

—

:

GOLD

538

The usual solvent for gold is aqua regia— a mixture it. of three volumes of concentrated hydrochloric acid with one volume of concentrated nitric acid, which in practice is always diluted with a considerable volume of water. The ionic equation for this dissolves

dissolution

is

+ SH+ + 4C1-

Au

NOr

-f

—

>

HAuCU

+ NO + 2H2O

The product is chlorauric acid which is the precursor of such salts as NaAuCl4.2H20, which is used in toning photographic prints. Gold will also dissolve in aqueous solutions of alkaline sulfides and thiosulfates. Alkali cyanides, even in dilute solution, attack finely divided gold in slow chemical change if oxygen is available in the solution:

2Au

+ 4CN- + i02 + HjO

—

2Au(CN)2-

>

+ 20H-

—

Gold and Oxygen. Gold and oxygen do not combine directly under any conditions; hence, all oxides and hydroxides have to be made by indirect methods. When aurous chloride is treated with dilute potassium hydroxide, a violet-black powder is formed which is AuOH or hydrated AuoO; it is also possible that the AuoO changes to a mixture of spong)' gold and AuoOg. If this violetblack powder is heated to about 200° C, it loses water, giving a violet-brown powder, which at 250° C. decomposes into gold and oxygen. The oxide and hydroxide have feebly basic properties and are capable of forming salts with halogen acids. When an is added to the violet-black powder obtained by excess of treating AuCl with dilute KOH, the results are AUO2 and gold

KOH

metal.

produced by precipitating a solution of HAUCI4, with a limited amdunt of caustic alkali. The hydroxide thus prepared cannot be entirely freed from alkali by washing, and the precipitation is preferably effected with magnesia or zinc oxide, excess of the precipitant Auric hydroxide is a being removed with dilute nitric acid. brownish-black powder which, on drying over phosphoric oxide, forms a brown powder of auryl hydroxide, AuO (OH), dehydrated at 140° C. to trioxide, and this oxide on further heating to 170° C. is said to lose oxygen and form the oxide AU2O2, w-hich at a higher temperature reverts into oxygen and metal. Auric oxide is capable either of forming salts with halogen acids or of acting as an acidic anhydride by combining with strong bases to form aurates. Potassium aurate, KAUO2.3H2O, is a yellow crystalline Auric hydroxide

is

auric chloride or of chlorauric acid,

compound; Ba(Au02)2

is

Halogen Compounds.

a yellow precipitate.

— Fluorine

The

The gold

fluoride

is

two,

having a co-ordination valence of six. The salts of this acid such as NaAuCl4.2Ho0 in water yield Na+ -j- AUCI4.2H2O-. If gold is dissolved in aqua regia and the resulting solution freed from nitric acid by evaporation with further quantities of hydrochloric acid to the crystallizing point, brownish crystals of chlorThese auric acid are formed, having a strongly acid reaction. crystals always contain a small amount of aurous chloride unless chlorine has been passed through the solution during evaporation. They are also frequently contaminated with small amounts of silver chloride since this substance is soluble in strong solutions of auric chloride and is only precipitated therefrom by considerVarious chloraurate salts may be obable dilution with water. tained either by neutralizing the acid with the metallic base or by

does not act on gold in the

whence a yellowish deposit completely hydrolyzed by water.

is

known with certainty are aurous chloride, chloride, AUCI3. The identity of an intermediate

chlorides of gold

amount

of the metallic chlo-

of lithium, potassium

and sodium are very

treating the acid with the equivalent ride.

The chloraurales

those of rubidium and especially cesium are much less soluble. Furthermore, chlorauric acid combines with the chlorides of many organic bases to form well-defined crystalhne chloraurales, frequently used in identifying and purifying soluble in water;

such bases. Two bromides of gold are known, AuBr and AuBrs, corresponding with the two chlorides; the tribromide, prepared by the action of bromine water on finely divided gold, forms dark brownish-red crystals and in its reactions resembles the corresponding chloride; the monobromide is obtained by heating the tribromide or HAuBr^ Auric bromide forms bromaurates, MAuBrj, to i05°-200° C. similar to the chloraurates. These salts have been used in determining the atomic weight of gold. On mixing aqueous solutions of potassium iodide and AUCI3 or HAUCI4, some auric iodide, AUI3, is produced, but being somewhat unstable, it decomposes to a large extent into aurous iodide, Aul, and free iodine. The latter reaction is complete on warming. Although unstable by itself, in combination with alkali and alkalineearth iodides, auric iodide forms a stable series of complex

The potassium

iodoaurates.

salt,

KAUI4,

crystallizes in

black,

aqueous, or preferably aqueousalcoholic, solution combines with metallic gold to produce aurous iodide, Aul. a white or lemon-yellow powder insoluble in water. Other Compounds. Gold Cyanides. In the presence of air, gold dissolves in aqueous solutions of potassium or sodium cylustrous

cold, but only at a dull red heat

formed.

ions more commonly have a co-ordination number Coand thus account for chloraurous ion, AuCl^. ordination valency explains the existence of chloraurous, HAUCI2, and chlorauric, HAUCI4, acids, and also the salts of these acids. As chlorauric acid crystallizes from solution as a brown deliquescent substance, it has the formula H.\uCl4.3H20, which on ionization would form Hj0+ + AUCI4.2H2O-, the gold in this case

The aurous

of

prisms.

Iodine

in

—

AuCl, and auric chloride, AU0CI4, is doubtful. Aurous chloride is almost always formed by heating auric chloride. The optimum temperature is about 175° C, and several days are required to complete the reaction. If a higher temperature is used, complete decomposition into gold and chlorine occurs. This decomposition of auric into aurous chloride take:; place to some extent even in hot aqueous

anide to form potassium or sodium cyanaurite, KAu(CN)2 or NaAu(CN)2, and on precipitating this solution with dilute hydrochloric acid, aurous cyanide, AuCN, is deposited in yellow, in-

solution.

silver salt.

Aurous chloride is a yellowish-white solid that is insoluble in cold water but undergoes slow decomposition into gold and soluble auric chloride.

chloric acid

Auric chloride can be obtained either by heating chlorauric acid to 200° C. in a stream of chlorine, or by dissolving gold in chlorine

Auric cyanide, Au (CN)3, has not been isolated with certainty, but stable complex salts are known with alkali and other cyanides. Potassium cyanaurate, soluble, microscopic, hexagonal plates.

KAu(CN)4.3H30, forms colourless efflorescent crystals. The AgAu(CN)4, is formed by precipitating a solution of KAu(CN)4 with silver nitrate. From this salt cyanauric acid, HAu(CN)4.3H20, is obtained by removing the silver with hydroand crystallizing the solution.

other metallic ions, have the capacity to accept electron pairs to form co-ordination valency compounds. The auric ion has the general tendency to accept four electron pair bonds and thus its co-ordination number of four. This tendency is

Auric nitrate and sulfate hydrolyze so extensively that auric oxide will dissolve only in concentrated solutions of nitric or sulfuric acid. The yellow metal will not combine directly with sulfur but does readily form AuTe2. Fulminating Gold. When auric oxide or a gold solution is treated with concentrated ammonia, a black powder is formed When dry it is a called fulminating gold (2.'\u\.NH3.3H20). powerful explosive, since it detonates either by friction or on heating to about 145° C; it should always be handled with great

typified in the formation of the chloraurate ion:

caution.

water, preferably in darkness. It is obtained as a reddish-brown powder or as ruby-red crystals; it slowly decomposes in light, but can be sublimed unchanged in a stream of chlorine.

Gold

ions, like

many

:Ci:

Au»-^

+ 4Cl-->-AuCli--

:C1:

Au>+

:C1:

—

precipitate :C1:

—

Purple of Cassias. When a solution of auric chloride is precipitated with a solution of stannous chloride, a reddish or purplish hydroxide.

is

produced containing both metallic gold and

The composition

of this precipitate

is

tin

as variable as

GOLD AND SILVER is

its

colour.

test for gold.

Formation of

WORK— GOLDEN

this purple precipitate is a delicate

Purple of Cassius

is

used

in the

preparation of ruby

glass.

Medicinal Compounds.—Watei-soluhle gold compounds sometimes are given with salicylates in the treatment of rheumatoid These compounds include gold sodium thiosulfate, gold arthritis.

sodium thiomalate and gold thioglucose. Their use usually is of limited benefit and may cause toxic effects. Analysis for Gold. Gold will dissolve in sodium polysulfide forming sodium thioaurate, NaAuS2, and thus is with arsenic and antimony in subgroup of group II in qualitative analysis. As the

—

NaAuSo along with such as Na3AsS4 is acidified with HCl, the gold precipitates as a sulfide (some free Au) along with The sulfides are rendered soluble with CL and arsenic sulfide. thence NH4OH would give a solution of NH4AUCI4 with (NH4)3From this solution H2C2O4 will selectively precipitate ASO4. spongy gold and not precipitate arsenic. The usual qualitative test for gold ion free from interfering metals is the formation of red-purple colloidal gold by adding some reducing agents such as FeS04, SnCl2, formaldehyde or various Readily identifiable red crystals may be organic compounds. solution of

obtained by use of gold ion plus cocaine hydrochloride. The prospector or expert with a gold pan can estimate the value of placer gold per cubic yard of stream-deposited gravel or sand by counting and evaluating the size of gold specks residual in pan-

Accurate determination of the gold content in rock is accomplished by a fire assay process which involves a fusion of a weighed quantity of the ground ore with fluxes to form a slag with the siliceous part of the rock and formation by chemical change in the fusion melt of a rain of metallic lead which dissolves and collects gold and silver. After solidification of the fusion mixture the glassy slag is cracked from the goldsilver containing lead button, which is again put in the furnace on a cupel from which the lead melts and oxidizes to Uquid lead oxide as air is allowed to enter through the partially of)ened door of the furnace. The liquid lead oxide seeps into the semiporous cupel and leaves a silver-gold bead on the cupel which may be cooled and weighed. The silver may be parted from the gold by dissolving the silver in dilute nitric acid and leaving spongy gold which after annealing may be weighed. See also references under "Gold" ning a quantity of the deposit.

in the Index.

(W. E. Cl.)

—

Bibliography. Mining and Refining: ]. M. Maclaren, Gold: Its Geological Occurrence and Geographical Distribution (1908); Sir T. K. "Rose, The Metallurgy of Gold (1915) H. Garland and C. O. Bannister, Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy (1927) A. F. Taggart, Handbook of Mineral Dressing (1945); A. King (ed.), Gold Metallurgy on the Witwatersrand (1952) J. V. N. Dorr and F. L. Bosqui, Cyanidation and Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores, 2nd ed. (1950). ;

;

;

(F. L. Bi.)

Chemistry of Gold: J. W. Mellor, Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. ill (1923); U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Mines Economic Paper 6, "Summarized Data on Gold Production" (1929) National Research Council, International Critical Tables of Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry and Technology, 7 vol., ed. by E. W. Washburn et al. (1926-30) W. E. Caldwell, "The Gold Content of Sea Water," J. Chem. Educ, 15:507 (1938); Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, vol. 7 (1951); E. E. Bugbee, Textbook of Fire Assaying, 3rd ed. (1940) N. V. Sidgwick, Chemical Elements and Their Compounds, vol. 1, p. 177 (1950); U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Yearbook (1955) Orson C. Shepard and W. F. Dietrich, Fire Assaying (1940); Gmelin's Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, 8th ed. (1954). For current figures on pro;

;

;

;

duction see the Britannica

Book

of the Year.

GOLD AND SILVER WORK:

see

(W. E. Cl.) Silver and Gold

the reduction of fine gold to thin leaf by In the Odyssey, Homer beating, is one of the most ancient arts. made note of the anvil and hammer used in producing thin sheets of gold. Ancient Rome gleamed with decorations in gold leaf and

Pliny the Elder noted that a small quantity of gold could be beaten into 750 leaves, each four digits square. Gold becomes workable when alloyed with small amounts of silver and copper. Gold and the alloying metals are melted and poured into a small mold to form an ingot. When cool, an ingot

1^ in. wide, and ^ in. thick is run through electrically driven rollers until it becomes a ribbon more than 20 ft. long, 2 in. long,

539

wide, and

The ribbon is cut into about 200 li 177^5-5 in thick. squares, each IJ li in. The squares are then ready for the first beating process. in.

X

First, the squares are placed between sheets of vellum or heavy paper that form a cutch, or packet. The cutch is enclosed in a sheepskin and then beaten on the stone block with a hammer until the squares measure 4 in. on a side. Each square is carefully removed from the cutch with wooden pincers, placed on a leather cushion, and cut into four parts with a steel blade. Next, the 2 X 2-in. squares are placed between skins made from the membranes of the large intestine of cattle. This pack of skins (a shoder) is beaten until the squares are again 4 X 4 in. Each leaf, after being lifted from the shoder and placed on a leather cushion, is divided into four equal parts. Too fragile to be touched by steel, the leaves are cut with a wagon, a tool that resembles a miniature sled with Malacca reed runners. Finally, the squares (again, in.) are placed between fine skins that comprise a package about S in. square, called a mold. This is beaten until the leaves approximate the dimensions of the mold. They have been reduced to a translucent thinness (about 2^0, (,(,(, in) and are so delicate that, when lifted to the leather cushion, they can be moved and straightened with a hght breath. They are trimmed to about 3 X 3J in. and are put up in book form between sheets of tissue paper that is dusted with powder; each

2X2

book contains 25 gold leaves. Gold leaf is used in gilding and is applied in executing ornamental designs, lettering and edgings on paper, wood, ceramics, Gold leaf may also be reduced to glass, textiles, and metal. powder.

(E. L. Y.)

See also Gilding.

GOLDBERG, ARTHUR JOSEPH

(1908), lawyer, associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1962-65), and U.S. representative to the United Nations 1965), was born in Chicago, 111., on Aug. 8, 1908. He was the youngest of eight children of Joseph and Rebecca Goldberg, both Russian immigrants. He attended Chicago public schools, De Paul University, and Northwestern University Law School. After being admitted to the Illinois bar at the age of 20, he practised law in Chicago from 1929 to 1948. His work in the 1936 political campaign brought him into contact with many labour leaders; he won national attention as counsel for the Chicago Newspaper Guild during its 1938 strike. In 1948 he became general counsel for the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and the United Steelworkers of America, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. There he won a reputation as a skilful debater and a master of the art of conciliation and compromise. He was instrumental in effecting the merger of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the CIO (1955), and in expelHng Communists and hoodlums from the labour movement. In 1961 President Kennedy appointed Goldberg as secretary of labour, and in that post his dynamic leadership and successful conciliation activities earned him wide and favourable attention. In August 1962, when Justice FeHx Frankfurter resigned from the Supreme Court because of ill health, President Kennedy named Goldberg as his successor. Justice Frankfurter had been the prin(

spokesman on the court for the position of judicial restraint, deference toward the political branches, and concern for states' rights. Goldberg's appointment shifted the court's balance toward cipal

more

liberal

and

activist positions in several fields.

July 20, 1965, President Johnson appointed Justice Goldberg Adlai E. as U.S. representative to the United Nations, succeeding (C. H. P.) Stevenson, who had died on July 14.

On

GOLD COAST see Ghana. GOLDEN BULL, a term applied

Work.

GOLDBEATING,

BULL

:

to

documents whose

polit-

importance was emphasized by authendcation with a golden elaborate charter issued seal (bulla), but chiefly used for the in 1356 to stabilize the Charles IV emperor Roman by the Holy German constituUon. Its importance was twofold. First, it ex-

ical

generations a main cluded the intervenrion of the papacy— for Second, ruler. German the of election in the cause of dissension— the position won by the princes, thus bringing to a

acknowledged developments initiated in Frederick II's Privilegium in jaConstitutio in vorem principum ecclesiasticorum (1220) and to rejavorem principum (1232). Earlier rulers had struggled it

close

;

GOLDEN CALF—GOLDEN GATE

540

assert the crown's authority; Charles IV frankly recognized that Germany was no longer a monarchy but a federation of principaliViscount Bryce's criticism (The Holy Roman Empire) that ties.

Charles "legalized anarchy and called it a constitution" is exagBy 1356 the tendency to consolidation of the principalities was irreversible; furthermore, if papal interference was to be

gerated.

excluded, the co-operation of the princes was essential. The Golden Bull undoubtedly contributed in the short term to a restoration of peace and order; in the long term it established the constitutional

framework for German

political life

down

to the

Germany in July 1355 after his coronation as Rome, Charles IV immediately summoned the princes

to deliberations at Nijrnberg.

which resulted

in the

promulgation

23 chapters of the Golden Bull on Jan. 10. 1356; the concluding 8 chapters were added after further negotiation with the princes in Metz on Dec. 25, 1356. Much of the lengthy document is taken up with electoral ceremonial, questions of precedence of the

first

and other versy.

details that

it

was necessary

The purpose was

to define to avoid contro-

to place the election of the

German

hands of the seven electors and to ensure that the candidate elected by the majority should succeed without dispute. That the electoral college (see Electors) consisted of three ecclesiastical and four lay princes had been established since 1273; but it was not always clear who these seven were. Therefore the Saxon vote was now attached to the Wittenberg (not the Lauenburg") branch of the Saxon dynasty; the vote was given to the count Palatine (not to the duke of Bavaria); and the special position of Bohemia, of which Charles himself was king, was expressly recognized. In addition Charles established succession by primoruler firmly in the

geniture, attached the electoral vote to the possession of certain lands, and decreed that these territories should never be divided.

The candidate

elected by the majority was regarded as unanimously elected and entitled to exercise his royal rights immediately. Thus

the pope's claim to examine rival candidates and to approve the was ignored. Furthermore, by instituting the duke of Saxony and the count Palatine as regents during the vacancy, the Golden Bull excluded the pope's claim to act as vicar.

election

These

were achieved only by concessions to the electoral princes, who were given sovereign rights, including tallage and results

coinage, in their principalities, Appeals by their subjects were severely curtailed; conspiracies against them incurred the penalties of treason. Moreover, the efforts of cities to ensure autonomous

development were repressed, with serious and long-lasting consequences for the future of the German middle classes. In theory, these privileges were confined to the seven electors; in practice^ the princes as a body quickly adopted them. There is an edition of the text, with commentary, by K. Zeumer, Die goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV (1909). Sff J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, new ed. (1906, with reprints) G.Baziadou^h, The Origins of Modern Germany (1946). (G. Bh.)

GOLDEN CALF,

a Hebrew object of worship mentioned Old Testament in connection with Aaron (Ex xxxii; cf. Ps. cvi, 19 ff.) and Jeroboam I (I Kings xii, 25-30). The making of such a calf (more correctly a bull) by Jeroboam is referred to throughout both books of Kings as the supreme act of apostasy, but Jeroboam's intention was to stabilize his kingdom by continuing an ancient Canaanite practice. He transferred to specifically in the

Yahweh

the ancient mode of representing Baal by placing a calf both the early shrines at Bethel and Dan. Bull worship (condemned in Hos. X. 5; xiii, 2) continued until the end of the northern kingdom, and Josephus describes a golden heifer at the northern shrine m the 1st century a.d. It is not certain whether Yahweh was represented as a bull himself, or as standing on a bull. There is a representation from Arslan-Tash in northern Syria of Hadad Baal standing on the back of a bull, and Ugaritic texts actually in

him

refer to

as a bull.

conduct (all indicating a fertility cult), may be regarded as original. But in its present form, modified by later exilic thought that was in opposition to the Aaronic priesthood, the event furnishes an occasion for the selection of the Levites. See T. J. Meek, Hebrew Origins, rev. ed. (1950). (A. S. H.) licentious

GOLDEN CLUB

(Orontium aquaticum) a North American ,

arum family (Araceae; q.v.), found in shallow frequently in swamps from Massachusetts to near the coast. This handsome aroid, the only

aquatic plant of the

Returning to in

making of the image, together with the sacred dance, feasting and

peace of West-

phalia in 1648.

emperor

Moses' absence on Mt. Sinai (Ex. xxxii) seems have been part of the cult story associated with the shrines of Bethel and Dan. The connection of Aaron with the to worship during

originally to

Yahweh

probably described in the Old Testament as the "bull" of Israel (though English versions usually translate the term as "mighty one"; e.g., Gen. xlix, 24; Ps. cxxxii, is

2, 5; Isa 24), but the practice of representing him thus was officially forbidden in the Deuteronomic reform (c/. II Kings xxiii 15) The account of Aaron's making a golden calf for 1,

the Israelites

ponds and

less

Florida, chiefly

species of the genus, It is a

is

sometimes transplanted

in

water gardens.

somewhat

fleshy perennial, with thick oblong, ascending or floating leaves, five to ten inches long, and bearing in early spring a

narrow but dense cluster (spike) of small bright yellow flowers, terminating a flattened stalk, six inches to two feet long, which rises above the water. YE, a diving duck (Bucephala or Glaucionetta), breeding in far northern regions, from where it migrates south in winter. It nests in hollow trees and in burrows along banks of inland water. The adult male is mainly black above, with a round, white eye patch and white scapulars; the lower parts are white, the legs orange; in the female dark brown replaces black. An elaborate courtship, during w'hich the drake may dive and bob up just in front of the female, occurs in the early spring. Goldeneyes are known also as whistlers, from their swift whistling flight. The European goldeneye (B. clangula clangula) breeds across the northern half of Europe and Asia to the limit of trees; the American goldeneye (B. c. americana) is found in Canada and the plains border states; and the Barrow's goldeneye (B. islandica), which has a crescent-shaped instead of a round white spot in front of the eye, in the mountains from Alaska to Colorado, and in Labrador, Greenland and Iceland. They winter south to the Mediterranean and Burma, South Carolina and California, rarely to the Gulf of Mexico. (G. F. Ss.;X.) FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped. (See Argonauts.) For knighthood of the Golden Fleece see Knighthood, Chivalry and Orders: History: The Sectdar Orders of Medieval Christendom.

GOLDENE

GOLDEN

GOLDEN GATE,

a strait in California, U.S., connecting

San Francisco bay with the Pacific ocean, and separating San Francisco from Marin county. The Gate is about three miles long and from one to two miles wide. Its channel is more than 300 ft. deep. In an earlier geologic period, the strait was the lower end of a river which poured fresh water into the Pacific, but subsidence of land in the region and a rise in the ocean level brought invasion by sea water and the formation of the present magnificent bay. The Gate may have been seen by Sir Francis Drake in 1579, but the effective discovery was made by Spanish explorers The name apparently originated with John C. Fremont (1 769-75) and became popular during the gold rush period. Although the strait is the ocean gateway to San Francisco and .

its

harbour,

til

the construction (1933-37) of the

it

constituted a barrier to land travel in the area un-

famous Golden Gate bridge

A

suspension bridge, with a central span of 4,200 ft. and towers that rise 746 ft. above the water, it was built by Joseph B. Strauss for a special bridge district consisting of six counties; it was financed by bonds secured by revenues from tolls and also by the general taxing powers of the district. The opening of the Golden Gate bridge on May 27, 1937, came only six and a half months after the opening of the SaH Francisco-Oakland Bay bridge. The latter, built by the state with at a cost of $35,000,000.

,

federal aid at a cost of $77,000,000, consists of two suspension bridges over the west channel, a tunnel through Verba Buena Is]

land and a cantilever span over the east channel. Double-decked, it is over four mUes long (over eight miles long counting approaches). In 1939 San Francisco celebrated these great achievements in bridge building at its Golden Gate exposition on Treasure Island,

5eealso San Francisco.

(D. E. F.)

j

GOLDEN GLOW— GOLDENROD GOLDEN GLOW,

a

double-flowered

cultivated

variety

(Rudbeckia laciniata hortensis) of a tall coneflower (g.v.), native to North America, widely grown in the United States, Canada and England as an ornamental plant. It is a showy summer bloomer, usually four feet to seven feet high, with smooth, much-branched more or less divided leaves and numerous flowering heads

local candidate, provided that he

der control and be

efficient

was

keep

likely to

his people un-

collecting the taxes.

This task,

performed by the Mongols themselves, was later left to the Russians. It was in their capacity as tax collectors that the khans most appreciated the Muscovite princes, who could thus con-

originally

stems,

solidate their power.

2i to 3i in. across, crowded with brilliant golden-yellow muchdoubled ray flowers. Originally derived from a weedy herb common from Quebec to Florida and westward, the cultivated golden glow has become ubiqIt has propensity to spread. uitous in the garden. To some gardeners the plant is a coarse, invasive perennial. (N. Tr.) (Russian Zolotaya Orda), the Russian designation of the khanate of Kipchak, the westernmost Mongol empire, which from the middle of the 13th century to the end of the 15th remained a major political factor in eastern Europe and the middle east.

internecine wars

GOLDEN HORDE

in

541

In the second half of the

much weakened

the

14th century

Golden Horde and

led the

Russian princes to refuse payment of taxes. The decisive blow, however, came from Tiraur (q.v.). who in 1395, in a campaign against his former protege Tokhtamish, destroyed Sarai Berke. The Golden Horde split into three parts, the last of which, the Crimean khanate (see Crimea), survived till the end of the 18th century. See also Kipchak; Mongol Empires; Russia.

—

Bibliography. Bertold Spuler, Die Goldene Horde: die Mongolen in Russland, 1223-1562 (1943); G. Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia (1953) B. D. Grekov and A. Y. Yakubovski, Zolotaya Orda i ee padenie ("The Golden Horde and Its Downfall," 1950). (Ds. Sr.) ;

GOLDEN MOLE,

The ill-defined "western parts" of Chingis CJenghiz or Genghis) Khan's empire formed the appanage of his oldest son, Juchi, who, however, predeceased his father (1227). Juchi's son Batu (g.v.), in a series of brilliant campaigns, expanded its frontiers to encompass most of European Russia, from the Urals to the Carpathians. It is difficult to know how far east and north into Siberia the lands of the Golden Horde extended. In the south the Black sea, the Caucasus, the northern shores of the Caspian and the frontier with the Il-khanid empire fin Persia) formed its approximate borders. Batu, who, though virtually independent, never

burrowing molelike animal, species of African family Chrysochloridae, order Insectivora {see Insectivore). They are named from the bright metaUic bronze, green or violet lustre of their rich brown fur. Although resembling true moles {q.v.) in habits and to some extent in appearance, they differ in several anatomical features, among them being the possession of enormous claws on the two middle

ceased to recognize the suzerainty of the great khan, died in 1256. Under the rule of Berke (1257-66), Batu's brother, the Golden Horde became more autonomous, an evolution partially caused by Berke's conversion to Islam, which made him a reluctant partner in

leaflets that are

Mongol campaign against the caliphate and a natural ally of the Mamelukes of Egypt. The creation of such a north-south axis, via Constantinople, had incalculable consequences: it built a Muslim barrier between Europe and the pro-Christian Il-khans, opened Russia to Muslim influences, both cultural and commercial, and the

created an antagonism between the lands of Russia and Persia. Though Berke's immediate successors were not Muslims, the final conversion of the khan Uzbek (1312-42) confirmed Islamic pre-

ponderance within the Golden Horde. Mutual tolerance notwithstanding, the religious difference prevented the Turkish-speaking populations of the horde from amalgamating with the Christian The purely Mongol elements had been quite insignificant Slavs. even initially and were soon absorbed by the various Turkish contingents which constituted the bulk of the Mongol army. It was thus an Islamic, Turkish nation of cattle breeders that held the key position on the great traditional south-north trade routes and was

an overpowering influence on the destinies of the Slavs. of Russia in 1237-40 did more than destroy a few cities; it brought to an abrupt end the promising evolution of Kievan Russia. Muscovite Russia, which was to emerge from the receding Mongol tide, was geographically, socially and culturally a different state, ruled from a capital more distant from the European Moreover, the Mongol centre of gravity than Kiev had been. presence, an alien element in the Slav world, greatly impeded the to exert

which belong

a

to the south

digits of the forelimbs.

GOLDEN-RAIN- TREE, a Chinese tree, Koelreuteria panicIt has leaves with 7-15 as an ornamental. arranged alternately or in pairs along a central stalk and are toothed, lobed or divided into smaller leaflets. The yellow summer-blooming flowers, borne in clusters terminating the branches, produce three-angled, inflated, papery capsules about two inches long, containing three to six round, brown to black

ulata, widely

grown

seeds.

The of 2

tree,

ft., is

which grows easily raised

prefers full sun and

In some areas

it

is

is

to 40 ft. tall and attains a trunk diameter from seed. It does well in ordinary soil, hardy as far north as northern Illinois.

called "pride-of-India." a

ceae).

(J.

GOLDENROD,

the popular

briUiant yellow

(rarely white)

W.

Tt.)

for plants of the genus

flowers arranged in conspicuous

Hy-

terminal or axillary clusters.

between

bridization

closely

re-

lated species occurs freely in nature, making species identification difficult.

The European goldenrod

(5.

virgaurea), the only British species, bearing a long cluster of

showy flower heads, woods and thickets.

spHt of the formerly united Russian nation into Russians proper (or Great Russians), Ukrainians and Belorussians. The eyes of the khans of the Golden Horde were directed south-

water mains, centrally heated houses and public baths, its busy Egyptian and Syrian merchants and craftsmen, was a cross product of Muslim and central Asian civilizations. To rule under the Mongols, Russian princes had to receive a patent (yarlyk) from the khan. This was usually granted to the

name

branched or slightly branched, with undivided, toothed or entire, of sessile or almost sessile leaves and very numerous small heads

natural interactions of political forces and enabled Lithuania to gain control of a large part of western Russia. There resulted the

transferred the capital, was still in the south, about 30 mi. E. of This splendid present-day Volgograd ("formerly StaHngrad). town of about 600,000 inhabitants, with its beautiful mosques,

be-

Solidago, of the family Compositae {q.v.}. comprising about 120 species, natives chiefly of North America, a few, however, occurThey are erect ring in the old world and in South America. perennial herbs, mostly from two to eight feet high, often un-

The Mongol invasion

ward and eastward rather than toward Europe, and Mongol interest The in the internal affairs of the Russian princes was small. choice of Sarai Batu (1243), on the lower Volga, as their capital testifies to this orientation; and Sarai Berke, to which Uzbek

name properly

longing to Melia azedarach, the Chinaberry or China-tree. The golcien-rain tree is a member of the soapberry family (Sapinda-

the

best

is

found in one of

It is

garden plants

of

the

many

other species also are cultivated for ornament, especially 5. canadensis, S. cutlcri and

genus;

JOHN H. GERARD

the seaside goldenrod. 5. sempervirens. The goldenrods are char-

TALL GOLDENROD {SOLIDAGO ALTIS

acteristic plants in eastern

SIMA)

North

America, where about 60 species in woodlands, swamps, occur. They are found almost everywhere on mountains, in fields and along roadsides. With the asters, whose bright colours they complement, the goldenrods form one of the chief floral glories of autumn from the Great Plains eastward to the Atlantic. While numerous handsome Pacific species occur in the Rocky mountain region and on the

—

;

GOLDEN ROSE—GOLDEN SECTION

542

abundant and conspicuous than in the eastern the best-known eastern species are the early golden-

coast, they are less

Among

states.

juncea),the late goldenrod (S. gigantea), the tall goldenrod dwarf {S. altissima), the Canada goldenrod (5. canadensis), the goldenrod (5. nemoralis), the wreath goldenrod (5. caesia), the pale goldenrod or silverrod (S. bicolor), the sweet goldenrod (5. odora) and the showy goldenrod (5. speciosa). Among the west-

rod

(5.

(Christian Morality, 1936) describes it as the sum and method of Christian morality. Charles Gore (Philosophy of the Good Life, 1930) regards it as an instruction in the practical carrying out of the second great commandment in the law (Lev. xix, 18; Mark xii,

This love he 31), "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." explains as no mere sentimental feeling but as the set of the will

pollen of most species is (N. Tr.) hay fever. ROSE, an ornament made of wrought gold and with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the fourth Sunday in Lent (Laetare Sunday) and sent, as one of the highest honours he can confer, to some distinguished individual, ecclesiastical body or religious community or, failing a worthy recipient, kept in the Vati-

central Californian shores.

responsible for

many

The copious

cases of

J

GOLDEN set

Many

can.

of

these

historical

examples of the goldsmith's art, being of great value, have been melted down. The origin of the

custom

is

obscure, the

first

re-

accounts dating from the 11th century. Of more symbolic than material significance, the rose was usually sent, hke the

liable

papal cap and sword, for political fALAIIO

fUBBLICO,

as well as rehgious reasons, to-

SIENA

GOLDEN ROSE WITH FOUR PRfNCIPAL gether with an explanatory letBRANCHES. ROSES AND FOLIAGE IN ter. Three were sent to Henry GOLD. AND A HANGING BERYL. Vni of England, the first in 1510 GIVEN TO CITY OF SIENA BY POPE by Julius II seeking support PIUS M IN 1458; MADE BY SIMONE against Louis XII of France. In Dl FIRENZE 1684 one was sent to the wife of John Sobieski, who aided Vienna against the Turks. Princess

He claims that, while our feehngs are not under our control, the will is. William Temple (Nature, Man and God, 1934) asks how we can be sure of controlling our will and answers that if the ground of all the universe of our being is personal love we may penetrate to it and

B issuing in action.

ern species are 5. occidentalis, found from the Rocky mountains westward; 5. californica, the oreja de liebre ("rabbit's ear") of the Spanish Calif ornians; and the coast goldenrod (S. spathulata) of

so find the

power

to will aright.

It is a nice question flict

whether, in a con-

of duties, the Golden Rule should over-

In a case

ride all other ethical principles.

of projected euthanasia, or of revealing to a patient the gravity of an illness, is *

B'

—

1. HEIGHT OF HUMAN BODY DIVIDED IN GOLDEN SECTION AT NAVEL. T; LOWER PORTION IS FURTHER DIVIDED AT KNEE. T'. WHILE UPPER

FIG.

what

one would like to have done to oneself the best guide? Only if we always desire the highest good for ourselves can the answer be yes. (J. W. C. W.) SECTION, or extreme and mean ratio, is the division of a length such

GOLDEN

PORTION IS DIVIDED AT {hat the Smaller part is to the greater as THE THROAT. T" ^j^^ greater is to the whole. It is much used as a "key" or "proportion" in design, Unking different parts numerically or geometrically.

The main measurements

of

many

build-

ings of antiquity and of the middle ages fol-

low a key; those of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens are governed by the golden section. Architects, sculptors and painters of all times have used keys. The Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier has developed a scale (the Modulor), based on A 2. GOLDEN RECFIG. the human body, whose height is taken as TANGLE HAS SHORT AND divided in golden section at the navel (fig. LONG SIDES IN RATIO OF 1). The golden section is a frequent norm THE GOLDEN SECTION

—

Charlotte of Nassau, grand duchess of Luxembourg, was accorded

for

the golden rose in 1956.

much found in animals and plants. It is pleasing and harmonious to the human eye (for instance the "golden" rectangle whose sides

See Sir C. Young, Pontiffs (1864).

Ornaments and Gifts Consecrated by the

Roman

the

name

in English, at least

since the

mid-16th century, for the precept in Matt, vii, 12 (Li^ke vi, 31): "Whatsoever you would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." The name implied that this rule of conduct excelled other rules as gold was

deemed to excel all other metals. It is a of the Christian's duty to his neighbour and states a fundamental ethical principle.

summary In

its

negative form,

"Do

not do to others what you would not was evidently widespread in the early church, as it occurs in the 2nd-century documents Didache and the Apology of Aristides and may well have formed part of an early catechism. However, it is not peculiar to Christianity. In the Matthaean version Jesus himself says that it is "the law and the

hke done

to yourselves,"

it

prophets." Certainly it is reminiscent of the command to "love thy neighbour as thyself" as found in Deuteronomy. Its negative form is to be found in Tob. iv. 15, and again in Hillel and Philo. Beyond this, it appears in one form or another in Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates and Seneca, to say nothing of the "reciprocity" principle enunciated by Confucius.

The negative form, repeated by Thomas Hobbes, satisfactory principle of ethics, since

it

is hardly a gives no incentive to active

Even the positive form might be said to require limiting term such as "whatever good things you would like men to do to you," for a man might conceivably wish some evil to be done him, as for instance in a suicide pact. Still, such criticism is misplaced in the Gospels the principle is set forth as a general exhortation, not as a scientific definition. benevolence.

some

:

Modern

moralists recognize

in particular

emphasize

industrial design;

is

it

also

are in the ratio of golden section,

GOLDEN RULE,

all

modern

it

its

importance, and Christian writers

as a first principle.

H. Hensley Hanson

^

1

*

FiG.

.

2).

fig.

"^ I

^

xhe golden section was MAJOR AND covered by the Greeks about B

3.— RATIOS OF

dis-

the

MINOR SEGMENTS OF LINE DIVIDED ^-^^^^ ^f j^e 5th CentUry B.C., IN THE GOLDEN SECTION (seeTEXT) ,, r ,, ^ probably from the regular pentagon: its diagonals form the pentagram, which contains 200 golden The pentagram goes back to Babylonian culture; the ratios. Pythagoreans used it as a sign of salvation ,

and secrecy.

,

The Greek term

for the "the division of a line in extreme and mean proportion." The Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli called it A divina proportione (divine proportion)

golden section

the

is

German Johannes Kepler

sectio divina (divine section)

(d.

for to

B

a

FIG. 4.

1630)

— METHOD OF CON-

him STRUCTING POINT

T

OF

GOLDEN SECTION OF LINE symbolized the Creator's intention "to AB create like from Hke." The term proportio continua appears in the 16th century; probably by translation this became "continuous (i.e., uninterrupted) division," in the 18th century. The term "golden section" first appears in 1830. m it

,

,

Fig. 3

shows a

line

AB =

a, di-

vided in golden section at T, with

M

the major and a

—

M

the minor segment, and

M/(a-M). 0.618

...,

which

is

decimal)

This gives

= m

a/M = M/a =

the golden number,

irrational (an unending ;

architects

and

artists

:

GOLDENWEISER—GOLDFISH often replace

by

=

To

0.625.

construct T, the point of golden section (see fig. 4), draw BC = a/2 at right angles to AB. The circle with C as centre and a/ 2 as radius cuts AC in S; the circle with A as centre and AS as radius cuts AB in T.

beneath with a yellow powder.

foremost property of the golden section is this (see TA at T' so that TT' = TB, the line TA is now divided in golden section at T', with TT' = M' its major segment. / TT' can be similarly divided at [__ ' _ \ _ I 7 t b T" with T'T" = AT' = M" its t, ^-extension "" of line cut in major segment, and so on. This ° GOLDEN SECTION; A BECOMES POINT , ^ J J leads to a senes of decreasing ^^ section of segment btx lines cut in golden section with-

A

In

fir.

5)

it

§

art, the :

cutting

.

,

.

out further construction, cut (see is

fig.

6)

:

and to a

extending

BA

cut in golden section at A.

to

series of increasing lines likewise

Tj with TjA = AT, the

Setting a

=

1,

line

BTi

this gives the follow-

ing series of ratios

0.145

:

0.236

0.382

:

TT'

0.618

1

:

1.618

:

AT AB

:

:

:

2.618

TB

See P. H. Schofield, Theory of Proportion in Architecture (1958). (K. Me.)

GOLDENWEISER, ALEXANDER

(1880-1940), U.S. anthropologist whose interests embraced a broad spectrum of cultural problems, was born on Jan. 29, 1880, in Kiev, Russia, and

went to the United States in 1900. He studied anthropology under Franz Boas at Columbia university, where he took his Ph.D. in 1910 and lectured in anthropology from 1910 to 1919. He subsequently taught at the Rand School of Social Science, the New School for Social Research, the University of Oregon and Reed college. Goldenweiser did field research among the Iroquois and published the first American textbook in anthropology (Early CivilizaIn Totemism (1910) tion, 1922; rev. ed., Anthropology, 1937). he stressed the psychological factors common to different tribal cultures. In dealing with problems of diffusion v. independent invention of culture traits he introduced the principle of hmited possibilities, showing that in many cases this principle explained similarities in a satisfactory manner. He pointed out that diffusion was not a mechanical process but depended partly on the receptivity of cultures to proffered traits.

He was

543 The dark-brown,

(stipes), 6 in. to 12 in. high, rise from the rootstock in tufts, and bear triangular-shaped, somewhat leathery leaves, three to four inches long and broad, more or less deeply cut into rounded lobes.

related tropical American species, P. calomelanos, popular in greenhouse cultivation, with whitish powder on the undersurface of the fronds, is called silver fern; but a variety with gold-coloured powder is called gold fern. See also Fern. GOLDFIELD, a mining ghost town in the desert in southwestern Nevada, U.S., is the seat of Esmeralda county. Rich gold ore was discovered there in 1902 and the ensuing rush resulted in a city with an estimated population of 40,000. The mining boom lasted from 1903 to 1918, although the production of the mines started dropping off at the end of 1910, when production of ore reached an all-time high valued at more than $11,000,000. The mines were the scene of a bitter labour struggle in 1907 and 1908, with federal troops being sent to the area. After 1918 Goldfield's population decreased rapidly to less than 200. The 200-room Goldfield hotel was closed, although it was reopened briefly during World War II to accommodate the servicemen stationed at nearby Tonopah air force station. In the second half of the 20th century tourists kept the few people still living (D.W. Ds.) in Goldfield in business.

GOLDFINCH,

the name given to various birds of the passerine family Fringillidae, especially those of the genera Carduelis and Spinus. Best known of the old world species is the European

goldfinch (C. carduelis), a colourful bird found over the greater part of Eurasia. Although surpassed by many others as a songster,

by reason of its beauty and Less than five inches long, it has a bright red face, black nape, wings and tail, and a yellow wing band. It has been introduced into New Zealand with much success. it

is

especially prized as a cage bird

docility.

The American goldfinches, of which there are three species, are related to the pine siskins and with them comprise the genus Spinus. They are migratory in part, disappearing from much of their breeding range in autumn but returning in spring when they often resort

finches breed late in

Warsaw under

a

German

guise.

where he established the first illustrated Yiddish periodical and worked with the Roumanian Opera House. He went to London in 1889 and reorganized the Yiddish theatre that had been founded there in 1888. In 1903 he settled in New York and opened a dramatic school. His best-known works are Shulamit (1880) and Bar Kochba (1882). Since many of his dramatic works are set to his city,

own music, he opera.

He

is

died in

also considered to be the founder of Yiddish (0. G. B.) York on Jan. 19, 1908.

New

GOLD FERN,

a

handsome American

fern

triangularis), native to the Pacific coast region

Lower

(Pityrogramma from Alaska to

California, so called because the leaves (fronds) are coated

usually at

customarily

thereafter

Gold-

summer and frequent

flocks.

brushy fields, etc. in Their flight is undulating,

and the

call

pastures,

note a sprightly che, on the wing. They are especially fond of the seeds of thistles and other weeds. che,

che

uttered

The common American

goldfinch

breeds from southern Canada to the northern parts of the Gulf states and Cahfornia.

GOLDFADEN, ABRAHAM

New York

is

the end of a leafy bough.

For bibliography, see Wilson D. Wallis, "Alexander Goldenweiser," American Anthropologist, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 252-253 (April-June 1941). (W. D. Wa.)

In 1887 he migrated to

nest, a

soft plant materials,

man's knowledge and in primitive science, theoretical and applied. He noted the tendency toward overelaboration of a trait or a comHis analyses plex, especially in art, which he called "involution." and interpretations of cultural problems ranged widely, encompassing intellectual movements in psychology and psychoanalysis. He died onjuly 6, 1940, in Portland, Ore.

organized at Jassy in 1876 what is generally recognized as the first Yiddish theatre. In 1878 he returned to Russia with his troupe, gaining considerable success until the prohibition of Yiddish plays in 1883. After moving again to Poland, he revived his theatre in

and orchards to nest. well-formed cup of

to gardens

The

interested in primitive

(1840-1908), Hebrew and Yiddish poet and playwright, originator of Yiddish theatre and opera, was born in Old Constantine, Russia, on July 12, 1840. He published volumes of Hebrew and Yiddish poems prior to his graduation from a rabbinical seminary at Zhitomir in 1866. He then taught in Russia until migrating in 1875 to Poland, where he founded two Yiddish newspapers. After moving to Rumania, he

glossy leafstalks

iristis)

1,^.

The

bright

yellow

male has a

black cap and black wings and females are greenish yellow. tail The lesser, or Arkansas, goldfinch (5. psaltria), of the western ;

EUROPEAN GOLDFINCH (CARDUELIS CARDUELIS) WITH YOUNG AT NEST

states south to Colombia, has the upper parts mostly black or Lawrence's goldfinch (S. lawrencei), of olive in the adult male.

greenish yellow above and bright (E. R. Be.) (Carassius auratus), a fish belonging to the carp family (Cyprinidae) and native to eastern Asia but introduced into many other parts of the world. Its many breeds have long been California and Baja California,

is

yellow below.

GOLDFISH

popular as aquarium and pond ornamentals. It is closely related to the crucian carp (Carassius carassius) of Europe and northern Asia; both species resemble the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in having a long dorsal fin, but differ from it in ha\'ing no barbels. Goldfish were first domesticated by the Chinese at least as early as the Sung dynasty (960-1279). They were introduced into Japan

about 1500, Europe around 1700 and America around 1875. In the natural state the colour is usually greenish-brown or gray,

GOLDIE—GOLDMAN

544

greenish-brown colour and usually attains a length of 6 to 12 See also Aquarium. See also H. R. Axelrod and W. Vorderwinkler, Goldfish in Your Home (1958); W. T. Innes, Goldfish Varieties and Water Gardens (L. A. Wd.) (I960). inal

in.

GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE

DASHWOOD TAUBMAN

(1846-1925), British colonial administrator and founder of the Royal Niger company, was born on May 20, 1846, at the Nunnery, Isle of Man, the youngest son of Lieut. Col. John Taubman GoldieTaubman, speaker of the house' of keys. Sir George resumed his

He was edupaternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in 1887. cated at the Royal Military academy, Woolwich, and commissioned in 1865, but resigned his commission in traveled for several years in Africa, principally in Egypt

in the

Royal Engineers

1867.

He

and the Sudan, and

TROPICAL FISH HOBBTtST yASAZlNE

VEILTAIL GOLDFISH

and the fonn of the body and of the fins is similar to that of the common carp. However, this species is extremely plastic: individuals occur, for example, in which the brown or black pigment is absent or restricted to spots; some may be golden or all white, or white with silvery patches; and still others may be jet black. Numerous other abnormalities occur: the dorsal fin may be absent, Chinese the tail fin trilobed, the eyes may protrude excessively. aquariists. observing these variations, conceived the idea of select-

ing out such abnormal specimens and breeding

As

strains having particularly desired qualities.

them

to develop

a result of cen-

China and Japan, more than 125 breeds of fancy goldfishes have been produced. Goldfish are omnivorous, feeding on minute invertebrates, espeturies of careful experiments in

cially small crustaceans; insect larvae;

worms; eggs of

frogs; snails

and a variety of aquatic plants. The growth of the young, as well as the form and colour of the adults, depends on proper

and

fish

;

feeding.

The

raw lean

beef, cereal, etc.

best food for

small crustaceans, and aquariists devote much care to cultivating these organisms. This diet may be supplemented with chopped mosquito larvae, small aquatic worms, pulverized yolks of hard-boiled eggs, scraped all

ages of goldfish

is

Goldfish spawn for the first time when they are a year old and continue each year thereafter for six. seven or even more years. The spawning season occurs in the spring or summer, depending on the temperature. As the season approaches, the colours be-

come

brighter, the abdomen of the female enlarges (owing to enlargement of the ovaries) and the males often develop temporary minute excrescences, each about the size of a pinhead, on the gill covers and sometimes also on the back and the pectoral fins. Before spawning, the fish become extremely active, the males chas-

ing the females, at

first

aimlessly but gradually

more purposefully,

back and forth across the aquarium, bumping their abdomens to facilitate the release of the eggs. As the eggs are extruded they are fertilized by the males. The eggs then sink and adhere by means of their sticky surface to aquatic plants, on which they will hatch in eight or nine days (at 65° F.). In captivity goldfi'sh have been known to live for 25 years; however, the average hfe span is usually

much

shorter,

Escaping from ornamental pools in parks and gardens, the goldfish has become naturalized in many ponds and streams of the eastern United States, notably in the Potomac river. In some locahties it occurs in sufficient abundance to be marketed as a food fish. Upon resuming life under natural conditions, it reverts to its orig-

first

visited west Africa in

1877,

when he

conceived the idea of uniting the British trading firms on the Niger river, then in cutthroat competition, into a chartered company to govern the area for the crown. Goldie had combined all British commercial interests on the Niger into a single United African company by 1879, but his application for a royal charter was refused in 1881 on the grounds that British influence was not paramount in the Niger area. The company bought out the only two competing French firms in 1884, thus enabling the British government to claim at the Berlin conference (1884-85) that British interests were supreme on the lower Niger. A British sphere of influence was recognized and Goldie's company received its charter in July 1886 and took the name of the Royal Niger company. Goldie became vice-governor of the company and was made governor in 1895 on the death of the first holder of that post. Lord Aberdare. Under the charter the company was authorized to administer the country on the banks of the Niger and Benue rivers, together

j

I

|

|

j

with the hinterland, and Goldie was largely responsible for the organization of the new government. He kept a close watch on its activities and in 1897 organized and accompanied a force of the company's troops against the slave-raiding states of Nupe and Ilorin. Goldie also initiated and took part in negotiations with the French and German governments which settled the boundaries of the British sphere of influence administered

!

by the company.

however, that a chartered company was at a disadvantage in dealing with international questions and the charter was accordingly revoked, the British government taking direct

was

It

clear,

I

control of the company's territories on Jan. 1, 1900. From the first, and throughout the period of the charter, Goldie

guided the destinies of the company and took an active part in its administration, with a scrupulous respect for the rights of the African inhabitants. It was largely due to his inspiration, perseverance and administrative ability that northern Nigeria became

an orderly and prosperous British protectorate, and subsequently one of the regions of an independent Nigeria. Goldie \asited Rhodesia in 1903-04 to examine the question of self-government by the Rhodesians. In 1902-03 and in 1905-06 he was a member of royal commissions set up in coimection with the South African War. From 1908 to 1919 he was an alderman later

council and chairman of its finance coma fellow of the Royal society and w'as president He was of the Royal Geographical society from 1905 to 1908. for two periods president of the National Defence association. Goldie was created knight commander of the order of St. Michael and St. George in 1887 and was made a privy councilor in 1898.

of the

mittee.

He

London County

He was

died in

London on Aug.

!

20, 1925.

See Dorothy Wellesley, Sir George Goldie (1934) George Goldie (1960).

GOLDMAN, EMMA

[

;

J.

E. Flint, Sir (A. C. Bs.)

(1869-1940), international anarchist,

was born in Kovno, Lith., June 27, 1869. The daughter of a government theatre manager, she spent her early life in Konigsberg and St. Petersburg. She emigrated to the United States in 1885 and worked in a clothing factory in Rochester, N.Y., where she attended meetings of German socialists. Later she worked in New Haven, Conn., where she met a group of Russian anarchists. By 1889 Emma Goldman had espoused anarchism and had moved to New York city where she became associated with the

:

i

^

I

j

1

j

i

GOLDMARK— GOLDSBORO Russian anarchist Alexander Berkman. In 1892 he was sentenced to a 22-year jail term for the attempted assassination of Henry C. Frick during the Homestead steel strike in Pittsburgh, Pa. Emma Goldman continued her activities as an anarchist lecturer despite one year in prison for inciting a riot in New York city in 1893. After Berkman's release in 1906 she resumed her association with him. They carried on anarchist activities until 1917 when they were arrested for obstructing the military draft and served two years in prison. They were deported to Russia in 1919. Although Emma Goldman had previously favoured the Soviet government, her stay in Russia disillusioned her. She went to England and later to Canada and Spain, meanwhile writing Disillusionment in Russia and her autobiography, Living Life. She died in

My My

May 14, 1940, on a trip to Canada. Ishill, Emma Goldman, a Challenging Rebel

Toronto, See

(B. Mi.)

(1957).

(1830-1915), Hungarian composer of The son of a poor Jewish cantor, he was

born May 18, 1830, at Keszthely. He studied the violin in Vienna under Leopold Jansa and J. Bbhm and elementary theory under G. Preyer. In composition he was self-taught. Following the success of his String Quartet, opus 8 (1860), he wrote the overture Sakuntala (1865) and his most successful opera, Die Konigin von Saba (Vienna, 1875). During this period he was also known as a piano teacher and critic. Among his later operas are Gotz von Berlichingen (Budapest, 1902) and Ein Wintermdrschen, after Shakespeare's A Winter's Tale (Vienna, 1908). His work, showing the influence of Hungarian folk music and of Mendelssohn and Wagner, also includes two violin concertos, two symphonies, choral and chamber works. He died at Vienna, Jan. 2, 1915. His nephew, Rubin Goldmark (b. New York city, 1872; died

Dvorak, was the teacher of Aaron CopGeorge Gershwin and other U.S. composers, and in 1924 was appointed head of the composition department of the JuUiard School of Music. See L. Koch (ed), Karl Goldmark (1930); E. T. Rice, Address in Memor\ of Rubin Goldmark (1936). (1707-1793), a prolific ItaUan dramaGOLDONI, tist and reformer of the traditional Itahan comedy of his day, was born at Venice, on Feb. 25, 1707, the son of a doctor. In 1721 he ran away from school at Rimini with a company of players, and was later expelled (1725) from the Collegio GhisUeri, Pavia, for a satire against the ladies of the town. In 1731 Goldoni took a degree in law at Padua university, after which, as well as holchng diplomatic appointments and engaging in various theatrical activities, he practised as a lawyer at Venice (1731-33) and Pisa there, 1936), a pupil of

land,

CARLO

(1744-^8). '

The desire to write for the stage was always strong in Goldoni, and in 1734, after making a false start with a lyric tragedy called Amalasunta (1732), he joined the Imer company at the San SamBelisario, a tragicomedy in verse, pleased uele theatre, Venice. the public, and there he also wrote a number of successful interludes (La birba) and scenarios {Le trentadue disgrazie di Arlecchino) for the commedia dell'arte (q.v.). However, his belief that comedy ought to "correct defects" made him feel that a radical reform was necessary in the Itahan theatre. Wishing 'to create a comedy of character, he followed the example of Moliere and sought to delineate the realities of social life in as natural a manner His first essays in this style were Momolo cortesan (1738) and La donna di garbo (1743), in which he suppressed im-

as possible.

by writing his parts in full and began to free the actors from the traditional practice of wearing masks on the stage. Other

provisation

plays followed

—

—some

interesting for their subject, others for their

in time Goldoni succeeded in replacing the improvised and frequently licentious farce typical of the comic theatre in Italy in his day with a new, yet essentially Italian, comedy of manners that was both moral in tone and a faithful "mirror of life" {La vedova scaltra, 1 748 // cavaliere e la dama, 1 749 La locan-

characters

and

;

;

performed 1753). Between 1748 and 1762 Goldoni worked as a professional playwright for the companies of Girolamo Medebac and the patrician Francesco Vendramin at the theatres of Sant'Angelo (1748-53) and San Luca (1753-62) in Venice. During this period he effected diera, written 1752, first

In one season alone (1750-51) he wrote 16 new plays, including // teatro comico, Pamela and La bottega del cage, embodying his theories. Throughout these years Goldoni's success was opposed by his rivals, Pietro Chiari and Cario Gozzi,

and

1762 he

Venice for Paris, where he had been invited to Italienne (1762-64). Goldoni subsequently taught Italian to the French royal princesses, and for the wedding of Louis XVI he wrote in French one of his best-known works, Le Bourru bienjaisant (1771). He also wrote his Mimoires, between 1783 and 1787, at Versailles. As a result of the Revolution Goldoni lost his pension and he died in poverty in Paris on Feb. in

direct the

left

Comedie

6?, 1793.

Goldoni wrote in both prose and verse, and in Italian, Venetian and French. He composed librettos for the opera buga and a wealth of occasional verse. His best plays are those in \'enetian dialect, such as / rusteghi (1760), La casa nova (1760) and Sior Todero brontolon (1762), and especially the vivid "popular" comedies which mirror the elemental and passionate life of the poor (II dialect

GOLDMARK, KARL operas and violin music.

545

dramatic reform.

his

campiello, 1756;

Le

baruffe chiozzotte, 1762).

—

BiBLioGR-^PHY. Goldoni's complete works were published in 44 vol. (1788-95 and 1827). Modern editions are the Opere complete, 39 vol. (1907-54), and Tutle le opere, ed. by G. Ortolani, 14 vol. (1935Opere, ed. by F. Zampieri, is a good selection in one volume 56). (1954). Memoires, in French, Eng. trans, by John Black (1877). See also G. Ortolani, Delia vita e dell'arte di C. Goldoni (1907); H. C. Chatfield-Taylor, Goldoni (1913); E. Rho, La missione teatrale di Carlo Goldoni (1936) M. Dazzi, Carlo Goldoni e la sua poetica sociale (1957). (D. M. We.) ;

GOLD RESERVES.

As distinguished from private hoards by individuals and nonfinancial institutions, gold reserves have been held from ancient times by kings, princes, governments and banks. The reserves have been accumulated by rulers and governments primarily to meet the costs of waging war, and in most epochs governmental poHcy has greatly emphasized the acquiring and holding of "treasure." Banks have accumulated gold reserves to redeem their promises to pay their depositors in

of gold held

gold.

During the 19th century banks supplanted governments as the Commercial banks received deposits subject to repayment in gold on demand and issued notes (paper money) that were redeemable in gold on demand: hence each bank had to hold a reserve of gold coins to meet redemption demands. In the course of time, however, the preponderant por-

principal holders of gold reserves.

tion of the gold reserves shifted to central banks.

.\s

the notes

by notes of the central bank, the commercial banks needed little or no gold for note redemption. The commercial banks also came to depend upon the central bank for gold needed to meet the demands of

of commercial banks were wholly or largely replaced

their depositors.

In the 1930s many governments required their central banks to turn over to the national treasuries all or most of their gold holdings. Thus by the terms of the Gold Reserve act of 1934, the U.S. treasury took title to all gold coin, gold bullion and gold certificates held by the federal reserve banks, giving gold certifi-

new type and gold credits on its books in exchange. (See Dollar.) The U.S. treasury placed most of its gold reserve But not all governments "nationalized" gold, at Fort Knox, Ky. with the result that the status of gold reser\'es varies from country to country. In some countries monetarj' gold reserves are held exclusively by the national government; in others they are held largely by the central bank; and in still others they are held partly by the government and partly by the central bank. Regardcates of a

however, the use of gold reser^'es is now limited almost exclusively to the settlement of international transactions. (R- P- Ke.) See also Gold Standard. less of the holder,

a city in east central North Carolina. U.S.. and the seat of Wayne county, is on the north side of the Neuse river, about 50 mi. S E. of Raleigh. Settled in 1838 and incorporated and was named in 1847, Goldsboro was an early railway junction after M. T. Goldsborough, a civil engineer for one of the railways. shipping centre for the It soon became an important trading and

GOLDSBORO,

primarily agricultural North Carolina coastal plain. Though still predominately a railway shipping point and market for the sur-

a

GOLDSBOROUGH—GOLDSMITH

546 rounding area

had

a

number

in the second half of the 20th century, Goldsboro of small, diversified manufacturing plants, and was

one of the larger bright-leaf tobacco markets. The State Hospital for Negro Insane was established near Goldsboro in 1S84. The state Oddfellows Orphans' home and Seymour

Johnson Air base, an important training centre in World War II, are located there. In 1917 the city adopted the council-manager form of government. For comparative population figures, see table in North Caro(Da. St.) (1805Washington, in 1S05, born Feb. IS, was officer, naval U.S. 1877), D.C. He was senior naval member of a commission that explored lina: Population.

GOLDSBOROUGH, LOUIS MALESHERBES

1849-50, and superintendent of the United States Naval academy, 1853-57. On Sept. 2i, 1861, Goldsborough was placed in command of the Atlantic blockading squadron, and on its division later in the year retained command of the North Atlantic squadron, which controlled the Virginia and North California and Oregon in

Carolina coasts. His fleet captured Roanoke Island in Feb. 1862 and destroyed Confederate vessels, for which he received the thanks of congress and was promoted to the rank of rear admiral, July 16, 1862. He asked to be relieved of command of the blockading squadron, Sept. 4, 1862, after a dispute over naval participation in the attack

on Richmond, and served in Washington until the end of the war. He retired in 1873 and died F.eb. 20, 1877. (J. B. Hn.) (1819-1887), Danish GOLDSCHMIDT, MEIR writer of Jewish descent whose intimate knowledge of the customs and psychology of orthodox Jews in Denmark forms the background of many of his novels and short stories. He was born, Oct. 26, 1819, at Vordingborg, and, after going to school in Copen-

ARON

hagen, planned to study medicine but became a journalist instead. In 1840 he founded Corsaren, a satirical weekly expressing his His own witty, and often politically radical, republican ideas. ambiguous, contributions made it influential. A feud with Soren Kierkegaard caused him to give up the paper and go abroad in 1846. His first novel. En Jode (1845; Eng. trans.. The Jew of

Denmark, 1852), described the gulf between the Jew and Danish Returning in society. It was followed by Fortallinger (1846). 1847, Goldschmidt abandoned radicalism and founded a new periodical, Nord og Syd, in which his novel Hjemlos (which he himself translated into English as Homeless, 1861) was serialized (1853-

He

England several times and thought of settling there but decided that he ought to remain a Danish writer. In the 1860s he was regarded as Denmark's most important novelist, but 57).

later his

ment

led

visited

conservatism created a gulf with the new radical moveby Georg Brandes. He died at Copenhagen, Aug. 15,

1887.

Goldschmidt's finest descriptions of Jewish life are to be found his short novels, included in collections "Maser," "Levi og Ibald," Avromche Nattergal (1871) and "Mendel Herz," and in Ravnen (1867), one of the outstanding Danish novels of the 19th century, in which Jews are depicted with an unusual blend of sympathy and irony. Several works, notably "Erindringer fra min Onkels Hus" (in Fortcellinger, 1846), describe life in a provincial town. Hjemlos and Arvingen (1865; Eng. trans.. The Heir) are based on personal reminiscences. Goldschmidt is an exquisite stylist, especially in his short stories. His philosophy of retribuin

tive justice, or nemesis, underlies

most of

his novels,

and

also his

memoirs, Livserindringer og Resultater (1877). See H. Kyrre, A/. Goldschmidt, 2 vol. (1919) E. Bredsdorff, Corsaren ;

(1941).

(E. L. Bf.)

GOLDSCHMIDT, VICTOR

(1853-1933), German crystal-

Mainz on Feb. 10, 1853. He studied in the mineral sciences at the Freiberg Mining academy and at Munich, Heidelberg and Vienna. His first major publication was Index der Krystalljormen, three volumes appearing from 1886 to 1891 iographer, was born in

—

catalogue of the

known forms of crystals of to meet his new needs were

all

minerals.

New

tables of angles devised, calculated with vast outlay of energy and published in 1897 as Krystallographischc Winkeltabellen. Next began the compilation and publication of all published figures of crystals of minerals. This Atlas

der Krystalljormen in nine volumes appeared from 1912 to 1923. His interest in number series appearing in crystal symbols expanded to a philosophic theory of number and harmony which led to an analysis of musical harmony, of colour and the development of the colour sense in man and finally to the spacing of the planets (C. Pe.) about the sun. He died in Salzburg on May 8, 1933. (1888-1947), NorGOLDSCHMIDT, wegian mineralogist, petrologist and geochemist who not only laid the foundation of a new science of inorganic crystal chemistry but gave to geochemistry its modern orientation and much of the impulse to its phenomenal development. Born in Zijrich on Jan. 27,

VICTOR MORITZ

1888, he

W.

moved

became a pupil of was appointed professor and director of

to Christiania (Oslo) in 1900,

C. Brogger {q.v.) and

the Mineralogical institute there in 1914. Until 1942 his interests and activities were to be associated with his chair, apart from a

Goldschmidt's at Gbttingen (1929-35). mineralogy and petrology rank in importance with They were those of his illustrious teacher and predecessor. sustained and succeeded by researches of brilliant distinction. Outstanding among his numerous memoirs were Die Kontaktmetamorphose im Kristiania-Gebiete (1911); Die Injektionsmetamorperiod

of

six

achievements

phose

years

in

im Stavanger

Gebiete

(1921);

Geochemische

Verteil-

der Elemente, 8 vol. (1923-38) and his treatise Geochemistry, edited by A. Muir and published posthumously (1954). He became a foreign member of the Royal society in (C. E. T.) 1943 and died in Oslo on March 20, 1947. the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers,

ungsgesetze

GOLDSMID,

descendants of Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who settled in England about 1763. Two sons, Benjamin (1753-1808) and Abraham (1756-1810), became important financial brokers in London during the Napoleonic war. A nephew. Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), was a successful financier, chiefly known for his efforts to obtain emancipation for Jews in England, and for founding University college in London. In 1841 he was made the first Jewish baronet. His son. Sir Francis Henry first Jewish barrister and was A grandson of Benjamin parliament in 1860. Goldsmid, Sir Frederick John Goldsmid (1S18-190S), was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph and helped to settle boundary disputes between Persia and Afghanistan in 1872. (J. R. Lt.) (c. 1730-1774), Anglo-Irish journalist, essayist, novelist, dramatist, and poet, remains one of the foremost names in English literature, which he enriched with such enduring works as The Vicar of Wakefield, The Deserted

Goldsmid (1808-78), became the a

member

of

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER

He was a man irritable and Village, and She Stoops to Cosigner. envious, yet lovable and generous; in practical matters often a feckless fool, yet intuitively sane and wise; in talk often ridiculous, yet a writer of Irish liveliness, wit, and unforced, unfailing charm. His family, though needy, was less obscure than is sometimes supposed, and had included, on both sides, dignitaries of the church and members of parliament. He was the second son of the Rev. Charles Goldsmith (d. 1747), himself an impoverished younger son, a curate, and small farmer at Pallas in central Ireland, who soon after Oliver's birth there (Nov, 10, probably 1730 or 1731) moved to the adjacent hamlet of Lissoy, near Lough Ree. Kindly, humorous, improvident, Charles Goldsmith seems partly portrayed in The Vicar of Wakefield, and in the father of The Man in Black. OUver himself, an ugly, undersized, pock-marked oaf of a boy, often baited, yet capable of sharp or gay retaliations, went to Trinity college, Dublin, in 1745 as a sizar. Often in scrapes with authority, especially with his brutal tutor, the Rev.

Theaker Wilder, over shirked work, doused bailiffs or "idle Having finally gradfled the university. uated, he became, during 1750-52, mainly an indolent playboy at home. He tutored, but quarreled with the family; thought of the church, but was rejected; of America, but lost his ship and his resolution at Cork; of the law in London, but gambled away his good uncle Contarine's £50 in Dublin. Finally (1752-54) he managed to study medicine without much effect at Edinburgh and Leiden. Then ensued his famous Grand Tour on foot, with a flute through Flanders, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Tirol,

women," he once even

—

—

—

—

—

GOLDSMITH he landed early in 1756, still penniless, at Dover. Now began a harsh struggle, as an apothecary's assistant, school

till

usher,

physician, and hack writer

— reviewing,

translating,

and

In 1758 he was foiled in a scheme for going out to work as a doctor on the Coromandel coast in India. It remains amazing that this young Irish vagabond, unknown, uncouth, uncompiling.

was yet able within a few years to climb from mix with 18th-century aristocrats and the intellectual ehte of London. But Goldsmith had one quality, soon noticed by booksellers and public, that his fellow hacks did learned, unreliable, his

Grub

street gutter to

not possess

—

the gift of style; of being, even on paper, his real His rise began with the Enquiry Into the State of Polite Learning (1759), a slight work, far from learned, yet already characteristically alive. Soon he emerged as an essayist also, in The Bee and other periodicals; above all, in his Chinese Letters, self.

collected as

The Citizen of

the

World

in 1762.

The same year

brought his Life of Nash.

Already he was acquiring those distinguished and often helpful friends whom he alternately annoyed and amused, shocked and charmed Thomas Percy, Dr. Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, David Garrick, Edmund Burke, and James Boswell. The obscure drudge of 1759 became in 1764 one of the nine founder-members of The Club, that select body, including Reynolds, Johnson, and Burke, which met weekly for supper and talk at the Turk's Head in Soho. He could now live better, lodge better, dress better indeed too well. But he still ran continually into debt, and was forced to undertake more hack work. English, Roman, and Grecian histories; biographies; verse anthologies; translations; works of popular science the Hst of them appalls. At times he potboiled his genius to rags. Yet even in his potboiling he was often an excellent cook. He seized on things vital and amusing; he cut out the dull and dronish. And always there was his style. Many of these makeshift compilations went on being reprinted far into the 19th century. But he was an ill steward of his true excellence. The wonder is that he found time and energy for his lasting works. For he came late to literature, at nearly 30; 15 years later, he was dead. Yet by 1762 he had established himself as an essayist with his Citizen of the World (which borrows Montesquieu's device of satirizing western society through oriental eyes, with less daring and wit, but more indulgence and humour); by 1764 he had won a reputation as poet with The Traveller, embodying both his memories of tramping Europe and his poUtical ideas; and in 1770 confirmed that reputation with the more famous Deserted Village, which contains some of his most charming portraits and landscapes, while denouncing, with less exaggeration than used to be thought, the evictions of the country poor at the whim of the well-to-do. In 1766 he revealed himself as a novelist with The Vicar of Wakefield (completed in 1762) a book that still lives, however melodramatic its plot, by its style, its sharp, yet good-natured irony, and the characters of the shrewd, absurd, delightful Dr. Primrose and his family. In 1768 Goldsmith turned to the theatre with The GoodNatur'd Man; followed in 1773 by the much more effective She Stoops to Conquer. This (along with the more brilliant plays of Richard Sheridan) has outlived all other English comedies from the early 18th century to the late 19th, despite moments of rather farcical horseplay, by the humour and humanity of such characters as Kate Hardcastle and Tony Lumpkin. Thus in the seven years 1762-68 Goldsmith had successfully invaded four different, and

—

—

—

—

difficult, fields

During

of Hterature.

his last

decade he

is

made more

vivid for us

by the pen

of Boswell, his jealous rival in the spellbound, though not always

—

charmed, circle of Johnson a Goldsmith snubbed, yet loved, by the Master; mocked now for his bloom-coloured coat, now for his brawl with Thomas Evans the bookseller (whose London Packet had lampooned his fondness for Mary Horneck, a girl 22 years his junior whom he had met through Reynolds, and of whose family he was an intimate friend) yet capable on occasion of But, matching his "little fishes" against Johnson's "whales." despite not inadequate earnings. Goldsmith's debts deepened to ;

Maybe his extravagance and finery, like his jealous touchineed sympathy rather than censure, as neurotic results of a humiliated childhood. Early in 1774 he was attacked by kidney £2,000. ness,

547

trouble and rashly dosed himself with James's Powders. His physician, noting his rapid pulse, asked if his mind were at ease. "No, it is not," were Goldsmith's last words. Next morning he

died (April 4, 1774).

For Sir John Hawkins, Goldsmith was ''an idiot"; for Horace Walpole, an "inspired idiot," "a fool the more wearing for ha\-ing some sense"; for Garrick, an angelic writer who yet "talked like poor Poll"; for Hester Thrale, disagreeable, with "impudence truly Irish." But often Goldsmith's Irish humour was misunderstood by the dull Saxon. Those who knew more of him, thought better. At the news of his death Burke wept, and Reynolds threw down his brushes for the day. Johnson's Latin epitaph seized on two essential qualities

—

Goldsmith's versatility, and his grace: "There was almost no branch of literature that he did not attempt; none that he attempted, and failed to adorn." Even Boswell missed "poor Goldsmith." Much more did the outcast creatures who wept on his stairs, and Mary Horneck who preserved through a long life a tress of hair from his coflnn. Literary Characteristics.— Goldsmith's deficiencies are obvious. He was unlearned. He forgot even what was in his own books. Often he was hasty, superficial, and perfunctory a liter-

—

ary highwayman

who

lightheartedly pillaged the Encyclopedic,

Marivaux, Montesquieu, d'Argens, and others. Yet he shows how who really have originality cannot help being original while those who have none, fuss about it in vain. And so, with all his frailties. Goldsmith remained, for Johnson "a very great man"; for Reynolds, "a man of genius"; for Byron, one of the very few poets who, like Pope, were "all good"; for Thackeray, "the most beloved of English writers"; for Macaulay, an author unsurpassed in the power of being "uniformly agreeable." By 1820 relic-hunting pilgrims had carried off from Lissoy, twig by twig, all that remained of Goldsmith's hawthorn, supposed to be that described in The Deserted Village; and in 1864, when it was a question of statues for Ireland's worthies on Dublin's College Green, though Swift, Berkeley, and Burke were his rivals, the first choice was Goldsmith. But one of the most telling tributes of all comes from "To Shakespeare, Sterne, and Goldthe ripe wisdom of Goethe smith my debt has been limitless." Whence springs this power of a man seemingly so simple to impress men not simple at all? Chiefly perhaps from the charm his warmth of of personality that breathes through his style heart, his mischievous irony, his spontaneous interchange of gaiety and sadness. He was, as a writer, what he praised Garrick for being as an actor "natural, simple, affecting"; though both men, curiously, often failed to be so in company, Alcibiades in Plato's Symposium likens the ugly Socrates to the satyr Marsyas, whose simple fluting bewitched his hearers as no bravuras could. The ugly, fluting Goldsmith showed something of the same unaffected charm. Hence his hatred for all pretense and pretentiousness those

;

—

—

—

for sophistry, pedantry, criticism; for sentimental comedy; for the sentiment of Sterne, the artificial epithets of Gray, the "disgusting It is by their human personalities solemnity" of blank verse. that his novel and his plays succeed, not by briUiance of plot, ideas, or language. So too even with his essays. Montesquieu's Lettres

persanes are read for their ideas, paradoxes, and epigrams; but The Citizen of the World is read for figures like the Man in Black, or the soldier, porter, and prisoner who so solemnly and ludicrously extol British liberty by the window of a jail; or the snobbish Tibbses "connoisseuring" the poor widow out of her pleasure in wine and custard at Vauxhall. So too even in the poems. Here yet again it is the characters that are remembered rather than the landscapes— the village parson, the village schoolmaster, the sharp, yet not unkindly portaits of Garrick and Burke. Goldsmith's poetry, however, lives also by its own special music, mel-

lowing the heroic couplet to an autumnal grace far unlike the drum-roll of Dryden, the rapier-clash of Pope, the granite of Johnson, the sea-shingle of Crabbe; till it recalls, at moments, the April sweetness of Chaucer. "Sweet as the primrose peeps beneath the thorn."

"The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, For talking age and whispering lovers made."

—

GOLD STANDARD

548

Such simple melody, so free from the "disgusting solemnity" of ISth-century blank verse, seems deeply characteristic of him who and in his youth had piped to poor French peasants by the Loire, pitied the

whose indignation from their homes

English or Irish rustics uprooted

at the fiat of the great.

His aristocratic cen-

tury, with all its polish, was often coarse, crude, or cruel; Goldsmith helped to humanize its imagination, without growing sickly or mawkish. That is what Goethe saw and admired. Goldsmith left his readers neither harsher, nor bitterer, nor more barbarous,

as even genius has sometime.s

more

pathy, saner, and

done

civilized.

he left them warmer in symOther writers, no doubt, have

;

done that even better; yet there remains, perhaps, nothing better than any writer can ever do. Works: There is no complete edition of GoldBiBLioGR.'iPHV. smith's works later than J. VV. M. Gibbs (1884-86); but there are manv of particular works. See especially Poetical Works (1906), Poems and Plavs (1889; reprinted in Everyman's Library, 1910), Citizen of the World, 2 vol. (1891; 1900), all ed. by A. Dobson; Vicar of Wakefield, ed. bv O. Doughtv (1928); New Essays, ed. by R. S. Crane (1927) Collected Letters, ed. by K. C. Balderston (1928) Selected Works, ed. bv R. Garnett (1950). See also I. A. Williams, Seven XVIIIth Century Bibliographies (1924). Biography: Sir James Prior, 2 vol. (1837); Washington Irving ;

;

(1844; 1850) J. Forster (1848; 1903) S. L. Gwynn (193S) W. Free(1951); R. M. Wardle (1957). Criticism: W. M. Thackeray, The English Humorists of the 18th Lord Macaulay, article in the Encyclopedia BriCentury (1853) A. L. lannica, 8th ed. (included in Miscellaneous Writings, 1860) Sir Joshua Reynolds, Sells, Les Sources francaises de Goldsmith (1924) (F. L. Lr.) Portraits, ed. by F. W. Hilles (1952). ;

;

;

man

;

authorities

and to receive therefor an equal weight of gold

in the

national coinage; (2) to melt down coins (of which the weight and fineness was legally specified) for their gold content; (3) to export or import gold coin or gold bullion at will; all without any substantial charges being

imposed by the monetary

authorities.

Fundamentally, the same position could be achieved where paper currency was used if the monetary authorities were willing: (1) to buy or sell gold in unlimited quantities at a fixed price in convertible paper money per unit weight of the metal; (2) to refrain from restricting the import or export of gold coin or bullion. Even before World War I some countries used a variant of the gold standard that later became increasingly popular, namely, the In this system, a substitute for the gold-exchange standard. export and import of gold was set up. It consisted of an offer by the monetary authorities of one country to buy and sell the currency of other gold-standard countries at a fixed price in the paper currency of the country making the offer. In effect, this provided, abroad rather than at home, the necessary two-way market for gold in the currency of the country concerned, but, since the cost of transfer of the metal from the foreign to the home country was negligible in relation to its value, the procedure did not impair the essentials of the gold standard. It was much cheaper to maintain a gold-exchange standard than to preserve the unqualified gold standard, and the gold-exchange standard was therefore popular in poor countries, especially in the colonies

;

of relatively rich nations.

;

GOLD STANDARD, a monetary system in which the standard unit is a fixed weight of gold or is kept at the value of a fixed weight of gold. It has two main variants the internal gold standIn an internal gold ard and the international gold standard. standard system gold coins circulate as legal tender or paper money is freely convertible into gold by the monetary authori:

ties at a fixed price.

In the international gold standard system is convertible into gold at a fixed price

gold or a currency which is

used as a means of making international payments.

The

use

of the internal gold standard by several countries implies that

on an international gold standard, so long as free imis allowed, because in these circumstances gold can be used for international payments. It is possible for an international gold standard to exist in the absence of any internal gold standard. Such a system has, in fact, been re-established since World War II. Gold coins no longer circulate in any major country and private citizens of most countries have no right to exchange their paper money for gold. On the other hand, gold continues to serve as an international means of settlement between the major central banks. The exchange values of most national currencies are fixed in terms of gold or in terms of currencies whose value is fixed in terms of gold. This implies that exchange rates between nearly all the major national currencies are normally held within very narrow limits of fluctuation. History. The gold standard was first put into operation in Great Britain in 1821. Prior to that time the principal world monetary metal had been silver. Gold had, for many centuries, been used intermittently for coinage in one or another country, but never as the single reference metal, or standard, to which all other forms of money were co-ordinated or adjusted. The adoption of gold monometallism in Great Britain in 1821 was not imitated by any important country for about 50 years. In the intervening period silver, or a bimetallic regime of gold and silver, was the prevailing standard outside the British Isles. (See Bimetallism.) But in the lS70s the monometallic gold standard was adopted by Germany. France and the United States. Before the end of the century many other countries had followed the lead of the financially important nations. After the turn of the century only China. Mexico and a few small countries continued to use silver as standard money. they are

all

port and export of gold

—

The

and international gold standard of the pre-1914 world was operated in differing ways in different countries. In its most complete version there was free coinage, free melting and free movement of gold. This meant that anyone had the right: (1) to tender gold in unlimited quantities to the monetary

The reign of the full gold standard system was short, lasting only from the 1870s to the outbreak of World War I. That war saw recourse to inconvertible paper money or to restrictions on gold export in nearly every country of the world. After World War I it was generally accepted that both the internal and the international gold standards should be re-established. By 1928 the task had been practically completed, although gold coins were no longer in general circulation in most countries and more extensive use was made of the gold exchange standard than before 1914. Almost as soon as the gold standard had been re-established, it collapsed again through the pressures resulting from the great depression. The first major collapse was that of the United Kingdom in 1931 when convertibility of sterling currency into gold at a fixed price was abandoned and the sterling exchange rate was allowed to depreciate in terms of the currencies still on gold. In 1933 the U.S. dollar was also allowed to depreciate. A small group of continental European countries led by France continued the struggle to maintain convertibility at the old price until 1936. This gold bloc collapsed because the depreciation of sterling and the dollar meant that the exports of the gold bloc countries were at a competitive disadvantage in world markets. By 1937 not a single country remained on the full gold standard. The United States, however, set a new minimum dollar price for gold to be used for purchases and sales by foreign central banks. This action, known as "pegging" the price of gold, provided the basis for the restoration of an international gold standard after World War II. By the time the postwar international currency system was being planned there was general dissatisfaction with the fluctuating exchange rate system of the 1930s. The postwar system was one in which most exchange rates were pegged either to the dollar or to gold. On occasions, however (notably the devaluations of 1949 and the German revaluation of 1961), the pegged rates were altered; the new gold standard did not achieve the apparently immutable exchange rate pattern of the pre-1914 or interwar gold standards. The re-establishment of this international gold standard occurred in 1958 when the major European countries re-established the free convertibility of their currencies

and dollars, for international payments. There had, however, been no restoration of an internal gold standard by the into gold

early 1960s.

full internal

Principles. it

limits the

—The virtues of the gold standard are twofold:

power of governments or banks

by excessive

issue of paper currency;

to

it

creates certainty in

by providing a fixed pattern of exchange rates. the power to inflate the currency is most obvious

international trade

The hmit

(2)

(1) to cause price inflation

—

GOLDWATER— GOLF where there

is full

internal convertibility of paper currency into

Some people can be

expected, in such circumstances, to prefer to hold gold rather than paper money; if the monetary authorities try to issue too much paper money they risk a loss of confidence in it. The international gold standard does not provide the same limits to inflation because it is consistent with a broadly uniform degree of inflation in all countries. The effective limit gold.

freedom of action of the authorities is that if they inflate too fast the goods of their country will price themselves out of world markets and balance of payments difficulties will follow. to the

There are three main disadvantages of the gold standard ( 1 ) it not allow sufficient flexibility in the supply of money; (2) it makes it difficult for a single country to isolate its economy from :

may

depression or inflation in the rest of the world; (3) the process of adjustment for a gold standard country that finds itself with a payments deficit can be lengthy and painful.

The inflexibility of the gold standard system arises because the supply of newly mined gold is not closely related to the growing needs of the world economy for a supply of money. In practice, the use of gold was increasingly supported and then supplemented internally by the use of paper money; if this had not happened, a serious shortage of money would have developed and economic progress would probably have been much slower. The shortage of gold for international use, which

was serious in the late 1920s and again in the late 19SOs, was partially alleviated by the international use of national currencies and by the development of international credit-granting organizations such as the European Payments union and the International Monetary fund (qq.v.).

The disadvantage

of the gold standard to countries which wish from depression or inflation in the rest of

to isolate themselves

from the fact that the gold standard system does not permit exchange rate changes and is not compatible with substantial controls over international trade and payments. the world arises

The

third disadvantage of the international gold standard

— that

the process of adjustment back to payments equilibrium can be lengthy and painful has been demonstrated many times. The

—

working of the gold standard helps bring about some movement toward equilibrium but at the price of an increase in unemployment or a decline in the rate of economic expansion. Experience suggests that even if unemployment is heavy, wages and prices fall very slowly and the full adjustment is painful and prolonged. These disadvantages led to a revulsion against the gold standard in the 1930s when the world pattern of exchange rates was flexible. In turn, the disadvantages of this system became obvious, and the International Monetary fund system was established after World War II to combine the advantages of the gold standard and the flexible rate system. It provided that exchange rates should normally be pegged but that the peg could be moved if a country found itself in "fundamental" payments disequilibrium. The early postwar years saw extensive reliance on controls and currency inconvertibility. When this period ended in 1958 the international currency system had come to rely much less on exchange rate adjustment than was envisaged when the International Monetary fund was established, and the post- 1958 system has been a close approximation to a second restoration of the international gold standard. See Money; Currency; International Payments; see also references under "Gold Standard" in the Index volume. Bibliography. W. Adams Brown, Jr., The International Gold Standard Reinterpreted 1914-34 (1940); League of Nations, Inter-

—

national Currency Experience: Lessons of the Inter-War Period (1944) John Maynard (Lord) Kevnes, The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill (192S) R. G. Hawtrey, The Gold Standard in Theory and Practice (1948) R. Triffin, Gold and the Dollar Crisis: the Future (A. C. L. D.) of Convertibility (1960). ;

;

:

GOLDWATER, BARRY MORRIS

•

I

I

0909-

),

U.S.

Senator from Arizona and Republican presidential candidate in 1964, was bom in Phoenix, Ariz., on Jan. 1, 1909. He came of an old Arizona family, whose founder, Mike Goldwater, a Jewish merchant from Poland, had arrived in the state in 1862. Educated at Staunton Military Academy, in Virginia, he spent one year at the University of Arizona before beginning work at his family's

department store in 1929. During the 1930s Goldwater found time for much outdoor ac-

549

tivity, including flying;

he was also interested in Indian culture and topography of Arizona, subjects on which he published several books and a number of magazine articles. He served as a ferry pilot in the Air Transport Command during World War II, and became a lieutenant colonel. Retaining his military interests after the war, he rose gradually to the rank of major general in the Air Force Reserve and participated in the formation of the Arizona Air National Guard. President of Goldwater's, Inc., from 1937 to 1953, Goldwater did not take an active interest in politics until 1947. Two years later, he was elected to the Phoenix City Council. In 1952 he ran for the U.S. Senate against the incumbent. Sen. Ernest W. McFarland, Democratic majority leader of the Senate, and won by a narrow margin. Taking his seat in January 1953, Goldwater soon made it clear that he was a thoroughgoing conservative. He criticized many aspects of the Eisenhower administration's foreign and domestic policies. His particular fields of interest as a legislator were military affairs and labour relations. After the death of Sen. Robert A. Taft in July 1953, Republican conservatives in and out of Congress began to look to Senator Goldwater for leadership. Humorous, forceful in personality, and remarkably energetic, he worked hard for his party, and in 1958 was reelected to the Senate by a large majority again defeating McFarland, who was supported by the big labour unions. From 1954 to 1956, and from 1959 to 1962, Goldwater was chairman of the Republican senatorial campaign committee, a position that brought him to national attention. In 1960 Goldwater published a statement of his political philosophy in book form under the title The Conscience of a Conservative, which attracted a following among conser\-ative Democrats as well as Republicans. After the defeat of Richard M. Nixon in the presidential election of November 1960, many Republican leaders particularly county chairmen turned toward Goldwater as their best candidate for 1964. During the administration of Pres. John F. Kennedy, Goldwater strongly attacked the Democrats, criticizing their foreign policy as feeble and charging them with the aspiration to create a quasisocialist state. He opposed centralizing legislation, and upheld state and local powers. In 1962, he published Why Not Victory?, a book in which he developed his views on foreign policy. In January 1964 Goldwater formally announced that he w-as a candidate for the Republican nomination for president. Of the seven primaries in which Goldwater allowed his name to be entered, he won five— those of Indiana. Illinois, Nebraska, Texas, and California. His victor>' in the California primary on June 2 though by a margin of little more than K^ over Gov. Nelson Rockefeller virtually delivered to him the Republican nomination, and symbolized the defeat of the "liberal" or "moderate" Republican faction. On July 15. in San Francisco, the Republican convention nominated Goldwater on the first ballot. His running mate, the vice-presidential nominee, was Congressman William E.

and

in the history

—

—

—

—

New York State. As the Republican nominee, Goldwater fought a determined campaign against Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, under serious handicaps. "The prosperity of the nation worked in Johnson's favour, and many Republican businessmen endorsed the Democratic Even more of a handicap was the charge that Goldwater ticket. was "extreme," particularly in foreign policy, and might rashly carry the country into war. The Goldwater-Miller ticket was decisively defeated in the election on Nov. 3, carr>'ing only Arizona Miller of

(R- K.) deep south. Jewish folklore, an image endowed with life. In subthe Bible (i.e., Ps. cxxxix, 16) the word signifies an unformed golem. stance and hence an unmarried woman may be called a

and

five states of the

GOLEM,

in

Medieval legends applied it to wooden images given life by the stories, such as saints, and with the oppression of the Jews arose masters. Much that of Rabbi Low. of golems that protected their golem literature has been written, good examples being Henr>' in In the Pale (1897) Illiowizi's "The Baal Shem and His Golem" and Gastav Meyrink's Der Golem (1916; Eng. trans. 1928). GOLF, a game which originated in Scotland, is played by strikground into a ing a small ball with various clubs from a teeing

:

GOLF

550 series of holes

on a course.

fewest strokes

is

The game I.

II.

—

is

The player who

holes his ball in the

the winner.

discussed under the following main headings

History

Equipment and the Development of the Game The Feather-Ball Era The Gutta-Percha Era C. The Era of the Rubber Ball

A. B. III.

Outstanding Players

IV.

The Modern Game

and two Scots in kilts. It is generally con2. Early British Golfers' Associations. ceded that the Royal Blackheath Golf club of London is the oldest

—

existing golf club in the world, but its origin

game

is

as obscure as that

James I, whose reign began in 1603, played golf on Blackheath common, and a society of golfers was formed at Blackheath in 1608. A group of golfers was flourishing there in

of the

itself.

1766, for a silver club bears the inscription: "August 16, 1766, the Mr. Henry Foote to the Honourable Company of Goffers at

A. Playing the Course B. Clubs C. The Grip D. Types of Shots E. Rules of Golf F. Rules of Amateur Status V. Glossary I.

painting "Frost Scene" by A. van de Velde, dated 1668, portrays four "golfers" in competition, two Dutchmen in knickerbockers

gift of

Blackheath."

The Royal Burgess Golfing Society

of Edinburgh

claims to have been founded in 1735. The Company of Gentlemen Golfers, now the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, was formed in 1 744 by a group that played over the five holes of the Leith links.

HISTORY

cil

The

of the city of

lord provost, the magistrates

Edinburgh presented

to the

and the coun-

company a silver The club subse-

While golf as the game is known today originated in Scotland, the place and time are obscure. However, it was so popular in the 15th century that the 14th parliament of King James II of Scotland decreed in 1457 that "fute-ball and golfe be utterly

club that was first played for in April 1745. quently transferred its activities to Musselburgh and finally to Muirfield, with which links it has been associated in modern times. The earliest known rules are the 13 recorded in the first minute

cryed downe, and not to be used" because they interfered with the practice of archery, an essential element in the defense of the This legislation provided the first written reference to realm. the playing of golf. That the game was well established is further

book of the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The first signer was John Rattray, who was captain in 1744, 1745 and The code, therefore, cannot be more recent than 1751 and 1 75 1. more likely was entered in the minute book when the competition for the silver club was instituted, in 1745. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club. The Society of St. Andrews, now the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, Scotland, was formed on May 14, 1754, by a group of 22 golfers who played there. The rules which the society adopted were almost identical An allusion to with the Edinburgh Gentlemen Golfers' rules. scholars' holes and soldiers' lines not constituting hazards indicates that the rules were copied from the Gentlemen Golfers' code when the St. Andrews golfers were playing at Leith, since there were both scholars' holes and soldiers' lines at Leith but no soldiers' lines at St. Andrews. These two clubs played major roles in the development of the game in Scotland. Eventually the Royal and Ancient Golf club (R.A.G.C.) became, by common consent, the oracle on rules. In 1919 it accepted the management of the British open and amateur championships. The R.A.G.C. thus became the governing body for men's golf in the British Isles and throughout most of the commonwealth. The Musselburgh Golf club offered a prize for a women's competition, Dec. 14, 1810, and a Ladies Golf club was formed at St. Andrews in 1872. The Ladies Golf union, which governs women's golf, was organized in 1893.

supported by the fact that two subsequent Scottish parliaments found it necessary to issue similar decrees in 1471 and 1491 in efforts to suppress the game, and it appears that none of the three was effective. The invention of gunpowder near the end of the 15th century may have contributed to ending the proscription

—

lessening the importance of archery. At any rate, James IV (1473-15 13), whose third parliament had passed the last of the three decrees, developed into an avid golfer. James V of Scotland (1512-42) played golf at East Lothian. His daughter Mary, queen of Scots (1542-87), played golf at St. Andrews and her son James VI of Scotland, later James I of England (1566-1625), played at Blackheath common, London. The earliest rounds of golf, however, apparently had been played on linksland on the east-

by

em

coast of Scotland.

—

Precursors of Golf and Related Games. The family tree may go back to the Roman empire. The Romans played a game in the fields called paganica (from paganus, "countryman") in which a club and a ball stuffed with feathers were used. The Roman legions, as they advanced over Europe and into Britain, may have carried paganica with them. If so, that would account for the development of similar games in several European countries: cambuca (cambrel or cammock) in England, jeu de mail in 1.

of golf

France, het kolven in the Netherlands. All of these involved striking a ball across the countryside with a stick. Cambuca (a name also given to the club used in the game) was played in the 13th and 14th centuries and was described in a record of 1363, printed in

Thomas Rymer's Foedera,

game of a crooked which a small wooden ball is propelled forward." Coincidentally, cambuca was forbidden in 1363 in an order to the sheriffs of England, in order that man "shall in his sports use bows and arrows, pellets and bolts." Het kolven, played in the Netherlands, provided some of the important terminology of the game (see Glossary, below) and some interesting references in art. The word golf stems from the Dutch kolj, which in turn is related to the German Kolbe and the Danish holbe, meaning "club." The mound on which the Dutchman placed his ball was a tuitje, pronounced "toytee." The hole to which he directed his ball was a put. If anything was in his way, he said, stuit mij, pronounced "stytmy" ("it stops me"). There is, too, an old Dutch proverb: "You must play the ball as it lies." The earliest reference to het kolven is in an illuminated Book of Hours, done by Simon Bennink with the assistance of pupils in his studio at Bruges between 1500 and 1520, and now in the British museum. A miniature depicts three players on a green with a hole, each player with a club and bail and one of them attempting to hole out. From the same period, a sketch by David Vinck-Boons and other evidence reflects a similar game played on ice. The Dutch as "the

stick or curved club or playing mallet with

'

—

j

,

;

—

3. United States. Golf or something akin to it may have been played in the new world in the 17th and i8th centuries. The record of a court in Ft. Orange (now Albany, N.Y.) reveals that the sheriff there filed a complaint against three men who had been playing het kolve?i on the ice on a Sunday in 1657. The magistrates of Ft. Orange on Dec. 10, 1659, issued an ordinance to "forbid all persons to play 'het kolven' in the streets." While these documents are sometimes cited as evidence of the earliest playing of golf in the United States, the game does not seem to have been There seems the linksland pastime handed down by the Scots. little doubt, however, that the following advertisement, which appeared in James Rivington's Gazette in New York on April 21, 1779, referred to golf: "To the Golf Players: The season for this pleasant and healthy exercise now advancing, gentlemen may be furnished with excellent clubs and the veritable Caledonian balls by enquiring at the Printer's." However, there is no record of golf in New York during the subsequent century. The next evidence appears in the Carolinas. The South Carolina and Georgia

Almanac of 1793 published, under

the heading "Societies EstabCharleston," the following item: '"Golf club formed President. Edward Penman Vice President. 1786. Dr. Purcell James Gardiner Treasurer and Secretary." The Charleston City Gazette and Daily Advertiser of Sept. 18, 1788, reported: "There lished in

—

—

—

and genteel amusement, the kolf baan. Any person wishing to treat for the same at private sale will please apply to Mr. David Denoon in Charleston, or to the subscriber on the spot." Later notices dated 1791 and 1794 reis

lately erected that pleasing

|

I

1

'

i

1

|

—

GOLF ferred to the South Carolina Golf club, which celebrated an anniversary with a dinner on Harleston's green in the latter year.

551

announcement of the anniversary of the Savannah Golf club, and one Miss Eliza Johnston was invited to a "Golf Club ball" in Savannah on New Year's Eve, 181 1, according to an invitation in the possession of

amateur, women's open, amateur public links, junior amateur, girls' junior and senior amateur) co-operates in sponsoring four international amateur team matches (Walker cup, Curtis cup, Americas cup and Eisenhower cup) finances turf-grass research and provides a turf-grass advisory service; maintains a golf museum and library in Golf house, its New York headquarters; and,

the Johnston family.

in general, acts as a national authority.

Although these fragments constitute the earliest clear evidence of golf clubs in the United States, the clubs appear to have been

is

The Georgia Gazette of

Sept. 22, 1796, carried an

primarily social organizations that did not survive the War of 181 2. The first permanent golf club in the western hemisphere was the Royal Montreal Golf club, established in 1873. In subsequent years golf was played experimentally at many places in the United States without taking permanent root until, in 1885, it was played The Foxburg Golf club has provided strong in Foxburg, Pa. support for the claim that it was organized in 1887, is the oldest

United States with a permanent existence and has the oldest U.S. golf course. The course and club came into existence through the interest and generosity of Joseph Mickle golf club in the

Fox of Philadelphia, a summer resident of Foxburg who is believed to have been introduced to golf and to have acquired his first left-handed clubs and gutty balls while in Scotland in 1884. The next oldest course, after Foxburg, may be that of the Middlesborough (Ky.) Golf club which apparently was founded in 1889 by English immigrants. The course is still in existence, but there is a question as to whether play has been continuous on it. The next oldest club, after Foxburg, almost surely is the St. Andrew's Golf club of Yonkers, N.Y., named after the famous Scottish club and organized by John Reid and four friends on Nov. 14, 1888. This club played an outstanding role in channeling the main stream of golf in the United States. The story of its founding

;

;

The second

caddies in obtaining a college education.

Another prominent organization is the Professional Golfers AsAmerica (P.G.A.), organized by professional golfers at the instigation of R. Wanamaker in 1916 to promote interest in the game, elevate the standards of professional golf and advance the welfare of its members. This association has a membership of

sociation of

nearly

In addition to its P.G.A. 3,000 professional golfers. championship, it shares in the conduct of an international professional match for the Ryder cup and co-sponsors a series of tournaments for professionals in a circuit that circles the United States throughout the year.

—

4. 20th Century. The most significant growth in golf in the 20th century occurred in senior organizations after 1905, when Horace L. Hotchkiss arranged the first seniors' tournament, for players 55 and older, at the Apawamis club. Rye, N.Y. Hotchkiss,

who was more than 60

success the 300

mark and

Robert Lockhart, a Scot living in New York, shipped home some golf clubs and balls while on one of his annual trips to Scotland. On his return he tried them out on the banks of the Hudson river where 72nd street ends and later used them to introduce the game to his friends John Reid and John B. Upham in a pasture across from Reid's home in Yonkers on Feb. 22, 1888. Following the blizzard of March 1888 the men convened again, with other potential converts, in another pasture at the corner of Broadway and Shonnard avenue, Yonkers, laid out a course and played through the summer, and organized as a club in the fall. The club moved several times but has been permanently established at Hastingson-Hudson, N.Y., since 1897. The United States Golf Association. One of St. Andrew's many notable contributions to the welfare of the game was its leadership In in organizing the United States Golf association (U.S.G.A.). 1894, after having completed its links in Y'onkers, the club planned a tournament for the amateur championship of the United States, on Oct. 11-12-13, and invitations were sent to the various golf clubs throughout the country. The tournament was to be played according to the rules of the R.A.G.C. and the prizes were diamond and gold, silver and bronze medals. At the same time the Newport (R.I.) Golf club decided to hold a championship in September, the prize to be a silver cup. As a result there were two U.S. championships in 1894. H. 0. Tallmadge, secretary of the St. Andrew's

ized

formation of a national association to establish uniform rules and conduct tournaments; he was assisted by Laurence Curtis of the Country club of Brookline, Mass. On Dec. 22, 1894, the Amateur Golf Association of the United States was formed by representatives of five of the leading golf clubs of the country. The name was soon changed to the American Golf association and finally to the United States Golf association. The five founding clubs were the St. Andrew's Golf club, the Newport Golf club, the Shinnecock Hills Golf club, Southampton, N.Y., The Country club, Brookline, and the Chicago Golf club. The U.S.G.A., which grew to include more than 2,300 clubs and courses, prois a voluntary association of golf clubs whose purpose is to mote and conserve the best interests and true spirit of the game as embodied in its traditions. To this end it adopts, enforces and interprets rules of amateur status and rules of the game; conducts eight national championships (open, amateur, women's

The tournament was such a number of contestants had passed

that within ten years the in order.

club, suggested the

at the time, attempted to prove that golf

was not a young man's game.

bears similarities to the story of Foxburg's less-celebrated origin.

—

oldest national organization in the United States

Western Golf association. Founded in 1899 as a sectional organization to embrace the territory west of Buffalo, N.Y., it developed as a national authority on caddies and caddie welfare and sponsors the Evans Scholars foundation to assist deserving the

had become apparent that a senior organization was The United States Seniors' Golf association was organit

7, in New York, with a membership of 400, months increased to 500 and subsequently to 900. The idea spread rapidly. While the United States seniors' tournament is the leading event of its kind, many other membership and invitation events of the same type developed to meet the demand the American Seniors' Golf association, the Western Seniors' Golf association, the North and South senior tournament and others. There are at least 46 senior golfing organizations in the United

on Jan. which within

17, 191

six

States alone. Members of the United States Senior Women's Golf association play annually. In 1918 the governor general of Canada presented a trophy to be played for annually by the United States Seniors' Golf association and the newly formed Canadian Seniors'

Golf association.

Another match was

initiated with the Senior

Golfers' society of Great Britain. After World War II an international team championship in Deauville, France, attracted teams from the United States, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and Switzerland. In addition, the United States sent senior teams on tours of Sweden and Kenya. Golf has achieved some popularity in at least 30 countries especially in the

commonwealth

countries and in Europe and North

and South America— which participate in the annual international Canada cup tournament of two-man teams of professional golfers. The first Canada cup, held in 1953, was won by the Argentina team of Tony Cerda and Roberto de Vincenzo. The World's Amateur Golf council was organized by officials of tournament, the U.S.G.A. and the R.A.G.C. in 1958, and its first The St. Andrews. for the Eisenhower cup, was held that year at Bachli and Australian team (Bruce Devlin, Robert Stevens, Doug team Peter Toogood) won the I8-hole play-off from the U.S. Hyndman (Charlie Coe, Billy Joe Patton, Frank Taylor and Bill was organized by the III). The biennial Americas cup tournament Asociacion U.S.G.A., the Royal Canadian Golf association and the Mexicana de Golf in 1952; the first tournament was won by the Harvie Ward, Ken U.S. team (Charlie Coe, Frank Stranahan, Campbell). •Venturi, Sam Urzetta, Joe Galiardi and WiUiam in the United States, popularity greatest its achieved Golf has children played at where more than 3,800,000 men, women and golf courses in the second than more 5,000 on year a times ten least the 20th century, according to a survey conducted by half of the

National Golf foundation.

The same source estimated

that over

GOLF

552

were devoted to golf and the value of the land, buildings and equipment was in excess of $1,300,000,000. Golf equipment represented about 38% of the total of athletic goods and sporting goods sold in the United Sutes, exclusive of hunting and fishing equipment, in the mid-igsos. 500,000

ac.

credited with giving Robertson and "Young Tom" Morris such refined irons that they were able to introduce a wide range of new Douglas McEwan made his club heads strokes into the game.

centuries, until about 1848.

from small cuts of hedge thorn that had been planted horizontally on sloping banks so that the stems grew at an angle at the root and The shafts, spliced onto created a natural bend for the neck. the heads, were made of split ash. By the first half of the 19th century, clubs had come to be divided Drivers into four classes: drivers, spoons, irons and putters. were distinguished by their long, tapering, flexible shafts and their small raking heads. They comprised "play clubs," which had little loft and were designed for use over a safe ground only, and "grassed drivers," which had more loft and were designed to lift Spoons a ball from a heavy or downhill lie or over a hazard. were of four types: long spoons, middle spoons, sjiort spoons and

tedious task, and most ball

bafiing or baffy spoons, the distinction being in the degree of loft.

than £1 for a dozen. In the making, the leather was softened with alum and water and cut into four, three or two pieces. These were stitched together

For a time there was also a fifth spoon, variously known as a cleek and a niblick, a well-lofted club with a small head designed to drive a ball out of a rut. There were three irons: driving irons, irons known as cleeks and having narrow lofted faces and long shafts, and bunker irons. Driving putters were used for approach work over unencumbered terrain and green putters, on putting

U.

EQUIPMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GAME A.

The Feather

The Feather-Ball Era

—

Golf, like paganica, was originally played with a leather-covered ball stuffed with feathers, and the The principles of the modern rules were developed in this era. feather ball or feathery remained the standard for at least four 1.

Ball.

The making of feather balls was a makers could produce only about four The best balls sold for up "specials" (top-grade balls) a day. to five shillings apiece;

in bulk, rarely less

with waxed thread outside in and reversed when the stitching was nearly completed. A small hole was left for the insertion of boiled goose feathers. The ball maker held the leather cover in his hand, in a recessed ball holder, and pushed the first feathers through the hole with a stuSing rod, a tapering piece of wrought iron 16 to 20 in. long and fitted with a wooden crosspiece to be braced against the ball maker's chest. When the stuffing iron failed, an awl was

brought into play, and a volume of feathers which would fill the crown of a beaver hat eventually was inserted into the leather cover. The hole was then stitched up and the ball hammered hard and round and given three coats of paint. Feather balls were seldom exactly round. In wet weather they tended to become sodden and fly apart. They were easily cut on the seams and a player was fortunate if his ball endured through two rounds. Originally, there appear to have been ball makers in each golfing community, but in the middle of the i8th century the Gourlay family, of Leith and Musselburgh, became pre-eminent and a "Gourlay" was accepted as the best feather ball on the market. The patriarch of the family was Douglas Gourlay, at Leith, but it was his son, at Musselburgh, who brought the family name its greatest renown. Their principal competitor was Allan Robertson of St. Andrews, son of the noted player Davie Robertson. He turned out 2,456 feather balls in 1844 and was unalterably opposed to the introduction, shortly thereafter, of the gutta-percha ball When he caught "Old Tom" Morris playing a gutta ball in 1852 they had words, and Morris left St. Andrews, not to return until after Robertson's death in 1858. 2. Early Clubs. The full, free style known as the St. Andrews swing developed out of the feather-ball period. The clubs, at first rudimentary, tended toward the end of the period to be long, thin and graceful, and the feathery was swept from the ground with a full swing that also tended to be long and graceful. The shafts were whippy and the grips thick. There was a considerable

—

elegance to these clubb. The eariiest known club maker was William Mayne of Edinburgh, who received a royal warrant as club maker and spear maker from James VI in 1603. A notebook of that period indicates the nomenclature of clubs Mayne must have made by noting payments for the repair of "play clubis," "bonker dubis" and an "irone club." While there are no known examples of these clubs, their rudimentary nature is known from the art of the times.

Among

the oldest known clubs is a set of six woods and Troon Golf club, Scotland; these were found in Hull, Eng., with a copy of a Yorkshire paper dated 1741. All six are shafted with ash. Only one wood and one iron have grips. The woods are weighted with lead and faced with bone, the lead extending from near the toe two-thirds of the way to the heel. Club making reached its zenith in the last century of the feather-

two irons

at

with the advent of the real artists— Simon Cossar of Leith; the successive generations of McEwans of Leith and Musselburgh; Hugh Philp and James Wilson of St. Andrews; White of ball era,

St.

Andrews.

Cossar, Philp, Wilson and the

for their woods; Cossar, Wilson

and White

McEwans were noted for irons.

White

is

With these sets, players negotiated their feather balls over holes measuring 80 to 400 yd. In the era of the feather ball there were no championships, but four of the great players of the period returned the following card in a feather-ball match at St.

greens.

Andrews

in 1849:

Out and Jamie Dunn Allan Robertson and Tom Morris, Sr

6 5 4 6 6 6 4 4 J 4

Willie

—46

65655554 —45

In

and Jamie Dunn Allan Robertson and Tom Morris, Sr Willie

B.

The Gutta

s

3

s

6 5

5

5

6 6

64565556

—46 —92 —93

6^48

The Gutta-percha Era

—

Ball. Gutta-percha is the evaporated milky produced by various trees. It is hard and nonbrittle, becomes soft and impressible at the temperature of boiling water and retains its shape when cooled. It is not affected by water except at boiling temperature. The first gutta-percha ball is believed to have been made in 1845 by the Rev. Robert A. Paterson from gutta-percha packing which had been used around a statue of Vishnu sent from India. The earliest such balls, produced under the name "Paterson's patent," were brown in colour and were handmade by rolling the guttapercha on a flat board. They had smooth surfaces lined to simulate the seaming of a feather ball, and ducked quickly in flight until they had been marked and cut in play. They were not introduced into the game generally until 1848, when the makers had learned to appty effective permanent markings or indentations to the surface so that the balls would fly properly. Gutta balls were far easier to make than featheries, since they 1.

juice or latex

consisted solely of the single

lump

of

molded gutta-percha.

The

best-known balls were the hand-marked private brands of the club makers, such as the Auchterlonies, Old Tom Morris and Robert Forgan, and the bramble-marked and patent brands such as the Eureka, Melfort, White Melfort (of white gutta-percha). White Brand, Henley, O.K., Ocobo, Silvertown No. 4, A.i, Clan, Thornton, Park's Special and Agrippa. The Agrippa, with bramble marking, became a great favourite. The A.i floated, but most guttas did not. The gutta remained the standard ball until 1901-02, when the rubber ball replaced it. The introduction of the gutta ball occasioned one of the great rejuvenations in the history of the game. Its lower cost, longer life, improved flight, truer run on the greens and the fact that it did not fall apart in the rain attracted an enormous number of new players, and the feathery was quickly replaced. The influx of

new

players, in turn, forced the conversion of the old course

Andrews

to a full 18 holes. Until the gutta ball was developed, golfers played out along what later became known as the left-hand course, until they reached the end hole. There they turned around and played in to the same holes. If two groups

at St.

GOLF

A

quick glance counter-clockwise from

Plate

fig.

1

1 to 9 will show the smooth flow

of a well-executed tee-shot

1.

The shoulders, arms, hands and initiate the backswing the left hip is turned to the right. club follow in one co-ordinated movement, with the club shaft kept in line with a straight (but not tense) left arm. The club head starts low and follows the body turn The wrists are fully cocked at the top of the swing and remain so until just before the ball is hit. Most of the player's weight has shifted onto his braced right leg, the left side is relaxed and the left heel has lifted slightly At the top of the swing, there is a full body turn, essential for power. The club shaft Is A full grip is maintained with the left horizontal, with both hands well under the shaft.

To

hand.

The

left arm is straight without tenseness As the body uncoils, it pulls the straight left arm down, hip starts the downswing. Observe how the player's weight gradually shifts off the right still cocked.

The

left

and the wrists are foot

Wrists are uncocking to bring left hip has turned well out of the way of the left arm. the club again into alignment with the left arm for a powerful blow The right hand hits 6. As the club approaches impact, the wrists and legs have straightened. hard and the left hand grip must support it 7. The club head follows the line of flight until the wrists naturally begin to turn elbow 8. Note that, until now, the head has been held steady to preserve balance, and the right has been kept comfortably close to the right hip 5.

The

to give the swing compactness 9. At the finish, the body has turned to face the The head still is lowered, waitline of flight. ing to be pushed up by the right shoulder. The player balances on his left heel

WELL-EXECUTED TEE-SHOT

p„o,osr.p«s

f».k.

•

scMt.sCHtL

Plate

GOLF

II

• "tr lining up a putt dunrg fe 1960 British open l* a-.p:^:., .p. In the centre background may be seen the clubhouse of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, Scotland, founded in 1754 I

Amateurs York City

puit,;

GOLF approached a green simultaneously, preference was given to those playing out. However, as golfers multiplied with the advent of the gutta ball, the hnks proved to narrow to accommodate them, and about 1857 they were widened sufficiently to turn the greens into double ones so that two holes could be cut in each' one. Calibre of play improved greatly with the advent of the gutta Robertson, when finally won over to it, shattered all ball. precedent by scoring a 79 at St. Andrews in 1858, and this record stood until Young Tom Morris made a 77 in 1869. 2. Clubs. The gutta-percha ball was harder than the feather ball and put considerable strain on the slender clubs with which feather balls had been stroked. Thus wooden heads gradually became shorter and squatter in shape. Hard thorn was discarded for the softer apple, pear and beech in the heads, and leather insets appeared in the faces. Hickory, originally from Russia and later from Tennessee, replaced ash in the making of shafts. Iron clubs

—

number and variety and became vastly more refined. The superlative play of Young Tom Morris at St. Andrews (see increased in

Outstanding Players, below) is credited with popularizing the iron clubs he used so deftly. A full range of clubs at the zenith of the gutta-ball period consisted of seven woods driver, bulger driver (a wood with a convex face), long spoon, brassie, middle spoon, short spoon and putter and six irons cleek, midiron, lofting iron,

—

—

mashie, niblick and cleek putter. selected about eight.

The range

—

From

these the golfer usually

of clubs that Willie Park,

Jr.,

had in winning the British open championships of 1887 and 1889 was bulger driver, straight-faced driver, spoon, brassie niblick, wooden putter, cleek, iron, mashie, iron niblick and Park's patent putter.

The increase in the number of clubs brought about another innovation in the early 1890s, the introduction of a simple sailcloth bag in which to carry them. Previously, the few clubs a player might need had been carried loose under the arm. The introduction of the gutta ball did not change the identity of the club makers,

new designs and materials. Douglas and bridged the periods of the feathery was followed by his son Peter and by his four

but required them to develop

McEwan

lived until 1896

and the gutta.

He

who

constituted the fifth generation of club-making for the feather ball in 1852, and Philp Forgan and his son then took in his nephew, Robert Forgan. Thomas continued the business under their own name after Philp's death. R. Forgan was the first to appreciate the merit of hickory

grandsons,

McEwans. James Wilson, who had made clubs under Hugh Philp, set up shop at St. Andrews

and T. Forgan produced the bulger driver and the ebony Old Tom Morris, the Andersons and the Auchterlonies were other noted club makers of St. Andrews, and there were Ben Sayers at North Berwick, Willie Park, Sr., at Musselburgh, the Simpsons at Carnoustie and many more. In 1891 Willie Dunn, son of Willie of the famed Dunn twins of shafts

putter.

Scotland, arrived in the United States to lay out the course at Southampton, N.Y., for the Shinnecock Hills Golf club and remained to make clubs. Other Scottish professionals crossed the

1890s and contributed to the establishment of The trade itself was little changed. Wooden heads were cut out of a block, filed, spoke shaved, chiseled, gouged, leaded, boned, smoothed with glass paper, sometimes stained and treated with a hare's-foot dipped in a mixture of oil and varnish. Whereas the club heads used by Robertson were only j% Atlantic in the

U.S. club making.

deep, the depth gradually increased to i in. and, for a time, Iron heads were hand forged from a bar of mild iron, heated, hammered, tempered, emery wheeled and polished, and the socket in.

2 in.

,

;

i

I

I

was pierced for the rivet and nicked. Hickory shafts were seasoned, then cut, filed, planed, scraped and glass-papered down to the required length, shape and degree of whippiness, which was the real art. Shafts for wooden heads were finished in a splice, glued onto the heads and whipped with tarred or waxed twine. Shafts for irons were finished with a prong to fit into the socket and holed for the iron cross rivet. Strips of untanned leather, shaped with a chisel, were nailed to the top of the shafts, wound on over a cloth foundation, rolled tight between two poHshed boards and nailed at the bottom. Both ends of the grip were bound with twine and the whole grip was then varnished.

spirally

553 C.

1.

The Era

Development

of

the Rubber Ball The rubber ball was

of the Ball

—

the inven-

Coburn Haskell, a golfer of Cleveland, O., in association with Bertram G. Work of the B. F. Goodrich company. In 1898 Haskell adapted the art of winding rubber thread produced by tion of

Goodrich under tension on a

solid

far livelier than the gutta.

The

rubber core to produce a ball covers were of black gutta-percha, lightly lined by hand. Paint tended to fill the indentations, causing the ball to duck in flight just as the first, smooth earliest

Dave Foulis, a Chicago professional, put a rubber an Agrippa mold and produced the bramble marking that was common to both the late gutta and eariy rubber balls. Haskell balls, placed on the market in 1899, became known as "bounding billies." It is estimated that they could be hit about 25 yd. farther than the gutta, just as the gutta was about 25 yd. longer than the feathery. The consensus at first, however, was that the distance gained did not offset the difficulty of controlling the lively ball on the green. Walter J. Travis of New York, considered the best putter of his day, resolved this debate by using a Haskell ball from an Agrippa mold in winning the U.S. amateur championship in Sept. 1901. Thereafter, the gutta became a relic of the past, and the game was again revolutionized and popularized as it had been with the advent of the gutta. The day of the ball made by hand in the professional's shop was ending. A. G. Spalding & Bros., at Chicopee, Mass., a manufacturer of sporting goods, had undertaken production of gutta balls in 1898 and obtained a licence to produce its first rubber ball, Soon thereafter the balata cover the Spalding Wizard, in 1903. was developed for Spalding, and its improved adhering qualities made it an important innovation. Earliest experiments with the It was determined that, for rubber ball concerned the core. resilience, mobile cores were best, offering the least resistance to the distortion to the ball caused by club-head impact. Operating on this theory, the Kempshall Golf Ball company produced the Kempshall water core, in which a small sac of water was substituted for solid rubber. The competition to produce a ball that could be Manufacturers tried driven longer distances was under way. lead in solution in an effort to combine weight with a mobile core, but this proved potentially injurious to curious children and aniZinc oxide was substituted, but the pigment tended to mals.

gutta balls had. ball in

and unbalance the ball. In the 1920s true solutions involving and water were developed for the first-line balls. More telling improvements were made in winding, the critical Machines replaced men and were factor in the modern ball. The object of the winding process is to constantly improved. obtain the greatest tension and closest possible approach to the breaking point of the rubber thread. The earliest thread was of wild rubber from the Amazon basin; development of plantation rubber led to greatly improved quality. Eariy rubber balls were made with the bramble and reversemesh markings of the gutta ball, but experiments led to improvements as they revealed the best relationship of both depth and area of indentation to the ball's total surface. William Taylor, in England, reversed the markings on his molds to produce the dimple, The mesh, in contrast to in contrast to the bramble, in 1908. Haskell the original reverse mesh, was a natural aftermath. and balls at first were light and large, about 1.55 oz. in weight In the absence of regulafloated. 1. 7 1 in. in diameter, and they another's tions governing size or weight, manufacturers pursued one settle

glue, glycerin

Hea\j leads in the quest for the most efficient combination. in solutions in the core increased the weight to about 1.72 oz. gradual the first decade. Then both size and weight underwent a patent reduction to 1.62 oz. and 1.63 in. about the time the Haskell competithe incrca.sed patent this of Expiration expired in 1915. Therefore, in obsolete. tion, which had tended to make courses after May i. 1921, that agreed R.A.G.C. the and U.S.G.A. the 1920 more than 1.62 oz. balls used in their championships must weigh not would and measure not less than 1.62 in. and the two organizations power of the limit to necessary deemed were as steps take such the ball.

The

ball actually

was unchanged by

this regulation;

continued to measure 1.63 in., .01 in. above the minimum. be reduced. the U.S.G.A. decided that the power should

it

In 1923

A

series

GOLF

554

of experiments under William C. Fownes, Jr., of Pittsburgh and Herbert Jaques, Jr., of Boston led to the introduction in the United States in 1930 of the so-called "balloon ball," weighing not more

shaft of high-carbon steel which could be heat-treated and tempered. This came into the game in the late 1920s, was approved by the R.A.G.C. in 1929 and substantially replaced hickory in the

than 1.55 oz. and measuring not less than 1.68 in, in diameter. This ball, with no regulation of its velocity, became standard in the United States on Jan. i, 1931, and was the first deviation from flight in a the British ball. It proved too light to hold on line in wind or on a green as it lost momentum, and it survived only one

early 1930s.

more than 1.62 oz. and measuring not less than 1.68 in., became standard in the U.S. on Jan. i, 1932. The velocity of this ball was not regulated, howyear.

slightly heavier ball, weighing not

The

in ever, until the U.S.G.A. completed a satisfactory testing machine velocity 1941. After Jan. i, 1942, the U.S.G.A. required that the on of the ball be not greater than 250 ft. per second as measured

the association's machine under specified conditions. 2. Modern Clubs.— Golf was being overtaken by the industrial revolution when the rubber ball came into the game at the be-

Improvement of the steel shaft was accompanied by the general introduction of numbered rather than named clubs, and by the merchandising of matched sets rather than individual clubs clubs had become more numerous and more finely graduated than the ;

names which had been applied

to

them and shafts could be manu-

factured to specifications for flexibility and point of flex. Whereas formerly a golfer seeking new clubs went through a rack of mashies until he found one that "felt right" and then tried to find other clubs of similar feel, he later bought a whole set manufactured to impart the same feel. The merchandising aspect of this development was, perhaps, something more than a happy coincidence for the manufacturers. In any case, the merchandising opportunities inherent in the numbered and matched sets were carried to an

ginning of the 20th century. These two factors wrought major changes in the clubs and the methods by which they were produced as craftsmanship moved out of the individual professional's shop and into the factory. The harder rubber ball brought about the use of persimmon and, later, laminated club heads. Hard insets appeared in the faces. Increased demand led to the adaptation

extreme, and in 1938 the U.S,G,A, limited the number of clubs a player might use in a round to 14, The R,A.G,C. concurred in a similar edict the next year.

fashioning of wooden club heads. Sockets were bored in the club heads, and shafts were inDrop forging completely replaced serted rather than spliced. hand forging in the fashioning of iron clubs, and faces were deep-

there arose a group of professionals

of shoe-last machine

tools

for

the

ened to accommodate the livelier ball and were machine lined to Stainless steel replaced increase the spin on the ball in flight. carbon steels. Seamless steel shafts took the place of hickory. Composition materials were developed as an alternative to leather in grips, and the grip foundations were molded in so many ways that they were regulated in 1947. Inventive minds created novel clubs, not only centre-shafted and aluminum putters and the sand wedge but also types that were such radical departures from the traditional form and make that they could not be approved by the U.S.G.A. or the R.A.G.C. Modern club making in the United States began when Julian W. Curtiss of A. G, Spalding & Bros, purchased some clubs in London in 1892 for resale in his company's Two years later, Spalding employed some Scottish retail stores. club makers and began producing its own clubs. Hand modeling of woods and hand forging of irons did not long survive the demands of factory production. Within the first decade the Crawford, McGregor & Canby company in Dayton, 0., a maker of shoe lasts, was turning out wooden heads; foundries were converting drop-forging processes to iron heads; and Allan Lard in Chicopee was experimenting with perforated steel rods for shafts. A. W. Knight of the General Electric company joined this inventive movement and produced an aluminum-headed putter with the shaft attached near the centre rather than at the heel, Travis used this "Schenectady" putter in winning the British amateur championship

in

1904,

The importance mulgating

appended

of these developments was such that, in prorevised code of rules in Sept, 1908, the R.A.G.C. the notation that it would not sanction any substantial its

departure from the traditional and accepted form and make of golf clubs. This principle has been invoked many times in an effort to preserve the original form of the game. When Jock

Hutchison won the British open in 1921 with deeply slotted faces on his pitching clubs, the R.A.G.C. immediately banned such faces and the U.S.G.A. concurred with a regulation governing markings which became effective in 1924. After Horton Smith had so effectively used a sand wedge with a concave face designed by E. M. MacClain of Houston, Tex., the principle of concavity was banned in 1931. However, Gene Sarazen developed a straightfaced sand wedge and used it so well in winning the British and U.S.G.A. opens in 1932 that he completed the revolution of bunker play. Experiments with steel shaft.s went through several phases. Lard's perforated steel rod was no substitute for hickory, and the locked-seam shaft proved not to be the answer either, although the U.S.G.A. approved such shafts in 1924. However, in 1924 the Union Hardware company of Torrington, Conn., drew a searhless

III. 1.

OUTSTANDING PLAYERS

Great Britain.

—As

golfing associations, or clubs, developed,

who made

golf balls, fashioned

Many

of them were great The first of these was Allan Robertson (1815-58) of St. Andrews who, legend states, was never beaten in a stake (money) match played on even terms (that is, not givirtg his op-

and repaired clubs and gave

lessons.

players.

His apprentice was the man eventually ponent a handicap). known as Old Tom Morris (1821-1908), professional, greenkeeper and patriarch of St. Andrews. When Old Tom was 30, he moved to the Prestwick Golf club which offered a belt as a challenge trophy for an open championship in i860. Willie Park, Sr. (1864-1925), one of the famous golfing brothers from Musselburgh, won it with a 36-hole score of 174; but Old Tom won in 1861, 1862, 1864 and 1867. His son. Young Tom Morris (185075), succeeded him and won for three successive years, retiring the prize belt. Young Tom won his first professional tournament at the age of 16. He was 18, ig and 20 when he won his three successive open championships. In the absence of a prize, there was no championship in 1871, but a cup which has been in competition ever since was put up in 1872 by the Prestwick Golf club, the R.A.G.C. and the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers and

Young Tom won

it

to score a fourth successive victory.

Shortly

thereafter he died, at the age of 25. The British amateur championship

was not started until 1885 Royal Liverpool Golf club at Hoylake, Eng., had proposed a tournament "open to all amateur golfers." The tournament attracted nearly all the best amateurs of the time and the winner was Allan F. MacFie, but it was not immediately recognized The following year, the Royal Liverpool as the championship. suggested to the R.A.G.C. that the tournament be established as the amateur championship, and 24 clubs joined together to purchase a trophy and manage the event. Among British players who won the amateur championship at least two times after 1900 were John Ball (1907, 1910 and 1912), H. H. Hilton (1911 aud 1913), E. Holderness (1922 and 1924), C. Tolley (1920 and 1929) and J. Carr of Ireland (1953, 1958 and 1960). The Ladies Golf union was formed rather late, in 1893, and the first British women's championship was held that year, at St. Anne's, Eng., and won by Lady Margaret Scott, as were the next two championships. One of the first outstanding woman golfers was Dorothy Campbell, who won the British women's championship in 1909 and 1911, was runner-up in 1908 and semifinalist in 1904, 1905 and 1906. She won the U.S. championship in 1909, 1910 and 1924 and the Canadian championship in 1910, 1911 and 1912. Twice married, she was Mrs. John V. Hurd, then Mrs. Edward Howe. She became She won more than a resident of the U.S. early in the century. after the

750 prizes

in golf.

Another British woman, Joyce Wethered, won the women's open championship in 1922, 1924, 1925 and 1929, the English women s

GOLF years in a row, 1920-24, and represented Britain in numerous international matches. In 1935 she toured the United States as a professional representing a London store, and competed most creditably against the best men and women golfers. title five

She became Lady Heathcoat-Amory. Other British women's championship winners of note have included Enid Wilson, who won in 1931, 1932 and 1933; Mrs. Andrew Holm, in 1934 and 1938; Pamela Barton, in 1936, in which year she also won the U.S. championship, and 1939; Miss F. Stephens (Mrs. Roy Smith), in 1949 and 1954; and Mrs. G. Valentine, in 1955 and 1958. At the end of the 19th century golf had taken hold in the United States and was soon played in almost every country in the world. Meanwhile England was producing great players. J. H. Taylor and H. Vardon, together with J. Braid, a Scotsman, won the open championship 16 times between 1894 and 1914. Vardon, the greatest player that the world had seen up to that time, won the

These three supreme golfers were known as "the great triumvirate" and were primarily responsible for the formation of the Professional Golfers association in 1901. This body title six

times.

(which has about 1,400 members) is responsible for professional tournaments and for the biennial Ryder cup match (for professionals) when it is played in Great Britain. 2. United States.— The first official United States open, amateur and women's amateur championships were held in 1895, and the respective winners were Horace Rawlins, Charles B. Macdonald and Mrs. Charles S. Brown. An unofficial open, at match play, in 1804 was won by Willie Dunn. After World V/ar I the influence of the many Scottish golfers who had emigrated to the United States became evident. U.S. golfers (principally Walter Hagen and Robert T. [Bobby] Jones, Jr., who achieved the unparalleled performance of winning the open and amateur championships of Great Britain and the U.S. in the same year, 1930) monopolized the British open championship until T. H. Cotton won in 1934, a feat he repeated in 1937 and 1948. By the early 1930s U.S. dominance of the international scene was growing. From 1933 until 1958 the only victories by British teams in the biennial matches against the United States were in 1938, when the amateurs won the Walker cup, in 1952 and 1956, when the women won the Curtis cup, which they retained in 1958 with a tie, and in 1957, when the professionals won the Ryder cup. Walter J. Travis was the first great U.S. golfer. He was born in Australia, but his golf was wholly learned in the United States. Of striking appearance, with jet black beard and impeccable garb, he was unpopular with fellow golfers because of his austere, taciturn demeanour. But he proved his ability as a golfer by winning the U.S. amateur in 1900, 1901 and 1903, by reaching the semifinals in five other years and by winning the qualifying medal in

i

j

j

j

I

1900, 1901, 1902, 1906, 1907

and 1908.

He won

teur title the only year he entered this event

the British ama-

— 1904.

Jerome D. Travers learned his golf at Nassau Country club. Long under the tutelage of Alec Smith, famous Scots professional who went to the U.S. in 1898. Travers was a player with indomitable courage, an ability to outgame an opponent at match iplay and nerve that rarely failed him in a crisis. He won the amateur championship in 1907, 1908, 191 2 and 191 3, and was finalist in 1914; he won the open title in 1915; and he won a long Island,

j

list

of sectional championships.

Francis D. Ouimet became a national hero in 1913 when, unknown as a golfer except around Boston, he tied Vardon and Ted Ray, two of the best British professionals, at 304 strokes for 72 holes in the U.S. open, held at Brookline, and defeated them in a play-off, enabling the U.S. to retain the title. The following year

I

i

Ouimet won the amateur, and he repeated 17 years later, in 1931. He was a semifinalist in 1923, 1924, 1926 and 1927; and was runner-up in 1920. He was a member of the United States team against Great Britain for the Walker cup from the first of these international matches in 1922 to 1949, serving as captain in 1932, !i934, 1936, 1938, 1947 and 1949. Charles ("Chick") Evans, Jr., first showed promise as a golfer iaround Chicago in the period 1906-10. He was runner-up in the U.S. amateur of 191 2 and the U.S. open of 1914, winning the western amateur title in both those years and also in 1909 and i

555

1915.

In 1916 he becam.e the

golfer to win the U.S. amateur and open in the same year; his score of 286 in the open stood as the record low for 20 years, until Tony Manero scored 282 in the first

1936 open. In 1942, at the age 0/52, Evans fought his way against excellent competition to the final of the Chicago city champion-

where he was defeated by a youthful opponent. Evans competed in the open championship at Baltusrol Golf club, Springfield, N.J., in June 1954, where he had the honour of being

ship,

the oldest contestant at the age of 64. Bobby Jones is regarded as the greatest amateur golfer of modern times. His career was brilliant from his debut in national competition in the U.S. amateur of 1916 until his unparalleled performance in 1930 of winning all four of the world's most difficult titles

— the

British amateur, the British open, the U.S. amateur and This feat became known as Jones's "grand slam."

the U.S. open.

During

his golfing career Jones won the British open three times, the British amateur once, the U.S. open four times and the U.S.

amateur five times. He played for the U.S. against Britain in the Walker cup team matches in 1922, 1924, 1926, 1928 and 1930. W. Lawson Little, Jr., first appeared in national competition in the 1929 U.S. amateur, where he was defeated in the semifinal round by Francis Ouimet. In 1934 he won both the United States and British amateur titles and the following year repeated both events. Little turned professional in 1936, the Canadian open that year and the U.S. open in 1940. Among other U.S. players who won the amateur championship

his victories in

won

have been H. Whigham (1896, 1897), C. Egan (1904, 1905), M. Ward (1939, 1941), W. Turnesa (1938, 1948), H. Ward. Jr. (1955, 1956), C. Coe (1949, 1958) and J. Nicklaus (1959, 1961 1. Professional golfers contributed richly to the history of the

game

in the United States, and while it was well into the 20th century before there was a native-born champion among them, the over-all record of the pros was remarkable. No other country produced so many able players Walter Hagen and Gene Sarazen were ;

particularly outstanding.

Walter Hagen

first

appeared on the national scene

in the

1913

U.S. open at Brookline, where he gave an excellent account of himself, considering his competitive inexperience, and placed fourth field. The following year at Chicago he won the His golf, entirely self-taught, was unorthodox; he had no desire to copy the smoother swings of his fellow professionals. He scorned to practise by the hour, as was the practice of other pros. To Hagen, more than to any other golfer, goes the credit for breaking down the barriers between amateurs and professionals.

against an expert event.

Between 1914 and 1936 Hagen won the U.S. open twice, the British open four times (a feat matched after World War I only by A. D. Locke of South Africa and P. W. Thomson of Australia), the 1924, P.G.A. championship five times (including four in a row 1925, 1926, 1927), the Canadian, French and Belgian opens once each and at least 45 other events of lesser importance. In all he participated in not less than 200 open tournaments and was rarely out of the money. In addition, he played in about 1,500 exhibition matches in the U.S. and other countries, many of them for high fees or stakes. He is said to have earned around $1 ,000,000

—

during the 22 years he was rated as a top-flight golfer. Gene Sarazen reached golfing fame in 1922 by winning the U.S. open at Chicago and proved he was a golfer of more than passing ability by adding the professional title that same year at Oakmont, Pa., and the following year at Pelham, N.Y. No further titles of importance came his way for ten years, but during this In 1932 he reperiod he was a constant competitive threat.

appeared as a champion, winning the British open with a brilliant tied 283 and the U.S. open with an equally brilliant 286, which the then low-scoring record established in 1916 by Chick Evans. In 1933 he won the P.G.A. title for the third time and came within one stroke of winning the British open. In 1940 he tied Lawson lost Little for the U.S. open championship with a score of 287, but the play-off with 73 to Little's 70.

As Hagen, Sarazen and

Tommy Armour passed

their prime, other

was not until the late 1930s that by civic and club organizaunderwritten circuit, pro the so-called major prize money tions throughout the country, began putting up

professionals carried on but

it

GOLF

556

Robert E, Harlow developed this circuit and was tournament manager of the P.G.A. Fred Corcoran succeeded him in 1937. That year, aggregate prize monies totaled $100,000; when Corcoran left the field in 1947, they totaled $650,000. In the second half of the 20th century the P.G.A. circuit offered approximately $1,000,000 in prizes annually. Other names in U.S. professional golf history include J. Barnes, who won the professional title in 1916 and 1919, L. Diegel, who won in 1928 and 1929, D. Shute, who won in 1936 and 1937, and Byron R. Guldahl, who won the open title in 1937 and 1938. Nelson, Ben Hogan and Sam Snead, after 1940, combined to win

for the experts.

the

first

the major portion of prize monies. Following World War II Nelson retired from serious tournament participation. After winning the U.S. open and the P.G.A. title in 1948, Hogan, following his recovery from serious injuries suffered in an automobile accident,

returned to the golfing circuit in 1950 and won the U.S. open in that year and in 1951 and 1953, the year he also won the British open (to duplicate the feats of only two other Americans, Bobby Jones and Gene Sarazen) and scored a record 14-under-par 247 to win the U.S. Masters. The Masters tournament, an open, invitational event played each spring at Augusta, Ga., was originated in 1934. Hogan's record 1963 winner) in 1965 when he fell to 25-year-old Jack Nicklaus (

scored a 17-under-par 271, including one round of 64, tieing the record set by Lloyd Mangrum in 1940. He won by 9 strokes over four-time Masters champion Arnold Palmer (1953, 1960, 1962, 1964) and Gary Player of South .Africa (winner in 1961); Jones called it "the greatest performance in golfing history."

women golfers were was Margaret Curtis, who won the women's championship in 1907, 1911 and 1912. Alexa Stirling of Atlanta, Ga., won her first national title while quite young in 1916 and repeated in 1919 and 1920. She was runner-up in 1921 and 1923 and in 1925, as Mrs. W. G. Fraser. She also won the Canadian championship in 1920 and 1934. Another great U.S. woman golfer is Mrs. Glenna CoUett Vara, who won her first women's title in 1922 and repeated on five occasions— 1925, 1928, 1929, 1930 and 1935. She made four attempts at the British championship but was turned back on two occasions in the final round. Mrs. V'are's extended hold on women's golf was broken when Virginia Van Wie of Chicago replaced her as champion during the three seasons of 1932, 1933 and 1934. Miss Van Wie forfeited her title without contest in 1935, when Mrs. Vare regained the title by defeating Patty Berg. Betty Jameson won the title twice in a row, in 1939 and 1940. And in 1960 Mrs. Vare won the women's U.S. senior championship. The greatest names in women's golf after World War II included Mrs. Mildred ("Babe") Didrikson Zaharias, Patty Berg, Louise Suggs and Betsy Rawls, all of whom played professionally. Mrs. Zaharias, an Olympic winner in track and field in 1932, picked up a golf club that year at the invitation of Grantland Rice and from that time played the game with astounding success. She regained her amateur status long enough to win the British women's amateur title in 1947 the first American to do so. She turned pro again and embarked on a series of successful golf tours. The women follow a professional circuit similar to if less demanding than that of their male counterparts. From 1946, when the women started their own open championship, Mrs. Zaharias continued to be the leading woman player until her death in 1956, the most famous competitor since the days of Mrs. Vare. Television enhanced the popularity of golf, such tournaments as the open, masters and several others being given network coverage on the final day. It was estimated, for example, that more than 20.000,000 viewers witnessed Lew Worsham's dramatic 104yd. second shot into the cup on the final hole to win a tournament at Tarn O'Shanter in 1953. In the United States from 1900 to 1930, four

outstanding.

First of these

—

—

IV.

THE MODERN GAME

A. Playing

The game

the Course

consists in playing the ball

from a teeing ground into by successive strokes in accordance with the rules. The stipulated round consists of 18 holes, and most golf courses have a hole

Standard i8-hole courses measure from 6,500 to 6,800 yd.; from 100 to 600 yd. However, some courses have only nine holes and these are played twice in a stipulated round. The clubs are designed for the various positions in which the ball 18.

individual holes,

may come objective

to rest

and

for the various distances to the hole.

The

to hole the ball in the fewest strokes.

is

There are two distinct forms of play: match play and stroke (medal) play. In match play the player and his opponent are playing together and competing only against each other, while in stroke play each competitor is competing against every other player In match play, the game is played by holes in the tournament. and each hole is won by the player who holes his ball in the fewer both players hole in the same number of strokes, it a player has won one more hole than his opponents, he is said to be one up. The match is won by the player who is leading by a number of holes greater than the number of holes remaining to be played, as, for example, three up and two In stroke play, the competitor who holes the stipulated to play. round or rounds in the fewest total strokes is the winner. Amateur championships usually are at match play and professional and open championships at stroke play, over 72 holes. In both match and stroke play, players can compete as individuals or as partners. When two players compete as partners, each playing his own ball, the better ball on each hole is their score for that hole; this is a four-ball or best-ball match. Two players may compete as partners with two others, each pair playing alternate strokes on a single ball; this is a match foursome. Players of varying abilities compete against each other by using handicaps. A handicap is the number of strokes a player receives If

strokes. is

halved.

When

to adjust his score to a

common

level.

The

better the player, the

smaller his handicap, and the best players have handicaps of zero and are called scratch players. A scratch player whose average score is 70 can have an enjoyable match with a player whose aver-

Handicap is 80 by giving him a handicap of 10 strokes. limited to amateur competitions, and championship tournaments are played without handicaps. The starting place for each hole to be played is the teeing ground. The front is indicated by two markers, and the teeing age score

golf

is

ground is the rectangular space two club lengths behind the line indicated by the markers.

The player

this space, usu-

setting

up on a small

ally

it

depth directly

tees his ball

anywhere within

wooden

in

or plastic peg, and strikes

toward the hole. The stroke from the teeing ground is called

it

the drive. The preferred line to the hole is

generally a clear,

called the fairway.

mowed

route

The fairway

customarily bordered by longer called rough, and farther NECK from the fairway there may be -FACE woods. At strategic places along -HEEL the preferred line to the hole and ^SOLE guarding the putting green are 1. PARTS OF A GOLF CLUB obstacles called bunkers, depressions in the ground filled with sand (sand traps). Some holes require the player to skirt or cross streams or ponds. Both bunkers and bodies of water are hazards. The hole itself measures 4^ in. in diameter, is at least 4 in. deep and is set in an area of turf specially prepared and maintained and closely mowed for putting. When the player putts, he is

grass

—

uses a straight-faced club and rolls the ball across the putting green toward and eventually into the hole. An expert player plays most holes in four strokes, a drive of 225 to 250 yd., a shot to the green and two putts. However, every course contains a few short holes on which the expert might be expected to drive onto the putting green and a few long holes on which the expert might require a drive and two more strokes to reach the putting green.

On

the former, he would be expected to

since

two putts on each green

is

make

the standard.

3

and on the

latter 5,

GOLF

100

557

115

130 135 140

GOLF

558

The Putter— \ club with a short stiff shaft and a straight or There are nearly straight face, ior rolling the ball on the green.

many

styles of putters.

C.

The Grip

be gripped in various ways and satisto be factory shots result, the so-called overlapping grip seems most frethe most commonly used among expert players and the

While a golf club

may

ployed with a wood, with the ball off the left heel, but as the iron selected for a shot becomes progressively shorter (that is, a shorter shaft and a face more laid back) the ball is played more and more toward the right foot. The swing is inclined to be more upright

on the shorter backswing and follow-

especially

quently taught by golf instructors. Fig. 3 shows the progressive stages of the hands of a right-handed player in assuming this grip,

and,

which is used for all clubs except the putter. (For recommended putting grip, see under Putting, below.) While the overlapping grip is almost universally used among This grip differs golfers, the interlocking grip has its advocates.

through are

—

from the overlapping in only one particular the little finger of the right hand does not overlap the left forefinger, but instead

down between

fits

the left fore- and middle fingers.

D. Types of Shots Descriptions are for right-handed players. 1. The Wood Shot. With the wood clubs, the player assumes a generally square stance in relation to the intended line of flight.

—

should feel comfortable and well balanced. The club head is placed on the turf directly back of the ball, with the face at right angles to the flight line. Keeping his eye on the ball, the player

He

back slowly along the ground until the extended arms naturally lift it. This action continues to the top of the swing, at which point the club shaft is approximately horizontal, with both wrists underneath it. The left arm is fairly straight but not rigid, with just enough elbow bend to permit freedom. The right elbow is kept close to the body. The backswing must be unhurried; a fast jerky backswing will destroy timing. The downswing is started by a co-ordinated pull of the left hip, shoulder, arm and hand, slowly at first, then accelerated as the ball is neared. Care must be taken not to hit too soon; greatest acceleration should be achieved at the moment of impact with the ball. At impact the left arm and club shaft are in alignment and the club follows through along the line of flight until the arms naturally bring it up and around to the rear. The stroke with a wood club is a sweeping swing rather than the hit which characterstarts the club

play with irons. 2. The Iron Shot.

izes

—The technique employed

in hitting an iron from that used with the woods. Iron shots are hit very crisply and downward; the club head comes in contact with the ball and continues down and through, taking some turf (called a divot). This aids in control and imparts backspin to the ball so that it rises readily and comes to, rest without much roll a desirable feature, since irons are rarely used for

shot

is

somewhat

different

—

shots, the

less full.

—

Approaching. When the player has come within close 3.

range of the green, two methods ~--0 he may of play are open to him 5. FIG. PUTTING STANCE AND pitch the ball all the way and deBACKSTROKE pend on backspin to stop his ball near the pin, or he may play a chip shot in which the ball flies part way through the air, as to the edge of the close-clipped surface of the green, and then rolls the remaining distance. 4. Shots From Sand. Even the most expert player will rarely

—

—

complete his round without having to play his ball from the loose sand in a bunker adjacent to a green. For this purpose he uses An open stance is used that is, the left foot is his sand wedge. considerably withdrawn from the line to the cup. Care is taken to worm the feet well into the sand to ensure a firm footing through the stroke. The club is carried up more vertically than in other shots and then sent down at a spot behind the ball, following a path that cuts across the line to the hole. This places a layer of sand between the ball and the club head; the ball thus is blasted from the sand without actually being touched with the club.

—

When

the player's ball

green and

lies

force to

of

its

power, while picking the ball clean will result in a

The

much

roll.

stance for long irons

roll is

the ball to the hole but not too far beyond in case

missed.

other of the hole. The grip for putting differs from the grip for other clubs. The hands are placed on the shaft so the palms are opposed and parallel

This

to the putter blade.

is

not greatly different from that em-

for the purpose of relieving

quite erect {see

is

is

rather

mus-

stands

head directly over the ball and and square to the line of putt. The ball the left foot, in which case the player's

5) with his

fig.

generally played

all

The player

cular strain in the wrists during the stroke.

off

more over

the left leg than the right, for the sake

of balance.

Knees are

slightly bent to avoid tenseness.

to the body, with the left is

from the

possible to play an

is

And since most greens are not level but have numerous minor pitches and slopes great care must be taken to select the proper line, which may be quite far to one side or the the hole

weight

shot and too

at a distance it

—

Actually, contact with the ball and the turf must be almost simultaneous, since to hit the turf back of the ball will rob the shot

much

bunker

ordinary iron shot and get considerable distance. 5. Putting. The putt, once the ball is on the green, is the most delicate shot in golf. The player must hit the ball along a line that allows for very little margin of error, and with enough

his feet close together

flat

in a

is

well perched on the sand,

distance but rather for shots of medium to short length. It is easier for the golfer to gauge the travel of a quick-stopping ball.

of

—

Hands

elbow moved out

are kept close

to point along the

Head and body are not allowed to move during the The putter is soled, square across the line of putt, then

line of putt.

stroke.

brought back low along the ground. On the downstroke the putter still maintains its position square in the line of putt, hits the ball crisply in dead centre, then follows through straight toward the hole.

Rules of Golf

E.

The rule-making golf organizations are the R.A.G.C. and the U.S.G.A. As a result of a series of conferences in England and Scotland in 1951, the two bodies agreed on a uniform code of rules to govern play all over the world. The only difference is in the specifications for the ball. The minimum size for the United States ball British ball RIGHT; CHIP SHOT. MASHIE SHOT

is

1.680

1.620

in.

in.

in

minimum size for the The velocity of the' U.S. per second when measured

diameter; the

in diameter.

may not be greater than 250 ft. under prescribed conditions on an apparatus maintained by the U.S.G.A. but there is no velocity specification for the British ball.

ball

4.— VARIOUS STANCES. LEFT TO LONG-IRON SHOT. WOOD-CLUB SHOT

FIG.

is

GOLF

559

The two bodies attempt by exchanging views on

to perpetuate the uniformity in rules interpretations and on recommendations

for revision.

While the basic principle of the rules is simple, the code itself has become complex over the years. The earliest known code, that of the Company of Gentlemen Golfers of Edinburgh, probably drawn up about 1745, contained only 13 rules (see History,

However, they applied only to match play. As stroke and four-ball play came into favour, additional rules had to be drawn. A rule that is fair for two above).

play, foursomes, three-ball

opponents playing against each other might not work at all in stroke play, where each competitor is playing against the entire field. For example, if one ball strikes another on the putting green in singles

match

play, the

owner of the

ball struck

may

replace

it or not as he chooses. No one except the two players involved has any interest in the incident. However, the owner of a ball so struck in stroke play must replace it, in fairness to all the other competitors in the field. Also, a rule that is satisfactory in individual play might be completely inadequate when two play as

partners in either a match foursome or a four-ball match. There is an additional source of complexity in the fact that golf is played not on uniform fields or courts but on a wide variety of natural expanses.

The number

of situations that can develop around a golf play is almost limitless, and the rules makers have attempted over the years to cover as many as possible. Even so, it is impossible to cover all eventualities in rules, and both the U.S.G.A. and the R.A.G.C. issue a series of interpretations each year. ball in

The basic principle of the rules is to require that the ball be played from the teeing ground into the hole by successive strokes with the club. The rules are designed to promote this objective to prevent the game from becoming one of maneuver by hand. They have been summarized in the statement: "Play the ball as it lies and take the course as you find it." This means that, as a

and

be teed and not touched again with the hands until it is lifted from the hole. The player is expected to employ his own skill with his clubs to avoid rough, hazard.^ and other difficulties and to play his ball without improving its lie in any way. There are exceptions to this general rule that complicate the general rule, the ball

The

is

rules, for

a player is physically

Additionally, of course, the rules define the various areas of such as teeing ground, through the green, hazards

the course,

each of which rules and procedures may differ. The rules also provide for orderly progress of play. Golf is played on the honour system. A player is expected to count his own strokes even though he may miss the ball completely, to acknowledge the fact promptly if he violates a rule and incurs a penalty and to avoid interfering in any way with his opponent's or fellow competitors' play. When a referee accompanies players, his primary duty is to settle questions of fact and of golfing law. It is a basic requirement of good sportsmanship in golf to develop a working knowledge of the rules so that one will not through ignorance take advantage of another player, in either a tournament or an informal game. Few players or officials are able to answer all questions that may arise in the differing forms of play, and and putting green,

Golfing rules of amateur status are among the most strict. The U.S.G.A. and the R.A.G.C. both define an amateur as "one who plays the game solely as a non-remunerative or non-profit-making sport."

The

rules prohibit an

from accepting

amateur from playing for a money prize, a prize readily convertible into money or hav-

ing a retail value exceeding $150 (L^o in Great Britain) and from receiving compensation for giving instruction. The rules also pro-

amateurs from accepting payments in any form, directly or toward expenses incurred in connection with a golf competition, with a few specific exceptions under which the Brit-

hibit

indirectly,

ish are slightly more liberal. British amateurs may accept payments toward expenses incurred as members of an international, county or club team or similar body. United States amateurs may accept payments toward expenses incurred as members of an international team only. The U.S.G.A. also permits amateurs to accept payments toward expenses incurred as participants in its amateur public links championship and in competitions limited to members of educational institutions, industrial organizations and military services. Otherwise, amateur golfers are expected to adhere strictly to the classic ideal that amateurs play purely for pleasure and at their own expense. Additional rules in both codes are designed to deter amateurs from commercializing in any way on their skills or reputations as golfers. However, professionals and amateurs may compete together at will and frequently do. Also, professionals in other sports may play as amateurs in golf provided they conduct themselves in accordance with the rules of amateur status. A golfer who has relinquished his amateur status but has not been a professional for more than five years may regain amateur status by applying to the governing body in his country and serving a probationary period of two years from the date of his last violation

of the rules.

V.

GLOSSARY

to

example, provide means of proceeding when unable to play his ball as it lies because he has lost it, hit it out of bounds where play is prohibited or into a water hazard where he cannot get at it. The means of proceeding in such cases involve a penalty of one stroke and playing another ball in a specified position. If, for example, a player's drive from the tee goes out of bounds, that stroke is counted as one and his next stroke is two. The rules permit a player to take relief without penalty when his ball comes to rest in a temporary accumulation of water (as opposed to a permanent water hazard), in ground under repair, against a shed or in a paper bag or near any other artificial structure or substance foreign to the course. Thus the rules contain not only penalties for infractions or inability to proceed in normal fashion but also rights and privileges that a player may exercise in certain situations. code.

Rules of Amateur Status

F.

in

the experienced ones usually carry rules booklets for reference.

The and

in

following terms are used in printed accounts of golf matches

books of instruction; also included are some vernacular excommon usage among players.

pressions in

—

A hole scored in one stroke. Addressing the ball. A player has "addressed the ball" when he has taken his stance by placing his feet in position for and preparatory to making a stroke and has also grounded his club (see Ground), except that in a hazard a player has addressed the ball when he has taken his stance preparatory to making a stroke. All square. An even score, neither side being a hole up. Approach. A stroke or shot to the putting green. Apron. The last few yards of fairway in front of the green. Ace.

—

— —

— —The farthest from the causing to stop ab— Backward rotation of the ruptly. Bent — A species of grass used for putting greens. player competes against the — Match which a Best of two or more. best Birdie. — One stroke under par for a hole. Bisque. — A handicap stroke or strokes to be taken when desired, with Away.

hole.

Backspin.

ball,

it

grass.

in

ball.

single

ball

the provision that the player must announce his choice to use a bisque on any hole before teeing off for the next hole. An approach position from which the green cannot be Blind.

— Bogey. — Score a moderately good golfer would be expected to allowing two putts. on a of the direct play to either Borrow. — In putting,

seen.

make

hole,

frojn to side the ball to the hole to compensate for roll or slant in the green. Bunker.^An area of bare ground, often a marked depression, usually covered with sand. (See Sand trap; Hazard.) Bye holes.— Holes remaining after a match is finished, that is, after one side is more holes up than remain for play. Caddie. Person who carries a player's clubs. it first strikes Ca;.;.j, —Distance from where a ball is hit to where line

—

the ground. Casual water.

—Any

. j n temporary accumulation of water, as a puddle ,

after rain.

CA/>.' -Short approach shot, on which

,

.

,

„

the ball

«. flies

1

close

to

u the

Concede.— (a) To grant that an opponent will hole out a dead ball Dead) in one more stroke, (b) To grant that an opponent has

(see

a hole before plav has been completed. terrain over which the game is played; the within which play is permitted. (See also Links.)

won

Course.— The

whole area

;

GOLF

56o

diameter and hole into which the ball is played, 4i in. in (See also Hole.) deep. pu"ing Dead--A ball is said to be dead when so near the hole thatfall dead to is a "dead" certainty; a ball is said it in on the next stroke when it pitches with little or no run. , , , without playing Default. -To concede a match to an opponent match. scheduled for a appear against him to fail to stroke, which piece of turf cut out by a club during a Divol on. should always be replaced before the player moves tee hole that bends sharply to left or right between

Cu^.— The

at least 4 in

•

.

;

—A

Oog.leg,^\ and green.

Dormie.—\

dormie when

side is

to be played. it

is

as

many

,

,

up

holes

remain

as

,

Down.—\x\ match than

it

play, a side

is

down when

it

,

has lost more holes

18.

—

Drau).— Controlled hook

(see

Hook).

Dub—

An unskilful player; also, to hit the ball poorly. £ae/e.— Two strokes under par for a hole. Face.— (a) Slope of a bunker. (6) Part of the club head that strikes the ball.

fade.— Controlled slice Fairway— Iht closely

—

of a rule or local rule.

—

Obstruction. Anything artificial that has been erected, placed or on the course. Odrf.— Stroke that makes a player's score one more than his opponent's on a given hole. Out of bounds. Ground on which play is prohibited. Outside agency. Referee, observer, marker, forecaddie or other agency not a part of the match or, in stroke play, not a part of a player's left

— —

,j

(jee Slice).

,

—

Forecaddie.—A person employed

.

,

,

^,

„

to indicate the position of balls

on

up

to 250 yd. 251 to 470 yd.

211 401 471 and Over 576 Penalty stroke. A stroke added to the score of a

,

.

Women's par

Men's par

up

Par 3 Par 4 Par 5 Par 6 rules.

to 210 yd. to 400 yd. to 575 yd.

yd. and over

—

side

under certain

—

Rod or pole to which flag is attached (see Flagstick). Pin Pitch.— An approach on which the ball is lofted in a high arc

m

ball.

,

Par.— Theoretically perfect play, or the score an expert would be expected to make on a hole, calculated on the number of strokes required to reach the green plus two putts. Par is calculated on the Women's par for a course is slightly higher than basis of distance. par for men. U.S.G.A. standards for computing par are:

cut turf intended for play between tee and

F/agj(ic*.— Movable straight indicator, usually a lightweight pole with a numbered flag, placed in the hole to show its location: sometimes referred to as the pin. < u fo«oui-(AroagA.— Continuation of the swing of the club alter the ball has been struck, the way ol his "Fore I" Warning cry by a player to any person

for full

Net. Score after deducting handicap. Observer. Person appointed by a tournament comrnittee to assist a referee in deciding questions of fact and to report to him any breach

side.

won.

ha.s

—

Nassau. A system of scoring under which one point is awarded winning the first 9 holes, one for the second 9, and a third for the

Chip).

—

.

_,

(see

^.

Gobble. A boldly hit putt which finds the hole. Green. Putting green around a hole. Gross. A player's score before deducting any handicap. Ground.— To sole or rest the club lightly on the ground, preparatory to striking the ball (see Addressing the Ball). Ground under repair. Any portion of the course under repair or maintenance. If a ball should land on ground under repair or if the ground under repair should interfere with the player's stance or swing, the ball may be lifted and dropped, without penalty, as near as possible to where it lay, but not nearer the hole. Halved. A hole is halved when each side has taken the same number

An approach on which a part of the desired distance Pitch-and-rtin. covered by the roll of the ball after it strikes the ground. Pivot.— T\xe turn of the body as a stroke is played. Pull.— To hit the ball so that it will curve to the left. Stroke made on a putting green. Putt. Putting green. All ground of the hole being played that is specially prepared for putting or is otherwise defined as such by the committee. Referee. Person appointed by the tournament committee to accompany players to decide questions of fact and rules of golf. Rough. Long grass bordering the fairway, also at times between tee and fairway; may include bushes, trees, etc. Rub of the green. Any deflection or stoppage of a ball by an outside agency the ball is played as it lies, without penalty. Run. (a) To run a ball along the ground in an approach, instead (b) Distance a ball rolls after it lands. of chipping or pitching it. Sand trap. A bunker having a layer of sand (see Bunker). Sclag. To hit the ground behind the ball, derived from a Scots

of strokes.

t'jrm

the course.

Four-ball match.— A match in which there are two players to a side, each side playing its better ba,ll against the better ball of the other side.

Foursome— A match one

side playing

,

in

which there are two players to a

.,

side,

,

each

ball.

— — —

—

—

Handicap.

—The

number

of strokes a player receives to adjust his level, the generally accepted common level being

score to a common scratch, or zero-handicap golf.

— —

—

or the other. Hole out.

— Make

the final stroke in playing the ball into the hole.

—The privilege of driving or playing from the teeing ground, Hook. — To curve the ball widely to the Hosel. — Socket on the club head into which the shaft Lateral water hazard. — A water hazard running approximately parallel Honour.

off,

first.

left.

is

fitted.

to the line of play and so situated that it is impractical to keep the spot at which a ball crosses the hazard margin between the player and the hole. Lie. (a) The inclination of a club when held on the ground in the natural position for striking, (b) The situation of the ball. Like. Stroke which makes a player's score equal to his opponent's on a given hole. Line. The direction in which a player desires his ball to travel. Links. A golf course, especially a seaside course. (a) To elevate the ball. Loft. (6) Backward slant of the face of the club. Long game. The strokes where attaining distance is the more important factor. Loose impediments. Natural object not fixed or growing, as a stone, leaf or twig. Marker. (o) A scorer in stroke play appointed by a tournament committee to record a competitor's score, (b) A marker indicating the front edge of a teeing ground or the boundaries of a hole. Match play. Reckoning the score by holes won and lost. Medal play. Stroke play (see Stroke Play). Mixed foursome. Foursome in which a man and a woman play as

— —

— — —

—

—

—

— —

partners.

—

—

—

— —

—

— ;

—

—

meaning "a slight blow." Scratch player. One who receives no handicap allowance. Short game. Approach shots and putts.

— — —Match between two players. the widely — To curve the even. Square. — When a match and body when addressing the Stance. — Position of player's Stroke. — Forward movement of the club with the intention of striking the Stroke — Hole on which a handicap stroke given. known strokes, Stroke play. — Reckoning the score by medal play. may peg or a pinch of sand on which the Tee. — An stroke on each be placed for the Teeing ground. — Starting place for the hole to be played, indicated Single.

Hanging. .\ hanging ball is one which lies on a downslope. Hazard. Any bunker or water hazard. Heel. (a) Part of the club head nearest the shaft. (6) To hit from this part and send the ball at right angles to the line of play. Hole. (a) The hole into which the ball is played (see Cup). (6) One of the i8 units, or holes, on a course, consisting of teeing ground, fairway, rough, hazards and putting green. Hole-high. A ball that lies even with the hole (cup) but to one side

— —

is

to

ball

Slice.

right.

is

feet

ball.

fairly

ball.

hole.

is

as

also

total

ball

artificial

hole.

first

by two marks on the ground;

also called the tee. Three-ball mafc/j.— Match in which three play against one another, each playing his own ball. Threesome. Match in which one player competes against two, who plav alternate strokes with the same ball. through the green. The whole area of the course except hazards and the teeing ground and putting green of the hole being played. Up_ In match play, a side is up when it has won more holes than

—

—

—

it

has

lost.

Water hazard.—Any water (except casual water) or watercourse, regardless of whether it contains water. Bibliography.— History; B. Darwin et al., A History of Golf m Robert Browning, A History of Golf: the Royal and Britain (1952) Ancient Game (1955) H. S. C. Everard, A History of the Royal and W. E. Ancient Golf Club of St. Andreivs From 1754-1900 (1907) Hughes, Chronicles of Blackheath Golfers (1897) H. B. Martin, Fifty Years of American Golf (1936); Horace Hutchinson, Fifty Years of Golf (1919), Golf (189s) R. Clark (ed.). Golf: a Royal and Ancient Game (1893) James Lindsay Stewart, Golfiana Miscellanea (1887) Harry B. Wood, Golfing Curios and the Like (1911) Thomas S. Aitchison and George Lorimer, Reminiscences of the Old Bruntsfield Links Golf Club (1902); Andrew Lang, St. Andrews (1893); H. B. Martin and A. B. Halliday, Saint .Andrews Golf Club, iSSS-jgjS (1938) Charles Robert Harris, Sixty Blair Macdonald, Scotland's Gift, Golf (1928) Years of Golf (1953) Samuel L. ParrLsh, Some Facts, Reflections and ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

GOLGI—GOLITSYN Personal Reminiscences Connected With the Introduction oj the Game of Golf Into the United States, More Especially as Associated With the Formation of the Shinnecock Hills Golf Club (1891) Frederic Curtiss and John Heard, The Country Club, iS82~iq^2 (1932) Frank G. Menke, The Encyclopedia of Sports (1953); P. Lawless (ed), The Golfer's Companion (1937) Herbert Warren Wind, The Story of American Golf (1956) J. B. Salmond, The Story of the R. A. (1956) Golf Instruction: Alex J. Morrison, A New Way to Better Golf (1932) Richard D. Chapman and Ledyard Sands (ed's.). Golf as I Play It (1940); Chick Evans, Golf for Boys and Girls (1954); Harry Gottlieb, Golf for Southpaws (1953) Patty Berg and Mark Cox, Golf Illustrated (1950) Robert T. Jones, Jr., and Harold E. Lowe,. Group Instruction in Golf (1939) Tommy Armour, How to Play Your Best Golf All of the Time (1953) Sam Snead, Natural Golf, ed. by Tom Shehan (1953) Joe Novak, Par Golf in 8 Steps (1950) Ben Hogan, Power Golf (1948); Ernest Jones and Innis Brown, Swinging Into Golf (1946) Henry Cotton, This Game of Golf (1948) Byron Nelson, Winning Golf (1946). See also the VSGA Journal and Turf Management, published by the United States Golf Association. (J. p. Eh.)

H

;

;

;

&

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

GOLGI, CAMILLO

(1843-1926), Italian physician and Nowas born in Cortona, July 9, 1843 (or, according to some sources, July 7, 1844). After taking his degree at Pavia in 1865 he became physi-

bel laureate noted for basic researches in neurology,

cian at the

home

for incurables in the village of Abbiategrasso. There, despite the primitive means of investigation available, he

discovered his silver nitrate method of staining nerve cells and a method which gave the key to the finer structure of the nervous system. In 1883 he demonstrated in the central nervous system multipolar cells with many branching processes (Golgi fibres

—

cells) that establish

connections with other nerve cells. This disconception of the neuron as the unit of the nervous system and was fundamental for the

W. von Waldeyer-Hartz's

covery led to

development of modern neurology. Apart from histological researches, Golgi was famous for his observations on malaria. He showed that the parasite of quartan fever differs from that of tertian, that malarial paroxysms are coincident with sporulation of the parasites and that the severity of a malarial attack depends on the number of parasites in the blood. He also made valuable observations on pellagra and on the causation of mental disease. In 1906 Golgi, jointly with S. Ramon y Cajal (g.v.), was awarded the Nobel prize for physiology or medicine for his work on the structure of the nervous system. He died in Pavia on

(W.

Jan. 21, 1926.

J.

Bp.)

GOLGOTHA

(Aramaic "Skull") was the name of the spot where Christ was crucified (Matt, xxvii, 33; Mark xv, 22; John 3dx, 17),

outside Jerusalem; otherwise called

(also "skull").

Calvary

GOLIARD,

by the Latin name

(g.v.).

name

applied to those wandering students {vagantes) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 1 2th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is uncertain, but it was connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called archipoeta

and priinas

—

a

especially in

poems were mostly

—

Germany in whose name their satirical The jocular references to the rules

written.

the "guild" of goliards should not be taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church, especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was denounced by church of

synods.

Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the Council of Trier forbade priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the University of Paris in connection with the intrigues of the papal legate. During the century that followed they formed a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289, when it was ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or

buffoons," and in 1300 (at Cologne)

when they were forbidden

to

This legislation only became effective when the "privileges of clergy" were withdrawn preach or engage in the indulgence

from the goliards. Along with their and riotous Hving.

went many poems in praise of wine remarkable collection of them, now at

satires

A

traffic.

561

Munich, from the monastery published by Schmeller (3rd

Benediktbeuem

at

was Carmina

in Bavaria,

1895) under the

ed.,

title

Many

Burana.

of these, which form the main part of songbooks students today, were delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume. Wine, Women and Song

of

German

(1884 ». The collection also includes the only known two surviving complete texts of medieval passion dramas one with and one without music.

—

The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. It is thus used

Plowman, where, however,

in Piers

in Latin,

and

in

the goliard

still

rhymes

Chaucer.

—

Bibliography. 0. Hubatsch, Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (1870); B. Spiegel, Die Vaganten und ihr Orden (1892); M. Haezner, Goliardendichtung und die Satire im i ^ten Jahrhundert in England (190.5) the article in La Grande Enc\clopidie ; Helen WaddeU, The Wandering Scholars (1927); also K. Breul, The Cambridge ;

Songs (1915).

GOLIATH,

name

whom David had come up to make war against Saul, and this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuarj'. and it was his famous sword that David took with him in his flight from Saul (I Sam. xxi, 1-9). In another passage it is said that Goliath of Gath was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (II Sam. xxi, 18-22); the parallel I Chron. xx, 5 avoids the contradiction by reading "Elhanan slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo in the list of David's mighty men (II Sam. xxiii, 9, 24) the resemblance between the two names' may have led to the transference. GOLITSYN, BORIS ALEKSEEVICH (1654-1713), Russian statesman, Tsar Peter I's tutor and friend, came of a princely family claiming descent from Gediminas of Lithuania. Born on 654, he became court chamberJuly 30 new style 20, old style the

of the giant by slaying

achieved renown (I Sam. xvii).

.

.

The

Philistines

.

(

;

)

,

1

In 1683, in spite of his association with the opposition party, the regent Sophia Alekseevna, discerning his abilities, appointed him head of the Kazanski prikaz, the government departlain in 1676.

ment concerned with the administration of the lower X'olga region, a post he occupied (at any rate nominally) until the end of his life. In 1689 it was Golitsyn who directed the actions of the Naryshkin faction during its successful struggle for power with Sophia and her adherents and in 1690 Peter rewarded him with the dignity of

boyar.

From

then on he was associated with most of the tsar's mathe White sea expeditions of 1694-95, the Azov

jor enterprises

—

campaigns of 1695-96 and the shipbuilding operations at Voronezh In 1697-98 he did not accompany Peter abroad but rein 1697. mained in Moscow as one of the triumvirs in charge. In 1698 he persuaded the other boyars of the need for stern measures against the seditious streltsy and, once order had been re-established, took part in the interrogation and execution of the guilty. After the Russian defeat at Narva in Nov. 1700 he rapidly recruited and trained the

much-needed fresh regiments of dragoons.

He

ruled

the province of the lower Volga delegated to him like a despot and the Astrakhan revolt of 1705 brought to light his venality, which had been ruining the population. He consequently lost Peter's

(though not his affection) and the authority over Golitsyn died on Nov. 8 (N.S.; Oct. 28, O.S.), 1713, a few months after taking monastic vows.

confidence

Astrakhan. SeeVi

N

Golitsyn, /?orf *nva:f: Go//(iynyAA (1892).

GOLITSYN, BORIS BORISOVICH,

(L. R. Lr.)

Prince (1862earth1916), Russian physicist known for his work on methods of quake observations and on the construction of seismographs. Born on Feb. 18 (old style;, 1862, in St. Petersburg, he was educated In 1887 he left the active in the naval school and naval academy. In 1891 service for scientific studies and went to Strasbourg.

GOLITSYN—GOLOVNIN

562

Moscow and he was appointed Privatdozeni at the University of year he was same The Dorpat. at physics of in 1893 professor Petersburg and elected fellow of the Academy of Sciences in St. in 1908 a

member

of the

His early research was

academy.

.

Manchester in 1910 of doctor of science from the University of Seisand in 1911 he was elected president of the International the of director appointed was he 1913 In association. mological Central Physical (later Geophysical

and achieved good

)

observatory at

St.

Petersburg

results in the organization of meteorological

He I. service throughout Russia, especially during World War died on May 4, 1916, in New Peterhof, near St. Petersburg. (A. Foe.; X.)

GOLITSYN,

DMITRI

MIKHAILOVICH,

Prince

(1665-1737), Russian statesman, who tried to limit the powers of Empress Anna Ivanovna and paid dearly for his failure, was born on June 13 (new style; 3, old style I, 1665. In 1697 he was sent appointed to to Italy to learn "military affairs," and in 1704 was the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII. From 1715 to 1719 he was governor general of Kiev. In 1719 he

was made senator and from 1719 to 1722 he was also president Implicated in the disgrace of the of the Kamer-Kollegia. vice-chancellor P. P. Shafirov, he was soon deprived of all his offices and dignities, which he recovered only through the mediation of the empress Catherine till

years of Peter II

had

I.

the fall of Prince A. D. ( 1

Golits>'n

remained

Menshikov

background During the last

in the

in 172 7.

728-30) Golitsyn's high aristocratic theories

play. the death of Peter, Golitsyn conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president. He drew up a full

On

form of constitution which the empress Anna Ivano\'na was forced to sign at Mitau (Jelgava) before leaving for St. Petersburg, Anna lost no time in repudiating this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsyn lived in retirement till 1736, when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy of He was really being his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantemir. prosecuted for his antimonarchical sentiments,

composed of

his antagonists,

condemned him

A

court, largely

to death, but the

empress commuted the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schliisselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in prison on April 25 (N,S.; 14, O.S.), 1737, after three months of confinement. GOLITSYN, VASILI VASILIEVICH, Prince (16431714), Russian statesman, in charge of foreign affairs in the years preceding the revolution of 1689, In 1676 Tsar Alexis promoted him boyar and appointed him to a military command in the Ukraine carrying with it wide political powers. In 1682, the last year of the reign of Fedor Alekseevich, Golitsyn played an important part in the deliberations of the commission for the reorganization of militar>' service and on its behalf recommended the abolition of mestnichestvo or hereditary precedence. The regent, Sophia

made Golitsyn her principal minister and favourite. In 1682 she put him at the head of the posolski prikaz or foreign office; in 1684 she conferred upon him the rare distinction of Alekseevna.

keeper of the great seal and made him a blizhni boyarin. In the conduct of foreign affairs, his chief field of activity, Golitsyn resumed the negotiations with Poland broken off in 1684, and reached a compromise settlement embodied in a treaty of perpetual peace and alliance (1686 V The abortive expeditions of 1687 and 1689 against the Crimean Tatars, both led by Golitsyn, followed.

He would

not commit Russia to the papal, German, war against Turkey but improved Russia's commercial relations with Sweden, Poland, England, Brandenburg, Saxony and the Netherlands. The treaty of Nerchinsk concluded with China in 1689 prevented the outbreak of a war that Russia could not have won. During the crisis of 16S9 Golitsyn adopted a passive and temporizing attitude, but this did not save him from disgrace (see Russia: History). Peter the Great stripped him of his rank and possessions and banished him to the far north for inPolish and Venetian

GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSEEVICH, Count

m

spectroscopy. ,• j published in His valuable book, Lectures on Seismometry, was the degree 1912 and translated into German in 1914, He received ,

in the Crimean expeditions and treasonable designs. Kologory, near Pinega (Arkhangelsk province), on at died He (L. R. Lr.) May 2 (new style; April 21, old style), 1714.

competence

(1650-

1706), Russian statesman and diplomat, was a typical representative of the generation of courtiers who had backed Peter I the Great in his boyhood and later served him competently when he

was

tsar.

In 1685 the regent Sophia Alekseevna promoted Golovin

okolnichi (court official) and in the same year V. V. GoUtsyn (q.v.) sent him to the Amur area to negotiate with China. The peace of Nerchinsk (1689) was the outcome of his mission, for which he

was rewarded with the rank of boyar in 1690. In 1695 and 1696 he took part in the Azov campaigns and in 1697-98 in Peter's grand embassy to western Europe, ranking as second envoy and employed to secure trained men and technical suppUes for Russia's growing navy.

In 1699 Golovin was put in charge of the new naval department with the rank of admiral general. In addition he was responsible for several prikazy ("offices") concerned with the administration of certain regions, and was director of ordnance and of the mint. As head of the foreign department he directed the

negotiations that led to the conclusion in Constantinople of a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700, conducted the diplomatic preparations for the Northern War and, after its outbreak, took part with Peter

negotiations with Russia's ally King Golovin died on Aug. 13 (new style; 2, (L. R. Lr.) old stvle). 1706. IVANOVICH, Count (1660GOLOVKIN, 1734), the first state chancellor of the Russian empire, belonged to a family connected with the tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina, mother of the future emperor Peter the Great. Attached to Peter's court in his youth, Golovkin took good care of him during the regency He accompanied Peter on his of Sophia Alekseev-na (1682-89). first tour of western Europe, and worked with him in the Dutch shipbuilding yards. Having been in charge of foreign affairs from 1706, he was appointed state chancellor on the battlefield of Already a count of the Holy Roman empire Poltava (1709). (from 1707), he was made a count of the Russian empire in or

represented

Augustus

him

in

II of Poland.

GAVRHL

1710.

Under the empress Catherine I the chancellor became a member supreme privy council and was also made the

of the newly created

custodian of Catherine's will. This will left the imperial succession to Peter the Great's descendants, beginning with the young Peter II. one of whose guardians Golovkin was to be. On Peter II's death in 1730, however, Golovkin, having destroyed the will, declared himself in favour of giving the succession to the duchess of Courland,

Anna

(q.v.)

Great's father, Alexis.

Ivanovna, granddaughter of Peter the

Under Anna he was

a

member

of the

first

Russian cabinet, and his resolute support of imperial autocracy wrecked the proposed constitution whereby the Dolgorukis and He was Golitsyns sought to make Russia a Umited monarchy. one of the richest and stingiest magnates of his time.

GOLOVNIN, VASILI MIKHAILOVICH

(1776-1831), circumnavigator of the world, was born on April 8 (old style; 20, new style), 1776, in the province of Ryazan. He received his education at the Kronshtadt naval school and from 1801 to 1806 ser\'ed as a volunteer in the English navy.

Russian naval

officer,

In 1807 he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kuril Islands.

Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on Oct. 5, 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, while attempting to sur%'ey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese,' remaining prisoner until Oct. 13, 1813. Golovnin was presently appointed to the command of a voyage of circumna\-igation. He started from St. Petersburg on Sept.

7,

1817, sailed round Cape

Horn, and arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, landing at St. Petersburg on Sept, 17, 1819. He died on July 12, 1831. Golovnin's works include: Journey to Kamchatka, two volumes (1819); Journey Round the World, two volumes (1822); and Narrative of My Captivity in Japan,

I

GOLSPIE—GOLUCHOWSK 1811-1813, two volumes HSie). The French, German and English (1824).

last

was translated into

May

563

22, took Riga,

where he tried to set up a pro-German government but on June 19-22 he was defeated near Cesis Wenden by an Estonian-Latvian army and had to evacuate Riga, to which a riationai Latvian government was then able to return. When Gen. Sir Hubert Gough, head of the Allied military mission to the Baltic ;

A

complete edition of his works was publislied at St. Petersburg in volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author by N. Grech. five

GOLSPIE, a town and parish in east Sutherlandshire, Scot., and the seat of the county administration, lies on the North sea coast 11 mi. N.N.E. of Dornoch by main roads. Pop. (1959 est.) 1,460. There is a senior secondary school and a residential school (built 1902) with courses in commerce, agriculture, building and The chief occupations include agriculture, sheep farming, building and estate work. St. Andrew's church stands on the site of the ancient chapel of St. Andrew the Apostle. Dunrobin castle ( 1 mi. N.E. dates from 1070 and is the Scottish seat of the

engineering.

)

countess of Sutherland.

An

obelisk indicates where former earls of

Sutherland rallied their clans, and Ben Bhragie (1,384 ft.) is crowned by a statue of the 1st duke of Sutherland (127 ft.) by Sir Francis Legatt Chantrey. There are an ancient cemetery, the ruins of two Pictish towers, and the remains of an ancient Caledonian stone circle. Golspie, with Rogart and Lairg, forms a Scottish district council.

GOLTZ, COLMAR,

(H. G. MacD.) Baron von der (1843-1916), Prussian

and mihtary writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on Aug. 12, 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin military academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. He joined the topographical section of the general staff and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. In 1871 Goltz was appointed professor at the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was placed in the historical section of the soldier

general

staff.

became

lecturer in military history at the mihtary

where he remained for five years. He pubHshed, in 1883, Rossbach mid Jena (new and rev. ed., Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstddt, 1906), Das Volk in Waffen (Eng. trans.. The Nation in Arms), both of which quickly became mihtary classics. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to reorganize the mihtary establishments of the country. He spent 12 years in this work, the result of which appeared in the GrecoTurkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and a mushir or field marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a heutenant general. In 1900 he was made general of infantry, in 1908 colonel general and in 1911 field marshal. He retired in 1913. In Aug. 1914 Goltz was appointed governor general of Belgium, then occupied by German forces. In November of the same year he was attached to the Turkish headquarters as aide-de-camp general to the sultan. He was placed in the chief command of the 1st Turkish army in Mesopotamia and succeeded in investing General Townshend's British forces at Kut-el-Amara in Dec. 1915. He died on April 19, 1916. at Baghdad; he was said to have been poisoned by the Young Turks. Goltz's last work was Kriegsgeschichte Deutschlands im 19ten Jahrhundert, two volumes C 1910-14). at Berlin,

GOLTZ, RUDIGER,

Graf von der (1865-1946), German end of World War I tried to build a German-controlled Baltikum in Latvia, was born at Ziillichau (Sulechow, Pol.) on Dec. 8, 1865, the son of a Prussian landlord. He was in command of an infantry division in France when, in March 1918, he was appointed commander in chief of a special division to be sent into Finland to help the Finnish national army against the Finnish-Russian Red army. His force landed at Hanko (Hango on April 3 and entered Helsinki ten days later. After the armistice of Nov. 1918, however, he and his division left Helsinki for Konigsberg in East Prussia on Dec. 16; and in Jan. 1919 he was appointed by the German high command "governor" of Liepaja (Libau in Latvia) with orders to stop the Red army's advance toward East Prussia. He arrived at Liepaja on Feb. 3, assuming the command of the so-called VI reserve corps composed of a reserve guard division, a volunteer "iron" division, a locally With recruited German Landeswehr and a Latvian battalion. this force he advanced to the lower Dvina (Daugava) river and, on army

'

I

j

\

officer

)

\

!

'

j

!

1

I

j

1

countries, ordered him. on July 19, to take his force back to resisted for five months, using all sorts of strata-

Germany, Goltz

gems, but finally, on Dec. 18, retreated to East Prussia. Goltz described his Baltic adventures in Meine Sendimg in Finnland mid im Baltikum (1920), which he later rewrote in a "Third Reich" spirit under the title Als polilischer General im Oslen (1936). He died at Kinsegg in Bavaria on Nov. 4, 1946

GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK

(1558-1617). Dutch engraver, was 1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of Julich. After studying painting on glass for several years under his father, he learned the use of the burin and was employed by Philip Galle to engrave

born

in

a set of prints of the history of Lucretia.

Marriage with a rich enabled him to set up in independent business at Haarlem, where he spent the rest of his life, except for a tour in Germany and Italy in 1590. He died at Haariem on Jan. 1. 1617. Goltzius' portraits, mostly miniatures, are masterpieces of their kind, both on account of their exquisite finish and as fine studies

widow

at 21

of individual character. of himself

Of

his larger heads, the life-size portrait

probably the most striking example.

Six scenes from the hfe of the Virgin are called his "masterpieces," from their is

being attempts to imitate the style of the old masters. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by DiJrer; his eccentricities and extravagances are counterbalanced by the his execution. He began painting at the age of 42, but none of his works in this branch of art displays any

beauty and freedom of special excellence.

In 1878 Goltz

academy

(

who

at the

GOLUCHOWSKI,

the name of an ancient family of the made counts by the Austrian empire after the Poland. Two members of this family played an im-

Polish nobility, partitions of

portant part in Austrian politics.

Count Agenor Goluchowski (1812-1875) was born in eastern Galicia,

on Feb.

8,

1812.

He

studied at

Lwow

at Skala,

university,

served in the Galician Statthalterei under F. did excellent

S. von Stadion and work on the Galician agrarian reform of 1847. He

served three periods as governor of Galicia, 1849-59, 1866-68 and 1871-75. From Aug. 1859 to Dec. 1860 he was Austrian minister of the interior, during which period he secured for Galicia a degree of autonomy not enjoyed by any other Austrian crownland;

and

as governor of Galicia he secured the introduction of Polish

language. He was the principal author of the "October diploma" of 1860 (see Austria. Empire of). An excellent administrator, Goluchowski transformed the policy of the Austrian Poles from romantic revolutionism to their eminently

as an

official

federalist

successful later policy of co-operation with the Austrian government in return for national concessions in Galicia. He died in

Lwow

on Aug. 3, 1875. His son Agenor Goluchowski (1849-1921) was born at Skala on March 25, 1849, entered the .Austro-Hungarian diplomatic service, served in Berlin, Paris and Bucharest (1887-93) and became .\ustro-Hungarian minister of foreign affairs

in

May

1895.

The

appointment caused surprise, but Goluchowski enjoyed the emperor Francis Joseph's personal confidence; his policy was peaceable and practical and generally conducted with an eye on economic necessities. In particular he showed a conciliatory spirit toward Russia, for which he was often blamed by more bellicose people. He was author of the Austro-Russian agreement of 1897, which temporarily ended the two powers' rivalry in the Balkans, and of the Miirzsteg program of 1903 for reforms in Macedonia. At the same time, he stood loyally by the German alliance. It was the to Goluchowski that the German emperor William 11 addressed famous telegram after the Algeciras conference, saying that he had proved a "brilliant second" and could rely on the imperial gratitude. As a Pole, Goluchowski was unpopular with the Magyars, believed him to be inspiring Francis Joseph's opposition to the olfice on use of the Hungarian language in the army. He resigned Oct. 21, 1906. He died in Lwow on March 28, 1921.

who

.

564 GOMARUS, FRANCISCUS

GOMARUS— GOMERA

surname Gommer) the most ngid (1>63-1641 I. Dutch theologian, representative of He on 30, 1563 Bruges Jan. born at was principles, Calvinist Oxford and Cambridge and was studied at Strasbourg. Xeustadt. in Frankfurt am Main from pa.stor of a Reformed Dutch church dispersed by persecution. was congregation 1587 till 1593. when the where was appointed professor of theolog>' at Leiden, Corisinal

_

In 1594 he

Arminius. He he became the leader of the opponents of Jacobus estates of Holdisputed with Arminius before the assembly of the who met five land in 160S. and was one of the five Gomarists of 1609. On the assembly same in the Remonstrants Arminians or with his death of Arminius. Konrad Vorstius. who sympathized Gomarus reviews, was appointed to succeed him and as a result He became preacher at the Rehis professorship in 161 1. signed

Hebrew formed church at Middelburg and taught theology and professor at was he Later Schule. Illustre founded newly in the Saumur. then at Groningen. He took a leading part in the synod 161S) as an opponent of Arminianism {q.v.). He died of Dort (

Groningen on Jan. 11. 1641. Gomarus' works were collected and published in one volume See also Dort. Synod of. folio, in .Vmsterdam. in 1645. NICOLAS {c ISOO-c. 1556\ one of the foremost Flemish composers of his generation. He traveled widely as singer and magister puerorum of the domestic chapel of the em-

at

GOMBERT,

peror Charles V. later holding positions with the cathedral chapters of Courtrai and Tournai. A follower, and possibly a pupil, of Josquin Despres (9.1.), he wrote sacred music developing the imitative technique of Josquin but using a freer, less symmetrical de-

Some of his chansons recall the naturalistic onomatopoeia of Clement Jancquin. Of his works 10 Masses. 8 Magnificats, about 160 motets and about 60 chansons survive in printed and manu-

sign.

script sources.

—

BiBLiOGRAPnY. J. SrVimidt-Gorg, Nicolas Gombert (1938) Nicolai Conibert, Opera Omnia, ed. by J. Schmidt-Gorg (1951 et seq.); G. Reese, Music in the Renaissa^ice (1954) H. Eppstein, Nicolas Gombert (B. L. Tr.) als Molettenkomponist (1935). ;

;

GOMBOS, GYULA

(1886-1936), Hungarian statesman who remodel Hungary on dictatorial racialist lines in understanding with Italy and Germany, was born at Murga, near Tolna, on Dec. 26. 1886. of middle-class parentage. His mother spoke only German. He began his career as a professional officer and soon became conspicuous for his extreme anti-Habsburg views. In 1919 he organized a network of counterrevolutionary societies. some secret, others public. He was minister of defense in the emigre Szeged government, where he formed a close connection with .\dm. Miklos Horthy ^q.o.). the later regent. He organized the armed resistance shown to the king, Charles, when he attempted to recover his throne in 1921, Driven into opposition during Istvan Bethlen's "era of consolidation," he led a small racialist party. He was made minister of defense on Oct. 10, 1929 (when he arranged for his own promotion from captain to general 1; and on Sept. 30. 1932. he was carried into the premiership on the wave of "right radical' unrest then sweeping Hungary. His ambition was to remodel Hungary internally on dictatorial lines and to ally Hungary to Germany and Italy, but the oppotried to

sition of conservative forces at

home, and the antagonism between

and Germany over Austria, were too strong for him. When he died in Munich, still in office, of a liver complaint (Oct. 6, 1936), he had hardly realized a single point of his program: he had even been forced publicly to recant his anti-Semitic views. Italy

Yet

had been immense and did not cease with his The radicalization of Hungarian society and the definitive

his influence

death.

commitment

of

Hungary

to a Fascist orientation in foreign policy

were largely due to him. C. A. M.) GOMEL, an oblast (established 1938) in the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., lies in the southeast of the republic, occupying the level plain of the middle Dnieper and its tributaries. Sozh, Berezina and Pripet (Pripyat). Much of the (

plain

is

mainder

swampy,

especially in the west, while neariy

all

the re-

dense mixed forest of oak, pine and hornbeam. Only in the east are there rather higher areas, under the plow. Along the rivers are broad floodplain meadows, forming excellent hay is

in

I

land and pasture after the spring floods. Sands and sandy soils The climate is modified continental, with an are widespread. 6.67° C.) and in average temperature in January of 20° F. (

—

July of 65° (18.33° C). Rainfall is 22-26 in. a year. The popuThe lation (1959) was 1,361,841, of whom 388,718 were urban. main agricultural products are flax, hemp, potatoes and dairy

The timber industry is well developed and paper is made Dobrush. furniture at Mozyr and Rechitsa. Gomel, on the

produce. at

Sozh.

is

(R- A. F.)

the administrative centre.

GOMEL,

a

town and administrative centre of Gomel oblast

Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., stands on the Sozh, a tributary of the Dnieper, 174 mi. (280 km.) S.E. of Minsk. Pop. (1959) 168,270. The first reference to the town dates from 1142. After a long period under Lithuania, it was acquired by Russia in 1772. Heavy damage was sustained in World War II when Soviet forces retook it from the Germans. LargeMost of the scale reconstruction was undertaken after the war. industry of the oblast is now concentrated there, with a wide range of timberworking: ship repair, sawmilling and the making of matches, veneer, furniture, parquet and carts. Other manufactures include machine tools, agricultural machinery, peatworking equipment, reinforced concrete, textiles, footwear and foodstuffs. Gomel is a major rail junction, with fines to Minsk, Brest. Cherin the

nigov,

(R- A. F.)

Bakhmach and Bryansk.

GOMER, in the Old Testament, the wife of

the prophet Hosea.

Book of Hosea are concerned with Hosea and Gomer, a harlot, and the birth of their three children. See Hosea, Book of. GOMERA, an island in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands Area 146 sq.mi. It lies 20 mi. Pop. (1960) 27,790. iq.v.). W.S.W. of Tenerife and is almost circular, measuring 15J mi. from north to south and 13 mi. from east to west. The coasts, especially on the west, are rugged and precipitous and the land rises to the flatfish dome of Garajonay (4,879 ft.) in the centre of the island. There is a nearly continuous plant cover, consisting above 1,600 ft. of tree heather scrub with some evergreens, e.g., faya and Canarian holly, and in the lower areas composed mainly of succulent plants such as euphorbia and sempervivum, with thistles and brambles. Choughs are common birds and the scrub provides cover for partridges and other birds. The lower The

first

three chapters of the

the marriage of

levels are semiarid but because of the plentiful supply of fresh water from springs, the valley bottoms are irrigated and bananas

and date palms are grown. In the south, vines, figs, cereals and tomatoes are cultivated. There are no industries other than agriculture, some salting of tunny fish, and a little boatbuilding. The only roads are short and follow the lines of the larger valleys. San Sebastian de la Gomera. on the east coast, the chief port and capital, has a sheltered roadstead and is backed by the steep It has a mole where the interisland steamcliffs of a wide ravine. Pop. (1960) 7.577 (mun.). It was the last stopping ers berth. place of Christopher Columbus on his first transatlantic voyage in 1492. and the house where he stayed and the church he attended (X.)

are tourist attractions.

The Whistled Language

of

Gomera.

— Many Gomerans

pos-

whistling, an art acquired from the Guanches (g.i'.). Whistlers commonly insert two fingers into the mouth, using the same modifications in position of lips, tongue, In this manner they are able to produce greatly etc., as in speech. sess the ability to talk

by

magnified birdlike sounds, which closely imitate the rhythm, tone and other intricacies of spoken Spanish; they thus overcome the to difficulty of speaking from hilltop to hilltop without having cross the barrancos or deep ravines that gash the mountain slopes. The most expert are found among the goatherds dwelling in the mountains around Chipude, where there is no other means of swift

,

,

communication. In the chronicle of the expedition of Jean de Bethencourt in ac1402, an implausible legend of missing tongues is related, to scientific more A language. whistled origin of the count for the explanation is that it has been of slow development, perfected from Rene Verneau (1891),] necessity after generations of practice. _

,

:

,

Earnest A. Hooton (1925) and others

who

visited the archipelago

—

GOMES—GOMPERS for research state that whistling

is

not a code system but a true

method

of conveying thought. In 1934 an official test was conducted by the island's government in order to authenticate the fact that conversations phrased in simple words could be carried on by this method. Separated beyond shouting distance, whistlers exchanged 13 unrehearsed mes-

composed by a witness and dictated to them. sent and as received, were recorded in writing.

sages, as

All messages,

Upon

;

word "newspaper"; and the command, "pick up two stones," was performed by picking up only one. for the less familiar

A document

exploited Liberal factionalism to restore Conservative control of government in 1946 and his presidential administration (1950-53; was noted for economic development and

intense rural political violence. Illness forced him to cease active presidential duties on Oct. 31, 1951, which he resumed on June

13,

1953. only to be immediately overthrown Pinilla, who seized the presidency.

subse-

quent comparison of notes, 11 messages proved to have been transmitted and understood exactly; 2 showed inconsequential discrepancies the expression "piece of paper" had been substituted

certifying the particulars of the test was placed in

the archives of the island; official copies are in the library of the University of Arizona (Tucson) and the Free Library of Philadelphia.

565

He

1932 to 1943.

In exile (1953-57) chief Alberto Lleras

forced out Rojas on

by Gen. Gustavo Rojas

Gomez concluded agreements

Camargo

May

with Liberal establishing the national front which

Sec Colo.mbia: History. (R. L, Ge.) (18141873), Spanish lyrical poet and dramatist remcmliered chietly for her poems, was born at Puerto Principe (now Camagueyi, Cuba, on March 2i. 1814, and moved in 1836 to Spain, where she pub10,

1957.

GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS

poems (1841) under the pseudonym of La Pere("The Pilgrim"). Her novels, such as Sab (1841) and Cuatimozin (1846). are of no great importance. She obtained, lished her first

GKi-NA

BiBLiOGR.APHY. Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Euro peo- Americana (1907-30), E. A. Hooton, The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands, Harvard .African Studies, vol. 7 (1925) A. Samler Brown, Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores, 14th rev. ed. (19.12); Annette Gest Very, "Talking by Whistling," Natural History (Oct. 1945); A. Gordon-Brown, Madeira and the Canary Islands (1959). (A. G. v.; R. P. Be.) ;

GOMES, DIOGO

ffl.

1440-1482), Portuguese explorer of the

however, a series of successes on the stage with Munio Aljonso (1844), a tragedy in the new^ romantic manner; with SatU 1849), a bibhcal drama; and with Baltasar (1858). La Avellaneda had a (

grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, and a dramatic gift effective in isolated acts or scenes, but she was deficient in constructive power and in in-

Gambia and discoverer of the Cape Verde Islands, was sent by tellectual force. Her lyrics, though instinct with melancholy Prince Henry the Navigator in about 1456 to explore the Guinea beauty or the tenderness of resigned devotion, too often lack coast. Passing beyond the Rio Grande, he was swept back by cur- human passion and sympathy. She died on Feb. 1, 1873. rents and went far up the Gambia to the town of Cantor. There he See E. B. Williams, The Life and Dramatic Works of G. Gomez dt made commercial treaties with the Negro chiefs and saw a flourish- Avellaneda (1924); E. Cotarelo y Mori, La Avellaneda y sus obras ing trade in gold

coming from the south.

He had

with him an

interpreter called Jacob to facilitate communication with Prester

John in Abyssinia. In 1460, on the second voyage, he joined with Antonio da Noli and on their return landed in Santiago in the Cape Verde Islands. Their ships later separated and NoH was the first to report the discovery and is credited with it. Portuguese records of exploration from 1448 to 1470 are almost nonexistent, but Gomes dictated accounts of his voyages, and of other earlier exploratory voyages under Prince Henry, to Martin Behaim about 1484, when both lived in the Azores. Behaim made notes in German, which were translated into Latin by Valentim Fernandes. They were found in a codex in the Royal library at Munich in 1847. See G. Pereira, "Diogo Gomez," Bol. Soc. Geogra. Lisbon, series xvii 1, p. 267 ff. (1S99) G. R. Crone, The Voyages of Cadamosto. Hakluyt Society, second series, no. Ixxx, p. 91 ff. (1937). (.\. Ds.) no.

;

GOMEZ, JUAN VICENTE tator,

known

(c.

(.1930).

GOMEZ

(1781-1858), Mexican reforms of 1833-34 that make him a precursor of Benito Juarez. Born in Guadalajara on Feb. 14, 1 78 1, and trained as a physician, he first became prominent in politics in 1S22. In 1833' he was elected vice-president in the administration of .Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (q.v.). His energetic support of laws that were designed to prune the temporal powers of the church, reduce the influence of the army and the landowning gentry and reform the university, caused his exile to New Orleans in 1835. A zealous lifelong advocate of federal republican government, he admired the U.S., but this changed to distrust by the time of the Mexican War, during which he was Personally devout, he was nonetheless an again \'ice-president. anticlerical, an attitude that has made him a controversial figure in Mexican history. He died in Mexico City on July 5, 1858. See Vicente Fuenles Diaz,

1857-1935), Venezuelan dic-

as "the tyrant of the Andes,"

was a nearly

FARIAS, VALENTIN

liberal leader, notable for his social

Gomez

full-

Farias, padre de la reforma (1948). (C. A. Hn.)

SAMUEL

helping Cipriano Castro shoot his way into the presidency. He served as commander in chief of the army and vice-president, and when Castro went to Europe in 1908 for medical treatment, the faithless Gomez seized power and had himself named president.

(1850-1924), for many years the GOMPERS, most prominent U.S. labour leader, was born in London on Jan. 27, 1850, and emigrated in 1863 to New York, where he followed his father's trade of cigar making and became a naturalized citizen As a labour leader, Gompers gained a world-wide repuin 1872. In a period when the U.S. was bitterly tation for conservatism.

He

hostile to labour organizations, he evolved the principles of "volun-

and the Catholic Church and kept

tarism," which stressed that unions should exert coercion by economic actions, i.e., strikes and boycotts. In 1886 Gompers led the

blooded Indian. Of poor birth, he was raised in San Antonio, Tachira state, where he attained wealth and local influence before

He completely dominated

the country until his death in 1935.

silenced the provincial caudillos the

army contented by providing

it

with modern equipment.

makers from the Knights of Labor form the American Federation of Labor (A.F.L.), of which he was president from 1886 to 1924 (except for one year, 1895). He distrusted the influence of intellectual reformers, fearing any activity which would divert labour's energy from economic goals. To make unionism respectable as a bulwark against radicalism and irresponsible strikes, he encouraged binding, written trade agreements and advocated the primacy of national organizations over both local unions and international afl^iliations. Gompers kept the A.F.L. politically neutral until pressed by employer tactics, including an open-shop drive, and by federal court injunctions which greatly weakened labour's economic weapons, the strike, picket line and boycott. The Democratic platform of

Gomez' friendly

national organization of cigar

tions of

to

relations with his neighbours, the U.S., and the nawestern Europe, and large-scale material development, made possible by revenues from the rapidly expanding petroleum industry, served to draw attention away from a brutal dictatorship. Gomez combined an insatiable acquisitiveness for money and power with' an abundant capacity for immorality. When he died Dec. 17, 1935, he was the "dean" of all Latin-American tyrants,

with 27 years to his credit, still busily adding to his riches, and, as a bachelor, to a long list of illegitimate children. See Venezuela: History. (J. J. J.)

GOMEZ, LAUREANO ELEUTERIO

(1889), Colombian politician, was born Feb. 20, 1889, in Bogota. He obtained an engineering degree in 1909 from the National university, and entered politics and journalism. Gomez has held numerous high public offices and in 1 932 became chief of the Conservative party, leading its fight against the Liberal party in congress

from

1908 included an anti-injunction plank; hence, Gompers supported With the victory Bryan's unsuccessful presidential candidacy. of Woodrow Wilson in 1912, the Clayton amendments to the Sher-

GOMPERZ— GONCHAROV

566

were passed Antitrust act (1914) and the Adamson act (1916) hailed Gompers 9 1 ) ( 1 3 created was and a cabinet post for labour but the U.S. the Clayton amendments as labour's "Magna Carta." He supreme court interpretation of the act vitiated this hope.

man

.

died at San Antonio. Tex., Dec. 13, 1924. United States See J R Commons et al., History of Labour in the Labor (1925). (1921); Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and (R. M. R.)

GOMPERZ, THEODOR

(1832-1912). German philosopher (Brno, Czech.) on March and He studied at Briinn and under Hermann Bonitz at 29, 1832. Vienna. Professor of classical philology at Vienna from 1873 to classical scholar,

was born

at BriJnn

1901 he was elected a member of the Academy of Science in 1SS2. received the D. Ph. honoris causa from Konigsberg (Kalininbegrad) and the D. Litt. from Dublin and from Cambridge and came correspondent for several learned societies. He died Aug. .

He

29, 1912, at

Baden-bei-Wien, Aus.

Gomperz supervised

Portuguese literature, was born in Rio de Janeiro, Braz., on March He went to Portugal as a youth and studied at the 11, 1846. University of Coimbra. He married the writer Maria AmaUa Vaz de Carval'ho, who introduced him to Lisbon society and the Uterary salons of the capital. He was a member of parliament for a short time, and also editor of the Jornal do Comercio and a contributor He was a founder of the review A Folha, to literary journals. which stimulated Portuguese interest in French Parnassian poetry.

Gongalves Crespo produced only two volumes of verse Miniatiiras (1870) and Nocturnos 1SS2 ), both of which reveal the formal influence of Theophile Gautier, Leconte de Lisle and Frangois Coppee. Though, as their titles suggest, many of his themes are romantic, he displays a greater precision, more careful observation and a finer sensibility than many of the romantics. Though he ;

{

cannot be. considered a great poet and several of his poems are only conventional salon art, he was a craftsman in verse who renewed and refreshed the poetic vocabulary of his day.

He

a translation of J. S. Mill's complete works,

volumes (1869-80) and wrote a life of.Mill (1889). His Griechische Denker: eine Geschichte dcr antiken Philosophie, 2 volumes (1893-1902; new ed.. 3 volumes. 1922-24; Eng. trans., 4 volumes, 1901-12 is the work for which he is chiefly remembered. (1905- ), Polish Commu12

died at Lisbon on June 11, 1883.

—

Bibliography. Prefaces by T. de Queiros and M. A. Vaz de Carvalho to the Obras completas (ISQ?) Candido de Figueiredo, Figuras Perspectiva da literirias (1906) J. J. Cochofel, "Gonqalves Crespo" In (N. J. L.) Literatura Portuguesa do Seculo XIX, vol. ii (1948). ;

;

)

GOMULKA, WLADYSLAW

nist

leader,

a

victim

of

Stalinist

persecution

who

returned to

after the dramatic events of Oct. 1956, was born at Krosno, At 14 he started work as southern Poland, on Feb. 6. 1905. plumber, in 1921 he organized a Socialist working youth association and in 1926 he joined the clandestine Communist Party of Poland (K.P.P.). He acted as trade union organizer and in 1932, during a skirmi.sh with the police in Lodz, he was shot in the leg, arrested and sentenced to four years' imprisonment for conspiracy against the

power

Released in 1934, he went to the Moscow Lenin CommuOn his return to Poland he was re-arrested in nist Party school. 1936 and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. He was at the Sieradz prison on Sept. 1, 1939, when the Germans invaded Poland, and he fled to Warsaw. After the surrender of the capital he headed for Lwow. then occupied by the Soviet army. When Lwow was occupied by the Germans in June 1941, Gomulka started his activity as an underground Communist organizer, first "Comrade in southern Poland and, from Jan. 1942, in Warsaw. Wieslaw," as he was then called, was elected a member of the central committee of the new Polish Workers' party (P.P.R.) state.

At the end of in Nov. 1943, made him secretar>'-general. July 1944 he left Warsaw and passed to the Soviet-occupied part On Dec. 31, 1944, he was appointed deputy premier of Poland. in the provisional government formed at Lublin, retaining this

which,

post in three successive cabinets. He kept his post as the party's secretary-general until Sept. 3, Stalin and Beria 1948. when Boleslaw Bierut succeeded him.

GONCALVES

DIAS,

ANTONIO

(1823-1864), Brazilian

"Song of Exile," probably the most memorized poem in the Portuguese language. Born near Caxias (Maranhao). he was educated at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. His collection of poems. Primeiros Cantos (1846). was enthusiastically praised by a distinguished Portuguese contempoThe poet's immediate popularity rary, Alexandro Herculano. was enhanced by Segmidos Cantos e Sextilbas de Fret Antdo (1848), and especially Vltimos Cantos (1851), which virtually poet, wrote

the

nostalgic

closed the cycle of his lyrics. final decade of his life he held various governmental which he surveyed the school system of northern Brazil, studied European educational institutions, did research on Brazilian historical sources in European archives and participated in a scientific expedition. The unfinished epic poem on the Indian tribe Os Tambiras (1857), an unsuccessful attempt at creating a "Brazilian Iliad," and the Diciondrio da Lingua Tupi (1858) reflect his preference for indigenous subjects. He went to Europe in 1862 and upon his return trip was drowned in a shipwreck within sight of the coast of his native state (Nov. 3, 1864). Many of his poems were inspired by a series of fleeting romances which consoled, and aflSicted, his insatiable heart. In this and other respects, including the excessive vehemence of several of his amorous complaints, he remained a typical romanticist; however, he often succeeded in attaining the utmost spontaneity, and a subtlety of expression in perfect consonance with the natural genius of his people. Modern critics tend to consider him the most repre-

In the

posts, in

sentative poet of Brazil.

—Manuel

accused him of nationalist deviation because in a speech in June 1948 Gomulka had paid tribute to the services rendered to the In Jan. 1949 he was disnation by the Polish Socialist party.

Poilicas,

missed from the government and in November expelled from the party. On July 31, 1951, he was deprived of his parliamentary immunity and arrested. He was placed in solitary confinement but was never tried. On April 21, 1955, he was released by order of Bierut, but this became publicly known only in March 1956, after Bierut's death. On .^ug. 4, Gomulka was rehabihtated and restored as a member of the United Polish Workers' party (P.Z.P.R.), as it was now called. He was co-opted to the central committee and its Politburo on Oct. 19, and two days later, in a secret ballot, was elected first secretary. At a dramatic meeting of the Polish Politburo with N. S. Khrushchev. V. M. Molotov, L. M. Kaganovich

Born on June 1891), a leading 19th-century Russian novelist. 18 (new stvle; June 6, old style), 1812, into a wealthy merchant family at Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk), he graduated from Moscow university in 1834 and served for nearly 30 years as an oflacial, first in the ministry of finance and afterward in the censorship. The only out-of-the-way event in his externally uneventful life was his voyage to Japan made in 1852-55 as secretary of a Rus-

and A. L Mikoyan— in the night of Oct. 19-20, 1956, at the historic Belweder palace Gomulka explained to the Soviet officials that they must respect the independence and sovereignty of the PoUsh people's democracy. See also Poland: The People's Republic.

—

(K. Sm.)

GONADS, DISORDERS OF:

GONCALVES

CRESPO,

(1846-1883;, Portuguese poet

see

Urinary System.

ANTONIO

CANDIDO

who introduced Parnassianism

into

Bandeira's definitive edition of Obras Lucia Miguel Pereira, A Vida de Gnncalves Dias (1943) Samuel Putnam, Marvelous Journey, pp. 111-114 (1948); (A. M. d. R.) Manuel Bandeira, Gongalves Dias (1952).

Bibliography. 2

(1944)

vol.

;

;

GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEKSANDROVICH

sian admiral

;

this

was described

in Fregat Pallada

("The

(1812-

Frigate

Pallas," 1858),

His most notable achievement the

first

mon

was Obyknovennaya

Story, 1917).

lies in his

three novels, of which

istpriya (1847; Eng. trans.,

A Com-

This immediately made his reputation when'

was acclaimed by the influential-critic Vissarion Belinski (q-v). But it is a relatively immature work when compared with Oblomov

it

(1859; Eng. trans., 1954), generally accepted as one of the halfr dozen most important Russian novels. The hero, Oblomov, is perhaps the most famous single character in Russian literature

—

GONCOURT—GOND triumph of characterization, being an extreme portrait of laziness and ineffectiveness which has been taken by some as reflecting a typical Russian character trait. Contemporary Russian and

a

is

critics exaggerated the social criticism which they believed the novel to contain, especially as the information about the hero's early life could be interpreted as an attack on serfdom. Goncharov's third novel, Obryv (1869; Eng. trans., The Precipice,

1915), although a remarkable work, cannot stand comparison with Obloniov. In all three novels Goncharov is concerned to illuminate the clash of an easy-going dreamer with an opposed character who typifies businesslike efficiency. This seems to reflect a wish on Goncharov's part to bring himself to approve of such

features of modernity as growing industrialization and technical sympathies are with the traditions of the

efficiency, while his real

old-world Russia in which he was himself brought up. Of Goncharov's minor writings the most influential was an essay on Aleksandr Griboedov's play Gore ot uma ("Woe From Wit"). He died in St. Petersburg on Sept. 27 (new style; IS old style) 1891. See

Lavrin, Goncharov

J.

roman

russe,

GONCOURT, the

(1954)

A. A. Mazon,

;

Vn Maitre du

Ivan Gonlcharov (1914).

19th century

the

(R. F. Hi.)

name

who

of two remarkable French writers of achieved distinction as art critics, his-

and diarists, and of the academy and prize which the elder Goncourt founded. Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de GoNCOURT was born at Nancy, May 26, 1822, and died at Champrosay, July 16, 1896. Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, his brother, was born in Paris, Dec. 17, 1830, and died in Paris, June torians, novelists

20, 1870.

when

their

mother died

in 1848, the

Gon-

courts devoted the rest of their lives to art, history and literature. to the point of arrogance, glorying in their aris-

They were proud

tocratic breeding, their artistic tastes,

writer:

and above

all their

which they regarded as an essential quality of

sickness, they asserted,

"makes a man

a

neurotic

modern

sensitive like a

photographic plate," while Edmond told fimile Zola that "our entire work is built on nervous illness." They never married, ostensibly out of loyalty to their art, but probably because of unfortunate experiences with the opposite sex: Edmond may have been imDotent, Jules certainly suffered and died from syphilis, and the novels of both brothers are profoundly misogynistic. And although very different in temperament Edmond was ponderous, reserved and sentimental, Jules volatile, witty and ironic they felt, thought and wrote in close unison, living harmoniously together for more

—

—

than 20 years, and collaborating so successfully that it is imposto attribute with certainty any particular passage in their writings to one brother. sible

As

most notable achievement was L'Art du dix1859-75 j, a pioneer work now recognized as a classic, in which they rescued Antoine Watteau and other masters of 18th-century French art from the discredit into which they had fallen. They failed to show the same discernment when judging their contemporaries, placing A. G. Decamps above Delacroix and Paul Gavarni above Daumier, attributing too much importance to Japanese art, and remaining blind to the merits of the French Impressionists, despite the fact that they themselves were trying to art critics their

huitieme siecle

achieve the

(

same

effects in literature.

Their historical studies Histoire de la Societe jrariQaise pendant Revolution (1854), Portraits intimes du dix-huitieme sitcle (1857-58), La Femme au dix-huitibme siecle (1862), etc. were inspired by a new and fruitful concept of history. Infected from early youth with a fanatical enthusiasm for bibelots or objets d'art, the Goncourts maintained that a historian could not fully understand a period of which no dress pattern or dinner menu had survived. Concentrating their attention on their favourite period, the 18th century, they used just such material as dress patterns and dinner menus to create pictures of the age which have both great charm and considerable value. la

—

The same meticulous documentation and the same

attention to

so-called trivialities of life went to the writing of the Goncourts' levels, which they described as "history which might have taken Wace." Again, just as they had studied many different classes of ;;he

Church

m Madame Gervaisais (1869), and in the novels written by Edmond alone, the brothel in La Fille lilisa (1877), the circus in Les

Zemgamw (1879), the theatre in La Faustin (1882), and court circles in Chdrie (1884). By their frank presentation of upper and lower classes, and their wealth of impressive if not always accurate medical detail, these works point the way to the modern social novel: Germinie Lacerteux deserves particular mention in Prires

this respect as the first realistic French novel of working-class life and the book which inspired Zola's L'Assommoir. But with the exception of such short, compact works as Soeur Philomine and La Fille Msa, the Goncourts' novels suffer from over-long expositions, excessive description, fragmentary chapters, and a selfconsciously aristocratic and artistic attitude on the part of the

authors.

The

employed by the Goncourts, their notorious match the modernity of their subjects. They maintained that tortured syntax and a vast vocabulary teeming with neologisms and technical terms were necessary to render the moral and material complexities of modem distinctive style

was

ecriture artiste,

hfe.

specially devised to

Critics in the 20th century tend to dismiss the resultant style

mannered and obsolete, failing to realize that countless words and constructions introduced by the Goncourts have been so comas

pletely integrated into the

Left a modest fortune

sensibility,

567

18th-century society in their histories, so they covered a vast range of 19th-century milieux in their novels: the world of journalism and literature in Charles Demailly (I860), the hospital in Soeur Philomhte (1861), upper middle-class society in Renie Mauperin (1864), the servant and shopkeeper milieux in Grrminie Lacertetix (1864), the artistic world in Manelte Salomon (1867), the

forgotten.

The

influence than

French language that

their origin

ecriture artiste has had greater success

is

is

now

and wider

generally acknowledged.

The Goncourts were never popular with

either the public or their fellow writers, and they attributed this to an unkind fate and professional envy. Their first novel. En 18 ... was published the morning after the coup d'etat of 1851 and went unnoticed. Their play Henriette Marechal, produced at the Thcatre-Fran(;ais in 1865, provoked political demonstrations and was rapidly taken off. Their ,

admiring disciple Zola reaped a considerable fortune, established a world-wide reputation, and became the leader of the Naturalist movement in French literature, by copying their methods. Year by year they became more obsessed by the question of their reputation; in his last conversations before his death in 1870, Jules dwelt with morbid insistence on their claims to immortality, and the surviving brother did his best to ensure the survival of their

name by

all

the

means

at his disposal.

in the so-called Grenier,

two rooms

He opened

in his

a literary salon

house at Auteuil. and

in

1882 announced that he intended to leave his fortune to endow a literary academy. This academy was to consist of ten writers who would receive a stipend and award a prize of 5,000 fr. ever>' year to the author of an outstanding work of literature. After prolonged litigation the

Academie Goncourt was

oflicially

constituted in 1903,

with J. K. Huysmans as its first president. The real monetary value of both stipend and prize is now small, but the academicians derive a certain prestige from their position, and the winner of a Prix Goncourt gains immense profit from the sale of his work. In the last analysis, however, the Goncourts' best defense against the oblivion they dreaded has proved to be their Journal. Begun in Dec. 1851 and continued until July 1896, it was published in part

by Edmond during his lifetime, the last of nine volumes appearing a few weeks before his death. By the terms of his will, the entire text might have been made public in 1916, but the Academie GonPublicacourt, fearing a crop of libel actions, decided otherwise. tion of the integral work began only in 1956, and ended three years Full of critical judgments, scabrous anecdotes, descriptive later. sketches, literary gossip and thumb-nail portraits, the complete is at once a revealing autobiography and a monumental

Journal

history of social and literary

life in

Bibliography.— Pierre Sabatier,

19th-century Paris.

L'EsMtique des Goncourt (1920);

Robert Ricatte, La Creation romanesque chez Ics Goncourt (1953); Andre Billy, Les Frires Goncourt (19S4); Robert Baldick, The (R- ^A.) Goncourts (1960).

GOND: see Gondwana.

—

GONDA—GONDWANA

;68

GONDA

a municipal

town and

Fyzabad division mi. E.N.E. of Lucknow, is

district in the

of Uttar Pradesh, India. The town. 75 railway metre-gauge system bea junction on the North-Eastern 43 .496. tween Lucknow and the Nepal frontier. Pop. ( 1 96 1) is an 2,073,237) pop. sq.mi.; [1961] (2.829 District GoMDA Rapti plain extending from the Gogra river across the alluvial

the Nepal to the forest belt at the foot of low hills on The main industries are the Part is subject to frequent floods. Balrampur, making of sugar and alcohol, and oilseed crushing. At university. Ten Gorakhpur of college is a Gonda, of N.E, mi 18 Mahet ). the site miles northwest of Balrampur is Sahet Mahet (Set estate given to of the ancient Sravasti. Sravasti was a monastic till the 4th century and disciple, princely by a Buddha the itinerant frontier.

modern name

was a Buddhist centre and local capital. The marked by indicates Sahet. site of Buddhist monasteries now Excafortress. crescent-shaped ruined large mounds, and Mahet, a stupas or relic vations have disclosed sites of ten temples and five A,D,

(B. Si.)

domes.

GONDAR,

the capital of

Begemdir province, Ethiopia, and a

former capital of the country, stands at about 7,500 ft. elevation on a basaltic ridge from which streams flanking the town flow to Lake Tana, about 21 mi. S. Pop. (1959 est.) 14,000, It was a small village when chosen early in the 1 7th centurj' by the negus Susenyos (Seged I) as his capital. His son FasiUdas (A'lem Seged, 1633-67 and later emperors built castles and palaces of which the ruins stand within a walled "imperial enclosure"; the most important are: the castle of Fasilidas. the palace of lyasu the Great )

(1682-1706), the House of Song built by David III (Adbar Seged, 1716-21),andthepalacesofMassih Seged (Bakaffa, 1721-30) and The style of the castles, his wife Mentuab (regent, 1730-60). ascribed to Portuguese influence, also has connections with earlier Ethiopian buildings and with palaces in the Hadhramaut cities near the original home of the Aksumites, Few remain of the 44 churches reputed to have existed in mid-lSth century, but Gondar is still an important centre of the Ethiopian Coptic Church. On the Epiph-

any (observed on Jan. 19) a public baptismal ceremony, the Temqat (Timkat), is attended by many dignitaries at the Bath of Fasilidas. Most of the townsfolk are Christians, but Muslims and groups of Falashas dwell in the surrounding country.

ornaments of gold,

work

1

silver,

are local products.

Cotton, cloth,

bone and ivory, copperware and leatherhospital has an attached col-

The modern

lege training medical staff for rural clinics.

The Scottish traveler James Bruce {q.v.) in 1770-71 lived at Gondar in the nearby castle of Koosquam and estimated the town's population at 10,000 families. During the period 1750-1890 Gondar suffered much from the civil wars then raging and was more than once sacked, notably by the dervishes under Abu Anga in 1887; however, after British pacification of the Sudan (1889\ trade revived between Gondar and the Blue Nile regions. Following the Italian conquest and occupation of Ethiopia, Gondar fell in World War II to British, Sudanese and Ethiopian troops on Nov. 2S, 1941, after a siege of several months, (G, C, L,)

GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, CoNDE DE (1567-1626), Spanish

who achieved a great was a member of a prom-

diplomatist,

reputation in England for his craftiness,

His diplomatic fame rests largely on his two embassies to England (1613-18 and 1620-22), The chief objective of his first mission was to persuade the English government to abandon its alliance with France and the Protestant countries on the continent and to form an alliance with Spain, His courtly manners and keen intellect, as well as his wit, made a strong impression on James I, and his influence is described by Arthur Wilson (The History of Great Britain, 1653) "Gondomar had as free access to the King as any Courtier of them all (Buckingham excepted) and the King took delight to talk with him; for he was full of Conceits, and would speak false Latin a purpose in his merry fits to please the King; telling the King plainly. He [James) spoke Latin like a Pedant, but I speak it hke a Gentleman," Gondomar's ascendancy over the king developed to such a degree that on some occasions he could practically dictate royal pohcies. Consequently, he became the object of much criticism, A Puritan minister, Thomas Scot, attacked him in a pamphlet, inent noble family in Galicia,

:

Vox Populi (1620); and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him the hero-villain (the Black Knight) of his play A Game at Chess (1622), which was suppressed by order of the pri\'y counThe English public generally detested him. At the height cil. of his unpopularity, in 1622, he was recalled to Spain and there

made

a

member

of the council of state.

Except for

a mission to

Vienna, his diplomatic career was over, and he died in 1626,

—

Bibliography, Correspondencia oficial de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuiia, conde de Gondomar, 4 vol. (1936-45) F, H, Lyon, Gondomar (1910); Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (1955), ;

(R.C.Jo.)

GONDOPHARES

(probably 1st century a.d.), an IndoParthian king, whose realm included Arachosia, Kabul and Gandhara, was first known from the apocryphal Acts of Judas TJwimts the Apostle.

It

is

said that St.

Thomas

visited the court of

Gondo-

phares where he was put in charge of the construction of a royal palace. He was imprisoned for spending the money entrusted to him on charitable purposes on the king's behalf. Meanwhile Gad, the king's brother, died, and the angels took him to heaven and

showed him the palace which St. Thomas had built there by his good deeds. Gad was restored to life and both he and his brother were converted to Christianity. Some scholars recognize the name of Gondophares, through its Armenian form Gathaspar, in Caspar, the first of the "three wise men." who came from the east to worship Christ at his nativity. Another apocryphal work, the Evangeliiim loannis de obitu Mariae. in the view of some scholars, supports the story of St, Thomas' visit to Gondophares, The coins of Gondophares, bearing his Indian name Guduphara, depict Zeus, Pallas, Nike and the Indian deity Shiva. On the basis of the Takht-i-Bahi inscription (Peshawar district) Gondophares ruled for at least 26 years: most scholars believe from about a.d. 19 to 45. BIBLI0GR.APHY. Cambridge History of India, vol. i (1922); J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, The Scythian Period (1949); R. B. Whitehead, Catalogue of the Coins in the Panjab Museum Lahore, vol. i (1914); A. E. Medlycott, India and the Apostle Thomas (1905). (A. K. N.) part of middle India inhabited by the Gonds,

GONDWANA,

a

in number. The Muslim historians of term Gondwana for the hilly

group of aboriginal peoples exceeding 3.000.000

name Gond

occurs

the 14th century,

first in

who

the chronicles of

also coined the

and then sparsely populated country extending from the Vindhya mountains in the north as far south and east as the lower Godavari This tract was then mainly inriver and the Eastern Ghats, habited by tribal populations, and powerful Gond dynasties wielded authority over extensive areas. The three most important Gond kingdoms were those of Garha, Deogarh and Chanda, and their" rulers continued to hold power as tributaries of the Mogul emperors. In the ISth century they were conquered by the Marathas and the greater part of Gondwana was incorporated in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, while some districts fell Between 1S18 and 1853 the greater to the nizam of Hyderabad. part of the region passed to the British, but in some minor Chhattisgarh states the rule of Gond rajas continued until 1947.' Most of Gondwana is now divided between the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, but substantial groups of Gonds are also found in Orissa. The majority of Gonds speak an various, and in part mutually unintelligible, dialects of Gondi,

unwritten Dravidian language. Other groups have lost their own language and speak Hindi, Marathi or Telugu in accordance with still the language dominant in their respective habitat. All those speaking Gondi describe themselves as Koitur, There is no cultural uniformity among the various branches of the Gond, Most advanced are the Raj Gonds, who had developed an elaborate feudal order. Local rajas, linked by ties of blood or

,

marriage to the royal house {e.g., that of Chanda), exercised authority over groups of villages. A rich mythology validates a complex system of exogamous, patrilineal clans grouped into larger! l

exogamous

units deriving their solidarity

from the

cult of deitiesi]

connected with the ancestors of the group. Hereditary bards, belonging to the Pardhan community, maintain the traditions of the whole tribe and of individual clans through the medium of an exExcept for the fortified seats of rajas. tensive oral literature.

GONDWANALAND settlements were formerly of little permanence, and cultivation though practised with plows and oxen, involved frequent

shifting

of fields

and clearing of new

tracts of forest land.

Legislation on land tenure during the British period has led to greater stability of holdings, which are now individually owned. Though often in contact with caste Hindus, the Raj Gonds continue to stand outside the Hindu caste system, acknowledging neither the superiority of Brahmans nor feeling bound by Hindu rules, such as the ban on cow-killing. The highlands of Bastar (q.-u.) are the home of three important Gond tribes, i.e., the Murias, Bisonhorn Marias

and

Hill Marias.

The

latter, inhabiting the

rugged Abujhmar hills'. are the most primitive. Slash-and-burn cultivation on hill .slopes is their traditional type of agriculture, and hoes and digging-sticks are still more widely used than plows. The villages are periodically moved, and the commonly owned land of each clan contains several village _sites occupied over the years in rotation. Bisonhorn Marias, so-called after their dance headdresses, live in less hilly country, and have more permanent fields cultivated with plows and

The same applies to the Murias known for their youthdormitories (ghotul). in the framework of which the unmarried of both sexes lead a highly organized social life of their own, receive bullocks.

training in civic duties, tions.

The

and are

religion of all

and village

free to

Gond

deities, propitiated

have premarital sexual

rela-

tribes centres in the cult of clan

with animal

569

Thimijeldia, also a seed fern (see Paleobotany t, characterized the tiora of Triassic Gondwanaland in the early

The Permian "White Band"

strata in

Brazil.

Mesozoic era. South Africa and

Madagascar carry Mesosanriis,

a diminutive aquatic reptile, usujudged to have been of fresh-water ecology. Triassic terrestrial reptiles, especially mammal-like forms, occur in south Brazil and South Africa. The force of their argument is however somewhat reduced by the discovery of related groups in Texas and ally

Russia.

The stratigraphic sequence, and hence physical history, of the existent fragments of the h>'pothetical Gondwanaland are generally quite similar; between Brazil and South Africa the parallelism is close. Sedimentary analysis of the Gondwana sediments has repeatedly

demonstrated

sourcelands

lying

beyond

the

present

strands.

A striking degree of ecologic uniformity appears from stage to stage in the geologic history of the vast continent. Synchronous continental glaciation recurred several times: Cambrian (Brazil, Australia, Africa ?), Siluro-Devonian (Australia, Brazil, Africa ?)' Devonian

(Brazil, South Africa, Australia), and especially PermoCarboniferous glaciation in all Gondwana relicts. These cold episodes were apparently circumpolar, and the ice descended to

sea level as attested by interlarded marine faunas and glacial beds.

including

Considerable Gondwana coal was also formed interglacially on cows or bulls, and there is also extensive ancestor coastal plains. Glacial scratches and lineation phenomena in the worship. There is a belief in the survival of two separate aspects Gondwanaland rocks commonly indicate flowage of the inland of the human personality: the shade which goes to the land of ice from areas now oceanic. Erratic elements in the glacial drift ancestors and departed, and the soul-substance which returns to are often completely foreign to the lands where they now repose, the supreme god Bhagwan and may be reincarnated in the family e.g., Brazilian diamonds. of the deceased. The erection of monuments of crude stone or Essentially the same nonrecorded hiatuses occur throughout carved wooden pillars in honour of departed kinsmen is customary Gondwanaland, suggesting synchronous episodes of upHft and erosacrifices,

sacrifices of

among

Gonds of Bastar.

the

sion.

Bibliography.— W. V. Grigson, The Maria Gonds oj Bastar (1938); Verrier Elwin, The Muria and their Ghotul (1947); C. von FurerHaimendorf, The Raj Gonds oj Adilabad (1948). (C. v. F.-H.)

GONDWANALAND. (q.v.),

The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic record is of widespread Local coal swamps and reptile oases occurred. Red

deserts.

beds are almost ubiquitous at this time. In Rhaetic (late Triassic) time widespread tensional faulting occurred and concomitantly

This name, derived from Gondwana the world's greatest episode was given by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess to the igneous rocks from the deep

inferred ancient continent, that at

its

greatest extension hypo-

of intrusion and extrusion of basic All fragments of GondwanaFollowing this period of diastro-

crust.

land show this igneous episode. phism and vulcanism, virtually

spanned the South Atlantic and Indian oceans, ,'t emall biotic and physical parallelism (except northwest) Africa, Madagascar, peninsular in the Gondwanaland remnants ceases. Proponents of the GondIndia, Australia, Tasmania, Antarctica, the Falklands and all South wanaland concept postulate that the continent broke up at this America except the extreme west and northwest. Between the time and that vast segments foundered into the oceanic depths. Devonian and Jurassic, its unstable margins were intermittently Paleoclimatologists have found Gondwanaland impossibly large, and widely transgressed by the oceans, the sea bounding it on the especially with respect to the Permo-Carboniferous extensive glanorth, wherein deposition went on continuously down to the ciations. Consequently both F. B. Taylor and .Alfred Wegener Tertiary, being called the Tethys. visualized the Gondwanaland disruption as having been a drifting The distribution of existing plants and animals, and especially apart of sectors through the viscous basic subcrust. Hence the of those. having disjunctive distribution, e.g., lungfish (Australia. reassembled blocks would result in a far smaller Gondwanaland. South Africa, South America), marsupials (Australia, South Neither the oceanic bridges of Suess nor continental drifting America), sugarbush (Austraha, South Africa), araucarian pines have received general geologic support. Oceanography and geo(South America, Falklands, Australia, South Pacific), antarctic, physics have failed to reveal significant areas of continental type or false, beech Not/iofagns) (Chile, Tierra del Fuego, New Zea- rocks on the ocean floors. Basic rocks form the general abyssal land and Australia-Tasmania) often led to the inference of former floor. Continental drifting has also won few supporters among transoceanic land connections. P. L. Sclater's Lemuria (Africa, earth scientists. Historical geologists argue that similar sequences of strata and Madagascar, India) and Hermann von Ihering's Arch-hellenis physical history can occur in widely separated areas never con(South America, Africa) are other examples. They suggest that some of the Paleontologic data from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras have nected or in close proximity. strongly bolstered the theory of Gondwanaland bridges, although supposedly synchronous events in diverse parts of Gondwanaland the hypothesis of a huge, transverse southern continent is much may have been heterochronous, thus meeting the paleoclimatologless widely accepted. Devonian invertebrate, benthonic (bottom- ical argument for Gondwana of the proponents of the theory of dweUing), marine faunas of Brazil, Uruguay and the Falkland Is- continental drift. Probably the majority of biologists prefer to lands and South Africa have so similar a stamp that John M. explain disconnected distributions of floral and faunal forms on thetically

braced

all

(

Clarke postulated "Flabellitesland" based on the occurrence of a brachiopod a continental mass bridging the South Atlantic, across (

)

,

which a shallow Devonian sea transgressed. The flabeUites faunal type has been discovered also in Tasmania. In the later Carboniferous-Permian strata a comparable type of fauna, characterized by the pelecypod Eurydesma, is known from India, Argentina, South Africa and Austraha. There was a contemporary and ubiquitous Gondwana coal flora, characterized by the seed ferns Clossopteris and Gangamopteris South America. Antarctica. Falklands, South Africa, the subcontinent of India, Australia). (

the

basis

of

established

migrations

along

transitory

isthmian

swimming, floating and rafting, or of wind transport or carriage by flying organisms; and by parallel (analogous) evolution. These are seemingly generally adequate explanalinks, island-hopping,

tions, especially

time, although

when considered

by no means have

against the vastness of geologic all

disjunctions been accounted

for.

Both Suess's theory of a continent of Gondwanaland and Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift are discussed in some detail Examples of the application of the in the article Contine.nt.

—

GONFALONIER—GONIOMETER

570

the wideconcept in explaining geologic phenomena, especially will be found in spread occurrence of the index fossil, Glossoptens, mentioned, as Cararticles on the geologic systems and periods Southern boniferous System and Period; Carboniferous of India; Permian System, etc., and in the geology

Hemisphere and India-Pakisections of Africa; Argentina; Asia; Australia; to disprove the tending Hypotheses of. Subcontinent stan, in Isostasy and repossibility of a Gondwanaland are presented See Fossil; Zoogeography; see also references lated articles. under "Gondwanaland" in the Index. See C. Schuchert, "Gondvvana Land Bridges," Geological Society of America, vol. 43

(1932).

in

Bulletin of the (K. b. L.)

GONFALONIER, a title of office in certain western European meaning banner-bearer (ultimately from "war-banner"; Fr. gonfanon; It. gundfano, Old High German Denis gonf alone). The kings of France were gonfaloniers of St. of Vexin annexation the after Vexin of counts the of successors as was Philip I in 1077, and the banner [oriflamme) of St. Denis states in the middle ages,

by

from the end of the 12th century onward with the standIII ard Charlemagne was believed to have received from Pope Leo

identified

in 800.

In Italy, gonfalonier was the title of civic magistrates. In Florgonfaloniers, ence, after 1250, the military companies were under but as civic military service declined the gonfaloniers of the companies functioned from the 14th century onward principally as a high communal magistracy. After 1343, when the city was administratively divided into four districts (quartieri), each of these was subdivided into four gonfaloni, each of the gonfaloni providing one gonfalonier. Similarly, the gonfalonier of justice, whose office may possibly be dated from 1289 but was defined by the Ordinances of Justice in 1293, with the duty of helping to protect the people against the magnates, became subsequently the most prominent member of the signoria. At Lucca also, from the end of the 13th century, there were mihtary companies under a gonfalonier of justice; after 1370 a gonfalonier of justice headed the signoria. In Siena, the military companies of the terzi were under gonfaloniers,

who were commanded by

the capitano del popolo (captain of the

In 1355. after the

people).

fall

of the government of the Nine,

the capitano received the title of gonfalonier of justice together

with more extensive powers. The honorary title of gonfalonier of the church (vexillifer ecclesiae) was conferred by the popes, from the pontificate of Boniface VIII (1294-1303) until the 17th century, on sovereigns and princes; it was sometimes given to commanders of papal armies.

(N. R.)

GONG, a percussion instrument of a

circular metal plate, cast or

oriental origin consisting of

hammered, with the outer edge

circumference. The gong hangs freely in a frame and is struck with a heavy-ended beater covered with felt or leather. There are two types of orchestral gongs, each with turned

down

all

around

its

individual tone cjuality: the large, flat, Chinese gong (tam-tam) with a deep, dark tone of indefinite pitch; and the Burmese gong of heavy metal with a raised boss in the centre, which produces a belllike note of definite pitch. Puccini makes use of a set of tuned gongs,in Turandot. (J. Bl.) its

GONGORA Y ARGOTE,

ish poet,

who brought

LUIS DE

(1561-1627), Span-

to perfection the poetic style called, after

him, Gongorism, was born on July 11, 1561, at Cordoba, where his father was corregidor ("mayor") and owner of a famous library.

He

studied

—not

very seriously

—

at the University of

Salamanca and was already known as a poet in 1585, when Cervantes praised him in the Galatea. He held a benefice in Cordoba cathedral and undertook important missions for the chapter. In 161 2 he settled in Madrid, taking full orders and securing a court chaplaincy in 161 7. In 1626 a stroke impaired his faculties and he returned to Cordoba, where he died. May 23, 1627. Part of Gongora's work was, during his lifetime, the subject of most furious controversy in Spanish literary history. His light verse romances, letrillas, satires, songs for the guitar was widely esteemed, but he was considered to have violated the the

—

and of language in his long poems Poliand Soledades (1613-17). In these he elaborated his

principles of poetry

femo

( 1

61

2)

numerous style (known as culteranismo) by the introduction of Latinisms of vocabulary and sjTitax, and by exceedingly complex imagery and mythological allusions. For three centuries his name was synonymous with obscurity and pedantry, but in the 2Cth century an astonishing revaluation of Gongora took place he came be considered one of Spain's greatest poets, and powerfully in;

to

fluenced contemporary poetry.

Polifemo and Soledades are part

pastoral, part epic; they are plotless and devoid of emotional contheir descriptions of tent, but appeal brilliantly to the senses in persons, nature and rustic scenes, and in the music of their lines. also wrote three unactable plays; an important collecThere are indispensable commenletters survives. his of tion taries on the longer poems. Bibliography.— Oftrai completas (1943) L. P. Thomas, Gongora et le marinisme (1911) le gongorisme consideres dans leurs rapports avec M. Artigas, Don L. de G. y A., Biograjia y estudio critico (1925) D. Estudios y ensayos and Alonso, La lengua poetica de Gongora (1950) ^- ^.^-^ . gongorinos (i95S)'^f'an instrument for measuring the angles of

Gongora

;

;

;

.

GONIOMETER,

— —

the contact goniometer, the recrystals; there are three kinds flecting goniometer and the X-ray goniometer. The Contact Goniometer. This instrument consists of two

metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semiThe instrument is placed with its plane perpencircle (see figure) .

dicular to an edge between two faces of the crystal to be meas-

ured, and the rules are brought into contact with the faces; this

best done by holding the crystal up against the hght with the edge The angle in the Une of sight. between the rules, as read on the graduated semicircle, then gives the angle between the two faces. is

The

CONTACT goniometer

rules are slotted, so that they

be shortened and their tips applied to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument illustrated is employed for the approximate measurement of large crystals. The Reflecting Goniometer. This is an instrument of far greater precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the angles when small crystals with smooth faces are available.

may

—

By reflect sharply defined images of a bright object. turning the crystal about an axis parallel to the edge between two faces, the image reflected from a second face may be brought into the same position as that formerly occupied by the image reflected from the first face; the angle through which the crystal has been rotated, as determined by a graduated circle to which the crystal Such faces

is

fixed, is the angle

between the normals

to the

two

faces.

Several forms of instruments depending on this principle have been devised. The earliest type consisted of a vertical graduated circle reading degrees and minutes, which turned about a horiA great improvement was effected by placing the zontal axis.

Many forms of the position. goniometer have been constructed; they are provided with a telescope and collimator (g.v.). and in construction they are essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrangements for adjusting and centring the crystal on a stage on the horizontal circle. Light from any convenient source reflected is passed through the slit of the collimator and the image graduated

circle in a horizontal

horizontal-circle

from the

crystal face

is

viewed

in the telescope.

The

crystal holder

can be adjusted to bring the image exactly on the cross wires of the telescope. The circle can then be rotated until the image from a second crystal face is brought on the cross wires of the telescope. The angle through which it has been turned is the angle between the two face normals. However, with a horizontal-circle goniometer, it is necessary to mount and readjust the crystal for the measurement of each zone of faces (i.e., each set of faces intersecting in parallel

Further, in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones. These difiiculties have been overcome by the use of a two-circle goniometer. The crystal is set up and adjusted with the axis of a prominent zone parallel to the axis of The positions of the either the horizontal or the vertical circle.

edges).

GONJA—GONZAGA Some

by

the simultaneous readings of the two circles. disadvantages are overcome by adding still another grad-

faces are fixed

uated circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or between any two faces without readjusting the crystal. Goniometers have been devised for measuring crystals during their

growth

mother

in the

liquid

and

for cutting section plates

and

prisms from crystals (precious stones) accurately in any desired direction. An ordinary microscope fitted with cross wires and a rotating graduated stage ser\'es the purpose of a goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a cr>'stal face or section.

The Weissenberg X-ray Goniometer.—This

is

an instrument

used in recording X-ray reflections from crystals. The crystal oscillates through about 200° around an edge, as a cylindrical

camera

translated back and forth parallel to the crystal rotation In M. J. Buerger's design the angle which the rotation axis axis. makes with the X-ray beam is variable. See also Crystallograis

phy: History: Mineralogy. (L. J. S.; J. D. H. D.) GONJA, the Hausa name for the Ngbanya chiefdom occupying the lower third of the Northern Region of Ghana, with the Ashanti (g.v.) to the south and Dagomba (q.v.) to the northeast. The population of c. 74,000 is divided into three estates: rulers, Muslims and commoners. Most of the commoners claim to be autochthonous; they speak various Gur and Guang (one group of the Kwa) languages (see African Langltages The Niger-Congo Family). The rulers and Muslims, who speak a Guang language called Gbanyito, claim descent from Mande immigrants from the Niger :

who

settled south of the Black Volta in the early 17th cenDefeating the Dagomba, they gained control of their present territory, which includes Salaga formerly an important entrepot in trade with the north. In the 18th century eastern Gonja was subjugated by the Ashanti.

bend, tury.

—

The paramount

Yagbumwura, who resides at the adDamongo, is selected in rotation from the eligible divisions. The main occupation is mixed chief, the

ministrative centre, chiefs of the five

farming: yams, cassava, pearl millet, sorghum, maize (corn), with some cattle. See also Ghana: The People. See M. Manoukian, "Tribes of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast," Ethnographic Survey of Africa: Western Africa (19S2). (Jo. R. G.)

GONORRHEA,

by the micro-

a venereal disease initiated

organism Neisseria gonorrhoeae, occurring nearly always as the

re-

and treatable in most cases by penicillin. See Venereal Diseases; see also references under "Gonorrhea" in the Index volume, (d. 1351), founder of GONVILLE (Gonvile), Gonville hall, now Gonville and Caius college, at Cambridge, Eng,, is thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile and the sult of direct sexual contact

EDMUND

brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile.

The foundation

of Gonville hall

Cambridge was effected by a charter granted by Edward III in 1348. It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville hall. Its original site was in Free-school lane, where Corpus Christi at

college

now

stands.

Gonville apparently wished

it

to be devoted

to training for theological study, but after his death the founda-

was completed by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity hall, on a different site and with considerably

tion

altered statutes.

See also Caius, John, an Italian princely house that ruled the town of Mantua between the 14th and the 18th centuries. Their origins are uncertain, but by the 12th century the Corradi family of Gonzaga were established as members of the feudal gentry owning estates near Mantua, to which during the 13th century they managed to add other extensive properties at Verona and Brescia, Cremona and Reggio, Ferrara and other places. They took their

GONZAGA,

name from the village and castle of Gonzaga, situated midway between Mantua and Reggio, and it was in these two cities, especially Mantua, that they first achieved political importance. In Mantua they prospered by supporting and finally supplanting the Bonacolsi iq.v.), whom they overthrew with help from the Scaligeri in 1328.

571

LuiGi Gonzaga (1 268-1 360) led the revolt of Aug. 16, 1328, against Rinaldo Bonacolsi and was then himself proclaimed hereditary captain general by the commune (Aug. 28). In the following year he was nominated imperial vicar by Louis IV the Bavarian. With imperial authority the Gonzaga also extended their control for a time over

Cremona. Reggio and Asolo, but in 1371 they were and surrender Reggio to the Visconti, who during the later 14th century imposed on the reluctant Gonzaga a species of feudal hegemony. In spite of this the Gonzaga successfully consolidated their rule over Mantua, and their court became a compelled to

sell

centre of princely patronage.

Francesco

1382,

also acquired

small

I Gonzaga (1366-1407), ruler of Mantua from dominion over Legnago, Le Stiviere and other places, many of which were subsequently granted out with domains in appanage to members of the ruling family. From

other these

collateral lordships, in particular the principalities of Bozzolo

Sabbioneta,

many

and

distinguished personalities in Gonzaga history

were to come: for example Scipione Gonzaga (1542-93), of the line of Bozzolo, cardinal, patron of the arts and friend of Tasso, Francesco I was created marquis of Mantua in 1403, and this title was revived in 1433 for his son Gianfrancesco I (1395-1444), Under Gianfrancesco the first school inspired by humanistic principles was founded in 1423 in one of the family's villas near Mantua by Vittorino da Feltre, This school, which outlived \'ittorino by many years, was attended not only by the Gonzaga children but by many pupils from outside, rich and poor, foreign and Italian, among them Federigo da Montefeltro, Artists also found their way to Mantua, notably Andrea Mantegna and Leon Battista Alberti, and during the 15 th century the capital city and its dependencies were embellished and transformed. This movement quickened under the influence of Isabella d'Este (1474-1539; see Este, House of), wife of the fourth marquis Francesco II Gonzaga (i466-1519), and during the reign of his successors,

who

raised the

Mantuan

lordship to the height of

its

and power.

In the dangerous and difficult politics that engaged northern Italy after the French invasion of 1494, the Gonprestige

zaga eventually sided with the emperor Charles V, a choice rewarded in 1530 when the marquis Federigo II Gonzaga (1500-40) was made duke of Mantua and granted the marquisate of MontferFederigo's brother, Ferrante I (1507-57), rat (Monferrato), spent most of his long military career in the Habsburg service and administered the duchy of Milan for the emperor between 1546 and 1554, obtained the county of Guastalla (1539), Another brother, Ercole (1505-63), was the presiding cardinal at the Council of Trent from 1561 until his death. It was during the

who

16th century that the court of

Mantua achieved

its

greatest bril-

Palaces and villas were lavishly commissioned and splendidly adorned, among them the famous Palazzo del Te designed by Giulio Romano, and many artists as well as writers of distinction found employment or encouragement in Mantua; Baldassare liance.

Matteo Bandello, Boiardo and Ariosto, Berni and Bembo, Raphael, Leonardo, Titian and Monteverdi. But under ViNCENZo I (1562-1612), whose reign began in 1587, extravaCastigjUone and

gance began to get the better of good taste and sound economy. Revenue was increasingly squandered in licence and display, and

by 1627, when the question of succession to the duchy of Mantua became a cause of conflict in Europe, the financial condition of the Gonzaga was desperate. What made the Mantuan succession so critical a question was the union of Mantua with Montferrat and the strategic importance of both states to the rival powers of France and Austria. A conclusion sought in 1608 by marrying Francesco, Vincenzo's eldest Savoy, was son, to Margaret, daughter of Charles Emmanuel 1 of ineffective;

Francesco died prematurely

in

1612, leaving an infant

Marl\, as his only issue, and while his brother Ferdinando (1587-1626) took control of Mantua, Charles Emmanuel tried to impose his claims on Montferrat by war 1613-18 ). Neither Ferdinando Gonzaga nor his brother and successor Vincenzo II (1594prob1627) had any children, and long before Vincenzo died the girl,

(

Europe. lem of succession had been perplexing the courts of Though their sister Eleonora (1598-1655 j had been married to Vincenzo II had the emperor Ferdinand II in 1622, Ferdinando and

—

GONZAGA—GONZALO

572 wanted that

is

branch of the family— to leave their duchy to the French founded by Fedengo II to the house of Gonzague-Nevers.

had inherited titles Gonzaga's son Lvdovico (Louis; d. 1595 ), who Consequently, m the and acquired conspicuous power in France. on War of the Mantuan Succession (1628-3f), which broke out of the phase as a regarded be may which and Vincenzo's death son Charles, due Thirty Years' War. France supported Ludovico's Rethel de d. 1630V due Charles, son Charles's This de N'evers. to the young had been called to Mantua in 1625 and been married Gonzaga in 1627— against Austria's candidate, Ferrante Fs (

Maria

grandson Ferrante

who had been

II.

created duke of Guastalla by Nevers finally prevailed, be-

Roman emperor in 1621. troops coming duke as Ch.-vrles I in 1631, though only after enemy of Mantua, and plague had together wasted the territory and town daughter Marie until then among the richest in Europe. His elder to two successively married was 1612-67) Louise de Gonzagve and her sister kings of Poland. Wladyslaw IV and John Casimir; Anne (1616-84) was the princesse Palatine who played so subtle the Princes' Imprisa role in the Fronde isee Fronde: The War of onment [Jan. 1650-Feb. 16S1]). Charles I died in 1637. Of his profligate and feeble grandson and the Holv

i

great-grandson Charles II (1629-65) and Ferdinand Charles (1650-17081. littleneedbesaid. Mantua remained involved in the and onflicts of Habsburg and Bourbon, paying the penalty of war; regretted victims of the War of the Spanish Succession it was as unregretted that the Gonzaga ceased to rule. Austrian troops overran Mantua

had fain 1707, and just before his death Ferdinand Charles, who voured the French, was declared guilty of treason to the empire and deprived of his duchy. Charles II's sister Eleonora (162887) had been married to the emperor Ferdinand III in 1651. Bibliography. C. D'.\rco, Studi intorno al municipio di Mantova, Torelli 7 vol. (1871-74); A. Luzio, / Corradi di Gonzaga (1913); P. and A. Luzio, L'archivio Gonzaga, 2 vol. (1920-22); S. Brinton, The (P- J- J) Gonzaga (1927).

—

GONZAGA, SAINT ALOYSIUS

(1568-1591 j, one of the and patron of Roman Catholic at Castiglione in Lombardy on March 9, 1568. the eldest son of the marquis of Castiglione; cousin of Guglielmo Gonzaga, duke of Mantua. He was educated at the ducal courts of Florence and of Mantua and at the royal court of Madrid, where he

most venerated youth, was born

of

modern

saints

In 1585, against the strongest to the heir of Philip II. opposition, he resigned his inheritance and entered the Society of Jesus at Rome. One of his spiritual directors was the renowned

was page

theologian tion, while

on June

Most

Robert Bellarmine {q.v.). Shortly before ordinanursing plague victims, he caught the disease and died

St.

21, 1591, at the

age of 23.

characteristic of the \nrtues of Aloysius

intense love of chastity.

Gonzaga was

his

His practices of prayer, austerity, hu-

mility and charity were also heroic, w^hile his all-absorbing love Yet his exalted holifor God raised him to high mystical union.

ness has

much

heroism and

of

human

his

appeal, especially his strong and constant

generous enthusiasm for the Christian ideal.

Aloysius' reputation suffered from pietistic biographers, but a truer estimation of him as a normal young man has been established by

modern

and F. Schroe1726 by Benedict XIII. Pius XI in 1926 renewed his designation as patron of Catholic youth (originally proclaimed in 1729), affirming that many of the newer canonized saints had been inspired to heroic sanctity by the example

der, S.J.

scholars, notably Cyril C. Martindale, S.J..

He was

canonized

in

of St. Aloysius.

His feast day

is

June

21.

BiBLlocRAPHV. Acta Sanctorum, vol. xxv, June 21, p. 726-1027 (1867) V. Cepari, S.J., Lije oj St. Alovsius, ed. by F. Schroeder, S.J., Eng. trans, by F. Goldie, S.J. (1891); Ludwig Koch, S.J. (ed.), Jesuiten-Lexikon, vol. xliii, xliv (1934) Cyril C. Martindale, S.J., The Vocation of Saint .iloy.':ius (1937); Maurice Meschler, S.]., Life of Saint .llovsiu!, Eng. trans. (1911) Letteri e scrilli spiriluali e annotati dal P. E.Rosa (1926). (M. P. H.) , , ;

;

;

GONZAGA, TOMAS ANTONIO

(1744-1810X the

finest

18th-century Portuguese writer of love poetry. He was born in Oporto on Aug. 11. 1744, his father being a magistrate of Brazilian origin and his mother the daughter of a British merchant. In 1752 he went to Brazil where his father held juridical appointments, but

he graduated he returned in 1763 to study law at Coimbra. where In 1782 he returned to Brazil on being appointed judge in 1768. Here he fell in love with the 16-year-old Maria in Vila Rica. Joaquina Doroteia de SeLxas, the Marilia of his lyrics, but on the charge, almost eve of marriage to her in 1789 he was arrested on a separatist, anti-Portuto a accessory an being of false, certainly senguese conspiracy. After three years' imprisonment he was married tenced to exile for life in Mozambique. There in 1793 he a rich heiress

and

for the rest of his life held import:ant legal posiHe died there early in 18 10.

tions in the colony.

His reputation as a poet rests on Marilia de Dirceu, the first written section of which appeared in 1792. This group of lyrics, before his arrest, expresses the joy of love and the expectation of married happiness, while his second group of poems, which were for his written in prison and appeared in 1799, express yearning beloved and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his forms from Anacreon and Theocritus, but the matter, the natural, elegant Marilia de style and the harmonious versification are his own. Dirceu became one of the most frequently reprinted volumes of poetry in the 19th century in Portugal and Brazil. Gonzaga's complete works were published in 1942. See also M. Rodrigues Lapa, Marilia de Dirceu e mais poesias (ig.?7)-

(N.

J. L.)

MANUEL GONZALEZ, .-,,,, ,,

(1833-1893), Mexican soldier and , t v Ko.,r„„ „»n be ame a, genpresident, born in 1833 in Matamoros, Tamauhpa eral during the evil war of 18.8-60 and president m 1880, at the virtual dictation of Porfirio Diaz. As president, Gonzalez successfully defended Mexican rights in a boundary controversy with Guatemala and granted widespread railroad and mining conces,

but many have criticized his administration for corruption and waste. A land survey law favoured large holders and speculators, and an effort to rehabilitate the currency with new nickel coins brought disastrous inflation. In 1884 when Gonzalez left the presidency, Mexico w-as nearlv bankrupt. He died on May 8, 1893.

sions,

iD. M. Pr.) 1. Spanish diplomat and traveler, was born in Madrid and became chamberlain On the return of his to King Henry III of Castile and Leon. first embassy from the court of Timur, Henry dispatched another

GONZALEZ DE CLAVIJO, RUY

(d

1412

which included Gonzalez and a Tatar adviser. They sailed from St. Mary Port, near Cadiz, on May 22, 1403. touched at Gaeta, Rhodes and Constantinople, went by the south coast of the Black sea to Trebizond, and proceeded inland by Erzurum. Tabriz. Teheran and Meshed to Samarkand, where they were favourably received by Timur. They returned successfully after great difiiculties and reached Spain on March 1, 1406. Gonzalez de Clavijo died in Madrid on April 2, 141 2. His narrative presents a unique account of Timur's court by a European observer. Bibliography.— Two manuscripts

..

of Gonzalez de Clavijo s narraUve the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid; his Embajada a are Tamor Ldn was edited by F. Lopez Estrada (1943) English versions and by G. of Embassy to Tamerlane by Sir Clement Markham (1859) (R- A- Sn.) Le Strange (192S).

preserved in

;

DE Cordoba (1453-1515'), el Gran C.apitan, Spanish military leader renowned for his exploits in southern Italy, was the second son of Pedro Fernandez de Cordoba, intendant of Andalusia, and of Elvira de Herrera. He was sent to court at 13

GONZALO

and became page first to the pretender. Henry IV's half-brother Gonzalo distinAlfonso, and then to Alfonso's sister Isabella. guished himself in the fighting following Isabella's accession (1474) and played an increasingly important role in the war against the kingdom of Granada, displaying singular ingenuity in the capture of fortified places, adapting his methods to the age of gunpowder then beginning. He was one of the two commissioners to conduct the final negotiations with Boabdil for the surrender of Granada (1492). Gonzalo's successful association with the Catholic sovereigns and Isabella's confidence in him set him on the road to fame. In 1495 the queen gave him command of an expedition in sup-

port of the Aragonese king of Naples against the French in Italy. Gonzalo quickly achieved success on behalf of his ally and at the request of Pope Alexander VI defeated a lingering French garrison

which he was given a Roman triumph and a Golden Rose (March 1497). In 1500 he was sent to Italy in command of a

in Ostia. for

,

.

GOOCH—GOODRICH larger force, for co-operation with Louis

Ottoman Turks, but

XII

of France against the

also to be ready to counter

French ambitions Together with the Venetians, he captured (Dec. 1500) the strongly held island of Cephalonia. The immediate Turkish threat having been removed, a secret agreement was signed by the king of France and Ferdinand dividing the kingdom of Naples between them. The French disputed and overran the agreed lines of the division and by 1502 were engaged in a war with the Spaniards under Gonzalo in which he won the striking victories of Cerignola, Monte Cassino and the Garigliano, In this last battle he brought about the surrender of far larger and more heavily armed forces by an unexpected night attack on Dec. 27, 1503, across the flooded estuary by means of pontoons, during one of the severest winters known in Italy. It was typical of the military ingenuity of el Gran Capitdn (as Gonzalo was by then known I, who in his earlier campaign in Italy had used rapid marches by men picked for physical fitness to achieve surprise against an army adhering to the older medieval formalities of warfare. Ferdinand recalled Gonzalo from the viceroyalty of Naples in 1507, though he was reluctantly obliged to name him for comm.and again following a French threat after the battle of Ravenna (1512). Gonzalo died in Granada, of malaria contracted in Italy, on Dec 1 in

regard to Naples.

1515. See G. de Gaury, The

Grand Captain (1955). (G. de G.) Bart. (1816-1889), Enghsh mechanical engineer and railway pioneer, who was also responsible for laying the first successful transatlantic cables, was born at Bedlington, Northumberland, on Aug. 24, 1816. In 1837 he joined the Great Western railway under M. I, Brunei, and as locomotive

GOOCH, SIR DANIEL,

superintendent developed a

One of at the

these,

named "Lord

new eight-wheeled of the Isles,"

class of locomotive.

was awarded a gold medal

Great exhibition of 1851.

During 1865-66 Gooch, as a director of the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance company, superintended the la>'ing of the first two transatlantic cables. In 1866 he was recalled to be chairman of the Great Western railway and was created a baronet for his services. He supported Brunei as a champion of the broad gauge, but he failed to convince; within a few years of his death at Clewer Park, near Windsor, on Oct. 15, 1889, the Great Western railway changed to standard gauge. See Diaries of Sir Daniel Gooch (1892). (T, M. S.) (1873GOOCH, ), English historian, whose writings are mainly concerned with modern diplomatic history, was born in London on Oct. 21, 1873. He was educated at King's college, London, and Trinity college, Cambridge, and then studied in Berlin and Paris. He was Liberal member of parliament for Bath (1906-10) and for Reading in 1913. Gooch became a leading diplomatic historian and one of the earliest authorities on recent German history. He was joint editor of the Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy (1922-23) and British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898-1914 (1926-38). President of the Historical association (1922-25), he was later president of the National Peace council (1933-36). His many writings include Germatiy and the French Revolution (1920): Franco-German Relations, 1871-1914 (1923); English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century (1927) Courts and Cabinets (1944); Maria Theresa and other Studies (1951) and The Second Empire 1 960)

GEORGE PEABODY

:

;

(

GOODE, GEORGE

BROWN

(1851-1896), U.S. zoologist under whose direction the collections at the National museum were entirely reorganized and recatalogued in a scientific manner and displayed with an educational aim in view, was born in New Albany, Ind., on Feb. 13, 1851. After graduating from Wesleyan university at Middletown, Conn., he spent a year at Harvard studying natural history under Louis Agassiz. In 1874 he became chief of the division of fisheries at the National museum, Washington, D.C., and in 1887 assistant secretary of the Smithsonian institution charge of the National museum, which position he held until his

in

death at Washington, on Sept. 6, 1896. His ideas of museum administration and display influenced nearly every important museum of the period. They were also

spread by the remarkable government exhibits prepared by

Goode

573

for the Centennial

exhibition of 1876, the World's Columbian exposition of 1893, exhibitions at Berlin (1880), London (1883)

and Madrid (1892-93) and many others. Goode wrote American Fishes (1888) and in 1896 published his most important scientific work, Ocean Ichthyology. The Annual Report of the U.S. Nat. Museum for 1897 contains a bibhocraphy of Goode's publications together with memoirs by S. P. Langlcy and others.

GOOD FRIDAY

is the Friday in Holy Week (i.e., two days before Easter day) on which the yearly commemoration of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ is kept. References are found in the 2nd century to fasting and penance on this day by Christians, who

from very early times had observed every Friday as

memory

of the crucifixion.

a fast

day

in

The Roman

missal prescribes a rite primitive in many of its elements and containing none of the medieval additions customary on other days of the year. The service was revised in 1956 to restore it to its proper function, i.e., of

prayer and scripture reading followed by the veneration of the cross

and the communion of the people; it is held at 3 p,m,, the traditional time of Christ's death on the cross. It resembles the rite of 4th-century Jerusalem described in the account written by Etheria (see Church Ye,\r: Jerusalem). After two lessons from the Old Testament and the account of the crucifixion from St, John's Gospel there follows a series of collects for aU conditions of men. This part of the service is a relic of the early Christian prayer service (synaxis) preceding the Eucharist, The cross is then unveiled and

venerated by priest and people while the Improperia "Reproaches") are chanted. The service concludes with communion of the congregation from hosts consecrated on the previous day. (See Maltndy Thursday,) This communion of the people was in vogue between the 4th and 7th centuries but gradually fell into disuse. The rite used to be known, erroneously, as the Mass of the Presanctified, though it was not a celebration of the Eucharist but merely the communion of the officiating priest. In the Orthodox Church, where Good Friday is known as Great Friday, the liturgy of the Presanctified is used. At vespers there is a solemn re-enactment of the burial procession of Christ, who is represented by the epitaphion, a piece of material bearing an image (

of the dead Saviour.

The Book Eucharist on

of

Common

Prayer provides for a celebration of the in practice this is largely ignored

Good Friday though

and the chief service of the day is often that known as the Three Hours Devotion (12 noon to 3 p.m.), a series of sermons, hymns and prayers centred on the cross. In Lutheran churches it is customary to have a service of Holy Communion on Good Friday. Other Protestant churches generally hold services on Good Friday, sometimes followed by communion, and in many areas joint services take place as an expression of Christian unity. See also Holy Week; Lent. Bibliography.—L. Eisenhofer, The Liturgy of the Roman Rile (1961) L. Duchesne, Christian Worship, 5th ed. (1931) Lent and Holy We(ii (1904). ;

GOOD-KING-HENRY

(Chenopodium

;

H. Thurston, (L. C. S.)

bonus-henricus)

rank-growing perennial herb of the family Chenopodiaceae, found in Great Britain and naturalized in North America. It is a smooth, dark green, little-branched plant, about 2 ft. high, with The plant is sometimes usually entire arrowhead-shaped leaves. cultivated as a potherb under the name mercury or all-good. See a

also

Che.xopodium.

GOODRICH, SAMUEL ORIS WOLD

(1793-1860), U.S.

author known under the pseudonym of "Peter Largely Parley," was born at Ridgefield, Conn., Aug. 19, 1793. self-educated, he became a bookseller and pubhsher at Hartford publisher and

and later in Boston. There, beginning in 1828, he pubhshed for IS frequent years an illustrated annual, the Token, to which he was a contributor both in prose and verse. The Token contained some Willis, Henry of the eariiest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he established Museum, which he continued to edit until 1854. In 1827

Merry's books for he began, under the name of "Peter Pariey," his series of history, science the young, which embraced geography, biography, of and misceUaneous tales. Of these he was the sole composer

GOODRICH—GOODWIN

574

volumes comparatively few, but in his Recollections of a Lifetime, 2 editor of about 170 (1856), he wrote that he was "the author and and gave volumes," of which about 7,000.000 copies had been sold, and editor author or the was which he of works a list both of the of the spurious works published under his name. house Goodrich was chosen a member of the Massachusetts in 1837, and of representatives in 1836, and of the state senate remained until 1855. in 1851-53 he was consul at Paris, where he

He

died in

New York May

9,

1860.

THOMAS

(d. 1554), bishop of (GooDRicKE), ReformaEly, one of the most zealous supporters of the Henrician Lincolnshire, tion, was the son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, and was educated at Cambridge. Convocation consulted him about He the legality of Henry VHI's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. became royal chaplain about 1530 and was promoted under the paof tronage of Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell to the bishopric a Institution the of draw up to helped 1537 he Ely in 1534. In Christian Man (known as the Bishop's Book) and translated the Gospel of St. John for the Great Bible of 1539. Under both Henry Vni and Edward VT he was one of the commissioners for the reform of ecclesiastical laws. On the accession of Edward in 1547 he

GOODRICH

was made

a privy councilor.

He

assisted in compiling the first

Nov. 1550 was appointed one of In the commissioners for the trial of Bishop Stephen Gardiner. held this Jan. 1551 he succeeded Richard Rich as chancellor and but he made oflSce during the nine days' reign of Lady Jane Grey; his peace with Queen Mary by associating himself with the order preparing to disarm sent to the duke of Northumberland, who was He conformed to Roman Catholito defend Lady Jane's claim. cism and. though deprived of the chancellorship, kept his bishopric until his death on May 10, 1554, at Somersham, Huntingdonshire.

Book

of

Common

Prayer and

in

Set L. B. Smith, Tudor Prelates and Politics 1536-1558 (1953); R. B. Pugh (ed.), Victoria History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely (1953).

GOOD SHEPHERD, SISTERS OF OUH LADY OF CHARITY OF THE (R.G.S.), a Roman Catholic order of refounded at Angers, France, in 1833, as a descendant of an founded by St. John Eudes in 1641. The Good Shepherd sisters are concerned with the care of fallen women, conduct reformatories, homes for alcoholics, etc. The habit is a white tunic and scapular, with blue girdle and black veil. The mother house is at Angers. See Women's Religious Orders. (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist who GOODSIR, made important early studies of cell physiology and pathology, was born at Anstruther, Fife, on March 20, 1814. He was educated at St. Andrews and at Edinburgh. In 1838 he communicated to the British association a paper on the origin and development of the human teeth, and about the same time he was elected to the coterie called the "Universal Brotherhood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised artists, scholars, naturahsts and others whose re-

ligious

earlier order

JOHN

lationship

became a potent influence

in

science.

He worked

at

marine zoology but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where he was appointed con-

museum of the College of Surgeons. In his lectures 1842-43 he insisted on the importance of the cell as a centre of nutrition and pointed out that an organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R. Virchow recognized his indebtedness servator of the

Hunt

by dedicating his Cellularpathologie to Goodhe described as "one of the earliest and most acute observers of cell-life." In 1843 Goodsir became curator in the University of Edinburgh. He died at Wardie near Edinburgh, on sir,

whom

March

6,

1867.

GOODSPEED, EDGAR JOHNSON

(1871-1962), U.S. Testament scholar and translator, was born in Quincy, 111., Oct. 23, 1871, and educated at Denison university, Granville, 0. (A.B., 1890), Yale and The University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1898). After further study at Berlin and work on Greek papyri in Egypt, he joined the faculty of The University of Chicago in 1902, serving

New

there until his retirement in

1937, as professor from 1914 and Ernest DeWitt Burton distinguished service professor from 1933. A pioneer in papyrology, Goodspeed collaborated with GrenfeU and

publishing

The Tebtunis Papyri (1907).

This and other

New Testament: an American Translation (1923). Goodspeed also translated into modern American idiom The Apocrypha (1938) and The Apostolic Fathers (1950), and edited New Testament manuscripts and texts of early Christian writers, including Die altesten Apologeten (1914). His work as New Testament interpreter is marked by grammatical and historical rather than theological exegesis, an example being The Meaning of Ephesians (1933). An Introduction to the New Testament (I9i7), his metjor contribution to this field, considers the later books of the New Testament as profoundly influenced by the collection and publication of Paul's letters. He had previously dealt with the New Testament canon in The Formation of the New Testament (1926), in which he regards the New Testament as consisting of several successive collections. Other works are A History of Early Christian Literature (1942); Paid {19^1) A Life of Jesus (1950); numerous books on the Bible designed for the general reader; essays; and one mystery story, The Curse in the Colophon (1935). Goodspeed (Sh. E. J.) died at Los Angeles, Calif., on Jan. 13, 1962. 'WILL, a title for an intangible asset occasionally shown in accounting reports. Good will is measured by the difference between the current market value of the entire firm and the work. The

;

GOOD

sum

of the net individual assets at current values.

Good

will

is

seldom recorded initially or increased unless ownership has changed and there is a bona fide cost to support the valuation. At one time it used to be thought that the good will of a business consisted solely of the good will of its customers, and represented the reputation that the business had acquired in their minds as a result of fair dealing over a reasonably extended period of time. Modern thought recognizes that second only to the esteem of customers is the esteem of supplying houses and employees. Enterprise value may be greater than the current value of total net assets because accountants traditionally do not treat all valuable relationships as individual assets. Thus, high worker morale, engineering eflaciency, sales ability, shrewd management policies and favourable public relations influence enterprise value but are not recorded individually as assets. Good will becomes a composite or master valuation account for such values. The buyer takes over individual assets at current values and is seldom interested in values recorded by previous owners. If location is important, land and leasehold values should reflect the fact; if patents and trade-marks are worth more than recorded amounts, they should be valued currently; if established connections and outlets are valuable, their purchase represents a legitimate organization and development asset. Where feasible it is preferable to separate specific sources of value from good will and thereby encourage clear-cut classification and rational amortization.

Prospective purchasers, trustees and estate administrators make own estimates of enterprise value and tend to disregard any previously recorded good will. Such an approach is probably superior to that which asks the accountant to revalue good will periodically so that reported total assets wDl always represent his (C. T. D.) individual estimate of enterprise value. their

GOOD"WIN, THOMAS

in

to these discoveries

in

studies in Hellenistic Greek, such as his Index Patristiciis (1907) and Index Apologeticus (1912), prepared him for his most famous

(1600-1680), an outstanding repre-

sentative of English Puritanism, was born, like many Puritans, in East Anglia (RoUesby, Norfolk), on Oct. 5, 1600, was educated at

Cambridge (Christ's

college)

and lived abroad (Arnhem, Hol-

land) in the 1630s because of Archbishop Wilham Laud's persecution. As the leading member of the "dissenting brethren" of the Westminster assembly in the 1640s, Goodwin embraced, like his Confriend John Cotton in Massachusetts, the Independent or gregational form of church government as the middle way between the Puritan right and left— Presbyterianism and sectarianism. To-

gether with John Owen and others, Goodwin drafted the Savoy declaration of faith for Congregationalism of 1658 {see Confes-

sions OF Faith, Protestant). His own rejection of Arminianism and adherence to the covenant of grace closely paralleled the theomystical logical main stream of Puritanism, but he also possessed a secstrain of apocalypticism that became prominent among some tarians in the 1650s.

Under

the

commonwealth and protectorate

\

j

'

;

GOODWIN— GOONA Goodwin headed Magdalen

college, Oxford,

was

a trier of heretical

ministers and served as a court chaplain to Oliver Cromwell.

At deathbed Goodwin reportedly reassured the lord protector of that conviction of salvation that was a distinguishing characteristic of Puritan saints. Goodwin died on Feb. 23, 1680. According to Anthony Wood, Goodwin and Owen were "the two Atlasses and Patriarchs of Independency." His Works were published in 5 volumes in 1681-1704 and re(L. F. St.) printed in 12 volumes in 1861-66. the latter 's

GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON

(1831-1912), U.S. author of important works in Greek grammar and philology, was born in Concord, Mass., on May 9, 1831. He graduated from Harvard in 1851, studied at Bonn, BerHn and Gottingen, receiving his Ph.D. degree from there in 1855; was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-60 and EUot professor of Greek thereafter unHe became an overseer of Harvard in til his retirement in 1901. classical scholar,

1903.

In 1882-83 he was the

first

of Classical Studies at Athens.

director of the

Goodwin

American School

edited the Panegyricus of

and Demosthenes' De Corona (1901), and asand Scott's GreekEnglish Lexicon. He revised an English version by several writers of Plutarch's Morals, five volumes (1871), and published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus' Agamemnon His most for the Harvard production of that play in June 1906. important work was Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Creek Verb (1860; enlarged edition 1890). Besides making accessible to American students the works of J. N. Madvig and P. Kriiger, it Isocrates (1864)

sisted in preparing the 7th edition of Liddell

presented original matter, including a "radical innovation in the classification of conditional sentences," notably the "distinction beBoth this and his tween particular and general suppositions."

Greek

Grammar

(1870) in later editions were largely dependent on

and changes. He June 16, 1912. SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance to the Strait of Dover from the North sea, about 6 mi. from the Kent coast of England, from which they are separated by and form shelter for the anchorage of the Downs (q.v.). The shifting sands, which stretch for about ten miles, are partly exposed at low water. They present a major hazard to navigation and are frequently the scene of wrecks, in spite of lights and bell buoys. Attempts to erect a lighthouse have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine Uth century) and was afterward submerged. Borings through the sand to the underlying chalk show this to be highly improbable. Four lightships mark the limits of the sands, and are in communication with the coastal lifeboat stations. GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), U.S. inventor, whose discovery of the process of "vulcanization" made possible the commercial use of rubber, was born at New Haven, Conn., Dec. 29, 1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hardware in

the theories of B. L. Gildersleeve for additions

died in Cambridge, Mass., on

GOODWIN

(

In 1821 Charles Goodyear entered into a partnership with Naugatuck that continued till 1830. Already he was interested in an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which India rubber could be made into articles that would stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem the next ten the U.S.

his father at

!

For a time he seemed

to

have suc-

were devoted. ceeded with a treatment of the rubber with nitric acid. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture by this process of mailbags for the U.S. government, but the rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808and 65), who had been an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury had made experiments with sulfur mixed with rubber. Goodyear

years of his

;

!

1

i

!

j

i

'

I

life

In bought from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. with 1839, by dropping on a hot stove some India rubber mixed sulfur, he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization

In 1844 his first patent was granted. Numerous mfringements had to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852. In the same year he went to England, where artiInternational cles made under his patents had been displayed at the there. factories establish to unable was exhibition of 1851, but he legal In France and England he lost his patent rights by technical

of rubber.

575

defects; in the United States his patents were infringed mercilessly,

and he was cheated by some of his business associates. In France a company for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, and in Dec. 1855 Goodyear was arrested and imprisoned for debt in Paris. He died in New York city July 1, 1860. worn out by work, poverty and disappointment. He left his family heavily in debt, though his invention made millions for others. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled Gum-Elastic and Its Varieties, two volumes (1853-55). See also B. K. Peircc, Trials of an Inventor: Life of Charles Goodyear (1866); A. C. Regli, Rubber's Story of a Man's Perseverance (1941).

and Discoveries Goodyear: the

GOOKIN, DANIEL

(1612-1687), American colonial magisand protector of the Indians, was born in Kent, Eng., in 1612. Gookin went to Virginia during his boyhood in the company of his father. His Puritan sympathies brought him to the colony of Massachusetts in 1644. There he became a militia captain, deputy to the colonial legislature, member of the governor's council and finally major general. In 1656 he was appointed supertrate, soldier

intendent of the Massachusetts Indians, an office he held until his death. Working closely with the clergyman John Eliot, Gookin protected the Indians against maltreatment by white settlers and for that reason suft'ered unpopularity during the Indian wars. He

wrote three books, none of which was published during his lifetime Historical Collections of tlie Indians in Massachusetts, published in 1792; Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians of New England, published in 1836; and a history of

New

England that has never been found.

He

died

March

19, 1687.

See F.

W. Gookin, Daniel Gookin, 1612-16S7 Bay Colony (1930).

(1912)

;

S. E.

Builders of the

Morison,

(B. K. B.)

GOOLE,

a municipal borough (1933), market town and inland port in the Goole parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng., 27 mi. S.W. of Hull and 23 mi. S.E. of York by road. Pop. (1961 ) 18,875. Situated on fiat land at the confluence of the

Ouse and the Don, which

later

becomes the Humber. Goole

the terminus of the canal system of the former Aire and Calder navigation, to which it owes its existence. The docks were formally opened in 1826, and now handle extensive coal shipments from the is

Yorkshire and east Midlands coalfields. The port, located about 47 mi. from the North sea, can accommodate vessels of up to 2,000 tons burden, and larger vessels on the spring tides; it has nine interconnected wet docks and a quay length of 3 mi. The principal imports are food and provisions, strawboards, w-ool and scrap; extextiles. ports include iron and steel manufactures, coke, pitch and and European north and Goole between operate services Regular induscoastwise ports and the town is also a railway centre. Other

and repairing, engineering, flour milling and and clothing, and the town is surrounded the making special feaby an extensive agricultural area of rich warp land. A collieries from the canal the on coal conveying of system the ture is and of hyby trains of compartment boats ("Tom puddings"), handling into draulic Ufts for discharging them without further tries are shipbuilding

of fertilizers

gal. water-storage tower the holds of seagoing vessels. The 750,000 country. In the town are two public is one of the largest in the

parks, gardens, a market hall and cattle market. (Guna), a town, tehsil and distnct

of

GOONA

Madhya

is 130 mi. S. of Pradesh, India. The town (pop. [1961] 31.031) railway. Western the and road Bombay-Agra main GwaHor on the Bajranggarh the former Originally a small village 5 mi. N. of British cantonment in 1844 and district headquarters), it became a centre. has since become a trading cn-a9c^ (area 4,271 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 59s,825) (

GooNA District

lands of Scindia. the ruling formerly contained the seven feudatory became a ^'strict of Mait 1948, house of Gwalior. On May 28. 956. in Madhya Pradesh on Nov. 1, merged was and Bharat dhya ft. above sea level, 1,800 about plateau elevated The district is an Betwa, Sind and Parbati rivers. drained toward the north by the cultivated and well populated, are regions western and The eastern by state forest provides timcovered while the central hilly tract jowar, principal crops are wheal, barley, The bamboos. and ber pulses and fibres.

*

'

GOOSE—GOOSSENS

576

GOOSE, the common name for birds forming the subfamily Anserinae of the family Anatidae. Technically the "goose" is the female, the male being the "gander," Geese differ from ducks in things) the sexes are alike in plumage and the female in rearing the young. At the close of the breeding season they molt their wing quills and may then be easily approached. When in company, geese usually fly in a V-shaped formation. Geese are monogamous and may mate for life. The gander helps to protect his mate and the nest. The most representative member of the subfamily is the graylag goose (Anser anser), from which the domestic goose has been derived. It breeds in suitable localities from Lapland to Spain and that

(among other

male

assists the

from Scotland to China. The nest is placed in heather or grass, and five or six eggs form a clutch. The genus Anser constitutes the "gray" geese and includes, besides the graylag, the bean goose (A. fabalis). the pink-footed goose (A. /. brachyrhynchus) and the white-fronted goose (A. albifrons),

all

breeding in the northern

part of the old world and migrating south in winter. in

hyperborea, the snow goose proper, white with black primaries)

and the emperor goose {Philacte ca?iagica) of the Aleutian Islands. South America possesses the genus Chloephaga, which includes the kelp goose (C. hybrida) and the upland goose (C. leucoptera). The coscoroba of southern South America (Coscoroba coscoroba), intermediate between the geese and the swans, is sometiines called

swan goose.

The "black" geese breeding

in

include the barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis),

Spitsbergen, northeast Greenland and northwest Si-

beria, supposed of old to be produced from barnacles (Lepadidae) and the brant goose (B. bernida), with a circumpolar breeding range. To this group also belongs the well-known Canada goose {B. canadensis) of North America. Other species occur in North America and Asia. The Hawaiian goose, or ne«e (Branta sandvicetisis), found only in the Hawaiian archipelago, is now on the ;

verge of extinction; efforts to preserve it in captixity are being made by aviculturists. In northeastern Africa, particularly in Ethiopia, is a peculiar bluish-gray

Cyanochen cyanoptera, of whose habits Uttle has been re-

goose,

corded. is

The

largest living goose

the Chinese goose (Cygtwpsis

cygnoides; sometimes given as Anser cygnoides), the original stock

of

the eastern domestic Cnemiorius calcitrans is a fossil goose from New Zealand, CANAD* GOOSE (BRANTA CANADENremarkable for its extraordinary SIS) patella (kneecap) and its loss of flight. The Egyptian and Orinoco geese (Alopochen and Neochen species) are of doubtful affinities and possess an enlargement of the junction of the bronchial tubes and trachea— a characteristic of the ducks (subfamily Anatinae), to which they are now allocated (see races.

Duck).

Geese, like other

game

birds, are widely hunted; for a discussion

of their place in sport, see

Hunting: Shooting Small Game- in game management, see Game Birds. The domesticated breeds'are raised, much more in Europe than in the U.S., for their flesh, eggs and

feathers.

Locally in western Europe geese are force-fed noodles or other foods to cause enlargement of the livers, from which organs the paste delicacy called pdte de foie gras

iee also Poultry and Poultry Farming.

f'^H

•'v^", ^I'f ""tI' ^°""^''''

'^^'

is

produced

»''"erlowl of the World, vol. 1 (19S4) -""^ Swans of North America (Hx. Fn.)

^'" """''' '^«"«

(1943)

They belong family Saxifragaceae Currants are nonspiny (q.v.). and the flowers are borne in racemes, whereas gooseberries are spiny and produce their flowers singly or in twos and threes. berries Grossularia.

to

the

The gooseberry is far more important in Great Britain and northern Europe than in North America. into

In Europe

preserves,

and

eaten out of hand.

it

made

is

frequently In the U.S.

most varieties are used as jellies, preserves and in pies. European gooseberries are derived from the species Grossularia reclinata (or

American members of the genus are the white-fronted goose and, the north, the snow geese (of which the commonest is Chen

the

rants are Ribes and the goose-

;

GOOSEBERRY,

a well-known fruit bush of the northern hemrspherc. rlnsely related to the currants, and frequently placed in the same genus, Ribes, of which there are about 150 species mostly natives of western North America. If separated

the cur-

Ribes grossularia), native in J. HORACE MCFARLAND northern Africa and from Spain THE KEEPSAKE GOOSEBERRY east to the Caucasus and north to RECLINATA)

(G.

Scandinavia. It was cultivated in English gardens as early as 1 600. Hundreds of varieties are known and are classed as early, midseason or main-crop, and dessert kinds. May Duke is the chief early variety Keepsake is also grown. Both are chiefly raised in the south of .England. Picking may begin as early as April IS, usually by May 1, when the berries are young. ;

The midseason varieties, mostly Industry and Careless, are grown in Kent and the eastern counties. Industry is thinned but little, but Careless is cut severely. The dessert varieties are grown mostly about East Grinsted in Sussex. Leveller is the principal variety and by special care berries one ounce each in weight are obtained. Shiner, Lord Derby, Gunner, Leader, Careless, White Lion and Cousens Seedling are other dessert varieties. They are picked from July 1 to about Aug. IS and are marketed ripe. Most gooseberries are interplanted in fruit orchards and spaced as follows: the early, 3 by 6 ft.; the midseason, 5 by 6 ft.; and the late, 4 by 4 ft. Stable manure and potash are used as fertilizer. The bushes are propagated by cuttings taken in the fall and disbudded at the base to form a tree-shaped plant. In America the European gooseberries are attacked by powdery mildew. Hybridizing the European varieties with American species produces resistant varieties. Poorman and Pixwell are the chief varieties in the United States and Fredonia, Clark, Poorman and Silvia are good in Canada. Pixwell fruit is medium sized, Clark is large. Poorman is large fruited, bright red. Glenndale succeeds as far south as Maryland to Missouri. In Canada thornless varieties have been originated. Powdery mildew, serious on European varieties, may be controlled with commercial lime-sulfur, gal. to SO gal. of water. Anthracnose and leaf spot may defoliate the plants unless controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The chief insect of red

H

currants and gooseberries, the "imported" currant strips the plants of leaves

hellebore.

but

is

worm, quickly by powdered

readily controlled

The gooseberry,

as well as the currant, spreads the prohibited from certain areas where white pine is important. State regulations regarding the planting of gooseberries may be obtained from state authorities. See also references under "Gooseberry" in the Index volume. blister rust (q.v.)

and

is

(G.

GOOSSENS,

a distinguished family of Belgian

M. D.)

and English

musicians.

Eugene Goossens (184S-1906), Belgian conductor, was born in Bruges, Feb. 25, 1845. He was admitted to the Brussels conservatory, where, from the age of 14, he studied the violin. In 1882, after several years' experience as an operatic conductor in Belgium, France, Italy and England. Goossens was made conductor of the Carl Rosa Opera company. He died in Liverpool on Dec. 30, 1906. Eugene Goossens (1867-1958), son of the above, was also a He was born in Bordeaux, France, on Jan. 28, 1867, and

conductor.

was educated in Bruges, at the Brussels conservatory and at the Royal Academy of Music, London. He played the violin with the

GOPHER—GORAKHPUR Rosa Opera company and was a member of the orchestra of ;he Royal opera, became conductor of the Carl Rosa Opera company in 1899 and of the British National Opera company in 1926. He died in London, July 31, 1958. Sir Eugene Goossens (1893-1962), English composer and conductor and son of the above, was born in London on May 26, 1893. He received his musical training at Bruges conservatory, the Liverpool College of Music and the Royal College of Music, London. [larl

In

1921,

after

several

years

of

association

with

Thomas

Sir

577

ground parts of plants obtained as the animal tunnels along; occasionally the gopher ventures a foot or so from the burrow entrance above ground to collect succulent herbs, the stems of which are cut into short pieces and carried in the pouches to storage chambers.

Since pocket gophers do not hibernate, hoarding is a necessity. several underground storage chambers are kept stocked with stems, roots and tubers to be eaten during winter. The nest itself, located close to the storage chambers, is lined with finely shredded

The

Beecham, he formed an orchestra with which he gave a series of vegetation. For most of the year gophers are solitary, tolerating :oncerts which included a performance of one of his own works. company only in the spring when mating takes place. About four He was conductor of the Rochester (N.Y.) Philharmonic orchestra weeks after mating the young are born, from one to nine composing from 1923 until 1931, when he became director of the Cincinnati a litter. The female cares for the helpless, naked, blind young for (0.) Symphony orchestra. He remained in Cincinnati until 1946 about six weeks, at which time they begin to develop rapidly; in and during this time was musical director of the biennial Cincinnati several more weeks they leave the mother's burrow to dig their May festivals. In 1947 he became resident conductor of the own nests. Sydney (New South Wales, Austr.) Symphony orchestra and diThe chief genera in North America are Thomomys, the smoothrector of the New South Wales Conservatorium of Music. He was toothed pocket gophers, found widespread in western regions, and knighted in 1955. In 1956 he resigned his Australian positions. Geomys, the eastern pocket gophers. Gopher is also loosely applied to any one of the hibernating In composition Goossens' output is considerable. Of particular interest is his chamber music, which includes Suite for flute, violin ground squirrels, or spermophiles (genus Citellus \Spennophilus and harp (1914); Five Impressions of a Holiday for piano, flute of some authors] ), especially to the 13-lined ground squirrel. Unor violin and cello (1914); FaM/a.?y for string quartet (1915); Pas- like the silent pocket gophers, these forms have calls varying from Fantasy soft squeaks to shrill, penetrating whistles (see Ground Squirrel). toral and Harlequinade for flute, oboe and piano ( 1924) Because of their burrowing and feeding habits, both ground squirHe also wrote two operas, Judith for wind instruments (1924). (produced in 1929) and Don Juan de Maiiara (1937), both with rels and pocket gophers often become nuisances, especially in lawns and golf greens; in some localities they are rather serious pests librei;tos by the English novelist Arnold Bennett; a ballet, L'&cole en crinoline (1921) two symphonies (first performed 1946) songs of economically important crops. However, these burrowing aniand music for piano, cello and violin. His book Overture and Be- mals have, in the past, done much to condition the soil of the now ginners was published in 1951. He died at Hillingdon, Middlesex, fertile plains of western North America. Trapping, poisoning or fumigation of the burrows are successful methods of control. (See on June 13, 1962. Leon Goossens (1897also Rodent.) ), English oboist, brother of the The tortoises to which the name gopher is applied in the southern above, was born in Liverpool on June 12, 1897. He was the first (K. R. Kn.) oboist of the Queen's Hall and Covent Garden opera orchestras and U.S. are of the genus Gopherus (see Turtle). of the London Philharmonic orchestra after it was founded in GOPPINGEN, a town of Germany which after partition of 1932 he made a great reputation as a solo and chamber music per- the nation following World War II was located in the Land state) former. His two sisters, Marie (b. 1894) and Sidonie (b. 1899) of Baden-Wiirttemberg, Federal Republic of Germany. It lies on the Fils river 22 mi. E! of Stuttgart. Pop. (1961 48.937. A rail Goossens. became well-known harpists. GOPHER, a name applied to either of two related rodents and junction and also well served by highways. Goppingen manufacThe pocket gophers, rodents of the tures machinery, toys, textiles, leather, plastics, precision instruless commonly to a tortoise. Notable public buildings are the Late-Gothic Oberfamily Geomyidae, occur from Guatemala to southern Canada, ex- ments, etc. was cluding northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Present- hofen church and the town castle (16th century). Goppingen It was 1 2th century by the Hohenstaufen. town in the as which founded species, one of genera and 37 pocket gophers comprise 8 day for the second contains numerous subspecies (races). They are 5 to 18 in. long, devastated in the Thirty Years' War and in 1782, Its population was doubled including the short, sparsely haired tail, have thickset bodies, a time, was largely destroyed by fire. (M. Ak.) eastern Europe. loosely attached skin, small eyes and ears, chisellike front teeth and after World War II by refugees from a city, district and division of Uttar Pradesh, ilong claws. A characteristic feature is the presence of large fur:

;

;

;

(

;

)

GORAKHPUR,

cheek pouches (the "pockets") that open externally, not into the mouth. The different species vary from almost white to black, but the colour of an individual is nearly uniform. They live alone in extensive, rather shallow, underground burrows, marked by a The food consists of the underjseries of rounded earth mounds. lined

with a population (1961 ) of 180,255, Hes 150 mi. Benares on the left bank of the Rapti. a northern tributary of the Gogra. below its confluence with the Rohin. Prothe tective embankments have been constructed running parallel to Rapti. The city is believed to have been founded in about A.n. 1 40()

India.

The

city,

N. of Varanasi

)

(

around the Gorakhnath temple, when the stronghold of the Satasi Raja of the Srinet Rajputs was first established there, .\kbar made Gorakhpur a strong Muslim garrison town and headquarters of one the Jami sarkar (division) of Oudh, and during Aurangzeb's rule on Masjid adjoining the Urdu bazaar was built. British influence the cession of the the growth of the citv began to be felt after district to the

East India company in 1801. The military function and it continued to be the chief Gurkha

of the city did not cease recruiting centre.

The modern development

,

of the

,

j

•

town started with the mtroduc-

the headquarters of the tion of the r.ailway in 1885 and it is now In 1947 Gorakhpur colony. railway with a railway North-Eastern university, became a regional centre of road transport. Gorakhpur colleges located throughout the afiiliated of number has a which workfounded in 1956. Industries include locomotive district

was

handloom cloth, engineershops textile manufacture, particulariy printing, and the manufacture of tobacco

ing

papermaking and

chemicals, and dyes. COwfiTESY OF CHIOA.iO I.ATIIRAL HISTORY

MUSEUM

TYPICAL TUNNEL OF THE POCKET GOPHERS (GEOMYIDAE)

About

45'';,

of the population are

employed

in industry and commerce. r,n/:,T 2,565,cac Gorakhpur District (area 2,439 sq.mi.; pop. [1961J _

•,

GORAL— GORDIAN

578

in the 182) lies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, flat northeastern corner of Uttar Pradesh. The monotony of the former alluvial plain is broken by a few sand hills, representing of the streams. The district is drained by the rivers Rapti.

levees

Ami and Gogra and

is

studded with lakes and marshes.

Patches of

proximity reserved forests are found in the north. Because of the annual of the Himalayas summer heat is reduced and the average exceeds 50 in. The high water table and fertile soils are rainfall

conducive to agricultural prosperity but there are frequent and destructive floods. The chief crops are rice, barley, wheat and sugar Kasia, reputed cane. Several sugar mills have been established. scene of Buddha's death and cremation and a noted place of pil-

34 mi. E. of Gorakhpur city. GoRAKHPUR DnisiON Comprises the four districts of Gorakhpur, Deoria, Basti and Azamgarh and has an area of 9,569 sq.mi. The population (1961) was 9,975.370 with an average density of 1,042 R- L. Si.) per sq.mi. (Naemorhedus goral). a small Asiatic goatlike animal grimage,

is

'

GORAL

having slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-gray coat. It is a ruminant cud chewer) related to the chamois and serow (qq.v.'). but distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, by smaller size, shorter horns and the absence of face glands. Gorals range from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia. .SV*" also Bo\tdae. (J. E. Hl.; X.) (

GORCHAKOV,

noble Russian family, descended from Mikhail Vsevolodovich. prince of Chernigov, who in 1246 was assassinated by the Mongols. Princ:e Andrei Ivanovich (17681855), general in the Russian army, took a conspicuous part in the a

campaigns against Napoleon. Aleksakdr Ivanovich (17691825> served with distinction under his relative A. V. Suvorov in the Turkish wars and took part as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799 and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806-07 (battle of Heilsberg). Petr Dmitrievich 790-1868) served under M. F. Kamenski and M. I. Kutuzov in the campaign against Turkey, and afterward against France in 1813-14. In 1820 he suppressed an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised to the rank of major general. In 1828-29 he fought under P. K. Wittgenstein against the Turks,

final

won an

action at Aidos and signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople.

In 1839 he was

made governor

retired into private

offered his services

pointed general of

manded

the corps

retired in 1855

of Eastern Siberia,

When

and

in

1851

War broke out he to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was apthe VI army corps in the Crimea. He comin the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He life.

the Crimean

at Moscow, on March 18. 1S6S. Aleksandr Mikhailovich Gorchakov,

and died

See also Gorch.\kov,

;

Mikhail Dmitrievich.

GORCHAKOV, ALEKSANDR MIKHAILOVICH, Prince

179S-1SS3>. Russian statesman from an ancient Russian noble family, was born in St. Petersburg on July 15 (new style; 4.

i

old styled

,

1798.

He grew up

in the

European atmosphere of

career in 1817. then gained valuable

He began his diplomatic experience as member of Rus-

sian delegations at the congresses of

Troppau, Laibach and \'erona.

salon and court

life in St.

Petersburg.

From

1822 he served in embassies and legations in London. Rome, Berlin. Florence. Vienna. Stuttgart and again Vienna, where in 1854 he became ambassador. The slowness of his ascent of the diplomatic ladder was due largely to the hostility of the foreign

Count Nesselrode. Gorchakov gained prominence from a special mission to Vienna during the Crimein War. Winning a reputation there as a stalwart defender of Russian interests and as an .^ustrophobe. he loomed as the natural successor to Nesselrode. discredited by the Crimean debacle. The emperor Alexander II appointed him foreign minis-

minister.

His able handling of diplomatic aspects of the Polish insurrection of 1863 and the elimination in Oct. 1870 of the galling Black sea clauses of the treaty of Paris brought him to the peak of his power and popularity. In 1866 he was made chancellor. During the 1870s his prestige waned before the dynamism of ter in .\pril 1856.

Bismarckian Germany.

Gorchakov

in

1873 played an important

part in the formation of the Dreikaiserbund, a loose, defensive alliance between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. His cordial

Bismarck cooled, however, during the war scare of Germany against aggression toward France. During the Balkan crisis (1875-78), hampered by illness and age, Strongly ophis role in determining Russian policy diminished. posed to the Panslav's agitation in Russia and to their cries for war with Turkey, he remained true to the Dreikaiserbund and to the relations with

1875 when he warned

cause of peace. When his diplomatic efforts failed to solve the he obtained Austrian neutrality by the Budapest convention

crisis,

of Jan. 1877 and counted on German support in case of trouble with Vienna. He persisted in his efforts to achieve a peaceful

settlement to the very eve of the Russo-Turkish War.

(See

Eastern Question.) Gorchakov's waning influence was revealed clearly in 1878. P. Ignatiev disregarded Gorchakov's moderate instructions when he concluded the harsh treaty of San Stefano with prostrate Turkey. When the congress of Berlin iq.v.) was convened at the insistence of Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, Gorchakov was only the nominal head of the Russian delegation. Nevertheless, he shared the odium with Count P. A. Shuvalov for concessions made there to the western powers. He regarded the Berlin treaty as the darkest page in his official career. After serving as foreign minister for 26 years and as chancellor of the Russian empire for 16 vears, he retired in 1882 and died in Baden-Baden on

Count N.

March

11 (N.S.; Feb. 27, O.S.), 1883.

Gorchakov

is

considered. one of the greatest statesmen of tsarist

Critics stress his vanity

Russia.

and jealousy,

to train a successor or to retire to his

easy chair.

his unwillingness

Some

claim that

were planned by others. Gorchakov's diplomatic ability prior to 1878 is not seriously disputed, however. He; stands as one of the important and able diplomats of 19th-century Europe. See J. Klaczko, Deux chanceliers: Le Prince Gortchakoff et le Prince]

most of

his successes

i

i

(D.

de Bismarck (1876).

MacK.)

GORCHAKOV, MIKHAIL DMITRIEVICH, (1793-1861), Russian army

officer,

served in the campaigns

Persia in 1810 and in 1812-14 against France.

[

PrinceJ inl

During the Russo-[

Turkish War of 1828-29 he was present at the sieges of Silistra and| Shumla. He was appointed a general officer in 1830, served in the campaign in Poland, was wounded at the battle of Grochow and dis-1 tinguished himself at the taking of Warsaw. In 1846 he became] military governor of W'arsaw. He was chief of staff of the Russian! army serving in Hungary in 1849, and subsequently served as chief of staff of the Russian army and adjutant general to the tsar.i In 1853 Gorchakov led the forces which entered Moldavia. When! Russia subsequently declared war against Turkey in 1854, he' was appointed commander in chief of the troops that occupied Moldavia and Walachia and besieged Silistra. In 1855, at al critical time in the operations, he w'as appointed commander in chief of the Russian forces in the Crimea, replacing Prince Men-j shikov. Gorchakov's defense of Sevastopol, the northern part of' which he continued to defend until peace was signed in Paris, was' conducted with skill. In 1856 he was appointed governor genera] of Poland to succeed Prince Paskevich. which post he held until his^ death on May 30, 1861. He was buried, in accordance with hisj (R. L. Gf.)

wish, at Sevastopol.

GORDIAN emperors

in the

GoRDiAN

I

(

Gordianus), the name

3rd century

of three successive

a.d.

(Marcus Antonius Gordianus), emperor

238, an elderly senator of literary tastes to (q.v.) dedicated his Lives of

when

'

Roman

tlie

Sophists,

whom

in

Marcl

Philostratus

was proconsul

of

.Africa;

group of rebellious landowners resisted anci They prokilled the financial officers of the emperor Maximin. claimed Gordian emperor, but three weeks later he killed himsel)| In tliej after his son's death in battle (see Gordian II, below). meantime, however, the senate in Rome had recognized him, and early in 238.

a

the revolt he began ended with the defeat of

Maximin

(Gaiu-'j

Maximinus, q.v.). Gordian II (Marcus Antonius Gordianus). emperor 2iS, rulec for three weeks in Africa with his father Gordian I. Gordian III (Marcus Antonius Gordianus). emperor 238-244 grandson of Gordian I and nephew of Gordian II, was borr about 225. When his father and uncle were killed at the be-l

Julius Verus

GORDIAN KNOT— GORDON proclaimed Maximus and Balbinus (gg.v.) emperors; both the people and the guards in the city distrusted the senate's, emperors, and insisted on making young Gordian Caesar, heir to the throne. After the defeat of Maximin, Balbinus and Maximus were killed by the guards in a riot and Gordian became sole emperor in August. The government was diginning of

rected first

238,

by

the senate

his

mother and

praetorian prefect Timesitheus,

later

by

his

who enjoyed

father-in-law,

the

the confidence of

and undertook a Persian campaign accompanied by Gordian in 242. In 243 Timesitheus was succeeded by the Arabian Philip, and in the spring of 244 young Gordian was murdered by his troops and succeeded by Philip. (Jn. R. M.) KNOT, a proverbial term for a problem solvable only by drastic action. In 33i B.C. Alexander the Great, on his march through Asia, was shown at Gordium in Phrygia the chariot of the ancient king, Gordias, with its yoke lashed to the pole by It was to be untied only a knot of which the ends were hidden. by the conqueror of Asia. In the popular account, probably invented as appropriate to an impetuous warrior, Alexander cut the knot through with his sword. But earlier versions make him find its ends, either by cutting into the knot or by drawing out the pole. (H. W. Pa.) the senate,

GORDIAN

GORDIUM

(Gordion), capital of ancient Phrygia, the ruins which lie at the junction of the Sangarius (Sakarya) and Tembris (Porsuk) rivers about 50 mi. W.S.W. of Ankara in the Ankara il of Turkey. On the Royal road between Ancyra (Ankara) and Dorylaeum (Eskisehirj, the original settlement grew in importance because it lay at a river crossing on an important route from the plateau to the sea. According to the legend it took its name from Gordius, a Phrygian peasant called to the throne in obedience to an oracle of Zeus which commanded the elevation of The king the first person to ride up to the temple in a wagon. afterward dedicated his car to the god, and another oracle decreed that whoever succeeded in untying the knot of cornel bark made from the traces should conquer all Asia {see Gordian Knot). The Phrygian kingdom flourished under kings successively named Gordius and Midas, and reached its greatest power in the 8th century B.C. The king referred to in Assyrian records as Mita of Mushki was evidently a Midas contemporary with Sargon II of Early in the 7th century the Phrygian Assyria (722-705 B.C.). power was shattered by an incursion of the nomadic Cimmerians. Gordium was burned, Midas committed suicide, and the hegemony Under the Persian empire of Anatolia passed to the Lydians. Gordium was rebuilt as an important market and garrison town; in 333 it was visited by Alexander the Great, following the Royal road in his campaign against Darius III. During this visit Alexander untied the knot (or cut it with his sword; accounts vary), and subsequently he went on to fulfill the oracle by his conquests. In the 3rd century B.C. Gordium fell to the Galatians, but it was abandoned in 189 B.C. at the approach of a Roman army under of

Manlius Vulso, and disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small village existed on the site. Archaeology. Excavation after 1950 has shown that the settlement goes back to the Early Bronze Age, perhaps the end of the 4th millennium B.C. A stratum belonging to Hittite times suggests !that the route which was the reason for the city's importance was !already in use. The Phrygian city of the 9th and Sth cent.uries,

—

together with the

tombs

excavated in its cemeteries, has yielded

much information about the material culture of the Phrygians, almost unknown. The city was fortified by high walls of imasonry, pierced by a gateway planned and built in accordance

Ihitherto

|with

the best principles

of

military architecture

of

the

time.

Within lay a number of public buildings constructed of stone, These were mostly on the so-called :wood and crude brick. iMegaron plan with entrance through a vestibule to a large inner iroom, usually with a round hearth near its centre. The largest of ithese rooms measured about 60 by 50 ft., with galleries running Another building contained a mosaic (along three of its sides. ifloor of natural pebbles laid in geometric designs of dark red, white !and blue. The roofs, probably gabled, were of reeds covered by the ia layer of clay. All of these buildings had been burned in iCimmerian raid and their rich contents vessels of pottery and

—

bronze, iron implements and

579 wooden

furniture carved in relief, in-

with wood of contrasting colour or decorated with inset plaques of ivory carved in an individual Phrygian style were fragmenlaid

—

Better-preserved specimens were found in the tombs. The wealthy Phrygians were buried in tomb chambers constructed of tary.

wood and covered by huge grave mounds (tumuli). of these, originally about 200

ft.

The

largest

high, covered a burial that

been preserved intact, doubtless the tomb of a Phrygian king. rich furnishings of the

tomb included

inlaid furniture

had

The

and many

bronze vessels, some of which showed Assyrian influence while others were of local manufacture. Four inscriptions indicate that the Phrygians were already familiar with alphabetical writing before the end of the Sth century.

—

Bibliography. Articles by R. S. Young in Bulletin oj the UniverMuseum, Philadelphia, "The Gordion Tomb," vol. i (1955), "Gordion: Phrygian Construction and Architecture," vol. iii (1960); in American Journal of Archaeology, articles in the form of reports for the years 1953, 1955-57 inclusive and 1959, vol. 59-62 and 64 (1955-58 and 1960); article by G. R. Edwards, "Gordion Campaign of 1958: Preliminary Report," in American Journal oj Archaeology, vol. 63 (1959). (R. S. Yo.) sity

GORDON,

the name of a Scottish family from Berwickshire with more than 157 main branches. A laird of Gorden fell in the battle of the Standard ("1138). The families of the two sons ascribed to him, Richard Gordon of Gordon (d. 1171) and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were eventually united by marriage of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam. A grandson of this marriage. Sir Adam (d. 1333), was justiciar of Scotland in 1310, and attached himself at the time of the battle of Bannockburn to Robert Bruce, who granted him (c. 1311-19) Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which he gave the name of Huntly from the Berwickshire estate. Sir Adam had two sons; the younger son, William of Glen-kens in Galloway, was the ancestor of William I of

Lochinvar, of which branch Sir John, 7th laird, was created (1633) Many Irish and Virginian Gordons are viscount of Kenmure. The elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordonof this branch. Huntly estates. He had two grandsons. Sir John (d. 1394) and Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Sir Adam (d. 1402). Scurdargue, ancestor of Pitlurg and the earls of Aberdeen, and Tam o' Riven. From these most northern Gordon families derive. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress Elizabeth married Sir Alexander

who with her was confirmed (1408) in the barony of Gordon-Huntly and in Strathbogie. Their son Alexander d. 1470) was created earl of Huntly in 1445 (see Huntly, Earls and Marquesses of). His son George (d. 1502), 2nd earl, took the name Gordon and perpetuated the chiefship. His heir male George (c. 1649-1716), 4th marquess, was created duke of GorSeton,

(

don

in 1684.

Alexander (c. 1678-1728), 2nd duke, joined the 1715 Jacobite Of his children Lord Lewis Gordon (d. rising but was pardoned. 1754) was a celebrated Jacobite general, subject of the song "Oh Send Lewie Gordon Hame"; Cosmo George (c. 1720-52) succeeded as 3rd duke and is primarily remembered for the notoriety of his third son Lord George Gordon {q.v.; 1751-93). Alexander (1743-1827), 4th duke, was keeper of the Scottish great .seal (1794-1827). The dukedom became extinct after George (1770(Maxwell), 1836), 5th duke, who with his mother, "duchess Jean"

Gordon Highlanders. The marqucssate of Huntly and chiefship

raised the 2nd

of clan

Gordon passed

and heir male, George (1761-1853), Sth (1789-1842), sister and co-heiress Charlotte Lady earl of Aboyne. of Richmond and Lenof the 5th duke, married Charles, 4th duke The dukedom of Gordon-Lennox. name the took son whose nox, Charles Gordon was (under protest) then revived in 1876 for Gordon. (1818-1903), nth duke of Richmond and 6th duke of to the 5lh duke's cousin

in of Aboyne (d. 1537) became earl of Sutherland Sutherland, sister of the right of his wife Elizabeth, countess of deriving from William 9th earl. The turbulent Gordons of Gight,

Adam Gordon

(d.

maternal ancestors of 1513), third son of the 2nd earl, were

Lord Byron the

poet.

Among many Gordon

^

,

,

.

e

soldiers of fortune were Col. John, one ot

Auchleuchnes the murderers Sweden (1651) and later (1635-99), who entered the service of of Wallenstein, and

Patrick

of

j

GORDON

58o

supported Tsar Alexis of Russia. In 1688 he helped secure Peter the Great's ascendancy and crushed the Streltzi revolt. The Gordons fill a considerable place m Scottish ballads. ''Baron o' Brackley,"

"Edom (Adam)

and

o'

Gordon;' describe incidents

in

the

16th-century feuds between Forbeses and Gordons; "Geordie" of the ballad "The Duke of Gordon's Daughter" is said to allude to the 4th earl of Huntly; "The Fire of Frendraught" to a feud (1630) between Crichton of Frendraught and Gordon of Rothie-

may; the "Gallant Gordons Gay" figure in "Chevy Chase"; and Gordon of Earlston, a covenanter, in "Bothwell Bridge." Bibliography.— William Gordon, History of the Ancient, Noble, and Illustrious House of Gordon, 2 vol. (1726-27); Charles, 11th marquess of Huntlv, Records ol Abovne (1894) The House oj Gordon, ed. bv J. M. Bulloch, i vol. (1903); and J. M. Bulloch, The First (T. I.) Duke oj Gordon (1909). (1856-1922), theoretician and spiritual mentor of the Zionist co-operative movement, was born at Troyanov in the Ukraine on June 9 or 10, 1856. He distinguished between two sources of knowledge: cognition and ;

GORDON, AARON DAVID

Man's unique fa-culty for self-awareness elevates him above nature (experience) but simultaneously alienates him from the cosmos. Only by working the soil, the particular sphere which the cosmos has entrusted to man, can man once again participate Gordon's in creation and reintegrate himself into the cosmos. Zionism derived from this central idea. Jews, he believed, could overcome their alienation if they returned to the homeland from which they "ivere exiled and worked its soil. He was particularly influenced by Nietzsche, Tolstoi and Bergson. The personal example he set by migrating to Israel in 1904 and turning farmer inspired Israel's early pioneers. He helped found Deganiah, Israel's first collective community, where he died on Feb. 22, 1922. His Hebrew works fill five volumes, and his Selected Essays were published in English in 193S. (Ea. Sr.) (1833-1870), one of the experience.

GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY

Australian poets to write in a distinctively Australian idiom, at Fayal in the Azores on Oct. 19, 1S33, the son of a retired Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham college.

first

was born

Gordon was educated in England at Cheltenham and Worcester Royal grammar school. Gordon's youth was so wild and reckless that in 1853 his father sent him to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then became a horsebreaker, but on his mother's death in 1861 inherited £7,000 and also obtained a seat in the house of assembly. He had the reputation of being the best nonprofessional steeplechase rider in the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria, set up a livery stable at Ballarat and published two volumes of poems. Sea Spray and Smoke Drift and Ashtaroth. In 1869 he settled at New Brighton near Melbourne, publishing a third volume of poetry. Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes ( 1870) It brought him more .

praise than

money

and. discouraged

by

his failure to

make good

his

claim to property in Scotland and suffering from the effects of a bad fall from a horse, he committed suicide at New Brighton on June 24, 1870.

Gordon's poetry

chiefly English in inspiration but

where it is His nature lyrics contain his best poetry. His strong rhythms and simple homespun philosophy make his poetry memorable, and some of his lines have been adopted into the vocabulary of the average Australian. local,

is

it

is

vividly so.

BiBLiocR,\PHY.—

Gordon's Poems, ed. bv F. M. Robb, with biographical introduction (1912); see also J; Howlett Ross, The Laureat of the Centaurs (1888) E. Humphris and D. Sladen, Adam Lindsay Gordon and His Friends in England and Australia (1912)E Humphris, The Life of A. L. Gordon (1933) E. Morris Miller, Australiim Literature From Its Beginnings to tg-;; ;

M

;

GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE soldier,

who

troops in

first

made

his

name

as a

M

(C H C) (1833-1885), British

(1940)

commander

Chma and

of irregular

subsequently as governor general of the Sudan for the khedive of Egypt, became world-famous during his briltragic and virtually singlehanded defense of Khartoum against the forces of the Mahdi. He was a deeply religious if unorthodox. Christian and one of the last of the liant,

long line of Eng-

He was born on Jan. 28, 1833, at Woolwich, where Gen. H. W. Gordon, royal artillery, was inspector of

lish eccentrics.

his father.

the carnage department.

There he spent a

lively childhood

the

fourth son in a large and uproarious family. In 1848 he became an officer-cadet at Woolwich, where he was constantly involved in what he himself described as "fearful rows." He passed out as second lieutenant in the royal engineers in June 1852 and was posted in 1854 to Pembroke Dock, where he experienced his first conversion, under the influence of "a very religious captain of 11th." Meanwhile the Crimean War had commenced and Gordon managed to get himself ordered on active service. He reached Balaklava on New Year's day, 1855, and in the trenches the

before Sevastopol speedily proved himself an exceptionally enterand courageous subaltern. He spent nearly two and a half years, after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, with the international commission engaged in surveying the new fron-

prising, intelligent

between Russia and Turkey. Service in China Gordon returned to England toward the: end of 1858, was gazetted captain on April 1, 1859, and volunteered a few weeks later for active service in the desultory war with China! which had just commenced. He was present at the occupation of Peking and the destruction and looting of the summer palace. In the spring of 1862 he contracted smallpox and wrote to his sister, "I am glad to say that this disease has brought me back to my Saviour." The British troops, under Gen. Charles Staveley. were! sent in April 1863 to protect the European settlement in Shanghai! from the T'ai P'ing rebels, who had overrun the rich central provinces, capturing Nanking and scores of lesser cities, and -were now! threatening the European trading centre of Shanghai (see T'ai! P'ing Rebellion). The leading citizens there had recently com-j missioned an American adventurer, F. T. Ward, to raise a defense force of 3,000-4.000 men a mixture of ignorant peasants and the riffraff of Shanghai, officered by European adventurers and desperadoes and optimistically entitled "the Ever-'Victorious army." Ward was killed in Sept. 1862. His successor, another American, was soon dismissed, and Gordon, now a brevet major, was aptiers

—

—

pointed to the command in the spring of 1863. In operations lasting about 18 months Gordon proved himself one of the greatest commanders of irregulars of all time. Not only did he turn his little army of ragamuffins into a disciplined and formidable fighting force but time and again he crushed an enemy vastly superior in numbers, who found that because of Gordon's use of armed steamboats and his rapid movements, the devious waterways, on which they had hitherto relied as an impregnable defense, actually ensured their defeat. His ascendancy over his own "rabble" was complete. Twice he quelled incipient mutinies singlehanded by sheer will power and personality. When his men hesitated to leave cover he would drag them into the open by the! pigtail. And he himself would invariably be found at the point! of greatest danger, unarmed save for a light cane, which became!

known

to the superstitious soldiery as "Gordon's wand of victory."! the rebels had been crushed Gordon refused the munificent gifts of money oft'ered him by the emperor, and since he had spent!

When

his pay,

and more, on comforts for

his troops, "left

China as poor'

as I entered it."

Returning to England

i

in Jan. 1865.

Gordon stubbornly

refused!

from ministers and generals which were showered on him and even tore up his Chinese diary lest it should one day contribute to the legend which threatened to take shape He was however to be henceforth widely spoken of as "Chinese" Gordon. He was promoted brevet lieutenant colonel and made a companion of the Bath, the traditional reward of the government's less distinguished civil servants. By September he had been appointed royal engineer officer in command at Gravesend. There he devoted most of his spare time to philanthropic activities among the poor and particularly among the street urchins of Gravesend, many of whom he fed, clothed, taught and eventually placed in employment, often keeping in touch with them for the rest of their lives. He spent much time also on evangelism, printing and distributing tracts, which he would leave by the wayside on a country walk or even throw from a train to men working on the line. During these years, and indeed for the rest of his life, he studied the Bible daily, and from it deduced, unaided, the somewhat unorthodox creed on w-hich henceforth he sought to found his every action. He! never joined church or sect and was content to live by his own the invitations

GORDON interpretation of the Bible, the whole of which he believed to be verbally inspired.

Governor

of

Equatoria.— Gordon

left

Gravesend

in

Sept.

by Gladstone's government to the vacant English membership of the Danubian commission with headquarters at Galatz (Galati, Rum.). Thanks to a chance meeting in Constantinople with Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt, in 1873 he was offered the post of governor of Equatoria, which 1871, having been appointed

he accepted after much hesitation; insisting that the salary of his predecessor. Sir Samuel Baker, should be reduced for him from

£10,000 to £2,000. Gordon's province stretched southward down the Nile from the Egyptian Sudan, with no fixed boundaries to the still uncharted south. In the Sudan the Egyptian administration was contemptible, in Equatoria it did not exist. The khedive's

mudirs encouraged and profited by the slave trade, which it was Gordon's chief business to suppress and which flourished throughout Darfur and the Bahr el Ghazal. Gordon arrived in Cairo on Feb. 6, 1874, and frightened the normally procrastinating pashas into transacting business with such unusual rapidity that a fortnight later he set out, ahead of his staff, for Gondokoro, where he arrived after a journey of 25 days, during which he covered the 250 mi. from Sawakin to Berber on a camel at record speed. His prodigies of endurance on camelback soon became a legend in the Gordon's two and a half years in Equatoria was a period desert. of intense strain and incessant toil. Most of his staff died or were incapacitated by disease; that Gordon himself remained healthy and vigorous was probably due to his own confidence that he could not succumb rather than to the unconventional nostrums that he compounded from his own medicine chest. He succeeded in a Kne of stations stretching to the frontier of Uganda, mapped the Nile and the great lakes and did much to suppress the slave trade, despite constant obstruction from the Egyptian governor of the Sudan, who had little desire to see the

establishing

trade disappear.

Governor General

of the Sudan.

— Gordon returned

land on Christmas Eve, 1876, but after

much

hesitation,

Engand at

to

length after the toss of a coin, agreed to resume service with the khedive early in 1877, after stipulating that he should be appointed governor general of the Sudan, with the Equatorial provinces. He thus acquired sole responsibility for more than 1,000,000 sq.mi. inhabited by savage and hostile peoples among whom poverty, "I go up alone," tribal warfare and the slave trade were endemic.

he wrote home, "with an infinite Almighty

God

to direct

and guide

me.

Gordon went first to the borders of Ethiopia, where he interviewed and temporarily pacified Walad-el-Michael, the rebellious Heutenant of King John; and thence to Khartoum, his capital, where he was ceremonially installed and during a stay of only 15 days decreed a series of sweeping administrative reforms. On May 19 he set out wth 300 men for the province of Darfur, where 16,000 Egyptian troops were hemmed in by a large force of insurgents. He moved, as usual, at top speed and far in advance of his own little contingent. Characteristically, on reaching the neighbourhood of the rebels' army, he rode into their camp alone, save for an interpreter and a small escort, and so overawed the 3.000 warriors paraded there that half of them came over to join him and the rest retreated. After visiting the provinces of Berber and Dongola, he journeyed with an escort of only ten men through the mountains of the Ethiopian border for another interview with

Walad-el-Michael, whom he succeeded in persuading to come to terms. In 1879 he once more pursued the slave traders in Darfur, and with the aid of his gallant subordinate, the Italian Romolo After an arduous and Gessi, the revolt was finally crushed. Cairo perilous journey to confer with King John he returned to_

an 1880, resigned his appointment and, after extracting apology from Nubar Pasha for some disparaging remarks on a companion of the Bath by challenging him to a duel, returned to

in Jan.

England.

China, South Africa and the Holy Land.— In May 1880 Gordon unaccountably accepted the post of private secretary to resigned the viceroy designate of India, the marquess of Ripon, but it

soon after the viceregal party reached India.

Two

days after

581

was announced, he accepted an invitation from Sir Robert Hart, inspector general of customs in Peking, to go to China. There he succeeded in dissuading, first, his old friend Li Hung Chang from rebelling against the central government and, subsequently, the central government from embarking on war with Russia. His interview with the grand council was characteristically unconventional and when the interpreter refused to translate his undiplomatic language Gordon snatched up a dictionary, placed his finger on the Chinese word for "idiocy" and thrust it under the startled eyes of each minister in succession. He was back in England in October. In December, when staying with the rector of Twywell in Northamptonshire, he experienced what may be called the final stage of his conversion, which led him for the first time to become a regular communicant. Thereafter his character became more gentle and the outbursts of fierce irritation began to disappear. He was in command of the royal engineers in Mauritius (April lS81-April 1882) and then accepted an invitation from the government of Cape colony, where he reorganized the colonial forces. He visited a rebellious Basuto chief and would have lost his life when a rival chieftain attacked his host's camp had it not been, once again, for what S. F. Oliver called the "mesmeric influence, quite inexphcable in scientific terms," which he exercised over primitive peoples. His memorandum on the Basuto became his resignation

the basis of the eventual reconstruction of Basutoland as a protectorate.

Gordon returned to England in Nov. 1882; though pressed by King Leopold II of Belgium to assume command in the Belgian Congo, he felt called to a contemplative life rather than to further action and left England for the Holy Land on Dec. 28. He spent nearly a year studying the Bible and the topography of Palestine. On Jan. 1, 1884, he was in Brussels and had decided to resign his commission and accept King Leopold's invitation. Final Mission to Khartoum. Meanwhile, however, a disasAn obscure fakir, trous situation had developed in the Sudan. having announced himself as the Mahdi, "the expected one." had declared a holy war and overrun the province of Kordofan. Glad-

—

stone's government, having reluctantly found itself compelled to crush Arabi Pasha's rebellion in Egypt, had become the solitary

European power behind the khedive's throne. When the khedive's army, under Col. William Hicks, had been destroyed by the Mahdi's dervishes the British government was gradually forced, largely by public opinion, first to abandon its illusion that the Egyptian Sudan was no concern of Britain's and then to invite Gordon to step into the breach. Unfortunately, from the outset ministers were never wholly clear whether Gordon was being sent merely to report on the military situation or to undertake singlehanded the immensely dangerous task of withdrawing the Eg>'pIn Cairo, however, with the tian garrisons from the Sudan. approval of Sir Evelyn Baring, the British agent. Gordon was appointed governor general by the khedive and instructed to evacuate The the Sudan and establish an organized government there. British government approved in due course, but, though they had

Gordon to "perform such other duties as be communicated to you by Sir Evelyn Baring," ministers, and particulariy Gladstone, were never afterward able wholly to advisory mis.sion had rid themselves of the notion that a purely been dangerously and improperly expanded into executive action. Gordon reached Khartoum on Feb. 18. 1834. and had .succeeded wounded before in evacuating 2,000 women, children and sick and Mahdi's forces closed in on the town. From that time the

explicitly instructed

may

the

all the urgent requests of the man on the forlornest of forlorn singlehanded whom it had dispatched disaster mevitablc. hopes and its prolonged procrastination made that Zebehr. a asked Gordon Khartoum reached as he As soon as a descendant former slave trader but possessing great influence Khartoum. After long delay of the Abbasids. should be sent up to finally declined on March opinion, public of wary the government, It similariy refused Gordon's 11 to sanction the appointment. road from Sawakm to request that a small force should open the and the military auBaring by supported was Berber though this commenced on March thorities in Cairo. The siege of Khartoum under the increasing pressure 13 but it was not until August that,

British government's refusal of

GORDON

582

of public opinion, supported in private by the angry expostulations of the queen, the government agreed that some steps, still unde-

Gordon should be taken, and not until November Lord Wolseley set out from Wadi Haifa. It was doomed to failure, if only because the government which had authorized it six months too late never wholeheartedly desired or believed in it. The resistance of Khartoum until Jan. 26, 1885, is one of the remarkable achievements in military history, and was solely due to the skill, energy and indomitable spirit with which Gordon, without staff or confidants, inspired and dominated the feeble Egyptian garrison. After learning of two victories won by Lord Wolseley the Mahdi's troops had even been on the verge of fined, to relieve

that a relief force under

raising the siege, but the further unaccountable delay of the relief

them to make a final assault at a gap in the ramparts caused by the falling of the Nile. The garrison was butchered, and Gordon with them. The relief force reached Khartoum three days too late. force encouraged

Gordon was

and slight and wiry. Every recorded description of him dwells upon his clear, blue eyes and their magical influence. The legend that he was a secret drinker, popularized by Lytton Strachey in his Eminent Victorians, was based upon the evidence, occasionally' misquoted, of a discredited five feet nine inches tall,

See Lord Elton, General Gordon (1954); B.

Sudan (1931).

M.

Allen,

Gordon and (Go. E.)

GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM: see Connor, Ralph. GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), English demagogue, the instigator of the Gordon riots in 1780, was the third and youngest son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, and was born in London on Dec. 26, 1751, He was educated at Eton and entered the navy, rising to the rank of lieutenant in 1772; however.

Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty, would not promise him a command, and he resigned his commission shortly before the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, The pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought for him in 1774 by Gen, Simon Eraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was considered flighty and of little importance. In 1779 Gordon organized and made himself head of the Protestant associations formed to .secure the repeal of the Catholic Relief act of 17 73, He headed the mob which marched in procession from St, George's fields to the 'houses of parUament on June 2, 1780, in order to present the monster petition against the acts, A terrific riot ensued which continued several days, during which the city was virtually at the mercy of the mob. At first, indeed, they dispersed, after threatening to make a forcible entry into commons. But they reassembled soon afterward and destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the homes of the house of

many Roman all

a convert to rite.

Catholics, set fire to Newgate prison and broke open the others, attacked the Bank of England and several other

public buildings, and continued the work of violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, by whom no fewer

than 450 persons were killed and wounded before the riots were quelled.

For his share in instigating the riots Lord George was arrested on a charge of high treason; mainly through the skilful and eloquent defense of Thomas (afterward Lord) Erskine, he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable intentions. His life was henceforth full of crackbrained schemes, political and financial. He was excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury in 1786 for refusing to bear witness in an ecclesiastical suit, and he was convicted in 1787 of libeling the queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw from the court without bail and made his escape to the Netherlands; because of representations from the court of Versailles, however, he was commanded to quit that country and, returning to England, was arrested and sentenced in Jan. 1788 to five years' imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his ease, giving dinners and dances. As he could not obtain securities for his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprisonment, he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died on Nov. 1, 1793. He had be-

Judaism

in

1786 and had undergone the

initi-

GORDON, JOHN BROWN

(1832-1904), Confederate Georgia during the Reconstruction, was a popular hero in the state. Born Feb. 6, 1832, in Upson county, Georgia, he attended the University of Georgia and later practised law in Atlanta. At the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the Confederate army as captain of volunteers and passed successfully through the grades to major general. He participated in several major battles and during the course of the war was

army

officer

and

political leader in

wounded eight times. At Appomattox he commanded one wing of Gen. Robert Ej Lee's army with the instructions to cut through Gen. U. S. Grant's Line. Gordon made the last charge and was taking the federal breastworks when news of his chief's surrender ended his action. Following the war he settled in Atlanta and was a member of the Democratic national conventions of 186S and 1872, He served in the U,S, senate from 1873 to 1880, when he resigned, and again from 1891 to 1897, Gordon was also governor of Georgia (188690), and from 1890 commander in chief of the United Confederate;. Veterans, He wrote Reminiscences of the Civil War (1903).

Gordon died

GORDON,

witness. the

come atory

in

Miami, Fla„ Jan,

SIR

9,

1

1904,

JOHN WATSON

1788-1864), Scot, tish portrait painter, who after Sir Henry Raeburn's death in 1823 succeeded to his practice, was born in Edinburgh, where he trained for four years under John Graham at the Trustees' academy. He began to paint historical subjects but turned to portraiture. He lacked Raeburn's brilliant colour and dramatic modeling, preferring in his later work clear gray tonalities. Gordon exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1817 on; he became an academician in 1851. A member of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1829, he succeeded to its presidency in 1850 and was knighted. His sitters included Sir Walter Scott (1820), Sir Alex, ander Hope (1835, Linlithgow) and Thomas De Quincey (184S,-, National Portrait gallery, London). He died in Edinburgh on June 1, 1864. (D. L. Fr.) (Judah Loeb ben Asher) (1830-1892), Hebrew poet and novelist, the leading poet of enlightenment (Haskalah), was born at Vilnius, Lithuania, on Dec. 7, 1830, and died at St. Petersburg on Sept. 16, 1892. Gordon's early historical poems and fables were later followed by powerful satires in verse aimed against the harsher aspects of rabbinic Judaism. His last poems reflect bitter disillusionment with the ideals of Haskalah. Although of limited poetic talent. Gordon's advocacy of social and religious reforms proved widely influential, and his skilful use of post-Biblical idiom increased the flexibility of modern Hebrew. His poems were collected in Kol Shire Yehuda (1883(D, Pa,) 84) his stories in Kol Kithbe Yehuda (1889). (1635-1699), Scottish soldier of fortune who became a Russian general, was born at Auchleuchries, Aberdeenshire, on March 31, 1635, In 1651, having arrived in Danzig to try his luck in Poland, he was helped by a fellow countryman to enter the Jesuit college at Braniewo (Braunsberg) but absconded in 1653, Between 1655 and 1660 he fought in the Polish-Swedish war, frequently changing sides. In 1661 he took service in the Russian army as a major and in 1662 was promoted colonel for crushing the Moscow riots against the debased copper coinage. In 1666 he visited England as envoy of the tsar but the result of his mission was not considered satisfactory and his career suffered a setback. As the Russian rulers' distrust of the west diminished, Gordon's position improved, especially as he had used the intervening years to acquire an expert knowledge of ballistics and fortification. His repeated attempts to leave the tsar's service were therefore to prove unsuccessful. In 1678 his defense of Chigirin (Ukraine) against the Turks established his professional reputation. In 1686-87 he revisited England and returned to Russia as James II's envoy extraordinary. In the unsuccessful Crimean expeditions of 1687 and 1689 he was quartermaster general and gave strategic advice to the commander in chief. Prince V. V, Golitsyn, During the crisis of 1689 the support lent to Peter I by Gordon and his troops against Sophia Alekseevna proved decisive. Gordon, a full general since 1687 and rear achniral from (c,

GORDON, LEON

;

GORDON, PATRICK

[

i

I

]

j

|

|

GORE—GORGAN became the young

for social reform.

old style), 1699. Gordon left a diary of his Ufe in English which was translated into German and published in Russia by M. A. Obolenski and M. C. Posselt (Tagebuch des Generals 3 vol., 1849-53). Passages From the Diary oj General Patrick Gordon, edited by J. Robertson, appeared in English

toral ofiice demanded the broadest concern for human welfare, as well as watchful care for the good order of the church.

in 1859.

ready mentioned, The

.

.

tsar's chief

.

As Christ and Society (1928) indicates, his interest in industrial relations, housing, popular education, international peace and other social issues stemmed from his fundamental theological conviction of the unity of grace and nature in the divine purpose. From this premise he concluded that his pas-

The Reconstruction oj Ihliej, three volumes (1921 -24) contains the fullest statement of Gore's teaching. In addition to works al,

,

(L. R. Lr.)

GORE, CHARLES

(18S3-1932), English theologian, bishop and monastic founder, was a dominant figure in the Church of England for almost half a century. As the leading exponent of "liberal Catholicism," which united traditional high churchmanship with biblical criticism and social radicalism, he not only contributed largely to the development of modern Anglicanism but also played an active part in English public life. Born at Wimbledon on Jan. 22, 1SS3, of distinguished Anglo-Irish ancestry, he was educated at Harrow and at Balliol college, Oxford. Elected fellow of Trinity college, Oxford, in 1875, he was ordained deacon in 1876 and priest His influence on the church at large began with his work in 1878. as vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon (188083) and as first principal of Pusey house, Oxford (1884-93). After a short rural incumbency at Radley (1893-94), he spent seven years in a strenuous and effective ministry as canon of Westminster. From its foundation in 1892 until 1901, Gore was also

senior

(superior)

of the

Community

of the Resurrection.

Consecrated bishop of Worcester in 1902, he was translated to In the new see of Birmingham in 1905 and to Oxford in 1911. 1919 he resigned his see and settled in London, where he preached and wrote extensively, lectured at King's college and served London university as dean of the theological faculty (1924-28). He died in London on Jan. 17, 1932. Throughout his life Gore consistently upheld the Anglo-Cathohc view of the church. His first important writings. The Ministry oj

Church (1888; 4th ed.. The Church and the Ministry, 1899), an apologia for episcopacy and apostolic succession, and Roman Catholic Claims (1888), were designed to vindicate the Catholic claims of the Church of England, and in later years the Christian

Gore approached reunion conversations, alike with nonepiscopal churches and with Roman Catholics, from the same standpoint. He did not think, however, that the Tractarian message could simply be repeated without reformulation. Whereas the Oxford movement had confronted aggressive secularism with a blunt aSirmation of the church's supernatural life and apostolic authority. Gore and his school believed that the time had come to correlate Christian theology with scientific and historical knowledge and to translate it into social action. This conviction found expression in

Lux Miindi: a

Series oj Studies in the Religion oj

the Incarnation (1889), which

Gore

edited.

conservative churchmen this manifesto seemed more a be"liberaltrayal than a restatement of the Tractarian protest against

To

ism."

Gore

Bampton by

in particular

gave offense, both

The Incarnation

lectures on

oj the

in this

and

in his

Son oj God (1891),

human knowledge. His somewhat ambiguous. On the one hand, a

his "kenotic" interpretation of Christ's

position

was

in fact

deep conservatism appeared

in his

unwavering adherence

to the

and his insistence on their use as a test of clerical biblical orthodoxy; biblical criticism might be welcomed, because inerrancy was not an authoritative dogma, but credal statements, assent. including assertions about miracles, demanded unqualified from Gore's philosophy, on the other hand, was open to attack assumptions idealistic the since orthodoxy, the side of traditional and hisunderlying his treatment of divine immanence in nature views of tory were not so easily reconciled with classical Christian surprising, the supernatural as he supposed them to be. It is not his attherefore, that neither traditionalists nor liberals found wholly reason critical and faith Christian of tempted synthesis Christian Nevertheless, his place in the history of satisfactory. champion thought is assured by his widespread influence as the historic creeds

1

'

'

;

i

'

583

mOitary counselor. In 1698 during Peter's absence he stifled an attempt by the rebelHous strcUsy to put Sophia back in power. It was Gordon who obtained Peter Fs permission for the erection of a Roman Catholic church He died in Moscow on Dec. 9 (new style; Nov. 29, in Moscow. 1694,

of a reasoning faith.

The most

striking feature of Gore's public career

was

his

work ,

oj the

Good

Body

oj Christ (1901) and

The Philosophy

Lije (1930) are especially noteworthy.

The standard biography (1935) (1960)

is G. L. Prestige, The Life oj Charles Gore Carpenter's Gore: a Study in Liberal Catholic Thought a reliable account of Gore's position. (E. R. F.)

J.

;

is

GOREE,

an island just south of Cape Verde, Republic of

Senegal, and one of the earliest European settlements in west

long and 1,115

ft. broad Pop. (1958) 900. Area 88 ac. The fort of Saint Michel occupies the rocky eminence in the south; the low-lying part is mostly a town of narrow streets. There is a shortage of water and since the rise of Dakar the island, which has a healthier climate than the main-

Africa,

is

a barren volcanic rock 3,117

commanding

ft.

the entrance to the roadstead of Dakar.

had little importance except as a resort. Among the 18th-century buildings are the Maison des Esdaves and the his-

land, has

torical

museum.

Goree was first occupied by the Portuguese, the navigator Diniz Diaz landing there in 1444. From 1595-1677 it was a port of call for the Dutch, who in 1617 bought it from the local chief and fortified it. They called it Goeree, after the island near the mouth of the Rhine, Neth. In 1663 it was captured by the British under Commodore Robert Holmes, but in the following year was retaken by Adm. M. A. de Ruyter, who established a trading post. In 1677 Adm. Comte Jean d'Estrees seized Goree and razed the Thereafter the French rebuilt the forts (Saint Michel and forts. Saint Francois) and town, which became one of the chief centres In their wars with France the British held of the slave trade. Goree during the periods 1758-63, 1779-83 and 1800-16. In 1779 it was ravaged by yellow fever, and from 1784 the governors in the preferred to live at Saint-Louis. The abolition of slavery island. of the trade chief the end to an put French colonies (1791) joined to In 1859 it ceased to be a separate colony and was (J. D.) Senegal, becoming a commune of Dakar in 1929. (1890-1902), a

GORETTI, SAINT MARIA TERESA

attempted devout ItaUan girl who was murdered while resisting the eldest child Oct. 1890, on 16, Corinaldo at born was She rape Her father died shortly after the family had of farm workers. moved to Nettuno in 1 900. While her mother worked in the fields, On July 5, Maria looked after the house and younger children.

in the same 1902 a youth of 20, Alessandro Screnelli, who lived she resisted his house, mortally wounded her with a stiletto when on July 6, attempt to raNdsh her. She died, after forgiving him, After which is kept as her feast day. She was canonized in 1950. Mana's from forgiveness received Serenelli prison, from his release

mother

in 1947.

See J Carr, Blessed Maria Goretti (1949) Martyr (1956).

GORGAN

;

A. Gits,

A Modern

Virgin

(" ^

^^f' town of the

(Gurgan), formerly Asterabad, a (province), Iran, lies on a small tributao' of ostan Mazanderan Caspian sea and 185 mi. E.S.E. of the Qareh Su, 23 mi. from the of the Elburz mounTeheran at the foot of a steep wooded spur nearly trebled since has 28,525, (1956) population, The tains tilted Most of the houses are built of baked bricks, with 1900 Occup>nng a comrains. frequent the of because roofs tiled and position, the town dates mercially and strategically important are dotted with mounds back to remote antiquity. Its surroundings

Neolithic and Bronze Age settlenients. or toppeh, the remains of century, Asterabad was During the disorders in Persia in the 18th the Kajar dynasty. It frequently ravaged but was reinforced by articles of trade are chief The 1930s. the in was renamed Gorgan carpets: trade was and soap oil, cotton, rice, wheat, salt, sesame which ends at affected by the trans-Iranian railway

favourably

Shah. the nearby port of Bandar-e

GORGAS—GORGON

584

The former province of Gorgan-Asterabad had long suffered from the inroads of the Turkoman tribes who occupied the plain north of the Qareh Su. In modern times this plain was settled by (H. Bo.) the tribesmen and turned into a flourishing granary. (1854-1920), U.S. GORGAS, WILLIAM army surgeon, who contributed greatly to the building of the Panama canal by introducing mosquito control to prevent yellow fever and malaria, was born at Mobile, Ala., on Oct. 3, 1854. He was educated at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., and

CRAWFORD

Bellevue hospital medical college, New York city, receiving his M.D. in 1879. In 1880 he entered the medical corps of the U.S. army. During the Spanish-American War he served as a major in the medical corps and was sent, after the Santiago expedition, to Havana, Cuba, where he was in charge of yellow fever patients. From 1898 to 1902 he was in charge of sanitation measures in Havana, and conducted many experiments on the transmission of yellow fever by the mosquito. Because of his success in ehminating yellow fever there he was made assistant surgeon general, U.S. army, with the rank of colonel in 1903. In 1904 Gorgas was sent as chief sanitary officer to Panama, where two of the main obstacles to building the canal were yellow fever and malaria (qg.v.). In two years he eliminated yellow fever from the canal region. Malaria also was brought under control. In 1907 he was appointed a member of the Isthmian Canal commission by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt and in 1908 was U.S. delegate to the first Pan-.\merican medical congress. He was president of the American Medical association, 1908-09. In 1914 Gorgas was made surgeon general, U.S. army, with the rank of brigadier general, becoming major general in 1915. In 1918 he was retired. He then became the permanent director of the yellow-fever work of the International Health board of the Rockefeller foundation. He went to Central America, and under his direction investigations of yeUow fever were made in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and in Guatemala. In 1919 he accepted a contract with Peru to carry out a sanitary program in that country. He died in London, July 3, 1920, and was buried in the Arlington National cemetery, Arlington, Va. In his honour were established the

Gorgas Memorial Institute of Tropical and Preventive Medicine, Inc., Washington, D.C., and the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory of Tropical Research, Panama

GORGES, SIR (c. 1566-1647), adventurer and founder of the colony of Maine, was Somerset, Eng., probably in 1566. Little is known of eariy life except that he received a modest inheritance quired a good education. In 1589 he was in command

FERDINANDO

military

born in Gorges' and ac-

of a small

body of troops fighUng for Henry IV of France and was knighted in 1591. He had a colourful mihtary career during eariy manhood but his most memorable work was his persistent promotion of New England colonization.

From 1605

until his death.

Gorges spent much energy and money attempting to organize and obtain royal sanction for schemes of settlement, although he never went to North America in person. In 1605 he was a member of the Plymouth (North Virginia)

company and in 1620 he developed the Council for New England. To It was granted all land in North America between the 40th and

48th parallels of north latitude. Gorges' views that colonizing should be a royal endeavour and that colonies should be kept under rigid control was a constant threat to the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay colony, who favoured greater freedom for themselves.

Gorges was the recipient of several grants of land during his lifetime but receipt of the charter for Maine in 1639 was the climax of his career. Although his agents set up a provincial government in Maine, the English Civil War and Gorges' advancing age prevented him from fulfilling his American plans death Maine was absorbed by the colony of

After his Massachusetts Bay Gorges wrote two pamphlets, one called Brief Relation advertismg the Council for New England and the other, Briej Narration publicizing his province of Maine. , .

.

.

.

See Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort (igSi) Fuller, Sir Ferdinando Gorges (1566-1647) (1952)

Henry Mornll

(B. K. B.)'

GORGEY army

officer

ARTHUR

(GoRGEi),

famous for his Toporcz (now

(1818-1916), Hungarian

role during the revolution of 1848-49, in Czechoslovakia) on Jan. 30, 1818.

was born- at As a young man he served

in the Austrian army, but left it to study chemistry in Prague. When Hungary raised a narional army in I84S (see Hungary: History), he joined it and soon proved his worth. He commanded a corps in the attempt to relieve Vienna

(Oct. 30, 1848)

and on Nov.

1

was given command of the Hun-

When the Austrian armies invaded Hungary in December, Gorgey, knowing his troops to be still raw, insisted on withdrawing and refused to defend Budapest. The consequent tension between him and Lajos Kossuth iq.v.) was heightened by his issuing, on Jan. 5, 1849, an order to his troops which read like a defiance of the authority of the committee of national defense but his brilliant spring offensive drove the Austrians almost out of Hungary. After the declaration of independence on April 14 he agreed to couple his command with garian forces on the upper Danube.

;

the post of minister of defense. It was no secret, however, that he disapproved of the dethronement of the Habsburgs; and the "peace party" hoped to persuade him to move his armies to the western frontier, proclaim himself military dictator and reach a settlement with Austria before the threatened Russian intervention could materialize. This he refused to do and continued to conduct operations with extraordinary skill and courage against increasing odds. On Aug. 11, when Hungary's situation had be-

come

clearly hopeless,

of Gorgey,

Kossuth abdicated as "governor"

who

capitulated to the Russian on Aug. 13, 1849.

commander

in favour

at Vilagos

The Russian emperor intervened personally to save Gorgey from court-martial and death. He was interned in Klagenfurt until

when he was allowed

Hungary. Thereafter he Budapest on May 20, 1916. The ungenerous accusation of treason long maintained against Gorgey by Kossuth and his supporters was utterly discredited by documents published in 1918. He indeed thought much of what the Hungarian extremists did to be both foolish and wrong, but sacrificed his feelings to what he regarded as the higher interest. He published a defense of his own work, Mein Leben and Wirken in Ungarn, 1848-184Q (1852), and an anonymous paper entitled Was verdanken wir der Revolution? (1875). See D. Kosary, A Gbrgey-kerdes es Torlenete (1936). (C. A. M.) GORGIAS (c. 483-376 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician who made important contributions to rhetorical theory and practice, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he headed an embassy to ask for Athenian help against the Syracusans. He later came to reside permanently in Greece, where he became a 1867,

hved quietly

to return to

at Visegrad until his death in

professional teacher of rhetoric.

Two

He

died at Larissa in Thessaly.

Helen and the Palamedes, are probably genuine, and there are fragments of speeches. In a lost work. On Nature or on That Which Is Not, which is sumsur\'iving rhetorical exercises, the

marized by Sextus Empiricus and in the pseudo-AristoteUan treatise De Melissa, Xenophane, Gorgia, he argued that there is no being; or that if there is being, it cannot be known; or that if there is being and it can be known, it cannot be communicated to others. He is a central figure in Plato's Gorgias, but Plato treats him as a rhetorician rather than as a philosopher. See also Sophists. Bbliography.— For fragments and testimonia see H. Dials and W. Kranz, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, vol. ii, 7th ed. (1954). For his philosophy see M. Untersteiner, The Sophists, Eng. trans., vol. i, ch. iv-i.x (1954) (speculative). For Gorgias as a rhetorician see F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit,

GORGON,

vol.

i

(1887).

(G. B. Kn.)

Greek mythology. Homer speaks of a single Gorgon, whose head is represented in the Uiad as fixed in the centre of the aegis (breastplate) of Zeus. In the Odyssey the Gorgon is a monster of the underworld. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer) and Medusa (the queen) and makes them the daughters of the sea-god Phorcys and of his sister-wife Ceto. Their home is in the extreme west; according to later authorities, a figure in

—

in Libya.

the

Gorgon

The as a

—

Attic tradition, reproduced in Euripides, regarded

monster produced by Gaea, the goddess Earth, and slain by Athena.

aid her sons against the gods,

to

—

GORGONZOLA— GORING The Gorgons as

are represented

winged female creatures; their

projecting

snakes;

of

consists

Medusa was who

teeth.

the only one of the three

was mortal, hence Perseus was

by cutting

off her blood that spurted from her neck sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two The head, sons by Poseidon. which had the power of turning

able to kill her

head.

From

the

who looked upon it into stone, MANSELL-AL1NA was given to Athena, or buried in MARBLE HEAD OF GORGON; EARLY the market place of Argos. Her- 6TH CENTURY B.C. IN THE ACROPOLIS MUSEUM. ATHENS acles is said to have obtained a from lock of Medusa's hair Athena and given it to Sterope, the daughter of King Cepheus, as a protection for the town of Tegea against attack. The hideously grotesque original type of the Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was called, was used generally as a protection against the evil eye. Later classical art showed Medusa as coldly beautiful; the realists of Hellenistic times gave her face an agonized expression. Various rationalistic accounts are given by late

all

authors.

More

reasonable

is

the explanation of anthropologists

Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, was originally a ritual mask. It also is possible that the staring or pursuing faces, common in nightmares, have a good deal to do with her. GORGONZOLA, a town in Milan province, Lombardy, Italy, Pop. 1961 9,046 (comlies 12 mi. (20 km.) E.N.E. of Milan. mune). Its most important industry is the making of the wellthat

(

)

cheese, which, soft when freshly made after is oven dried for 20 days and then pierced with copper needles to promote the internal formation of the charThis cheese is also acteristic greenish mold Penicilliuni aiireum

known gorgonzola

being drained twice,

)

(

made in other parts See Cheese.

GORILLA,

the

of

Lombardy and

common and

the anthropoid (manlike) apes.

in

generic

.

Piedmont and Emilia. (M. T. A. N.)

name

There are two

of the largest of distinct species of

geographically separated areas: (1) the lowland gorilla (G. gorilla), inhabiting the rain forests of western Africa from the Cameroons to the Congo River; and (2) the mountain gorilla (G. beringei) confined to the mountainous eastern regions of the

gorilla, in

,

The former at altitudes of 10,000 ft. short-haired, the latter long-haired; the two also differ in size and proportions, G. beringei having shorter arms and broader Congo-Uganda borderland, is

hands and

feet.

There are also minor differences in the shape

Although related to the chimpanzee (q.v.), the gorilla differs from it in various ways: it is larger (an adult male gorilla may it has attain a weight of 450 lb. or more and a stature of 5-i ft.) large flaring nostrils and smaller ears; and it is less intensely black, its coat being more iron-gray, with a tendency to redden on the scalp (and sometimes elsewhere), and the adult developing a pale gray saddle over the loins. The gorilla normally stands on all ;

four limbs, but the arms are used chiefly as crutches, the weight being carried on the flexed knuckles, not on the palms. It occa-

has been written about the strength and ferocity of the gorilla, but modern studies have shown them to be peaceable creaIntruders may be faced by the tures unless unduly disturbed. male leader of a group, who may show aggressive tendencies in

Much

commonly

this resolves

into chest beating, vocalization, or short rushes toward the intruder, followed in most instances by a discreet withdrawal. itself

Nevertheless, males can be dangerous, their method of attack being a strong blow with the hand. The voice is deep and resonant because of the presence of air sacs connected with the larynx and

i

extending beneath the skin to the chest. a deep roar and a staccato bark.

the chimpanzee, lacking the latter's lively disposition

and adaptability. Consequently it is However, captive individuals studied experimentally have shown a capacity for problem solving and have clearly demonstrated the existence of insight, memory, and anticand exhibiting

less curiosity

less suited to captivity.

ipation of experience.

A

at varying times of the year, the gesta260 days. Gorilla births in captivity have become less rare since the first one, still events of note recorded in Columbus, Ohio, in 1956. Although little is known about their life expectancy, some gorillas may live for more than 25 years. See also Primates; Ape. Bibliography.— G. B. Schaller, The Year of the GoriUa (1964); W. K. Gregory (ed.), Ajialomy of the Gorilla (19S0) A. Moorehead, No Room in the Ark (1959) F. G. Merfield, Gorillas Were My yeiRhbours (1956); J. Wordsworth, Gorilla Mountain (1961); A. H. SchulU, "Some Distinguishing Characters of the Mountain Gorilla," J. Mammal 15:51-59 (1934); R. M. Yerkes and A. W. Yerkes, The Great (\V. CO. H.;X.) Apes (,1929). (1608-1657), EnLord GORING, GORING,

single

young

born

is

tion period being about

—

;

;

GEORGE

the Royalist side during the Civil War, was the son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, and was born on July 14, 1608. He served in the Dutch army and was lamed Returning to England in 1639, he was made at Breda in 1637. governor of Portsmouth. Extravagant, ambitious, untrustworthy, and unprincipled, he changed sides twice during the struggle between king and Padiament. Goring abandoned Charles and took promptly part in the "first army plot" of March 1641, which he

glish soldier,

who fought on

betrayed to Parliament.

He

joined Charles

I

again in Aug. 1642,

Portsmouth to the Parliamentarians and shortly after went Englishmen serving to Holland to obtain Royalist recruits from defeated Thomas Goring horse. of the general with the Dutch. As Yorkshire in March 1643, but in He became at Wakefield. May and later had Heutenant general of the Royalist horse in Aug. 1644 but there was independent commands in the south and west, Fairfax at Seacroft

he was made

Moor

in

a prisoner

by Fairfax

between him and other commanders, mcludmg Goring went to relieve Oxford (April 1645). was around Taunton and on July 10 was operations the in engaged He retired in Nov. 1645 and Langport. by Fairfax at

much

friction

Prince Rupert.

defeated

sionally stands erect.

attempting to protect his dependents, but

tive than

lost

of the skull.

:

)

(

they are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and with large hair

585

Females care for their young up to about the third year, at which time the young termed juveniles to about age six begin to assert their independence, while still traveling and sleeping with the group. Black-backed males (six to ten years old) are free to move from group to group. The leader of a group is usually a silver-backed male (over ten years old), toward whom the members show an affectionate and loyal allegiance. A typical day is spent feeding and resting. At dusk the leader generally initiates nest building, on the ground or in the lower The ground beds are crudely and hastily jaranches of trees. fashioned by bending and breaking leafy herbs to form a more or less oval mat; the tree platforms are more carefully constructed of heavier twigs and boughs. Sometime after sunrise, after 12 or more hours of sleep, the troop stirs and gradually resumes its unhurried foraging over a vaguely defined territory, only to construct new nests at dusk. Almost exclusively vegetarian, the gorilla eats fruit; roots and young shoots, especially wild celery combined with large quantities of roughage; bark; and fibrous material from young banana trees. Native plantations are sometimes raided. Temperamentally the gorilla is more self-centred and introspec-

Vocal utterances include

went

to France,

Later he

commanded some

in 1657. in the Spanish service where he died

English regiments (S. R. Bt.)

HERMANN

(1893-1946), a military and ecoshowy public figures of National most the of one nomic leader and (Bavana) on Jan. 12, Rosenheim SociaHst Germany, was born at became an army officer m He official. colonial a of son the 1893 when supposedly unfit for active 1914 and joined the air force commanded, with distinction service in World War I. In 1918 he

GORING,

won the iron cross first class and the Richthofen squadron and he worked for the Fokker Airwar the the Pour le Merite. After Lufttrafiik in Sweden. He met Frau Svenska for and Works craft Countess Fock), whom he married after Karin von

KanUow

(n6e

GORIZIA—GORKI

;86

her divorce, and went to live near Munich. There he saw Hitler meeting and joined forces with him. Hitler immediIn ately made him commander of the Stiirmabteihtngeji (SA). at a public

the

Munich Putsch

of

November 1923 Goring was wounded and

ar-

During a long recovery he became addicted to morphia, but he was cured after returning with his wife to Sweden. Back in Germany in 192 7, he reestablished contact with Hitler, who had him elected to the Reichstag in 1928. rested but escaped to Austria.

Goring used his contacts among industrialists and aristocrats to Hitler's advantage and arranged his first meeting with Hindenthe day before his wife Karin died in burg, on Oct. 16, 1931 Sweden. After the Nazi success in the elections of July 1932, Goring became president of the Reichstag. When Hitler came to power he appointed Goring Reiclisminister without portfolio, commissioner for air and Prussian prime minister and minister of the interior. Goring filled the Prussian administration and police with Nazi appointments before handing over the police to Himmler in 1934. He was also promoted general by Hindenburg. Goring's complicity in the burning of the Reichstag (Feb. 27, 1933) was assumed from his official position and from the existence of an underground tunnel from the Reichstag president's house to the Reichstag. Later evidence, however, showed the fire to have been the unaided work of the young Dutchman Marinus van der Lubbe, exploited by Hitler after the event. Goring played a decisive part in the purge of June 30, 1934, directing operations in Berlin. He was sent on diplomatic missions to Italy (where he had met Benito Mussolini before) and to eastern Europe. He organized the production of military aircraft and the training of pilots and became both Reichsminister for air and commander in chief of the air force (LttjtwaSe) in 1935. By this time he could live in luxury. He took over a small palace in Berlin and, to the north, a hunting lodge, which he named Karinhall and where he built a mausoleum for the remains of his first wife. On April 10, 1935, he married the actress Emmy Sonnemann. Goring supported Hitler's economic policy against the caution of Hjalmar Schacht, and Hitler put him in charge of a four-year plan (1936). He was thereafter economic dictator of Germany, with vast powers for the acquisition of property and the direction of industry. In 1937-41 he organized the state-owned industrial and mining enterprises under the name of Hermann-Goring-Werke. He backed Hitler against his generals and in 1938 "framed" Werner von Blomberg and Werner von Fritsch to bring about their dismissal. He took a leading part in the operation of the Anschluss with Austria but foresaw the dangers of an attack on Poland and made some furtive last-minute attempts to reach a compromise with England. He was appointed Hitler's successor on the outbreak of World War II and created Reichsmarschall in 1940. Goring's economic dictatorship was extended to the defeated countries and to Russia, and he used his power with unrestrained harshness. Meanwhile, however, the Luftwaffe had failed either to subjugate England or to defend Germany. Goring was discredited thereby; his health declined, he again became addicted to drugs, and began to lose all but formal authority. In April 1945, believing Hitler to have abandoned the direction of Germany, Goring assumed that the time had come for him to take over as deputy and volunteered to do so unless Hitler sent countermanding

—

orders.

Instead Hitler dismissed him from all offices and expelled him from the party (April 23), while Martin Bormann independently ordered his arrest. Captured by U.S. forces, he was brought to trial at Nurnberg. He was found guilty of all charges and sentenced to death. On Oct. 15, 1946, the evening before his execution, he took his kept hidden.

GORIZIA

own

life

with a phial of poison that he had (Y^

(German, Gorz; Serbo-Croatian, Gorica),

^p a

-^

town

of northeastern Italy, administrative centre of Gorizia Province in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region, lies on the Isonzo 2 7 mi. (44 km.) of Trieste by road. Pop. (1961) 43,656 (commune). It

NNW

has a mild climate, being protected against the north winds by some high ground, which was the scene of fighting in World

War

I

and stretches from the Colle del Castello to the banks of the Isonzo. It is crossed by the Corso Italia, an avenue of trees. The cathedral contains the treasures of the dissolved patriarchate of

Aquileia; the Gothic church of S. Spirito (18th century) has a 16th-century wooden crucifix; next to the church is the War Mu-

The museum

of the history of art is in the Baroque Attens In the Piazza della Vittoria there are the Palazzo della Prefettura, the church of S. Ignazio, and the Baroque fountain of

seum.

Palace.

Nettuno (Neptune). Agriculture and the manufacture of textiles and machinery form the main occupations. There are numerous brick kilns.

Gorizia is the ancient Gorica, dating from 1001 At an important road junction, it expanded under the rule of the counts of Pusteria. It then passed to the Habsburgs, and under them it became a noted .

cultural centre.

During World War I it suffered much damage. The Battle of Gorizia between Austrians and Italians took place in the vicinity (August 1916). By the diktat of Feb. 10, 1947, the border with Yugoslavia touches the town on the north, excluding from it the station of Montesanto. The adjoining Yugoslav town of Nova Gorica was developed after the border settlement. Gorizia Province (pop. [1961] 140,222; area, 183 sq.mi.) has 20 communes. Gradisca d'Isonzo still has portions of the wall planned by Leonardo da 'Vinci; at Redipuglia an immense war cemetery contains 100,000 dead of the 3rd army of whom more than half are unknown. Monfalcone has a famous naval dockyard, and rising above it is the Rocca di Teodorico; Grado has a popular bathing beach and also possesses a cathedral, fine mosaic pavements and Roman ruins. (M. T. A. N.) GORKI, (1868-1936), pen name of the Russian author Aleksei Maksimovich Peshkov whose plays, novels and memoirs of working-class life brought him an international reputation. He was born on March 28 (new style; 16, old style), 1868, at Nizhni Novgorod, since renamed Gorki in his honour, and his earliest years were spent in Astrakhan, where his father, a former upholsterer, became a shipping agent. When the boy was five his father died; Gorki returned to Nizhni Novgorod to live with his maternal grandparents, who brought him up after his mother remarried. The grandfather was a dyer whose business deteriorated and who treated Gorki harshly. It was from his grandmother that he received most of what little kindness he experienced as a child. The bitterness of these early experiences later led him to choose the word gorki ("bitter") as his pseudonym. Technically of lower middle-class origin, he lived in such poverty as a child and young man that he is often considered the greatest "proletarian" in Russian literature. This circumstance, coinciding with the rise of working-class movements all over the world, helped to give Gorki an immense literary reputation which his works only partly merit. He knew the Russian working-class background intimately, for his grandfather afforded him only a few months of formal schooling, sending him out into the world to earn his living at the age of eight. His jobs included, among many others, work as assistant in a shoemaker's shop, as errand boy for an icon painter and as dishwasher on a Volga steamer, where the cook introduced him to Frequently reading soon to become his main passion in life. beaten by his employers, nearly always hungry and ill-clothed, he got to know the seamy side of Russian life as few other Russian authors before or since. His late adolescence and early manhood were spent in Kazan, where he worked as a baker, docker and night watchman. It was here that he made his first contact with Russian revolutionary ideas, meeting representatives of the Populist movement, whose tendency to idealize the Russian peasant he came to During this period, oppressed by the misery of his surreject. Leaving roundings, he attempted suicide by shooting himself. Kazan at the age of 21, he became a tramp, doing odd jobs of all kinds during extensive wanderings through south Russia, It was in Tbilisi (Tiflis) that Gorki began to publish stories in the provincial press, of which the first was Makar Chudra { 1892), followed by a series of similar wild romantic legends and allegories which have now only a documentary interest. But with the publication of the story Chelkash (1895; first Eng. trans., 1902) in a leading St. Petersburg journal a success story began as spectacular as any other in the history of Russian literature. Chelkash itself remains one of his outstanding works and is the story of a colourful harbour thief in which elements of romanticism and

MAKSIM

—

—

GORKI It began Gorki's celebrated Tramp period, during which he described the social dregs of Russia. He expressed sympathy and self-identification with the strength and determination of the individual hobo or criminal, thus tapping a

realism are mingled.

587

Though still essentially in alliance with Lenin's movement, he was somewhat out of favour even there owing to his es-

defects.

pousal

(1897;

of a religio-philosophica! trend called bogostroitetstvo ("God-building"), preached in his novel Confession and regarded as a heresy by more orthodox Marxists. Politically Gorki was a nuisance to his fellow Marxists because of his insistence on remaining independent, but his great influence was a powerful asset which

"Former People") and Dradtsat shest i odna (1899; Eng. trans., Twenty-Six Men and a Girl, 1902). The latter, which describes

from their point of view outweighed such minor defects. During World War I he agreed with the Bolsheviks in opposing Russia's

sweated labour conditions in a bakery, is often regarded as his So dramatic was the success of these works that Gorki's reputation quickly eclipsed even that of Chekhov and he began to be spoken of almost as an equal of Tolstoi. With the turn of the century Gorki embarked on a series of plays and novels, all less excellent as works of art than his best

involvement in the struggle and after the October Revolution of 1917 he gave them his full support. During the years 1917 to 1921 he helped to alleviate the miseries which, in these years of

was new

vein which

in

Russian

literature, for such characters

more from the outside. Tramp period belong Malva (1897), Byvshyye previously been described

had

Also to the lyudi

the

best short story.

earlier stories.

The

first

novel,

Foma Gordeev

(1899), continues

admiration for strength of body and will in the person of the masterful barge owner and rising capitalist Ignat Gordeev, who is contrasted with his relatively feeble and intellectual son Foma, a "seeker after the meaning of life," as are many of Gorki's other characters. From now on the rise of Russian capitalism became one of Gorki's main fictional interests. Other novels of the period are Trode (1900; "Three of Them"), Ispoved (1908; "A Confession"), Gorodok Okurov (1909; "Okurov City") and Zhizn Matveya Kozhemyakina (1910; "The to illustrate his

Life of

Matvey Kozhemyakin").

These are

all

to

some extent

because of Gorki's inability to sustain a powerful narrative such as he was well able to begin, and also because of a tendency to overload his work with irrelevant discussions about the meaning of life. Mat (1907; Eng. trans.. The Mother, 1929) is probably the least successful of the novels, yet has considerable interest as Gorki's only long work devoted to the Russian revolutionary movement. Simultaneously Gorki was producing a series of plays Na dne (1902; Eng. trans.. Lower Depths, 1912), Vassa Zheleznova (1910), Dachniki 1905 "Summer Residents"), Frag/ (1906; "The Enemies" and others. The most famous of these is Lower Depths, which still enjoys great success abroad and in Russia, putting on the stage the kind of doss-house character which Gorki had already failures

(

;

)

described so extensively in narrative fiction.

Between 1899 and 1906 Gorki was living mainly in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), where he became a Marxist and joined the RusHis enormous earnings, which he sian Social Democrat party. largely gave to party funds, were for a time one of the party's main In 1901 the Marxist review Zhizn ("Life") was suppressed for publishing a short revolutionary poem by Gorki, Pesnya burevestnike ("Song of the Stormy Petrel"). Gorki was arrested but released shortly afterward and went to the Crimea, having now developed tuberculosis. In 1902 he was elected member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, but his election was soon sources of income.

>

withdrawn for tion of

political reasons,

an event which led the academy.

Chekhov and Korolenko from

to the resigna-

At about

this

time Gorki founded a publishing business called Ztianie ("Knowledge"), which led to the emergence of a movement sometimes called the Znanie school of fiction. Znanie aimed to give a forum, in so far as censorship conditions permitted, to young writers with

revolutionary proclivities whose work was "tendentious," a word

which has commonly been used as a term of praise by Russian critics and readers. Gorki took a prominent part in the 1905 revolution and was arrested in the following year, being again quickly

:

released, partly as the result of protests

He

from abroad-

toured

of his mistress, an event which led to his partial ostracism there and to a consequent reaction on his part

America

in the

company

against the United States expressed in stories about

New

York,

The City of the Yellow Devil (1906). On leaving Russia in 1906 Gorki spent seven years as a political an in'exile, living mainly in his villa on Capri, which became Meanwhile, tellectual centre for politically disaffected Russians.

,

i

although his writings continued to enjoy the favour of ordinary Russian readers, he had lost much of his former popularity with i

the intelligentsia, for the literary fashion

losophizing tramps and sided the

now

that the

had veered against phiexcitement had sub-

first

more cultured reader was becoming conscious

of Gorki's

war Communism, his fellow writers shared with the rest of the population. He was often able to see that they received f)ayment if only for work such as translating. It is to

the decade ending in 1923 that the production of Gorki's

This is the autobiographical trilogy Detstvo (1913-14; Eng. trans.. Childhood, 1915). V lyudyakh (1915-16; Eng. trans.. In the World, 1917) and Moi universitety the last-named title (1923; Eng. trans.. My Universities, 1924) being sardonic since Gorki's only university had been that of life, and his wish to study at Kazan university had been frustrated. This long work is one of the finest autobiographies in Russian. It deals only with the years of Gorki's childhood and early manhood and shows his strength as a now relatively extrovert writer who had to some extent turned his back on the excessive "philosophizing" of his early period. It reveals him as an acute ob-

greatest masterpiece belongs.

—

server of detail with a his

flair

for describing people

numerous employers and

figures

who

flit

a

panorama

across his pages.

of Gorki himself, for seldom

In a

of

way

—

his

own

family,

minor but memorable it is

hardly the story

was an autobiography more

reticent

(even his attempted suicide receives only a line or two). The book is permeated w^ith a wonder at the mystery, cruelty and colour of life which, as it might seem. Gorki was now less earnestly eager But it does to understand or interpret, being content to portray. contain numerous messages, which now are usually left to be deduced by the reader rather than openly preached, notably protests against motiveless cruelty, continued emphasis on the importance of toughness and self-reliance ("I very early realized that a man is made by his resistance to the milieu which surrounds him") and musings on the value of hard work often couched in his

where he speaks of the dockers' "drunken joy" in unloading a Volga barge, a joy "than which only the embraces of a woman are sweeter." My Universities was finished in Italy, to which Gorki emigrated, being based on his villa in Sorrento in the period 1921-28, when he made excursions to Germany and elsewhere, but did not return was poor health, to Russia. One of the reasons for his retirement characteristic rhetorical style, as

after the but a disillusionment with Russia in the first years In 1928 decision. his in part played a have to seems Revolution lavish official celebrahe yielded to pressures to return, and the year was beyond anytion of his 60th birthday in Russia in that year he returned following the In expected. thing he could have there until his death in 1936. to Russia permanently and he lived of Stalin's total asHis return coincided with the establishment much harsher than cendancy. In the atmosphere of the 1930s, so Gorki was less able to of the 1920s from which he had fled,

that

workers and became a intervene on behalf of persecuted fellow was now more than ever prop of Stalinist political orthodoxy. He writers, and when the Soviet the undisputed leader of Soviet he became its first president 1932 in founded Writers' union was literary method of At the same time he helped to found the official technique compulsory the henceforward Realism, Socialist

which all Soviet writers were bound to follow. his close association Gorki remained active as a writer. Despite all his fiction of almost doctrine, literary ofi^cial Stalinist with the period

is

Revolution. concerned with the period before the

Delo Artamonovykh (1925; Eng.

trans..

In

The Arlamonov Business, continued interest

in

one of his best novels, he showed his Fhe capitalism. and fall of pre-Revolutionary Russian Klinia Samgma (1927-36; Zhizn ambitious more immense and which attempts a portrait of "Life of Klim Samgin") is a tetralogy 1948)

the rise

—

,:

GORKI— GORLITZ

588

There were Yegor Bulychov (1932); Dostigaev i drugie (1933; but "Dostigaev and Others"; Eng. trans., The Last Plays, 1937) the most generally admired work to follow his autobiography is a volume of reminiscences of Russian writers (Eng. trans., Reminiscences of Tolstoi, Chekhov and Andreev, 1949). Here the memoir of Tolstoi is so lively and free from the hagiographical approach traditional in Russian studies of their leading authors that it has sometimes been acclaimed as Gorki's masterpiece. Almost equally impressive is Gorki's study of Chekhov. At the other end of the scale come some of his pamphlets devoted to topical events and problems, such as his Belomorkanal (1934; Eng. trans.. The White Sea Canal, 1935), in which, as elsewhere, he sank to glorifying the most brutal aspects of Stalinism in this case the construction of the canal by the forced labour of largely political prisoners. Some mystery attaches to Gorki's death, which occurred suddenly in 1936 while he was under medical treatment. Whether his death was natural or not is unknown, but it came to figure in the trial of Bukharin and others in 193S, at which it was claimed that Gorki had been the victim of an anti-Soviet plot by the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites." The former police chief, Yagoda, who was among the defendants, confessed to having ordered his death. Some western authorities have suggested that Gorki was done to death on Stalin's orders, having finally become sickened by the excesses of Stalinist Russia, but of this little serious evidence has been put forward, other than the fact that it was characteristic of Stalin to frame others on the charge of accomplishing his the Russian intelligentsia between 1870 and 1924.

more plays

—

—

own misdeeds. After his death Gorki was canonized as the patron saint of ." often being used to clinch a literar>' argument. His reputation abroad has also remained high, but it is doubtful whether posterity will deal with him quite so kindly. His success was at least partly due, both in Russia Soviet letters, the formula "Gorki said

.

.

and to a lesser extent abroad, to political accident. His though gradually improving through the years, retained its nal defects of excessive striving for effect, of working reader's nerves by the piling up of emotive adjectives

style, origi-

on the and by

tending to overstate everything. Chekhov, his opposite in these matters, had given him good advice in the interesting correspond-

ence which ensued when Gorki appealed to him for literary advice the 1890s, but this advice was only partly effective. Among

m

other defects, in addition to his weakness for philosophical digressions mentioned above, is his lack of any sense of humour and a certain coarseness of emotional grain. But his eye for physical detail, his talent for making his characters live and his unrivaled

knowledge of the Russian "lower depths" are weighty items on the credit side. He was the only Soviet writer whose work embraced the pre-Revolutionary and post-Revolutionary period so exhaustively, and though he does not quite stand with Chekhov Tolstoi and others in the front rank of Russian writers, he remains one of the biggest and most fascinating figures of his age. See Alexander Kaun,

Maxim Gorky and

Russia (1932)- for a bibhography of recently translated works by Gorki, see Gleb Struve, iociet Kitaian Literature 1917-19S0, pp. i9i-i94 (1951). (R. F. Hi.) his

GORKI,

an oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist IS situated in the middle Volga basin It became an oblast in 1936 and from 1954 to 1957 the southern part was separated as Arzamas oblast. Gorki oblast is bisected by the Volga; the northern half is a low plain, drained by the Vetluga and Kerzhenets, and is mostly in dense coniferous forest of spruce, pine and fir, with some birch, while lower parts are often swampy; soils are poor podsols. The southern half is higherKepublic, L.S.S.R.,

rolhng moraimc

weU

as comfers,

gray forest

soils

with deciduous trees, especially oak as and open areas of forest-steppe; it has better and degraded black earths. The climate is

hills,

markedly continental, with a January average temperature at Gorki of 12° F. (-11° C.) and a July average of 68° (20° C.) Kamfall is about 20 in. a year.

The area

of the oblast

is

28,880 sq.mi.

The population (1959) Most live

was 3,590,274, of whom 53% (1,900,500) were urban. in the huge conurbation of Gorki (942,000) and its

townsOthers of

satellite

Dzerzhmsk (163,000), Bor, Balakhna and Pravdinsk

among the 23 towns of the oblast are Arzamas (39,000). Kulebaki and Shakhunya. All the area along the Volga and lower Oka is highly industrialized, but elsewhere there are only pockets of industry. Steel is made at Kulebaki and Vyksa, textiles and foodstuffs in Arzamas. In the forested areas timber working is developed on a large scale and Pravdinsk makes the newsprint for! Pravda. At Gorodets, above Gorki, a large hydroelectric plant' has been built on the Volga. The main agricultural area lies south note

where grains are dominant, occupying 65% of the cropped area, notably rye, oats, spring wheat and buckwheat. Potatoes and flax are important and some maize (corn) is grown for fodder. Communications are excellent, with the navigable Volga and railway west to Moscow, railways east and northeast to the Urals and Kirov and south to Saransk, and the eastern highway of the Volga,

from Moscow.

(R, A. F.)

GORKI,

formerly Nizhni-Novgorod, a town and oblast centre of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R.,

Oka rivers 260 mi. E. Pop. (1959) 942,000. The town was founded in 1221 by Yuri Vsevolodovich, prince of Vladimir, as Russian colonization advanced to the Volga, into the lands formerly occupied by the Mordvinians. Its strategic site on the great Volga route from the Baltic to central Asia, with links via the navigable Oka to the stands at the confluence of the Volga and of

Moscow.

"cradle" of

Kama the

Muscovy

to the Urals

(the Vladimir-Moscow region) and via the

and

Siberia, ensured its importance.

town was incorporated

into the principality of

In 1392

Moscow and From there

acted as a forward base against the Volga Tatars. Ivan III in 1469 and Ivan IV in 1552 launched their expeditions against the Tatars. The Russian conquest of the Volga in the mid- 16th century brought increased trade to Nizhni-Novgorod.

In 1817 an annual fair was established there which became the and most important in Russia, attracting traders and goods from all over Europe and Asia. The fair continued down to the Revolution. Maksim Gorki was born there in 1868, and in 1932 the town was renamed in his honour. The great volume of trade passing through the town led to the early utilization of serf labour in manufacturing and later of heavy Gorki's industrial importance industry, especially engineering. largest

steadily, much stimulated in World Wars I and II by the occupation and destruction of plants in more westerly areas. By the early 1960s Gorki was one of the largest cities of the U.S.S.R. and the centre of a vast conurbation strung out along the Volga and lower Oka. The Gorki car factory makes the "Volga" medium

grew

The shipyards, established in 1849, build steam and dieselcar. engined ships, hydroplanes, barges, oil tankers, floating cranes and river icebreakers. Also made are diesel engines, machinery for the timber and papermaking industries and a wide range of machine tools. Other products include textiles, footwear, plastics, furniture, tobacco and foodstuffs. Bor, across the Volga, makes glass, especially safety glass for cars. Dzerzhinsk makes chemicals and fertilizers, Balakhna and Pravdinsk paper and Bogorodsk leather Power for the conurbation comes from two goods and shoes. thermal electric plants in Gorki, the Balakhna peat-burning plant and the Gorodets hydroelectric station on the Volga. Gorki has good communications by river, road and rail as well as an airport. Railways connect it with Moscow and Kirov and with Arzamas on the Trans-Siberian railway, and there are suburban lines to Pravdinsk, Pavlovo and Bor. The city is the site of the N. I. Lobachevsky State university (1918), and other higher educational establishments include instiThere is a state tutes of agriculture, medicine and engineering. The drama theatre, one of the oldest in Russia, art museum. was established in 1798. Historic buildings include the kremlin (R. A. F.) which dates from the 14th century.

GORLITZ,

a

town of Germany which

after partition of thei

nation following World War II became a regional capital in the Bezirk (district) of Dresden, German Democratic Republic. Pop. (1961 est.) 89,021. Gorlitz is on the 15th degree east longitude, the base meridian for central European time, about 56 mi. E.N.E. It is a of Dresden, and lies on both sides of the Neisse river. frontier town, and after 1945, when the Neisse became the Polish-

German boundary,

that part of the

town lying on the

east bank

GORLOVKA— GORRES came under Polish administration and was named The town is a railway junction and the chief centre of Upper Lusatia, with many industrial enterprises, the best known being the nationally owned vehicle-building works in which double-

of the river

Zgorzelec.

deck articulated railway cars are produced. In addition there are machinery, cloth and wood factories and a construction training To the southwest of the school. Lignite is mined in the region. town is the lookout point, the Landeskrone, on a massive 1,400ft,-high basalt peak, Gorlitz has some cultural-historical buildings including the late-Gothic Peter Pauls Kirche, the remains of a

14th-century castle and many 16th-century houses, Gorlitz grew out of the Slav settlement Gorelic, first mentioned It reached its economic peak in the middle in the 11th century. ages when it was known for clothmaking craftsmanship. In 1635

town became a part of Saxony and later, in 1815, of Prussia, it was occupied by Soviet troops, GORLOVKA, a town of Donetsk oblast in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., lies in the centre of the Donets basin (Donbass) industrial area, 40 km, (25 mi.) N. by E. of Donetsk city (formerly Stalino). Pop, (1959) 293,000. Gorlovka was founded as a mining settlement in 1867; it became a town in

kept (see also Altaic Peoples). The oblast is well supplied with natural pasture and haylands. The area under crops, on the fertile valley soils, has been considerably increased under the virgin and idle lands plan and is dominated by oats, followed by barley, winter rye, wheat, vegetables and potatoes. Beekeeping is important, while the cones of the Siberian pine are collected for oil. Hunting carried on, chiefly for squirrel, and silver fox fur farming has been introduced. Timber-cutting is mainly along the Biya, down which the logs are rafted. Many minerals have been located, including iron ore, coal, marble, asbestos, graphite and cinnabar, but mining in the early 1960s was confined to gold, mercury and other precious metals. Manufacturing is limited to Gorno-Altaisk, with textile, furniture and meat-packing industries. The town has a scientific research institute of Altai language, literature and hisis

The

Chemal is a health resort. The main axis of Chuya highway from the railhead of Bisk to Gorno-Altaisk and thence along the Katun and Chuya and over iR. .A. V.i the Derbet-Daba pass into Mongolia. village of

the

tory.

In 1945

communication

1932 and Its

many

is

now one

of the largest coal mining centres of the area. some of the deepest of this field. There is

pits include

also a large engineering industry

making

coal mining machinery,

and a chemical industry (nitrate fertilizers), ways links Gorlovka to neighbouring towns,

A

network

of rail-

(R. A. F.)

OBLAST (GornoGORNO-ALTAI Altaiskaya Avtonomnaya Oblast) forms the southeastern part

AUTONOMOUS

of Altai Krai (q.v.) of the

Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Re-

on the Mongolian People's Republic. Created in 1922 as Oirot Autonomous Oblast and renamed in 1948, Almost all the oblast is mounit covers an area of 35.753 sq.mi. tainous (gorno) rising from low foothills in the north to the main ranges of the Altai mountains in the south, culminating in Mt,

public, U.S.S.R., bordering

Relief is highly complex, consisting of a ft.). high plateaus and ranges, trending roughly northwest to southeast, very greatly dislocated by faulting and rifting to form deep valleys and broad depressions. The highest ranges (khr.'bet) are the Katunski, the North and South Chuya and the Chikhacheva,

Belukha (14,783 series of

while the chief valleys are those of the Biya and the Chuya-Katun, forested the headstreams of the Ob, The mountains are densely with Siberian larch, spruce, Scotch and Siberian pine and Siberian the forests yield to alpine meadow, which in turn

Higher up

fir.

snow and ice. In the Altai are more than 800 The summits above the snow line are known as belki. glaciers. The valleys and basins have steppe vegetation, developed on chestthe plow. nut and black earth soils, much of which is now under gives

way

to rock,

to Boundaries of vegetation zones vary greatly in height, according The climate is exposure, but are usually higher to the south. local variastrongly continental, although relief causes considerable -20° F, (-28.9° C,) tion, January temperatures average about cool, about but may be lower in sheltered hollows. Summers are Rainfall S8°-60° F, (14.4°-15,6° C,) because of the height. western ranges and varies considerably, up to SO in, or more on the

falling to 12 in, or less in the east

and

According to the 1959 census the population was

157,161, of

centre ot

urban, living in the administrative urban Gorno-Altaisk (28,000) formerly Oirot-Tura, and the

dis-

Altaitsy people, sometimes known trict of Aktash (2,000), and Rusas Oirots, form about one-quarter of the population the upper Argut and Chuya are

The

more than 70%, Along some Kazakh villages. The Altaitsy, sians

of

whom

the 1959 census

group of enumerated 45,000 in the Russian S.F.S.R., are a Turkic They Kalmyks. as considered erroneously peoples, sometimes Chelform two groups, the northern, consisting of the Tulabari, proper, the kantsy and Kumandintsy, and the southern, the Altaitsy are distinctions tribal these although Telengity, Telesi and Teleuti, Formerly nomadic herdsmen, living in tents, fast disappearing. taken up agrithe Altaitsy have now largely been settled and have the econNevertheless stock rearing remains the ba.sis of produce omy and large numbers of cattle, for both meat and dairy are aU remdeer and yaks horses, sheep for meat and wool, goats,

culture.

is

the

GORNO-BADAKHSHAN AUTONOMOUS OBLAST (Gorno-Badakhshanskaya Avtomnaya Oblast) forms

part of

the Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic at the extreme southeast of

borders on China (Sinkiang-Uighur Autonomous and Afghanistan in the south and west. The Before the Revolution the oblast, although capital is Khorog. nominally part of the khanate of Bukhara (q.v.), was in fact under Russian military government. The present oblast was created in 1925, It comprises the Pamir uplands (see Pamirs), including the Lenin (23,405 ft,) and Communism (formerly Stahn, 24,590 The climate is continental, with small ft,) peaks, and is seismic. precipitation and great daily and annual variations of temperature. The Pyandzh river, a continuation of the Amu-Dar>'a (Oxus), flows the U.S.S.R.

Region)

It

in the east

along the western and southern frontiers and its many tributaries intersect the oblast in the form of mountain torrents. Of the lakes, Kara-Kul is the largest in area and Sarez the deepest (approxi-

mately 1,300

ft.).

of the obla.st is conditioned by its inaccessibility and the difficulty of communications, which are confined to road and air transport. Where neither is possible the yak is an important factor. The mining of minerals including gold is being developed. Electrification was being carried out in the late 1950seariy 1960s by means of small hydroelectric stations. Cultivation (wheat, vegetables and fruit) is carried on in the valleys, the dryNear Khorog ness of the climate making irrigation necessary. centre. There there is an important botanical garden and research horned cattle and yaks) in the is extensive stock breeding (sheep, whom were rural) east. The population 73,037 in 1959, 64,819 of and 5%, Russian. Kirgiz with 11% (Tadzhik), Tajik over 80% is There are motor roads between Khorog and Osh and between

The economy

(

Khorog and Dushanbe. At oblast. In 1955 there were more than 200 schools in the Pamir Biologiat a height of over 10,000 ft., there is the (G- E. Wr.) Research station.

Murgab, cal

GORRES, (JOHANN) JOSEPH VON

most variously gifted

German

(1776-1848), the

Catholic writer of the 19th century,

As a schoolboy he symat Coblenz on Jan. 25, 1776. and in 1 797 pubpathized with the ideals of the French Revolution (later Rubezahl). An Blatt rote Das periodical. republican lished a political negotiator on behalf unsuccessful visit to Paris in 1 799 as a withprovinces disillusioned him and for a time he

was born

in the valleys.

whom 19% were

589

of the Rhenish taught natural science drew from active politics. He married and A period lecturing at Heidelberg 1806-07) brought in Coblenz romanticism, particuhim into contact with the leaders of German (qq.v.) with whom Brentano Clemens and larly Achim von Arnim Bxi (later Trdstemsamkeit) edited the Zeltung fiir Einsiedler (

.

he

he pubfolk literature thoroughly aw.ikened late meof collection a Volksbucher, lished in 1807 Die teutschen MythengesMchte dcr asiat.schen Welt dieval narrative prose. His romanticism s fascination by the German of (1810) expresses much interest in

German

quietly until the national ""Returning to Coblenz in 1808, he lived the newspaper Rheimfound to him led struggle against Napoleon Napoleon to Its fiery journalism caused

scherMerkur

in 1814.

GORST—GORTZ

590

His financial policies were unadventurous

refer to

Egyptian government.

Napoleon's fall led to its suppression in 1816. Gorres's pamphlet Teutschland und die Revolution (1819) forced him to flee to Strasbourg, and there and in Switzerland he lived in poverty for several In 1824 he formally returned to the Roman Catholic years. Church, from which he had lapsed. In 1827, at the invitation of

but sound. Under Lord Cromer's guidance, he helped to prepare the Egyptian details of the Anglo-French entente of 1904, and after a period (1904-07) as assistant undersecretary at the foreign office, he returned to Egypt in 1907 as successor to Lord Cromer. (See Egypt: History.) He died in "Wiltshire on July 12, 1911. He had been knighted in 1902.

it bitterly as the fifth great power, but its equally ruthless criticism of the reactionary policies of the German states after

Ludwig

I

of Bavaria, he

at Munich, around him.

became professor of history

a circle of liberal Catholic scholars gathered

where

H. E. Gorst, The Fourth Party (1906). (M. R. D. F.) ( 1 864-1 927), outstanding Netherlands politician, was born at Wormerveer, Nov. 26,

See, for the elder Gorst,

GORTER, HERMAN

Gorres was the most vigorous CathoUc spokesman in a number of controversies, but the main task of his later years was the writing of his monumental Christliche Mystik (4 vol., 1836^2). He died on Jan. 29, 1848, at Munich. Enthusiasm, sincerity and abundant linguistic vitality

made GorThe Gorres-Gesellschaft, founded in 1876 to advance Catholic studies, testifies to the power of his name. It publishes a number of important periodicals and has institutes in Rome, Madrid and Jerusalem. res a figure of

commanding

influence.

—

Bibliography. Gorres's Gesammelte Schriften (political writings) letters (3 vol.) were added in 1858appeared in 6 vol. (1854-60) ;

74.

In 1926 a critical edition, initially ed.

by W. Schellberg, was begun

under the auspices of the Gdrres-Gesellschaft; 16 vol. had been issued by 1960. See also J. Galland, /. von Gorres (1876) J. N. Sepp, Gorres und seine Zeitgenossen (1877) W. Schellberg, /. von Gorres (1926) R. Saitschik, J. Gorres und die abendl'dndische Kultur (1953). (G. T. Hu.) ;

;

;

GORST, man,

Sm JOHN ELDON

member

(1835-1916), English states-

Lord Randolph Churchill's "fourth party," was born at Preston on May 24. 1835, and graduated third wrangler from St. John's college, Cambridge, in 1857. He was awarded a fellowship, but preferred to travel; he sailed for New Zealand in 1859, married a fellow passenger on the way and soon found himself entangled in Anglo-Maori relations and in danger of his life. Having had more than enough excitement, he brought his family a

of

back to England; long afterward he published an account of his antipodean adventures in New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of My Youth (1908). Gorst was called to the bar in 1865 and entered parliament in 1866 as member for Cambridge. He lost his seat in 1868, as did many other Conservatives, and Disraeh entrusted him with a thorough overhaul of the party's machinery. Gorst traveled all over England and Wales in five years of hard work that laid the foundation both of the Conservative victory in the general election of 1874 and of many later successes, for he established efficient local committees in every potential Conservative seat. In 1875 he reentered parliament himself in a by-election at Chatham and became No official notice was taken of his work for the party, and he made some mark as an independent debater be-

a queen's counsel.

fore he joined, in the

new parliament

.

poet and a socialist 1864, the son of the journahst, Simon Gorter. He studied classical languages at Amsterdam and was connected with the avant-garde periodical De Nieuwe Gids {see Dutch Literature). In 1889 he published the lyrical nature epic Mei, in which the impermanence of sensuous beauty is expressed through a myth of the mortal May and the blind god. Balder, between whom union is impossible. The theme of the first canto is joy in the beauty of the Dutch spring landscape, which is followed by a second theme melancholy beMei, which represents a peak of cause its beauty is fleeting. poetic art in the Netherlands, was followed by the sensitive Verzen (1890) and poems inspired by Spinozism. After his conversion to socialism in 1896 Gorter found inspiration in its teaching. His pohtical poetry is purely visionary: in a new community a new beauty will be established. His Marxism had an aesthetic basis. A Communist for a short time, he soon found himself in conflict with Lenin and during the last years of his life fought a lonely battle. Besides poetry Gorter wrote historical literary reviews and other Marxist essays. He died in Brussels on Sept. 15, 1927.

—

See Henriette Roland Hoist, Herman Gorter (1933) J. de Kadt, Gorter, neen en ja (1947). (Gd. W. Hs.) ;

Herman

GORTON, SAMUEL

(1592-1677), colonial religious enthuand first settler of Warwick, R.I., was born in Gorton, Eng. He became a clothier in London before he migrated to Boston, Mass., in 1637. In Boston he immediately became involved in serious reUgious disputes and was banished from the community. He met similar opposition in Plymouth and later in Aquidneck (Newport) and Providence. Gorton inspired development of a small rehgious sect called Gortonites who contended that true believers shared God's perfection and that heaven and hell had little reality. When Gorton finally sought a haven at Shawomet, his purchase of land there was contested. Massachusetts intervened, finally trying him in Boston and banishing him. He went to England where he pubhshed an account of his grievances against Massachusetts. Returning to Boston in 1648 with an order for the land he claimed, Gorton returned to Shawomet, which he renamed Warwick, and remained there the rest of his life. siast

of 1880, Lord Randolph whose only other members were Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff and Arthur Balfour. They were all keen debaters, who goaded Gladstone or the leader of the opposition with

See Nathaniel Morton, New Englands Memoriall (1669), ed. by J. Hall, pp. 108-110 (1937); Winthrop's Journal, 1630-1649, ed. by J. Franklin Jameson, vol. ii. For Gorton's writings, see Peter Force, Tracts, vol. iv. (B. K. B.)

equal invective; they toyed, Gorst especially, with concepts of "Tory democracy," which they believed they inherited from Dis-

plain

Churchill's "fourth party,"

raeli. Churchill's influence secured for Gorst the office of solicitor general and a knighthood in Lord Salisbury's short government of 1885-86. Gorst later held various minor offices undersecretary

—

deputy chairman of commons' committees, financial secretary to the treasury and vice-president of the education committee—in turn, resigning the last of these in 1902. He was the unopposed member for Cambridge university from 1892 till he for India,

quarreled with the protectionists in his party and lost his seat to a tariff reformer in 1906. He stood unsuccessfully as a Liberal at Preston in 1910. Gorst died in London on April 4, 1916, after a career that never quite matched his undoubted energy and abilities. Sir John Eldon Gorst (1861-1911), his elder son, English colonial administrator notable for his work in Egypt, was born in Auckland, N.Z., on June 25, 1861. He graduated from Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1883, entered the foreign service and was soon posted to Cairo. He succeeded Alfred (afterward Lord) Milner in 1892 as undersecretary for finance; two years later he took up a newly created appointment as adviser to the Egyptian minister of the interior, and in 1898 he became financial adviser to the

Howard

GORTYNA It

(Gortyn), an ancient Greek city in the southern (Mesara) of Crete near the modern village of Ayioi Dheka. shared or disputed control of the island with Knossos in the

j

north until the Roman annexation of Crete in 67 B.C. The Gortynians had assisted the kings of Egypt and the Romans in their wars with the kings of Macedonia, and Gortyna became the admin-

and Cyrenaica under the was due to the control of the sea route between east and west through its ports of Matalon and Leben. There was no considerable Minoan settlement on the site, but the Greek city took the dominant place in the Mesara which Phaestus had occupied in prehistoric times. This region has been

|

\

istrative capital of the province of Crete

empire.

j

Its importance then

the centre of Italian archaeological research in Crete since 1884, when the great civic inscription of Gortyna was discovered. Later excavation has revealed most of the plan and public buildings of the Roman city. See Crete Archaeology.

\

\

,

i

i

:

Part of the text of the law is given in M. N. Tod, Greek Historical Inscriptions, 2nd ed., vol. i, pp. 68 ff. (1946) with discussion.

(E.J.F.)

GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH,

Freiherr von

\ i

j

(1668-

1719), German-born statesman, attained prominence as the finan-

I

GORZ—GOSHAWK and diplomatic adviser to Charles XII (q.v.) of Sweden. His service of successive dukes of Hoistein-Gottorp, who ruled over parts of Schleswig and Holstein, began in 1698. When the ducal lands were in danger of being incorporated in Denmark, Gortz secured their restitution (1713). But his overtures to Russia and Prussia, which envisaged the cession of Swedish possessions in the Baltic and the succession to the Swedish throne of Charles Frederick, duke of Hoistein-Gottorp and nephew of the childless Charles XII, caused resentment in Sweden. Gortz, in a meeting with Charles after the king's return from Turkey (1714), convinced him of his good faith and henceforth was one of Charles's most energetic advisers, first in the realms of credit and finance, and later also of diplomacy. Gortz, however, was not the originator of many of the expedients which were used to raise money, though his fertile brain and his willingness to serve Charles XII's cause resulted in his taking over a great deal of the work involved in channeling Sweden's resources into the war effort. Though he had a fairly free hand in diplomatic negotiations with the Jacobites, the Prussians and the Russians, the king reserved for himself all decisions; and the negotiations of Gortz were only part of a large-scale diplomatic offensive which had other important if lesser-known helpers. Gortz's imprisonment (Feb.-Aug. 1717) by the Dutch— at the request of George I of England because of Gortz's intrigues with the Jacobites hardly interrupted the diplomatic offensive of Sweden. When Gortz was freed he completed that part of the plan which envisaged separate negotiations with Russia; from the opening of the Aaland Islands congress in Jan. 1718 Gortz's time was spent either at the congress or in travels to Stockholm and to Charles XII's headquarters to report progress and receive new instructions. In Dec. 1718 he was on his way for such a periodic report, not knowing of the death of the king, when he was arrested on the orders of Frederick of Hesse (afterward Frederick I of Sweden), who feared that Gortz might work for the candidature of Charles Frederick and against that of Hesse's wife, Ulrika Eleanora, the younger sister of Charles XII. The widespread desire among the Swedish administrators and officers to undo absolutism and to end the financial and administrative innovations of the late king, without openly besmirching Charles XII's reputation, found in Gortz the ideal scapegoat. He was accused of alienating the affections of the late king from his people, was sentenced to death and was executed in Stockholm on March 12, 1719, after a trial which both contemporaries and posterity have condemned as a judicial murder. His unselfish and loyal service to Charles XII is now gen(R. M. Ha.) erally admitted. cial

—

GORZ

:

see GoRiziA.

GORZOW WIELKOPOLSKI

(Ger. Landsberg an der western Poland, Zielona Gora wojewodztwo It is a (province), lies 120 km. (75 mi.) W.N.W. of Poznan. Pop. district capital and the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric. (1960) 56,000. The town is situated on the lower Warta (Warthe) The town centre is on river at its confluence with the Klodawa. the right bank of the Warta, the industrial district on the left. It

Warthe),

a

town

in

has a well-developed chemical industry (artificial textile factories)

came

a junior minister in

Nov. 1865 and sat in the cabinet as chanduchy of Lancaster for the first half of 1866. In Gladstone's great cabinet of 1868 Goschen was at first president of the poor law board, where he projected useful reforms, and then, from March 1871 to Feb. 1874, first lord of the admiralty. He and the French negotiated (1876) with the khedive in Cairo the decree that established the dual Anglo-French control of Egyptian bonds. Goschen stoutly opposed Disraeli's policy in the eastern crisis in 1876-78. He did not join Gladstone's government in 1880 because he disapproved of the impending extension of the franchise, but he did accept the post of special ambassador to Constantinople and helped to settle various Balkan frontier questions in 1880-81. cellor of the

He

refused Gladstone's successive offers of the viceroyalty of India, a secretaryship of state or the speakership. He found himself

more and more

East Edinburgh

in

extreme Liberals, and carried 1885 against a radical. When Gladstone de-

at variance with

clared for Irish Home Rule, Goschen opposed him vigorously. But he lost his Edinburgh seat in the election of July 1886 and only returned to the house of commons in Feb. 1887 for St. George's,

Hanover square. When Lord Randolph Churchill resigned in Dec. 1886, Goschen took his place as chancellor of the exchequer ("I forgot Goschen," said Churchill) and operated a successful con-

He was in opposition from 1892 to 1895. and returned to the admiralty as first lord in Salisbury's coalition cabinet (1895-1902) where he supervised large expansions of the fleet. He retired with a viscountcy in 1900, but kept up an interest in politics and economics; he was one of the weightiest free-trade Unionists in the tariff controversy of 1903-06. He became chancellor of Oxford university in 1903. He died at his home in Sussex on Feb. 7, 1907. One of his brothers, Sir (William) Edward Goschen (18471924), was British ambassador in Berlin on the outbreak of war version of the national debt in 1888.

His elder son, George Joachim 1866-1952 », who succeeded him as 2nd viscount, was Conservative member of parliament for East Grinstead from 1895 to 1906 and governor of Madras, 1924-29. in 1914.

(

See A. R. D. Elliot, Life of Lord Goschen,

an urban district of Northumberland. Eng., Tyne on its northern side. Pop. (1961) 27,072. The Great North road approximately halves the district and provides its main shopping street. Gosforth is a modern and almost entirely residential town for industrial and commercial Tyneside. St. Nicholas parish church was rebuilt on the present In the district, wholly or partly, are two golf site in 1799. The courses, three rugby football fields and one cricket field. -•..•..a.,-- . Woolsington airport is about 4 Gosforth mi. to the northwest. house, built by James Paine in 1755-64, was restored in after being burned

(T. K. W.) 1st Vis-

GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN,

count 1S31-1907 ), British economist and administrator, did use|ful work under both Liberal and Conservative governments in the last part of the 19th century. The son of William Henry Goeschen, a London banker of German origin, he was born in London on Aug. 10, 1831. He was educated in Saxony, at Rugby and at Oriel (

(1911). (M. R. D. F.)

GOSFORTH,

Pomerania and Poznania (or Wielkopolska, Great Poland), Gorzow was conquered in the 13th century by the Brandenburgers, who founded a settlement there in 1257. Its German name derives from this period. Although it belonged to the New Mark (newly conquered lands beyond the Oder), the town was subordinate before the partitions to Polish overlords both ecDuring World War II more than half desiastical and temporal. of the town was destroyed; it returned to Poland in 1945. a frontier castle of

2 vol.

adjoins Newcastle upon

and timber and food industries.

As

1

591

His Theory oj the Foreign Exchanges (\i,(>\)\s^s\ong famous. Goschen entered parliament in 1863 as Liberal member for the City of London, a seat he held till 1880, when he was elected for Ripon. He made his mark at once in the house of commons, be27.

in 1914.

It lies

1921

suffragettes

behind the New-

castle race course.

GOSHAWK, hawk

by

(C. S. Pe.) literally goose-

(Accipiter gentilis). one of

the largest short-winged hawks, which has long been used in falconry. The genus Accipiter may

be distinguished from Falco (the falcons) by the smooth edges of the beak, the short wings, and the long legs and toes. The sexes differ greatly in size, the male being about 20 in. long and the female

I

feeds on small

The goshawk mammals, espe- GOSHAWK

cially squirrels,

and birds of

up

to 26 in. long.

I

Oxford, where he was president of the union and took a first class in classics in 1853. He became prominent in the banking world early and was made a director of the Bank of England at college,

j

kinds, including

game

birds

all

and

(ACCIPITER

GENTILIS).

TRAINED FOR FALCONRY. TIED TO PERCH

—

GOSHEN—GOSPELS

592

domestic pigeons and poultry. In its many geographic races it ranges, usually in coniferous woodlands, across central and northem parts of Europe and Asia, south to Corsica, Sardinia, Albania

and Iran. The races common in North America are the eastern goshawk (A. g. atricapillus) from northwestern Alaska to Michigan and Maine, south in the mountains to Pennsylvania, and the western goshawk (A. g. striatulus), from Alaska to California and New Mexico. See also Falconry; Hawk. GOSHEN, an Old Testament place name of unknown meaning. settled 1. The region in Egypt in which Jacob and his sons were ,

as shepherds (Gen. xlv, 10; xlvii,

1,

etc.), praised as "the best

of the land" (Gen. xlvii, 6), called also, anachronistically, "the It was spared by the land of Ramses" (Gen. xlvii, 11). plagues (ex. viii, 22, in Hebrew text verse 18; ix, 26). Apparently Goshen was situated on the eastern edge of the Nile delta,

close

the desert, but,

to

(Gesem

ments, the exact location 9, 10 being hyperbolic). 2.

One

of the

districts

no certain mention of Goshen been found in the Egyptian docu-

since

in the Septuagint) has is

disputed, as

is

its

extent (Judith

i,

completely restored in the late 19th century.

conquered by

All that

cathedral (consecrated 1050; demolished 1819)

is

is left

a porch.

of the

The

Neuwerkkirche (1186), the church of the Neuwerk monastery, is pure Romanesque; other monastery and parish churches are St. James's (12th century, rebuilt in the ISth) the Romano-Gothic Market church that contains more than 100 incunabula in its library, and the 12th-century Frankenberg church. There are guildhalls belonging to the bakers' and the cloth merchants' guilds, the latter (1494) is now the Kaiserworth hotel. The museum contains works of art from the former cathedral, the metal 11th-century "Crodo" altar being especially valuable. Besides silver mining there are chemical and optical industries and lead works; office furniture and men's clothing are made. In the 11th and 12th centuries there were frequent meetings of the Reichstag in Goslar and in the mid- 13th century it became a member of the Hanseatic league. In 1320 the municipal law was

and was later adopted by many other towns. In 1290 Goslar obtained an imperial provostship and thereby gained the freedom of the empire which it maintained until 1802 when it became Prussian. In 1807 it went to the kingdom of Westphalia, in 1814 to Prussia, in 1815 to the kingdom of Hanover and in 1866 it passed with this kingdom back to Prussia. In 1936 Hitler made it the headquarters of the Nazis' agricultural organization. It was codified

World War

1587 signed the compact of Warsaw granting equal rights to all Poland in matters of religion. He died on Oct. 31, 1607. In 1568 Goslicki published in Venice his principal work, De Optimo senatore, in which he revealed himself an essentially European political thinker and also a precursor of Catholic liberalism. On the basis of the Polish constitution he expounded a political theory of general interest. Opposing both absolute monarchy and popular supremacy he recommended that the senate should stand between the sovereign and the people, controlling the former and citizens of

representing the latter. Goslicki was the earliest political theorist De Optimo senato advocate the right of revolt against tyranny. The first edition, tore was translated three times into English.

and so received many refugees from

under the title The Councellor Exactly was adapted to suit Elizabethan England, was immediately banned, as was the second, shortened, edition,

pirated, appeared in 1598

Portraited; although it

of southern Palestine

Joshua (Josh, x, 41; xi, 16), probably so called after its main town Goshen (Gosom in the Septuagint), not yet identified, but according to its position in the list of Josh, xv, SI to be found (L. H. Gr.) southwest of Hebron. GOSLAR, a town of Germany in the Land (state) of Lower Saxony, which after partition of the nation following World War II was included in the Federal Republic of Germany, lies on the Gose river at the northern foot of the wooded Harz mountains, 80 km. (49.7 mi.) S.E. of Hanover by road. Pop. (1961) 41,374. Founded in 922 and with archives dating from 937, Goslar achieved importance under the emperor Otto I (912-973), when Parts of the old silver ore was discovered in the Rammelsberg. town walls remain and the 16th-century towers, particularly the Breites Tor (Broad Gate), Zwinger and Achtermann. There are interesting stone and half-timbered buildings of the 13th to the 16th centuries and, on the outskirts, new building estates. By the market place stands the town hall, originally a 12th-century building but rebuilt later and containing a homage chamber with unique decorations. The imperial palace was built about 1040 by the emperor Henry III whose tomb is in the St. Ulrich chapel; it was

undamaged

chancery and served two Polish kings, Sigismund II Augustus and Stephen Bathory. He was also successively appointed bishop of Kamieniec Podolski (1586), Chelm (1590), Przemysl (1591) and Poznan (1601). He was the only Roman Catholic bishop who in

A Commonwealth

of

it

Good

Counsaile (1607).

Finally, in 1733,

by William Oldisworth under the title The Accomplished Senator. There are reasons to believe that Polonius in Shakespeare's Hamlet expresses views based on those in De optimo senatore. there appeared a

more

correct translation

—

Bibliography. T. Filipowicz, "The Accomplished Senator," Proceedings of the American Society of International Law (April 1932); W. J. Stankiewicz, The Accomplished Senator of Laurentius Goslicius (1946); J. A. Teslar, "Shakespeare's Worthy Counsellor," Sacrum (K. Sm.) Poloniae Millenium, vii (1960).

GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW

(fl.

1572-1607), English

navigator and explorer of North America. In 1602 he sailed the "Concord" from Falmouth to the Azores, then westward to what is now the state of Maine, thus establishing the shorter northern route over the customary one by way of the Canary Islands. He explored the coast southward, naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk). While on Cuttyhunk he sowed crops that sprang up nine inches in two weeks. He sailed home with furs

and with

so

much

sassafras (a supposed

remedy

for syphilis) that

depressed the market. His enthusiasm for America helped bring about the granting of royal charters for the London and Plymouth companies in 1606. The same year he sailed as commander of the "Godspeed" (40 tons), one of the three vessels carrying the first permanent settlers to Virginia. He was also one of seven councilors appointed to govern the new colony. He supported John Smith in his efforts to make the unruly colonists orderly and industrious. He opposed settling at Jamestown because it was swampy and was among the many who died there from malaria (swamp fever), it

Aug. 22, 1607.

John Smith's The General Historic of Virginia (Arber's edi1884 or 1910) which includes John Brereton's narrative of the 1602 voyage as well as Smith's account of Gosnold in Virginia; Brad(B. Sm.) ford Smith, Captain John Smith (1953). See

tion,

derived from the Anglo-Saxon godspell, "good which translates the Latin evangelium (from Greek euaggelion). It is commonly assumed that the term gospel denotes primarily a written account of Jesus' life. In fact, however, as the German poet-philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder remarked, Christianity did not start with the writing of gospels but with preaching, and Peter's first sermon at Pentecost was already the complete Christian gospel. Indeed, the word was used by the early Christian church in a quite distinct sense long before any

GOSPELS,

tidings,"

written account of Jesus' Ufe existed. Earliest Christian Use of the Word.

—

It is quite certain that

(K. G. Br.) (1530-1607), Polish Roman

the term "evangel" (as well as the verb "to evangelize") was first employed in the Greek-speaking church rather than by Jesus and the Aramaic-speaking Christians of Palestine. In the Greek world,

Catholic bishop, diplomat and political writer, best known as author of De optima senatore, published under his Latin name of Laurentius Grimalius (from Grzymala, the specific name of his

this term was widely used for "news" or "message" of any kind profane or sacred, political or private. A pre-Christian occurrence of the word in connection with the emperor cult is found

family's coat of arms) Goslicius, was born in 1530 of country gen-

in the Priene inscription in praise

in

II

other towns.

GOSLICKI,

try near Plock.

WAWRZYNIEC

He was

educated in Cracow (from 1556), Padua (from 1567), Bologna and Rome. In 1569 he joined the royal

of Augustus

(9 B.C.)

:

"The

birthday of the God was the beginning of the evangels due to him." In the Greek version of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, the

GOSPELS noun is used three times, twice meaning "reward for good news." The verb occurs more frequently, but neither it nor its Hebrew equivalent is used in a technical sense. Only in a few passages (mainly from Deutero-Isaiah does the word seem to have a special 1

meaning, but the influence of these on the early Christian use of the word cannot be proved. Thus it seems to have been a profane word adopted by the Christians to denote the act of proclaiming the message as well as the message itself. No emphasis can be placed on the etymological meaning "good" news. In certain New Testament pas.sages (Luke iii, 18; Acts xiv, IS; Rev. x, 7 and xiv, 6) it does not mean good news at all but simply news, and it is elsewhere used as synonymous with other words denoting preaching, proclamation and word. It was used for the oral preaching of the early Christian missionaries (not for written documents), and this meaning continued in use through Already in the Pauline Epistles (excluding the 2nd century a.d. the Pastorals), the term gospel is used frequently (56 times), often in a technical Christian sense, without reference to any conWhether or not this is an originally Pauline contribution tent. (the noun and verb never occur in this sense in the Johannine literature, James, Jude or II Peter), it is certainly an inner Christian development, without any pagan or Jewish antecedents. The consciousness that there was only one saving message, the gospel, is uniquely Christian. Gospel as a Name for Writings. Paul also provides the first indication of how the term gospel developed into the designation I Cor. xv, 1 ff. and Rom. i, 1 ff. speak for a written document. of the gospel as an orally transmitted formula which describes the A more developed Christ-event, Jesus' death and resurrection. creedal formula is called gospel by Ignatius of Antioch (early 2nd century a.d.). Since our Gospels basically are expanded creedal formulations, gradually extended backward to include the narratives of Jesus' life, it is easy to see why such written accounts later were called Gospels. In the Gospel of Mark, however apparently religious

—

—

—

the "gospel" is not yet identiwith the written book but denotes the history of that revelation which is identical with Jesus' life, death and resurrection. Nevertheless, Mark's work is the potential beginning of a new use of the term, by which not only the oral preaching ol the Christ-event. but also its written account could be called gospel. Such use was transferred to other writings, Matthew and Luke,

the first of these written account.s fied

which include the "remembered words of the Lord," as originally distinct from the oral gospel (cf. I Clem, xiii, 1-2; Acts xx, 35), within the Marcan framework. The earliest witness to this new use of the term is the heretic Marcion (early 2nd century a.d.), who described Luke's Gospel as "the Gospel" in contradistinction A few to "the Apostolicon" (a collection of Pauline epistles). years later Justin

—

Martyr speaks

of the

"Memoirs

of the Apostles"

term derived from the "remembrance of the words of the Lord" and in a few instances adds "which are called gospels." a

—

witness to the use of the plural. Since then the to be used for a great number of other unrelated accounts of Jesus' life and collections of his words, such as John's Gospel and numerous noncanonical writings. The present article deals only with the four Gospels received

This

is

the

first

word gospel has come

by the church which led to

in

general, and with the history of the tradition For further information see composition.

their

Bible: Canon of the New Testament; Matthew, Gospel According TO Saint; Mark, Gospel According to Saint; Luke, Gospel According to Saint; and John, Gospel According to and Epistles OF Saint. Formation of the Gospel Tradition. Between Jesus' crucifixion and the first composition of a written gospel at least one

—

Older criticism tried to bridge this gap either by reference to the oral testimony of disciples and eyewitnesses, who were said to have written at least one or two of the Gospels (Matthew and John); or by the hypothetical reconstruction of generation elapsed.

;

Later New primitive written sources of the canonical Gospels. Te.stament criticism has attempted to discover the tradition behind the written accounts. So-called form criticism (M. Dibelius, R. Bultmann, V. Taylor, F. C. Grant and others) has opened up the

possibility of reconstructing the history of the material incorpo-

593

rated in the Gospels.

This is a history of tran.smitted oral tradiwhich were primarily small, independent units (such as single stories or .short sayings), and not of extended accounts, oral or written. By isolating these small units or forms, determining their original "life situation," evaluating the motives of alteratioris and tions,

when such

recognizing editorial techniques used written gospel,

it

became

tradition

possible to describe the preliterary history

is

of the gospel formation.

The earliest church conceived of Jesus' words and works not as biography or objective history. From the very beginning the "life situation" of all the tradition about Jesus was the preaching and teaching of the church, in the course of which the transmitted stories

and sayings served

tian people.

The need

as a guide for the

of instrycting

new

new

life

of the Chris-

and of de-

believers

fending the faith, the expression of church life in worship and liturgy and the development of theology as a matter concerned with the saving event in the man Jesus of Nazareth were moving factors in the formation of the tradition. church that created the gospel tradition.

The

In this sense

traditional material incorporated in the Gospels

was the

it

is

basically

two kinds, each with numerous subclassifications: (1) narra-

of

tives, including stories about the person of Jesus (birth stories, baptism, passion and resurrection), miracle stories (healings and wonders) and tales (such as the Emmaus road incident); and (2) prophetic and apocalyptic, proverbial, legal, ecclesiastisayings

—

Christological and parable.

cal,

transmitted as

the

Dibelius calls paradigms.

above categories have

Often also single sayings were of little anecdotes, which

features

central

With regard

parallels in

to

form, almost

Hellenistic oral

all

the

folklore and

Jewish oral traditions. Thus, stories of Greek heroes and wondermen provided a pattern for the legends about Jesus, and the form of the sayings is clearly patterned after Old late

Hellenistic

Testament prophecy, Jewish apocalyptic and wisdom speculation and rabbinic law. A peculiarly Christian "form" is found only in the narratives centred around the passion of Jesus and in the say-

who

ings about the theological significance of Jesus as "the one

has

Just as this unique form is integral to the core of the gospel proclamation, so the literary form "gospel" is unique to Christianity, without precedent or parallel. To compare the Gos-

come."

Greek writing of history or biography would prewhich is rooted in the fad that here the church preached the coming of the divine in a particular his-

pels with the

cisely miss their uniqueness,

torical

person

— Jesus

Christ.

The "Synoptic Problem."—The first three Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, are known as Synoptic Gospels becau,se they have such an agreement in structure, content and wording that they can easily be arranged in parallel columns so as to provide a synoptic view of their content (from Gr, synopsis; syn, "along with," opsis, "view"). By such an arrangement, the question of the kind of literary relationship that exists among these three Gospels is necessarily forced upon the observer. This question, called the Synoptic

problem, has been elaborately studied

The

traditional

solution

in

explains the

modern

times.

striking

similarities

on

the basis of the priority of Matthew or of a supposed primitive Matthew in a Semitic language; this is sometimes identified with the so-called Gospel According to the Hebrews (sec Apocrypha,

Testament). Mark is con.sequently .seen as dependent on Matthew, Luke on both Matthew and Mark (and John on all three

New

Synoptic Gospels). Theologians of the rationalistic period were the first to chal(in 1774lenge this long-accepted hypothesis; (1 J. J. Griesbach also Luke hypoth75 held that Mark used not only Matthew but (2) G. E. Lessing (in 1776 and 1778) and J. G. esis of usage). lost Eichhorn (in 1 794) argued that all three Synoptics utilize a )

(

)

Herder Aramaic gospel (primitive Gospel hypothesis). (3) J. C;, this primitive thought 1818) (in Gie.seler L. C. and 1796-97) (in J. (4) F. Gospel was tran.smitted orally (tradition hypothesis). .small written Schleiermacher (in 1832) assumed the existence of Evangelists composed collections or fragments out of which the (fragments hypothesis). atlcmpled explanations have survived in one form or and though all of ihem certainly contain .some truth,

their writings

All these

another

GOSPELS

594

most Protestant and some Roman Catholic scholars hold that only one h>pothesis explains the Synoptic problem satisfactorily: the Lachso-calied two-source hypothesis. The evidence given by K. been have must earliest Gospel Mark as the that 1835). mann (in the source for both Matthew and Luke, was supplemented by the

But other observations make such a conclusion less certain within the Q material, Matthew and Luke show less agreement than they do in their reproduction of Mark. Especially the sequence and For this reason atorder of the Q material lacks consistency. tempts to reconstruct Q, though numerous, have remained entirely

who suggested a second source besides Mark which Matthew and Luke also used. Through the work of H. J. Holtzmann (1863 ). B. H. Streeter (192S) and many

speculative, at least as far as the original order of sayings in

philosopher C. H. Weisse fl838).

others, the two-source hypothesis has taken the following form, in which it is widely accepted among Protestant scholars:

Matthew and Luke used

1.

of the

life

the Gospel of

Mark, from which they

their narrative material as well as the basic outline

drew most of

of Jesus.

a second source (Q). no longer exwhich contained for the most part only sayings. Matthew and Luke each had one or more other sources for

Matthew and Luke used

2.

tant, 3.

the material peculiar to their respective Gospels. Mark. The hypothesis may be stated as follows:

—

form or

in its present

was the

first

in a slightly different earlier

written Gospel and was a source for

Mark, either Greek form, Matthew and

Luke.

Of the 661 verses contained in the authentic text of Mark, more than 600 are reproduced or represented in Matthew and about 350 in Luke. Only 31 verses in Mark are wholly unrepresented in either Matthew or Luke. Furthermore, in the material common to all three Gospels, there is very seldom verbatim agreement of Matthew and Luke against IMark. although such agreement is common between Mark and Matthew or Mark and Luke or all three. Where Matthew and Luke agree against Mark, several explanations are possible: (1) secondary harmonization of the texts of Matthew and Luke; (2) Matthew and Luke in particular instances preferred a parallel tradition rather than Mark's wording; (3) possibly the present Mark is slightly different from the recension used by Matthew and Luke. The following sections in Mark are represented in both Matthew and Luke according to the Marcan sequence, although Matthew and Luke often insert other material into this framework: Mark i, 1-15, 39; ii. 1-iii, 12; iv, 1-12; vi, 14-16, 30-44; viii, 29-ix, 8, 14-37; X, 13-30. 32-34. 46-52; xi, 1-11, 15-19, 27-33; xii, 1-27, 35—40;

xiii,

1-20, 24-32;

xiv-xv (almost completely). Many in this list are entirely missing in

Marcan passages not contained Luke but are still to be found order;

thus.

order

(Mark On

Matt,

position.

and and

vi.

xiv,

in

1-xxviii,

Matthew, often

I4-xvi. 8) throughout without

the other hand, the

in the

Marcan

10 completely follows Mark's first

part of

any changes of

Mark

(i,

40-iii, 12

almost entirely taken over in Luke v, 12-vi. 19 viii. 4-56~), whereas Matthew often deviates here. These findings cannot be explained except on the supposition that the Greek Gospel of Mark was the direct source for Matthew and Luke. It must be emphasized that since Matthew^ and Luke used the Greek Mark, they cannot be considered as translations from Aramaic prototypes, though, of course. non-Marcan materials in Mativ,

1-v, 23

thew and Luke

—The

)

is

may

(

well have a

more

direct Semitic background.

postulation of a second common source of Matthew and Luke, the "Saying-Source," conventionally designated Q (from German Quelle, "source"), constitutes a more complicated problem. The sayings found in both Matthew and Luke but absent Q-

from Mark are the chief reason for this postulation. Many of these saying parallels show a great verbatim agreement; moreover, they are sometimes given in the same sequence, though usually this is not true on a large scale. Furthermore, a number of sayings are "doublets"; i.e.. they are given twice in Matthew or Luke or both, once in a setting from the Marcan context and a second time according to Q. Examples of such doublets are; (1) Matt., xiii, 12 ( = Luke viii. 18) taken from Mark iv, 25; the same saying in Matt. XXV, 29 ( = Luke xix, 26) without Marcan parallel (ie, (2) Matt. xvi. 24 ff, = Luke ix, 23 ff.) taken over Marcan context from Mark viii, 34 ff.: the same sayings in Matt, x, 38 ff. C = Luke xiv, 27; x\'ii, 33) from Q, These and other phenomena seem to justify the hvpothesis that was one written document available to Matthew and Luke alike. Q

from Q).

within the

('

:

Q

is

In addition, the extent of the Q-recension used by Matthew seems to have been different from that used by Luke. Thus, Q certainly was not such a clearly defined written document as was Mark. Nevertheless, some statements about Q can be made

concerned.

with relative coniidence: (1) it was available to Matthew and Luke as a written source; (2) the language was certainly Greek, although most of the Q material contains distinct "translation Greek" with a strong Semitic flavour. Often such linguistic peculiarities are found in the Q material of both Matthew and Luke in parallel passages, thus indicating that these Q traditions must go back to one and the same translation of an Aramaic original, which might have already existed in a written form. Attempts have been made to refer to this Aramaic Q a statement about Matthew made by Papias and quoted in Eusebius: "Matthew compiled the sayings in the Hebrew language, and every man translated them as he was able." Papias himself meant to speak of the Gospel of Matthew-, but his statement in no way fits our Matthew, which is not a collection of sayings and which never existed in an original Aramaic form. Possibly Papias mistook a tradition about an Aramaic Q for a statement about Matthew. But even if Papias thus witnesses to a written Aramaic Q. it could not have contained In many instances Matthew and Luke all the present Q material. do contain parallel sayings that originated from different translations of the same Aramaic saying; on the other hand, a few Q sayings are Greek formulations wnthout Semitic background. Thus it may be concluded that Q represents the still flexible but at least partly written sayings tradition of the Greek-speaking church, which rested largely on similar Palestinian collections in Aramaic. Though Q reflects certain theological tendencies, mainly those of the first decades of the church in Palestine, it could not be called the work of an "author," and thus is not literature and certainly not a Gospel. Q may have taken written form before the middle of the 1st century and was translated into Greek probably before a.d. 70. The early Greek church, of course, as well as Paul himself, knew sayings of the Lord in the Greek language. But all attempts to prove a direct use of the Saying-Source Q in any other apostolic, postapostolic or 2nd-century literature have failed. After Matthew and Luke used it, Q apparently proved to be no longer of any value and quickly disappeared. Other Sources. The authors of Matthew and Luke also clearly depend upon other sources for most of the material peculiar to each of them. Most probably this is the case with the material in the great Lucan digression, or "travel narrative" (Luke ix, 51-xviii, 14), for which a special written source (containing among other traditions the most valuable "great parables") apparently was available to Luke. The infancy stories of Luke, and of Matthew- as well, also go back to special traditions, whether written or oral. Finally, the resurrection narrative in Luke is not from Mark but has a tradition of its own. Scholars have tried to reconstruct a "proto-Lucan Gospel." but none of the suggestions is conclusive, although the existence of special literary sources available to Luke cannot be doubted. The character of the material peculiar to Matthew forbids even more the reconstruction of a special protoMatthew. This material is largely nonliterary, ha\-ing its origin

—

and

situation mainly in the liturgy

and the regulations of the Matthew and Luke to establish a new hypothesis about the origin of and relationship among the Gospels have not shaken the two-source hypothesis but rather have served to supplement and confirm it. The Fourth Gospel. The Gospel According to St. John stands apart. Developments in higher criticism do not even favour dependence of John upon the Synoptic Gospels. Nevertheless, this Gospel is in some ways related to the Synoptic tradition. Its account of Jesus' passion and resurrection is parallel to and evidently more primitive than the source used by Mark. It employs a w-ritten narrative containing signs and miracles of Jesus, which life

church's

life.

All attempts to exploit the peculiarities of

—

'

;

.

GOSPORT—GOSSE very close to the tradition recorded in Mark but at the same time shows some rather primitive features. The Johannine tradition about the Baptist also goes back to the same root as the parallel Synoptic accounts and has preserved much valuable information now lost in the Synoptics. On the other hand, John's Gospel always presents the material with its own peculiar interpretation, adding discourses from traditions that have no parallels in the Synoptic Gospels, a feature that gives the Fourth Gospel an In appearance it is more theological, entirely different character. sometimes called more spiritual, yet John's Gospel was written with even more emphasis upon the historicity of the revelation than were the Synoptic Gospels. Thus John presents a mature inagain

is

terpretation of the gospel of revelation in the historic person Jesus of Nazareth, as seen consciously from the distance of a thirdgeneration Christianity in the last decades of the 1st century.

Character of the Gospels.

—

The oral gospel was not preached order to give historical or even biographical information; neither did the Gospel literature, as the final fruit of earlyChristian preaching, come into existence in the interests of history

in

modern

in the

scientific

(objective)

tradition behind the Gospels

sense of that word.

was sustained

at

The

every stage for the

sake of preaching and edification, with apologetic and theological

The Gospels and

the tradition behind them had a reNonetheless, there is some material of historical value in them. Not only do they attest the fact that Jesus was truly a historic person, but also they include several historical "blocks"

motivation.

ligious purpose.

—

the that are not entirely dissolved by theological interpretation passion narrative, for example, and many of the sayings and parables (especially those that show Jesus' unique eschatological consciousness).

Thus

the venture of writing a "life of Jesus" remains

a legitimate task for the historian.

But for understanding of the character of the Gospels it is important to recognize that even such historical data were handed down only as they served theological purposes and not for their This does not suggest that the essence of the Gospels is spiritual information or "eternal truth" as opposed to "history." Rather it is the announcement that revelation has come as the Jesus of history. The Gospels present this historical revelation in its true meaning; i.e., history in its real, theological dmien-

own

Its Beginnings (1957) V. Taylor, The Formation of the Gospel Tradition (1953); R. Bullmann, Die Erforschung der synoptischen Evangelien, 2nd ed. (1Q30), Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 3rd ed. (1958) K. Grobel, Formgeschichte und synoptische Qurllenanalyse (1937); K. L. Schmidt, Der Rahmen der Geschichte Jesu (1919). (H. H. Ko.)

History and theology, historical Jesus and risen Lord, are bound together in one story. See Jesus Christ; see also references under "Gospels" in the Index volume. Bibliography. Text: Huck and Lietzmann, Synapse der drei ersten Evangelien, 10th ed. (1950), Eng. trans., Gospel Parallels (1949); E. D. Burton and E. J, Goodspeed, A Harmony of the Synoptic Gospels thus inseparably

—

(Greek, 1920; English, 1917). General: B. W. Bacon, The Beginnings of the Gospel Story (1909) Matthew Black, .in Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts, 2nd ed. (1954); F. C. Burkitt, The Gospel History and Its Transmission, 3rd ed. (1911) H. Guv, A Critical Introduction to the Gospels (1955) P. B. W. Slather Hunt, Primitive Gospel Sources (1951); X. LeonDufour, Concordance of the Svnoptic Gospels (1956) R. H. Lightfoot, C. G. Montefiore, The Locality and Doctrine in the Gospels (1938) ;

;

;

;

Synoptic Gospels, 2nd ed. (1927); E. F. Scott, The Purpose of the Gospels (1949), The Validity of the Gospel Record (1938); V. H, Stanton, The Gospels as Historical Documents (1903-09); D. E. Nineham (ed.), Studies in the Gospels, essays in memory of R. H. Lightfoot (1955); R. O. P. Taylor, The Groundwork of the Gospels C. C. Torrey, The Four Gospels, 2nd ed. (1947); A. Loisy, (1946); Les Evangiles Synoptiques

(1907); K. L. Schmidt, Kanonische und apokryphe Evangelien und Apostelgeschichlen (1944) J. Wellhausen, Einleitung in die drei ersten Evangelien, 2nd ed. (1911). Synoptic Problem: W. E. Bundy, Jesus and the First Three Gospels B. C. Butler, The Originality of St. Matthew: a Critique of (1955) the Two-Document Hypothesis (1951); F. C. Grant, The Gospels. Their Origin and Their Growth, 2nd ed. (1957) J. C. Hawkins, Horae Synopticae, 2nd ed. (1909); W. L. Knox, The Sources of the Synoptic Gospels (1933, 1957) W. Sanday (ed.), Oxford Studies in the Synoptic Problem (1911); P. Parker, The Gospel Before Mark (1953); B. H. E. Streeter, The Four Gospels: a Study of Origins, 8th ed. (1953); Hirsch, Friihgeschichte des Evangeliums, 2nd ed. (1951); H. J. Holtzmann. Die Synoptischen Evangelien (1863); Synoptische Studien,A. Wikenhauser sum 70. Geburtslag dargebracht (1953); P. Wernle, Die synoptische Frage (1899). Form Criticism: M. Dibelius, From Tradition to Gospel (1934); F. C. Grant, The B. S. Easton, The Gospel Before the Gospels (1928) Interpretation Earliest Gospel (1943); R. H. Lightfoot, History and aliie and in the Gospels (1934); E. B. Redlich, Form Criticism, Its \ Tradition Limitations, 2nd ed. (1948); H. Riesenfeld, The Gospel ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

GOSPORT,

a municipal borough (1922) in the Gosport and division of Southampton, Eng., on a pen-

Fareham parliamentary

between the west side of Portsmouth harbour and the Solent, 18 mi. S.E. of Southampton. Pop. 1961) 62,436. Gosport, originally part of the manor of Alverstoke held by the bishops of Wininsula

(

and 17th centuries because of the rising importance of the royal navy. Primarily a victualing station, it flourished during the Napoleonic Wars. Later it shared chester, prospered during the 16th

development of Portsmouth with which it is connected by steam and floating bridge ferries. It is now the site of many important naval establishments. Gosport was one of the main embarkation areas for the AUied invasion of France in 1944 and suffered considerable war damage. Reconstruction projects were undertaken. Parts of the old town north and south of the High street were cleared and replaced with industrial and residenHoly Trinity church contains the organ, origitial developments. nally belonging to the duke of Chandos, on which Handel is said in the navy's

have played.

to

Industries include shipbuilding and sailmaking,

making of wallpaper and paint, radio and radar, tools, air components, pens, clothing, and general and Hght engineering. GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born He studied with at Fareham, Hampshire, on Dec. 27, 1800. Thomas Attwood, whom he succeeded as organist of St. Paul's cathedral in 1838. His anthems include "If We Believe" (written for the funeral of the duke of Wellington), "0 Saviour of the World," "0 Taste and See" and "The Wilderness." Of his hymn tunes, the most widely known is "Praise, My Soul, the King of (H. Ru.) Heaven." He died in London on May 10, 1880. the

GOSSAERT, JAN: GOSSE, SIR

sake.

sion.

595

and

emtnent for

ters,

see M.abuse, Jan.

EDMUND his valuable

(1849-1928), English

work

man

of let-

in bringing foreign literature

English readers, was born in London, Sept. 21. 1849, son H. Gosse. His early life, recounted in the best and most enduring of his many books. Father and Son 1907 ), followed a pattern common in his generation: a love-hate relationship with a puritan father, followed by escape into the

home

to

of the religious zoologist P.

(

Gosse, however, never became an aesthete or a bohemian; he kept to decorous beaten tracks: the British museum, the board of trade (where he was translator for nearly 30 years) and the house of lords (librarian, 1904-14). Gosse was a prolific versifier, translator, literary historian, critic and journalist, and in his own time he w^as very influential. He had the misfortune, however, to be working just before the modern revolution in standards of scholarship and criticism, so that much of his output now appears amateurish. Moreover, most of exhilarating world of belles-lettres.

such as his translations of Ibsen (Ilcdda Gabler, Archer, The Master-Biiildcr, 1893), his literary Sir T. lives and editions (e.g., Thomas Gray, 1884; Donne, 1899; Browne, 1905), his literary histories (18th Century Literature, es.says 1889; Modern English Literature, 1897) and his critical though writ(e.g.] Critical Kit-Kats, 1896; French Profiles, 1905). subsequent ten with charm and gusto, have been outclassed by his best books,

1891; with

W.

Nevertheless he deserves credit as a pioneer, in these fields. particulariy in the study of Scandinavian and French literature. and English literature of the 17th and ISth centuries. And his evi-

work

is dent relish for literature, as a thing to be savoured and enjoyed, Son something that modern critics too often lack. In Father and and tolerance— combine all Gosse's finest gifts— grace, irony, wit knighted m a minor classic of autobiography. Gosse was

form

to

1925 and died in London,

May

(B.

16, 1928.

Wv.)

HENRY

(1810-1888), BriUsh naturalist Worcester on and popularizer of zoological subjects, was born at

GOSSE, PHILIP

In 1827 he became a clerk in a seal-fishery ofl[ice at of his life by Carbon'ear, Nfd., where he beguiled the tedium After an unsuccessful interinvestigations into natural history. in the United States, taught lude of farming in Canada he traveled .\pril 6, 1810.

for

some time

in

Alabama and returned

to

England

in

1839.

GOSSEC—GOTEBORG

596

in 1844 led to accounts of the birds of that Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica (1S51). For the rest of his life he devoted himself to the description of the animal life, mainly the invertebrates, of the British seas and fresh

A

visit to

island

and

waters.

Jamaica

to his

A

The nature of the numerous is shown by specimen

popular volumes

successive popular or semititles, such as A Naturalist's

Rambles on the Devonshire Coast (1853) Evenings at the Microscope (1859); and A Year at the Shore (1865). His books were illustrated with his own meticulously drawn and coloured figures. Technical accounts of the British sea anemones and corals, and a larger work on the minute rotifers (with C. T. Hudson) retain use;

fulness for reference.

Gosse's membership in the Plymouth Brethren involved him in the complete rejection of all ideas of evolution. Two years before the appearance of Darwin's Origin of Species Gosse expressed the nonevolutionary position in a unique book, Omphalos (1857). He

was elected fellow of the Royal society Marychurch, Devon, on Aug. 23, 1888. See Peter Stageman et al., Bibliography Henry Gosse, F. R. S. (1955).

GOSSEC, FRANgOIS JOSEPH

in 1856.

He

died at St.

1

734-1 829) French, orig,

composer who developed the early forms of orchestral and chamber works in France, was born on Jan. 17, 1734, at Vergnies, Hainault. He went to Paris in 1751 where he was introduced by Rameau to the wealthy amateur Le Riche de la Poupliniere, becoming conductor of his private orchestra, which, in 1754, performed Gossec's first symphony. Later, as music director to

inally Belgian,

at Chantilly, he wrote symphonies, string His Messe des Marts was performed in Paris in 1760. In 1769 he directed the Concert des Amatetirs at which, in 1773, he gave the first French performance of a s>'mphony by Haydn. In the same year he became director of the Concert SpirGossec's reputation was extended by the composition of ituel. large-scale hymns and chants celebrating social and artistic events during the Revolution. In 1795 he was appointed inspector and teacher of composition at the newly founded Paris conservatory. He died at Passy, near Paris, on Feb. 16, 1829.

the prince of

Conde

quartets and operas.

See L. Dufrane, Gossec (1927) (1949).

;

J.

G. Prod'homme, F. J. Gossec (Cs. Ch.)

GOSSON, STEPHEN

(1554-1624), English writer, notable on the theatre, was baptized at Canterbury, Kent, on April 17, 1554. Educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, he became a playwright and actor but later attacked the stage, poetry, music and other pastimes in The Schoole of Abuse (1579), probably commissioned by the city authorities. In The Ephemerides of Phialo (1579), an imitation of John Lyly's Euphues, Gosson parried the first retaliations of the players, mentioning in the appended Apologie of the Schoole of Abuse that they had "got one in London to write certaine Honest excuses." This spokesman for the players was Thomas Lodge. Playes confor his attacks

futed in five Actions (1582) closed Gosson's career as a controversialist. Between 1579 and 1583 he was a tutor. In April 1584 he entered the English college at Rome but later took Anglican orders. His preferment was rapid and in 1600 he was appointed rector of St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate, London, where he died on Feb. 13. 1624. A sermon, a few early occasional poems and the titles of three plays complete his acknowledged work. According to Francis Meres, he also wrote pastoral poetry.

The theatre controversy sheds more light on the academic training of the disputants than on the drama. Its literary interest is slight except insofar as Gosson's dedication of The Schoole of Abuse to Sir Philip Sidney, for which he was "scorned," may have prompted Sidney to write his Defence of Poesie (1595). BiBi.Kx-.RAPnY.— W. RinRJcr, Stephen Gosson (1942); A. K. Mcliwraijh in Times Literary Supplement (Sept. 20, 1947). (Ae. Wr.)

GOTA CANAL

is the artificial waterway (not now of value through traffic) that crosses Sweden to connect Lake Vanern with the Baltic. It utilizes lakes for the greater part of its course, and provides inland navigation from Gbteborg to Stockholm. The Gota river drains Lake Vanern and, with locks to surmount the

for

falls at

Trollhattan,

is

locks to

Roxen (109

ft.).

from Goteborg to Stockholm is about 360 mi. (about 50 mi. in the open Baltic). The voyage takes about 2^ days. The Gota canal has 47 mi. of artificial works and includes 58 locks. Unfortunately the canal, which was inspired by Count von Platen with the advice of Thomas Telford and opened in 1832, was built to what is now regarded as an inadequate cross section but it revived not only inland areas such as Motala but also the port of Soderkoping. (A. C. O'D.)

The

na\'igation distance

GOTAMA BUDDHA:

.see

Gautama Buddha.

GOTARZES

of the First Editions of Philip (K. P. S.) (

sill depth of 18 ft. and allows seagoing craft to pass from Goteborg to Karlstad and other ports on Lake Vanern. The Gota canal proper leads from Sjbtorp to Viken on Lake Vattern and from Motala on the east of that lake to Mem on Slatbaken, an inlet of the Baltic, utilizing on the way the small lakes of Boren and Roxen. More than 20 locks raise it from Vaner (145 ft.) and across the water parting to Viken (292 ft.) and it descends by five

locks with a

part of the navigation.

The

first

be canalized (TroUhatte canal) was completed in 1800;

section to it

has six

(Godarz), name of two Parthian kings of Iran. GoTARZES I (reigned 91-87, perhaps even to 81/80 B.C.) appears first as "satrap of satraps" under Mithradates II in a Greek inscripA name carved nearby, Gotarses Geopothros tion at Bisitun. ("son of Gew"), may also represent him, though taken by E. E. Herzfeld for Gotarzes II. Subsequently Gotarzes and his queen Asibatum are known only from Babylonian tablets. Achieving royal rank in Babylonia while Mithradates still governed in Iran, he remained sole ruler at the latter's death. Gotarzes II reigned from a.d. 44 to 51, after a prolonged struggle with Vardanes (g.v.). Tacitus, as against Josephus, alleges a brief earlier reign by Gotarzes, not reliably confirmed by coins, in a.d. 39. Gotarzes had then slain his brother, Artabanus, when a second brother, Vardanes, surprised him by a breakneck two-day Fear of the nobles reconciled vide and expelled him to Hyrcania. the two for a time, then fighting was renewed and Vardanes' murder in a.d. 46 or 47 left Gotarzes unopposed. Later another rival, Meherdates, returning from exile at Rome, was defeated and captured near Karafto in Kurdistan. When Gotarzes perished in a.d. 51 by assassination or disease, another brother, Vologaeses I, was already issuing coins. Rare drachmas designate Gotarzes "titular" son of Artabanus II and bear his personal name, also found on tetradrachms dated a.d. 46-47, regnal year 3.

i

1

|

j

—

Bibliography. N. C. Debevoise, Political History of Parthia E. T. Newell (1938) R. H. MacDowell, Coins from Seleucia (1935) in A. U. Pope (ed.), Survey of Persian Art, vol. i, pp. 489 ff. (1938). (A. D. H. B.)

GOTEBORG its

1

(Gothenburg), the second

largest city of Sweand capital of the Idn (county) of Goteborg och Bohus, is situated 240 mi. W. of Stockholm in the valley and on the heights of the Gota river estuary, the centre being 5 mi. above the river mouth in the Kattegat. Pop. (1960) 404,349. Goteborg was founded in 1619 by Gustavus II Adolphus (charter dated June 4, 1621), but earlier urban settlements had already existed on the site. A settlement of the same name had been founded on the island of Hisingen, to the north, by Charles IX, but it had been destroyed by the Danes. A considerable number of the earliest inhabitants of the present town were foreigners, mainly Dutchmen, but also Englishmen, Scots, Belgians and Germans. As a result of the Dutch settlement, Goteborg took on a certain Dutch quality. Evidence of this is still provided by the canals, built in the Dutch style, and by the planning of the city centre. The city's prosperity was laid in the early 18th century by the founding of the Swedish East India company, and during Napoleon's continental blockade it became Europe's chief market for British goods. A second period of wealth started with the opening of the Gota canal (1832) and the setting up of a transoceanic service. The town was strongly fortified until 1807, and around the main wall a moat was dug, which still encircles the old part of the city. The forts called Skansen Lejonet ("the Lion") and Skansen

den,

-

;

;

largest seaport,

]

|

j

j

j

|

j

Kronan ("the Crown") are other relics of the old fortifications. Part of the canal system has been filled in, and in its place are two important streets, Ostra Hamngatan and Vastra Hamngatan. Two other principal streets of the old town are Norra Hamngatan and Sodra Hamngatan, one on each side of the Great Harbour canal.

'

;

j

j

.

GOTEBORG OCH BOHUS— GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE Gustav Adolf s Torg (market place), including the town hall (1750), the exchange (meeting place of the city council and the town's administrative centre; 1849), and the law courts 1672, restored 1732, 1817) with an annex (an interesting example of modern Swedish architecture; 1935-37) is also in the old town. In Norra Hamngatan, west of the Kristine church (1648, rebuilt 1780), stand the former office and warehouse buildings of the Swedish East India company (1750-62) and the house of its manager, Nicholas Sahlgren (1753); the company's premises house the Cultural History museum, and the house is occupied by the city finance department. (

In this part of the town also is the cathedral (1633, rebuilt 1815-25, Southward, Ostra Hamngatan continues as restored 1956-57). Kungsportsavenyen, familiarly called "the Avenue," leading to Gbtaplatsen, round which stand the city theatre (1934), the art

597

ramparts on orders of its then lord, the abbot of the Hersfeld about 50 mi. to the west. Gotha received its municipal charter in 1189. In 1247 it came under the control of the landgraves of Thuringia, and when that ruling line died out it became part of the electorate of Saxony. From 1640 to 1825 Gotha was the residence of the dukes of Saxony-Golha and from 1826 to 1918 it was, along with Coburg, the residence of the dukes of SazeCoburg-Gotha. WISE OF, an expression alluding to the cloister,

MEN

GOTHAM,

proverbial folly of the inhabitants of the village of Gotham (probably Gotham in Nottinghamshire). Legend has it that, threatened by a visit from King John, the villagers, in order to escape the ex-

pense which would be entailed by the residence of the court in the neighbourhood, decided to feign stupidity when the royal messen-

The

and the concert hall (1935). Outside the old moat and alongside it lies a continuous park area more than a mile long traversed by Nya Allen. At the junction of the Avenue with Nya Allen stands the city's opera house, Stora Teatern (1859). The city contains a university (founded 1891),

gers arrived.

commercial college, a school of social studies and a navigation school. Museums include the Maritime museum and aquarium, the Natural History museum, and the Rohss Museum of Art and Crafts. Among the larger parks are Slottsskogen, with a zoological section and bird lakes, the botanical gardens and the Tradgardsforeningen (the Garden society). Goteborg is Sweden's chief seaport, and approximately 6,000,000 tons of goods are discharged and loaded there each year. It has been a free port since 1921 and is used by more than 70 shipping

Tovmeley Mysteries and a collection of their "jests," by "A.B." (Andrew Boorde?), was published in the 16th century under the

gallery (1923)

a technical college, a

The harbour

lines.

is

rarely obstructed

by

ice.

Fish catches are

landed there and sent by rail to the rest of the continent. Goteborg is connected to the rest of Sweden by the Gota canal and by Both internal and six railway lines which radiate from the city. external air services use Torslanda airport, 7 mi. W. of the city. Principal exports are paper, cardboard, timber, paper pulp; imports Shipbuilding yards on Hisingen are mineral oils, fruit and iron. Island are the largest in Sweden. Other industries are the production of ball bearings, automobiles, textiles

and food.

(Lo. S.)

GOTEBORG OCH BOHUS,

a Ian (county), occupying the It comprises the greatly indented

most westerly area of Sweden. coastal zone on the Skagerrak and Kattegat west of the Gota river but extends south and east to include Goteborg city. Area 1,986 sq.mi. Pop. (I960) 624,762. The district is more Norwegian than Swedish in character and has granite outcrops of value for quarrying, but it has poor soils and vegetation only suitable for sheep grazing. The indented coast, protected by numerous islands, has many fishing villages and at Lysekil boatbuilding and fish canning are carried on. The principal towns are Goteborg, Uddevalla and Marstrand.

The

tourist industry

is

important.

(A. C. O'D.)

GOTHA, a town of Germany which after partition of the nation following

World War

became

II

a regional capital in the Bezirk

Republic. Pop. (1961 about 19 mi. (31 km.) W. of Erfurt on the northern edge of the Thuringian forest. A rail junction, it has food industries, machinery and vehicle building enterprises, as well as the nationally owned Hermann Haack (formerly Justus Perthes; (district) of Erfurt,

est.)

56,203.

German Democratic

The town

is

Perthes, Johann Georg Justus), geographical-cartographical Justus Perthes also published the Almmuich de Gotha. Electrical equipment, precision instruments, textiles, chemicals and

see

publishers.

musical instruments also are manufactured there. The old inner town is encircled by suburbs and is dominated by the Friedenstein castle (17th century) on the Schlossberg. In the castle are extensive collections, including a picture gallery, a cabinet of engravings, a collection of antiquities and a section on local folklore and geography. Gotha's historical buildings include the 12thcentury Margarethen-Kirche, the 11th-century town hall and a Gymnasium founded in the 16th century. In 1875 the congress that united the Eisenachers and the Lassalleans into the Socialist Labour Party of Germany was held in the town, adopting the Gotha

program, sharply criticized by Karl

The

chronicles mention

Gotha

Marx

{see Socialism).

for the first time in the

10th

century; in old documents it is also called Gotegewe and later Gotaha. In 930 the settlement was fortified and surrounded with

ruse succeeded, for, the latter, finding the

lagers engaged in ridiculous tasks such as trying to in a

pond and

title

The

vil-

eel

joining hands around a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo,

reported unfavourably to the king

where.

drown an

"foles of

Gotham"

Merrie Tales of the

who determined

to stay else-

are mentioned in the 15th-century

Mad-men

GOTHENBURG, Sweden;

of Gottam. see Goteborg.

GOTHIA, MARCH

OF, a term used to indicate the territory within Gaul usually known as Septimania or Gothia. The expression was used only by Archbishop Hincmar of Reims in the Annates Bertiniani ("Annals of St. Berta") for the years 863 and 865.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

is

a term used generally to

signify the style of architecture that developed from

Romanesque

during the 12th century and became general in Europe by the midFor a discussion of the structural prindle of the 13th century. ciples involved in the development of Gothic, see ,\rch and Vault; Buttress; Architecture; Architectural E.ncineer-

The architecture of the periods preceding Gothic is traced Byzantine Architecture and Romanesque Architecture; the period following Gothic is traced in Renaissance Architecture. The development of specific types of buildings during the Gothic period will be found in Relicious Architecture; Monastery; Governmental Architecture. iNG. in

INTRODUCTION The Word Gothic.

—The

interest of the early

humanists (Pe-

trarch, Boccaccio, etc.) in classical culture inspired Italian artists In 1419 Filippo Brunelieschi introto employ classical forms.

Acfording to his biogclassical orders in Florence. rapher, Manetti, Brunelieschi revived the good architecture of the Romans, which the Vandals, Goths. Lombards and Huns destroyed and replaced with their own inferior architecture. Filarcte held

duced the

in that the barbarians in general, and the French and Germans thereparticular, were responsible for the bad architecture that style"). The after was usually called maniera tedcsca ("German

so-called Pseudo-Raphael, in 15 10, attributed the discovery of the pointed arch to the Germans, who, having no hatchets, bent to-

Vasari gether the branches of trees to form a roof. Later Giorgio the Goths who had in 1550 narrowed down the list of culprits to spanned sacked Rome in 410. The architecture then termed Gothic the period from 410 to 1419 to be the pointed arch.

said

and

its

member was Wren (1632-1723),

characteristic

Christopher

knowing that Muslims used pointed arches, evolved the theory that Gothic was of Saracenic origin. styles were In the iSth century the Byzantine and Carolingian long pethe divide to useful it found historians distinguished and Younger in 177 divided riod that remained. Francois Blondel the two periods; architecture the entire medieval development into nth century; and archigothiqiie ancinine, from the 6th to the The term gothigue moderne up to Francis I (15 '5)1

tecture

i.nh-century architecfirst applied to nth- and thereafter the by W. Gunn and C. de Gerville in 1819, and style was The meaning. present its to confined was Gothic word Soufflol in 1743 and M. praised with certain reservations by J. G. without A Laugier in 1755 and 1765 in France. Goethe praised it

Romanesque was ture

of the Strasbourg reservations in his dithyramb on the fagade

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

598

(1773), and enthusiastic comments, somewhat better substantiated, by romanticists followed. The 19th century saw the beginning of the serious study of the topography and history of the cathedral

Scholars were aware that Gothic had nothing to do with the Some of them introduced new terms, e.g., stile ogival, Germanischer Stil, but the abusive name Gothic had become a style.

tempting to determine the essence of Gothic associated it with the picturesque (William Gilpin, 1768), but found in it also an aspiration toward the sublime and infinite. Although this theorizing was of great importance, the pointed arch continued to be regarded as

What was

required was a descriptive analysis

Goths.

the specific feature.

Ultimately it came to signify a neutral concept. of Gothic Architecture. The term came to be applied to buildings of such different forms that a clarification of the concept became desirable. In the i8th century, writers at-

such as was used, for example, in zoology. This was furnished by the apothecary Thomas Rickman in 1817. He described the parts in succession: portals, windows, arches, piers, capitals, buttresses, etc., and even indicated the transformations which took place in the phases of English Gothic. After this model many books were

name

of honour.

—

The Definition

s

V

I


anan, *gibidi bairan, bairip "to bear," "he

but *beranan, *biridi

gives,"

>

~

bears"; etc. Similarly, PGmc. *[u 0] gives Gothic u in most environments, but au before r, h, hr: *hupin (ace), *jokan > hup, juk "hip," "yoke"; but *wurtiz, *worddn > waurts, waurd "root,"

"word"

;

etc.

—

Bibliography. General survey: James W. Marchand, "The Gothic Language," Orbis, vol. 7, pp. 492-515 (1958). Text: WUhelm StreitGrammars: Joseph Wright, berg. Die golische Bibel, 3rd ed. (1950). Grammar of the Gothic Language, 2nd ed. (1954); Fernand Mosse, Manuel de la langue gotique, 2nd ed. (1956) Wilhelm Braune, Gotische Grammatik, 16th ed. (1961); Wolfgang Krause, Handbuch des Gotischen (1953). Dictionary and Concordance: Ernst Schulze, Gothisches Glossar (1848). Etymological Dictionary: Sigmund Feist, Vergleichendes Worterbuch der gotischen Sprache, 3rd ed. (1939). Ostrogothic: Ferdinand Wrede, Vber die Sprache der Ostgoten in Italien (1891). Vandalic: Ferdinand Wrede, Vber die Sprache der Wandalen Bibliography: Fernand Mosse, "Bibliographia Gotica," (1886). Mediaeval Studies, vol. 12, pp. 237-324 (1950), supplements in vol. 15, (W. G. Mn.) pp. 169-183 (1953), vol. 19, pp. 174-196 (1957). ;

Germanic people described by Roman authors of the 1st century a.d. as living in the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Vistula river. According to their own legend, reported by the mid-6th-century Gothic historian Jordanes (g.v.), they had originated in southern Scandinavia and had crossed in three ships

GOTHS,

a

under their king Berig to the southern shore of the Baltic sea where they settled after defeating the Vandals and other Germanic

whose knowledge of these distant regions is than his knowledge of the Germans living near the Roman frontier, states that the Goths at this time were distinguished by their round shields, their short swords and their obe-

peoples.

Tacitus,

less reliable

dience toward their kings. Jordanes goes on to report that they migrated from the Vistula region under Filimer, the fifth king after

607

and after various adventures arrived on the north and northwestern coasts of the Black sea. This movement took place in the second half of the 2nd century A.D. and it may have been pressure from the Goths that drove other Germanic peoples to exert heavy pressure on the Danubian frontier of the Roman empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Throughout the 3rd century Gothic raids on the Roman provinces in Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula were numerous and in the reign of Aurelian (270-275) they obliged the Romans to evacuate the trans-Danubian province of Dacia, which some of the invaders then occupied. These Goths, living between the Danube and the Dniester rivers, became known as Visigoths and those in what is now the Ukraine as Ostrogoths. The latter name apparently means eastern Goths but Visigolhi appears not to mean western Goths they shrank from calling themselves by the name of the ill-omened west where the sun sinks and dies away but rather Berig,

—

—

the "valiant" or "gallant" people.

—

Ostrogoths. -The Ostrogoths built up a huge empire stretchfrom the Don (ancient Tanais) to the Dniester (ancient Tyras) rivers and from the Black sea to the Pripet marshes (southern Beiorussia). A list of their subjects, given by Jordanes, includes a number of peoples from the Germanic Heruli (g.v.) living on the northern coast of the Sea of Azov to the Aesti living on the Baltic But the value of this list is doubtful coast east of the Vistula. and most of the names in it cannot now be identified. Jordanes' ing

list

of the Ostrogothic kings

kingdom reached

its

is

also of very dubious worth.

The

highest point under King Ermanaric (g.v.),

committed suicide at an advanced age when and subjugated them c. 370. Although many Ostrogothic graves have been excavated south and

who the

is

said to have

Huns attacked

his people

southeast of Kiev, regrettably httle is known about their empire. In particular, it is not known how they managed to overrun so vast a kingdom and subdue so many nations of mounted archers or how they exploited their subjects. A spearhead found in 1858 at Kovel in the Ukraine is inscribed with the word tilarids or the like in runes,

and although the point has been much debated the

implication appears to be that the Ostrogoths were literate in the 3rd century. Unlike the Germans of Tacitus' time, they u.sed the potter's wheel almost universally; their trade with the Romans

was highly developed. After their subjugation by the Huns little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after which they reappear in Pannonia on the middle Danube as federates of the Romans. But a pocket of them remained behind in the Crimea when the bulk of the people moved to central Europe and these Crimean Ostrogoths preserved their identity throughout the middle ages. Indeed, Augier Ghislain

de Busbecq, who arrived in Constantinople in 1554 as the ambassador of the emperor Ferdinand I, gives a hst of Germanic words still used by them in the Crimea and these words are sometimes believed to be Gothic in its latest form. After the collapse of the Hun empire (455) the Ostrogoths under Theodoric {q.v.) began to move again, first to Moesia (c. 475488) and then to Italy. Theodoric became king of Italy in 493 For the events immediately following see and died in 526. Amalasuntha. Amalasuntha was succeeded by Theodahad on Justinian declared war in 535, the year after Belisarius had completed the overthrow of the Vandals in Africa. The war continued with varying fortunes under Theodahad, Witigis (536-540), Ildibad, Eraric (540-541), Totila (541-552) and Teias (552-

whom

(Monte Lattari 554), who fell in the final battle of Mons Lactarius survives by narrative detailed which a of war, The near Naples). damage to the contemporary historian Procopius, caused untold Italy— at one stage it is said that Rome itself was left uninhabited— They had and the Ostrogoths thereafter had no national existence. soon after their been converted to Arian Christianity, it seems, this heresy they escape from the domination of the Huns and in texts were writpersisted until their extinction. All extant Gothic ten in Italy before 554.

.

Visigoths (c. 275-^76).— The Visigoths in Dacia durmg the pasloralists and their 4th century were agriculturalists rather than than of cavalry. rather infantry of composed mainly army was traded very exThey normally used the potter's wheel and they

GOTHS

6o8

Romans. Their chief export was slaves and they imported grain, clothing, wine and coins. This trade was so important that a number of Latin words associated with commerce became embedded in their language. That they were literate is shown by the inscription in runic characters on the gold ring found with other gold objects at Pietroasa, a village in the district of tensively with the

Buzau

in

Rumania.

Moreover,

Ulfilas

{g.v.),

whom

Eusebius

of Nicomedia consecrated as an Arian bishop in 341, invented a new alphabet for them in which he wrote his translation of the Bible and other works, so that writing was now used, for the first time in the Germanic world, for the propagation of ideas. In the 4th century the Visigoths were led in wartime by a chief whom they called a "judge" and whose powers do not seem to have been any more extensive than those of the chiefs of the Germanic peoples in the 1st century a.d. The elders or optimates, as the Romans sometimes called them, appear to have been the decisive political power among the Visigoths and the chiefs were the execu-

who put the decisions of the optimates into operation. Indeed, one of their chiefs explicitly refused to allow the Romans to call him a "king" rather than a "judge," for, as he said, "the former term implies authority, but the latter wisdom." But there is no evidence that the Visigoths had a general assembly of the tive agents

warriors like those of the Germanic peoples of the time of Caesar

The most famous

and Tacitus.

of the judges

was Athanaric

(g.v.),

369some episodes in this persecution survives in a contemporary Greek narrative of the martyrdom of Saba, the Visigothic Catholic saint. This document throws some light on village life at that time and on Visigothic society in general. Christianity appears to have been introduced to them by some

who enforced

A

372.

a persecution of the Visigothic Christians in

vivid account of

Roman prisoners whom they carried off in their great raids on Asia Minor in the middle of the 3rd century. ULfilas himself was descended on one side of his family from Cappadocian prisoners who had been carried off from the village of Sadagolthina. His successor as bishop of the Goths, a certain Selenas, was the son of a Gothic father and a Phrygian mother. In the middle of the 4th centur>- Christianity was represented among the Visigoths both by Catholics and Arians and monasticism was not unknown. But the Christians appear to have formed only a small minority of the population and their numbers may have fallen about 347 when a ptersecuting judge drove Ulfilas and others from the country. The Christians, it seems, were drawn mostly from the humbler strata of society, though whether they included many slaves is unknown. (The question of slavery among the Goths at this date is very obscure.) But they sent out missionaries to the Ostrogoths in the Ukraine and to the Gepidae in the mountains north of Transylvania, though apparently with little success. Christianity survived the persecution of Athanaric but the people as a whole were still pagan when the Huns fell upon them in 376 and drove them across of the

the

Danube

into the

Roman

empire.

Visigoths as Federates (376-475).— The Visigoths were allowed to enter the empire but the exactions of Roman ofiScials soon drove them to revolt and plunder the Balkan provinces, assisted by some Ostrogoths. On Aug. 9, 378. they utterly defeated the army of the emperor Valens on the plains outside Adrianople (see Edirne), killing the emperor himself. For four more years they continued to wander in search of somewhere to settle. In Oct. 382 Valens' successor, Theodosius I, settled them in Moesia as federates, giving them land there and imposing on them the duty of defending the frontier. They remained in Moesia until 395. It appears to have been in this period that they became Arian Christians; at any rate, after 395 the Roman authors who refer to them speak of them as Christians and Arians and never as pagans.

Why

they became Arians rather than Catholics

is

a prob-

lem of the utmost difficulty. (For the traditional view of this matter see Ulfilas.) It cannot have been because Valens was an Arian for, as we have seen, they appear to have been still mainly pagan at the time of Valens' death, nor was Valens a person whose example they would have been likely to admire. It can hardly have been because Ulfilas was an Arian for Ulfilas died at latest in 383 when the conversion must still have been in a very early stage; moreover, Ulfilas is not known to have lived among them after

he was driven from their country about 347. Some ancient authors believed that they chose Arianism because of their "simplicity"; that is, they did not know the difference between Arianism and orthodoxy. But "simplicity" cannot have played much part with such scholars as Ulfilas or Selenas or the author of the commentary on St. John's Gospel known as the Skeireins or the two Goths who wrote to St. Jerome asking for a commentary on 178 passages of the Psalms. In 395 the Goths under Alaric {q.v.) left Moesia and moved first southward into Greece and then to Italy, which they invaded repeatedly from 401 onward. Their depredations culminated in the sack of Rome in 410. In the same year Alaric died and was succeeded by Ataulphus (q.v.), who led the Visigoths to settle first in southern Gaul, then in Spain (415). In 418 they were recalled from Spain by the patrician Constantius, who later became emperor as Constantius III, and were settled by him as federates in the province of Aquitania Secunda between the lower reaches of the Garonne and Loire rivers. Their chieftain Wallia died soon after the settlement in Aquitaine was carried out and he was succeeded by Theodoric I, who ruled them unto he was killed in 45 1 fighting against Attila in the battle of the Catalaunian plains {g.v.}. Theodoric is the first Visigothic leader who can properly be described as a monarch even Alaric seems to have had little more personal power than the "judges" who preceded him or even the Germanic chieftains described by Tacitus some 300 years earlier. As federates the Visigoths received parts of the Roman estates in Aquitaine and Theodoric issued a number of laws, some of which dealt with property relations. No earher German chieftain is known to have been able to legislate, to issue written laws or to enforce them. But Theodoric had power only over the Gothic inhabitants of his province. The Roman civil ser\'ice continued to administer the Roman population, to coUect the taxes and forward them to the central goverimient and to ad;

minister

Roman law. Kingdom in Gaul and Spain

Visigothic

(475-711).

—While

persistently tr>'ing to extend their territory, often at the empire's expense, the Visigoths continued to be federates until 475, when

Euric declared himself an independent king. Euric also codified the laws issued by himself and his predecessors and fragments of his code, written in Latin, have survived. It was under him, too, that the Gallic kingdom, of which the capital was at Toulouse, reached its widest extent. It stretched from the Loire to the Pyrenees and to the lower reaches of the Rhone and it included the greater portion of Spain. Euric was himself a fervent Arian, though it is perhaps an exaggeration to say that he persecuted the Cathohcs of his kingdom. He was succeeded by his tolerant son Alaric II, who in 507 was defeated and killed by Clovis and the Franks at the decisive battle of Vouille near Poitiers. Although some Catholic bishops in Alaric 's realm had favoured a Prankish victory, there is no evidence that the bulk of the Roman population of the Visigothic kingdom did so; indeed, several Catholic Roman aristocrats fought against Clovis at Vouille.

As

a result of Vouille the Visigoths lost all their possessions

Gaul apart from Septimania, a strip of land stretching along the coast from the Pj'renees to the Rhone with Narbonne as its capital, which the Franks were never able to wrest from them although they often tried to do so. Henceforth, until they were finally destroyed by the Muslims in 711, the Visigoths ruled Septimania and much of Spain, with Toledo as their capital. Northwestern Spain, however, was occupied by the independent kingdom of the Sueves (Suebi), of which the capital was Bracara (Braga), until the Visigothic king Leovigild overthrew it in 585 and incorporated it in his own dominions. Also, in 552 an Arian usurper called Athanagild invited the Byzantines to Spain and Justinian's armies occupied two regions of the peninsula, a larger one centred upon Cartagena in the southeast and a smaller one in Algarve in in

the southwest. Despite repeated Visigothic attacks the Byzantines held these territories until they were finally expelled by King Swinthila in 629. In Spain the Visigothic kings continued their legislation

and Euric 's code was several times

revised, notably

by

Alaric II [see Breviary of Alaric) and Leovigild, until in or soon after 654 King Recceswinth abolished Roman law altogether;

I

GOTLAND— GOTO-RETTO Romans and Goths

thereafter

alike lived under Visigothic law.

Leovigild abolished the ban on intermarriage between Roman and Goth, which had been a capital offense before his time, but the two peoples had not fully merged even at the time of the destruction of the

kingdom.

The Roman provinces

as administrative units

and

minister them, or at any rate

of Spain

were retained

Roman governors continued to adthe Roman population in them, until

But little is known about the Visigothic the end of the kingdom. administration or about the armed forces. The Arian kings were extraordinarily tolerant of Catholics and The Jews suffered few disabilities. The Catholics could Jews. build and repair churches and found monasteries in freedom. Their books seem to have circulated without hindrance and they held a considerable number of councils and synods. But Leovigild was forced to exile some Catholic dignitaries during the revolt of his Catholic son Hermenegild in S80-S84. Leovigild's successor, however, his younger son Reccared (586-601), was himself converted and at the third Council of Toledo in 589 proclaimed Catholicism as the official religion of the kingdom. During the preceding years he had crushed several Arian revolts and after 589 little is heard The king immediately began the burning of Arianism in Spain. of Arian books and not a single Gothic text has survived in Spain. In the 7th century Latin literature flourished there to a greater degree than in contemporary France and Italy, its most distinguished representative being St. Isidore ig.v.) of Seville. But the entire century was a period of clerical terror and was disfigured throughout by a hideous persecution of the Spanish Jews. This oppressive state, rent by civil war and rebellion, was an easy prey to the Muslims, who invaded it from north Africa in 711 and overran it without difficulty. See Spain History. ;

See

Germanic Languages; Germanic Peoples;

see also ref-

erences under "Goths" in the Index volume. Bibliography. On early Gothic history and the Gallic kingdom: L. Schmidt, Geschichte der deutschen Stdmme: Die Ostgermanen On the Goths' relations with Rome: J. B. Bury, History of the (1934) Later Roman Empire (1923) E. Stein, Histoire du Bas-Enipire (194960) and on the (Crimean Ostrogoths, A. A. Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (1936). There is no satisfactory English account of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain; see R. Menendez Pidal, Historia de Espana, vol. iii (1940). For archaeological discoveries there: H. Zeiss, Die Grabfunde aus dem spanischen Westgotenreich (1934). On Gothic Christianity: C. A. A. Scott, Vlfilas: Apostle of the Goths (1885) H. E. Giesecke, Die Ostgermanen und der Arianismus (1939); and on the conversion of the Germans generally: K. D. Schmidt, Die Bekehrung der Germanen zum Christentum (1939). The Gothic text of the fragments of Ulfilas' Bible have been edited by W. Streitberg, Die gotische Bibel (E. A. T.) (1908-10). an island in the Baltic sea belonging to Sweden

—

.

;

;

;

GOTLAND,

and lying between latitudes 57° and 58° N., 50 mi. E. of the Swedish mainland. It has a length of 77 mi. N.N.E. to S.S.W. and a maximum breadth of 31 mi. Area 1,167 sq.mi. Pop. (1950) 58,995; (1960) 53,358. With the islands of Faro, Gotska Sandbn, Lilla and Stora Karlso it forms Gotland Idn (county). The plateau of Gotland is formed of Silurian limestone which lacks surface drainage and presents karst (q.v. terrain. The coast In the areas is characterized by Hmestone columns called raiikar. with a clay cover bogs develop while conifers occur particularly on the steep cliffs of the west, but the poor growing conditions result in short trunks. Agriculture is based on grain cultivation, particularly barley and rye, sugar beet (about 70,000 tons a year for the local sugar beet factory as well as market gardening and flower cultivation to serve the Stockholm market. Faro is sandy, and used for sheep grazing. Some cement is manufactured )

)

and fishing

is

carried on.

The

capital

and

chief port

is

the ancient

popular

walled city of Visby (q.v.) on the west coast; Gotland is with tourists. The dialect of the island is distinctive. (A. C. O'D.)

History.

—Archaeological

finds

(especially

hoards)

indicate

Bronze Age, Gotland traded extensively with other regions, including the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic. Finds from the Iron Age include more than 5.000 Roman silver coins of that period out of about 7,000 in all Scandinavia; the Roman trade route to the mouth of the Vistula river was clearly exthat

even

in the

tended oversea to Gotland. Other trade routes, established in the Viking period between the Baltic lands and the Islamic and Byzan-

609

empires, caused a stream of Arabic and Byzantine coins (mostly of the early 9th to mid- 10th centuries) to flow northward; the peasant traders of Gotland brought home much of this currency. Thereafter came an influx of western European coins, especially German and Anglo-Saxon. These coin finds are evidence of the continued wealth and enterprise of the Gotlanders. In about 900 Gotland belonged to Sweden, paying an annual tax to the Swedish king for protection, but was otherwise an independent peasant community. In 1285 King Magnus Ladulas additionally exacted the ledungslame (a Swedish internal taxi and in 1288 reasserted his authority, but without interfering with Gottine

land's

autonomy.

The foundation

of the commerce of the Gotland peasant traders house at Novgorod iq.v.) which they maintained throughout the middle ages and which made them the leading intermediaries in the exchange of goods between Russia and western Europe. That leadership attracted to Gotland the German merchants, who in mid-12th century had already obtained their own Baltic port at Liibeck. They came to Visby. whence the Gotlanders embarked each spring and autumn on trading ventures to Novgorod. The German settlers, whose coming greatly increased the community's prosperity, organized themselves as a guild and in 1225 were allowed to form a separate congregation at the German church of the Virgin Mary (the Mariendom). By mid- 13th century Visby held two similar but separate communities, one German and the other local. Thereafter the Gotland peasant traders lost many of their old markets to German competition. The Gotlanders in Visby were forced to co-operate with the Germans, and the townsfolk and country dwellers were completely separated in 1288. Visby became a Hanseatic town (see Hanseatic League) and until mid-14th century most of the Novgorod trade passed through it. In the following years this trade began to follow other routes and the German Baltic trade swung more to Skane in Sweden and Christianized in the 11th to Norway, so that Gotland dechned. century, its medieval prosperity was reflected by its many fine churches (97 rural and 17 in Visby), most of which are still in use. In the course of conflicts between Sweden and Denmark over the

was

their trading

Skane and Blekinge provinces, the Danish king Valdemar IV (q.v.) conquered Gotland after defeating its peasant levies in a famous battle outside the walls of Visby. Excavation of the mass grave on the battlefield has yielded valuable knowledge of medieval military equipment. Although the conquest did not greatly alter conditions on the island, it sundered Gotland from Sweden for in 1361

nearly 300 years. In 1394 the Vitaliebroder (\'ictual brotherhood), so

named

be-

cause they had once been charged by the Hanseatic merchants to take provisions to Stockholm, seized Gotland as a base for piracy. They were driven out in 1398 by the knights of the Teutonic Order. who held the island until 1408, when it passed to Eric of Pomerania After his dethronement in 1439 Eric settled in Gotland (q.v.).

and made

it

once more

a

base for raids in the Baltic, until com-

Danish king. Eric's castle, built to form part of the walls of Visby. became the seat of Danish noblemen who assumed rulership of the island. Throughout the period of Danish rule in Gotland, the Swedish claim was never relinquished, and in 1524 Gustavus I Vasa unsuccessfully attempted a reconquest. Sweden formally ceded Gotland to Denmark as the peace of Stettin (1570) but regained it by The countryside was impoverthe peace of Brbmsebro in 1645. ruins, but ished, many farms were deserted and many churches in pelled to surrender

it

to the

under Swedish rule conditions steadily improved.

In the wars with

Denmark (1675-79) and Russia (1808-09) Gotland was tempooccupied by foreign troops, and in 1855 during the Crimean was used as a base by British and French warships. Toward of the island the end of the 19th century the strategic importance (H. U. Y.) caused it to be strongly fortified by Sweden. rarily

War

it

Japanese archipelago (literally, five-island administered by chain) lying off the western coast of Kyushu, islands (34 are than 100 more are There prefecture. Nagasaki about 62 mi. inhabited) with a total area of 266 sq.mi. stretching

GOTO-RETTO,

from northeast

The

to southwest.

five largest

and most densely

settled islands are

Fukue,

—

GOTTER— GOTTSCHALK

6io

Hisaka, Naru, Wakamatsu and Nakadori, in south-north sequence. Largely created by volcanic activity, the islands have mountainous interiors. Intensive dry-land farming is practised on terraces and

not by a standard ethic, but according to the fictional "rules of love" affected by court circles {see Courtly Love). Thus the love potion, from being the direct cause of the tragedy, has become (as

plains.

already in Thomas's version) the mere outward symbol of a situation brought about by the inner nature of the relationship between an adulterous relationship, yet approved by the "courts the lovers of love" by reason of its spontaneity, its exclusiveness and its com-

slopes, with irrigated rice restricted to a

few slender coastal

main economic activity for large ports like Fukue (Fukue Island), Narao (Nakadori Island) and many smaller ports.

Fishing

is

the

In the northern half of the archipelago, fishing leads agriculture Howin importance and the islands' economy focuses on Sasebo. ever, fishing is secondary to agriculture in the southern half and regular ferry service ties the regional economy to Nagasaki. (J. D. Ee.) (1746-1797), GerGOTTER, man dramatist and poet, in 1770 founder with H. C. Boie (q.v.) iiseriahnanach was born at Gotha, Sept. 3, 1746. of the Gottingen He studied law at Gottingen, became archivist in Gotha in 1766 and a year later secretary to the Gotha legation in Wetzlar. From 1771 he was a government ofiicial in Gotha, where he was a patron

FRIEDRICH WILHELM

M

,

of the court theatre, then in

A.

W.

IfHand.

He

Cotter's plays,

its

died at Gotha,

many

flowering under K.

March

18, 1797.

them rewritings of French

of

Ekhof and pieces, are

French classical tradition. Linguistically skilful, they were successful on the stage in spite of the anticlassical influence of the Sturm iind Drang movement. Best-known are Merope (1774, after Voltaire), Mariane (1776, after J. F. de La Harpe) and Die Geisterinsel (1797), a play based on Shakespeare's The Tempest and praised by Goethe. Gotter also published poems (Gedichte, 2 vol., 1787-88). His Literarischer Nachlass came out in the

in 1802.

See B. Litzmann, Schroder und Gotter (1887); R. Schlosser, F. W. Gotter (1894). (K. Ge.)

GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG greatest medieval

German

poets.

The

{fi.

1210), one of the

dates of his birth and death

are unknown, as are the circumstances of his

life, and the only information about him consists of references to him in the work of other poets and inferences from his own work. The breadth

und Isolde reveals that he must have enjoyed the fullest education offered by the cathedral and monastery schools of the middle ages, and this, together with the authoritative tone of his writing, indicates that, although not himself of noble birth, he spent his life in the society of the wellborn. Tristan was probably written about 1210. Gottfried is thus a literary contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. of learning displayed in his epic Tristan

The

Celtic legend of Tristan

reached sion

Germany through French

(q.v.)

and Iseult (Ger. Isolde)

sources.

The

first

German

ver-

von Oberge (c. 1180), but Gottfried, although he probably knew Eilhart 's poem, based on his own work on the Anglo-Norman version of Thomas of Brittany (1160-70). The that of Eilhart

is

story centres in Tristan's journey to Ireland on behalf of his uncle. King Mark of Cornwall, to bring back Isolde as the king's bride. On the return voyage, Tristan and Isolde unwittingly drink a magic potion which makes them fall in love with each other. They seek

Mark, but are eventually discovered, and Tristan flees to Brittany, where he marries another Isolde, "Isolde of the white

to outwit

Here Gottfried's poem breaks off and the story is completed by Gottfried's continuators, Ulrich von Tiirheim and Heinrich von Freiberg, In the course of further adventures Tristan hands."

wound from a poisoned spear, and only the first Isolde, who has since become Mark's wife, can heal him. She is summoned from Cornwall. Word is to be brought to the sick Tristan when the vessel returns: it is to mount a white sail if she is on board, a black sail if she is not. The ship is sighted, flying a white receives a

sail.

Tristan's jealous wife, however, tells him that the sail is when Isolde arrives, she finds Tristan dead. Overcome

black, and

with grief, she joins her lover in death. Gottfried's moral purpose, as he states it in the prologue to his poem, is to present to courtiers of fine feehng {edetiu herzen, literally "noble hearts") an ideal of the love relationship. The core of this ideal, which derives from the romantic

m

medieval courtly society, the suffering with which it

is

cult of woman that love {minne) ennobles through

is inseparably linked. This Gottfried enshrines in a story in which actions are motivated and justified.

—

pleteness.

Although unfinished, Gottfried's is the finest of the medieval versions of the Tristan legend and one of the most perfect creacourtly spirit, distinguished alike by the refinement and elevated tone of its content and by the elaborate skill of its poetic technique. Apart from Tristan Gottfried is known also to have written lyric poems, but only two Spriiche have survived which can with reasonable certainty be as'cribed to tions of the medieval

him. Bibliography. Gottfried's Tristan has been edited many times, notablv by R. Bechstein, 4th ed. (1923). There is an Eng. trans, by A. T. Hatto (1960). See also Gottfried Weber, Gottfrieds von Strassburg Tristan und die Krise des nochmittelalterlichen Weltbildes um 1200 (1953); G. Ehrismann, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters ii, 2, 1, pp. 297-336 (1954), both con-

—

(Rd. J. T.)

taining full bibliographies.

GOTTHELF, JEREMIAS: see Bitzius, Albert. GOTTINGEN, a university town of Germany which the

Land

(state)

World War

after

was located in of Lower Saxony, Federal Republic of Germany.

partition of the nation following

II

Situated (1961) 80,919, including about 9,000 students. on the upper course of the Leine river, 67 mi. S. from Hanover, the town is surrounded by ramparts. The old streets are crooked and narrow with 15th-16th-century half-timbered houses and Gothic churches. Gottingen possesses a medieval town hall, in front of which stands the Goose Girl fountain. A marketing centre for southern Lower Saxony, it has developed important manufactures, chief among which are optical and scientific instruments. The town has excellent transportation facilities. First mentioned as Gutingi in 953, Gottingen received municipal rights about 1210 and during the 14th century occupied an important place in the Hanseatic league. In 1531 it joined the Reformation movement, and suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War. It had not yet overcome the results of that war when it was again brought into prominence by the establishment of the university, and a marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity took place. The Georgia Augusta university, founded by George II of England (the elector George Augustus of Hanover) in 1734 and opened in 1737, soon became one of the most famous of European universities. Political disturbances, including the expulsion in 1837 of seven professors die Gottinger Sieben, among whom were the brothers Grimm for protesting against the revocation of the liberal Hanoverian constitution of 1833 reduced the prosperity of the university (see Hano\^r). Strong mathematics and physics faculties led to its revival in the late 19th century. The main university building, in the classical style, is the Aula on the Wilhelmsplatz. The University library, containing well over 1,000,000 volumes and including valuable manuscripts and incunabula, is one of the richest collections in Germany. The university has faculties of uheology, law and politics, medicine, philosophy, mathematics and natural science, forestry and agriculture. The Max Planck society was transferred to Gottingen in 1945, and 8 of its 40 institutes are there. The Academy of Sciences (Sozietat der Wissenschaften), which collaborates closely with it, publishes the Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen. In the town there are four museums and a congress hall, (H, Ml.) (Gottescalc, Godescalchus) of Orbais (d, c. 867-870), German theologian and poet while his verse is not unimportant, it is his theology, Augustinian in expression, that gives him renown was born of noble Saxon parentage at the beginning of the 9th century. Dedicated a child oblate at the abbey of Fulda, he was dispensed from his obligations in 829 at the synod of Mainz, over the objection of his abbot, Rabanus Maurus. Forced to resume monastic hfe, he settled at Orbais in France. Irregularly ordained a priest at Reims between 835 and 840, Gott-

Pop.

—

.

GOTTSCHALK

—

—

GOTTSCHALL— GOTZ

6ii

schalk

was preaching in northern Italy in 840 (when Bishop Noting of Verona complained about his views on predestination)

Gottsched's most influential work was his Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fiir die Deutschen (1730), the first German

and in the Friuli area five or six years later. Either before or after 845-846, he exercised a ministry in the Balkans. At the synod of Mainz (848), he was censured for heresy by the new archbishop, Rabanus Maurus, who transferred him to the jurisdiction of Hincmar of Reims, metropolitan of the province in which Orbais was situated. Unable to secure Gottschalk's recantation (849), Hincmar deposed him from the priesthood and imprisoned him at the abbey of Hautvillers, where he later died unreconciled. In several treatises and in synods at Quiercy (853) and Thuzey (860), Hincmar espoused a predestination doctrine contrary to that of

treatise on the art of poetry to apply the French classical standards of reason and good taste advocated by Nicolas Boileau. His

Gottschalk.

Gottschalk Inclined toward a traducianist explanation (see CreATioNiSM AND Traducianism) of the human soul's origin, defended the term trina Deltas in describing the Triune God, contended (against Paschasius Radbertus) that while the eucharistic and the resurrected Body of Christ are one, the first is sumptiHis position on divine bilis and the latter inconsumptibilis. predestination has been clarified by Dom Germain Morin's discovery (1930) at Bern of Gottschalk's own De praedestinatione, subsequently edited by Dom Cyrille Lambot. Gottschalk taught a double predestination, that of the elect to eternal glory and that of the reprobate to damnation, yet a damnation conditioned by God's foreknowledge of sin (propter praescita ipsorum propria jittura mala merita). He held that the divine salvific will was Hmited and that Christ's redemption extended only to the elect. Though the synod of Valence (855) and the theologians Prudentius of Troyes, Florus of Lyons and Ratramnus of Corbie shared similar views, criticism of Hincmar of Reims was as much the occasion for this agreement as was sympathy for the monk of Orbais.

—

M

onumenta Germaniae Bibliography. His verse may be found in Historica, Poetae, vol. iii, pp. 707-738; vol. iv, pp. 934-936; vol. vi, pp. 86-106; Cyrille Lambot, Oeuvres Iheologiques et grammatkales de Godescalc d'Orbais (1945), and "Lettre inedite de Godescalc d'Orbais," Revue Benedictine, 68:41-51 (1958); G. Morin, "Gottschalk retrouve," Rev. Ben., 43:303-312 (1931) Klaus Vielhaber, Gottschalk der Sackse (1956) J. Jolivet, Godescalc d'Orbais et la Trinite (1958) Lexikon fUr Theologie und Kirche, 2nd ed., vol. iv, pp. 1144-45 (I960). (H. G. J. B.) ;

;

;

GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON writer, at first a liberal enthusiast, later

(1823-1909), German

aa

established conserva-

was born at Breslau on Sept. 30, 1823, the son of a Prussian officer. As an undergraduate at Konigsberg, Breslau, Leipzig and Berlin he embraced liberal doctrines, and his early poetry and plays (Robespierre, 1845; Lord Byron in Later his Italien, 1847) were full of yearning for freedom. sympathies swung toward conservatism and he settled down as tive literary figure,

a

man

of letters, attaining great influence through his novels, plays

and criticism. For many years he edited the Blatter fiir literarische Unterhaltung (1865-88) and a monthly magazine, Unsere Zeit. He died at Leipzig on March 21, 1909. His main collections of poetry are Lieder der Gegenwart (1842), Netie Gedichte (1858) and Spate Lieder (1906). He wrote a comedy, Pitt und Fox (1854), and his novels include Im Banne des schwarzen Adlers (1876), Verschollene Grossen (1886) and ModerneStreber (1896). His Die deutsche National-Lit eratiir des ... 19. Jahrhunderts (1855) was later expanded and reached a seventh edition in 1901. See his Dramatische Werke, 12 vol. (1884) siscke Biograpkie, I (1941).

;

C. Dietsch in All Preus-

(W. D. Wi.) (1700-1766), who introduced French 18th-

GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH German

literary theorist

and

critic

century classical standards of taste into German literature, espenear cially drama, was born on Feb. 2, 1700, at Judithenkirch Konigsberg. He studied at Konigsberg. In 1 730 he was appointed professor of poetry at the University of Leipzig, and in 1734 be-

came professor of writings,

editorship

dramatic reform, in line

Neuber

His lectures, and work for which he collaborated with the actress Karo-

logic

of

and metaphysics

several

literary

there.

journals

"Leipzig (g.v.), led to the establishment of a so-called Gottsched died at Leipzig on

school" of acting and criticism.

aims to purify German as a literary language and to develop a classical German style were advanced by his Ausjiihrliche Redekunst (1728) and Gnmdlegiing einer deutschen Sprachkunst (1748). He wrote several plays on classical principles, of which Der sterbende Cato (1732), an adaptation of Jo.seph Addison's tragedy, is the most notable. His Deutsche Schaubiihne (6 vol., 1740-45), containing mainly translations from the French, provided the German stage with a cla.ssical repertorj- to replace the improvisations and melodramas previously popular. He also prepared a bibliography of German drama, Notiger Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen drainatischcn Dichtkunst (1757-65).

His influence decreased after 1740 when he came into conflict with the Swiss writers, J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breilinger (qq.v.), who demanded that poetic imagination should not be hampered

by

artificial rules.

Gottsched's wife, Luise Adelgunde Viktorie, nee Kulmus (1713-62), helped her husband in his work of dramatic reform, and was the author of several popular comedies. She also translated French classical dramas. Addison's Spectator (9 vol., 1739-

43 Pope's Rape oj the Lock ( 1 744 ) and other French and English works. Bibliography. Gottsched's Gesammelle Schriften were edited by E. Reichel 1902-06) See also E. Wolff, Gottscheds Slcllung im deutschen Bildungsleben, 1 vol. (1895-97); H. Lachmann, Gottscheds Hedculung fiir die Geschichte der deutschen Philologie (1931); G. Schimansky, Gottscheds deutsche Bildungsziele (1939). Frau Gottsched, Lustspiele, R. Buchwald and A. Koster (eds.), 2 vol. (1908). See P. Schlenther, Frau Gottsched und die biirgerliche Komodie (1886). (A. Gs.) ) ,

—

(

.

GOTTWALDOV

Zlin), a city of Gottwaldov banks of the Drevnice river, a few miles above its confluence with the Morava. Pop. (1961) Zlin was a 14th-century south-bank village that grew 59.751. rapidly during the first Czechoslovak republic, the nucleus of its activity being the famous and old-established shoemaking enterprise of the Bat'a family. After World War II, in which it suffered some damage, its manufacturing development was spectacular; leather and footwear industries continue important, producing onethird of all the footwear in Czechoslovakia, but rubber and timber industries are also significant. At nearby Otrokovice are Czecho(H. G. S.) slovakia's largest tanneries. (1840-1876). German composer known GOTZ, for his comic opera based on Shakespeare's The Taming oj the Shrew, was born at Konigsberg on Dec. 7, 1840. He went to Berlin in his youth where, between 1860 and 1862. he studied with Hans von Biilow and H. Ulrich. In 1863 he was appointed organist at Winterthur, Switz., and about this time formed a lasting friendship with Brahms. From 1870 he lived at Zijrich. where he was music critic of the Neue Ziirchcr Zeitung. His opera Der Widerspenstigen Zdhmung (The Taming of the Shrew) was produced at Mannheim on Oct. 11, 1874, and achieved immediate success for (until 1948,

region, Czechoslovakia, lies on both

HERMANN

its

spontaneous style and lighthearted characterization.

choral works, an overture, a piano concerto and a symphony. died at Hottingen, near ZiJrich, on Dec. 3, 1876. See G. R. Krusc,

Hermann Goctz

later

He

(1920).

GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS

(

1

72 l-l 781

)

.

German

poet,

one of the group known as the Anakrcontik, was born at Worms on July 9, 1721. After studying theology at Halle he held various P. church offices. At Halle he met J. W. L. Gleim (q.v.^ and J. Anacreontic translathe (1746) published who was he and it Uz, group their name. tions and pseudo-Anacreontics which gave the published his Afraid that his profession would cause scandal, he in Gedichten (1745), Wormsers eines Versuch collection, first

known, anonymously. Of his poems "Die Miidcheninsel" is best Great. He died probably because it was praised by Frederick the 1781. at Winterburg, Baden, on Nov. 4, Denkmale drs IS. und 19 JahrLiterarische Deutsche in works See by C. Schuddckopf (1893). ed. letters 42 (1893) vol. hunderts, ;

Dec. 12, 1766.

A

opera, Francesca da Rimini, completed by Ernst Frank (Mannheim, 1877), was less successful. Gotz also wrote chamber and

GOUACHE—GOUIN

6l2

GOUACHE, a t>'pe of opaque water colour, and, by extension, Gera picture painted in this medium. Water colour (French and method transparent for the term specific the aquarelle) is man (see Water-Colour Painting); gouache is applied opaquely. Whites and pale tints are produced by the addition of white pigGouache colours ment, ordinarily zinc white (Chinese white). contain the same ingredients as water colours but are compounded with more vehicle and inert pigment. Artists sometimes combine Water gouache, water colour and pastel in the same picture. colour is Uke a stain in the paper, and the tiny pigment particles become enmeshed in its fibres; gouache colour lies on the surface, forming a continuous layer or coating. Tinted papers and smooth papers can be used instead of the special rough-finish, handmade papers which are indispensable in creating the sparkling, transparent water colour. Gouache paintings are characterized by a directly reflecting brilliance, dift'erent from that of water colour. The medium has its own kind of freshness, lightness and spontaneity of free brushstrokes. it

is

When

applied with bristle brushes

exhibits a slight but effective impasto quality; gouache paint also capable of being worked out to smooth, flawless colour

(Rh. M.) with sable brushes. an old town of the Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, lies on the Gouwe at its confluence with the IJssel,

fields

GOUDA,

12i mi. N.E. of Rotterdam by rail, 16 mi. E. of The Hague. Gouda, at the junction of primary east-west and north-south roads, and intersected by many canals, is called the "Heart of Holland." Pop. (1962 est.) 43.696. The town was well knowTi in the 17th and 18th centuries for the clay pipes it sent all over Europe. Modem industries include the manufacture of candles (an old Gouda product) and other stearine products, pottery factories and a flax and hemp spinning mill. The name Gouda, however, is best known in connection with the famous cheese that is marketed there. Some Gouda cheese is still made on the farms, some of it in the town's cheese factories, the largest of which is a co-operative. In the centre of the Markt, the largest market square in the Netherlands, is the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and restored in 1947-52. The Weighing House, buUt 1668, is adorned with rehefs in marble. The Grote Kerk (St. John's), rebuilt after a fire in 1552, is celebrated for its complete set of 64 stained-glass windows dating from 1556 to 1603; the best are from the hand of the brothers Dirck and W'outer Crabeth. The organ is a specially fine one and the concerts in the church attract thousands of visitors.

Gouda was chartered

in 1272

and was a centre of the medieval

(K. F. 0. J.) 1514-1572), French composer noted for his settings of the metrical psalms, was born in Besan^on. He worked there and also in Paris, Metz and in Lyons, where he died on Aug. 2S, 1572, in the anti-Huguenot riots. Though he also WTOte Latin church music and chansons. Goudimel is remembered for his vernacular psalm settings. The incomplete collection of 1551-56 presents an extended motetlike treatment of the text; the 1564 cycle sets only the first verses, with the traditional tune usually in the treble. The 1565 book is written in the simplest note-against-note style; the tenor normally has the melody. It proved enormously popular and was widely adopted by the Reformed churches. Bibliography. Les pseaumes mis en rime (1563), facsimile edition cd. by P. Pidoux and K. .\meln (1935) "Les cent cinquante pseaumes de David," ed. by H. Expert, Les Mailres musiciens de la Renaissance fran^aise vol. ii, iv and vi (1894-97) G. Reese, Music in the Renaissance (1954). (B L Tr ) FREDERIC (1865-1947), U.S. printer and typographer who designed more than 100 type faces, was born March 8. 1865. in Bloomington, 111. While working as an accountant in a bookstore in Chicago he became interested in typography and in 1905 established the Village press at nearby Park Ridge. 111. He moved the shop to New York city in 1906 and to an old mill at Marlborough, N.Y., in 1908. His shop came to specialize in limited-edition book publishing using type of his own drawing. After 1913 he worked exclusively in t>'pe design, producing such faces as Goudy Old Style, Kennerley, Village and Forum. When his plant was destroyed by fire in 1939, about 75 cloth trade.

GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE

(c.

—

.

.

;

.

He was author of The of his original type designs were lost. Alphabet (1918), Elemejits of Lettering (1921), Typologia (1940) and the autobiographical Half-Century of Type Design and Typography, 1S95-1945 (1946). He died at Marlborough on May 11, (C. E.

1947.

GOUGH, Sm HUBERT DE LA POER British soldier,

commander

of the 5th

Mo.)

(1870-1963),

army during World War

I,

was born in London on Aug. 12, 1870, and was educated at Eton and Sandhurst. He joined the 16th lancers in 1889, served in the Tirah expedition (1897) and in the South African War (18991902). He commanded the 3rd cavalr>' brigade in 1914 and opposed the use of force at the Curragh to compel Ulster to accept Home Rule. In France during World War I, Gough commanded a

commander of the 5th army on formation (1916) and was prominent at the battle of the Somme (1916) and at the battle of Ypres (1917). His army met the main force of the German offensive (March 1918) and was compelled Alto withdraw with considerable loss under heavj' pressure. though his skilful handling of the battle led to the eventual stemming of the German advance, he was subjected to much criticism and the government insisted on his removal from the command. He retired in 1922 and the award of the knight grand cross of the Bath in 1937 was a token of amends for the harshness of his disHis writings include The Fifth Army missal 19 years earlier. (1931) and Soldiering On 1954). He was knighted in 1916. He (R. G. Th.) died on March IS. 1Q63, in London. Viscount (1779-1869), Irish soldier, prominent in the Peninsular W'ar and in India, was bom at Woodsdown, Limerick, on Nov. 3, 1779. He entered the army in 1794, and took part in the occupation of the Cape of Good Hope An in 1796 and in the West Indies campaigns of 1797-1800. adjutant at 15, a major by purchase at 2S, he commanded the 87th (Royal Irish fusiliers) regiment in the duke of W'ellington's armies Severely wounded in the stubborn fighting in Portugal and Spain. at Talavera (1809), he yet led the 87th to resounding victory at Barrosa, capturing a French eagle, and was promoted lieutenant He took a colonel with his commission antedated to Talavera. leading part in the notable defense of Tarifa, at Vitoria captured the baton of Marshal Jean Baptiste Jourdan, and at Nivelle was again seriously wounded. For his peninsular services he was knighted in 1815 and awarded a pension. Then, for almost 20 years, Gough was left on half pay, seeing action only against the peasantrj' of southern Ireland (1821-24). However, ha\dng risen to the rank of major general (1830), he was given command in Mysore in 1837. He led the expedition against China, the "Opium War," from 1840, and through two years of cavalry division in 1914, became

its

(

GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH,

skill, much humanity and poUtical wisdom. After the treaty of Nanking (Aug. 1842) he was created a baronet and in 1843 was appointed commander in chief in India. Gough defeated the Maratha army of GwaUor at Maharajpur in Dec. 1843, and defeated the Sikh army in 184546 {see Sikh Wars) at Mudki. Ferozeshah and Sobraon, forcing

operations displayed strategic vision, tactical

the Sikhs to sue for peace. He commanded again in the second Sikh War (1848-49), and after hea\'y engagements at Ramnagar and ChillianwaUa, crushed the Sikhs decisively at the battle of Gujarat. In both Sikh Wars the British forces suffered unexFor these the numbers, discipline and pectedly heavy losses. courage of the Sikhs were mainly responsible, but both Lord Hardinge and Lord Dalhousie blamed the tactics of Gough, while popular outcry after Chillianwala led to his supersedure by Sir

;

GOUDY,

WILLIAM

Charles Napier.

Created a baron after the

first

Sikh War, Gough was raised to

a \iscountcy after the second, and in 1862

He

died on

March

2,

was made

field

marshal.

1869.

See R. S. Rait. Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough, 2 vol. (1903) Sir W. Lee-Warner, Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie, 2 vol. (J.B. Ha.) (1904). ;

GOUIN, SIR

LOMER

(1861-1929), Canadian politician, on March 19, 1S61. Educated at Laval and McGill universities, he was called to the bar in 1884 and became queen's counselor in 1900. In 1897 he was elected as a Liberal to the Quebec legislature and from 1905 to 1920 was

was

bom

at Grondines, Que.,

GOUJON— GOULETTE prime minister and attorney general of the province. Gouin opposed Henri Bourassa strenuously, but he supported Sir Wilfrid Laurier in 1917 and refused to join Sir Robert Laird Borden in a coaHtion government to implement conscription. In 1921 Montreal Conservatives supported Gouin rather than Arthur Meighen and they viewed Gouin (who became minister of justice in that year) as their special representative in the government of Mackenzie King. Gouin was a Canadian representative at the fourth

assembly of the League of Nations and pressed for a definite interpretation of article 10 of the covenant, under which each member undertook to respect and protect the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all the others. He resigned his federal post in 1924 in the belief that King conceded too much to the low-tariff views of western Progressives. He died at Quebec on March 28, 1929. (K. W. K. M.) (c. 1S10P-1S68?), the greatest French GOUJON, sculptor of the mid- 16th century. The first record of him documents his activity in 1540 as an architectural sculptor in Rouen. His earliest mature masterpiece was the superb relief decoration made in 1544-45 for the rood screen of the church of St. Germain I'Auxerrois, Paris, now in the Louvre, which also marked the beginning of his collaboration with the architect Pierre Lescot, The

JEAN

especially beautiful rehef of the Pieta illustrates

all

of the char-

Goujon's personal variation of mid- 16th-century mannerism, in which the highly subjective and rarefied ideals of beauty created by the artist's imagination were not compromised by reference to what was thought "imperfect Nature." These attenuated and hypersensitive human forms were skilfully coerced onto a plane in poses which are audaciously unliteral and suggest aesthetic movements as unreal as those of the ballet; the whole was then exquisitely embroidered with a linacteristics

of

ear play of nervous, finely divided draperies.

Goujon's masterpiece was the famous

relief

ornamentation of where

the later altered Fontaine des Innocents in Paris (1547-49),

narrow spaces between the pilasters are with elegantly elongated figures of nymphs. At about the same time Goujon must have made the less fine reliefs on the Hotel Carnavalet, which were executed largely by assistants. Goujon's brilliant reliefs on the court fagade of the Old Louvre (c. 1549-53) were irresponsibly recut by 19th-century restorers. The later ones in the attic above show how his late work was bolder the six extraordinarily filled

in relief

and

freer

from

his early architectural restraint.

The

great

Goujon's most ambitious sculpture, especially the famous gallery with caryatids carved in the round, but these too were falsified by restoration. Recent scholarship has refuted many traditional attributions to Goujon. His career after 1 562 remains largely a mystery; some have thought that as a Protestant he fled

hall inside contains 1

I

Paris.

I

See Pierre du Colombier, Jean Goujon (1949) and Architecture in France, 1500-1700 (1953).

I

I

GOULBURN, of

New

;

Anthony Blunt, Art (J. Hm.)

the principal city on the southern tablelands lies 137i mi. S.W. of Sydney by rail.

South Wales, Austr.,

former Pop. (1961) 20,544. Named undersecretary for the colonies, it was laid out in squares in 1833 with its principal thoroughfare. Auburn street, running north and south. Notable buildings are the courthouse (1887), St. Clair cottage (an example of early colonial architecture, 1847) and an after

;

I

I

;

'

'

\

I

Henry Goulburn,

a

Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral, founded in the 1870s. There are parks, technical colleges and state and denominational schools. Goulburn lies in a productive agricultural and pastoral It is on the main district, and holds large stock and wool markets. Sydney-Melbourne railway and road, with branch Hnes and roads (S. H. Hu.) to Canberra and other places. (1805-1866), U.S. GOULD, zoologist who specialized in the study of mollusks, an expert on

AUGUSTUS ADDISON

Massachusetts invertebrates, was born in New April 2i, 1805, and graduated at Harvard in medicine in 1830. His reputation was world-wide; his writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston Society of Natural Histor>'. He published with Louis Agassiz (q.v.) the Principles of Zoology (2nd ed., 1851); he edited the Terrestrial and Air-Breathing Mollusks (1851-55) of Amos Binney (1803-47). The two most important Ipswich, N.H.,

monuments

613

work are "Mollusca and Shells," vol. of United States Exploring Expedition Under the Com-

xii

to his scientific

.

.

.

mand

of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. published by the government (1852), and the Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts (1841). He died in Boston Sept. 15, 1866. His other works include The Study of Botany in Connection ,

With Medicine (1835); Description Library (1849) Animal Life

The NatuOcean at Great Depths (1862); Otia Conchologica (1863); Search Out the Secrets of Nature (1885). ralists'

;

of Shells (1848);

in the

See National Academy of Science, Biographical Memoirs, vol. v, pp. 91-11,3, and Bibliography, pp. 106-113 (1905).

GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP

(1824-1896), U.S. astronomer, best known for his work in connection with longitude determinations, was born at Boston, Mass., Sept. 27, 1824. He graduated from Harvard college in 1844, studied mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned to the U.S. in 1848. He was in charge of the longitude department of the U.S. coast survey (1852-67); he developed and organized the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic means and emploj'ed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude relations between Europe and America. The Astronomical Journal was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1S61, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he was director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, N.Y.; and in 1859 he published a discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the U.S. coast survey. Gould undertook (1868), on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; he began to observe there, with four assistants, in 1870; and in 1874 he completed his Uranometria Argentina (published 1879). He then made a zone catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884) and a general catalogue ( 1885) compiled from meridian obser\'ations of 32,448 stars. He died in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26, 1896. (JASON) (1836-1892), U.S. railroad executive and financier, was born in Roxbury, N.Y., May 27, 1836. Starting as a surveyor, he turned to railroad emploj-ment in 1863 when he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer and Saratoga railway. He also bought and reorganized the Rutland and Washington railway. In 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, which he and James Fisk controlled. A fraudulent stock

GOULD, JAY

1868-70 led to litigation and forced Gould out of the comDuring his control of the Erie, he and Fisk admitted William Tweed, then state senator, to the directorate and in turn received favourable legislative support from the politician. Gould's speculation in gold resulted in the panic of "Black Friday" on Sept. 24, 1869, when the price of gold fell from 163i to 133. Later Gould realized a large profit upon relinquishing his control of the Union Pacific railway. Beginning with investments in the Missouri Pacific railway he built up the "Gould system" of railways in the His later interests included the Western southwestern states. sale in

pany.

Union Telegraph company and elevated railways

He

died on Dec.

2,

in

New York

city.

1892.

Gould (1864-1923), was also promowner and manager of railways. He became president of the Little Rock and Fort Smith railway (1888), the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern railway (1893), the International and Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific Railroad company (1893), the Texas and Pacific railway (1893) and the Manhattan Railway company 1888). He was also vice-president and director of the Western Union Telegraph company. His eldest daughter, Helen Miller Gould Shepard (1868for her gifts 1938), became widely known as a philanthropist and Spain. to U.S. army hospitals during the war with His eldest son, George Jay

inent as

(

(W. H. D.)

See Richard O'Connor, Gould's Millions (1962).

GOULETTE, LA,

a

town

in Tunisia in the governorate of

situated on the et Banlieue forming an outport of Tunis, is channel (goulet) offshore bar of the Bahira lagoon, on a former 6-mi. which has been widened into a basin at the entrance to a old The 26.323. census) (1956 Pop. Tunis. to leading canal

Tunis

quarter, with lies

its

port, a palace

inland of the

and an old Hispano-Turkish

new town along

the beach.

A

fortress,

residential

and

—

—

—

—

GOUNOD—GOURD

6i4

bathing resort for the inhabitants of Tunis, La Goulette imports It is coal and petroleum and exports phosphates and iron ore. also a fishing port and has a large electric power station. (J.-J. Ds.)

GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French composer whose fame chiefly rests upon his opera Faust, a model of 19th-century French operatic style, was bom in Paris on June His father, Francois Gounod, was a painter of some 18, 1818. distinction; his mother, a woman of wide education, was a capable He was pianist and gave Gounod his early training in music. educated at the Lycee St. Louis where he remained until 1835. After taking his baccalaureat in philosophy he began to study music with Anton Reicha. On Reicha's death in 1836 Gounod entered Paris conservatory, where he studied under Halevy and Lesueur, winning the Grand Prix de Rome in 1839 with the cantata Fernand. In Italy he devoted much of his attention to the study of Palestrina and was so deeply influenced by him that a mass in imitation of the style of the Italian master was among his earliest important compositions. On completing his course in Rome he

the

proceeded to Vienna, where his Mass and Requiem, composed in On leaving Italy, were performed in 1842 and 1843 respectively. Vienna to return to Paris, he passed through Prague, Dresden and Berlin and spent four days in Leipzig with Mendelssohn, who arranged for Gounod to hear a performance of Mendelssohn's Scottish Symphony and took him to the Thomaskirche, where he gave him a recital of organ works by Bach. On his return to Paris Gounod became organist and maitre de chapelle at the church of the Missiofts £.trangeres and for two years he was mainly occupied with the study of theology and the writing of religious music. In 1846 he attended a course at the seminary of St. Sulpice and it was expected that he would take orders. In 1847 he decided, however, against entering the priesthood and, abandoning his projected Requiem and Te Deiim, turned his attention to composing for the operatic stage. His first operas, Sapho on a hbretto by fimile Augier (first performed in 1851) and La Nonne sanglantc on a Hbretto by Eugene Scribe and Germain Delavigne based on M. G. Lewis' Monk (first performed 1854), together with his incidental music for F. Ponsard's tragedy Ulysse (first performed 1852 ), were very favourably reviewed by Berlioz, although in general their reception was not very enthusiastic. In his Messe solennelle a Ste. Cecile (1855) he attempted to blend the sacred with a more secular style of composition. An excursion into comic opera followed with Le Medecin malgre lui to a libretto by M. Carre and J. Barbier based on Moliere's comedy. From 1852 Gounod worked on Faust on a hbretto by Carre and Barbier based on Goethe's tragedy; its production on March 19, 1859, marked a new phase in the development of French opera. This work has continued to overshadow all his subsequent stage works, including the fairly successful Mireille founded on a Provencal poem by F. Mistral (first performed in 1864; and Romeo and Juliette (first performed 1867), as well as

deteriorated into sentimentality. He wrote well for the voice and he was a skilful orchestrator, but his sense of characterization was weak. His sacred music lacked fervour. His "Meditation" (Ave Maria) adapted from Bach's G Minor Prelude illustrates his sentimental manner. Faust, particularly the ballet music, Mireille and Le Medecin malgre lui (1857) show his melodic vein at its best. Gounod wrote the following literary works: Ascanio de C. Saint-Sa'ens (1889) Le Don Juan de Mozart, Eng. trans, by W. Clark and J. T. Hutchinson (1895); Memoires d'un artiste, Eng. trans, by A. E. Crocker (1896). ;

—

Bibliography. C. Bellaigue, Ch. Gounod, Eng. trans. (1891)

Gounod: Sa

vie et ses oeuvres,

(1942), Faust de

Gounod

Gounod (1910) M. A. de Bovet, J. C. Prod'homme and A. Dandelot, 2 vol. (1911) P. Landormy, Gounod ;

;

(1944).

;

(F. E. G.)

GOURAMI (Osphronemus goramy), a large, fresh-water food where it is widely cultured in ponds. Being omnivorous and tenacious of life, it often attains a length of 2 ft. and a weight of 12 to 14 lb. or more. It possesses an accessory respiratory organ above the gills, enabling it to live in warm, stagnant water and even for some time out of water. The flat oblong gourami is the largest member of the family Anabantidae, to which belong also many small aquarium fish called gourami pearl gourami (Trichogaster), kissing gourami (Helostoma), etc. See also Aquarium; Fish. fish native to Asia,

GOURD, a name commonly used to designate the hard-shelled, two very different species, Cucitrbita pepo and Lagenaria siceraria. These species are vigorous, trailing annual herbs of the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae {q.v.). Technically, botanists have broadened the term to include fruits Benincasa hispida; teasel gourd Cucumis of the wax gourd dipsaceous; sponge gourd Luga cylindrica; and snake gourd ornamental

fruits of

var. ovifera

Trichosanthes anguina. Cucurbita pepo var. ovifera, the yellow-flowered gourd, includes the small ornamental gourds used for decorative purposes. Nest

his later oratorios.

In 1852 Gounod had become conductor of the Orphean choral society in Paris, for which he wrote a number of choral works, including two masses. From 1870 he spent five years in London,

where he formed

which he gave his name and with which he made a number of pubUc appearances. Eventually this organization became the Royal Choral society. In his later years Gounod devoted himself almost entirely to the writing of oratorios, many of which were first produced in England. He was made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour in 1888 and died at St. Cloud on Oct. 18, 1893. Among other works he wrote Gallia, a lamentation for solo soprano, chorus and orchestra inspired by the French military catastrophe of 1870 and first performed at the Albert hall, London, at the opening of the international exhibition on May 1, 1871 the oratorios La Rddemption and Mors et Vita, first performed at the Birmingham festival in 1882 and 1885 respectively; 13 operas (one unfinished) music for plays, including Les Deux Reines, a drama by E. Legouve, and Jeanne d'Arc by Barbier; a large output of church music; orchestral music; pianoforte solos; and songs. a choir to

;

;

Gounod introduced an

original sense of

melody though

it

often

SPOON GOURD. A FORM OF CUCURBITA PEPO VAR. OVIFERA: (LEFT) PISTILATE FLOWER WITH SMALL GOURD; (RIGHT) MATURE GOURD

Egg, Pear-shaped, Bicolor, Spoon and Ladle gourds are common forms of this species. Lagenaria siceraria, the white-flowered gourd, has extremely large fruits. Some may attain a length of three feet or more, and fruits with diameters of one and one-half feet are not uncommon. Typical varieties are the Bottle, Kettle, Hercules Club, Dipper and Sugar-trough gourds. Both species have a long history of association with man, and neither has ever been found in the truly wild state. C. pepo var. ovifera is native to northern Mexico and the eastern United States. L. siceraria probably comes from tropical Africa, but evidence on this point is not decisive. Archaeological specimens of the latter Specimens species have been recovered in both hemispheres. found in an Egyptian tomb are dated at the time of the 5th dynasty (3500-3300 B.C.), and in Peru seeds, shells and some intact fruits have been recovered from a large midden at Huaca Prieta in strata dated at about 3000 B.C. For primitive peoples without

;

;:

GOURGAUD—GOUT either

metalware or pottery, the Lagenaria gourds served many They were used for cutlery, utensils, scoops, ladles,

purposes.

containers of

sorts, fish-net floats, whistles

and rattles. In have been used to a limited extent for food, but their chief use is for ornamental purposes. all

modern times the immature

fruits

They

are frequently painted bright colours, then used as decoraMany of the smaller gourds of C. pepo var. ovijera are naturally banded, striped or mottled in various shades of green and yellow, while the solid white ones may be painted to suit the tion.

decorator's taste.

Others are warted, and some are prized for

their bizarre shapes.

C.

pepo

var. ovijera has comparatively large triangular-shaped

Stems and leaves are covered with short bristles that give them a harsh touch. The flowers are large, showy, and orange-yellow in colour. They are of two kinds, male and female, both produced on the same plant. Usually the male flowers appear a week or more in advance of the female flowers and are located toward the extremities of the runners. Lagenaria has musky-scented, large, heart-shaped leaves, of soft, The beautiful snow-white flowers open in the velvety texture. evening and close late the following morning. Like C. pepo, each plant bears male and female flowers. Identical methods of culture can be followed with both the yellow-flowered and white-flowered gourds. The seeds should be planted in the spring immediately after danger from frost has passed. They require a long growing season to mature a crop of Well-drained fruits, and are killed with the first autumn frost. mellow soils of good fertility are preferred. A warm, sunny locaTrellises, fences or walls for tion is best for maximum growth. the vines to crawl over are excellent for obtaining clean, wellshaped fruits, of maximum colour, without blemishes or ground

(T.W.W.)

spots.

GOURGAUD, GASPARD, who shared Napoleon's

Versailles on Sept. 14, 1783. 05, at Saragossa,

ordnance

as

He

Baron (1783-1852), French

exile at St.

served

Helena, was born at campaigns of 1803-

in the

Danubian campaign of 1809. He acted Napoleon throughout the Russian campaign the campaign in Saxony, and saved the- em-

and

in the

officer to

of 1812, served in

Though one of the royal guards of Louis XVIII in 1814, he joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days (1815), was named general and aide-de-camp, and fought at Waterloo. On St. Helena Gourgaud tired of the life at Longwood and the peror's life at Brienne.

Montholon, and went to England, where he published 1815. He returned to the army in 1830, became a deputy to the legislative assembly in 1849, and died in Paris friction with

his

Campagne de

in 1852.

Gourgaud's works include: La Campagne de 1815 (1818); Napoleon et la Grande Armee en Russie: examen critique de I'ouvrage de M. le comte P. de Segiir (1824) Refutation de la vie de Napoleon par Sir Walter Scott (1827); Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de France sous Napoleon, with Montholon (1822-23) and Bourrienne et ses erreurs, with Belliard et al., two volumes ;

(1830). His most important work is the Journal inedit de Ste.HeUne, two volumes (1899; new ed., by Octave Aubry, 1944). See B. Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff Officer (1904). (P. F. deL.)

GOURMONT, REMY DE

(1858-1915), French novelist,

poet and playwright, was the most intelligent contemporary critic of Symbolism. His writings contributed largely to the spread of the aesthetic doctrines of the Symbolist movement (see Sym-

Born at France, England and the United States. a law became he April 1858, on 4, (Orne) Bazoches-en-Houlmes student at Caen and entered the Bibliotheque Nationale in 1881.

bolists)

in

dismissed in 1891 as a result of an allegedly unpatriotic was article he had published in the Mercure de France of which he a founder. His 50 volumes are mainly collections of articles. They include comment on (1) the six volumes of Epilogues (1903-13) which Ittcontemporary life; (2) the seven volumes of Promenades

He was

(1904-27) and the three volumes of Promenades phtlosophiques (1905-09) containing literary and philosophical essays; and aesthetics (3) books devoted to studies of style, language tiraires

(Le Latin mystique, 1892 Esthitique de la langue fran^aise, 1899; La Culture des idies, 1900; Le Chemin de velours and Le Probtime du style, 1902). His strength as a literary critic lies in his sure judgments of contemporaries and his insistence that criticism should be based on aesthetic principles alone. His range of interests links him with the 18th-century philosophes whose paradoxical skepticism he shared, although some of Gourmont's work is marred by a superficial cynicism. His novels (Sixtine, 1890; Les Chevaux de Diom&de, 1897; Le Songe d'une femme, 1899; and Un Coeur ;

virginal, 1907) are

experiments which

are intellectual symbols rather than

leaves that are often deeply lobed.

soldier

615

fail

because the characters

human

beings, but the later

ones contain passages of intelligent and paradoxical dialogue. Gourmont is acknowledged to be an important formative influence on T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound among others. He died in Paris, Sept. 27, 1915.

Jean de Gourmont (1877-1928), his brother, also contributed Mercure de France. He wrote some poems and a novel, La Toisond'or (1908). BiBLior.RAPiiY. M. Coulon, L'Enseignement de R. de Gourmont to the

—

(1925) E. Bencze, La Doctrine esthetique de R. de Gourmont (1928) P. E. Jacob, Renty de Gourmont (1931) G. Rces, Remy de Gourmont (1940); K. D. Uitti, La Passion litUraire de Remy de Gourmont (Ga. R.) (1962). a small burgh and seaside resort of Renfrewshire, ;

;

GOUROCK,

on the south bank of the Clyde, 25^ mi. W.N.W. of Glasroad. Pop. (1961) 9,609. Gourock pier is the railhead for most of the Clyde passenger steamers, and Cardwell bay, at the eastern end of the town, is extensively used by Clyde yachtsmen. Tower hill (480 ft.) rises behind the town and divides it into three parts: Kempock (east), Ashton (west) and Midton (centre). A relic of pagan times is the tall gray stone, locally Scot.,

gow by

as "Granny Kempock," formerly regarded as a talisman. Industries include yacht building and repairing and marine engineering. Gourock became a burgh of a barony in 1694.

known

GOUT

is

a disease associated with an inborn error of metaboby acute attacks of distress in one or more of the

lism, manifest

joints of the extremities.

It

is

one of the oldest diseases de-

scribed in medical literature. Colchicine, the drug most useful in treatment, is one of the oldest in therapeutics (see Colchicum).

Gout

is

not rare; the incidence

is

at least

S%

of

all

significant

problems in the field of systemic arthritis. There is a hereditary element in the causation, incidence in some families being very high. The male-female ratio is 20:1. Some patients develop gout secondary to a chronic blood disIt may appear initially in any decade of life, and between ease. Kidney attacks the patient experiences no articular symptoms. stone, albumin in the urine and elevation of blood pressure are related phenomena. Acute symptoms of gout develop suddenly and persist for days Heat, redness, or weeks if proper treatment is not followed. tenderness and pain of the affected joints are observed. The body temperature may rise several degrees. The concentration of uric A number of factors including acid in the blood is elevated. acute infection, emotional upset, surgical operation, direct inof cerjury, overindulgence in food or alcohol or administration may precipitate an acute attack. Precipitation of tain drugs microscopic amounts of uric acid in the cartilage precedes the Uric acid deposits appear in the ear or under the skin first attack. about the joints many years later and only in a minority of patients. Significant progress in the management of gout was a product therapy more of the mid-20th century. This resulted in a form of

—

—

any available for other major types of joint disof colchicine are used in the treatment of the amounts ease. prophyacute attack. Following regression of acute symptoms, satisfactory than Full

an agent from the body, the preferred drug in The prophylactic regimen should this group being probenecid. severity of be maintained for several years, depending upon the as of laxis requires daily ingestion of colchicine as well

for eliminating uric acid

the affliction. A high intake of water aids in

.

the elimmation

.

of uric acid

recommended save

for

from the body A normal balanced diet is i.e., liver, kidney and sweetthe avoidance of high purine foods; A patient who adbreads. Alcohol in moderation is permitted.

GOUTHIERE—GOVERNMENT

6i6

heres to the prophylactic regimen should lead a normal life, pursue normal activities and should suffer little or no distress from acute

A few patients die prematurely because of kidney disease, but longevity in gout is normal. Chronic deforming changes are not (j- ". T.) common. (1732-c. 1813), French metalworker, perhaps the most celebrated of his time, was baptized at Bar-sur-Aube on Jan. ig, 1732, the son of a saddler. He obtained the his diploma as a master gilder at the same time as he married widow of his former employer, Ceriset (1758). He executed a great quantity of metalwork, the best of which was superior to that of any of his rivals in that great period of French craftsman-

GOUTHIERE, PIERRE

collaborated with the most eminent cabinetmakers and The severity of his design was felicitously counterbalanced by the grace and suppleness of the molding. He invented the process of dull gilding. His personal reputation began in 1769 with the magnificent

He

interior designers of his day.

jewel chest for Dauphiness Marie Antoinette. From then onward he did work at Fontainebleau, supplied the due d'Aumont in Paris, Madame du Barry at Louveciennes and the comte d'Artois at Bagatelle. Nevertheless he ran into financial difficulties and became bankrupt in 1788. The Revolution completed his downfall.

He

died in Paris in 1813 or 1814. Gouthiere's immense prestige is partly explained by the famous public sale in Paris in 1782 of the collection of the due d'Aumont, in the course of which Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette acquired many columns and vases in porphyry or marble mounted by the

famous metalworker. Pieces from the sale include a splendid red jasper bowl in the Wallace collection, London, and pieces at the Louvre. Paris. See Jacques Robiquet, Vie

et

oeuvre de Pierre Goulkiere (ig2i). (S. Gr.)

GOUVION-SAINT-CYR, LAURENT DE

(1764-1830), French marshal under Napoleon and minister of war under the Restoration, was born at Toul on April 13, 1764, of good family. An art student in Paris when the French Revolutionary Wars broke out, he joined the artists' battalion in 1792 and was soon on the staff. of the army of the Rhine. In June 1794 a Jacobin represenlant en mission made him general of division; and his firmness in the battles of 1795 before Mainz and Mannheim led to his

men in the army of the Rhin-etMoselle under J. V. Moreau in Germany in 1796. A sequence of corps commands showed Gouvion-Saint-Cyr's capacity; in 1798 in Rome, when he restored order in the mutinous army, in 1799 on the Rhine under J. B. Jourdan, before Genoa under Barthelemy Joubert and then on the Rhine again under Moreau. Each change, however, was marked by friction and resentment: being given a corps of 20,000

the fact that in the battles of Stockach

and Novi (1799)

his

wing

alone was unbroken gave rise to the charge, always exaggerated, that he could not be trusted to support his colleagues. Gouvion-Saint-Cyr was not opposed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him a councilor of state (1800), employed

him him

Spain a grand

1801

him

occupy Apulia 1803), appointed officer of the empire (1804) and created him count ( 1 808 He had been superseded by Andre Massena, however, for the conquest of Naples in 1806 and was not yet a marshal; and when the command in Catalonia, where he had been successful, w-as given to Marshal Augereau in 1809 he showed his resentment so flagrantly that he was exiled to his estate for a year. In the Russian campaign of 1812 Gouvion-Saint-Cyr commanded the small Bavarian corps and marched on the left wing to the Dvina under Marshal Oudinot (who had been junior to him in the old army of the Rhine). Taking command of the corps after Oudinot was wounded, he defeated the Russian attack at Polotsk and was at last made a marshal on Aug. 27. In the second repulse of the Russians at Polotsk in October he was badly wounded. An attack of typhus in March 1813 ended what might have been his most important command in eastern Germany under Eugene de Beauharnais. He had a new corps at the battle of Dresden (Aug. 1813) and in operations on the Bohemian frontier. For two months he was for the first time directly under Napoleon's in

)

left

They met and talked as two masters of war; but Nahim behind at Dresden, where he remained during the

His campaigns ended with his capitulation, with 33,000 men, at Dresden in Nov. 1813. After the Restoration, Gouvion-Saint-Cyr's cool, impartial judgment made him a great minister of war, first in three critical months after Waterloo and again from Sept. 1817 to Nov. 1819 (after having been minister of marine from Feb. 1817). His reforms created a new army, 240,000 strong, and Napoleon's good officers were recalled to lead it. In his retirement he wrote the standard account of the campaigns of 1792-97, Memoires sur les campagnes des armies du Rhin (1829), in which his own role is, however, occasionally perhaps overstressed; and also Memoires for the years 1797-1815, published posthumously (1831). Gouvion-Saint-Cyr died at Hyeres on March 17, 1830. (I. D. E.) crisis at Leipzig.

attacks.

ship.

command. poleon

(

),

sent

to

(

.

—

.

.

.

GOVERNMENT

is concerned specifically with that side of which is focused upon consent, control, power and authority. Wherever men attempt to work together through organization, government arises, for no organization can function without some pattern of rule which determines who is in ultimate

social

charge.

life

Government

as a field of study

therefore, inseparable times and places. The rich materials which modern critical history and anthropology have made available, if properly implemented by what psychology, sociology, economics, jurisprudence and the other

from the study of

man and

society in

is,

all

social studies have to contribute to the analysis of the process of governing men, provide an unprecedented opportunity for developing a science of government.

DEFINITION

AND CLASSIFICATION

—

Government, State and Nation. Government has been defined in many different ways by a long list of philosophers and from Plato and Confucius to those of the present These definitions have frequently been cast in terms of the purpose of government. The most commonly acknowledged end or purpose of government has been either justice or the public good. But there have always been conflicting views which, while admitting that justice or the public good ought to be the end of government, have insisted that it has rarely, if ever, actually achieved any such ideal. Conceiving of themselves as realists, such writers and students of government have alleged that the actual end of government apsocial scientists

day.

pears to be some sort of self-satisfaction of those who do the governing, be this the acquisition of additional power, or glory, or riches or any combination of these and other desires of the

human

heart.

Looking back over the tached observer

is

last 2,500 years of this debate, the deobliged to conclude that none of these views

represents the whole truth, and that all of them contain some truth. As a result, there has been a tendency since the 19th cen-

tury to discard ends as a key to defining government and a predisposition to concentrate on the process of government

government works. This might be summed up in the

is

known

—how

as the functional view.

definition that a

government

is

It

a group

human beings, large or small, who control the operations and the changes of an organization. The "revolution of nihilism," however, has taught the perils of ignoring the ends of government. of

While it is usual to think of a nation or other large group when speaking of a government, and employing the expression the government, it is obvious that all other groups as well have some kind of government, whether they be families, business enterprises, trade unions, churches, universities or anything else. But in modern times these group governments are typically subordinated government; they operate within the framework of a legal system which owes its authority, if not its existence, to the government and is enforced by the government. This fact of being on top of all the other governments, which characterizes the government of a modern nation, is by no means as self-evident as one is inclined to assume. In other times and places other groups, such as churches, have had independent and sometimes superior aU' thority. If the world community ever gets to the point of developing fully its own government, that government probably will be to the

i

I

GOVERNMENT superior to the governments of nations.

When

viewed as independent and legally self-sufficient organizations, modern nations are spoken of as states. The word state arose in Europe during the i6th and 17th centuries in the course of the veo' development which made the nation the focal point of power and authority. In fact, the concepts of state and nation are so intimately linked that the expression national state is really It is important to distinguish the much broader a pleonasm.

phenomenon of government (defined above) from

the concept of

many writers, especially in Europe, continually confuse the two and speak of the theory of the state when they really mean the theory of government. The concept of the state crystallized in the period of determined struggle of secular rulers against the medieval notions of independent power. These rulers needed a concept which might effecthe state, although

church by investing the nation with a halo comparable to that possessed by the mystic body of the believers. Medieval writers had laboured to develop the idea of the visible and the invisible church. State and nation came to occupy a comparable position in the social philosophy of secular writers. It is no accident that the founders of the modern theory of the Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Thomas Hobbes were all state violently antiecclesiastical. The portions of their works in which they denounce the ecclesiastical authorities as "the kingdom of darknesse" (Hobbes) and the like are now rarely read, but they show that the concept of the state arose in the fight against the church. At the same time, it is interesting that Richard Hooker's great treatise on government is entitled The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity; in defending the Elizabethan settlement, the judicious Hooker had to face the transfer of authority from church to state. Classification of Governments Since the days of Plato and Aristotle, governments have been classified in a great many different ways. The Greek philosophers adopted a scheme of classification which was compounded of a strictly numerical criterion and a very general value judgment. In doing this they undoubtedly built upon an older tradition of which some evidence survives, such as the famous discussion of the Persian king Darius, reported by Herodotus, and the work Plato saw the several of the sophist Hippodamus of Miletus. forms of politeia, or political order, as corruptions of the ideal It has often been order which he deUneated in the Republic. tively challenge the

—

—

—

617

tional democracy in the United States, whereas he uses the term democracy to denote a constitutionally unrestrained rule of the majority. Without retaining their precise Aristotelian meaning, these terms have become a part of the general political vocabulary of modern man. Yet other writers and thinkers have added many

a differentiating concept to this group of six. Thus, the rule of the rich has been called a plutocracy, the rule of the priests theocracy, the rule of officials bureaucracy iq.v.). origin. In the i6th and 1 7th centuries

modern

The

last

term

is

of

was customary to divide governments into monarchical and republican, a usage which finds expression in the U.S. constitution when it provides that each state shall have a "republican form of government." The midit

20th century brought to the fore a classification into democratic dictatorial or totalitarian governments, while other ideas such

and

as socialism, liberalism

and conservatism have also served as a

basis of classification.

Perhaps the classification of most universal significance is that which is determined by the key aspect of the pattern of control: whether power is concentrated or divided. All more stable power is based on organization and the control of organization. Without common objectives there can be neither organization nor power. Power, therefore, always presupposes several human beings who are joined together in pursuing a common objective. "All human associations are established for some purpose," is the openThat would seem to preclude ing phrase of Aristotle's Politics. Yet actually objectives may be a genuine division of power. common because; (i) they are spontaneously shared; (2) they are mutually supplementary; or (3) though conflicting, they are outweighed by other considerations. If organization results in the it is because those who want it get the others to cooperate by constraining or coercing them, and thus making them prefer the avoidance of the threatened penalty to whatever in-

third case,

duced them to object. In order to avoid a situation in which conflicting objectives predominate, power may be divided; different groups in the community may be entrusted with different tasks and charged with restraining other groups. This theory of constitutionalism, which has been stated in many different

forms {see Constitution and Constitutional Law), governments according to whether

affords a basis for classifying

overlooked that he addressed himself to the order in the polls (city) only; his classification is not supposed to cover the political systems of the barbarians, though broadly speaking he inclines, as most Greeks, to see these despots as analogues to the tyrant in the polls. Tyrannos was, of all the politeias, the worst and

they are constitutional or not, or more exactly according to the extent to which they are constitutionalized. Force or constraint and consent are the two intertwined bases of power and control, with complete constraint and complete consent the unreal extremes between which most human organizations and their governments can be ranged. All power situations contain both force and con-

most corrupt, with the tyrant himself the most unhappy of men. Its It is the rule of one who is completely lacking in virtue. opposite is, relatively speaking, the best, the rule of one who is a

sent, although in crude, everyday speech we often talk as if there were some governments which are completely based on consent and others completely on force. Actually, governments may be

man

classified

of virtue.

The same

distinction holds for the other four

if a few virtuous men rule, the result is aristocracy; if a few unvirtuous ones, oligarchy; if many pos.sessing some virtue, timocracy; if many without virtue, democracy. This classification which turns upon virtue (arete) in the rulers was eventually qualified by Plato in two directions. On the one hand, he recognized that for the virtue of rulers may be substituted a law of comprehensive scope, and on the other hand he came to feel that a mixture of the three numerical schemes (one, the few, the many) might be best. These ideas found comprehensive expression in his late works, especially The Laws.

possible political orders;

Aristotle built

upon

significant changes.

foundation, while introducing some discussion is not cast in terms of an

this

The

but rather in those of a standard or model. This model is conceived in relation to the end (telos) of the polis; the happiness of its citizens. Happiness itself is comprehensively conceived, embracing as it does the largely contemplative life of the few ideal,

philosophers, as well as the more mundane concerns of wealth, friends and family. Aristotle's model he calls politeia or political order as such. In Aristotle's terms there was a good and a bad

few and of many. These he called monarchy and tyranny, aristocracy and oligarchy, polity and democracy. His concept of the polity corresponds to the idea of a constiturule of one, of a

volved

according to the degree of either force or consent

in their

in-

operation.

Finally, there

is

found a species of informal classification which by naming the class or group which

characterizes the government

Plutocracy and theocracy are really part of this But we often speak of undertakings such as miligovernment. It tary government, colonial government and feudal classification is indeterminate is obvious that such a scheme of groups which might as long as it docs not comprise all conceivable But sociologists using these terms have often failed to control. particuanalyze adequately what they assumed; namely, that the is

in

control.

classification.

group actually governed. On the whole, it is fair to state that much has been made of the problem of mere classification. classification, there have In opposition to all such schemes of who have set out been from time to time students of government all schemes of government. to discover the common features of that The phrase "invisible government" has been coined to suggest is an invisible govno matter what the outward form there always merely formal ernment of the few. and that all governments are Perhaps the for the rule of an elite or special class. lar

too

disguises

by the Italian most ambitious attempt along this line was made this view maintained Cl.m Kulini; The his who in Gaetano Mosca, Although further refined with much show of historical learning.

GOVERNMENT

6i8

in his general sociology with theory of the elite, it is not a tenable view; the task of governing cannot be divorced from the wielding of legitimate authority, and the informal participation of diverse individuals does not constitute these as a class in the sense of Mosca, or an elite in Pareto's

and generalized by Vilfredo Pareto its

embodies

upon

total

COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT The comparative study of governments is an uncompleted task. Modern governments have been effectively compared and an overtheory based on experience has been presented by such w-riters James Bryce, G. D. H. Cole, Herman Finer and Carl J. Friedrich. But these undertakings have been strictly limited to contemporary governments of western European origin. The much more extensive task of systematic comparison and evaluation of the process of government covering all cultures and groups remains to be done. It will be well, however, to present some of this knowledge in general survey form in the following sections. We may conveniently use a historical plan and discuss the following major all

as

of experience: (i) primitive government, (2) large-scale (Asian) despotism, (3) Greco-Roman republicanism, (4) medieval (European) government, (5) modern western government.

fields

HISTORICAL SURVEY Primitive Government.

— The government of so-called primi-

tive peoples displays a great variety of forms.

Anthropologists

have shown conclusively that all these people do possess governments, be they ever so rudimentary. Many of them combine religious and governmental functions, so that high priests are often kings and vice versa. Frequently kings are deified in that they are supposed to be endowed with supernatural powers and are regarded with awe. These views are reflected in a number of institutions of the Greek city-state, as well as of Rome. They are also recognizable in the institutions of imperial Japan, China and elsewhere. But it would be a mistake to assume that these primitive forms of government are necessarily despotic in their practical workings. As a matter of fact, few of them are. Even in warlike tribes where the king is often the mihtary leader some species of consent pattern is worked. The characteristic feature which differentiates primitive government from the later forms is the lack of any kind of regularized or institutionalized administration. If writing is used at all, it is primitive, and the frequent lack of any considerable employment of currency prevents the development of accounting practices. Primitive government, in its most general connotation, may be described as a government incidental to tribal life and informally linked to its general patterns of behaviour and belief.

Asian Despotism.

—

Throughout Asia there arose, in conjuncdevelopment of literacy, the general increase in culture and the forward march of technology, especially in warfare, a species of government which is passing only in modern times. These governments are usually spoken of as despotic, although this term is something of a misnomer, because they were quite limited tion with the

scope and, while extending over large land masses, they often included the greatest variety of governmental practice in local

in

jurisdictions. These great systems seem really to have been slow extensions of primitive tribal governments, usually were based upon an underiying homogeneous group growing out of the con-

quering tribe, and on the whole showed a remarkable viability. They were invariably monarchical in structure, and the monarch was usually invested with divine attributes, if he was not actually deified. They were, it has been held by some, in no sense states, as the west has understood this term, and the trials and tribulations which China encountered in its efforts to grow into a modern state are in part attributed to the fact that the preceding pattern

of government had not yet developed any such close-knit svstem of administration or of legislation as had been established by the monarchies of the west when they were overthrown by their several revolutions

(sec below).

It

was contended by others that

these oriental despotisms were "states" in a particularly virulent Karl Wittfogel, for instance, argued that these despotisms, especially Chinese despotism, represent a power sense.

system which

power

in the sense of totalitarian dictatorship.

He

irrigation.

Hence he

called these societies "hydraulic."

The

form of government would then be a bureaucdescribed as. monopolistic and characterized by "total terror, submission and total loneliness." This elaborately argued

central piece of this racy,

understanding.

total

believed that this kind of government arose in response to the technical requirements of an agriculture which depended wholly

contention has met with sharp criticism. Whatever may be the eventual conclusion regarding the nature and value of this type of government, there can be little doubt that while it is ill-adapted to the modern world and a machine technology, it served the people reasonably well as long as they

under a system of handicraft production, whether in industry As the remarkable state of culture in all its forms (literature, arts, music and religion) attests, these systems were

lived

or agriculture.

fairly tolerant of, if not positively interested in,

An

human

creativity.

occasional outburst of violence such as that which occurred in

China under Shih Huang Ti (246-210 B.C.) merely shows that this system of government is habitually ill-adapted to extreme governmental control. Its worst feature, in the long run, was unquestionably its tendency to fall to pieces when the court circles grew corrupt, lazy and indifferent. At such times these systems often plunged into anarchy and became exposed to sudden invasions by outsiders, especially barbarians of bellicose disposition. But these despotic systems lasted longer than any other known form of government to date, and were swept away only by the onrush of modern industrial civilization with its multiplicity of governmental tasks.

—When the

Greco-Roman Republicanism.

so-called classical world are considered, one

is

city-states of the

on more familiar

Not only have

the great writers of antiquity, such as Thucydides and Polybius, left an explicit record of the government of these remarkable communities, but a vast amount of the most searching learning has gone into the critical examina-

ground.

Aristotle,

names such as D. Fustel de Coulanges and Theodor Mommsen, which combined a deep grasp of the problems of government with thorough tion of these records, a learning associated with

Numa

historical scholarship.

The remarkable cultural flowering that occurred in Greece at the height of the power of the city of Athens cast a golden glow over these city-states. As later ages marveled at the Peridean age, they inclined toward idealizing

its political

institutions.

Yet,

from a modern viewpoint, it is all-important to remember that even the most democratic of these republics, such as Athens, rested upon a broad basis of slavery. The citizenry was, in other words, an upper class whose privileged position permitted it to participate in public affairs. The defense of slavery by both Plato and Aristotle, though often treated as a deplorable aberration, is really of central importance to their political philosophy. They believed in a superior race, and not in the "common man everywhere."

Upon the substratum of this slave population, the size of which has been variously estimated, the city-states were originally organized as monarchies under tribal kings. These were gradually superseded by military aristocracies, which in turn gave way to an aristocracy of wealth and to an ever widening body of citizens. The divergent rate of progress in different cities toward this kind of democracy eventually led to a situation in which most Greek cities were split into a democratic and an aristocratic faction, each epitomized by one leading city Athens or Sparta. The conflict between the two types of government culminated in the disastrous and long-drawn-out struggle known as the Peloponne-

—

War (q.v.; 431-404 B.C.). While frequently represented as a fight between two ideologies, it was in fact as muth a war between rival imperialisms, and it prepared the way for the final subjugation of all Greek cities by the kingdom of Macedon and sian

later

by Rome.

The Greeks experimented

extensively with fed-

eration as a solution to their problem of combining unity with

independence of the cities, but the federations proved no match for enemies whose government rested upon the more solid basis of territorial control. (See Greece: History.) The Roman republic, which eventually achieved the overlordship of all Greek cities, in Sicily, in Asia Minor and in Greece

.

GOVERNMENT proper, followed the tradition of the Greek cities at

first,

but soon

grew beyond it by developing a solid territorial foundation. This foundation was provided by the conquest of the Italic cities and the subsequent settlement of Romans on the land, conferral of

Roman citizenship upon the inhabitants, Rome evolved a comple.x constitutional narchical,

blended.

or both.

Furthermore,

moand democratic elements were skilfully Perhaps the most extraordinary feature of this governstructure in which

aristocratic

ment was its dual executive, wielding the imperium, or power to command. After a time, two consuls replaced the monarch as the chief executives; they had practically identical functions, and could not act one without the other {see Consul). Finally, there was the praetor, who also shared the imperium. At the heart of the republic's government we find a legislative establishment, compounded of the fathers (patres) and the "people" (populus). Originally, the people

were only the patricians, but after a long

had to allow the plebeians to share in the oftices to adopt decisions of their own (plebiscita). The military assembly (Comitia centuriata) and plebs decided what laws were wanted, expressing their preferences, but only upon proposals (rogationes) by the magistrates. The fathers, organized as the senate, were presumably only consulted, and their decisions took the form of a senatus consultiim. But actually the senate became the dominant body in Rome to which both magistrates and people deferred. Thus the letters SPQR (Senatus Populusque RomajMS, "the senate and the Roman people") were the magic symbols of Roman power, as well as of Roman subjection to law. Among the offices, the most important were the fiscal (quaestors) and the judicial ones, primarily a number of praetors holding jurisstruggle the nobles

{magistrattts)

dictio.

and

Among

these last, the praetor peregrinus exerted a pro-

found influence upon the development of Roman law, because he interpreted the Roman civil law for the many foreigners doing business in Rome. This body of law, known as the jus gentium, implemented the jus civile and came to form the hard core of the Corpus Juris Civilis as it was eventually codified by Justinian (6th There were other important officers, such as the censors century ) and the tribunes of the people, who provided a further check to the .

consuls and other magistrates, and, finally, there was the dictator. This office, which superseded all others, came into being only in emergencies, and was strictly limited to six months. It eventually became the basis for the destruction of the republic. The subtle mixture of monarchical, aristocratic and democratic elements which has evoked the admiration of students of government ever since continued as an

outward

ritual long after the effective

power

had become completely concentrated in the hands of the Caesar imperator. {See Roman Law.) It was a common trait of all the republics of the ancient world

combined in interlocking functions the task government with the exercise of religion. Thus, the great temples, such as the Acropolis in Athens, were the centres of the city's While life, and their architecture clearly reflects this function. all the Greek cities acknowledged the common Olympus with its Zeus, Hera and the other gods and goddesses, each city had its own special god from whom the local gentry claimed to be descended. that the city or polls of

therefore, invested with the religious halo of belonging to the cult community, and it is not surprising that to the Greeks the good life appeared inconceivable outside the polis. Patriotism, under such conditions, had a deeper foundation and a nobler appeal than within modern nations whose religious life Much conand ideals transcend the nation and its government fusion has resulted from the attempts of modern philosophers, from Machiavelli to Georg W. F. Hegel and the fascists, to apply

Citizenship was,

Greek ideas concerning the polis to the modern nation-state. This close tie between religion and politics caused the basic difficulty the Roman empire faced with the rise of Christianity. For the Christians refused to accept the deification of the emperor which had been evolved in response to problems which Roman rule in Asia had posed. Hence, the very best emperors, more espe-

Marcus Aurelius, were inclined to persecute the Christians most severely, because of their attachment to the rehgio-spiritual foundation of their empire. Even after the Christian faith had cially

;

become the Roman

state religion, under Constantine, the situation

619

Roman government was

of the

an equivocal one: a church as a

autonomous corporate entity, unrelated to and not .seen as the creation of the Roman government (state ), was not accepted until much later. Pope Gelasius I (5th century), who is usually though incorrectly credited with stating the doctrine of the "two radically

swords,"

argued this position. In the eastern part never achieved ascendancy. But in the west, the dualism of church and government became accepted doctrine, and first effectively

of the empire

it

within this context that the heritage of

it is

Roman

law was be-

queathed to medieval Europe.

Medieval Government.—The medieval system ment was extraordinary

in its rich diversity

of govern-

combined with a claim

to resplendent unity.

Centred in the unity of Christianity, the universal empire and the universal church both gloried in aspira-

which they never succeeded in realizing. The doctrine of the two swords, the secular sword of worldly empire and the ecclesiastical sword of spiritual guidance toward salvation, rations

tionalized the dominant fact of medieval government a continuing struggle between temporal and ecclesiastical authorities to achieve :

supremacy. By the time the Holy Roman empire came essentially to be "of the German nation" (14th century), the emerging national monarchs, especially of England, Scotland, France and Spain, were much concerned with claiming for themselves the position of imperator and Caesar, and the curious competition for the imperial office between Francis I of France, Henry VIII of England and Charles V of Spain and Germany highlights how long this idea of universal empire persisted in spite of the obvious independence of the great kingdoms. These kingdoms and principalities themselves underwent an interesting evolution in the course of which their governments became constitutionalized. The system of "government by estates" (Stdndestaat), which was common throughout Europe (except in Italy) on the eve of the Reformation, provided a genuine division of power between the monarch, the aristocracy and the commoners. Its pattern is most familiar through the English system of a king in parliament, but it was actually more highly developed elsewhere. Tudor absolutism foreshadowed the breakdown of this type of government by skilfully manipulating the estates into a position of impotence.

But there was a third pattern of government to be found in the These republics were medieval world; namely, city republics. strongest in Italy, but they achieved a powerful position likewise Bruges and Antwerp. Liibeck in Germany and the Low Countries. and Cologne, Strasbourg and Augsburg, Venice. Milan and Florence all these and many more were brilliant centres of an urban

—

secular culture which grew up under the aegis of a republican scheme of government. These city republics underwent a govern-

mental evolution resembling that of the cities of the ancient world until they were absorbed into the rising territorial states or became, But since they like Milan and Florence, themselves such states. were, unlike the cities of Greece, embedded in a broader pattern of government the universal realm of emperor and pope their preoccupation with commerce as contrasted with politics made them

—

—

the precursors of the great trading nations of the present time. Modern Government. Modern government is not a clearly

—

roughly includes three different types: monarchical absolutism, constitutionalism and totalitarianism. Monarchical Absolutism. Of these three forms of government, monarchical absolutism is pretty much a thing of the past, but it predominant form from the i6th to the end of the i8th defined term, but

it

—

was the

Indeed, modern government owes one of its most disfeatures, bureaucracy, primarily to these absolute the term dispassionately to designate the body Using monarchs. government's busiof public officials engaged in administering the centuries.

tinguishing

constitutes are justified in saying that this bureaucracy and in the England in Arising government. modern the core of subsequently in papal administration in the 14th century, and Prussia and the other realms, such as France, Spain, Austria, by reguNetherlands, the bureaucracy rationalized administration and correspondence, larizing its operations, such as recordkeeping training its personnel. by differentiating its functions and by unthinkable. Without these achievements, modern government is ness,

we

GOVERNMENT

620 But tion;

modem i.e.,

government is likewise unthinkable without legislabody of explicit, man-made rules by which

a growing

the individual can live without fear of interfering with his neighThis point became clear in the i6th centur>', when the bour. growing commerce and industry necessitated numerous alterations While some, like Jean Bodin (Six Livres de la rein existing law. publiqiie, 1576), claimed this function of legislating for the monarch, others, especially in England, claimed it for the people or

term "people" had a rather restricted connotation, limited as it was to the more well-to-do in town and country, but it served as a harbinger of the coming their representatives.

To be

sure, the

democratization.

A

third element in the evolution of

modern government

is

the

courts of law. The majesty attributed to the law was reflected in the social position of judges. Even such absolutists as Frederick the Great of Prussia found it expedient to recognize the importance of leaving a good deal of independence to the judges. While the

bound only by the law is actually an extension of the general principle of administration that demands objectivity, it acquired a distinct significance in Great Britain and the United States, and later in Europe, as a pillar of principle that judges should be

modem

thority to local bodies. to

balance, under a

objectives,

In terms of objectives, federalism seeks partly general and common

constitution,

and partly particular and

when

Thus, the Swiss constitution leaves all educational matters to the cantons so that cantons with a French-speaking majority may differentiate themselves from the German-speaking majority in the country as a whole. Federal pattern* of government frequently owe their existence

governments. It is, theresuch governments pragmatically in terms of the institutions which are characteristic of such federations. The United States, Switzerland and Germany, as well as several dominions, are examples of this. Three characteristic federal institutions may be mentioned here: (i) a legislative assembly composed of representatives of the component units, be they called states, cahtons or provinces, as if they were equals or near-equals; (2) an executive in which, or in the selection of which, the component local units participate; (3) a judicial body or bodies for to a preceding federation or league of fore, possible to analyze

the settlement of disputes between the

government according {See Federal Government.)

the union

Even more important than

government.

Legislation by popular representatives and an independent judi-

conflicting objectives

these objectives are distributed in space.

component

local units

and

to the charter or constitution.

the question of federal government

that of parliamentary government.

Is

is

the executive dependent

were steps on the road toward constitutionalism. Both impower between the monarch, or crown, and others, and hence led away from the concentration of powers charEither or both may find a acteristic of monarchical absolutism. place in an authoritarian pattern, such as those of Prussia and Austria after the Napoleonic Wars (1805-15), but their full development is not possible except after the establishment of genuine

upon the support and confidence of the elected representative assembly or has he an independent position and a separate mandate from the people? England is the home of parliamentary government, and it is principally in England and the dominions that The admirers of the system are this system has worked well. generally inclined to credit it with the superior performance of

constitutionalism.

contravening considerations.

ciar>'

plied a division of

Modern

Constitutionalism.

— Constitutionalism

in

its

broadest

may

be defined as a government which is limited by a a constitution may be constructed in a great variety of ways. It may be built around a monarchy, or it may be a republican scheme: it may provide a unitary or a federal system; it may set up a parliamentary executive or some other kind; it may contain a bill of rights or it may not; but whatever the detailed arrangements, it will always seek to make sure that no one man, or group of men, is in a position to exercise legitimate power without some effective restraint placed upon him to relinquish it, connotation

constitution.

Such

it or seek it periodically at the hands of the electorate. No matter how skilfully balanced, the ultimate sanction for the maintenance of any constitutionaUsm lies in the determination of the people to maintain it. This determination, which has been called constitutional morality and of which Jean Jacques Rousseau as a Swiss proudly spoke as the unwritten law "graven upon the hearts of the citizens." has in the last analysis decided the success or failure of constitutional government. There used to be much concern over whether a constitution was rigid or flexible. Students comparing the situation in the United States and Great Britain, as for instance Bryce. were fond of dwelling upon this theme. More realistic analysis has disclosed this

share

difference to be rather elusive.

Rigid and flexible are ill-defined terms which hide rather than explain the real problems. The third French republic had a constitution which proved too easy as well as too difficult to change.

was not a question of general it was badly drawn. The be classed as rigid, but it acquired and It

rigidity or flexibility, but rather that

U.S. constitution used to lost again a provision for prohibiting the sale of into.xicating liquor, such as has not been adopted in Great Britain.

Much more

A

central

and

significant

constitution which guarantees to a

is

the problem of federalism.

number

of component units of government an independent jurisdiction is characterized thereby as a federal constitution. Extended controversies have raged

how

to define a

federal

government or

state.

over This formahstic

battling over

words has delayed a realistic study of the political nature of these federal schemes. Leaving the insoluble problem of who is the sovereign in a federal setup, we may say that federalism

is

a system of government that divides political power under a constitution. Even the most effectively cen-

territorially

tralized

government

will grant

some measure

of decentralized au-

British politics, but comparative analysis suggests at least two First, it would seem that parliamengovernment depends for its success upon unwritten conventions which in turn depend for their operation upon certain common beliefs and behaviour patterns found only in Britain and Second, parliamentary government does not in its dominions.

tary

actual operation correspond to the alleged theory. responsibility to the parliament

is

The supposed

actually restricted to a few

whereas many minor matters are decided by the accordance with considerations of expediency and tactics which may not be shared by the majority of the people or even of parliament. This may also be true of major issues. In England, the system itself is a congeries of conventions which grew from small beginnings as the party system developed. There was an increasing tendency for the house of commons to be divided into a majority and a minority party, with the result that the majority party controlled the body and presented itself to the crown as the obvious basis of a solid government whose leader might reasonably be asked to head the government. The party leader would then naturally invite his leading associates to share the government with him, and hence Britain has always been inclined toward collective responsibility of the cabinet (see Cabinet). However, the prime minister has become increasingly important, and general elections tend to focus attention upon him much as quadrennial elections do upon presidential candidates in the United States. Such leading students of parliamentary government as Sir Ivor Jennings suggest that the term parliamentary government is not accurate, so far as the 20th-century British system is concerned, and that one should rather speak of cabinet government. The function of parliament seems to them to be rather that of a deliberative assembly in which various views concerning proposed policies of the government are subjected to analysis and criticism, while the actual government is carried on by a cabinet which is or; ganized by the party and its leader on the basis of a mandate directly from the people. In support of this view one can point to the fact that since World War I no cabinet which had an actual majority in the house of commons has been overthrown by vote of parliament. Elections have been held either because the five-year term was nearly over or because the party in power deemed it strategic to do so. In France a rather different system was constructed by men whose intention it had been to establish parliamentary government

dominant

issues,

party in power

in

GOVERNMENT on the British model. Under the third and fourth republics the French parliament became paramount. It is important to know that this omnipotent parliament was not clearly divided into a majority party supporting the government and a minority party opposing it, but consisted of a great many groups, more or less related to a complex multiparty system. The great committees of parliament (unknown in England), and more especially its leading members, secured a considerable share in the governing functions, and in co-operation with the permanent high bureaucracy really ruled the country. This system, while giving excellent results in the sphere of administration, was characterized by stalling, when major decisions had to be taken, and finally collapsed when the fourth republic was confronted with the task of solving the Algerian problem. A different and more authoritative system which purported to be a blend of British and U.S. (presidential) elements

was established in 1958. The French kind of parliamentary system was adopted

many

World War

after

I

with disastrous consequences.

was complicated by other factors, including the aftermath of a lost war and federahsm, but the parallel developments in Italy and elsewhere suggest that this system of government by parliament is not viable. It should be noted that its abandonment by Germany after World War II, and the substitution of a more stable form which is a skilful adaptation of the British model, gave good results, even though combined with federalism.

The Scandinavian countries, Belgium and the Netherlands also made a reasonable success of parliamentary government. Whether this fact is attributable to a basis of beliefs and traditions comparable to those that prevail in England, or to the presence of a monarchy with a settled willingness to accept constitutionalism, it is

difficult to

determine.

The nonparliamentary executive may be In the United States, the president elected directly

by the people and

is

is.

of

for

two prevailing

all

Yet these regimes are usually characterized several of the following practices and institutions.

plutocracies.

First, totalitarian dictatorship originates in a

which an organized minority

seizes

coup d'etat through power by armed force or

constitutional fraud or both. Second, it continues because this minority, organized as a party, takes over complete ultimate control of the government, the leader of the party becoming, in effect, the monocratic head of the government. Third, it constitutes this controlling party as an aggressive elite which seeks to abolish all other pre-existing social and class differentiations and thus

atomizes the electorate, dissolving even the family into often warring individuals. Fourth, it establishes as complete a control over

forms of expression, including science, religion and the arts, as possible, subordinating all persons engaged in these creative pursuits to rigid governmental supervision and control. Fifth, it all

kinds.

practical purposes,

or becomes thereby the leader

governmental propaganda which continusubjects with news and opinions, with the end of securing their allegiance or at least acquiescence. Sixth, it develops a systematic reign of terror for the purpose of crushing all opposition by spying upon, summarily arresting and liquidating all

ally

swamps

all

enemies of the state, using summar>' procedures and arbitrary sentences, including long detention in concentration camps and every species of physical torture. Seventh, it establishes complete control over all economic activities for the purposes of integrating the economy and subordinating all enterprise to the ends of the government. Eighth, it invariably includes a vast military establishment among these purposes of government, on the ground that the defense of the state is of paramount importance. This kind of government is sometimes identified with despotism, These identifications are misleading. tyranny and absolutism. Any careful comparison of the traits just delineated with the structure of government in those older autocracies will immediately Most important among these is the disclose striking contrasts. totalitarian

society

—

mass party,

fired

by

a faith in a total reconstruction of

a kind of secular religion

— which

in

was done for many years in the state of New York where Democratic governors had to work with Republican legislatures. The nonparliamentary executive type of government of the presidential form has been vigorously attacked and critically contrasted w'ith the parliamentary type by students of U.S. government, such as Woodrow Wilson (Congressional Government,

suffering involved in these undertakings

In

all

the opposition as

18S5).

they are

Its failings are generally admitted, but

more

it

is

doubtful that

serious than those of the parliamentary type.

The concihar type of nonparliamentary executive is illustrated by Switzerland. Its stable and ably conducted democratic government is under a federal council composed of the heads of the various departments who choose a chairman as president of the republic for one year. The members of this council separate their administrative function clearly from their legislative tasks. When the legislature repudiates a proposed policy, the council does not It is resign, but either drops it or prepares another proposal. curious, indeed, that the Swiss system has not found more imitaappears well adapted to the task of governing a small country on a republican basis. (See Switzerland: Government.) Totalitarian Dictatorship. In spite of profound differences in tors, for

it

—

general outlook and objective, as a pattern of government the They totalitarian dictatorships have a great deal in common. represent a distinct and ultramodern pattern of government. The totalitarian dictatorships all claim to be set up for the people and all make a show of some sort of popular support, either through unfree sham elections, through plebiscites or through other forms of mass acclaim, customarily reinforced by denunciations of constitutional democratic regimes as capitalist and imperiaHst

they

is

completely lacking

It is the actual autocrat in a past autocratic government. totalitarian dictatorship, speaking through its leader or leaders who

matters of general policy involving legislation or the spending of funds he must successfuUy manage his party Grave in congress, both senate and house, or his hands are tied. difficulties confront him if, as a result of a congressional election, the representative assembly becomes dominated by the opposition party, as happened to Woodrow Wilson in 1918, to Herbert Hoover in 1930, to Harry S. Truman in 1946 and to Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956, However, the lack of party discipline sometimes makes it possible to carry on with the support of votes from of his party.

by

institutes an elaborate

GerTo be

in

sure, there the situation

or to both,

621

are

bound

to

it

by

faith

and

ritual.

These governments have shown

The themselves capable of accomplishing extraordinary feats. industrialization of the U.S,S,R., the near-conquest of all of Europe by Hitlerite Germany, the revolutionary transformation of the ancient Chinese society, politically, socially, culturally and economically these are outstanding examples of totalitarian gov-

—

The stupendous

ernmental achievement.

sacrifices

in

human

seem amply justified in the eyes of the mlers and the ruling party by the achievements. The ominous appeal of totalitarianism in Asia and Africa results from these accomphshments. Since freedom in most of these formerly colonial peoples is at best a vague hope, whereas national independence and the standard of living are pressing, ever present appeared quite possible in the second half of the 20th century that totalitarian government would continue to spread. So all-inclusive a system of governmental control was never realities, it

before in the history of mankind developed by anyone. Even the extreme tyrannies of men such as Shih Huang Ti, Domitian and the condottieri of the Italian Renaissance lacked, because of technological inefficiencies, the asphyxiating effect of modem totalitarianism.

The extraordinary

effectiveness of

modern weapons,

such as tanks, airplanes and nuclear bombs, as well as their initial the outset. cost, render individual revolutionary effort hopeless at Consequently, not one of these totalitarian dictatorships has been

overthrown from within. on their downfall.

Only superior external force has brought

—

Local Government. The ever increasing size and complexity level in the second of government on the national and international local community, half of the 20th century revived interest in the contributed and the growth of great metropolitan centres further local community in the to this concern. The importance of the recognized. functioning of constitutional government is generally deEven the totalitarian systems, in attempts at administrative abiding role or communalization, manifested the centralization

of the local community.

These tendencies were

in

part motivated

GOVERNMENT

622

communities have proved rather resistant Politico-sociological to the pressures of totalitarian government.

by the

fact that local

analysis discovered a fruitful area of field studies in the more intimate life of local communities. The slogan of "grass roots

democracy" testified to the trend. But it is one thing to recognize the importance of the local community and another to organize it effectively for self-government in an age of mass industry. While local functions increased, along with other governmental trends, these functions were continually more in need of effective integration within larger governmental units.

Britain's

proud tradition of

local self-government, for ex-

ample, had to yield to the point where the local activities became Under these circumstances, a general largely centrally directed. tendency developed to make the selection of local personnel the But unless such personnel have focal point of local autonomy. policy issues on which to contend for acceptance, their autonomy will be precarious and party bureaucracy will be able to subject

them to the party will. There is no one pattern of preferable to

all

the rest.

local

government that

is

Britain, France, Switzerland,

clearly

Germany

and other European countries each evolved one or more patterns of their own. in which mayors, clerks, councils and local officials were arranged in various ways. The United States too has a number of patterns. Noteworthy are the so-called city-manager type, the newest form, in which local government is assimilated to the operation of a business enterprise, and New England town-meeting government, the oldest form, where the whole community decides (See City Government; Local Government; basic policy. United States [of America] Administration and Social Condi:

tions: Local

Government

in the States.)

Military Government. in its train military

—The

end of World

War

II brought

occupations on an unprecedented scale.

In

Italy, Austria, Germany and Japan the victors had to assume governmental authority for a transition period. Such military government, defined as government by the military over occupied enemy populations, when conducted by constitutional democracies, is sometimes comparable with emergency government. Military government is in its nature authoritarian, but according to international law it is neither lawless nor despotic. In working for the establishment of popular government in the occupied country, mihtary government endeavours to re-estabhsh first of all government according to law (the "rule of law") as the necessary basis for free institutions. In the process of eliminating the totalitarian elements, it is often very severe and obliged to create new law retroactively. The lawless nature of the preceding totalitarian system makes this unavoidable. (See Military Government.) World Government.—The San Francisco charter, drafted and adopted in 1945, became the constitution of a confederation of nations, the United Nations. While originally hopes were high that this constitution might mean the start of a world government, the sharp conflicts which arose between the United States, Great Britain and their friends on one side, and the Soviet Union and its satellites on the other, made it abundantly clear that the United Nations was not going to operate as a functioning government, but

rather as a permanent gathering of the representatives of most of the governments of the world. Several important governments were, in the early 1960s, outside the UN. Because of the division

Germany between Communist and non-Communist regimes, agreement on UN membership for neither could be secured. Equally symbolic was the situation of China. While the vast majority of Chinese, living under Communist rule, remained unrepresented, the nationalist government of Formosa occupied a permanent seat on the UN Security council. The organization of the United Nations consists of two general of

criticism, not only of the

power principally exercising them,

the

U.S.S.R., but also of the Security council as such. Its importance accordingly declined, but this decline also reflected the fact that the UN was in process of becoming a world forum rather than a world government. In spite of its weakness as an instrument of government, the UN must not be underestimated as a political instrument. A number of serious conflict situations were attenuated by means of its good offices, and the secretary-general at times took important Furthermore, certain of its affiliated bodies, such as initiatives. the European Economic commission (EEC) and the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO), accomplished important tasks. Thus, while the UN was not an effective world government, it was developing a number of governmental functions. Both the United States and the U.S.S.R. looked upon it as an important factor in the world community and in cooperation with their allies and satelhtes sought to mold it to their purposes. Yet in the long run what is perhaps more significant, since these two superpowers would have readily at their disposal

UN

organiother means of international action, is the fact that the zation activates and gives a measure of real power to small nations which when well represented often wield an influence out of pro-

portion to their position in the world of pure power poUtics. This influence, on the whole, proved a power for good, though there were also cases of abuse, especially on the part of some of the

newly independent nations. The various problems inherent the

in so loose

an organization

as

UN led to insistent demands for amending the charter. A great

deal of devoted labour went into these reform efforts, but nothing came of them because the very conditions which led to the

complaint, such as the veto of the great powers, or the position of Formosa, also prevented any change. Given a radical change in international relations, and a sharp decline of world tensions, such plans might, however, take concrete shape. The UN, it was felt by its supporters, deserved to be maintained, if only to be in

when such a day should arrive. Genuine world government did not seem feasible, though some world governmental functions were in operation. The danger existed that the prestige of existence

UN

might decline to the point where it could no longer be maintained, but in view of the solid work that was being accomplished in special fields, and because of the value of a meeting ground of all nations for the discussion of the world's problems, the continued operation of the United Nations was generally bethe

lieved assured.

See also references under "Government"

in the

Index volume.

—

Bibliography. Systematic consideration of comparative government has been a virtual monopoly of British and U.S. scholarship. See, however, Gunnar Heckscher, The Study of Comparative Government and Politics (1957), Of the many works in this field, the most complete are Herman Finer, Theory and Practice of Modern Government, rev. ed. (1949, 1951, etc.), and Carl J. Friedrich, Constitutional

Government and Democracy, rev. ed. (19-50). French and German studies of the same general problem usually adopt a more legalistic and juridical viewpoint. Among these works three are of outstanding merit: Leon Duguit, Trait e de droit constitutionnel, 2nd ed. (1921); Jean P. H. E. Esmein, Elements de droit constitulionnel frani^ais et compare, 8th ed., rev. by H. Nezard (1927and Georg Jellinek, Allgemeine Staatslehre, new ed. by W. Jel28) linek (1922), To these may be added the later Manuel de droit constitutionnel et de science politique by Maurice Duverger (many editions) and Georges Burdeau, Traite de science politique (1949-57). Of the more theoretical analyses of modern government, Charles E. Merriam's Systematic Politics (1945) supersedes earlier works. See also Kar] Loewenstein, Political Power and the Governmental Process ;

bodies for policy decisions, the general assembly in which each member state is represented by one vote, and which in the early 1960s had over 100 members, and the Security council, composed

(1957) David Easton, The Political System (195,0 Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosophy (1955). An abstract, systematic treatment is found in Harold Lasswell and .Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society (1950). A. D. Lindsay's The Modern Democratic State (1947} is incomplete but valuable. For the totalitarian dictatorships see Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution (1942), which constituted a useful beginning; also C. J. Friedrich and Z. Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (1957) and Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despot-

of 5 permanent

ism (1957)-

members, the

U.S., the U.S.S.R., Great Britain,

France and nationalist China, and of 6 nonpermanent members, by the assembly. The permanent members of the council have a veto on certain decisions, which protects their sovereignty (q.v.). These vetoes aroused a great deal of indignation and elected

:

;

;

There are also certain broad sociological studies of society with a major focus on government interpreted as persistently oligarchic, especially Arthur F. Bentley, The Process of Government (1908); Max Weber, The Tlieory of Social and Economic Organization, Eng. trans, bv .\. M. Henderson and T. Parsons from WirtschafI und Gesellschaft

GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE (1947); G. Mosca, The Ruling Class, Eng. trans, by Hannah D. Kahn from Element! di scienza politico (1939) and \'. Part-to, Mind and Society, Eng. trans, by .\ndrew Bongiorno and Arthur Livingston from Tratlato di sociologia generale, 4 vol. (1935). The studies by Bertrand de Jouvenel, La Pouvoir (1947) and De la Souverainet'e (1955), deserve mention. The worlis cited above contain ample bibliographical guides to the literature covering the more specialized areas of the broad subject considered in this article, (C. J. Fh.) ;

GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

comprises those governmental purposes, such as town halls, capitols, courthouses, parliament buildings, post offices, customhouses and similar structures. buildings

whose function

is

to serve

GENERAL HISTORY The history of governmental building goes back to the dawn of human society and may be found as an adjunct of the temple, the royal residence or the communal dwelling, according as the governmental organization was theocratic, autocratic or communal. A theocratic autocracy existed where king was also priest; where primitive communism was surrounded by religious taboos, the theocratic and communal state overlapped. Thus, among some peoples, structures were at once temples and meeting houses and also served as council chambers. Primitive developments of the communal idea were found among the American Indians; the council house of the Onandagas was such a structure, 80 ft. long and 17 ft. wide. Among the townbuilding Indians of the southwest, where the tie between religion and government was strong, round rooms called kivas or estufas, sometimes built underground, were used for secret rites and for council deliberations.

In such autocratic civilizations as that of Eg>-pt, governmental functions were centred in the royal palace, which had halls of audience and courts where the king and his counselors met and

where executive orders and judicial decisions were rendered. The great columned halls of the Persian palaces at Susa and Persepolis (6th and 5th centuries B.C.) and the palace of Solomon at Jerusalem, especially the "House of the Forest of Lebanon" (I Kings vii, 2) were built for official rather than residential use. Greece. In prehistoric Greece, a combination of the autocratic and democratic appeared, as in the courtyards, reception halls and throne room of the palace of Cnossus in Crete (c. 1800-1200 B.C.). On the mainland, the autocratic element prevailed, as portrayed by the residential palace of Tiryns (c. 1200 B.C.). The growing complexity of governmental systems in the independent cities of Greece necessitated special governmental buildings. At first only subdivisions of an open place or agora, these

—

became well-articulated structures adjacent to the agora. The most important of these was the bouleuterion, or council hall, in which were located the legislative and executive functions. Nearby stood the prytaneum, or town hall, where the city hearth fire burned continuously, banquets were held and the commanding general had his residence. The courts, usually held in colonnades, later

were occasionally convened in open areas reserved for them, such as the Areopagus (Ares' hill) in Athens. At Priene and Miletus in Asia Minor extensive remains of the bouleuterion exist which show a building nearly square with seats arising in stages on three sides. At Miletus the seats are curved like those in a Greek theatre. At Megalopolis a much larger hall (late 4th century b,c.), known as the Thersilion, was built for the meeting or stoas,

This building, 220 ft. long by 172 ft. had a roof supported on columns placed behind each other the in radiating lines, thus affording the widest possible view of At Olympia the centre of the hall where the speaker stood. bouleuterion was an even more complex structure, consisting of a square central hall with an apse-ended building on each side, diof a large governing council.

wide,

I

'

:

i

vided by columns ranged

down

the centre.

There were two forms of prytaneum: (1) a circular primitive form, recalling the tholos, or early Greek beehive hut, and (2) a more developed sort in which the megaron, or hall, of the Mycenaean palace is recognizable. At Priene the resemblance to the the typical Greek house was particularly strong; at Olympia

I

hearth

fire

was kept

at in a hall at the front with a large court

623

the rear, smaller courts on each side and halls for banquets. Rome. The highly developed civic systems of the Roman

—

em-

were reflected in its mature types of governmental architecture. The group of governmental buildings surrounding the Roman Forum was, in fact, the earliest prototype of the modem national capitol. The buildings themselves, however, were merely developments of such structures found in smaller Roman cities, like Pompeii. There, one end of the forum was filled by three

pire

buildings sharing a

common

fagade, the central being the curia

(town council chamber) and those at the sides, the offices of the duumvirs and the aediles. The central building thus served the legislative function, and those at the sides, an executive function. All three were rectangular with apses at the end. On one side of this group was an enclosed court, thought to have been the comitium, or voting place, of the citizens. On the opposite side stood the basilica ^q.v.). Thus, all the functions were housed in buildings designed for governmental purposes. In Rome itself the details were different, and additional elements appeared, yet the basic idea was the same. The curia or senate house, whose walls still stand as the church of S, Adriano rebuilt by Julius Caesar and .\ugustus after a fire and rebuilt again by Diocletian after the great fire of a,d. 283), was a rectangle 75 ft. wide and 85 ft. long, probably with columns dividing it into three The senate house was aisles, and an apsidal tribune at the end. situated at one end of this large building; at the other end was a (

smaller apsidal hall, originally the secratarium setiatus, now the church of S. Martina. Between these were two other halls used as Stairs led to the second floor. The whole formed a richly decorated and magnificent building. Not far away on the slope of the Capitoline hill stood the national archive building known as the tabularium, built by Sulla, the massive masonry and monumental arcades of which still overlook the Forum. Across the Forum from the curia stood the Roman treasury, incorporated into the temple of Saturn. The judicial functions were carried on in various basilicae, especially the Basilica Aemilia and Basilica lulia. At the opposite end of the Forum stood the regia, the Roman equivalent of the Greek prytaneum and the ritual centre of Roman hfe and government. The official residence of the Pontijex Maximus, it was closely related to the Atrium Vestae and the temple of

archives and executive offices.

Vesta with the ever burning city fire. Middle Ages. The social pattern of the feudal system was not conducive to the development of governmental architecture. With the rise of the powerful municipalities of the 12th century, the reaction against feudahsm throughout Europe found expression At first the town hall was merely a in the building of town halls.

—

meeting place for the

citizens, frequently only a belfry erected

adjacent to a puWic square. styles in Italy

By

the middle of the 12th century

and France became more

defined.

the In Italy the paJazzo pubblico resembled the town houses of wealthy, being built around a court and having high crenellated Often it served as the official building, with meeting halls walls. bodies, and also as the residence of the commanding governing for Vecchio general. In Florence two separate buildings, the Palazzo

town (1298) and the Bargello (1256), were used, the first as the the and magistrate chief of the residence the as hall, the second belfries attached. prison. These, like most Italian town halls, have at Other contemporary municipal halls were the Palazzo Pubblico (1172Siena (1293-1309) and the Palazzo della Ragione at Padua ft. long and 89 ft. 1219), whose upper hall, added in 1420, is 267 wide entirely free of interior supports. in

many

The

brotctti or

town

halls

the of the smaller cities are not less characteristic than

governmental palaces which have been cited. market hall The French town halls usually combined an arcaded above and a belfry on the ground floor with the governmental halls The 12th-century town halls at St. Antonin, in almost nearby are typical of the period. perfect preservation, and at La Rcole of the

the richness As the power of the municipalities increased, those at St. Omer by demonstrated as likewise, did town halls Meanwhfle the century). (16th Quentin (14th century) and St. entire building devoted to market hall was forced out and the

governmental purposes.

GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

624

Between 1400 and 1600 the town hall received its greatest development in the powerful commercial cities of the north. In these The merthat of the guildhall. a new influence was operative chant guilds had become closely related to municipal government; in some cases the governing body of a city was called a guild.

—

Thus the

hall of the corporation of the

City of London

is

known

Countries, the town hall and the guildhall were combined, as at Ypres, Belg.. where the town hall was known also as the cloth hall. This splendid buildas the Guildhall.

In some towns of the

Low

ft. wide and 462 ft. long, had a market on the ground floor and meeting halls, law courts, banquet rooms and municipal oflices on the upper floor. The structure, rated one of the most monumental examples of secular Gothic in Europe, was destroyed during World War I. Other commendable Flemish examples are those at Arras (completed in 1494, the belfry 1554), Louvain (1448-63'), Brussels (1402-54) and Ghent (completed 1533), In Germany the most beautiful town 13th century), Tangermiinde (1373-78) halls are those at Liibeck with remarkable brick Gothic detail, Brunswick (14th century) and Goslar 15th century). Renaissance. A broadly similar 1)^)6 of town hall design con-

ing (1200-1304), a rectangle SO cloth

(

—

i

tinued in use throughout the Renaissance period except in Italy. The prevailing taste in Italy led to the erection of smaller but more elegant single buildings such as the beautiful Palazzo del Consiglio at

Verona

(

c.

1500,

by Fra Giocondo), whose

aissance polychrome fagade has been

exquisite early

much admired, and

Ren-

the equally

The Palazzo del Senatore (1592-98), by Michelangelo, on the Capitoline hill in Rome is significant for its successful attempt to give the structure a form both dominant and monumental yet differing from the early Renaissance forms of north Italy, Outside Italy, where the medieval tradition persisted, the Renaissance town halls simply applied classical details to such building types as had been developed before; e.g., the town hall of Bremen 15th century, reconstructed 1609) and the old city hall of Paris (destroyed in the civil war of 1871). In rebuilding the latter the old plan was merely enlarged and the old style preserved. The modern tradition of municipal building was modeled on the medieval town hall. Another important type of governmental building that took form during the middle ages was the courthouse or palais de justice. Most medieval examples are of the Late Gothic period because only then had judicial processes become sufficiently divorced from royal, monastic or feudal domination to necessitate separate build-

rich Municipio of Brescia (c. 1500),

(

ings.

The

earliest existing are the

Maison de Pierre

at Chartres

A

national capitol building, built solely for the housing of a nagovernment, was first projected in the U.S. A competition

tional

for the design of the Capitol at Washington, D.C., was held in 1792 and was won by William Thornton. His carefully articulated plan provided large halls for the senate and house of representatives, separated by a central rotunda. Begun in 1793 and burned during the War of 1812, it was not completed in its original form until

The earlier Capitol may be described as the work of Thornton, fitienne Sulpice Hallet, Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch, successively its architects. The old house of representatives became Statuary hall and the old senate was long used by the supreme court. By the 1850s the structure was considered inadequate and a wing was added at each end to accommodate the house and the senate. The original low dome was replaced by the commanding cast-iron dome which now crowns the rotunda and is generally regarded as one of the world's finest. These changes were completed in 1865 by Thomas U. Walter. The domical legislative hall became almost a convention in the building of state capitols. Even such a proper Greek temple as Gideon Shryock's old capitol in Frankfort, Ky. (1828-29), is the 1830s.

a dome and a lantern to light the circular rotunda. dome of the earlier Massachusetts statehouse, by Bul-

crowned by

The

gilded

798-1808), was a notable example. Connecticut's old now the city hall at Hartford, also by Bulfinch (179296), received its cupola in 1822. The rotunda at Ohio's statehouse at Columbus (1838-59) is lantern-crowned, but the cupola is not domical. The work of several architects, it is one of the finest

finch

(1

statehouse,

U.S. state capitols.

George B. Post, architect of the Wisconsin capitol at Madison (1904-14), was compelled by the nature of the site to adopt a cruciform plan with four equal wings radiating from the dome-

crowned rotunda. Although some consider the plan somewhat compromised, the massing contributes to an enhancement of the dome. In his masterful Nebraska state capitol at Lincoln (completed 1932), Bertram G. Goodhue designed a vast rectangle, divided into four light courts and surmounted by a 400-ft. central tow-er which forms a monumental beacon, dominating the Nebraska landscape for miles. Of somew'hat similar massing is the Louisiana state capitol at Baton Rouge (1930-32), by Weiss, Dreyfous and Seiferth.

provided;

In several western states room for a capitol group is the state capitol group at Olympia, Wash., where

e.g.,

the buildings of architects Wilder and

White may expand

in re-

sponse to the state's needs. Europe. The addition to the old Palais Bourbon (the building used by the chambre des deputes in France), by Bernard Poyet

—

and the Salle le Roi at Montdidier (both 14th century). By far the most famous is the lavish Palais de Justice at Rouen, begun before 1474 and completed before 1509, This magnificent building, built around three sides of a courtyard, contains, in addition to smaller courtrooms, two splendid halls and a beautiful chapel.

lative architecture for the next century.

It is in this use of large halls that originated the tradition for providing in every courthouse a great lobby where lawyers may confer with their clients.

mental developments of a classical amphitheatre plan. This plan, which had been used so successfully in the U.S. Capitol, had simplicity and directness and w-as widely copied in halls for bicameral

No such development of national governmental buildings can be found during this period. What national unity existed was centred in the residence of the sovereign,

and when national councils or legislative bodies finally arose they were housed either in a royal palace or in religious buildings. To this day the French senate sits in the Luxembourg palace.. In England the king's council met wherever the monarch happened to be. and the Enghsh parliament convened at the nearest convenient spot to the royal palace at Westminster, which was the chapter house of Westminster abbey. until 1547

the palace

commons

when parliament moved

to St. Stephen's chapel within This remained the meeting place of the house of until 1834 when the palace was burned. itself.

GOVERNMENT BUILDING TYPES Expressions of the legislative, judicial and other functions of government in architectural terms has resulted in buildings of a monumental nature, frequently symmetrical, to impress and uphold the dignity of government. Capitols and Legislative Buildings.— TAe United States.—

(1807), of a 12-columned, pedimented front and the influence of the U,S. Capitol established the classical direction in modern legis-

The chambre des deputes, reconstructed (1822-23) by Jean de Joly, and the senate in the Luxembourg palace (1836-41) by Henri de Gisors, were orna-

legislative bodies.

The Enghsh Houses of Parliament on the Thames in London, designed by Sir Charles Barry (1840-60), form a unique group, both in style and plan. There, the house of lords and house of commons are only parts of a vast asymmetrical composition which includes members' dining rooms and Ubraries, the speaker's residence and by a la\ish tradition. The picturesque and ornament were the work of A. W. N. Pugin, a specialist in medieval design, who succeeded in harmonizing two soaring towers and the main horizontal mass of the structure with Uttle reference to interior function. Governmental architecture at Ottawa and elsewhere in Canada was influenced by this precedent. A somewhat baroque edifice was the Reichstag in Berlin, by Paul Wallot and Friedrich von Thiersch (1882-94: burned during World War II). The plan featured a great assembly hall approached through an arched entrance and a grand foyer. Distributed around two lateral light courts were lounges, refreshment rooms, libraries, writing rooms, committee rooms and consultation chambers, A all

the apartments required

details

single domical roof reflected the unicameral legislative body.

GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE In the Budapest, Hung., parliament house by Imre von Steindl (1883-1902 a central dome and flanking pavilions were veneered with Gothic finery. The Austrian parliament house in Vienna, by Theophil von Hansen (1874-83), is as classic as Hungary's capitol is romantic and compares favourably with legislative buildings around the world. )

International Organizations.— Buildings connected with the developing 20th-century idea of international control in certain spheres commenced with the Palais des Nations, Geneva, Switz., as a headquarters for the League of Nations. Designed as a combined project by four of the winners of an international competition,

and based on an

axial plan,

it

was completed

in 1936, only

shortly before the failure of the League.

After World War II and the formation of the United Nations, the headquarters for the new organization were built (in 1948-52) on a fine site fronting New York's East river, and designed by an international group of architects headed

by Wallace K. Harrison. 39-story, steel-framed rectangular slab of the secretariat building contrasts well with the lower conference and general assembly buildings, with their numerous council and committee rooms in

The

addition to the

main auditorium.

—

;

—

Laloux (1905). Great Britain. In England the Gothic revival of the mid- 19th century affected much municipal building. The town hall at Manchester, by Alfred Waterhouse (1868-77), with its picturesque outfine and original detail, is typical of the best Gothic revival design. Later examples showed a greater simplicity of composition and freedom of style. That at Sheffield, by Mountford (1897), in a free early Renaissance style, is representative of the larger examples; that at Oxford, by H. T. Hare 1897), in modified Jacobean, is characteristic of the smaller. The growing complexity of city government has led to a type of building in which the council

—

(

chamber and mayor's

suite are subsidiary to the great

amount of hall, by

The London County Council

space required.

Ralph Knott (1908-22), which best exemplifies this tendency, is Swedish a vast structure in the late English Renaissance style. influence is clearly seen in a few civic buildings of the 1930s, including Norwich city hall (1938) by C. H. James and Rowland Pierce.

Elsewhere in Europe.

— In

nicipal buildings are those

Germany the most interesting mucouched in modern forms. The some-

what bizarre Stadthalle at Hanover, by F. E. Scholer and Paul Bonatz (1913), contains a large circular hall which functions as a municipal auditorium. As restrained as the Stadthalle is fantastic is the town hall at Joensuu, Fin. (1913), by Eliel Saarinen. The city hall at Stockholm, Swed., by Ragnar Ostberg (completed 1924), is a dignified structure surmounted by a graceful tower and

charming arcade. Inside it is enhanced by brilliant colour decorations: mosaics and other fine examples of Swedish craftsmanship. This design exerted considskirted

;

on the ground

erable influence

floor

by

severely rectangular building of Hilversum, Neth., town hall by

W. M. Dudok (1928-36). A more recent town hall

building at Rodovre, Den. 0954), is typical of several designs in this field by the architect Arne Jacobsen.

In outline

—

it

is

simple to the point of severity.

Canada. The ambitious project for the city hall and town centre in Toronto, and the new city hall at Edmonton, Alta., by Dcwar J. Stevenson and Stanley, are indicative of modern civic-building programs in many parts of Canada. Ottawa city hall (1959) with its island site in the Rideau river and its parklike surroundings is a straightforward and effective building by Rother, J. Bland and C. E. Trudeau. The United States. Town and city halls in the United States reflect their regional environments. In the east, colonial types predominate; in the west, Spanish colonial and other sun-loving vernaculars are found, as in the Highland Park city hall in Dallas, Tex., by Lang and Witchell. The colonial town hall at Tewksbury, Mass.. by Kilham and Hopkins, and the town hall at Peterborough, N.H., by Little and Rus.sell, illustrate smaller examples in the east, while Bigelow and Wadsworth's town hall at Wheaton, Mass.,

—

typifies the larger ones.

Another notable international building is the UNESCO headquarters in Paris, completed in 1959 and designed by Marcel Breuer, Pier Luigi Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss. City and Town Halls. A modern town hall requires a chamber or hall for the town council meetings and offices for the mayor and councilmen and their secretaries, for the town clerk, and for the financial and administrative departments of the town government e.g., the tax board, the chief of police, the building inspector. Town halls frequently contain rooms for receptions and banquets and also provide an auditorium for public gatherings. France. The most monumental example of the continental city hall is the Hotel de Ville in Paris, rebuilt after the Commune by Ballu and Deperthes (1874-82). Following the original Francis I style on the exterior, it was decorated inside with all the elaborate detail then in vogue. Its great salles des fetes and magnificent stairways make it one of the most gorgeous and effective official suites in the world. The precedent has affected French municipal building ever since. Later French city halls, showing a similar type of Renaissance classicism, lavish decoration and elaborate plan, include those at Neuilly-sur-Seine, by Dutocq and Simonet (1S85J; at Versailles, by Le Grand (1897); and at Tours, by

clerical

625

a

on subsequent European buildings,

as did the

more

Perhaps

New York

city shows the evolution of the U.S. city hall any other municipality. By 1802 the demand for an

better than

adequate city

hall resulted in the erection of

long outgrown but

still

in use,

an exquisite structure,

by architects Mangin and

McComb

(1803-12). The French precedent is sensed, particularly in its domed rotunda, the monumental staircase, council chamber, ofiices and reception rooms. When a larger building became necessary the solution was the New York municipal building, by McKim. Mead

and White sical

1908-10), a skyscraper of 25 stories treated in a clasvein to offset the appearance of a commercial structure. The (

Oakland, CaUf,, city hall, by Palmer, Hornbostel and Jones (190813), has a 3-story classical base, from which a tower of 11 stories arises, crowned by a cornice. Above it stands a lantern of baroque

and counties sometimes unite to erect a city-county and Cook county. 111. (190711), Detroit and Waj-ne county. Mich., and Indianapolis and Marion county, Ind., the latter two being erected in the 1950s, Occasionally the city hall is the key structure in a square or park. This is the case of Springfield, Mass,, where two classical, colonnaded buildings flank a municipal clock tower by Pell and Cities

design.

building, as in the case of Chicago

Corbett, architects (1908-13).

The huge city hall Brown 1913), rivals

at

San Francisco,

Calif.,

by Bakewell and

a state house in scale and magnificence. It is domical, with a central pavilion in the form of a classic temple, flanked by Doric colonnades on a high basement. The dome on a high drum is beautifully profiled and carries an ornate lantern. This structure is a part of the civic centre, where an auditorium, (

an opera house, the library and other structures are grouped

to-

gether.

Perhaps the most successful U.S. solution for a metropolitan city Los Angeles, Calif., by Austin. Parkinson and Martin, completed in 1928. For the first time, the two elements— the town hall and the municipal oflftce building were combined in the same structure and given an adequate architectural expression. hall is that at

—

This building

is

also a part of the civic centre.

—

Judicial Buildings. The modern courthouse, in its essential elements, has remained almost as close to its traditional ancestry courtrooms as has the modern court system, A monumental lobby, and rooms for judges, lawyers and witnesses and the archives, all were found in the courthou.se of the 15th century, Europe. The difference between the law courts of London, by George E, Street (completed in 1882), and the palais de justice principally one of detail. The in Rouen, built 400 years earlier, is

—

is typical of the 19th-century continental various construction periods from the from dates courthouse. result of re13th century onward. Its present form is largely a courthouses buildings after the Commune. Two other elaborate

palais de justice in Paris It

giustizia in Rome, illustrate European precedent: the palazzo di composition by Calderini and Basile (1883-87), monumental in small-scaled ornameaningless, much by marred somewhat but Brussels, ment; and the rather more interesting palcis de justice at

GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

626

by Joseph Poelaert (1866-83), which dominates the city from its The Peace palace at The Hague, Neth. (1907-13), by Cordonnier and Van der Steur, also belongs in this category, A fine neoclassical building of an earlier date, but owing little or nothing to Gothic precedent, is the Four Courts, Dublin, Ire., by

hilltop site.

James Gandon (1785). The United States. In the U.S. the courthouse received a definitive form. Such buildings go back to the somewhat medieval Talbot County courthouse in Maryland (1680-81), a brick struc-

—

The lovely Chowan County courthouse at Edenton, N.C. (1767), is fullblown Georgian. By 1724 the embryo of the present-day courtture with end chimney, a steep roof and dormers. brick

house could be found in the courthouse at Chester, Va. As late ft. wide by 24 ft. long with "two small sheads at each end, for jury rooms," was built in Botetourt county, Va. The annals of almost every county in the old Northwest Territory indicate that the early county buildings were of log construction, as were the prisons and jailers' houses. Benches, jury boxes and judges' stands in these rude centres of justice were of puncheon construction. The traditional elements have remained the same, the basic unit consisting of the courtroom proper, with space for the public, witnesses, jury box, judge's bench, counsel, clerks and the press; the judge's chambers; and the jury room. Of southern origin were the square, brick courthouses of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and as far west as Independence, Mo., during the 1830s. Until 1870 courthouses of two types were erected: (1) a square, two-story, brick building with a hip roof, crowned by a cupola, and (2) the typical Greek revival temple, with or without a cupola. The courtroom was generally on the second floor, with ofiices on the ground floor. The early state capitol buildings at Corydon, Ind. 1812), built as the courthouse of Harrison county, and at Chillicothe, 0. ( 1800), were of similar design. Since the time of the Greek revival the classical style has been almost universally used for judicial architecture. Many trends in courthouse design culminated in the New York County courthouse completed 1927), built by Guy Lowell. The original design called for a circular plan but for practical considerations it was changed to a hexagon, with a surmounting rotunda and six light courts providing excellent communication. The result is a structure at once functional, beautiful and interesting. Post Offices Many European governments have relegated public services to existing structures, as in Rome where a former monastery was adapted to the postal service. Naples erected a new post office, by G. Vaccaro and G. Franzi (1932-36). Other imposing postal facilities are the general post office in Paris, by Gaudet, and the general post office in London (1910), by Sir Henry Tanner. Far more interesting, however, is J. Crouwel's post office in Utrecht, Neth. (1918-24). In the middle of the 19th century Robert Mills designed, among other governmental structures in Washington, D.C., an office buildas 1770 a log-cabin courthouse, 20

(

(

—

ing

for the post office department that exhibited simple and straightforward planning. U.S. post offices present a good cross

section of the architectural vicissitudes that have befallen the nation. Some achieve real distinction, others do not. Post offices at Peoria, 111., Gary, Ind., and Miami, Fla., illustrate high standards

Many postal structures throughout the U.S. have been designed by government architects in Washington, but the post office in the national capital (1911-14) was designed by private architects, Graham, Burnham and company. The post offices of New York city were designed by McKim, Mead and White (1913), of design.

and those of Denver, Colo., by Tracy, Swartwout and Litchfield! In Great Britain, buildings to house postal and telephone services are designed principally by staff architects of the niinistry of works.

The neo-Georgian style common in the interwar period gave way in the 1950s to a more functional and less monumental style. Customhouses.— Although there are some fine early examples such as the Dogana, Venice (c. 1631), by Baldassare Longhena, and the small-scale customhouse. King's Lynn, Norfolk (1683), by Henry Bell, the 18th-century customhouse in Dublin, Ire., by James Gandon (1791) marks an important point in the development of this type of building. With dome, riverside arcading

and

portico,

Gandon 's

building

is

a much-praised landmark.

The London customhouse, of which an earlier version was probably the work of Sir Christopher Wren, was designed by David Laing (1817) and partially rebuilt by Robert Smirke, having a handsome Ionic-columned river front to the Thames. At Liverpool another Greek Ionic order supported the portico of John Foster's customhouse (1828) which was destroyed by bombing in 1941. The early customhouse in New York city (later the U.S. subtreasury), by Town and Davis (1834-41), the customhouse in Boston, by Young and Rogers (1837-47), and the customs struc-

Newburyport, Mass. (1835), and at New Bedford, Mass. (1836), both by Robert Mills, constituted milestones in U.S. customhouse design. All were of Greek revival extraction. The present Renaissance-style New York city customhouse (1899-1905) is the work of Cass Gilbert. tures at

—

Administrative Buildings. The need for administrative buildings increased with the scope of function generally performed

Maximum office space being the prime requirement, the new buildings only too frequently have been dull and uninspired in conception. In some European capitals ministries have been housed in altered palaces, as in Paris and Vienna. In London, where they are assembled along Whitehall and Parliament street, the government offices make an impressive ensemble, although few of the individual buildings are distinguished. Sir Charles Barry's treasury (1846) being the most satisfactory fagade. In Washington, D.C., which Pierre Charles L'Enfant laid out along classical hnes, governmental architecture has closely followed classical precedent. Among the earlier classical examples were the by governments.

office, the patent office and the treasury building, all the work Robert Mills. The Library of Congress, by Smithmeyer, Pelz and Casey (1886-97), the senate and house of representatives office buildings, by Carrere and Hastings (1906-09; additions 1933), the department of commerce, by York and Sawyer (1928-32), the national archives building, by John Russell Pope (1927-35), the supreme court building, by Cass Gilbert (1934), and the National Gallery of Art are illustrative of the classical trend. On the other hand, the Smithsonian institution, by James Renwick (1846-52), and the state, war and navy building, by A. D, Mullet (1871-88), interesting in their way, can scarcely be said to belong in this company. The Washington monument, by Robert Mills (1848-84), the Lincoln memorial, by Henry Bacon (1912-22), and the Jefferson memorial, by John Russell Pope, accord well with the capital's

post of

classical pattern.

The erection of the Pentagon {q.v.) was something of a break with classical precedent, but structures erected thereafter, although contemporary in trend, harmonized with existing buildings. This was important, since something of a boom in governmental building, costing

upward

of $300,000,000, took place in mid-20th cengovernmental agencies employ private architects on major construction projects but several departments maintain an architectural staff for the purpose of maintenance, minor repairs and alterations. Ministries or embassies in foreign capitals are accorded architectural treatment on a level with their high prestige value. For some of these, governments lease existing quarters; for others, special buildings are erected. The United States initiated an adventurous and extensive program of embassy buildings in the mid1950s of which the most notable and controversial is Eero Saarinen's embassy building in Grosvenor square, London. Other U.S. tury.

All U.S.

embassy designs of considerable merit include those at Manila, Phil., by A. L. Aydellot and Associates, and at Oslo, Nor., by Saarinen.

In contrast, the heavy, neoclassical British embassy in Rio de Janeiro, completed in 1950 to the designs of R. R. Prentice, seems anachronistic.

—

U.S.S.R. The sittings of the supreme soviet and various other conferences and functions of government take place within the the Kremlin, Moscow, principally in the Bolshoi Kremlyovsky palace (1838-49) other more recent administrative offices have been completed in the massive and ornamental style of Soviet building current in the middle and latter part of the 20th

buildings of

;

century.

In Russia, as

in

most Communist-dominated

countries, the bulk

i

:

—

GOVERNMENT CORPORATIONS work is in the hands of official architects and subject government control. Capital City Planning.— Development of a federal government, economic and social changes, or rapid expansion of an emerof building to direct

gent nation

may

create a need, both for purposes of efficiency and an entirely new capital city. An early e.xample was Washington, D.C., with spacious axial planning centred on the capitol. In 1911 a competition for the design of the Australian city of Canberra was won by W. B. Griffin of Chicago, and the first of the buildings was opened in 1927. The building of New Delhi, prestige, for

from

India,

its

inception in 1912 to the completion in 1930, marks

a high level of architectural achievement.

Sir Edwin Lutyens iniand was responsible for the viceroy's house, probably his finest work. He was later joined by Sir Herbert Baker whose council chamber and secretariats flank the two-mile main

tiated the design

axis.

When India became independent in 1947 and the state of Punjab was divided, the former capital went to Muslim Pakistan, leaving Hindu Punjab without a capital. It was decided to build a new capital city (Chandigarh), designed by world-renowned architects and planners. The design of the city was entrusted to the French Le Corbusier in association with the English architects Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. A group of Indian architects and planners also worked on the project. The town was designed in self-contained sectors, each with its green belt and commercial facilities, and work at Chandigarh started in 1951. It is characterized by Le Corbusier's individual and unorthodox ideas. As well as the legislative assembly building and secretariat there is much residential development but perhaps the most outstanding structure is the supreme court, with concrete frame, brick partitions and a structural umbrella raised above the main frame and roof to architect

counteract extreme weather conditions. In 1957 President Kubitschek of Brazil broke ground for a

new

capital city, to be called Brasilia, in remote, undeveloped, upland

country in the state of Goias; it replaced Rio de Janeiro as federal Oscar Niemeyer designed the lakeside presidential palace and Brasilia palace hotel which, with one or two other buildings, formed a "skeleton capital"; Lucio Costa won the competition for the general city plan, conceived in the form of a bent capital in 1960.

arrow, the arrow forming the S-mi.-long Avenida Monumental, terminating in an impressive complex of executive, legis-

bow and

and judicial buildings and cathedral. See also articles on styles Baroque and Post-Baroque Architecture; Modern Architecture; etc. and such articles as Roman Architecture. See also references under "Governmental Architecture" in the Index volume. (T. F. H.; R. N.; E. C. D.) lative

—

GOVERNMENT CORPORATIONS are corporate bodies that are wholly or partly lized

primarily

the government and are utiFirst functions or services. War I to provide the operating

owned by

for business-type

widely employed during World financial flexibility required by certain emergency programs involving construction and operation of merchant vessels, trading in commodities and comparable government activities, the govern-

and

became a common form countries and

of organization for at all levels of gov-

The incorporated agency became

the instrument for

ment corporation

later

public enterprises in nearly

ernment.

all

carrying out major parts of the United States economic recovery program in the 1930s; for developing great river valleys of Afghanistan, India and the United States; for administering national-

Great Britain and other countries for financing, constructing and operating superhighways in Pennsylvania, New York and other states; and for promoting the economic development of "underdeveloped" nations, particularly in Asia and Latin ized industries in

;

America.

The

activities in

which government corporations have been most

— transportation,

communications, manufacturing, mining, resource development, atomic energy, marketing, port development and management, utility services, various types of banking, credit and insurance functions— reflect the radical change Older in the economic role of the state during the 20th century.

widely employed

and more

traditional public enterprises such as postal services;

627

tobacco, match and salt monopolies; and, to some extent, telephone and telegraph services are rarely incorporated, and continued to

be administered

in the 20th century as government bureaus. This form of organization continued to exist when the main purpose of the enterprise was to supplement public revenues, as with the football pools in Norway and other government lotteries, or to control consumption, as with liquor monopolies in a number of U.S. states and Canadian provinces. As defined by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt when he reconomended establishment of the Tennessee Valley authority in 1933, the government corporation's purpose is to provide an agency "clothed with the power of government but posses.sed of the flexibility and initiative of private enterprise." Although the organization and powers of government corporations differ significantly, not only from country to country but also within a single country, most have the following attributes which distinguish them from public enterprises organized as normal government agencies: (i) legal personality separate and distinct from the government which enables the corporation to sue and be sued, enter into contracts and acquire property in its own name; (2) independent financing from revenues and treasur>' or public borrowing rather than from annual appropriations by the legislature; (3) freedom from many of the restrictive statutes applicable to government supply activities and general budget, accounting and audit laws and regulations; and, in most countries, (4) authority to hire and determine the compensation of employees without regard to civil

service laws.

The

special

powers granted to corporations are designed to en-

when it is acting more as a business agent than a sovereign, to render service and discharge its obligations to purchasers of its goods and services as nearly as possible in the same manner as a private business.

able the government,

also been made of the corporate form of organization avoid constitutional or statutory limitations on public borrowing. As separate legal entities, government corporations may be authorized to issue revenue bonds or other evidences of debt without creating general state obligations. The desire to find means of financing public improvements that would not conflict with constitutional debt hmitations accounts in large measure for the great increase in the number of incorporated public authorities such as the Alabama Building corporation and the New York Thruway authority at the state and municipal level in the United

Use has

to

States.

Corporations several ways.

may

be acquired or created by the government

The government has converted

a

number

in

of corpora-

tions, originally established for private purposes, to public enter-

prises

by obtaining control of some or

all

of the corporation's

The United States, for example, became the owner of the Panama Railroad company (merged with Panama Canal company, 1951) when it purchased the assets of the French Canal company in 1904. The Railroad company had been chartered as a private corporation by New York state in 1849. The Renault and Gnome-Rhone motor companies were taken over by the French government and became government corporations because heir private owners had collaborated with Germany during World capital stock.

I

War II. Many government

corporations have been organized as jointstock comiianics under authority of general incorjioration laws apExcept for the War plicable to privately owned corporations. War I corporations were World instance. for corporation, Finance chartered by the United States under general incorporation laws In 1945. however, either of states or the District of Columbia. statecongress prohil)itc(l this practice and required that existing

chartered corporations .such as the

Commodity

Credit corporation

mortgage company either be liquidated or reincorand the also came to porated by federal law. Great Britain and Canada

RFC

to a public enterregard the joint-stock company as not well suited Joint-stock elsewhere. accepted fully not was view prise, but this Belgium, Turcompanies were set up extensively in France, Italy, whose stock other countries favouring mixed enterprises

key and is

partially

owned by

mixed enterprises

The only examples of private interests. United States are the federal mtermediate

in the

'

:

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

628

banks for co-operatives, and the Federal National The first and second banks of the United States were also created on this pattern. The trend continued toward organization of government-owned

credit banks,

Mortgage

association.

enterprises as public corporations with

no capital stock.

A

public

created by a special law defining its powers, duties and immunities and prescribing the form of management and its Great relationship to established departments and ministries. Britain pioneered in developing this type of agency with the Port

corporation

is

London authority (1908) and made this device the vehicle for carrying out the nationalization of the Bank of England and a number of basic industries. Examples of public corporations were the of

British Broadcasting corporation. British Overseas Airways corpo-

Tennessee Valley authority (U.S.), St. Lawrence Seaway Development corporation (U.S.), St. Lawrence Seaway authority (Canada), Water Resources authority (Puerto Rico), Sumerbank ration,

(Turkey). National Insurance institute (Israel), Air-India Interand Overseas Telecommunications commission (Australia). State trusts in the Soviet Union also acquired many of the

national

characteristics of public corporations.

Enterprises jointly owned by central and state governments or by two states represent a special type of government corporation. The Damodar Valley corporation (1948), as an example, was set up by the government of India and the states of Bihar and West Bengal. New York and New Jersey created the Port of New York authority in 193 1 by interstate compact to operate bridges, tunnels, airpo'rts, port and terminal facilities serving New York city and nearby communities. With the rapid growth in the number and economic significance of government corporations, the issue of public accountability assumed critical importance. In the effort to insulate corporations against bureaucratic red tape and partisan interference in management, existing controls to assure public accountability and responsiveness to direction by politically responsible officials were abandoned without providing adequate substitutes. Except in the United States, corporations generally were made independent of established government agencies and departments. Corporate policies, budgets and accounts were subject to limited or no review by the executive or legislature. Management of government corporations was frequently vested in boards dominated by directors appointed to represent trade and professional associations and other private groups. In France public enterprises are administered by boards whose members are nominated by the three interests represented thereon government departments and employee and consumer organizations. Mixed enterprises partly owned by private interests have presented unique and peculiarly difficult problems of public control. These factors led some to fear that corporations might, along with the independent regulatory commissions, become an irresponsible fourth branch of govern-

an annual review by the General Economic commission and an annual audit inspection by the prime minister's High Control board.

See also Public Enterprise.

—

Bibliography. United Nations, Some Problems in the Organization and Administration of Public Enterprises in the Industrial Field, detailed bibliography (1954) W. A. Robson (ed.), Public Enterprise; Developments in Social Ownership and Control in Great Britain (19,57), ;

Problems of Nationalized Industry (1952) Ernest Davies, National Enterprise; the Development of the Public Corporation (1946) Sidney Goldberg and Harold Seidman, The Government Corporation: Elements of a Model Charier (19,^3) Wolfgang Friedmann (ed.), The Public Corporation: A Comparative Symposium (1954) A. Hanson (ed.),

;

;

;

;

(ed.), Public Enterprise (iq^;0.

of the various governmental functions

is

The administration

entrusted to specialized

commerce and the department of agriculture in the United States. Taken together, the departments are sometimes referred to as the departmental system. In contrast to the legislative and the judicial branches, the executive branch is the government's arm of action, the instrument for the performance of its continuing functions. Responsible operation of the departmental system requires not only executive control in each department but also direction and co-ordination by a chief executive. agencies, often called departments, such as the department of

This article I.

II.

organized according to the following outline

United States 2.

Types of Agencies Number, Rank and

3.

Common

1.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

III.

is

Introduction

Size Characteristics

Executive Reorganization Foreign Affairs Finance: Revenue and Debt Defense Justice Postal Administration

10.

Resources and Guardianship

11.

Agriculture

12.

Commerce

13.

Labour

'

j

14. Health, Education and Welfare Great Britain 1. General Background, Nomenclature and Status 2. The Treasury and Associated Departments 3. Justice and Public Order 4. External Affairs 5. Defense 6. Trade, Industry, Agriculture, Communications 8.

Social Services Common Services

9.

Scientific

7.

:

ment. Great Britain, the United States, Canada and Turkey have employed various means to assure public accountability without impairing essential operating and financial flexibility. The practice in Great Britain and Canada has been to make public corporations

(Hd. Sn.)

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

10.

•

Research

Scotland and Wales

I.

INTRODUCTION

subject to direction by the minister concerned with the program area of the corporation. While the minister is e.xpected not to interfere in day-to-day operations and cannot be questioned in parliament about such matters, he is often empowered to issue

Departmental organization is found on the several levels of government, local as well as national. The departmental form of organization is also extensively used in private business, especially in large enterprises, where activities are usually divided among such departments as manufacturing, sales and advertising. The governmental agencies whifh make up the departmental system in various countries frequently bear designations other than department. Illustrations of other designations are ministry, administration, service, authority, board, commission and even foun-

directions of a general character

is

dation.

approve issuance of bonds, large capital outlays, pensions and comparable corporate actions. A British Select Committee on Nationalized Industries proposed that control be further strengthened by the appointment of a house of commons committee to examine the reports and accounts of public coq^orations.

on the

affected.

Ministers

may

when

the national interest

also possess authority to veto or

The United

States recognized the need for developing special controls over government corporations in enacting the Government

Corporation Control act of 1945 which provided for a businesstype budget and audit "with due allowance given to the need for flexibility." The Canadian counteniart of the Government Corporation Control act was the Financial Administration act of 1951.

The Law

for State

Economic Enterprises

in

Turkey provided

for

In

many

is based even though

instances the choice of the designation

logic of a legislative or administrative intent,

may remain obscure to the citizenry. In other cases In the designation has been the fruit of passing circumstance. the intent

most countries nomenclature has proved hard to stabilize. Government departments may be viewed from quite different

To the administrative official they represent rationally designed machinery for the accomplishment of desirable public purposes. To the politician they are power structures to be captured and held in the contest for control. To the citizen they may be forbidding bastions of authority, indifferent to his own needs, but perhaps inexcusably subservient to various organized interest groups. To the rank and file of government employees who spend their working days in its offices, the department may be both an angles.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS unrelenting taskmaster and an animating social centre. In the sense of human beings who identify themselves with a department as its management or its personnel, one may speak of a departmental point of view or a departmental tradition. Usually the greatest influence on the formation of these characteristics has been exerted by the higher civil servants. But where the political leadership in the departments does not change frequently,

man

can impress himself strongly upon the institutional mind of his department. In the same way, however, in which departments tend to fight for their interests and their posithe

at the top

on particular issues, so continuing struggles go on within each department among different specialized staff groups and between these and the agents of general control. Effective direction of a department requires considerable resources of personal strength as well as of technical knowledge and experience. While differences of internal organization and of cultural development between countries have produced inevitable differences superficial or profound in their governmental machinery, it will be found under modern conditions that common political, social and economic needs tend to give the same functions to government departments in one country as another, however diverse their theory of the proper arrangement and scope of governmental organs. Organization Types. It is less important to know that the number of departments and the allocation of jurisdictions among them differ (subject to frequent changes in the individual counthan it is to realize that the various countries tries themselves follow different patterns of departmental organization. Thus. United States practice treats each department as one great administrative body, including headquarters and field agencies, all of these performing their duties under the name of the department. European tradition favours using different designations for headquarters (ministry, etc.) and field offices, and keeping the ministries small by several devices. One method is that of delegating ample discretionary powers to regional offices, called in Great another is to transfer large-scale operations Britain divisional that must remain centralized to special agencies of a secondary, or subordinate, character. For instance, the collection of customs and internal revenues, as well as governmental minting, engraving and printing, are functions performed in the United States within the treasury department, while in Great Britain these functions are separate institutions, without cabinet rank, which in their political and financial decisions depend on the treasury but constitute no part of it; in France they are entrusted to so-called directions generates under ( dependent on the ministry of finance, as is the administration of state-owned land and enterprises. The policy of detaching operations from the ministries has been systematically followed in the German Reich, where almost all operations that required a considerable number of employees were tion

—

—

—

)

;

)

transferred to subordinate agencies, which in contrast with the

Oberste Reichsbehorden (i.e., the ministries) were called Hohere Reichsbehordcn, and worked each under the supervision of one of the ministries (e.g., Statistisches Reichsamt under the ministry of

economics. Patentamt under that of justice). Methodical use of this device kept the German ministries so small that at the end of the Weimar republic ( 1932 two of them had less than 200 employees, most had less than 400 and the largest (finance ministry) had less than 1,000. This old tradition was resumed in the Federal )

Republic of It

is

Germany

common

after

practice

department under the administrative The apparent exceptions to this rule in Great Britain are nominal rather than actual in most of the cases, as with the Collegia! treasury and the boards of education and of trade. boards have kept practical significance, however, for the adImiralty in Great Britain and for agencies with quasi-legislative or quasi-judicial functions, such as the U.S. Interstate Commerce commission, the British Transport commission or the civil service commissions in both countries, for government corporations, for isome policy-forming agencies in smaller states and in local government units. Next in line under the department head. Great Britain and head.

'

I

1

Germany developed

the office of the permanent undersecretary

(called secretary in

some

in

German

and after 1020 Stmlssekntir

British,

who

one-man channel must not be bypassed in official contacts between the lower levels and the department head. The duties of U.S. undersecretaries are, in most cases, more specific and their rights less all

ministries'),

constitutes a

that

——

In French ministries except that of foreign affairs, which has a secretaire general directeurs. each in charge of one division, are placed immediately under the minister. In Germany, inclusive.

such division heads, called Ministerialdirekloren, constitute the next lower level under the Staatssekretiire. Likewise, in Great Britain and the United States, assistant secretaries or similar othcers are often given directive functions over large fields of work under the undersecretary. But this is not always so; especially in the United States many assistant secretaries work independently of the undersecretary. Parliamentary undersecretaries have often been appointed not only in Gteat Britain but

France for political or the United States and

also in

known The

in

specific in

functions.

They

are un-

Germany.

greatest difference in organization, however, prevails at base of departmental headquarters. European practice favours systematic distribution of the entire work among a body of subject-matter aides, trained for ministerial service and for the consideration of over-all viewpoints: they are called principals in Great Britain, chefs de bureau in France and Rejerenten or formSachbearbeiter (in various grades, such as Ministerialral Oberregierungsrat and Regierungserly Geheimcr Regierungsrat

the

—

—

Germany. The functions of these aides are. of course, by the detachment or nondetachment of operaservices (see above). The more operational functions are

rat) in

greatly affected tional

transferred to subordinate agencies, the less the ministerial aides have to deal with operations and the more their work concentrates

on planning, advice, initial steps in the execution of decisions at headquarters, contacts with other departments and contacts with subordinate field agencies or operating .services. This is the usual situation of the Rejerenten in German ministries, of On the other British principals and French chefs.de bureau. hand, the fact that operating services in the United States usually constitute part of the departments makes the U.S. bureau chiefs

made

In their respective fields the heads of such operating services. they function also as the direct advisers of their superiors, with

no permanent aides between them and the

secretar>''s level.

In

type of organization it has been said that the natural weight of the large operating services tends to impair the desirable balance within departmental headquarters and to make the over-all organization heavy footed and lopsided. In the Soviet Union, state ownership of all means of production criticizing

this

greatly increased the operating functions of the government and, consequently, multiplied the number of departments, which has at

times exceeded 50 on the national level. There are. for example, several separate departments for various branches of industry. A considerable part of the management of the national economy and of industrial operations is passed on to public trusts (government corporations) as well as to the individual republics; in the latter in case, the individual republic appoints the department head charge of the execution, who then has a dual responsibility on the

—

one hand to the all-union ministers, on the other to the government (A. Bt.

of the constituent republic.

World War II. in the major countries

to place each responsibility of a single

629

II. 1.

Types

;

F.

M. M.)

UNITED STATES

of Agencies.

—

It is

not unusual in the United States

government— legislative, exto hear the three great branches of the In the more ecutive and judicial— referred to as departments. means of by apparatus the arc departments the familiar sense, which the government carries on

its

various functions other than

This broadly inclusive those of a legislative or judicial character. usage of the meaning of the term is identical with what in the the period after World federal government are called agencies. In about Ao. War II the total number of federal agencies remained at as departments. But only certain of these agencies were designated place, arc part Not all agencies of the government, in the first under the president's being of sense the in branch, of the executive

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

630

—

Some are agencies of the legislative branch for instance, the Librao' of Congress, with its legislative reference service as a pool of experts available to the committees of congress and the government printing office, its individual members alike; headed by the public printer; and the federal government's audit control.

agency, the general accounting office under the comptroller general, who serves for an exceptionally long term of 15 years. A somewhat larger number of agencies are neither in the legislative branch nor under the president's orders. These agencies are often spoken of as the independent regulatory commissions and boards, usually created by statute as bipartisan establishments and deliberately placed outside the reach of the president's power of command.

Most of

the principal agencies of the federal government having and quasi-judicial functions are of this type, such

quasi-legislative

as the Interstate

Commerce commission,

the Federal Trade com-

Power commission,

the Securities and Ex-

mission, the Federal

change commission and the National Labor Relations board. Within the executive branch thus narrowly defined, there are One group is formed by further distinctions between agencies. the government corporations; for example, the Tennessee Valley authority, the Export-Import Bank of Washington and the Panama

Another category

Canal company.

is

represented by the con-

of agencies which are comparable in many respects to departments but lack this title. These agencies include the Atomic Energy commission, the Veterans administration, the siderable

number

Housing and Home Finance agency, the National Science foundaMany of them tion and the General Services administration. are single-headed, like the departments; others are directed by plural bodies, like the independent regulatory commissions and boards. Again, like the departments, most of these executive agencies perform functions that in some direct way affect the But a few public or parts of it. as so-called line activities. executive agencies have the task of attending to needs of management which exist throughout the executive branch—-for instance, the civil service commission for recruitment, classification and other aspects of personnel administration and the General Services administration for office space, procurement of supplies and disposition of records. But the most important category of federal agencies is formed by the so-called executive departments, relatively few in number but collectively the backbone of the executive branch.

Number, Rank and

2.

Size

—The

ten executive departments

state and. next, treasury, both since 1789; defense, established in

with

military departments, army (created as 1789), navy (1798) and air force (1947); justice (1870) and post office (1872), both with antecedents reach-

1949.

its

ing back

much

three

in

further; interior, since 1849; agriculture (1862),

commerce (1903) and labour (1913, previously joined with commerce); and,

finally, health, education and welfare (1953), as an elevation of the former federal security agency. The executive office of the president, a staff organization created

1939 to assist him in the general direction and co-ordination of the departments as well as the other agencies of the executive branch, is not itself a department. It is a presidential establishment for purposes of program planning, analysis of problems and Lssues, review and formulation of proposals, and administrain

The executive office of the president White House office, the bureau of the budget,

tive control.

is

the

the council of

made up

economic advisers, the national security council and, when vated, an Office for

is determined by a crude test of strength. Departmental strength is a product of many factors, one of which is size. By quantitative measurements, the departments,

individual case,

like

the other agencies of the executive branch,

The

variations.

Emergency Management.

On

of

acti-

the president's

concerns with particular functions which come forth from and the other agencies of the executive branch are met by the counterpressure of a government-wide orientation. Such broader orientation is typical of the presidency, as the foremost organ for the expression of national points of view under the level, the

the departments

constitution.

Between the executive office of the president, as a staff organization looking at matters across the board, and the departments and other agencies of the executive branch, each absorbed in the particular operating functions entrusted to it, there develops a mutual challenge, a creative tension. The outcome, ideally, is

largest,

by a wide margin,

is

show

striking

the department of

defense.

One measure

of the growth of the departmental system

is

the in-

crease in civilian and military personnel in the executive branch.

The grand

total rose steadily from less than 1,000 civilian employees and 1,300 military personnel during Washington's administration to more than 2,300,000 and some 3,000,000, respectively, in the second half of the 20th century. 3. Common Characteristics. Like the heads of almost all executive agencies, department heads are appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. But only department heads

—

bear the distinctive

title

of secretary

—

as, for instance,

secretary

however. The top officers of the department of justice and the post office department have the designation of attorney general and postmaster general,

The

of labour.

title

is

common

not

to

all,

back to the beginnings of the republic. Department heads have neither the right nor the duty of par-

respectively, dating

ticipation in the affairs of congress, as

parliamentary government.

is

normally the case under

On

the other hand, the principle of acceptability to the senate of the president's choices for his official team carries with it certain limitations to be observed in the exercise of his appointive power. For one thing, men with a passion for unpopular causes, a reputation for unorthodox opinions or a lofty disdain for politicians do not make good material for presidential nominations, though such men may be pillars of wisdom and integrity. There is also the matter of geographic

balance in picking candidates, besides other factors of political But affiliation with the strategy which no president can ignore. other party is no bar, for on occasion a bipartisan appearance is politically profitable.

As far as their relationship with the legislative branch is concerned, department heads confine their role essentially to supplying information, often as pleaders, mostly in testimony before congressional committees.

members

In such testimony, as in other puWic

team are supposed to But the interest they have in advancing their departmental programs may induce them to be more responsive to the legislative committee dealing with the department's affairs or to organized groups which regard themselves as the department's To be sure, clientele than to the goals sought by the president. in a formal sense, expressed by the constitution, department heads statements, the

of the federal government, in order of their official rank, are these:

war department

a constructive interchange, with a maturing effect upon decisions. Realistically, however, it is also possible that the result, in the

of the president's

reflect his policies.

are the subordinates of the president; he can fire them at will. Yet a disciplinary action so extreme is practical only on very rare occasions,

would not

when

in the

nature of

all

circumstances

damage upon the As a matter of fact,

inflict serious

its

apphcation

prestige of the presi-

therefore, department dent's administration. heads are able to move rather freely in a no man's land of political convenience, checked only by such factors as their loyalty to

the president and their fear of the price of a full-scale conflict

with him.

Only department heads are automatically members of the cabiBut the president is free to request the regular attendance of other officials, such as the director of the bureau of the budget, net.

The practical importance performance are roughly proportionate to the president's own intentions and working methods. For lack of a necessary constitutional function, the cabinet oper-ates as a meeting of presidential .advisers, who may also serve as

who

first sat

with the cabinet

of the cabinet and

its

in 1953.

efficiency in

the president's audience.

Constitutionally, the president cannot

withdraw behind the cabinet. There is thus no collective responsibility of the cabinet for the government's program, in the sense of British political doctrine. if only because of the implied exclusiveness, valued highly. Automatic cabinet status also has For example, by law certain small but conspicuous privileges. only cabinet members among the heads of executive agencies

Nevertheless,

cabinet rank

is

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENIS enjoy the privilege of being called for at their homes in the morning and driven back at the end of the day in their own official car. On the other hand, cabinet status does not implv great willingness of the cabinet

member

to use the cabinet for the

making of de-

When it comes to getting the president's approval for cisions. a particular matter, a department head may be more inclined to settle the business directly with the president than to propose for the cabinet agenda.

It is then left for the president to sure that the subject has the benefit of scrutiny by additional eyes before he commits himself. it

make

Assurance that such scrutiny is provided as a normal procedure perhaps most evident in the field of proposed legislation. Under arrangements made initially in 192 1, the bureau of the budget became the presidential clearinghouse for legislative proposals advanced by executive agencies. The test question in this matter is whether or not the individual proposal is in accord with the president's program. In furnishing clearance, the budget bureau not only is guided by decisions made by the president but also seeks the advice of all other agencies having an interest is

branch of the federal government during the first half of the 20th century has often been lamented. It has been seen as a forerunner to what is predicted by some as the coming tyranny of the managers. But the habits of bureaucracy as they manifest themselves in the departmental operations of the federal government are all on the other side. In the United States bureaucracy, in public administration, is a force of division; it is

not a single

body with its own sense of direction. Lack of unity in the permanent officialdom is thus a natural condition, promoted by the absence of a recognized higher career service reaching up right below the department head and his political aides, like the British administrative class. On the other hand, the respect accorded the administrative class in England demonstrates that a higher career service, under the pervasive influence of its own ethics, can be a strong restraint upon the

power among

zest for

service

its

members.

So indoctrinated, the

civil

able to guard itself against both excessive sohdarity

is

work,

ship of the bill to the president's program.

The same kind

consultation throughout the executive branch

is

the president for his consideration

of

obtained by the is passed on to

and signature.

In basic internal organization, the departments show considerable similarities. The top nucleus is generally known as the

Upon

converge the demands for decisions which rise constantly in the normal course of business from the next lower level the great functional groupings made up of bureaus, offices or divisions. These, in turn, are subdivided successively as need requires, down to the smallest working unit. It is natural to imagine the departments as a mighty cluster of central agencies. In actual fact, however, the headquarters organization of the departments at the nation's capital in Washington, D.C., is usually only the smallest part. More than ninetenths of all federal employees are stationed in the field, mostly secretary's office.

it

—

the United States, but partly also on foreign soil, as in the case of the foreign service and various specialized missions, for in

example.

Departmental direction is therefore in great part a matter of communication, as in all far-flung and large-scale organizations. No department can be much more than the reflection of its sense of purpose. Such sense of purpose does not exist apart from the men and women who arrive at a specified time in the morning and fill a dead building with their devotion to duty as well as their familiar routines. But solidarity and cohesion around aims to be accomplished develop more easily in the small working group than in a vast organization. Moreover, conflicts of purposes and between different components, specialization in the performance of particular functions and the localized perspective of the personal workplace keep the individual parts of a department from appreciating the importance of the departmental mandate as a whole. Thus the objectives of the department, howinterests

ever frequently emphasized from the top,

may

yet lack a strong

and rather blurred images for the rank and file, preoccupied with what is closest This tendency toward personal isolato the individual desk. tion, never completely overcome by even the most resourceful kind of co-ordination, makes the department as a unified whole a

appeal internally.

They may remain

rather distant objective for

all

distant

but those occupied with general

management. Withdrawal into the small-scale world of the individual working group a world to be kept secure, agreeable, neat and unmolested beby bigger things outside— is a familiar trait of bureaucratic rashly behaviour. It is a trait that should not be condemned

—

I

rise above control by elective vast physical expansion of the executive

the finding of the bureau of the budget concerning the relation-

within the executive branch.

budget bureau before a proposed executive order

;

The

and bureaucratic self-aggrandizement. U.S. bureaucrats, under a weaker service spirit, are more inclined to put priority on that part of the departmental program for which they have individual

tion

\

pendent concept of mission as to policy makers.

matter, thus helping to establish a common posiIn addition, when agencies are asked by congressional committees to convey their views on pending bills, the same clearance procedure is applied. Agencies are not censored in their replies to congress. But they must add in the particular

,

631

It is cause, paradoxically, it also has a certain therapeutic value. indean antidote to the growth of a bureaucracy so unified in an

responsibility, as contrasted with other parts.

A

strong-willed

subordinate, convinced of the public benefits of his division's

may feel He may go out

free to concentrate

on building up support for it. by clandestine alliances

to re-enforce his position

with good friends in congress and among the leaders of interest groups even though the head of his department may see things quite differently. Under auspices of a loosely organized party system, congressional-presidential government is characterized

by a high degree of dispersal of power. Thus channels of command both within the departments and from the president downward can be obstructed by underlings with greater ease than one might expect at first thought. All of this makes the job of managing a department a good deal harder than need be. Singlehanded, of course, a department secHe must multiply himself, so to retary would accomplish little. speak, by leaving part of the job to lieutenants in whom he can These repose his full political as well as personal confidence.

and the assistant secretaries, occasionally deputy secretary, as in the defense department. Like the

are the undersecretary also a

secretary himself, they are among the political officers who are appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. In contrast with past practice, these selections are rarely mere patronage appointments. The reason is the increased public pres-

—

—

upon the president in the day of the service state to make a satisfactory record in the conduct of his administration, as a sure

matter of good

politics.

difficulty in persuading wellundertake this kind of public service and Businessmen in parthe post after having accepted.

Yet presidents face considerable qualified

citizens

to stay in

to

the professions, ticular, but also labour leaders and members of available often require vigorous prompting to make themselves This is not for an indefinite tour of duty in Washington, U.C. merely a matter of personal and family finances but also the reflection of a political

environment notorious

for its frustrations

Recruitment of toplack of charity in public criticism. positions, especially lor calibre men and women for high political one of the the leadership of the executive departments, emerged as

and

its

unsolved problems of U.S. government. appointed top In each department the number of presidentially they give the department officials is small, although the impetus To extend themselves sufficiently far. both outside is noticeable. department, they need special assistants, mostly the and inside policy advisers, conUct in from other walks of life as appointments last usually or confidential assistants, whose The great bulk of the only as long as the presidential tenure. employees having departmental personnel consists of permanent

brought

men

regular civil service status. Although civil servants

.

can be shifted around to suit the high command, no depreference of an incoming departmental ways. Like other established its of stripped partment is easily

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

632

large-scale organizations, departments carry their burden of inertia, as they also display their share of initiative, persistence

Departmental management must seek to cope with these conflicting impulses in such a way as to meet desirable Actual performance, by and large, standards of performance. though showing variations within departments and from depart-

and

drive.

Brownlow

as

chairman (reporting

in 1937

)

and the

(first)

commis-

sion on organization of the executive branch headed by former

president Herbert Hoover (reporting in 1949). Examples on the state level were the so-called "little Hoover commissions" set up

The dates, given earlier, of the beginnings of its growth. Finance, foreign the ten executive departments supply a key. affairs and defense, together with justice and the postal service, were a natural grouping for an era when the federal government

on the federal model. It was not surprising that one of the first steps taken by Eisenhower upon assuming office as president in 1953 was to add an official advisory committee on government organization, under the chairmanship of Nelson A. Rockefeller. In addition, shortly afterward a second Hoover commission was created, which was to deal with the more explosive question of the proper scope of governmental functions. Its reports proved correspondingly more subjective and controversial. These bodies, pursuing a broadly evolutionary approach, have done useful work. Cumulatively, they managed not only to get action on a whole series of proposals for desirable changes but also The to shape a working doctrine of executive reorganization. Brownlow committee, for instance, made history by breaking ground for the concept of the executive office of the president. Implicit in this concept was the idea that executive responsibility should be matched with sufficient authority and clearly centred in the top man, but its e.xercise should be bolstered by a balanced grouping of staff units bringing co-ordinating skill as well as specialized judgment to bear upon decisions. Another element in the working doctrine of e.xecutive reorganization, reaffirmed by the first Hoover commission, was the demand that activities be fitted into patterns, each dominated by a basic governmental purpose. This criterion of departmentalization sounds simple but is much less Still another point of doctrine simple in practical application. is the general rule that both the number of departments and the total number of agencies of the executive branch ought to be held to a minimum that, ideally, the lesser agencies ought to be brought into some defined relationship with one or another department, as the president's span of control is naturally limited; and that novel

was mainly concerned with the administration of functions

public functions, especially while

ment

to department,

fully with the standards of private

compares

business.

day-by-day administration, almost all departments on groups of management specialists. Most of these are engaged in program planning, review of operations, budgeting, organization and methods work, In several personnel administration, accounting and the like. departments, in 1950, all or most of these specialized elements of departmental management were combined under the new office of administrative assistant secretary, intended to be filled by career In

their

to place considerable reliance

have come

men.

—

Year upon year, new adminby congress, and established ones either change or disappear because of changing circumstances and

Executive Reorganization.

4.

istrative activities are authorized

In their cumulative effects, these changes make it necessary to re-examine the organizational structure of the executive branch at frequent intervals. Good organization might rapidly deteriorate in time if additions, modifications or eliminations of

policies.

activities

were allowed

to

happen without any thought of

Bad organization might

eral plan.

fall

a gen-

into an intolerable state

under such conditions. Some rudimentary logic underneath the departmental system of the federal government can be discovered from the historical record of

common agency

able for the

suit-

of an association of sovereign states.

Eventually, the diversified natural resources under federal control, including the public lands, called for recognition on the cabinet Then, level and brought forth the department of the interior.

momentum

development that led the republic from its agrarian start into the charged atmosphere of an industrial order, there followed the parade of clientele departments with nationwide responsibilities one looking after the farmer, another serving the businessman, and the last acknowledging the interests of the worker. A further step was taken with the establishment of a full-fledged department underwriting important aspects of minimal economic equaUty the department of health, education and welfare. Its emergence demonstrated the degree to which social policy had become accepted as one of the foremost domestic concerns of the federal government. If that much underlying reason is conceded, it must not be concluded that the departmental system, as a product of history, with the

full

of a

—

—

ought to be

left in peace.

ing a

more

made

quite frequently.

On

the contrary, proposals for achiev-

branch have been on fairly abstract theories of what is variously assumed to be the essence of sound organization. The departments, however, are massive structures re-enforced by precedent and tradition and cannot be rational structure of the executive

easily changed.

They

Many

of these proposals rest

are singularly unresponsive to the preach-

by a sense of organizational tidiness. Moreover, all the organized interests, economic and social, that have a stake in the departmental setup, view with deep suspicion any marked departure from familiar arrangements. Each interest is fearful of coming out the loser. As a result, a sweeping overhauling of the executive branch is practically out of the question, except under conditions of a full-scale emergency. But real gains may be attained even by some patient, piecemeal improving. That has been done rather persistently. The usual procedure, applied on all levels of government in the United States, IS to set up a formal inquiry into existing conditions, in the hope ings of people stirred

of bringing forth concrete recommendations with a fair chance of adoption.^ Inquiries of this type on the federal level include the president's

committee on administrative management with Louis

;

still

experimental or when under-

taken for the duration of an emergency, might best be constituted possibly temporary agencies rather than as new departments. as As in the federal government, so also in state and local governr

—

—

ments, the desirable structure of the departmental system was linked with the concept of a fully responsible chief e.xecutive. The strengthening of the governor's position, on the one hand, and the gradual replacement of the weak-mayor type of municipal organization by the strong-mayor type or the council-manager plan, on the other, led to some consolidation of the executive branch. This included a reduction of the number of agencies practically account-

Both

however, various

are elected side by side with the chief

officials

in local

and

government,

able only to themselves.

in state

who therefore has no effective control over them. Together with placing limitations on the number of departments and making each a repository of reasonably related functions, staff units have been built around the chief executive in state and local government. In addition, the concept of a department of administration gained some popularity, especially on the state level. This department is usually visualized as an agency combining responsibilities for budgetary planning, fiscal control, improvement of management and procedures, periodic inspection and provision Not surof central services, such as purchasing and car pools. prisingly, in the states as well as the counties and municipalities, progress along the lines of executive reorganization has been slow. In state government, for example, it is not exceptional to encounter more than 30 departments and a total of more than 100

executive,

agencies, including

many

not subject to the governor's general

direction.

With the president constitutionally the coequal partner of congress in the performance of the tasks that have fallen to the federal government with the growth of an industrial society, it might be thought that he can do as he pleases in reorganizing the executive branch. This could be regarded as an obvious inference from his role as the responsible chief executive of the nation.

But

it

not widely assumed that such actually is the legal authority of the president. As a practical matter, it appears accepted that the president requires congressional authorization to reorganize

is

the executive branch.

Securing adequate authority for him

is

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS doubly important because evidence shows, as could perhaps be expected, that congress, left to itself, is not a particularly good architect of executive structure.

Despite

much

urging from

and unofficial quarters before congress failed to see compelling reasons for granting the president continuing authority to carry as well as after

World War

official

II,

out reorganizations.

Instead, taking

down

same procedure

cue from the report of the Brownlow committee, congress passed a succession of shortterm reorganization acts (of 1939, 1945 and 1949, the last prolonged repeatedly by new legislation). Each of these acts laid essentially the

its

for setting in

motion the

wheels of organisational change,

first written into law in the act of In briefest outline, the president would come forth with specific reorganization plans and transmit them to congress. Con-

1939.

gress then could express

disapproval of the individual plan. If no such disapproval had been voted, the plan would take effect after 60 days, having practically the force of law. Each reorganization act, as a limitation, extended a protective hand over certain agencies for various reasons. For disapproval, the acts of 1939 its

633

executive functions of the federal government. 5. Foreign Affairs In this field the primary agency is the department of state. Its head, the secretary of state, serves as the

—

principal adviser to the president and congress in the determination and execution of the country's foreign policy. But, as Pres,

Franklin D. Roosevelt demonstrated, a chief executive. In the fullness of his constitutional powers in foreign affairs, is able to take the reins of international relations pretty well into his own hands. The secretary of state is also a top co-ordinator interdepart-

He is the ranking department head in the national security council, part of the executive office of the president. A statutory cabinet committee created In 1947, the council is to assess and appraise for the president the objectives, commitments mentally.

and risks of the United States in relation to the country's actual and potential defensive strength. The council also advises the president on a unified approach by the entire executive branch to the attainment of national security and to the resolution of particular issues that often burst forth unexpectedly.

The head

of the policy-planning staff in the department of state simulta-

and 1945 required agreement by both the senate and the house of representatives, whereas under the act of 1949 objection on the part of either of the two chambers was sufficient if expressed by a majority of the total membership of that chamber. In the

neously serves as his department's representative in the top staff organization of the national security council. The co-ordinating

consideration of the prolongation act of 1953, a move in the committee stage to whittle down this majority requirement by substituting a simple majority was stopped in the nick of time. The prolongation act of 1957 eliminated the requirement that disapproval be e.xpressed by a majority of the chamber's "authorized membership," thus greatly increasing the chance of congressional disapproval. The legislative veto, obviously, should operate only

field of foreign relations.

responsibility of

the

secretary of state also extends to giving

policy guidance to other agencies carrying on functions in the

This applies especially to the adminiseconomic and military aid to friendly nations, such aid going back to the Marshall plan. The agencies in charge were named successively Economic Cooperatrative organization in charge of

on the basis of substantial congressional sentiment against any

Mutual Security agency. Foreign 0[>erations Cooperation administration and Agency for International Development the last two within the state department). State department pohcy guidance is also sup-

particular reorganization plan.

plied to the U.S. Information agency, concerned with winning un-

because it was never employed in disregard of political realities, this novel procedure, on the whole, was notably successful. Instances of disapproval remained the distinct exception. On the side of accomplishments, reorganization plans provided the structure of the executive office of the president, one of the most important events in the modern administrative history of the federal government; strengthened the authority of top management on the departmental level; created the department of health, education and welfare; estabUshed such other important agencies as the Housing and Home Finance agency (1947) and the U.S. Information agency (1953); and improved the organization of the defense department. More often, reorganization plans were

derstanding for the American point of view and .\niericaa ways among the leaders of public opinion in other countries. Within the state department, attention is given to both political and economic affairs, A large task is the business of keeping together the threads of diplomacy. The business of administration

Although

in part

used to achieve a more satisfactory allocation of particular activities to existing agencies. It has also happened that congress incorporated the substance of a reorganization plan into legislation. A number of reorganization plans were aimed specifically at creating better conditions for effective management within the individual agencies. In the first place, in regard to plural bodies

hke the Federal Trade commission an effort was made to build up the position of the chairman into a kind of administrative chief, without affecting the prerogative of the body as a whole to settle important business by vote. Secondly, in single-headed agencies it was sought to do away with impediments to the freedom of the

man

at the helm to organize his agency for greatest efficiency. This meant the elimination of statutory barriers, a difficult obstacle to overcome. The campaign in support of wider managerial leeway at the top level in the various agencies advanced a con-

siderable distance but also suffered telling defeats in congress. reorganization program of such scope calls for extensive anal-

A

what is wrong in the first place, careful determination as what to tackle and what to leave untouched for the time being and shrewd exploration of the strategy and tactics of how to formulate individual proposals and when to act. Some of these judgments are necessarily political. Many of them are technical, though often involving very complex situations. Staff work for the president in the technical development of reorganization plans has been an assignment of the bureau of the budget, more particularly of its office of management and organization, until 1952 the

ysis of to

administrative

Below

is

management

division.

outhned the machinery for the conduct of the principal

tion administration.

administration.

International

(

management of the foreign service. The members of the foreign service have traditionally formed a separate corps of career officers, distinct from the general civil service, and thus

includes the

from the departmental personnel of the state department. Pressure for a merger of the two groups increased after the end of World War II. Two areas of special emphasis are effective communication of the department's goals and interests to congress and to the public, respectively. The first activity Is doubly important

also

because the relations between the department and congress have been marred by many a misunderstanding. The extensive security interests of the department are in the care of its bureau of security

and consular

The Passport

aftairs.

office

and the Visa

office

are also part of this bureau. The steady flow of dispatches and reports, typical of the dayto-day activities of diplomacy, runs through the so-called regional Each deals with the affairs of a of the department.

bureaus

different section of the globe.

The

principal groupings are inter-

European affairs, far eastern affairs and near American eastern, south Asian and African affairs. Another group of specialized offices provides guidance and supinternational port for the participation of the United SUtes in affairs,

organizations.

It represents the

headquarters

staff

doing

much

of

government plays In the and the general Security council, the Economic and .Social council Slates assembly of the United Nations, largely through the United the desk work

for the role the federal

mission to the United Nations. The need for bringing standards of scientific accuracy to bear been information coming from all comers of the earth has

upon the main cause of the formation of

a

bureau of Intelligence and

re-

divided geographically to provide the of knowledge. Co-ordination of the specialization of advantages branch is the task intelligence activities throughout the executive under the direcljon of of the central intelligence agency, which is the national security council. carrying The most striking addition to the traditional means of search.

Its

work, too,

is

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

634 on U.S. foreign relations occurred

in

1948 with the establishment

of a large program of assistance to foreign countries. The program was first outlined in the famous commencement address by Secretary of State George C. Marshall at Harvard university. For the

administration of this program a specialized agency with

its

own

country missions was created, which was brought into the state department only in 1955, in continuation of its separate status within the department. (See also Foreign Aid Programs.) In Great Britain the treas6. Finance: Revenue and Debt.

—

ury, in

its

historic

development, has become a

Thus

the British treasury has a good deal of government-wide

responsibility for the general efficiency of the executive branch. In the United States, on the other hand, responsibilities for

—

management have gravitated toward the presidency -organizationally speaking, to the executive office of the president, especially the bureau of the budget. Basically the treasury departover-all

ment

is

a line establishment like the other departments.

But

it

also discharges indispensable staff assignments for the president. For example, although under the Budget and Accounting act of is the duty of the budget bureau to assist the president preparation of the budget, elaboration of the revenue side has always been the task of the treasury department. It is the secretary of the treasury and his experts who present to congress

192

it

1

the bureau of narcotics (administering the federal narcotics laws), the United States secret service (q.v.; guardian also of the president's safety and that of his family, and separate from the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the department of justice) and,

in the

the United States coast guard (a detachable service, so war or upon the president's direction the

finally,

to speak, for in time of

coast guard 7.

vital factor in the

operations of the entire national administrative system. Treasury control means not only co-ordination of fiscal and economic policies but also central superintendence over the departments in the performance of such management functions as budgeting and personnel.

the internal revenue service (with an extensive field service of own), the bureau of customs (also with a field organization),

its

moves under the command of the navy department). The department of defense is the result of a deter-

Defense.

mined

—

effort to achieve a unification of the military services.

A

was taken with the creation by the National Security act of 1947 of a single national military establishment composed of army, navy and air force. The amendments to this act decisive step

in 1949 strengthened the position of the secretary of defense. Reorganization plan 6 of 1953 and additional legislation passed in 1958 carried this development still further. With installations as well as military interests spread over most of the world, the defense department became a realm by itself. It is also a necessary partner in almost all important decisions affecting the U.S. national interest. Its performance casts a broad shadow across the entire executive branch. The machinery by which the defense department asserts its control over the three service departments is technically called the The secretary is a member of office of the secretary of defense. the national security council and such other policy-making bodies

as the

North Atlantic

council.

One

of the secretary's assistants

and

gives special attention to the application of atomic energy, another

in turn serve congress as principal sources of technical information when the initiative in tax legislation is taken by the revenue committees. Legislative initiative is quite normal, under congressional-presidential government. The proposals of the executive branch in these as in all other matters are simply presidential recommendations, which congress is constitutionally free to

ResponsibiHty for the various segments of the department's program is distributed on such lines as manpower and personnel, supply and logistics, international security affairs, research and engineering, and public affairs. The National Aeronautics and Space administration, created in 195S to solve flight problems within and outside the earth's atmosphere, is separate. The armed forces policy council is advisory to the secretary. The council brings together the top men throughout the department, including the civilian secretaries of the three service de-

for the president the tax proposals of the executive branch,

who

ignore.

Another indication of the treasury's government-wide responsiis supplied in the secretary's role as chairman of the National Advisor^' Council on International Monetary and Financial Problems, in effect a cabinet committee for purposes of interdepartmental co-ordination in this field, but less important than the national security council. Of great practical consequence for the economy is the effectiveness of the treasury's relationships with the organizationally independent federal reserve system, backbone of the country's private banking business and chief guardian of sound money conditions. Although federal reserve policy may directly affect rates of interest on treasury financing, the treasury has no legal authority over the federal reserve system. Nor has the treasury effective control over all governmental lending probilities

grams, like those providing building loans or agricultural credit. In the treasury department the fiscal and the administrative assistant secretaries represent the

growth of the career idea on

The administrative assistant secretary superdepartment's work in matters of general management.

the highest level. vises the

The

fiscal assistant

secretary is in charge of financial administradepartment's accounting activities and supervision over the bureau of the public debt and the office of the treasurer of the United States, which is essentially the banking facility for the federal government. tion, including the

to guided missiles.

partments and the military chiefs. The joint secretaries form a separate organ of advice, leaving out the miUtary spokesmen. The joint chiefs of staff, in turn, consist of military representatives

(who while so serving takes precedence over other officers of the armed services), the chief of staff of the army, the chief of naval operations and the chief of staff of the air The chairman has charge of the joint staff, comprising force. under its director a joint strategic plans group, a joint intelligence group and a joint logistics plans group. Perhaps no other body has as much potential influence in giving unity to defense planning only: the chairman all

developing phases throughout the three services as have staff. On the other hand, the adequacy of this type of staff organization was questioned by various groups, inBringing together men from the three cluding military leaders. armed services in itself produces no higher loyalty. There are variations in departmental organization as well as in military staff structure among the three service departments, but the formal relationship to the office of the secretary of defense is the same. The secretary of defense, below the oresident in its

the joint chiefs of

as the constitutional

commander

in chief, is the

immediate

In the making of treasury decisions about taxation, financing and debt management, the support furnished by the analytical staff

principal adviser in military matters the ranking officer

in the secretary's office is of great

sents the department on the joint chiefs of

is

component with

importance. More specialized the office of international finance. The duties of this office include collection and analysis of current information about the economic positions and policies of other nations having a bearing upon the country's financial and monetary programs. The office also participates in negotiations with foreign governments involving questions of international finance. The main divisions of work in the treasury demonstrate how far

burdened with operating functions. Its chief components are: the bureau of the mint, the bureau of engraving and printing, the United States savings bonds division, the office of the comptroller it is

of the currency

(who supervises the

so-called national banks),

su-

perior of the secretary of the army, the secretary of the navy

and the secretary of the

marine corps.

air

force.

a great tradition of

When

Each, in turn, has as

its

own

is

staff.

his

who repreOne navy

the United States

the joint chiefs of staff deal with

its affairs,

commandant of the marine corps sits with them as an equal. The department of the army, through its corps of engineers, also

the

performs important civil functions in improving rivers, harbours and waterways for navigation, in constructing flood control and similar projects in various parts of the country, and in administering the laws for the protection and preservation of navigable waters.

The new

stature and ramifications of national defense, together

with the impact of science on strategy, tactics and weapon de-

—

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS velopment, have made the military a crucially important profesExtensive schooling is therefore indispensable. The joint sion. service schools are the National War college, the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, both located in Washington, D.C., and the Armed Forces Staff college, Norfolk, Va. Most of the military schooling, however, is provided under the auspices of each individual service, with some participation from the others. Justice is administered, in the main, through the 8. Justice.

—

In addition to the role of the judicial branch, however,

courts.

certain important responsibilities in this field are discharged by executive agencies, especially by the department of justice. This

department provides the means, together with other agencies in their special fields, for the enforcement of federal legislation, supplies legal counsel in federal cases and construes the laws under which the other departments act. It also supervises the federal penal institutions and contain^ two services which conduct their business in considerable independence the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the immigration and naturalization service. The attorney general is the federal government's chief law officer. As head of the department, he also directs the prosecuting and other activities of the United States attorneys and marshals in the vari-

—

As

obscenity.

has given

in

rise to

635

other countries, the postal appraisal of literature some memornbic court decisions.

Resources and Guardianship.— In

10.

portant role

is

this field the

most im-

played by the department of the interior.

The

department centre upon the management, conservation and development of the natural resources of the United

activities of this

States

—public

lands, water, power,

oil,

gas, other mineral assets,

and wildlife resources and the national parks. The department also promotes the welfare of the inhabitants of the island possessions of the United States and of the trust territory of the Pacific fish

islands, in addition to exercising guardianship over U.S. Indians

and promoting the interests of the natives of Alaska, the 49th of the states, entering the union in 1959. The principal division of work on the department's top level is

terms of

in

fish

and

wildlife,

mineral resources, public land

management and water and power development.

The

technical

conducts studies of various programs and maintains liaison between the department and its field committees, which serve as organs of co-ordination in the main geographic areas. The interior department is divided into these main elements: the review

staff

in

bureau of Indian affairs, trustee of the lands belonging to the Indians and source of pubUc services to them, as long as they are not yet absorbed into American life; the bureau of land management, responsible also for the granting of grazing permits on the public range; the bureau of mines, which has as its tasks the conservation of mineral resources, the conduct of research in mining and utilization of mineral substances and the promotion of safety in the mineral industries; the bureau of reclamation, in

budget.

many

ous judicial districts.

The

solicitor general represents the federal

in litigation before the supreme court and, at the attorney general's request, before other courts as well. Formal opinions of the attorney general and informal advice to executive agencies are prepared in the office of legal counsel, which also examines proposed executive orders of the president for their legaUty,

government

connection with the clearance of the draft by the bureau of the The office of alien property exercises the functions of the attorney general in controlling and vesting foreign-owned propApplications for erty under the Trading With the Enemy act.

pardon and other forms of executive clemency are reviewed by the pardon attorney. The main functional groupings within the department include the antitrust division, engaged in combating monopoly and restraints of trade; the tax division, the federal government's tax attorney, as it were, and also its chief of prosecution under the internal revenue laws; the civil division, which supervises all matters relating to civil suits and claims against the United States and its officers not otherwise assigned; the lands division, concerned with such cases as condemnation proceedings ahd protection of water rights, including litigation with respect to Indians and Indian affairs the criminal division and the civil rights division. Still larger elements are the bureau of prisons, which keeps its eyes on the federal penitentiaries, reformatories and correctional institutions; the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the main detective arm of the federal government, which occupies a unique place in congressional sentiments as well as the attitude of the newspaper reader; and the immigration and naturalization service, which ad;

;

ministers the laws that govern the admission, exclusion, deportation and naturalization of aliens, maintaining also the federal

These last two bureaus have substantial field serv-

border patrol. ices for their speciahzed functions.

—

Postal Administration. Although the post-office department manages the largest business in the world, ancient political 9.

practice has persisted in leaving all postmasters of the first, second and third class in the category of presidential appointments. In addition to the bureau of the chief postal inspector, there are five basic divisions in the department. These are; the bureau post-office of operations, as the central management for all normal

bureau of transportation, attending to the physical mail, and also administering the so-called international postal service; the bureau of finance, with functions that extend to supervision of the conduct

activities; the

means of maintaining the steady flow of

money-order system and of the sale of government savings bonds by the post offices; the bureau of facihties, including buildThe ings and special equipment; and the bureau of personnel. postal savings system is under a board of trustees, which also of the

determines the proper investment of the savings paid in at the of the incidental functions of the the use of the mails in violation of of the prevention This covers such matters as fraud, espionage and

individual post offices.

department federal law.

is

One

respects a rival of the

army corps

of engineers as the builder

works to bring water to the lands of the west, including development of power; the fish and wildlife serv'ice, part of which is the bureau of commercial fisheries; the geological survey, a research bureau engaged in compiling and publishing information about the nation's mineral, water and other resources; the national park service, with about 180 national parks, historic sites and recreation areas; and the Bonneville. Southwestern and Southeastern Power administrations, which market electric power genof public

erated at federal reservoirs. It is the foremost goal of the department of 11. Agriculture. agriculture to promote the general interests of those who produce

—

from the

soil

— "agriculture" being

a collective term that includes

enterprises organized as private corporations, owners of family The difficulty farms, homesteaders, tenants and sharecroppers. of establishing a common denominator among all these groups

even

gram

in the

—has

department's extensive educational publication prooften been a source of political trouble for the de-

partment.

One functional grouping concentrates on federal-state relations, under which are co-ordinated the agricultural conservation program service, the agricultural research service, the farmer cothe extension service (carrying the fruit of service research to the farms through county agents 1. the forest service. conservation soil the and forests national with its 150

operative service,

Another functional grouping is marketing and foreign agriculture, Exincluding the agricultural marketing service, the Commodity and the change authority (overseer of fair commodity trading) promoted agricultural service. Agricultural stabilization is foreign

by the Commodity Credit corporation, the commodity service and the Federal Crop Insurance corporation.

stabilization

The Farm

agency, the departCredit administration being an independent to the Farmers limited are services credit ment's agricultural Home administration and the Rural Electrification administration, both in the main being loan programs. supMore specifically, the agricultural research service lends

m

agricultural

on work port to the experiment stations and carries dairy industr>', entoindustr>', animal chemistry, and industrial and home ecomology and plant quarantine, human nutrition Ihe engineering. nomics plant industry, soils and agricultural educational and research on carries service farmer co-operative number of farmers who and service activities of help to the large extension .service operThe co-operatives. agricultural belong to between the departrelationship co-operative ates on the basis of a

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

636

ment, the land-grant colleges and the county governments in the provision of educational programs in rural communities. Like the extension service, the soil conservation service, through soil conservation districts organized and managed by farmers and ranchers, deals directly with local needs. The agricultural marketing service provides research and statistics as well as marketing services, including the standardization of farm products and the administration of the school lunch program, financed from federal and state funds. The foreign agricultural service has primary responsibility for developing markets abroad to absorb U.S, surplus production. The commodity stabilization service is responsible for such matters as acreage allotment and marketing quotas with respect to agricultural commodities for w'hich supplies are out of line with demand; it also administers price supports by loans, purchase

A body

agreements or purchases,

ment

is

the U.S,

Department

loosely related to the depart-

of .Agriculture Graduate school, a

nonprofit institution of higher learning for federal employees at Washington, D.C., supported essentially by student fees. 12.

Commerce.

the field of

in

—The

responsibilities of the federal

government

commerce, broadly defined, are widely scattered.

The commerce department most no regulatory

is

essentially a service agency, with al-

These are exercised for the most part by such independent bodies as the Federal Trade commission, which seeks to guard fair competition; the Securities and Exchange commission, which polices the stock market; and the Interstate duties.

Commerce commission,

the Civil Aeronautics board, the Federal

Communications commission and the Federal Power commission, with regulatory powers over surface transport, air transport, wire

and radio communication and hydroelectric power and natural

gas,

respectively.

The department

of

commerce

The

international commercial affairs. office

deals with both domestic first field is

and

handled by the

of business economics, devoted to long-range as well as

short-run analyses of the national economy, which are made generally available in the form of the monthly Survey of Current Business; the Business and Defense Services administration; and the bureau of the census. The second field falls within the competence of the bureau of international commerce, which publishes International Commerce.

The department performs a number of basic national services. These are represented by the bureau of the census as one of the federal government's major fact-finding and statistical agencies; the weather bureau; the national bureau of standards, conducting for the government fundamental research and related technical activities in physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering; the patent office; and the coast and geodetic survey, which carries on studies to provide data for navigation charts.

In addition, there

two major services which concentrate on different forms of transportation. The Maritime administration is concerned with aid to shipping and related functions. The bureau of public roads develops the country's highway system in co-operation with the states, on the basis of federal financial aid to the states. The Fedare

eral Aviation agency, created in

1958 outside the commerce department, has mainly promotional aims with respect to civil air traffic, but also enforces air safety regulations.

Labor Developments Abroad.

The bureau of labour standards is a service to state labour departments and organized groups interested in better working conditions. This bureau promotes industrial safety and health, develops standards for labour legislation and administration and assists in giving effect to international labour The women's bureau looks after the interests of all women at work or seeking work; its directors have traditionally been women of exceptional calibre. its

standards.

Other principal services maintained by the department are the bureau of apprenticeship, which formulates standards for the training of skilled workers in industry; the bureau of employees compensation, charged with the administration of the accident compensation program for federal employees and certain types of private employment subject to federal legislation; the bureau of employment security, providing a combined placement and un-

employment insurance system, the insurance part being

a joint federal-state responsibility under the social security legislation; the

consolidated wage and hour and public contracts divisions, the former assuring minimum rates of pay in genera! and protection of youthful workers against exploitation in particular, and the latter supervising the observation of stipulations in government contracts with respect to minimum wages and other safeguards of fair em-

ployment; the bureau of veterans' re-employment rights; and the office of international labour affairs, which has primary responsibility for the participation of the United States in the International

Labour organization,

in line with the general policies of the This office, in addition, serves as the secretariat to the trade union advisory committee on international affairs appointed by the secretary of labour.

department of

state.

Essential additional functions are carried out by such separate agencies as the National Labor Relations board concerned with protecting collective bargaining and eliminating unfair labour practices; the Federal Mediation and Conciliation service; and the

National Mediation board, applicable to railway labour,

—

Health, Education and Welfare. The department of and welfare was established in 1953 as an elevaof the Federal Security agency. As one of the department's big

14.

health, education tion

operating bureaus, the public health service, under the surgeon general, strives to protect and improve the health of the people. Its main parts are the bureau of medical services, which administers hospitals and outpatient stations for seamen, coast guard personnel and other beneficiaries as defined by law, enforces quarantine regulations and supplies office health services for the employees of federal agencies; the bureau of state services, attending to federal-

programs for the control of communicable and other diseases and for such related matters as public-health nursing and education; and the national institutes of health as the research arm of the pubhc health service, dealing with cancer, heart disease, dental research, mental health, arthritis, allergy, infectious diseases, neurological diseases and blindness. The office of education is an agency of specialized information and technical advice, especially to state and local school officials. It also administers a grant-inaid program a customary form of federal participation in the conduct of nationally important functions not within the immediate jurisdiction of the federal government. state

—

to the

Of considerable importance to the national economy, in addition commerce department, are such independent agencies as the Housing and Home Finance agency, the Federal Home Loan Bank

divided into the bureau of old-age and survivors insurance, the bureau of public assistance, the children's bureau

board, the Federal Deposit Insurance corporation and the Atomic

and the bureau of federal credit unions.

The

Energy commission.

vises the great direct federal insurance

system under the

13.

labour

Labour.—The fundamental mandate is

to foster the welfare of

department of the wage earners, improve their of the

working conditions and advance their opportunities for profitable employment.

One

of the most important bureaus of the department is the statistics. It is the main repository within the federal government of information about employment and man-

bureau of labour

power, productivity, earnings, hours and wages, industrial relations, accidents, price trends and costs as well as standards of living. This information is made public in special bulletins and in

the

Monthly Labor Review.

labour conditions

in

The bureau

also keeps abreast of

other countries, on which

it

reports in

its

The

Social Security administration, another large

the department,

component

of

is

security legislation, whereas the second

—more

a federal financial contribution in support of

first

of these super-

typically

social

—provides

what was

originally

an exclusively local responsibility. The children's bureau, like the women's bureau in the labour department, is in the main a clearinghouse of research and technical information. The bureau of federal credit unions is the supervisor of co-operative associations organized to foster thrift among their members and to meet their credit needs.

The office of vocational rehabilitation is the ambassador of the vocational interests of the mentally as well as the physically handicapped. The Food and Drug administration deals for the most part with the enforcement of the federal laws that aim to assure

.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

standards of manufacturing purity and truthful labeling. Saint Elizabeths hospital, Washington, D.C., in the care of the department, is a government institution for the mentally ill. A looser supervisory relationship exists between the department and three federally aided corporations: the American Printing House for the Blind, Louisville, Ky., Gallaudet college for deaf students, Washington, D.C., and Howard university, Washington, D.C.,

founded

1867 to mitigate the lack of higher educational facilities for Negroes. BiBLioCRAPHY. U.S. National Archives and Records Service, IhiHed States Government Organization Mamial (annual) Lloyd M. Short, The Development of National Administrative Organization in the United States (1923) President's Committee on Administrative Management, Report With Studies (19,^7) (first) Commission on Orcanization of the Executive Branch of the Government, General Management of the Executive Branch (1949) Schuyler C. Wallace, Federal in

—

;

;

;

;

Departmentalization: a Critique of Theories of Organization (1941) F. Morstein Marx (ed.), "The Departmental System," Elements of Public Administration, 2nd ed., ch. g (1959) Herbert Emmerich, Essays Council of State Governments, on Federal Reorganization (ig.^io) Reorganizing State Government: a Report on Administrative Management in the States and a Review of Recent Trends in Reorganization (1950) R. N. Spann, "Civil Servants in Washington," Political Marver H. Bernstein, The Job of Studies, 1:143-161, 228-246 (1953) the Federal Executive^(igs8) (F. M. M.) ;

;

;

;

;

m. GREAT BRITAIN The executive powers

of the central government in Britain are,

by law or convention, vested in ministers who sit in parliament. Each minister is individually answerable to parliament for any exercise of the powers vested in him, whether action is taken by him personally or in his name by subordinates. Each minister has a retinue of officials who form a single establishment over which

Some ministers in addition are responhe presides personally. sible for other establishments which are separately organized and are often distinct legal entities, but which through constitutional evolution have come to work in ultimate subordination to a particular minister.

All

these official establishments are generally

government departments. Those over which ministers preside personally, and through which they perform their main executive duties, are often referred to collectively as ministries, and taken together form the heart of the central administration. Most of the others are charged with routine and relatively uncontroverThe two groups comprise an immensely sial administrative tasks. variegated collection of institutions, the range of whose functions and internal organization makes accurate brief generalization almost impossible. Three characteristics are common to all but a few, however: each is the entire responsibility of a minister, each is financed by direct grants from parliament voted by an orthodox procedure and each is staffed by members of a centrally recruited and integrated civil service. All the ministries and a few of the other establishments can usefully be classified as major departments, and the rest as minor departments, but there is much room for argument as to exactly where the line between them should be drawn. Moreover, there or is is even doubt in some cases as to whether an institution is not a government department. There are a host of public authori"inties, variously entitled generically "nondepartmental bodies," called

dependent administrative authorities," "public corporations," etc., which are usually collegiate in form and in respect of which ministers have certain statutory powers. A few of them have certain characteristics— for instance in their financing and stafting— while similar to those of unmistakable government departments, a few of those institutions usually referred to as departments could share certain characteristics common to public bodies which not conceivably be regarded as government departments. In .short, the very term government department cannot be precisely defined. In this context, the most that can be said safely is that in the 1960s there were about 25 to 30 major and at least SO minor government departments. 1

1.

General Background, Nomenclature and Status.— Con-

temporary Britain I

I

is

used to the concept of a government depart-

ment as a body of officials having its own continuous existence, its own traditions and philosophy, apart from the ministers who pre-

I

j

side over

it

or are responsible for

its

actions for at most a few

years at a time and often for

imply that the minister

is

a

much

637 This does not is nothing

shorter periods.

mere cipher whose presence

more than

a neces.sary constitutional formality; indeed, while the strengths of ministers vary widely, the impact of the weakest on a

department

will

have

at least the effect of lowering its status in

relation to other departments, whereas a strong minister cannot

only raise a department's relative status but can moid its stored traditions and procedures into a powerful and characteristic personal instrument which may bear the impress of his suzerainty for a generation.

Nonetheless, his mastery is based on a delicate balance between his own personal and political authority on the one hand, and his officials' expertise and experience on the other

hand. This whole concept reflects complete acceptance of the modern system of responsible cabinet government, but that system only

came

to full maturity in the middle of the

iqth century.

The

origins of the oldest departments go

back centuries before that, to a time when the central government was contained in the personal household of the medieval king: when there was no question of responsibility to anyone except the king, no "constitutional" opposition and, therefore, no distinction between a "political" executive and a "neutral" civil service. The present major departments have sprung from three main sources from individual officers of household and state, from the priv>' council and from parliament. The first source had produced by the end of the Tudor period at least the embryo forms of the lord chancellor's department, the treasury, the admiralty, the post It also produced the office of office and the ministry of works. secretary of state, which was shared by two men of equal standing as early as 1540 and, while remaining a single office, has since been divided between as many as eight heads of departments simultaneously. The board of trade (set up in the 17th century) and four scientific research organizations are in form committees of the privy council, while the ministry of education and the ministr)' of agriculture, fisheries and food derive from similar commitThe remaining ministries or their immediate forerunners tees. were created by acts of parliament in the 19th and 20th centuries.

—

it was usually the practice of parliament to establish each case a board compo.seci of some existing ministers plus a new minister who was made president of the board. Since 1915 new ministerial oflkes have been set up by statute without any hint

Until 1915 in

of collegiate authority.

The variety of origins is reflected in the variety of titles and constitutions of departments because the British have indulged an indigenous weakness for retaining outward institutional forms after the realities have long ceased to correspond with them. Thus, the basic constitutional simplicity and uniformity of the system is by no means apparent from a list of contemporary ministers and

departments.

The straightforward "minister

of

.

.

."

and "min-

used for less than half the departmental chiefs and their major departments. The other ministries are either the "offices" of secretaries of state or have unique collegiate forms and board of are headed by ministers with ctiually unique titles— the istry of

.

.

." is

treasits president, the admiralty and its first lord, the ury answerable to the chancellor of the exchequer, and so on. departments It would be incorrect to declare that government existence of a strict the implied this is by if a hierarchy,

trade with

form

command running downward from one supreme department Each through various strata of major and minor deparlmenls. anything done minister must answer personally to parliament for escape responsibility by in his name by his oflicials: he cannot the instructions of a out carrying merely was he that claiming recognize any colleague, for the constitution does not "senior between ministers, and therefore cannot do so between fine of

"

inequality

But just as the prime minister has become their departments. traditional "first among equals" in a ministerial to some extent if not a hierarchy at any rate

more than the

context, so there

is

departments in a degree of aristocracy among perhaps has to be felt rather than explained. also partments which are in the front rank are

Whitehall which

Some of the deamong the most

dealt for centuries with ancient, simply because they deal and have government. Bui formal preof functions fundamental most the

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

638

cedence derived from origins and nomenclature is no longer a safe guide to relative status. Tangible proofs of current political and administrative importance, rather than antiquity or title, are the hard main bases of such distinctions as exist. Thus, now that there are too many ministries for all their chiefs to be members of the cabinet, those which are directly represented in the highest counof the state are inevitably lifted a little above their fellows. department whose minister was unknown to the constitution 20 years ago but who now sits in the cabinet may carry more w^eight. for the nonce at any rate, than a department headed by a secretary of state and dating back to the 15th century. Departments are shown in a proper perspective if they are grouped roughly according to their functional affinities, though there can be no absolute precision about what each major function cil

A

In the following sections

of government comprises.

all

the minis-

mentioned, but only a selection of the minor departments Administrative organization exclusively concerned is included. with Scotland and Wales is referred to briefly in a final paragraph. (See also Scotland: Administralion and Social Conditions.) Most of the text treats of departments which deal with the whole of the United Kingdom or with England and Wales as one unit. tries are

The

first

section, while covering financial administration, has pride it includes the treasury, whose position in the cen-

of place because tral

administration

yond normal 2.

is

unique and whose influence extends far be-

financial boundaries.

The Treasury and Associated Departments.

—The

treas-

12th century as one part of the financial machinery of the kingdom which was concerned exclusively with the receipt and issue of money. At its head was the lord high treasurer.

ury began

in the

but his office was put "in commission" on several occasions in the The lords commislate 17th century, and permanently in 1714. sioners of the treasury are the formal heads of the department, but the first lord is now always prime minister, the junior lords are

house of commons, and the effective ministerial chief is the second lord or chancellor of the exchequer, who first appeared on the treasury scene in the reign of Henry III.

government whips

The modern

in the

treasury'

the nearest equivalent in Britain to a

is

affairs, but it does both more than the ministry of finance in other countries. The treasury does not collect revenue: this is done mainly by two large departments also answerable to the chancellor of the exchequer the board of inland revenue and the board of customs and excise.

ministry of finance and economic

and

less

—

Moreover, much specialized financial work is carried on by such minor departments as the national debt commission, the paymaster general's office, the royal mint and the public works loan board,

all

chequer.

ultimately responsible

The

treasur>'

itself

is

to a

the

chancellor of

the

ex-

relatively small department,

concerned primarily with the big aspects of fiscal policy, domestic and external, including the preparation of the annual budget. Between 1947 and 1953 it also became, and continues to be, the departmental home of a central staff of economists and planning

whose tasks are to co-ordinate the economic policies of other departments and to advise the chancellor of the exchequer on the making of national economic policy. But the function which gives the treasury its peculiar prestige officers

in

British administration

—

is

responsibility for controlling deresponsibility always latent in the its

partmental expenditure a department though forced into great prominence by parliamentary pressure for economy in the mid-igth century. This control gives the treasury far-reaching powers over the structure, the pay and

senior minister his political strength

is

usually considerable.

In

addition, the connection of the prime minister with the department

(even if largely nominal), the high calibre of the treasury staff, conventional high status of the department and the wellunderstood "rules of the game'' in Whitehall combine to make the treasury, though not the master, at least more than the equal of the other departments. The permanent headship of the treasury has been formally recognized as the most important post in the home civil service since 1920. In the 20th century it has on a few occasions been shared by two or three men. and since 1956 it has been held jointly. One permanent secretary holds the title of head of the home civil service; he is at the same time secretary of the cabinet and thus presides over the cabinet office, a nonpolicy-making secretariat whose origins go back to the secretariat of the committee of imperial defense set up in 1904. and which took its present form in Dec. 1916. This secretary, in his threefold capacity, advises the prime minister and the chancellor of the exchequer on all matters of personnel and organization; his colleague answers to the chancellor of the exchequer for the fiscal and economic side of the treasury's work. 3. Justice and Public Order. One of the most distinctive characteristics of British government, which marks it off from the other countries of western Europe, is the relatively low degree of central executive control over local administration, particularly There are over 150 police forces, in the context of police power. and all save the metropolitan police, whose area covers greater London, are under local control. Nor are there any "regional" officers equivalent to the French prefect whose primary loyalty is to. and whose supervisory powers over local units are wielded primarily in the interests of. the central government. In British the

—

autonomy

central administration the extent of local

is

also re-

European would readily recognize as ministries of the interior and of justice. Central powers relating to matters of justice and internal order are exercised in England and Wales by the home office and Neither is charged, however, the lord chancellor's department. with any general supervision over the local government system; insofar as there is such supervision it is undertaken principally by the ministry of housing and local government, a department mainly flected in the lack of

any departments which

a continental

interested in social service matters.

The home

main department of the secretary of (or home secretary) and took its present basic form in 1782. It was throughout most of the 19th century the natural choice for any new functions needing domestic administration, but as this sphere of government grew, various blocks of work were removed and became the nucleus of the busistate for the

to its

is

the

The practice of turning first to the has remained, however, with the result that in addition major continuing functions, the department is responsible

ness of

home

office

home department

new departments.

office

powers to which no other major continuing task is helpa term which covers ing to ensure the maintenance of public order inspecting and giving advice to local poUce forces, the organizafor exercising a miscellaneous group of

department has

a better claim.

Its

—

tion of the lower criminal courts, a general interest in the working

amendments, and the duty of advising the home secretary on the e.xercise of the prerogative of mercy. It also deals with such matters as immigration and naturalization, civil defense, aliens, certain safety regulations, election administration, control of dangerous drugs, of the criminal law and the promotion of necessary

work of the civil service. It also extends its influence into the sphere of organization and methods, and into the general arrangement of the whole central administration. The

inspection of local

control

the prison commissioners are answerable to the home secretary. In England and Wales the organization of the lower civil courts

the conditions of

not simply a straightforward e.xercise of crude authority. officers attached to other departments to watch over their spending, nor is it concerned with the audit of departmental accounts. Control is achieved rather through continuous and delicate negotiations between the treasury and is

The treasury does not have

departments before the former gives

its

approval for proposed ex-

ministration

is

Prison adfire services, liquor licensing, etc. the responsibility of a separate prison commission;

the metropolitan police

is

headed by

a commissioner.

all

grown from the dimensions of

pends for its exchequer in

the 20th century.

a

mere private

j

'

Both he and

the superior courts, the appointment of minor judicial officers and the duty of advising the crown on the appointment of judges of the supreme court are the principal administrative functions of the lord chancellor, whose small department has

and

penditure by the latter.

In the last resort, treasury control deeffectiveness on the strength of the chancellor of the the cabinet, but as the chancellor is always a very

I

| '

office in the

course of

The lord chancellor is also answerable to parliament for the work of the public trustee, the land registry and the

j

1

1

j

—

—

Responsibility for the conduct of the most important crown prosecutions and for all litigation to which government is a party rests in England and Wales with the attorney general and solicitor general, who are served by a small professional staff comprising the law officers' department. The attorney general also supervises the work of the director of pubhc prose-

of disagreement, the minister's will ultimately prevails, but the strong professional body of advisers and the special character of the function of defense means that the administration of the armed

cutions.

The concept of a single, interservice strategy, of co-ordinated naval and military planning, was first given institutional recognition in the creation of the committee of imperial defense and its

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS public record office.

4.

External Affairs._The

earliest secretaries of state

were

primarily occupied with diplomatic duties, and from 1640 divided their interests geographically, one secretary taking the countries of

northern Europe as his sphere of influence, the other dealing with southern Europe and with the relatively little domestic adminis-

which came the way of the secretaries, In the 17th and ISth centuries, Scottish and colonial business was added and a third secretary of state held office from 1707 to 1725, from 1741 to 1745, and between 1768 and 1782. In this last year the geographical division of interest was changed: the northern secretary became in effect the foreign secretary, and the southern secretary became responsible for home and colonial affairs. In 180 1 a third secretarj' of state was appointed, this time for war and colonies, and in 1854 these two subjects each became the responsibility of a separate secretary. Meanwhile, since 1786, the British government had assumed certain responsibility for India, where the East India company still held sway, and had appointed Full governa board of commissioners for the affairs of India. mental control followed in 1858, under a new secretary of state For the next 70 years there were three "external" for India. departments the foreign, colonial and India offices. After World War I, as a result of the development of self-government in some the dominions called dominions after 1907 of the larger colonies branch of the colonial office was made into a separate dominions office in 1925, and a new office of secretary of state for dominion In 1937 a Burma office was established, affairs was created. though it and the India office remained the responsibility of a single minister. Ten years later the dominions office was renamed the commonwealth relations office, and its work steadily extended as relations with formerly dependent territories passed either to it or to the foreign office. The India and Burma offices disappeared trative business

—

—

in

—

independent nonthe Republic of Ireland, and with unique among government departments

The foreign office conducts commonwealth states except the United Nations. it

is

staffed

It is

relations with

by members of

all

a foreign service

whose posts

are interchangeable with posts at missions overseas. The commonwealth relations and colonial offices are staffed by members of the

home

civil service,

who

are liable to be posted overseas.

The

personnel of the commonwealth relations office and of the British high commissioners' offices in commonwealth countries is, however, practically a separate service whose members are moved about as frequently as their counterparts in the foreign service. relations office is responsible for relations with all the self-governing nations of the commonwealth, with the sultanate of the Maldive Islands and with the Republic of Ireland; territories it is also responsible for the administration of three within or adjacent to the borders of the Republic of South Africa

The commonwealth

Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland. The colonial office is concerned with direct administration and with the constitutional, economic and social development of the remaining dependent

(See also Foreign Service.) 5. Defense. The evolution of two departments to deal comprehensively with the administration and control of ihe nav>' and army was slow and complicated. The admiralty and war office are, in short, the results of bringing together over a long period of British territories.

—

I

!

i

'•

,

,

,

forces is more a matter for genuine collegiate authority (this is particularly so in naval matters) than any other branch of central administration.

secretariat

in

strated by

its

1902-04. The value of this device was demonbeing the basis in World Wars 1 and II of the war

cabinet organization, and in 1946 the military secretariat was adapted and extended to form a ministry of defense. The minister of defense sits in the cabinet and his powers in general defense matters have been steadily increased. In 1958 a defense board on the lines of the board of admiralty and the army and air councils was appointed with the minister of defense as chairman. The three service departments have retained a direct responsibility for the detailed administration of the na\^', army and air force, but their ministers have not sat in the cabinet since 1946. A fifth unit makes up the set of modern defense departments. This is the ministr>' of supply, whose most ancient predecessor was the board of ordnance set up in the 15th century and abolished in 1855 during the Crimean War, when the need to consolidate administrative authority in the war office was the prevailing view. In World War I the task of supplying the army was entrusted to a ministry of munitions which was disbanded in 1921. The ministry of supply was established in 1939, and in 1946 took over the functions of a wartime ministry of aircraft production. For some years during and after World War II, the ministry of supply had, as well as its military duties, wide civil responsibilities, especially in connection with the control of raw materials for industry, and under the Labour government of 1945-51 was charged with the general supervision of the iron and steel and heax-y engineering industries. After 195 1, however, the department was relieved of much of its nonmilitary work, and concentrated on supplying the army and air force with most of their stores. It has relatively little to do for the navy the admiralty remains both an operational and ;

a supply department.

1947-48.

in that

639

time a large assortment of naval and military administrative authorities, and the air ministry, established in 19 iS by removing the relevant sections of the two older departments and merging them, took the same constitutional form, which reflects a corapro-

mise between the special military need for operational flexibility and the insistence of parliament on ultimate civil control. Each department is headed by a board or council comprising the highest service officers together with the minister as chairman, a junior minister and the secretary, who is a civil servant. In the event

—

Trade, Industry, Agriculture, Communications. One contemporary British administration is the existence of recognized channels of contact between the state and every trade and industry, through which there is a two-way traflic various degrees of control, advice and assistance passing down from the government, and information and requests for help and co-operation passing upward from producers and traders. The responsibility for deahng with these economic units or groups is widely distributed among the major departments. Some trades and industries have special links with departments whose primary for example, the shipadministrative interests are not economic 6.

of the features of

—

building industry turns to the admiralty, the manufacturers of drugs and medical appliances look to the ministry of health, and

But there are departments whose whole concern is with or more groups of producers and traders, or with a one either range of administrative matters of general concern to the commerIn addition, there is the post office, which is sometimes cial world. regarded as a revenue department but deserves to be treated as an so on.

industry in itself. The post office

is,

in fact, the oldest of these

departments.

A

master of the posts was appointed about 151 2. and a general post It has remained a office was established by Cromwell in 1657. encompassed not has growth enormous whose unit self-contained merely the postal service but also a near monopoly of telecommuniand it provides a cations; it is, in addition, a savings bank by various ubiquitous "counter" service which is used extensively departments on an agency basis. (.See also Postal Servother

ices.)

.

,

,

.

.

departments of trade has been the mam progenitor of the privy coundealing with economic matters. As a committee of continuous existence since i6ji, cil the board has had an almost and its formal duties but its present constitution dates from 1786, down in an order in council of that year are "the consideration

The board

laid

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

640

Until all matters relating to trade and foreign plantations." the middle of the 19th centurj' the board's role was mainly consultative and advisory, but thereafter it became, under the unequivocal leadership of its president, a powerful executive department

of

exercising regulatory powers over commercial practice, over shipping and railways, over patents, over fisheries, etc.. while also

developing further as the central department concerned with domestic industry and external trade. The range of the board of trade's functions was greatest in 1914, but as a result of two world wars and a further expansion of governmental activity the board's wide jurisdiction was later divided among several departments. The board itself now plays a

and industry department it has and consultative role in relation to the whole world of manufacture and commerce; it is a regulatory department with many routine functions concerning companies, bankruptcy, patents, etc.; and it is the department which all trades as the senior trade

triple part:

a general ad\isory. stimulative

and industries other than those allotted to other departments consider to be "their" channel of communication with the central government. But the board's previous responsibilities relating to employment matters, to transport and to public utilities are nowexercised in an extended form by three additional departments. The ministry of labour and national ser\'ice, first detached from the board of trade in 19 17. offers a wide range of services to employers and employees, mainly through a national network of emplo>Tnent exchanges. The ministry of transport and ci\^l a\'iation. set up in a more limited form in 1919. has within its jurisdiction all the

mediums

of transportation.

The ministry

of fuel

and power, dating from 1942 and renamed the ministry of power in 1957, is concerned with the development and regulation of power The last two ministries are the central departments resources. most in touch with the nationalized transport and power industries.

Government

riculture until 1883,

which gave place with

its

own

become administratively interested when a pri\-y council committee was

did not six

in agset

up

years later to a statutory board of agriculture It had ver>- limited functions and in 1903

president.

was strengthened by acquiring responsibility for fisheries from the board of trade, thereupon taking the title of board of agriculture and fisheries. .After 191 2 it was only concerned with agriculture in England and Wales, and it was never concerned with fisheries in Scotland. In 1919 the board became a ministry. During World Wars I and II, the department had no part in the administration of controls on the distribution of food, which was handled on both occasions by a separate ministn,' of food. After 1945 the interest of government in agriculture was sustained at almost its wartime intensity, and the greatly expanded ministry of agriculture and fisheries continued to administer an enormous range of subsidies, technical advisorj' services and a variety of controls. In 1955. when the second ministry of food was abolished, most of its remaining functions were handed over to the ministry of agriculture and fisheries which has since been known as the ministry of agriculture, fisheries and food. The department has within its purview domestic food production and marketing in England and Wales, all external procurement and the internal distribution of foodstuffs.

Social Services.

—

now

regarded as the duty of the state is enhanced by the provision of personal medical attention, education, housing, environmental health services, insurance and assistance to soften the economic effects of unemployment, sickness, old age, widowhood, 7.

It is

to ensure that the welfare of its citizens

etc.

far as government is involved in the Poor Law act of 1601; the second a by-product of industrialization the mid- 19th-century movement to improve the health of towns; and the third the adoption in 1911 of the insurance principle as the basis of national programs of social security. Between 1830 and 1930 the adaptation of the poor law and the various manifestations of interest in public health brought about the evolution of two new administra-

—

tive

phenomena

(

—

cient concern for the state of the poor, with a starting point so

a

The ministry

1834.

national

structure of "all-purpose"

elected

of health w-as responsible not only for the

work and public health services, and for the general constitutional and financial aspects of the local government system, but was also involved in the supervision of most of the growing contributory insurance programs. Unemployment insurance, however, was administered first through the board of trade and then through the ministry of labour. Mass unemploycentral supervision of poor-law

badly that the unemployment be formed in 1934 to relieve the strain on both the unemployment assistance board insurance program and on the local authorities who were providing

ment a

in the interwar years disorganized the plans so

body had

special

—

—

to

public assistance. of the basic proposals of Sir William (later Beveridge's Report on Social hisurance and Allied Services during World War II made it inevitable that the central administrative organization of the relevant social ser\'ices. which had grown up piecemeal, should he much extended but at the same time

The acceptance

Lord

)

be concentrated

in

fewer departments.

In 1944 a ministry of

national insurance was established and in 1953

—

it

was combined

with the ministry of pensions a department which dated from 1916 and had been charged with the care of war pensioners to form the present ministry of pensions and national insurance. It

—

whole of the programs of national insurance, induswar pensions and family allowances; it is. a "cash payments" department with a national jurisdiction

deals with the trial injuries

in fact,

insurance,

and no connection at all w-ith the work of local authorities. Between 1943 and 1951 there was a separate ministry of town and country planning which relieved the ministry of health of part During of its general responsibility for environmental services. that period the national health service began to operate (1948), and at the same time the old unemployment assistance board, which had been renamed the assistance board in 1940, became the national assistance board and was made responsible for all necessary residual financial assistance, thus "nationalizing" public assistance and freeing the local authorities and the ministry of health of all their old poor-law functions. Even with these changes, and with the loss of insurance work, the burden on the ministry of health

divided.

became very great, and in 1951 the department was The older sections, which dealt with general local gov-

ernment matters and with en\aronmental services such as housing, water supply and sewerage, were combined with the ministry of town and country planning to form what is now the ministry of housing and local government the direct descendant of the local government board of 1871-1919. The central administration of the national health service was left to the ministry of health. (See

—

also

SocwL Security.)

—

Common Services. There is a very considerable amount of work done by departments for each other on an agency basis, and there are also a number of departments whose main purpose is to provide ser\-ices common to all or a large number of departments. The largest of these is the ministry of works, the modern counterpart of the surveyor general of works, whose immediate predecessor was the office of works set up in roughly its present form in 1851 and converted into a ministry in 1940. Its main task is to 8.

Governmental concern for education began in the 1830s with a modest grant of public money for schools, and in 1839 a committee of the privy council was set up to take charge of the distribution of subsequent grants. A department appeared under the committee in 1856, and in 1899 both gave place to a board of education with its own president. In 1944 the board became the present ministry of education, and the central super\ision of the service the whole of the detailed administration being handled by local education authorities) is compact and self-contained. The other social services have three main roots one the an-

—

and central departments whose main work was to co-operate with and in some respects to supervise those councils. In the period between World Wars I and II, the principal central department in this context was the ministry of health, which was set up in 1919 to replace the local government board of 1871, whose antecedents in turn go back to the poor-law commission of

local councils,

pro\'ide

accommodation, furnishings, heating and cleaning,

etc.,

has certain responsibilities for parks and palaces, museums and ancient monuments, and it is the government's channel of communication with the building infor departments, but in addition

it

GOVERNOR No

other common service department is presided over by a minister personally; her majesty's stationery office, which provides stationery and printing services and is concerned with dustry.

the supply of mechanical office equipment, is ultimately responsible to the chancellor of the exchequer. So, too, is the treasury

whose department handles the legal work of various departments which do not wish or whose functions do not demand their own legal officers, and the central office of information which provides publicity material on request from other departments. Among minor departments which are largely if not always primarily concerned to provide common services are the government chemist, the ordnance survey, the government actuary, the central statistical office and the general register office. solicitor,

9. Scientific Research.— Large-scale participation in scientific research by the government only began in the 20th century. Research for defense purposes is carried on mainly by the service

departments and the ministry of supply. Research for civil purposes by private organizations and universities is assisted by government grants, but in addition there are several governmental research establishments. The largest is the department of scien-

and industrial research, first set up in 1916. It is unequivogovernment department, and its operating units are about Three other research 14 laboratories or groups of laboratories. tific

cally a

organizations

—the

medical research council, the agricultural

search council and the nature conservancy

—are

re-

not, in the nor-

mal sense, government departments, as they are financed by grantsin-aid and only in a few instances do their staffs include civil servants. They and the department of scientific and industrial research are linked, however, by their constitutional form: all four answer in theory to committees of the privy council, which means in practice to the lord president of the council, a minister whose other light and nonscientific duties are carried on by the privy council office. Ministerial supervision of scientific work is much less stringent, however, than it is in the case of orthodo.x departments a practice which reflects the conviction that the organization of scientific re-

—

search must be flexible and that as

much autonomy

as possible

641

latures, generally for short terms.

Subsequent discontent with and the analogy of the strong presidency, created a counteraction to emancipate the governor from legislative dominance. In the mid-19th century, further constitutional changes in many states, conforming to the doctrines of Jacksonian democracy, necessitated a long ballot to fill the principal executive

overpowerf ul

legislatures,

positions, the governorship included,

by popular election. The governor, co-ordinate with the legislature, consequently lacked adequate authority over the officials elected with him. By 19(X), as state

governments assumed new functions,

legislatures also pro-

ceeded to multiply the number of separate administrative agencies. These were largely exempt from control by the governor because they were too numerous to supervise and many were beaded by virtually independent boards. In a state whose executive branch was structurally unfit for its growing burdens, leadership sometimes gravitated from constitutionally elected officials to a party "boss" beyond the people's reach.

A reform movement, gathering momentum before World War I, proposed to democratize the government by simplifying its machinery and throwing squarely upon a strengthened executive branch the responsibility of public service. Following World War II, renewed interest in the improvement of state government resulted in further recommendations and action. Among specific remedies suggested were the short ballot, reducing the number of elective officials; reorganization of administrative agencies by a reduction in their number and consolidation of their functions; the executive budget, prepared and proposed by the governor; and centralization of many administrative and finance management functions in departments of administration or finance. Governors increasingly emerged as leading figures in most state governments. By the early 1960s, they served for terms of four years in the great majority of the states. More truly than in the 19th century, they functioned as chief executives, wielding effective authority over most administrative agencies and shouldering political responsibility.

Simultaneously, governors with public appeal actively initiated When occupying the position of party leaders, they placed between the executive and legislative branches a political link belying the dogma of the separation of powers.

should be guaranteed to the scientists. 10. Scotland and Wales. Since the appointment of a secretary for Scotland in 1885, there has been a steady process of do-

legislative policy.

mestic devolution from Whitehall to Edinburgh. Scotland's minister now a secretary of state exercises his powers through four departments home, education, agriculture and health. Much of the legal administration in Scotland is carried on through the

Bibliography. Leslie Lipson, The American Governor From Figurehead to Leader (1939) Coleman B. Ransone, Jr., The Office of Gov-(D. M. M.; L. Lip.; P. L. L) ernor in the United Stales (1956).

—

—

—

—

Many London

departments have jurisdiction in Scotland, however, and all "English" domestic departments operate in Wales. Several of those departments have established decentralized organizations for dealing with Wales, lord

advocate's department.

—

;

GOVERNOR,

an automatic device designed to regulate the speed of a steam or gasoline engine or other prime mover. In most governors this speed is measured with the aid of centrifugal flyweights. The flyweights are driven at a speed proportional to that of the prime mover.

and since 1951 one of the departmental ministers in the cabinet has been charged specifically with a general responsibility for

Welsh

centrifugal force of the flyweights

is

SPEED SETTING MADE HERE

SPEEDER SPRI

affairs.

—

FLYWEIGHT

W. R. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, 4th ed. (1935); K. B. Smellie, A Hundred Years of English Government, 2nd ed. (1951) Royal Institute of Public Administration, The Organisation of British Central Government, igi4~jg56, ed. by D. N. Chester, written by F. M. G. Willson dps?) W. J. M. Mackenzie and J. W. Grove, Central Administration in Britain (1957) Sir James Marchant (ed.), "The Whitehall Series" of books on individual government departments, 12 vol. (1925-35); Sir Robert Fraser (ed.), "The New Whitehall Series," first 6 vol. (1954 et seq.) Memoranda, vol. iiii, submitted to the Royal Commission on Scottish Affairs (H.M.S.O., i9S2-?4) Annual Reports of various departments (H.M.S.O.). Bibliography.

vol.

The

MOVEMENT

ii,

;

FLYWEIGHT

;

FLYWEIGHT PIVOT

;

;

;

(F.

GOVERNOR,

a

common

M.G. W.)

political title for the official

head

dependent or component unit in a larger constitutional structure. Governorships of one type have existed in the British, French, Dutch and other empires; those of another type exist in (For the states of the United States, and in Brazil and Mexico.

OUTPUT SHAFT OF GOVERNOR

of a

the first type, see

Governor General.

)

In the state governments of the United States, the governorship derived from British origins but traced a separate course. The earliest state constitutions, through reaction against nonresponsible colonial executives, subordinated the executive branch to the legislative.

In 11 states governors were elected by the

legis-

FIG.

'-"^

IM

SHAFT MOVEMENT

1.— SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF SIMPLE MECHANICAL GOVERNOR

compression of a balanced, completely or in part, by the force of of the flymotion the governor simplest the In speeder spring. output shaft of weights is mechanically transmitted through the meters governor to the throttle or some equivalent device that

the mover (fig. i ). The the rate at which energy is fed to the prime the position of the steady state speed of the prime mover is set by the flyweight which at that to opposite spring speeder end of the

GOVERNOR a "wobble plate" which adjusts the rate of fluid flow out of the

pump is

GOVERNOR OUTPUT

to the

motor.

The speed

of the output shaft of a hydraulic torque converter

controlled

by a double governor, one driven by the engine and

the other by the converter, with the governors in a series combination rather than parallel. The simplest mechanical governor is of

A

governor is said output mechanism takes a position in proportion to the prime mover speed. For a speed droop governor, or governor on droop, on an isolated prime mover, the steady state prime mover speed the proportional type.

to be proportional if its

ALTERNATE '^M.

SUMP OUTLET^

SERVOMOTOR PISTON

-SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF SIMPLE ISOCHRONOUS HYDRAULIC GOV-

2.-

ERNOR force

is

applied.

is designed to keep the prime mover speed at its assigned value regardless of variations in the load and changes

A

in

governor

ambient conditions.

Where

precise control

is

required, qr an appreciable

amount of energ>' me-

power must be drawn from the governor to move the A tering mechanism, a hydraulic governor is generally employed. hydraulic governor (tig. 2) has as one component a mechanical governor, called in this instance a ballhead, similar to that shown in fig. I. The output of the ballhead is amplified by a pilot valve and servomotor. The servomotor is usually a cylinder containing a piston and the output shaft of the governor is connected to the piston.

The valve

controls the flow of oil to the two sides of the piston

In the case of a gasoline engine, or a dual fuel oil and gas engine operating on gas, the governor output shaft is often attached to the throttle. An aircraft propeller governor controls the speed of the engine driving the propeller by varying the pitch of the propeller and thus changing the engine load. A diesel engine is controlled by connecting the governor output shaft to the rack which meters the rate at in the cylinder.

'

which

On

fuel

is

a function of the load, decreasing

the load

is

increased, and increasing

the load

is

decreased.

when when

The simplest type

SUMP OUTLET

FIG.

is

of mechanical governor is both a proportional and speed droop governor. The simplest type of hydraulic governor is of the constant-speed isochronous type. Such a governor will continue to make a correction as long as the prime mover

speed deviates from the set value. standard aircraft propeller governor

The is

of

this type.

The simple isochronous governor

is

an

'

(

s

1

S'

MARQUETTE Cf SS-WRIGHT CORP.

CUTA.WAY VIEW FIG. 3. put is a mathematical integral of the input. OF ISOCHRONOUS DASHPOT GOVERNOR Since such a governor will often indulge in "hunting," or self-oscillation about the preset value of speed, a governor with a dashpot (fig. 3) is often employed to yield both proportional and integral control. The dashpot is a differentiating device whose output is the rate integral or reset governor, in that the out-

of change of the input.

The input to the dashpot is the servomotor piston position, while the output of the dashpot is a force applied to the ballhead of the governor in parallel with the speeder spring force. The addition of the dashpot to the governor makes the governor sensitive to engine acceleration as well as speed.

injected.

GOVERNOR OUTPUT

steam turbine the governor positions the steam valve or valves which control the steam flow to the turbine. Similarly, a governor for a hydraulic reaction turbine of the Francis type positions the gates which varj' the rate of water flow to the turbine. For a Kaplan turbine the governor also varies the pitch of the propeller blades through an extra servomotor. Governors for Pelton impulse turbines vary the areas of the jets of water a

striking the turbine buckets.

The

by same time varied valves from which the jets areas are varied rapidly

cutting into the jets with blades, and at the

slowly

by positioning needles

in

emerge. The output shaft of a gas turbine governor is connected to the fuel valve of the turbine. Provision is normally made to bring a

combustion chamber temperature measurement, obtained directly or through the use of a computer, to the governor so as to limit the maximum and minimum fuel rates and thus keep this temperature within design limits. Computation of the combustion chamber temperature is necessary for fast limiting, and is based on the laws of thermodynamics relating this temperature to other physical variables.

Governors on

SERVOMOTOR PISTON FIG.

The amount

and gas pipeline turbine-compressor units actually control pressure in the line. With the aid of pneumatic components the governor speed setting is adjusted from a measurement of this pressure. The speed of the compressor is increased or decreased so as to keep the pressure constant. oil

Hydraulic positive displacement pump-motor units are used to provide infinitely variable speed ratio drives. The governor is driven by the motor, while the governor output is connected to

4.

— SPEED

DROOP GOVERNOR

of acceleration sensitivity increases with the time

lag in the dashpot.

An

inertial

employed

element

in parallel

with the fly\veights

is

sometimes

in place of the dashpot.

Any governor may by the proper use

be

made

of feedback

droop governor (fig. 4) from the output of the governor to

into a speed

the ballhead. or more prime movers are operated in parallel, as drive alternators connected to the same electrical load, only one of the governors can be isochronous. The others must^

When two

when they

GOVERNOR-GENERAL— GOWER be on speed droop. Through adjustment of the amounts of feedback in the governors arbitrary division of load between the units can be achieved. The load on a prime mover may be measured directly to produce a load control governor whose output depends on this load as well as the speed of the prime mover. The speed of a prime mover is sometimes measured by a pump instead of a ballhead, using the output pressure of the pump as a

measure of speed. Electrical governors are

employed

in various installations

where

stitution

was similar

to

that

6+3

in

an independent commonwealth

country. hi.^-

In cases in which the constitution authorized him to use discretion in cxerci>inK any power conferred on him. he could

do so either contrary to minislcrial advice or without it. ihcjugh in practice he ought to have acted in accordance with such advice unless

either the advice contliucd with instructions given by the

crown or he considered he ought

to reject

it

even

at the risk of caus-

ing the ministers to resign.

In India, the evolution of the office of governor-general was In accordance with the provisions of the Regu-

slightly different.

mover drives an electrical generator whose output is an indication of prime mover speed. (R The term governor-general indicates primarily that the officer holding the title is set over a number of olficers holding that of governor or even lieutenant governor. An alternative term sometimes used is governor in chief; in British usage it still survives in the formal title of the governor of Jamaica, which is captain general and governor in chief. In this sense governor-general has occurred in the usage of most colonial powers. In British constitutional practice the powers of- a governorgeneral, Hke those of a governor (g.v.), must be derived either

1773 Warren Hastings became the first governorthe rule of the East India Company came to an end and the Indian empire was created, Lord Canning, the first governor-general of the imperial government, received also the title

from the commission which he has received from the crown, or from some other statute either of imperial or local legislation, but in the case of dependent territories the title governor-general is

was formally tendered to the crown by the U.K. government. the same happened in the case of Ceylon in 1948 and Ghana in 1957. On commonwealth nations' becoming republics recognizing the crown as head of the commonwealth the office of governor-general disappears and a president takes his place. In the case of Malaya, which became an independent nation in 1957 (and in 1963 merged with other states to form Malaysia a new form of limited monarchy was devised. (W. H. Is.; GOW, NIEL (1727-18071. Scottish violinist known for his publications of old Scottish melodies, was born at Strathbrand, Perthshire, on March 22. 1727. He taught himself the violin as a youth and became renowned as a player of Scottish dance music. Eighty-seven of his strathspey reels were published in six collections between 1784 and 1822. Some of these melodies were original, some traditional, some adaptations of traditional airs. He died at Inver. Perthshire, on March 1, 1807. Three of his sons, William, John and Andrew, contributed pieces to their father's collections. John and Andrew became publishers of music in London. Gow's fourth son, Nathaniel 1763-1831 I, was equally well known as a violinist and composer of Scottish dances, and the tradition extended to Nathaniel Gow's son, Niel the younger (c. 1795-1823 ), composer of "The Lament of Flora Macdonald and

the prime

)

GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

now

usually restricted to federations.

During the evolution of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations, the status and function of the office of governorgeneral have undergone changes corresponding to the progress of territories toward self-government and independence. These changes have been of the same character as those in the status and functions of governor from the time of the earliest colonies to the 20th century, in which local legislatures have developed from official and nominated bodies into elected bodies with, eventually, full autonomy. By 1890 it had become the practice that the government of a self-governing colony should be asked to approve the selection of the governor made by the British government, and when the Irish Free State was created in 1922, a further advance was made, for the governor-general was chosen by the Free State government and approved only by the crown. The representative of the crown in Ireland had previously held the rank of viceroy, but the Government of Ireland Act of 1920 constituted the office of governor-general for the Irish Free State and that of governor for Northern Ireland, the former being appropriate for the Irish Free State since it had dominion status. In 1926, in the course of developing events in Canada, it was the functions of the governor-general should be limited to representation of the crown, unless any dominion preferred that he should also perform any functions on behalf of the

lating Act of

general.

When

The holder of the office was generally known by that the Indian Independence Act of 1947, which established the offices of governor-general for India and for Pakistan. The

of viceroy. title until

of these posts necessitated a departure from normal pracbecause there could be no ministers formally to advise the crown until a governor-general had been appointed and ministers had taken office. In these circumstances the leaders of the Congress Party and the Muslim League were consulted and their adfilling

tice

vice

Much

I

(

"

other songs. See H. G. Farmer, History of Music in Scotland (1947) J. Glen, The Glen Collection oj Scottish Dance Music, 2 vol. (1S91 and 1895). ;

(Cs. Ch.)

decided that

In 1930 the Imperial Conference declared that appointment of a governor-general should rest on the authority of the commonwealth nation concerned, and this development resulted in the ap-

pointment of their own citizens by some commonwealth countries. It concluded that the following statements flowed naturally from

new

position

:

the parties interested in the

appointment are the crown and the dominion concerned; the constitutional practice that the crown acts on the advice of responsible ministers applies; the ministers who tender advice and are responsible for it are those in the dominion concerned; they tender formal advice after informal consultation with the crown; the channel of communications between the crown and any dominion government solely concerns the crown and such government. In 1932 the Irish Free State asserted successfully its right to secure removal by the king of a governor-general who was persotui non grata: this revealed the difference between the position of the governor-general and that of the crown, for it showed that the former held office only at the pleasure of the government of the day. In the exceptional constitutional position of the former Federation

of

general in

Rhodesia and Nyasaland the position of governormatters in which he had no discretion under the con-

all

1408). English poet called by Chaucer "moral Gowcr." and long regarded as almost his equal as "father He died at an advanced age in 1408. so that of English poetry. he may be presumed to have been born about 1330. He belonged (d.

"

British government.

the governor-general's

GO'WER, JOHN

good Kentish family and owned the manors of Feltwell in Moulton in Norfolk. In a document of 1382 he is called an "Esquier de Kent," and he was certainly not in holy It is known that he was acquainted with Chaucer, first orders. because Chaucer in leaving England for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent him in his absence, second because Chaucer addressed his Troiliis and Criseyde to Gower and Ralph Strode (addressing them as "moral Gower" and "philosophical Strode") for criticism and correction, and third because "And of the lines in the first edition of Gower's Conjessio anumtis, " There is no sufficient ground grete wel Chaucer when ye mete of these for the suggestion, based partly on the subsequent omis.sion Chaucer to the lines, and partly on the humorous reference by Coulessio amaulis in the introduction to the Man of Law's Tale, to a

Suffolk and

poem that the friendship was broken by a quarrel. From his Latin Vox clamuntis it is clear that Gower was deeply and painfully interfirst draft was probested in the peasants' revolt of 13S1 though the ,

which he made in ably written before that; and by the alterations a gradually insuccessive revisions of this work there can be traced (Richard II>, whom king youthful in the disappointment creasing

GOWER

644 of the

kingdom

he at first acquits of all responsibility for the state personally known on account of his tender age. That he became statement in the first edition to the king is evidenced by his own met the king on of the Conjessio amantis, where he says that he

and in the conversathe river, was invited to enter the royal barge, which led him to write tion which followed received the suggestion especially from the the poem. At the same time, it can be deduced, was an admirer of later revisions of the Conjessio amantis, that he f later Henry IV), Lancaster of Henry cousin, brilliant king's the came eventually to regard as a possible saviour of so-

whom

he

from the misgovernment of Richard II. The first version of the Conjessio amantis is dated 1390 and dedication to this contains, at least in some copies, a secondary became the Henry which in form, later The Derby. of earl the Gower's political opinsole object of the dedication, is of 1393. begins ions are further embodied in the Cronica tripartita, which ciety

and in some ways continues the Vox. 1398 he married Agnes Groundolf, and from the special celebration of licence granted by the bishop of Winchester for the that he this marriage in Gower's private oratory it can be inferred was then living in lodgings assigned to him within the priory of St. Mary Overy. and perhaps also that he was too infirm to be married

at 1387

flavour;

literature.

Bibliography,

It is probable that this was not his first marriage for there are indications in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when that was written. His will is dated Aug. 15. 1408. and his death took place very soon after this. He had been blind for some years before his death. A magnificent tomb with a recumbent effigy was erected over his grave in the chapel of St. John the Baptist within the church of the priory,

now Southwark cathedral. The effigy on Gower's tomb

rests its

head upon a

pile of three

volumes entitled Speculum meditantis, Vox clamantis and Conjessio amantis. These are his three principal works. The first of these was long suppo.sed to have perished, but a copy of it was It is a discovered in 1895 under the title Mirour de Vomnie. French poem of about 30,000 lines in 12-line stanzas, which under the form of an allegory of the human soul describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and criticizes especially the higher classes of society. It was probably written shortly before 1381. His next work, not much later, and in its first draft apparently still before 1381, was the Vox clamantis in Latin elegiac verse. Here he deals again with the faults of the various classes of society. The first version seems likely to have been meant as a "mirror for a prince." but to point his moral he added a description of and reflections upon the peasants' revolt of 1381. Gower's chief claim to reputation as a poet rests upon his English work, the Conjessio amantis, in which he displays in his native folio

language a real his

poem,

gift as a storyteller.

in spite

He

is

himself the "lover" of

of his advancing years, and he

makes

his con-

fession to Genius, the priest of Venus, under the usual headings supplied by the seven deadly sins. These, with their several branches, are successively described and their nature illustrated by tales told.

drawn from very varied sources, and often extremely well The metre is the short couplet, and it is very smooth and

regular. its

The

great fault of the Conjessio amantis

is

the extent of

also wrote in 1397 a short series of

French ballades on the virtue of the married state (Traitie pour essampler les amantz marih). and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced the Cronica tripartita, a partisan account in Latin leonine hexameters of the events of the last 2 years of the reign of Richard 11. About the same time he addressed an English poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV (In Praise oj Peace), and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (Cinkante Balades). graceful and even 1

poetical in expression.

Several occasional Latin pieces also belong

to the later years of his

Gower, though not

life,

man

by no means to be compared with Chaucer, had considerable literary gifts and wrote in a lucid, if deceptively simple, style. The Conjessio amantis was long regarded as a classic, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned side by side as the fathers of English poetry. His language was essentially that of cultivated Londoners, with a slight Kentish a

of genius and

as the general vehicle of

A

complete edition of Gower's

Texts:

in 4 vol., edited

The Praise oj Peace appeared in the early folio editions of Chaucer, and was edited by Walter Skeat in his Chaucerian and Other Pieces (1897). See also, in addition to general histories and bibliographies of English literature cited in the bibliography to the article English Literature, C. S. Lewis, The Allegory oj Love (1936); M. Wickert, Studien zu series" (1859)

.

John Gower (igSi).

GOWER, Wales.

(0.

C.M.;N.

D.)

a peninsula and rural district in west Glamorgan,

Present usage confines the

name

to that area southwest of

from Loughor to Swansea and lying between Burry inlet on the north and the Bristol channel on the south. The name is derived from the Welsh province of Gwyr or Guhir which had a much greater extent northward between the rivers Loughor and Tawe. The area is dominated by a plateau surface ranging in height between 150 ft. and 450 ft., surmounted by ridges rising above 600 ft. In the north a ridge (571 ft.) in Pennant Grit runs from Penclaw>'dd to Town hill, Swansea, rising steadily from west to east and broken by a gap, followed by the railway, at Dunvant. Immediately to the south is a vale, drained by the river Clyne, along the outcrop of the Lower Coal series. Between this and the Devonian sandstone ridges of west Gower the main plateau surface The ridges of Cefn Bryn (610 rises to 414 ft. in Clyne common. ft.), Llanmadoc hill (609) and Rhossili down (633) form a horsea line

shoe of high land reflecting the syncHnal folding of the Paleozoic rocks of the south and west. The rivers of Gower are generally short and swift-flowing, being deeply cut below the plateau surface and providing valleys covered in deciduous woodland. The coast of Gower is remarkable for its beauty. The south coast, in particular, from Mumbles head to Worms head has a series of inlets such as Langland, Caswell and Oxwich bays with Rhossili fine cliff scenery developed in the various rock strata. bay has a large area of sand dunes extending northward to WhiteThe north coast is less attractive and has coastal ford point.

marshes as far as Loughor.

Gower has found (1823)

by man. The skeleton Goat cave, Paviland (near Rhossili), and generally

a long history of occupation in

known

as "The Red Lady of Paviland" (now believed to be male) only one of the signs of Paleolithic occupation. The higher ground of the west has megaliths and tumuli of various ages. HillThe top camps were occupied during the Iron Age and later. Roman period saw Loughor (Leucarum) as a minor settlement while a villa has been found near Oystermouth. The period between the Roman withdrawal and the Norman conquest saw the spread of Celtic Christianity into Gower with the establishment of

is

several churches,

digressions.

Gower

—Editions and

London

by G. C. Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing the French works, the second and third the English (also issued separately by the Early English Text society), and the fourth the Latin, with a biography. There were early editions of the Conjessio amantis by Caxton (1483) and Berthelette (1532 and 1554). The two series of French ballades and the Praise oj Peace were printed for the Roxburghe club (1818), and the Vox clamantis and Cronica tripartita were edited by H. 0. Coxe for the Roxburghe club (1850). The Cronica tripartita, the Praise oj Peace and some of the minor Latin poems were printed in T. Wright's Political Poems, "Rolls works

In

in the parish church.

and he doubtless contributed to the acceptance, soon after

his time, of the language of

e.g.,

Bishopston, dedicated to St. Teilo. The many signs of Scandinavian intrusion,

coastal area, however, bears

Burry Holms, in contrast to the 1100 Gower was conquered by Henry de Newburgh (or Beaumont), earl of Warwick, who set up a marcher lordship over much of the same area as the Celtic province of Gwyr. An important division was soon established between Gower Anglicana, southwest of a line from Llanrhidian to Clyne common, and Gower Wallicana to the north of this line, English Gower saw quite intense Norman settlement probably with the introduction of Flemish settlers moving from Pembrokeshire. The contrast between these two areas still persists in the place names and settlement patterns. By the Act of Union. 1536, Gower was incorporated with the county of Glamorgan although previously contacts had been dominantly with the west. From the 16th century onward Gower has remained marginal to the development of the coal field, although some coal was mined

mainly

in the place

Celtic interior.

names,

e.g.,

Shortly after

a.d.

:

i

|

GOWRIE—GOYA Y LUCIENTES the north particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. It is dominantly now an agricultural area with the emphasis on mixed and dairy farming. At Bishopston and Rhossili there are important in

areas of market gardening.

This is only one sign of the influence of the large industrial population to the north. The villages of

Gower have many inhabitants who work in Swansea and daily. The other great influence on Gower, resulting from

See

travel

the tourist industry which has far more than a local the development of small holiday resorts has been ac-

scenery,

appeal;

is

companied by an increase

in the areas of caravan (trailer) parks.

Gower peninsula was

In 1956

declared an area of outstanding beauty; certain coastal areas are also preserved under the National trust.

See L. D. Nicholl, The Normans in Glamorganshire and (1936); E. G. Bowen (ed.), Wales (1957). (E.

M

GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN,

3rd Earl of

Gower

Dr

(c.

)

1577-

1600), Scottish conspirator, one of the principals in the mysterious "Gowrie conspiracy" of 1600, was the second son of William {c. 1541-84 ), 4th Lord Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie. He succeeded his elder brother, the 2nd earl, in 1 588. From his father and grandfather he inherited a tradition of treason and intrigue and in his youth was involved in the schemes of Francis Stewart, earl of

Bothwell.

After an excellent education at the university of Edinburgh, he went abroad to continue his studies at Padua. He seems to have been universally regarded as a young man of high character and a scholarly turn of mind. While abroad he earned the friendship of the reformer Theodore Beza and his return to Scotland in 1600 was welcomed by the party of the Presbyterian ministers. Shortly after his return he annoyed James VI by opposing in the convention" of estates the king's proposals for taxation. On Aug. 5, 1600, he and his younger brother, Alexander Ruthven, were slain in mysterious circumstances at Gowrie house in Perth. Certain facts are well established. As James was setting out from Falkland to hunt early on Aug. 5, he was accosted by

Alexander Ruthven and after the hunt accompanied him to Gowrie house. Alexander sent two messengers to his brother the earl during the morning; but both these messengers and Gowrie concealed where they had come from and also the fact of James's expected arrival at Gowrie house. No preparations were made for the king's reception and the earl commenced dinner without waiting for him. James arrived with a small retinue and after dining accompanied Alexander upstairs. A false alarm was raised that the king had left and this was insistently supported by Gowrie James's retinue were against the statement of his own porter.

W.

Review,

eastern

its

645

for such a plot no clear motive can be found in contemporary politics or in the careers and characters of the principal participants.. F. Arbuckle, "The vol. xxxvi (1957).

GOWRIE,

Gowrie Conspiracy," Scottish Historical

(J. K. Ba.) a belt of fertile alluvial land in Perthshire and Occupying the northern shore of the Firth of Tay,

Angus, Scot. the Carse of Gowrie extends east of Perth city to the confines of Dundee. It measures 15 mi. in length and its breadth from the river toward the Sidlaw hills varies from 2 to 4 mi. The soil is especially suitable for small fruit cultivation, particularly straw-

The district is noteworthy for its castles and mansions, among which may be mentioned Megginch castle near Errol. dating berries.

from 1575; Kinnaird castle, erected in the 12th to 15th centuries and restored in the 1850s; Rossie priory, the seat of Lord Kinnaird; and the 15th-century Huntly castle. LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO JOSE (1746182S), Spanish artist and engraver, who, trained in the foreign traditions fashionable in 18th-century Spain, became one of the most characteristically Spanish artists of all times and a foremost European painter and engraver of the 19th century. He was born on March 30, 1746, at Fuendetodos, near Saragossa, and died in Bordeaux, France, on April 16, 1828. His enormous and varied production of paintings, drawings and engravings, relating to nearly every aspect of contemporary life, reflects the period of political and social upheavals in which he lived. Goya began his studies in Saragossa under Jose Luzan, a local artist trained in Naples, and was later a pupil in Madrid of the court painter Francisco Bayeu, whose sister he married in 1773. He went to Italy to continue his studies and was in Rome in In the same year he returned to Saragossa where he ob1771. tained his first important commission for frescoes in the cathedral, which he executed at intervals during the next ten years. These and other early religious paintings made in Saragossa are in the baroque-rococo style current in Spain and are influenced in particular by the great Venetian painter G. B. Tiepolo, who spent the last years of his life in Madrid (1762-70), where he was

GOYA Y

DE

invited to paint ceiUngs in the royal palace.

Goya's career at court began in 1775, when he painted the first of a series of over 50 cartoons (mostly preserved in the Prado. Madrid) for the royal tapestry factory, Santa Barbara, on which he was engaged until 1792. These paintings of scenes of contemporary life, of aristocratic and popular pastimes, were begun under

entrance to the turret and in ensuing struggles Gowrie and his

German artist A. R. Mengs, the great exponent of neoclassicism who, after Tiepolo's death, had become In Goya's early undisputed art dictator at the Spanish court. cartoons the influence of Tiepolo's decorative style is modified by the teachings of Mengs, particularly his insistence on simplicity.

brother were killed.

The

However, for certain crucial events, the only surviving witness was the king, supported in one instance by a single very dubious corroborator. James's story was that Alexander enticed him to Perth to examine an unknown man with a pot of gold whom he had found and secretly imprisoned. When the king and Alexander had gone up to the turret, Alexander locked the door, threatened James with a dagger, and after some argument there was a struggle. A third man who was present disobeyed Alexander and in fact assisted the king. This man mysteriously disappeared from the scene, only to re-emerge some days later and confirm the king's evidence. In spite of an inquiry on an unprecedented scale, involving several hundred witnesses, the true explanation of the "Gowrie conspiracy" was a mystery at the time and will probably remain so. James's story was received with incredulity by the majority of his own contemporaries. 'Various explanations have been put forward, but that which represents the affair as a royal plot to kill the Ruthvens involves too many probabilities to be seriously considered. The suggestion that the affair arose from an unpremedi-

traditions

preparing to leave

window and heard

tated brawl

against

the king struggling at a turret They thereupon forced an

his cry for help.

more acceptable;

in particular the

it,

arrival at

is

when they saw

but the weight of evidence

is

concealment of James's impending

Gowrie house and the very implausibility

of the king's

the direction of the

to

reflect his growing independence of foreign and the development of an individual style, which began

later cartoons

emerge through

royal collection,

the

story.

The balance

Ruthvens miscarried

of probabilities strongly suggests that

in a plot to seize the king's person.

'Vet

Velazquez

the

in

of which he copied in etchings (c. 1778).

Later in life he is said to have acknowledged three masters: Velazquez. Rembrandt and, above all. nature. Rembrandt's etchings were doubtless a source of inspiration for his later drawings and engravings, while the paintings of Velazquez directed him to the study of nature and taught him the language of realism. In 1780 Goya was elected a member of the Royal Academy of San Fernando, Madrid, his admi.ssion piece being a "Crucifixion"

(Prado), a conventional composition in the manner of Mengs but then inspired by the naturalistic stylo of \'elazqucz' "Crucifixion. In 1785 he was appointed deputy director of in the royal palace. painter to the painting at the academy and in the following year To this decade belong his earliest known porIII. "

king, Charles traits, of

court

represented

in

ofiicials

and members of the aristocracy,

conventional

18th-century poses.

The

whom stiff

he

ele-

ladies as gance of his figures, in full-length portraits of society Washington), and the "Marquesa de Pontejos" (National gallery, also relates them the fluent painting of their elaborate costumes of "Charles representation his and portraits; to Velazquez' court (of which several versions exist) is based diIII as Hunt.sman rectly on Velazquez' royal huntsmen. "

own

his study of the paintings of

many

GOYA Y LUCIENTES

646 The death

of Charles III in 1788, a few

months before

the out-

of break of the French Revolution, brought to an end the period comparative prosperity and enlightenment in which Goya reached maturity. The rule of reaction and political and social corruption and his that followed, under the weak and stupid Charles IV with the clever, unscrupulous queen Maria Luisa Teresa, ended Napoleonic invasion of Spain. It was under the patronage of

new king, who raised him at once to the rank of court painter, in that Goya became the most successful and fashionable artist Spain; he was made director of the academy in 1795 ("but resigned

the

two years

and first court painter in honours and worldly success

later for reasons of health)

Though he welcomed

1799.

official

with undisguised enthusiasm, the record that he left of his patrons and of the society in which he lived is ruthlessly penetrating. After a serious illness in 1792, which left him permanently deaf, expreshis art began to take on a new character which gave free sion to the observations of his searching eye and critical mind and During his long to his newly developed faculty of imagination. convalescence he painted a series of small compositions which he described

in

a letter to the director of the academy (1794) as make observations for which there is no oppor-

enabling him "to

tunity in commissioned works, in which fantasy and invention have no scope." He referred to the subjects as "popular diversions" of San Fernando, INIadrid) in-

but those that survive (Academy clude a "Madhouse." a "Procession of Flagellants," a "Tribunal of the Inquisition," these unconventional themes being painted in a bold, sketchy technique and strong colours with an effect of

For his more exaggerated realism that borders on caricature. purposeful and serious satires, however, he now began to use the more intimate mediums of drawing and engraving. In the "Caprichos," a series of 80 etchings published in 1799, he attacked political, social and religious abuses, adopting the popular imagery of caricature, which he enriched with highly original qualities of His masterly use of the recently developed technique

invention.

them astonishing dramatic vitality and makes major achievement in the history of etching (q.v.). De-

of aquatint gives

them

a

women, as that of "Doiia Isabel Cobos de Porcel" (National gallery, London), but is often far from flattering as in his royal portraits. In the group of "Charles IV and His Family" (1800, Prado), which recalls the composition particularly in his portraits of

of Velazquez' paititer.

"Meninas," Goya, despite

his

position as

produce the effect of caricature. 80S Goya was at the height of his official career when Charles IV and his son Ferdinand were forced to abdicate in quick succession. Napoleon's armies entered Spain and his brother Joseph was placed on the throne. Goya retained his position as court painter to the usurper; but in the course of the war he portrayed Spanish as well as French generals and in 181 2 he painted an equestrian portrait of the "Duke of Wellington" (Apsley house, London). It was, however, in a series of etchings, "Los Desastres de la Guerra" (first published 1863), for which he made drawings during the war, that he recorded his personal reactions to the invasion and to the horrors and disastrous consequences of the war. The violent and tragic events, which he doubtless witnessed, are represented not with documentary realism but in dramatic comwith brutal details which create in line and aquatint positions figures so vividly as to

In

1

—

—

a vivid effect of authenticity.

On

the restoration of Ferdinand

VII

in 1814, after the expul-

for having served the French king and reinstated as court painter. The "Charge of the Mamelukes" and "Execution of the Defenders of Madrid" ( Prado) were painted to commemorate the popular insurrection on May 2, 1808, Like the "Desastres" they are compositions of dramatic realism, and their monumental scale makes them even more powerfully moving. The impressionistic style in which they are painted foreshadowed and influenced later igth-century French artists, particularly Edouard Manet, who was also inspired by the comIn several portraits of Ferdinand position of the "Execution." VII, painted after his restoration, Goya evokes more forcefully than any description the personality of the cruel tyrant, whose oppressive rule drove most of his friends and eventually Goya him-

sion of the invaders.

Goya was pardoned

spite the veiled language of de-

and captions and Goya's announcement that his themes were from the "extravagances and foHies common to all society," they were probably recognized as references to well-known persons and were withdrawn from However, sale after a few days. a few months later Goya was signs

made first court painter. Later he was apparently threatened by the Inquisition and in 1803 he presented plates the of the "Caprichos" to the king in return for a pension for his son. While uncommissioned works gave full scope for "observations," "fantasy" and "invention," in his commissioned paintings Goya continued to use conventional formulas. His decoration of the church of San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid (1793). is still in the tradition of Tiepolo; but the

and the expressive realism of these popubold, free execution lar types

used for religious and

secular figures are unprecedented.

In

his

friends

numerous and

portraits

of

broader technique is combined with a new emphasis on characterization.

The

officials

a

faces of his sitters reveal a

lively

which

discernment of personality is sometimes appreciative,

court

has portrayed the ugliness and vulgarity of the principal

i» cousiEsr or uuseo dcl prjbo, madbio

-family of charles

iv

BY FRANCISCO GOYA.

IN

MUSEO DEL PRADO. MADRID

GOYAZ—GOZZOLI self into exile.

He

painted few other

official portraits

but those of his friends and relations and his "Self-Portraits" (1815, Prado; Academy of San Fernando) are equally subjective. Some of his religious compositions of this period, the '"Agony in the Garden"

and "Communion of

S.

Joseph of Calasanz" (1819, 1820, Madrid),

more suggestive of sincere devotion than any of his earlier church paintings. The enigmatic "black paintings," with which he

are

decorated the walls of his country house, the "Quinta del Sordo" (1819-23, now in the Prado) and the "Proverbios" or "Disparates," a series of etchings made at about the same time (though not published until 1864), are, on the other hand, nightmare visions in expressionist language, that seem to reflect cynicism, pessimism

and despair. the failure of an attempt to establish a liberal government had led to renewed persecution, Goya applied for per-

mission to go to France for reasons of health. After visiting Paris he settled in voluntary exile in Bordeaux, where he remained, apart from a brief trip to Madrid, until his death. There, in spite of old age and infirmity, he continued to record his impressions of the world around him in paintings and drawings, and in the new technique of lithography, which he had begun to use in Spain.

genre subjects and several portraits of friends in exile; "Muguiro" (Prado), "Moratin," "Pio de Molina" (private collections), which show the final development of his

His

last paintings include

toward a synthesis of form and character in terms of light and shade, without outline or detail and with a minimum of colour. If there is no evidence for the legends of Goya's rebellious character and violent actions, he was undoubtedly a revolutionary artist. He had no immediate followers, but his many original achievements, from the "Caprichos" to his late paintings, profoundly impressed later 19th-century French artists— Eugene Delacroix was one of his great admirers who were the leaders of new European movements, from romanticism and realism to Impressionism; and his works continued to be admired and studied by the Expressionists and Surrealists in the 20th century. See Painting: Spain: Goya; see also references under "Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— A. Mayer, Goya (1923; Eng- tf- 1924); F. Zapater in y Gomez, Goya, noticias biograficas (1924); F. Klingender, Goya style

—

F. J. Sanchez Canton, Vida y obras the Democratic Tradition (1948) Ruiz de Goya (1951); G. Estrada, Bibliografia de Goya (1940); A. (E. Hs.) Cabriada, Aportacion a una bibliografia de Goya (1946);

GOYAZ: see Goias. GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN

(1596-1656), one

most gifted of Dutch landscape painters, was born at Leiden on Jan. 13, 1596, learned painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, and settled at The Hague about 1631. He was one of the first to emancipate himself from the tradition of minute painting of detail embodied in the works of Brueghel and Savery. Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with considerable skill. His influence on Dutch art was marked. of the

He

died at

The Hague on

The landscape

foliage are given,

is

minute; details of branching and

and the landscape serves as a stage

for geiire

After 1625 these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric cool tints are the principal feature of Goyen's landscapes. His buildings, water and shipping sometimes have the strength, if not the colour, of Albert Cuyp. Though he visited France once or twice, Gpyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland. One of his largest pieces is a view of The Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality and scenes.

now

in the

town collection of that

city.

'

Most

of his panels repre-

the Maas. But he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea at the mouth and of the Rhine and Scheldt; he liked to depict the inshore calm He rarely painted seas stirred by more than a cooling breeze. than More sledges. and skaters painted winter scenes, with ice, Groot. 1,000 of Goyen's pictures are catalogued by Hofstede de sent reaches of the Rhine, the

They may be seen

The

LEON

GOZLAN, (1803-1866), French novelist, dramatist and journalist with a biting wit, made his name under the July monarchy and in the early years of the second empire. He was born in Marseilles, 26 Fructidor year XI (Sept. 11, 1803). When his father, a Jewish shipowner, was ruined financially, Gozlan left school and worked on a cargo boat trading on the African coast, He later ran a boarding school in Marseilles and then worked in a bookshop in Paris, where, through the help of his fellow townsman, Joseph Mery (1798-1865), he

living for a time in Senegal.

entered journalism and contributed to Le Corsaire, Le Figaro and His first novel was Le Notaire de Chantilly (1836). His friendship with Honore de Balzac (q.v.). to whom he devoted two books which have often been reissued, Balzac en pantoufies (1856) and Balzac chez lui (1862), saved him from undeserv-ed

at

museums

Waal and

in

oblivion.

He

died in Paris, Sept. 14, 1866.

See H. Talvart and J. Place, Bibliographic des auteurs langue jrani^aise (1941).

GOZO

(ancient

Gaulus), an

Boston,

New York

city

(Metro-

modemes de (R. Pt.)

island of the Maltese group in

lies 3^ mi. N.W. of the nearest point of Malta, is 9 mi. in length and 4V mi. in extreme breadth and has an area of 26 sq.mi. Pop. (1961 est.) 27,506. Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabat (pop. [1961 est.] 6,491), stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster of steep conical hills in a highly cultivated district. The prehistoric temple Ggantija is of the same t\-pe as Hagar Kim in Malta but larger. Gozo has been called the Scotland of Malta; it still possesses something of a separate and distinctive outlook and way of life. Gozo is held by some to be the legendary Ogygia where Calypso entertained Odysseus. (W. B. Fr.) GOZZI, CARLO, CoNTE (1720-1806), Italian dramatist and a fanatical controversialist with a persecution mania, who spent

the Mediterranean sea,

defending Italian culture against foreign influences, was Venice on Dec. 13, 1720. He joined the purist Accademia dei Granelleschi and in a satirical almanac called La lartana degli

his life in

born

at

(1757) directed his wit against the theatrical innovations Between 1761 and 1765 Gozzi produced ten grotesque Fiabe (L'amore delle tre melarance the the basis for Prokofiev's The Love oj Three Oranges, Tttrandot basis of Puccini's opera, and L'augellin belverde; modern ed. by E. Masi. 1885) or dramatizations of popular and oriental tales, with which he sought to revitalize the dying commedia dell'arte. His influssi

of Pietro Chiari and Carlo Goldoni.

—

—

other works include the Marfisa bizzarra (1761-68; modern ed. by and the 1 a verse satire on 18th-century Venice Memorie inutili (1797; modern ed. by D. Bulfcretti, 1928; Eng. trans., 1890), an autobiography in which he described, vividly and )

C. Ortis, 191

—

—

with humour, his military experiences in Dalmatia (1741-44), his stormy relations with the actress Teodorf Ricci and with Pier Antonio Gratarol, his rival in her affections, and his many literary polemics.

Gozzi died at Venice on April

April 27, 1656.

Between 1610 and 1616 Goyen wandered from one school to another. In the latter year he joined Esaias van der Velde, and some of his earlier pictures show the influence of Esaias very perceptibly.

Museum of Art), Detroit and Toledo, among others. National gallery, London, has several of his works.

pohtan

L' Artiste.

when

In 1824,

647

lished in 8 vol.

(1772-74) and

4,

His Opere were pub(1801-03).

1806.

in 14 vol.

Forme di vita e (D. M. We.) GOZZI, GASPARO, Conte (1713-1786), Italian poet and born at Venice essayist, elder brother of Carlo Gozzi (q.v.), was Veneta (modDec. 4, 1 713. He published (1760-62) the Gazzctta Venetian life, ern ed. by B. Romani, 2 vol., 1943)- a chronicle of both writand the Osservatore (modern ed. by E. Spagni, 1914"'. include satirical verse ten in a pure Italian style. His other works BetScrmoni (1763), the Dijesa di Dante (1758) against Saverio See T. Mantovani, Carlo Gozzi (1926)

;

G. Ziccardi,

d'arte nel Settecenio, pp. 111-180 (1931)-

which marks the beginning of the revival of interest in the Commedia in Italy, and a program for educational reform. edited by A. Daldied at Padua, Dec. 27, 1 786. His Opere viert

tinelli,

Divitia

He

mistro, 16 vol. (1818-20). See M. A. Viglio, Gasparo Gozzi (1916) Gozzi, journaliste vfnitien (i937)-

GOZZOLI, BENOZZO masterpiece is Florence was

with Lorenzo

;

G. dc BauviWi^Gasparo (U. M. We.)

(1420-1497). Italian painter, whose

Medico the fresco cycle in the chapel of the Palazzo engaged born in Florence in 1420. In 1444 he was bronze and Vittorio Ghiberti on work on the third

GRAAF— GRACCHUS

6+8

door of the baptistry in Florence and in 1447 was active as an assistant of Fra Angelico in Rome, where his hand has been idenof Angelico's frescoes in the chapel of Nicholas In 1447 he was engaged, as Angelico's principal assistant, on the fresco on the ceiling of the Cappella di S. Brizio in the cathedral at Orvielo, which tified in a

V

number

in the Vatican.

he appears to have completed after Angehco's return to Rome In the second half (1448/49).

the literary satire Scherz, Satire, Ironie und ticfere Bedeutung (1827; Eng. trans.. Comedy, Satire, Irony and Deeper Meaning, 1955).

is

MonFrom moved to

of 1449 he was employed at tefalco (near Foligno).

Montefalco, Viterbo,

Gozzoli

where

after

Btbliography.

painted nine frescoes of scenes from the life of St. Rose of Viterbo (destroyed), and then to Perugia in connection with an altarpiece for Collegio Gerolominiano (signed, dated 1456; Galleria

Nazionale

dell'

In 1458 he was in

ALINARI

fres-

•

pleted a fresco of St. Sebastian there.

Between 1469 and 1485 Gozzoli's attention was monopolized by most extensive commission, for a series of 25 frescoes of Old Testament scenes for the walls of the Camposanto at Pisa. He is mentioned in Florence in 1497 and died at Pistoia on Oct. 4 of An exceptionally prolific artist, Gozzoli made that same year. extensive use of studio assistants and his work as a whole has a rather empty facility. His work at Orvieto is distinguished from Angelico's by its drj- schematic forms. In the ''Procession of the Magi" on the walls of the Palazzo Medici, on the other hand, he emerges as an artist of great decorative talent, with a pronounced

his

landscape and portraiture. The views of the Val d'Arno which form the background of these frescoes and the portraits of the Medici included contributed to their enduring popularity.

gift for

See R. van Marie, The Development of the Italian Schools of Painting, vol. xi (1929); B. Berenson, The Drawings of The Florentine Painters, 2nd ed. (1938). (J. W. P.-H.)

GRAAF, REGNIER DE

(1641-1673), Dutch physician on the pancreas and on the reproductive organs of mammals, was born July 30, 1641, at Schoonhoven. He was educated at Louvain, Utrecht, Leiden and Angers and for a short time practised medicine in Paris but returned to Delft in 1667 and remained there until his death, Aug. 17, 1673. Graaf was the discoverer of the ovarian follicles, which are still known lor his studies

as Graafian follicles.

GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH

(1801-1836), Ger-

man

dramatist whose plays, though uneven in quality, anticipate later work. He was born in Detmold on Dec. U, 1801, studied law

in Leipzig

and became

a solicitor as well as a military justiciary

home town.

Love affairs and his own inner restlessness drove him to abandon his profession in 1834, however, and after some months of poverty in Frankfurt am Main he went to Dusseldorf where the poet K. L. Immermann, who was working for the theatre there, tried to help him. But although Grabbe found publishers for his plays, dissipation drove him to an early death in Detmold on Sept. 12, 1836. One of Grabbe's main themes is the shipwreck of the great on in his

WLADYSLAW

GRABSKI,

(1874-1938), Polish statesreorganized his country's monetary and financial system, was born at Borow, near Lowicz, on July 7, 1874. He studied history in Paris and economics in Halle, Ger. A Socialist in his youth, he later joined the National Democratic party and was elected a member of three successive Russian dumas (1906-12). In Jan. 1919 he was elected a member of the Polish constituent sejm, but soon left for Paris as third Polish delegate at the peace conference. Returning to Warsaw, he became minister of finance

man who

SELF-PORTRAIT DETAIL FROM 'PROBY BENOZZO CESSION OF THE MAGI coed chapel of the Palazzo MedGOZZOLl. IN THE PALAZZO MEDICI. By 1463 FLORENCE ici, dates from 1459/60. he was at work at San Gimignano on a cycle of 1 7 scenes from the life of St. Augustine in the choir of S. Agostino (last scene signed and dated 1465) and in 1464 com-

known

;

;

Umbria,

the

(1943)

;

Rome, and

Gozzoli's masterpiece,

vol.

2

;

Perugia). thereafter returned to Florence.

— Works, ed. by

O. Nieten, 6 vol. (1908) and B. von A. Bergmann, "Literaturbericht iiber Grabbe," Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, no. 21 (1934) F. J. Schneider, C. D. Grabbe (1934) B. von Wiese, Die deutsche Tragodie von Lessing bis Hebbel, ch. 18-20, 2nd ed. (1952) F. Martini, "Grabbe, Napoleon oder die hundert Tage," in Das deutsche Drama vom Barock bis zur Gegenwart, ed. by B. von Wiese, vol. ii (1958). (Jm. M.)

Wiese,

he

1453

His first poetic tragedies were the monstrous Herzog Theodor von Gothland (1827) and the widely ranging Don Juan und Faust They were followed by the two Hohenstaufen plays, (1829). Kaiser Friedrich Barharossa (1829) and Kaiser Heinrich VI (1830). His other plays are in prose. Grabbe's most important work poetically is Napoleon oder die hundert Tage (1831). Before he died Grabbe also finished the two tragedies Hannibal (1835) and Die Hermannsschlacht (1836). Among his enduring poems

contemporary narrowness and obtuseness. In spite of his exaggerated dramatic pathos he achieved a mordant satire, and a sometimes laconic, sometimes episodic, succession of scenes and images which anticipates film technique as well as impressionism and expressionism. His plays are boldly experimental in form and rich in ideas but seldom meet the pracUcal demands of the theatre.

From June 2i to July 24, 1920. he was prime minIn this capacity he went to Spa. Belg., to ask the Allied supreme council for immediate aid to Poland in arms and munitions. He served again as minister of finance from Jan. to Sept. To 1923. On Dec. 19, 1923, he became prime minister again. stop inflation he created, on Feb. 1, 1924, a new Polish currency, in

Dec. 1919.

ister.

the zloty (exchanged at 1,800,000 Polish marks for one zloty. the and on April 28, 1924, U.S. dollar being equivalent to 5.18 zlotys he founded the Bank of Poland, whose capital was subscribed by )

In the summer of Germany declared a Deutsche Bank sold massive the nation. crisis.

;

1925. how-ever, he had to face a "tariff

new

war" on Poland, and the

quantities of zlotys on the money markets of Berlin and Vienna. The new Polish currency declined Criticized in the in July, losing almost 50% of its gold value. sejm, Grabski resigned on Nov. 14, 192 5. After Pilsudski's coup d'etat of May 1926, Grabski retired from active politics, becoming

Warsaw

professor at the his

own account

Agricultural high school.

podstaw panstwowosci naszej ("Two Years' Work tion of Our State"), in 1927 and a summary of political philosophy.

Grabski died

in

He

published

of his greatest achievement, Du/^ "^

;

(F. S. R.)

CRACKLE,

of the

1

i

I

i

i

'
ests, notably the locust. Although limited pioneer settlement by

Europeans has occurred in the eastern Chaco, the inhabitants are still largely nomadic tribes of Indians, The Chaco Boreal, so named in order to distinguish it from the Chaco (Austral) lands of Argentina, has been disputed territory, being claimed by Bolivia on the west border and Paraguay, on the east, (See BoLrvu; Paraguay.) This region is triangular in shape, with the apex at Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, and its sides made up of the Paraguay and Pilcomayo rivers, which form natural boundaries. Paraguay gained most of the disputed area as a result of the Chaco War (q.v.) of 1932-35. See also Chaco. (j. l. Tr.)

GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF

THE,

sometimes called the War of the League of Augsburg, a war fought by England, Holland, the Holy Roman emperor and a number of other allies

against France between 1689 and 1697. The uncertainty over its name is reflected in a similar misunderstanding about the war's To this misunderstanding the lack aims, character and results.

of skill of the military commanders and the ineffectiveness of their methods of making war have been held to have contributed. The French commanders have suffered by comparison with the great Conde and the marechal de Turenne, who had disappeared from the scene, the one retired and the other killed, in 1675 and WilHam Ill's reputation as a soldier has been eclipsed by that of Marlborough. Sieges rather than battles appear to have marked the ;

progress of the war, with results obviously less striking to the modem eye. Yet the deadlock which characterizes the war was not The Spanish succession, on so much military as diplomatic.

which the balance of power between Bourbon and Habsburg in Europe depended, was perhaps its main issue; and so long as against every reasonable Charles II of Spain remained alive expectation) this question could not be settled and any war fought in the meantime would be only an interlude in which the great powers sought to strengthen their bargaining position against the day w^hen Charles should at last die. If, then, there was for the time nothing important to fight about, it is not surprising that the generals found it difficult to achieve anything by fighting. But war could not easily be avoided, since in its absence the circumstances of the rival powers might alter drastically. Thus Louis XIV's ambitions depended upon the emperor Leopold I's being unable to exert full authority over the German princes and upon his entanglement with the Turks on his eastern frontier. Louis dared not allow his adversary a lengthy interval of peace in which he might extricate himself from his difficulties. In a sense, then, Louis was throughout his reign the aggressor. Yet from a major war he could hope for nothing, for, if Charles of Spain were to die while he was so engaged, his enemies would allow him nothing from the Spanish inheritance. Thus it was that he began in 1688 the hostilities in the Palatinate that led to the general outbreak of war in the following year. He did so primarily to prevent Leopold from exacting a peace from the Turks, yet he was willing (

to surrender

when last to

almost

his military gains to secure

all

peace in 1697

the crisis about the Spanish succession threatened at long

come

There

is,

to a head.

therefore,

little

doubt as

to the real issue at stake in

It was the balance of power between Bourbon and Habsburg monarchies, as it had been since Henry IV became king of France, and the outcome of this struggle depended more upon diplomacy than upon war. War was an adjunct to diplomacy, as important as, but no more important than, marriage alliances. So long as diplomacy was stultified by the uncertain issue of the Spanish succession, so long would the wars be devoid of lasting consequences whatever the brilliance of the military commanders. The War of the Grand Alliance might not be worth investigation were it not that the long-lasting diplomatic deadlock produced new factors in the situation, notably the accession of England as a European power of first importance, which were to prove decisive in the eventual settlement of the Spanish succession in the war of 1701-13. Character of the War. Although their importance has been misunderstood, some notice must be taken of the military developments which altered the character of war during the 17th century.

the last quarter of the

1

7th century.

—

The increasing the size of armies increased. wealth at the disposal of European governments allowed them to maintain larger armies, and improvements followed in military administration and supply. The effectiveness of infantry had been much increased during the previous wars of the 17th centur>' not only by better regimental organization and drilling but also by improvements in the musket, which were to culminate in the introduction of the flintlock, and experiments were being made with Most obviously,

only the bayonet (instead of the pike). But infantry could move slowly, and a large army of foot soldiers presented a considerable supply problem. This could be solved only by living off the coun-

Only by try, and that involved dispersal over a fairly wide area. occupying fortified places could an army in such a situation feel During the vital weeks of a campaigning season the comsafe. ponent parts of an army might be combined for offensive action.

GRAND ALLIANCE was necessary operation. This need and

it

to collect supplies in advance for such an called for large bases equally well fortified.

So the capture or recapture of fortresses was frequently an indispensable prelude to more ambitious strategic operations. Such operations were not impossible, though until the develop-

ment

673

Meanwhile he had great hopes of pressing his son's claim to the Spanish throne (having by now definitely staled that his wife's renunciation was invalid in Spain itself through the friendly offices of his niece Marie Louise of Orleans, who had been married to Charles II of Sixain in 1679. Leopold meanwhile had not himself been inactive. The infanta Margaret, his first wife, through whom the best claim of his family to the Spanish throne had arisen, had died in 1673 leaving only a daughter, Maria Antonia, born in 1669 and now of marriageable age. He agreed to her otherwise not very desirable marriage to )

of the tactical possibilities of cavalry and artillery had caught up with those of infantry they were ditficult. They were especially difficult where geographical obstacles lay between an army and its objective; and France, since the acquisition of the FrancheComte and the occupation of Lorraine in the earlier wars of Louis XIV, was surrounded by natural barriers save for the southeastern the elector MaximiUan Emanuel of Bavaria, formerly an ally of coastal route from Italy and the northeastern frontier between France, on condition that she renounce all claims to the Spanish the Moselle and the sea, Sebastien Le Prestre de Yauban (g.v.), throne, thus in his opinion making the line of succession run the great builder of fortresses, provided for the northeastern through his own mother. Philip Ill's daughter. The candidate frontier what nature had omitted, Flanders has always provided whom he had in mind for Spain was a second son of his own. the a natural gateway from Germany into France and vice versa, and archduke Charles, born in 1685 (the year of his daughter Maria it was there that the fiercest fighting of the war was to take place. Antonia's marriage to his third wife Eleanor of Neuburg. In the event, the combination of a complicated river network Leopold's proposals brought no response from the Spanish govand an elaborate defensive system of fortresses proved too much ernment, which was beginning to seek a solution of its own. Morefor the military commanders in the time available to them. Such over, Leopold was during these years fully occupied with events a result, however, was not inevitable, but arose as much from in the war with Turkey. After the relief of \ienna in 1683, he the near balance of the forces engaged as it did from the intrac- had deliberately sacrificed what opportunity he had of uniting tability of the natural and man-made obstacles. Germany in opposition to Louis XIV in order to concentrate upon One other aspect of the character of the war needs to be con- an offensive against Turkey. This was his motive in agreeing to sidered. Since wars avowedly concerned the personal ambitions the truce of Regensburg, and his idea was that if Hungary could of princes, the clothing of religious controversy having been dis- be recovered and the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs freed carded, the civilian population ceased at ordinary times to be from the continuous burden of defense against the Turks, then concerned directly in the struggle and came more and more to as- he would be strong enough to challenge Louis XIV without desume that role of neutral onlookers which Frederick the Great was pending upon the assistance of the German princes. So the League The war began with a devasta- of Augsburg concluded between himself, the kings of Sweden and later to regard as proper to them. tion of the Palatinate as harsh as any similar operation of the of Spain (in their capacity of princes of the empire), the elector Thirty Years' War; but this proved to be exceptional as larger of Bavaria, the Ernestine house of Saxony and the circle of Fransupplies of money and better methods of credit finance came to conia on July 9 (new style; old style, June 29). 1686. was not an enable army commanders to purchase their supplies instead of important part of his policy. This alliance has been represented seizing them by force. The burden of war thus became a financial as the forerunner of the Grand Alliance by some historians who have therefore given its name to the war of 1689-97. In fact it one, borne by the countries responsible for the fighting rather than was quite ineffective, providing no machinery for combined milithose fought over. The Spanish Succession.^ ^The problem of the Spanish in- tary action; and the states which constituted the mainstay of the Grand Alliance were not parties to it. heritance, including territories in the Netherlands, in Italy and Leopold during these years was concerned as much with Turkey in the Americas as well as Spain itself, began with the accession in 1665 of the epileptic Charles II, whose continual ill-health made as with Germany, and a much more important alliance than the Inheritance League of Augsburg was that already concluded with the elector it unlikely that he would have any direct male heirs. through a female line would involve the rival Bourbon and Habs- Frederick William of Brandenburg. Frederick William, who had )

—

XIV

had married the elder daughter of younger, and their fathers had simiWhereas both the wives of larly married daughters of Philip III, the French kings had renounced their claims on the Spanish sucburg dynasties, Philip

Louis

IV and Leopold

I the

cession at the time of their marriages, Leopold's wife was named So far, the will of Philip IV as the direct line of succession.

in

however, no male heir had resulted from this line and the problem remained unsolved and full of danger, the more so since as early as 1662 Louis had suggested that his wife's renunciation, which was conditional, might have to be considered invalid. The possibihty of securing at least a part of the Spanish inheritance was never far removed from Louis's calculations. After the

1678-79), he sought to anticipate as far as he could the death of Charles of Spain by laying claim to various fragments of territory on his borders on the grounds that they were dependencies of territories ceded him by the treaty of Munster (Westphaha). The French annexation of Strasbourg treaties

of

Nijmegen

{g.v.;

and of Casale in Sept. 1681, followed by the siege of Luxembourg A in November, brought about fighting with Spain and Holland. large-scale war was averted by the Turkish advance to Vienna in July 1683; but after relief of that city by John Sobieski, king of Poland, fighting began again in September. A 20-year truce concluded at Regensburg in Aug. 1684 terminated this "War of the Reunions," leaving Louis in possession of Strasbourg, Luxembourg and Oudenarde. He was now perhaps at the summit of his power, and he showed his confidence nowhere more than in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). He could afford to stand by and watch the emperor embroiled in the war with Turkey, while he alone would be free to act when the testing time came in Spain.

previously aligned himself with France, sent a contingent to help Leopold on the Danube in Jan. 1686 and entered into a secret

Habsburg understanding with him against France in March. troops then advanced across Hungary in 1686 and in 1687. and on Sept. 6 (N.S.), 1688, after the rejection of Turkish offers of peace in the previous year, Belgrade was taken. Turkey now prepared to make much more attractive offers of peace, and Louis XI\' saw the control of the situation slipping from his grasp. He determined therefore on another military demonstration like those of 1681-84, hoping that this would keep the Turks fighting and restrain Germany from rushing into the Habsburg camp. Cologne and the Palatinate. Apart from the existence of the League of Augsburg and the emperor's refusal to perpetuate the truce of Regensburg, two disputes furnished Louis with preThe more immediate of the two texts for military intervention. was concerned with the archbishopric-electorate of Cologne. The archbishop-elector Maximilian Henry had in Jan, 1688 appointed Wilhelm Egon Cardinal von Furstenberg to be his coadjutor; when Maximilian Henry died in the following June. Fiirstenherg

—

put himself forward as a candidate for his succession. Fiirstenherg, however, had all his life been a protege of France, and his accession to Cologne was unacceptable both to the emperor and to the pope, who gave their support to the rival candidate Joseph Clement, brother of the elector of Bavaria and first cousin once removed of Maximilian Henry. Louis thereupon sent French troops to uphold Fiirstenherg. This move alarmed the German Protestant princes, who took measures to secure the Dutch against the possibility of a French attack; and the emperor, with papal encouragement, persisted in his recognition of Joseph Clement.

GRAND ALLIANCE

674

his other controversy in which Louis now decided to assert the last claim was about the succession to the Palatinate. Charles, in 1685 elector Palatine of the Simmem line, had died without heirs Philip and had been succeeded by the head of the Zweibriicken line,

The

possible, William of Neuburg, the emperor's father-in-law. It was to have ought the succession of part some however, to claim that gone to the elector Charles's sister Elizabeth Charlotte (Liselotte), Though the second wife of Louis's brother Philip, duke of Orleans. insist on this the duchess of Orleans was herself disinclined to it. pretension, the fall of Belgrade determined Louis to enforce the forth setting manifesto a he issued 1688, On Sept. 24 (N.S.), French grievances. A French army under the command of the

dauphin then advanced into the Palatinate. The English Succession and the War in Ireland. It is lead to a maver>' doubtful whether France intended its action to which occurred developments point other this at But War. jor Both took the determination of events out of French hands. William of Orange and Louis XIV had sought to intervene in EngII in lish politics since the restoration of the Stuart king Charles 1660, to prevent hostile activity by the English on the continent.

—

Since 1685 James II had lost the loyalty of nearly all of his subjects, and an important body of them looked to William of Orange, the husband of the heiress apparent Mary, as their only salvation

William, for his part, was an inveterate opponent and welcomed the prospect of securing England as an ally. The birth of a male heir to James in June 1688 brought matters to a state of crisis in England, and William agreed to land an army there. Louis XIV was well aware of this intended invasion when he sent his troops into the Palatinate and in fact welcomed it as ensuring the absence of William from the continent so long as the expected civil war lasted in England. When James was expelled from England without hostilities, Louis was able to restore his original plan by sending James to IreThus, although William land, which had remained loyal to him. succeeded in becoming king of England as William III and in involving his new kingdom in the continental war, he was occupied for two years in reducing Ireland. Almost the whole of Ireland was controlled by the Jacobite earl of Tyrconnel (Richard Talbot)

from tyranny.

of Louis

XIV

with an army of 40,000 men of uncertain quaUty, In the north, however, the Protestant population declared in favour of William On March 22 III and secured Enniskillen and Londonderry. (N.S.; 12, O.S.), i68g, James II landed at Kinsale with a small French force and at once accompanied Tyrconnel to the north. The siege of Londonderry began on April 29 (N.S.; 19, O.S.), but without a siege train no assault could be mounted. An English reUeving force for Londonderry, sent by sea under Col. Percy

Kirke at the end of May, was needlessly dilatory, but the blockade was eventually broken by Capt. John Leake's ships on Aug, 7 and the siege raised on Aug. g-io (N.S.; July 28 and 30-31, O.S.). At the same time a detachment of the Jacobite army was defeated by local forces organized by Col. William Wolseley, whereupon the siege of Enniskillen was likewise abandoned. The Williamite forces proceeded to overrun the whole of Ulster, and when the duke of Schomberg, sent with an army by William at the insistence of his English advisers, landed at Bangor near Belfast in August, he was able to advance southward immediately. He reached Dundalk, but there was held up. His army was small, much of it insufficiently trained, and rapidly being reduced by sickness. He was therefore unwilling to risk battle and eventually repaired to winter quarters

in

the north.

William at

last

became convinced

serious effort in Ireland and in

of the necessity of

making a

June 1690 went there himself with a considerable army, including Dutch and other foreign veteran troops. He advanced on Dublin with 40,000 men and came across James II entrenched behind the Boyne river with a slightly smaller force, including a French contingent landed under the comte (later due) de Lauzun in March, James's army had some good cavalry, but it was the infantry which settled the day in favour of William on July II (N.S.; i,0,S.), 1690. James fled once more to France, but his army made a good retreat, though abandoning all of Ireland save the west and southwest. William advanced in Ireland, but failed to take Limerick, which was defended by Patrick Sars-

August; and after the eari (later duke) of Marlborough had taken Cork in September and Kinsale in October, fighting ended for the year with the war not yet completely over. In t6gi Godart van Ginkel commanded for William in Ireland and the marquis de Saint-Ruth for James. Their armies met at Aughrim on July 22 (N.S.; 12, O.S.), where Saint-Ruth, after appearing to have the battle won, was killed and his army deEven now, though the town of Galway surrendered and feated. Athlone was already lost, Sarsfield held out in Limerick until Oct, 13 (N.S.; 3, O.S.) when a treaty was signed which brought the Irish war to a close. The war in Ireland had lasted for more than two years, and its outcome must not be allowed to disguise the fact that Louis XIV had succeeded in keeping William of Orange and 40,000 of his troops absent from the continent for the important campaign of 1690. So far, indeed, William's inheritance of the English crown had proved a liability. The Grand Alliance and the Continental War Louis had underestimated the reaction of Europe to his invasion of the Palatinate. True, Turkey was no longer willing to make peace with the emperor on acceptable terms and William of Orange had become involved in England. But William had been quickly and completely successful in accomplishing his mission to England, and the recent victories enabled the emperor to contain the Turks below

field, in

—

Belgrade without

much

affecting the strength of his forces in the

Moreover, the other German princes had been aroused rather than cowed by the French show of military strength; and France was already committed also against the Dutch and against Spain when the Dutch and the emperor concluded the treaty of Vienna on May 12 (N.S.), 1689, with the avowed aim of restoring the peace settlements of Westphalia (1648) and of the Pyrenees (1659). This treaty, to which England, Brandenburg, Hanover, Saxony, Bavaria, Savoy and Spain adhered in the course of the following 18 months, was the kernel of the Grand Alliance, The,i French found themselves faced at once by two strong armies by>| the Dutch and the north German forces in Flanders and by the imperial and Bavarian troops on the Rhine. In these circumstances they were compelled to withdraw from the advanced positions oc-'; cupied in 16S8. Bonn and Mainz were evacuated on the Rhine, while in Flanders an English contingent under Marlborough asr sisted George Frederick, prince of Waldeck, in defeating thel French at Walcourt on Aug. 25 (N.S.; 15, O.S.), 1689. Now, however, the situation in Ireland saved Louis from theSi consequences of his precipitate action. The allies had ambitious plans for a triple invasion of France, from Flanders, from the: Rhine and from Savoy. But with the death of Charles of Lorraine, who had been the leading figure in the south German opposition to France, on April 18 (N,S.), 1690, the Rhine offensive died

west.

:

i

away early. In Flanders, with 40.000 allied troops away in Ireland, Waldeck's forces were outnumbered by those of the due de Luxembourg; and while awaiting reinforcements preparatory to an ad-ii vance upon Dinant, Waldeck was attacked and defeated at FleuruS' Great hopes, however, were still enter-:-: (g.v.) on July i (N,S,). tained by the allies of Savoy, The western frontiers of that coun-' try offered an easy route into Provence, and on the other side was the Spanish Milanese, giving easy access to the hereditary terriThis strategic position had tories of the Habsburgs in Austria. compelled (or enabled the dukes of Savoy to adopt a vacillating )

policy toward the Franco-Spanish conflicts of the 17th century. In 1689, though French garrisons in Pinerolo (Pignerol) and in Casale and the army under Nicholas Catinat on the Alpine frontier seemed to make France's influence over Savoy secure, the ap-

parent strength of the Grand Alliance nevertheless caused the duke, Victor Amadeus II, to hesitate before committing himself to Louis XIV; and in 1690, when compelled by the French to choose, he joined the allied cause in the hope of securing Pinerolo and Casale. Catinat reacted at once and, advancing into Piedmont, defeated Victor Amadeus at Staffarda on Aug. 18 (N.S.), 1690. A further^ setback overtook the allies in October, when the Turks retook Belgrade and the hopes of a Turkish peace disappeared. The year 1690 had been one of continuous allied disaster on the continent. Nor did 1691 bring much comfort. William III commanded in person in Flanders but, operating from Brussels, failed to prevent

j

GRAND ALLIANCE Luxembourg from taking Mons

(April 8 [N.S.]

).

Without the

support of the Brandenburg troops occupied in defending Cleves against a French diversion, he was unable to command favourable circumstances in which he could bring Luxembourg to battle and the remainder of his campaign that year in Flanders was taken up with ineffective maneuvering. After William's return to England in the autumn, Waldeck, while moving the army into winter quarters, was attacked and defeated by Luxembourg at Leuze Sept. 20 (

[N.S.]). Meanwhile Catinat continued his progress into Piedmont, and the French army of Catalonia, under the due de Noailles, took Urgel, Thus, for two years France had more than countered all

Grand

the threats of the

Alliance; the

command

of interior

and great resources of manpower and of wealth had made it possible to defy the rest of Europe. This fact, and not the technicalities of the laws of inheritance, was to constitute the Bourlines

bons' real claim to the Spanish succession.

What hopes remained to the allies lay in the contribution of England to the cause now that the war in Ireland was over, A French army led by the king himself, assisted by Vnuban and covered by Luxembourg, began the campaign of 1692 by laying siege to

Namur (May

25 [N.S.]

).

An unexpected

period of heavy rain

disrupted William's plans for relieving the city, and on June 5 (N.S.) the town surrendered; the last stronghold, however, held out until July i (N.S.). William then spent the rest of the summer

endeavouring to bring Luxembourg to battle; he succeeded, but Luxembourg commanded a strong defensive position at Steenkerke In another battle of infantry (Aug. 3 [N.S.; July 24, determined attack by the British forces won some ground, but William's dispositions had been faulty, the success was not followed up, and at length his army was compelled to withdraw. Luxembourg, however, though left in possession of the tield. had been sufficiently troubled to make him choose not to' pursue the enemy. The year 1692 thus saw two considerable reverses sustained by the allied land forces. William now recognized that the original aims of the Grand Alliance were unattainable, but Louis was in no hurry to make peace. He spent the year 1693 instead in a series of disconnected offensives. Catinat once more defeated the duke of Savoy at Marsaglia (Oct. 4 [N.S.]), the army of the Rhine captured Heidelberg, the army of Catalonia took Rosas and Luxembourg threatened Liege. William sent 20,000 men to relieve Liege and stood the rest of his army at Neerwinden, near Landen, to cover this force. There he was attacked by Luxembourg in superior force on July 29 (N.S.) and, despite an obstinate defense, was again defeated. The campaign in Flanders closed with the French capture (q.v.}.

O.S.]

)

a

of Charleroi (Oct. 11

[N.S.]), while in the east the year's record

was capped by the Austrian failure to recapture Belgrade. The War at Sea.; Although the combination of English and

—

Dutch sea power might have been expected to prove too much for France to contest, it was not until 1692 that the allies were able to secure a decisive naval supremacy in the English channel and not for a further two years that they extended this to the Mediterranean, The first two years of the war, then, went in favour of France, Reinforcements on the way to James II in Ireland in 1689 were successfully covered by the Brest fleet under the marquis de Chateau-Renault, and the battle of Bantry Bay (May 11 [N.S.; 1, O.S.] which resulted when Adm. Arthur Herbert attacked it, though it won him the title of earl of Torrington, was reckoned a victory also by France. The next year the comte de Tourville was reinforced by the Toulon fleet and so enjoyed a numerical superiority over 'Torrington, who, in reply, at first refused battle and subsequently, when worsted at the battle of Beachy Head )

July 10 [N.S.; June 30, O.S.], 1690), took the first oppormaking a further withdrawal back to the Thames. Torrington maintained that so long as he avoided a decisive defeat and kept his "fleet in being" the French would not dare to invade (q.v.;

tunity of

England; and his phrase was long employed thereafter to describe an important strategic concept.

The French

did not follow

up

but spent the next year. 1691. in making raids on ;shipping; and when in 1692 Tourville. acting upon orders from 'home, sought battle, he was heavily defeated by the English adtheir success

jmirals

Edward

Russell and George

Rooke

at the battle of

La Hogue

675

May

2t)-June 3 |X.S.: May 19-24, O.S.I), The French never again during the war sought a general engaRement at sea, (q.v.;

some extent a permanent decline in France's naval fortunes be dated from the battle of La Hogue, For some time, however, the allies made little use of their vic-

and

to

may

tory, concentrating their strength on protecting their

commerce

and on defending the English channel and leaving the French still masters of the Medite rranean. Colonial rivalry in India, in North America and in the Caribbean brought sporadic fighting to those parts also; and though the English and the Dutch enjoyed the better of their exchanges with the French, the distances involved prevented any concerted operations by either side. In 1693 the series of reverses that the allies sustained on land

was accompanied by a serious naval setback when a convoy of 400 ships bound for Smyrna was attacked and dispersed by Tourville off Lagos on its way into the Mediterranean, and about 100 ships were lost (June 27-28 [N.S.; 17-18. O.S.]). The escorting warships, commanded by Rooke, were quite inadequate for their task, and the episode pointed out the desirability of taking more offensive and French at sea. William now abandoned the hope of achieving anything spectacular in Flanders, English hopes were centred instead upon the possibilities of combined militan.' and naval operations against Brest and in the Mediterranean, In 1694, therefore, operations in Flanders were confined to attacking towns. William was again unsuccessful, but he could at least claim to have contributed to stopping the French advance. The reason the French were halted was partly that, because of a further effort on the part of England, the allies were at last enjoying a superiority in numbers there; and partly that the cost of the war was beginning to bear heavily direct action against the

upon France.

Moreover the diplomatic situation relating to the Spanish succession called for caution. In Catalonia, however, Noailles crossed the Ter on May 28 (N.S.) and proceeded to take Palamos, Gerona. Ostalrich and Castel-Follit. In fact, the incommunication enjoyed by the French armies enabled them to counter a check in one theatre of war by a successful offensive in another, and William resolved upon employing his fleet

terior lines of

to offset this advantage. Russell left for the Mediterranean in June 1694 and stayed on the Catalan coast until well into the autumn when he withdrew to winter and refit not in England but at Cadiz. Thus he was able to operate off Catalonia again early in the spring of 1695, and it was this almost continuous protection that saved Barcelona from a combined attack by Noailles and the Toulon fleet under Tourville. This e.xperiment, which marks the beginning of the concept of a British Mediterranean fleet, was ended when Rooke, who had taken Russell's place in Sept, 1695, was recalled in the spring of 1696 on the reappearance of a French fleet under Chateau-Renault at Brest which, it was feared, might be the prelude to an invasion of England. The results produced by the experiment while it lasted did however indicate that the sea power of the allies might indeed prove to be the answer to the interior lines of communication enjoyed by France. The combined assault against Brest begun at the same time in 1694, however, turned out to be just one more allied disappointment, for the troops which were landed at Camaret bay (June 8 [N.S.; May 39. O.S.]) under Lieut. Gen, Thomas Talmash (Tollemache) found the French prepared for them and had to be withdrawn almost at once. The year 1695 saw the death of Luxembourg, whose replacement by the less able marechal due de Villeroi provided William with

—

war. the opportunity of securing his one tangible success of the After a two months' siege of Namur, he compelled the marechal due de Boufflers to capitulate on Sept, i (N,S,; Aug. 22, O.S.),

The Peace

XIV

—

By 1695 a number of reasons were to investigate the possibilities of a general

of Rijswijk.

inclining Louis

His resources were stretched in maintaining armies upon had declined after four fronts; the value of the Turkish diversion fighting octhe recapture of Belgrade, after which only desultory less stubborn curred on that front; and WiUiam III became a opponent as his continuous record of defeat and disappointment in England. began to arouse serious opposition to his war policy lay in new developpeace for motive important most the But contest for the Spanish succession. A son, Joseph peace.

ments

in the

1

GRAND BANKS

676

and the elector of Ferdinand, had been bom to Maria Antonia of the Spanish mind the in and Bavaria on Oct. 28 (N-S.), 1692, prospect ot government it was in this boy alone that there lay any of Charles death the on intact dominions Spanish maintaining the was prepared Neither Louis XIV nor the emperor Leopold II of them the support to'acquiesce in such a settlement, and for both found himself Louis In vital. was 1695 of other European powers without an ally. His rival had succeeded still engaged in war and Grand Alliance to support his claims in engaging his alhes in the Both Holland and England did this to the Spanish inheritance. advantages from what willingly since they hoped for commercial lax Spanish dominion the of continuation they believed would be a Louis's main support over the American possessions. Moreover, the queen consort, Orleans, of Louise Marie court, Spanish at the successor was Maria had died on Feb. 12 (N.S.), 1689, and her military sucNeuburg, sister to the empress. Despite his

Anna

of

insecure. At this monient cesses Louis's diplomatic position was be dying at last. news came from Spain that Charles might really

with Savoy, \ictor Louis began the task of making peace f^rst doubtful ot Amadeus had seen his troops twice defeated and was When, allies to continue the war. his of some of determination the as he agreed, he concessions, therefore, Louis offered surprising before and was to do again, to change sides.

had so often done

after negotiations treaty of Turin, concluded in June 1696 restored all that conducted with the utmost secrecy, not only but also ceded war the of course the in conquered France had round on its Pinerolo and Casale to Savoy. Savoy then turned

The

The emperor and insisted that all fighting cease in Italy. m 1696 Flanders in fighting The agree. could do nothing but began secret negobrought William III no successes, and he too The emperor still stood out, but further tiations in the winter. m May and French successes in 1697, the naval raid on Cartagena

allies

too. the capture of Barcelona in August, convinced him Rijswijk near negotiations were conducted during the summer at The Hague; and the treaty of Rijswijk (see Rijswijk, Treaties concerned of), which ended the war, was signed by the powers between Sept. 20 and Oct. 30 (N.S.), 1697. Once again, France Official

agreed to restore all its military conquests and. in addition, made commercial concessions to Holland. Louis XIV also recognized William III as king of England and promised not to give any aid

by implication, James 11). At first sight, Louis appears to have surrendered all that he had won in the war, and a closer examination of the terms of the peace supports that view. In any future war France could, in the

to his enemies fincluding,

military circumstances of the time,

make

a considerable military

enemies only if it began the war already in possession of the vital fortresses which ringed its frontiers. Yet, almost without exception, all such towns as had been captured were given up in 1697. Even so, it is misleading to conclude simply that impression upon

its

There in the War of the Grand Alliance. some truth in the suggestion that Louis had misjudged the reIn action of Europe to his ambitions and overplayed his hand. France had been worsted is

particular he had underestimated William of Orange, unsuccessful though that statesman was in war; for it was the advent of Eng-

Bourbon and Habscession and the century-old conflict between appeared imminent; Spain of 11 Charles of death the When burg. That to Louis withdrew from the war without much difficulty. do so he surrendered most of his military gains was not important. were insignificant beside the gains offered by the Spanish

They

The In the event, Louis's timing proved sound. in 1697 and resumed was Turks the against advance Austrian under the re,sulted in the victory of Zenta (Sept. 11 [N.S.]) young Prince Eugene of Savoy. The treaty of Karlowitz followed all of Hungary and in Jan. 1699, whereby the sultan surrendered succession.

Transylvania. In Spain, the crisis of the succession followed almost immedinot ately upon the conclusion of peace, and it was the emperor, in the ignored extent large to a and isolated was who XIV, Louis

subsequent negotiations.

An appraisal of the significance of the War of the Grand Alliance must be related in the first place to its origins. Both Louis XIV and Leopold I sought predominance in Europe, the former through contesting the medium of the Spanish inheritance, the latter in territories. Louis's claim by establishing his power in his hereditary There is little doubt that on balance Louis was the more successful. So it may be concluded that his generals had successfully accomLeopold had had some plished what had been asked of them. an success in defeating the Turkish menace and in building up But the real credit for building effective resistance to France. enup that resistance belongs to William III. It was he who had effective the most made who had he war and in the England gaged and that military effort. What he lacked was military success,

might be remedied

So, in the final analysis, the

in the future.

achievements of Louis XIV and must be set the potential consequences of the work of William III against one another. Bibliography.—For political aspects of the war see C. G. Picavet, La also Diplomatie fran(aise au temps de Louis XIV, 1661-1715 (1930) R Fester, Die Augsburger Allianz von 1686 (1893). For land operaFlandre, 2nd ed., 3 vol. tions see J de Beaurain, Histoire militaire de 1660-1700 C. Walton, History of the British Standing Army, (1776) E. (1894); C. von Clausewitz, Hinlerlassene Werke, vol. ix (1862); definite but necessarily indecisive

;

;

ForPerini, Batailles jran^aises, vol. v (1906); also J. W. For naval operatescue Historv of the British Army, vol. i (1899). Ill (1953); tions 'see J Ehrman, The Navv in the War of William. Merriman (ed.). The Sergison Papers, vol. 89 of the Publications

Hardy de

R D

Navv Records

oj the

Society (1950)

;

Sir J. Corbett,

England

in the

Histoire de Mediterranean, 2 vol. (1904) C. M. B. G. de La Ronciere, Sir Herbert Richmond, The Navy la marine franqaise, vol. vl (1932) The Royal as an Instrument of Policy (1953); also W. L. Clowes, ;

;

Navy,

vol.

(I-

(1898).

ii

GRAND

' B-)

portion of the continental shelf in the southeast Atlantic ocean extending about 350 mi. (563 km.) off the Newfoundland; noted as an international fishing ground,

BANKS. A

coast of

Grand Banks include a number of separate banks, chief of Depths which are Grand bank, St. Pierre bank and Green bank. places many are there but fathoms, 30 average on these banks Grand depths reaching 100 fathoms. The vicinity of the the

with

and the meeting place of the cold Labrador current warm Gulf stream. Air masses passing ovei The min-, these contrasting water bodies produce fog frequently.

Banks

is

relatively

the

land into the affairs of the continent that both turned the balance of power against France and also, by involving the overseas world in the destinies of Europe, introduced forces which a predomi-

nantly continental power such as France could not control. In this last fact lies perhaps the worst mistake of Louis: his abandoning of the scheme of colonial and maritime expansion that had been advocated by Colbert in favour of the purely European policy followed by the marquis de Louvois. But the decisive role that England was to play lay still in the future. So far as the War of the Grand Alliance

is

concerned, Louis

XIV's ambitions had not been seriously disturbed. His main objective was the Spanish succession. He had begun the war by invading the Palatinate in 1688 in order to prevent the emperor from making peace with the Turks and uniting Germany against him. In this he had to some extent succeeded; his armies had succeeded also in preventing William from crowning his lifelong opposition to him with success. The war, in fact, was never more than an interlude

in

the diplomatic struggle for the Spanish suc-

uLLt UF

' ,

_ ^t J:'^,-persthene and a characteristic brown hornblende are also called granulites; e.g., the

;

.

,

;

i

^

j

GRANULOMA INGUINALE— GRANVILLE norite granulite of

Lapland

in north Finland.

The

alkali feldspar in granulites is often a microperthitic orthoclase or a feldspar with a triclinicity intermediate between ortho-

clase

(which

triclinic).

and

50%

is monoclinic Mesoperthites,

orthoclase, are

)

and microcline (which

i.e.,

is

much more common

distinctly

50%

perthites with about

albite

in granulites

(and

charnockites) than in other kinds of deep-seated rocks. Antiperthitic plagioclase, i.e., plagioclase with exsolved blebs of potash feldspar, is typical for granulites, as well as rocks belonging to the charnockite kindred.

GranuHtes may be fine grained or coarse grained; the texture a sugary mosaic of irregular grains fitted together. Occurrence. Granulites occur chiefly in the Pre-Cambrian basement complexes in various parts of the world, the areas in Saxony and Lapland perhaps being the best known. Such rocks have also been described from India, Ceylon, Madagascar, Norway, the United States, Canada, Greenland and Brazil. Granulites

is

—

are intimately associated with rocks of charnockitic affinity in the

Some

field.

granulites are actually identical

to

rocks of

the

charnockite (g.v.) family.

Origin.

—

Although some petrologists consider granulites to be magmatic origin P. Eskola in his study of the Lapland granulites). most students believe that they are metamorphic rocks recrystallized under the high P,T (pressure, temperature) condiof

(

tions of granulite facies.

See Metamorphism.

GRANULOMA INGUINALE, gious venereal disease initiated

Donovan body. It is Venereal Diseases.

a

(H. Rg.)

chronic, mildly conta-

by a microorganism

called the

treated successfully with antibiotics.

GRANVELLE, ANTOINE PERRENOT DE 1586), Franc-Comtois cardinal, a high-ranking

member

See

(1517of the

Spanish administration under Philip II, active in Brussels at the beginning of the Netherlands revolt, was born at Besangon, Aug. 20, 1517, the son of Nicolas Perrenot de Granvelle, chancelGranvelle was educated at Padua and lor of Emperor Charles V. at Louvain, ordained priest and, in 1540, consecrated bishop of Arras; in 1560 he was made archbishop of Mahnes, and the next year a cardinal. Together with his brother Thomas Perrenot de Chantonay, Granvelle received thorough instruction in public affairs he also derived from his father a high regard for the abso;

lute,

unrestricted authority of the

monarch

(as opposed to the

ambitions of wealthy noblemen), which was to lead to a clash between him and the Netherlands aristocrats. In 1560 Philip appointed Cardinal de Granvelle, who was not a foreigner to the Netherlands (to the intellectual atmosphere of which he was also tied through his interest in painting and poetry and his somewhat epicurean outlook), chief counselor to Margaret of Austria, regent in the Netherlands. His political principles and

possibly also his class consciousness (as a

member

of the lesser

contributed to a gradual estrangement between him and the leaders of the Netherlands magnates, William the Silent and the counts of Egmont and Horn. In his reports to Philip, Granvelle denied that any serious trouble was in the offing. The king himself was slow to discern the real character of the discontent and owing perhaps to the influence of Margaret, who nobility)

—

—

noblemen regarded Granvelle's difficulties as a personal affair. On his order Granvelle left the Netheriands on March 12, 1564. Later Philip concluded that the Netherlands revolution would have never developed had he supported Granvelle. After serving for some time in Italy, where he prepared the victory at Lepanto, Granvelle was appointed to the Spanish council of state, becoming the only non-Spanish member of that body. There his principles, hardened by experience, certainly did not make Granvelle Philip's attitude to the Netherlands less intransigent. sided with the

Sept. 21, 1586. See also Netherlands. BrBLiOGRAPHY.— P. Geyl, The Revolt of the Netherlands Against C. V. Spain, 1555-1609 (1932); William T. Walsh, Philip II (1W7) Wedgwood, William the Silent (1944) Bernard H. M. Vlekkc, Evolu\lion of the Dutch Nation (1945); Bohdan Chudoba, Spain and the (B Ca.) Empire, 1519-1643 (1953). died in

Madrid on

;

1

'

i

;

GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESONGOWER, 2nd Earl (1815-1891), English statesman, was foreign secretary in Gladstone's first

and second administrations, and

687

succeeded him as leader of the Liberal party for a time. He was the grandson of the 1st marquess of Stafford (1721-1803). His father, the 1st ead (1773-1846), who married a daughter of the 5th duke of Devonshire, was, as Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, a member of parliament from 1795 to 1815, and a succeessful diplomat; he was a special ambassador to the tsar during 1804-07, and in 1824 his friend CeorRe Canning made him ambassador to Paris where he remained till 1841.

The

1st eari's eldest

and educated

at Christ

spell as attache to his father in

of parliament for

He

in London on May 11, 1815, Church, Oxford. After a short Paris, he was elected Whig member 1836 and 1837, and for Lichfield in

son was born

Eton and

at

Morpeth

in

1840 the widowed Lady .\cton (d. 1860), heiress of the great Rhineland house of Dalberg. Granville held various minor offices under Lord John Russell from 1S46. and pro1841.

married

in

moted the great exhibition of 1851 with such success that he was admitted to the cabinet while paymaster general. He succeeded Lord Palmerston in Dec. 1851 as foreign secretar\' for the remaining three months of the government's life. He was president of the council (1852-54) and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854-55) in Lord Aberdeen's coalition; he returned to the former office under Palmerston in 1855, and also became leader of the Libera! peers in the house of lords, a post he retained, save for an interval during 1865-68, until his death. Borrowing his cousin's gold plate from Chatsworth, he went on a special embassy in 1856 to attend the coronation of the tsar. He was chancellor of the University of London, 1856-91, during which time he supported the admission of women. Granville attempted, without success, to form a government in 1859. He resumed the presidency of the council under Palmerston and Russell from 1859 to 1866. This post brought him into further contact with Queen Victoria, whose favourite Liberal minister he was henceforward. His most important political services were rendered as intermediary between her and Gladstone. He was Gladstone's closest political friend from 1868, and served in three of his cabinets

and

;

he was secretary of state for the colonies

in

1

868-70

1886, and for foreign affairs in 1870-74 and 1880-85.

in

Granville was an ideal negotiator, but as an initiator of policies Gladstone overshadowed him. The Franco-German War, which broke out a few days after Lord Clarendon's death, brought Granville to the foreign office, took both him and Gladstone by surprise and brought on the only serious difi'erence between them. Granville got the cabinet to override Gladstone's wish to protest at the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Otherwise they worked in close, constant and harmonious co-operation; and Gladstone found that, is impossible for any man to talk over a difficulty with you and not to find himself nearer to a soluIn the winter of tion at the end than he was at the beginning." 1870-71 at the London conference Granville handled the Russian denunciation of the treaty of Paris with dexterity, and secured the point of form that future treaty denunciations would require in law the consent of all signatories; but he had to concede the point of substance, a Russian fleet in the Black sea. The only other significant negotiation of these years was the settlement of the ".Ma-

as he once wrote to Granville, "it

bama"

Granville became the official leader of when Gladstone first retired, and protested

arbitration iq.v.).

the whole Liberal party

at Conservative policy in the great eastern crisis of 1876-78. He was again asked to form a government in 1880, but at once gave way to Gladstone. During his last spell at the foreign office Bismarck, in effect, dictated much of British foreign policy, and Granville's own powers were clearly failing. He was one of

more mildly

the few crisis

Whig

peers

who stood by Gladstone

in the Irish

Home

Rule

of 1886.

He died in London on March 31, 1891, and was succeeded by the 3rd eari (1872-1939), the son of his second marriage, in 1865, to Castalia Campbell of Islay, Argyll. See his Lije bv Lord Edmond Fitzmauricc, Gladslone-Granvitle Political Correspondence, \gatlia

Ramm,

2

vol. (1952).

GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET,

vol. (1905); The 186S-1876, cd. by (M. R. I). F.)

2

Earl (1690-1763),

English statesman, best known as Lord Carteret, who was prominent in politics under the first Hanoverians, was born on April 22,

GRANVILLE—GRAPE

688 1690, the eldest son of George, 1st

Lord Carteret,

whom

he suc-

He was educated at Westminster school and ceeded in 1695. lanChrist Church, Oxford, and acquired an abiding interest in guages and literature, being one of the few noblemen of his time to speak German fluently. He took his seat in the house of lords on May 25, 1711. Although most of his relations were Tory, he quickly showed his independent judgment by voting with the Whigs Hanoverian succession. He secured minor office in 1714, important appointment came in 1719 when he was sent to Sweden as ambassador. This promotion was due to James Stanhope, to whom he had remained loyal in his quarrel with Robert Walpole and Lord Townshend. Carteret displayed considerable diplomatic skill and he played an important part in the long and arduous negotiations that brought an end to the Northern War in 1721. George 1, as elector of Hanover, was personally keenly interested in the affairs of northern Europe and he was for the

and

his first

impressed by Carteret's ability. After his return from Sweden, Carteret was appointed ambassador to the congress of Cambrai but, before he could take up his appointment, the death of James Craggs, the younger, led to his promotion in 1721 as secretary of state for the southern department, an office which he held, without great distinction, until 1724. Carteret's promotion had been due to the earl of Sunderland, the rival of Walpole and Townshend, andafter Sunderland's death in 1722, Walpole and Tov/nshend steadily intrigued against Carteret by undermining George I's confidence in his judgment. Carteret placed too much reliance on his friend Sir Luke Schaub, the British at Paris, and he was too enemies on their own terms. Carteret lost his ofiice in 1724 and get him removed from London and the of Ireland in the place of the duke of

ambassador

proud and too indolent

to

fight his

violent agitation in Ireland against

was promoted,

in order to

court, to be lord lieutenant

Grafton. At this time the Wood's halfpence, skilfully

fanned by the virulent diatribes of Jonathan Swift in the Drapier's made a new appointment essential. For the next six years Carteret remained in office, hoping to win back his secretaryship of state by compliance with the policy of Walpole and Townshend. This he failed to do, and from 1730 he entered into opposition to Walpole and became one of his most eloquent and prominent critics in the house of lords, attacking Walpole's policy toward Spain with particular violence. He succeeded, however, in retaining both the sympathy and liking of George II, who welcomed his appointment as secretary of state in 1742 after the fall of Walpole. Overconfident by reason of the king's support, Carteret pursued an energetic policy in support of the empress Maria Theresa but Letters,

paid

attention to the intrigues of his colleagues or the violent denunciations of the opposition, who accused him of sacrificing little

the interests of Great Britain to those of Hanover. However, behind the scenes. Walpole was using all his influence to get rid of Carteret, whose arrogance and contempt left him without a supporter. His dismissal was forced on the reluctant king in 1744. This marked the end of Carteret's effective career as a statesman, and he himself seems to have given up his ambition to direct British foreign policy. Although he became president of the council in 1751

and retained the

he died, his influence either on His major contribution to politics in his later life lay in the studied and ornate speeches with which he regaled the house of lords, where he was regarded as one of the most outstanding orators of his day. He was a man whose considerable gifts were vitiated by a lack of judgment that was the office until

policy or appointments was small.

and self-indulgent nature. He was both too arrogant, too indolent and too fond of a jibe to make an effective politician. Carteret, who had become Earl Granville in 1744, died in London on Jan. 2, 1763. BiBLiocRAPiiY.— There is no adequate Life of Carteret. The best is by N. W. Baring Pemberlon (1936). See also Basil WilUaras, Carteret and Newcastle (1943). (j. H. Pl.) effect of a self-regarding

GRANVILLE,

a fortified seaport and bathing resort of northwestern Krance, in the departemeiit of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 mi. S.W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1962) 9,439. The upper town stands on a promontory and is surrounded by ramparts; the lower town, with bathing beaches and promenade, and

the harbour lie below it. The barracks and the church of Notre Dame are in the upper town. The port consists of a large tidal harbour and a floating basin and is the port of Normandy for Its principal exports are eggs, vegetables, fish, British goods. lard

and butter, and

terials.

Granville

visitors to the

is

it

imports mainly coal, timber and raw ma-

a centre for

Channel Islands.

yachtsmen and tourists and for Deep-sea fishing is carried on,

and industries include shipbuilding, the preserving of vegetables, metal founding and ropemaking, as well as the manufacture of chemical fertilizers, shoes and biscuits.

GRANVILLE-BARKER, HARLEY ish dramatist,

producer and

critic,

(187 7-1946), Brit-

who profoundly

influenced the

20th-century theatre and the presentation of Shakespeare's plays,

London on Nov. 25, 1877. He began his stage trainand at 15 Charles Hawtrey gave him a London part. He preferred work with William Poel's Elizabethan Stage society and Ben Greet's Shakespeare repertory company to a West End career, however, and in 1900 joined the experimental Stage society. In 1904 he undertook management of the Court theatre with J. E. Vedrenne and made theatrical history by introducing the public to Ibsen, Maeterlinck, Galsworthy, John Masefield, Gilbert Murray's translations from Greek, new plays by Shaw and many other works. His wife Lillah McCarthy played most of the leading roles. The Court became an authors' theatre, and among new plays produced there were several of his own: The Voysey Inheritance (1905), the most famous, showing Shaw's influence; Prunella (1906), a charming fantasy written with Laurence Housman; Waste (1907); and The Madras House (1910). Also revolutionary was his treatment of Shakespeare. Instead of traditional scenic decor and declamatory elocution. Barker successfully introduced, in the Savoy productions of The Winter's Tale and Twelfth Night, continuous action on an open stage and He was active in promoting a narapid, lightly stressed speech. tional theatre and by 1914 had every prospect of a brilliant drawas born

in

ing at 13,

matic career. After World War I, however, during which he served with the Red Cross, he found the mood of the postwar theatre alien and contented himself with work behind the scenes, as president of the British

Drama

league, for instance.

He

settled in Paris with

second wife, Helen, an American, collaborating with her in translating Spanish plays, and writing his five series of brilliant Prefaces to Shakespeare (1927-48), an important contribution to Shakespearean criticism, which threw fresh Hght on the plays by analyzing them from the standpoint of a practical playwright with' his

firsthand stage experience.

In 1937 Barker became director of the British institute of the University of Paris. He fled to Spain in 1940 and then went to the United States, where he worked for British information servHe returned to Paris ices and lectured at Harvard university. ii

1946 and died there the same year, on Aug. 31. See W. Bridge-Adams, The Lost Leader (1954)

;

C. B. Purdo:

Harley Granville-Barker (iQSS). (W. A. Dn.) The grape genus Vitis, of the family Vitaceai (g.v.), comprises about 60 species native to the north temperat( zone, especially North America, among them the wine grape or-

GRAPE.

grape of history, V. vinifera, and several others that produce juicyt edible fruit. In addition to its importance as a fruit producer, the; grape is also valued for its ornament and shade when grown on garden trellises and arbours; V. coignetiae, the glory vine, is prized Fossilized grape leaves, stem for its brilliant red autumn foliage. pieces and seeds unearthed from Miocene and Tertiary deposits

—

the European continent. North the northern hemisphere America, England, Iceland indicate the long existence and wide in

—

distribution of the "vine," as

it

was known

to the ancients.

Cer-

tain of the present species closely resemble the fossil forms.

History.— Old world grape culture (viticulture) dates far back. Seeds found in the remains of the Swiss lake dwellings of the Bronze Age and entombed with mummies in Egypt closely resemble seeds of the oldest and most extensively cultivated species of today.

Viticulture's tradition

is

nearly as old as

man;

details

and wine production figured in the hieroglyphics of the 4th (2400 B.C.), 17th and ISth dynasties of Egypt. According to for grape

GRAPE

689

While powdery mildew was ravaging the French vineyards additional American grapes resistant to it were imported, 1858-62, and with them phylloxera. Phylloxera took little more than two decades to destroy most of the vineyards of France, and in the early 1870s resistant rootstocks were sought out in America by French viticulturists. The magnitude of this effort is indicated by the fact that by 1890, 2,400,000 ac. of vineyard were again flourishing, this time on rootstocks of American species or hybrids. Among widely used rootstocks are selections of V. rupestris, V. riparia and r. champinii; hybrids of these, and V. cinerea, V. Berlandieri, V. candicam, V. solonis and V. monticola; or hybrids of vinifera varieties with certain American species. The fight against phylloxera also involved attempts to develop

by hybridizing V. vinijera varieties with American Resistance to both phylloxera and various diseases was

resistant vines, species.

Because of their resistance to fungus diseases, some of grown extensively in certain parts of Europe. They are grafted on phylloxera-resistant stocks. Plant and Fruit Characteristics.— In North America the sought.

these hybrids are

grape J.

HORACE MCFARLAMD CO.

GRAPE CLUSTERS. LEAVES AND VINE

Noah

In Homer's time wine was Pliny described 91 varieties of grapes, distinguished 50 kinds of wines and described vinetraining methods. Viticulture probably had its beginnings in the area around the Caspian sea, generally recognized as the place of origin of V. vinijera, the best-known grape. From there grape growing in the old world spread to other parts of Asia Minor, then to Greece and from there to Sicily. The Phoenicians carried the grape into France about 600 B.C.; the Romans planted grapes in the Rhine valley not later than the 2nd century a.d.; and there is evidence that they introduced them into England. Coinciding with the westward spread of grape culture, grapes were moved into the orient by way of India. As new lands were colonized the grape was taken along, so that it is cultivated on all continents and islands where the climate is favourable. For centuries, one species, V. vinijera, supplied all of the grapes grown by civilized man. It is the grape mentioned in the Bible, the grape of myths and poets, the grape that provides the wines the Bible,

a regular

planted a vineyard.

commodity among

the Greeks.

and raisins of commerce and most of the world's table grapes. It is the old world grape, the European grape and, more recently in America, the California grape. There was no real need for other species until eastern North America was colonized. But there V. vinijera was destroyed by an aphidlike insect called the grape phylloxera and by several diseases. Fortunately, North America had many native species of Vitis that had hved with these enemies and developed resistance. The colonists were then able to turn to the native V. labrusca and hybrids of it with vinifera and other American species, to create a new and different grape industry in that part of America. Varieties with a strong V. labrusca strain, the so-called slip skins, have a pronounced aromatic, or so-called foxy, flavour and are grouped as labruscan grapes. In the southeastern part of the United States, varieties of V. rotundijolia are cultivated. These are the muscadine grapes. The berries are borne in very small clusters, mature irregularly and drop when ripe. In all but the most recently created self-fruiting

making it necessary to interplant a limited number of male vines. These varieties are nevertheless important, since they and their fruit are very hardy under ihot and humid conditions. Europeans introduced American grapes when these became available. The early importations, in mid-18th century, were grown without mishap. However, in 1845 powdery mildew was discovered on grapes in a hothouse in England. Two years later it was observed in France, where in the space of ten years, until a control measure could be found, it reduced production 70%. Downy mildew and black rot, two other diseases of American origin, were [identified in the south of France in 1878 and 1885, respectively. varieties, the flowers are pistillate,

\

i

a

woody vine, climbing by means of when untrained often reaching

tendrils (modified

a length of 50 ft. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub. The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed and always tooth-edged. Small greenish flowers, in clusters, precede the fruit, which varies in colour from almost black to green, red and amber. Botanically

or more.

the fruit

a berry,

more or

less globular, within the juicy pulp of In many varieties the fruit is covered with a whitish powdery bloom. All grapes contain grape sugar glucose or dextrose) in varying quantities depending on the variety. Those having the most glucose are the most readily fermented. Kinds of Grapes. On the basis of parentage grapes may be

which

lie

is

the seeds.

(

—

grouped as vinifera (typified by 1'. vinijera). labruscan (typified by V. labrusca) and muscadine (typified by V. rotundijolia). In the course of time, however, hybridization and backcrossing became so extensive that parentage has been considerably mixed and, in some cases, almost obscured for many varieties. On the basis of use, grapes are grouped as wine grapes, raisin grapes, table grapes, sweet juice grapes and canning grapes. The mature fruit of all varieties about 8,000 will ferment into a kind of wine when crushed, and most of them can be dried or eaten fresh. But only a limited number of varieties produce standard or higher quality wines; three varieties account for most of the raisins of commerce; only 15 to 20 varieties are grown extensively as table grapes; a single variety yields the bulk of sweet juice produced in the U.S.; and only a few varieties are used for canning. A wine grape may be defined as a variety known to be capable Table (dry) in some locality of producing an acceptable wine. wines require grapes of high acidity and moderate sugar content. while dessert (sweet) wines are the product of grapes that are high in sugar and moderately low in acidity. In addition, high quality wines—those of outstanding bouquet, flavour and general balance require grapes that possess individuality. Examples of such grapes are the White Riesling. Semillon, Cabernet Sauvignon. Tinta Madeira and similar varieties when they are grown under

—

—

—

favourable climatic conditions. Raisin grapes are tho.se varieties that produce an acceptable dried product: soft in texture, of little tendency to stickiness, pleasing in flavour, large or very small and seedless. Only the Thompson Seedless (Sultanina), Muscat (Alexandria) and Black Corinth varieties

meet most of these requirements. Grapes used fresh, either as food or for decoration, are called table grapes. They must be pleasing to the eye and to the palate. Large size, brilliant colour and unusual form are appreciated. When grapes must be shipped long distances to markets or stored for a considerable period, important qualities arc firmness of pulp, toughness of skin, adherence to the stem (pedicel) and resistance

of the stems to desiccation or browning. These qualities are possessed to a degree by the Tokay, Emperor, Malaga, Red Malaga. Almeria and Ribier (Alphonse Lavallee). all of which are grown

South Africa, Australia. Chile, Argentina and elsegrape Thompson Seedless is also, because of seedlessness, a popular table grape.

in California,

I

I

is

branches), and

where. its

The

raisin

GRAPE

690

Sweet juice grapes are those varieties that produce a juice acceptable as a beverage when preserved by pasteurization, germproof filtration or freezing. The juice must retain the natural, fresh-grape flavour. In America, grape juice has generally been preserved by pasteurization. When vinifera varieties, including the strong-flavoured Muscats, are pasteurized by the usual methods they lose their fresh flavour and acquire an unpleasant, cooked

The

taste.

taste of strong-flavoured

American

varieties, particu-

larly the Concord, is less affected by pasteurization, which largely accounts for the general use of Concords for juice in the United States. In central Europe a sweet juice of renown is made of cerPreservation is effected by germproof tain vinifera varieties. Freezing is a filtration or storing under carbon dioxide pressure.

valued technique in grape juice preservation. Grapes are largely canned in combination with other fruits as fruit salad and fruit cocktail. Only seedless t>pes are used. Grapes are also prepared as jams, jeUies and conserves.

CULTURE AND HANDLING

—

Influence of Climate. Vinifera grapes require long, dry, warm-to-hot summers and cool winters for their best development. Humid summers fa\'our the development of diseases that attack the fruit, while severe winter conditions (0° F. [about

—18° C]

or below) will destroy unprotected x-ines. Spring frosts occurring after the vines start growth will kill the shoots and clusters. Win-

needed for

ter rains are

control

more

difficult:

soil

moisture;

summer

riods, if they are of considerable duration, fruit.

rains

rains during the ripening

may

make

disease

and harvest pe-

cause rotting of the

Where raisins are produced by natural sun-drying, as in month of clear, warm, rainless weather is essential

California, a

after the grapes are mature.

Varieties possessing the characteristics of V. labrusca will withstand humid summers and cold winters better than will the true vinifera. They may in fact do better where summer rains of short duration are the rule. Varieties of V. rotundifolia thrive in the very warm, humid regions of the southeastern states of the U.S.

Just as climate broadly limits grape growing to the temperate it further limits the highest development of individual varie-

zone,

For example, the table only in a ten-square-mile area of central California the warm, dry vineyards at Lodi. In certain areas of Europe individual climate is so subtly suited to the needs of the White Riesling, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay varieties that only highly localized areas produce some of the greatest table wines of the world. ties to specific locaUties

grape Tokay

within this zone.

fulfills itself

—

Temperature

by far the most important climatic factor, affecting maturity date and palatability. Time of maturity is established by the total summation of heat, between full bloom and a given degree of maturity. Palatabihty, however, is influenced more by the summation of heat during the ripening period. Cool weather will mean higher acid content and a sour taste; hot weather will mean lower acid content and a sweet taste. is

summer after being planted or budded vines

The union of grafted prevent the production

in the vineyard.

must be above the

soil, to

of scion roots. Planting distances

may vary widely. In European and most other countries the planting distances range from 3 to 4 ft. in either

direction; in California,

where cultivation

is

largely mechanized,

the widest vine spacing, 6 by 12 ft. and 8 by 12 ft., employed. Similar distances are used in Australia.

is

generally

Training is necessary to develop a vine of desirable form. It accomplished by pruning the young vine and then tying it and Two vine forms are generally used; its growth to a support. headed vines and cordon vines. In the headed vine there is a straight, vertical trunk or stem of desired height, with arms radiatThe most widely used ing out from its top to form the head. cordon is the bilateral, in which the trunk rises vertically to the desired height, where it is divided into two branches extending horizontally in opposite directions along the row. Arms rise from the horizontal parts of the divided trunk. Headed vines are common for wine and raisin grapes and some table varieties. The bilateral cordon is useful for large-clustered grapes. These are the common commercial systems, but minor variations occur in some producing areas, and in addition the vine can be readily trained to walls, pergolas and arbours. Stakes are standard supports for all bead-trained and spurpruned vines, while trellises are usual for vines that are cordontrained and spur-pruned or head-trained and cane-pruned. Stake lengths vary with country and variety of grape from 4 to 8 ft. The stakes used in California are usually 2 by 2 in. split redwood. The trellis most generally used has two wires, placed 34 and 4S in. from the ground, while a flat or sloping top treUis with two or three additional wires is widely used for table grapes. Pruning. Pruning is the most important single vineyard operation. With wine and raisin varieties, it is usually the sole means of regulating the crop, largely determining not only the quality of the fruit but also the quality of the w'ood for the next year. At the annual pruning, from 90% to 95% or more of the year's growth Spurs may is removed, leaving the spurs or fruit canes, or both. be used on varieties whose basal buds (near the point of origin of the canes) are fruitful; and fruit canes are necessary when the buds near the basal end of the cane are unfruitful or when the variety produces such small clusters that many are required for a full is

—

—

crop.

Growth and Flowering. which

— Grapevines

late in the spring start a rapid

in early

summer, then slowing, with

after the fruit begins to ripen. until the

The nodes.

have climbing stems, growth that reaches a peak

little

The

further shoot elongation

leaves continue to function

end of the season.

leaves, tendrils, flowers

The

and

from the The primordium of

lateral shoots arise

flowers are borne in a cluster.

show a great variety of types, ranging from from shallow to very deep soils, from highly calcareous to noncalcareous soils and from very low to high

formed during the year preceding its bloom, bud beginning with the accumulation of carbohydrates in the shoots soon after their growth slows down, in early summer. By leaf fall, the cluster primordia have developed into initial points for individual flowers. Thus, the number of flowers and the shape of the clusters are determined in the year prior to that in which the fruit is produced. The formation of the flower parts (calyx, corolla, stamen and pistil) follows leafing out in spring, requiring six to eight weeks, depending on weather and

fertility.

variety, before the complete flower has developed to the point of

Extremes are not generally desirable, however, and poor drainage or excess salts are to be avoided. The highest tonnages are produced on the deeper and more fertile soils. They are especially preferred for raisins and common wine grapes.

blooming. Set of the Berries

—

Vineyard Soils Grapes are adapted to a wide range of soils. Although growers often express a preference for certain soil types, surveys of soils used successfully in grape production in many different localities

blow sands

to clay loams,

Establishing the Vineyard.— Commercial grape varieties are propagated with cuttings, segments of canes or grafts. These are usually grown for one year in a nursery to develop roots. The use of clean soil permits the use of cuttings of fruiting varieties, but the presence of either phylloxera or nematodes (roundworms) requires the use of grafts or rootstocks. The grafts consist of a

the flower cluster

is

differentiation into a fruitful

fruit, pollination is

development.

—

In normal setting (development) of the followed by fertilization, and this in turn by seed

But normal

fruit setting

may

fail in

varieties, either partially or nearly completely.

varieties typically

Four

show

As

a

number

of

a result these

a wide variation in berry size and shape.

definite tj-pes of fruiting or fruit setting occur

among

Although all these types are found in many varieties, the proportion of types within an individual variety is relatively conties.

The

shape.

to the desired fruiting variety in late

!

varie-

segment of a stem of a fruiting variety placed on a rootstock cutting. Both grafts and rooted rootstock cuttings are employed.

budded

}

'

The commonest type of setting is that in which normal seed development occurs. Each carpel of the ovary has one, two or more seeds, and the berries are relatively uniform in size and

latter are field

;

slant.

j

I

|

;

1

According to variety, they are round, oval or fusiform j

GRAPE Some

(tapering at ends). set

and produce

varieties of this type are not perfect in

most only one or two seeds

at

to a berry.

With

much elongated

berries, the presence of a single or two adjacent cause the berries to be falciform (gherkinlike in shape. In a second type most of the seeds produced are empty. Empty seeds result from embryo abortion after the seed is well advanced

seeds

may

in its

development.

)

The

seeds.

Some

varieties produce less than

berries of such varieties are

i%

nonuniform

of viable

in both size

and shape.

Two

other types of setting produce seedless fruit. In one, ferbut early abortion prevents seed develop-

ment (stenospermocarpyj, producing a fruit setting common to a number of important varieties, such as Thompson Seedless. In the other seedless type, fruit setting is by stimulative parthenocarpy {see Fruit). Here the berries are very small and round, with no Seedlessness and small size, however, have made trace of seeds. the Black Corinth representative of this type) of commercial importance. It supplies the dried currants of commerce. (

Thinning Table Grapes.—Three methods been developed as an aid grapes, for not

all

of thinning

have

in correcting fruit setting in certain table

varieties set equally well.

Some

set clusters that

are too compact; the clusters of others are well filled; those of others are loose to the point of being straggly; and still others set

shot berries (of parthenocarpic origin) along with the normal ber-

Berry thinning

of berries

Vinifera grapes do best in dry, warm-to-hot summers. Irrigais required where the rainfall is insufficient or the soil too shal-

tion

low to store

water to meet the moisture requirements of must be wetted as deep as the roots penetrate during the late fall, winter or early spring. After growth starts, irrigation is not needed until the vines have almost exhausted the available water in the soil area containing most of the roots. Irthe vine.

sufficient

The

soil

rigation should be repeated as often as this point is reached. The of the applications of water are determined

amount and frequency

tilization takes place,

ries.

691

will

makes the

improve quality when an overabundance

clusters too compact, or overlarge clusters

and maturing. In California, berry thinning consists in cutting the rachis (fiower-bearing stalk) to

interfere with proper colouring

leave only the desired

number

of berries

;

by the

te.\ture

and depth of the

soil,

climatic conditions

and type

of grapes grown.

Harvesting

—A

grape

when

has reached the stage best The containers in which table grapes are moved to market and the methods of packing the fruit in the containers vary greatly from country to country. The least amount of handling that is consistent with thorough trimming and efficient packing is imperative. The sooner the grapes are cooled after picking, the better will be their quality when they reach the market. When grapes are to be shipped long distances or held in storage at 3 1 ° F. [about 0° C] for prolonged periods, it is advisable to treat them with sulfur dioxide. In shipment, the sulfur dioxide is applied by displacing the air of the standard refrigerator car with sulfur dioxide diluted with air to a concentration of approximately l.S'Jo by volume. Grapes in cold storage are treated at given intervals by releasing .2% sulfur dioxide into the air as it enters the storage room. A sizable proportion of the crop is made into raisins (see Raisin). is

ripe

suited for the use to which

it

it

to be put.

is

)

(

PESTS

in other areas individual

AND

DISEASES

Thinning soon after fruit set gives a marked Thinning flower clusters increase in the size of seeded berries. soon after they emerge is another method. It improves the carbohydrate nutrition of the flowers retained, giving a better set of normal berries. Flower-cluster thinning is useful on varieties that

Pests.— The grapevine and its fruit are seriously attacked by a number of insects and diseases. In California and other arid re-

have loose or straggly clusters or tend to set shot berries with standard pruning methods. A third method, cluster thinning, involves removal of entire clusBy leaving enough fruiting ters soon after the berries have set. wood at pruning to produce a full crop in poor years and then reducing the overload by cluster thinning in good years, larger crops of high-quality fruit can be produced every year. Cluster thinning improves the nutrition of the fruit that is retained, enhancing seeded berry size and colour. Girdling. This operation (also called ringing) involves the reto i in. wide, from the moval of a complete ring of bark, trunk or from a cane below the fruit that is to be influenced. The girdle prevents downward movement of carbohydrates (through the phloem) improving the nutrition of the fruit. For best results the girdle must be open to be effective. During bloom it increases the set of seedless berries; during the period of rapid growth of

using resistant rootstocks.

increases berry size; during the early ripening period of seeded varieties it may accelerate colouring and ripening. These effects of girdling in seedless grape varieties can be produced by spraying with the proper concentration of plant

dia bidwellii), anthracnose

berries are

removed.

—

seedless berries

^

it

growth regulators, such as 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid and berellin.

gib-

—

Cultivation and Irrigation. In areas of rainless summers and where periods of drought are a common occurrence, weeds are destroyed to prevent their robbing the vines of soil moisture. A winter cover crop or growth of native plants is usually encourcheckaged. On rolling soils and hillsides it is of great value in ramy ing erosion. The winter cover is destroyed at the end of the often season or at the spring cleanup. Cultivation is repeated only This conserves soil to destroy or prevent weed growth. moisture only by eliminating weeds and not by virtue of loosemng soil.

less In irrigated vineyards the matter of weed competition is of and importance. Such vineyards are usually cleaned up in spring When kept free of weeds during the period of rapid vine growth. ample soil moisture is available weed growth after midsummer with the various is controlled only to prevent undue interference

vineyard operations.

principal insects attacking the

vine are the grape phylloxera {Phylloxera vitijoliae) and the root knot nematode (Meloidogyne javattica). They are combated by

The grape

{Erythroneura the western grape root worm {Adoxus obscurus and the grape leaf folder (Desmia ftineralis) are controlled with arsenicals or cryolite; and the spider mites Tetranychus paclficiis and Tetranychus wihnetti) can be controlled by some of the new organic phosphate miticides, either as dusts or sprays. In more humid regions there are in addition the berry moths (Polychrosis botrana and Clysia ambiguella) and various beetles and caterpillars. They may be controlled with

elegantula)

is

controlled with

DDT

leaf hopper

or malathion;

I

(

DDT

or arsenicals. Diseases. Diseases affecting the grape under arid conditions are powdery mildew Uncmula necator). prevented by dusting elemental sulfur on all green parts of the vine; and black measles,

—

(

whose cause

is

unknown but which can be

controlled by sodium

Under arsenite spray while the vines are completely dormant. humid conditions the grape is also attacked by black rot {GuigiiariGloeosporium ampelopliagiim) and viticola), which are controlled with Bordeaux sprays; Cryptosporella viticola, which is controlled with sodium arsenite; and numerous minor diseases.

downy mildew (Plasmopara

A number

of viruses infect the vine.

Fanleaf (infectious degen-

eration). Yellow Mosaic. Pierce's disease and White Emperor do Much extensive damage in many grape areas. There is no cure. selection of buds careful the by spread prevent to done be

can

effective and cuttings. Selection of vines for cuttings is most when the vines are observed in late spring and again when the

crop

is

almost mature.

An

important project

in

California's college of agriculture, at Davis, of virus-free planting stock of grapes.

the University of is

the production

PRODUCTION

enough

or pulverizing the

The

gions there are fewer pests.

more than Acreage devoted to cultivation of grapes averaged more than Spain; and Italy France, in 3 350.000 in the early 1960s and more than lOOoioOO in Hungary, Turkey and the U.S.S.R.;

Portugal, Rumania, Yugo500 000 in Algeria, Argentina, Greece, grape-producing and the United Slates. Other principal vines, include Australia, countries, with more than 100.000 ac. of Republic of South Africa. Chile, Germany, Syria and the slavia

Bulgaria,

GRAPEFRUIT— GRAPE HYACINTH

692

The larger areas of grape production in eastern North America border on the Great Lakes around Ontario, Can., and in the U.S. Districts of less in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan. importance are in Missouri, Arkansas. Iowa and Washington, with scattered plantings in almost every other state. The Concord is the variety most extensively grown. California, the principal grape-growing state of the U.S., produces about 3% of the wines of the world, and leads all countries in the production of table grapes (209'c) and raisins (40%;. See Raisin; Wine; Fruit; Fruit Farming; Horticulture; see also references under "Grape" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— U. P. Hedrick, The Crapes of New York (1908) Karl MUller, Weinbaulexikon (1930) P. Viala and V. Vermorel, Traite gineral de viticulture ameplographie (1909); M. B. Hoffman, "Grape Production in New York," New York .^Kricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 375 (1937); "Growing Grapes in Washington," Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Extension Bulletin 271 (1951) "Grape Growing in Kansas," Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 248 (1949); C. A. Magoon and E. Snyder, "Grapes for Different Regions," U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 1936 (1943) L. M. Smith and E. M. Stafford, "Grape Pests in California," California .-Agricultural Experiment Station Extension Circular 445 (1955); A. L. Quaintance and C. L. Shear, "Insects and Fungus Enemies of the Grape," U.S. Department of .\griculture Farmers' Bulle;

;

;

the U.S. is of either the Marsh (seedless) or Duncan (seedy), yellowish-pulp varieties. The Ruby and Webb are the principal varieties having red pulp; the actual quality of these varieties

comparable to that of the normal-coloured varieties, and they have become increasingly popular in the fresh-fruit market because of their attractive appearance, for use at banquets and other social is

functions.

The grapefruit hybridizes readily with other The tangelo, an intrageneric hybrid, is the result

species of Citrus.

of a cross between

the mandarin orange (some varieties of which are knowTi as tangerines) and the grapefruit (also known as pomelo). One of the

most promising of these hybrids, the Sampson tangelo, was produced in 1897, in Florida, by W. T. Swingle, an investigator employed at the time by the United States department of agriculture. This fruit has considerable merit as a juice fruit and as a source of seed for rootstock purposes.

Culture and Handling.

— Grapefruit trees thrive and produce

the best quality fruit on sandy but relatively fertile soils. Supplementary fertilization is necessary in practically all the producing

;

tin

1220 (1926): A.

J.

Winkler, General Viticulture (1962).

(A.J.W.;X.)

GRAPEFRUIT

(Citrus paradisi'), also known as pomelo, a It is tree and its citrus fruit, belonging to the family Rutaceae. probably an offshoot of the pummelo or shaddock (q.v.). Certainly the grapefruit

—

plied as a fertilizer to the soil or as a spray to the foliage. The trees come into bearing early and may be expected to produce commercially profitable crops by the fourth to sixth year after being

Jamakensis mensmall variety of the shaddock resembling

planted in the orchard. Mature trees may produce remarkably 1,300 to 1,500 lb. of fruit per tree. Culture and pestlarge crops control problems of grapefruit are comparable to those of other

In 1814 John Lunan

tioned that there was a

The

the grape in flavour.

related,

in his Hortiis

place of origin of the grapefruit

is

not

probably originated in Jamaica, for, in spite of careful search, it has not been found native in southeastern Asia or in the East Indian archipelago, where the pummelo is widely grown, or in any other region where any other Citrus species is native. As a fruit for home consumption, grapefruit became well established in the islands of the West Indies before its culture spread to the mainland. Plant and Fruit Characteristics. The grapefruit tree grows certain, but

it

—

and xagorous as an orange tree a mature tree may be from 15 to 20 ft. high. The foliage is very dense, leaves dark shiny green, larger than those of sweet orange but smaller than those of the pummelo, nearly glabrous, with petioles broadly winged. Flowers are large, white, borne singly, or in clusters in the axils of the leaves petals are similar to those of sweet orange to be as large

;

;

but usually larger. The fruit, which is lemon-yellow when ripe, ranges from four to six inches in diameter and averages twice as large as a medium-sized orange, the size depending upon the variety and upon cultural conditions; the pulp is usually of a light yellowish colour, somewhat intermediate between that of the orange and that of the lemon, tender and usually very full of juice, with a distinctive mildly acid, very pleasing flavour. Several

by bud mutations, have pink or red pulp of varying intensity of colour; some of these varieties have a slightly pinkish cheek overlying the normal yellow colour of the peel.

varieties, originated

The

total soluble

solids of the juice

(principally sugars) in-

creases during fruit growth and development and at maturity

usually varies from

8%

to

\2%

(fresh-weight basis).

The con-

centration of the total acidity of the juice gradually decreases

during fruit growth and, at maturity, the fruit may contain from 1% to 1.4% total acids (fresh-weight basis). The grapefruit is richer as a source of \atamin C than most of the fruits and vegetables normally

consumed by man;

it

is

exceeded only by the

orange and the lemon. The \ntamin C content of grapefruit juice depends upon the variety, soil fertility and the season of the year when the fruit is picked; it may average from 39 to 47 mg. per 100 grams. Early in the season of maturity, the \atamin C content is higher than it is later. Varieties. At least 23 varieties of grapefruit with normalcoloured pulp and 4 varieties with pink or reddish pulp have been propagated in the United States. Most of the fruit produced in

—

In addition to the usual nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, the fertilizers or sprays should contain supplementary nutrients or microelements in the form of copper, manganese, zinc, iron and boron. In Florida the area of greatest grapefruit production is on the light sandy soils which require additional micronutrients ap-

and some probable that the grapefruit originated from and pummelo are closely

students consider it the pummelo as a mutation.

History.

areas in the U.S.

—

citrus crops {see

By

Lemon and Orange). 90% of world

the early 1960s about

production was in the

United States, concentrated in Florida, Texas, .Arizona and CaliGrapefruit has become popular as a breakfast fruit in fornia. various parts of the world and production has expanded to other citrus-growing countries, notably Israel, Jordan, South Africa and Brazil.

Production and Use.

—

The rapid expansion of grapefruit acrecaused serious problems in the sale and distribution Fresh fruit from Florida and Texas is not available of the fruit. throughout the entire year. The season of shipment is primarily from late fall to early spring, with the peak of the marketing season To avoid an overproduction at one period, and a in midwinter. shortage of grapefruit at another, the preservation of the fruit by canning and freezing developed into important industries. The two products which have taken most of the fruit off the fresh-fruit market are the juice and the prepared segments. The latter product is very frequently used as a basis for salad making. The segments may be packed in sugar syrup. More than half of the crop produced in the United States is marketed in canned or frozen age

in the U.S.

form. This makes grapefruit available to the general pubhc the year round and is an important service to both the consumer and the producer of this popular fruit. The processing of grapefruit juice is comparable to that of orange juice. It is sometimes advisable to add cane or beet sugar to grapefruit juice as it is canned. The yield of grapefruit juice under factory conditions will approxi-

mate 70

to 90 gal. per 2,000 lb. of fruit. See also Fruit Farming. Bibliography.— W. T. Swingle, "The Botany of Citrus and Its Wild Relatives of the Orange Subfamily (Family Rutaceae, Subfamily Aurantioideae)," The Citrus Industry, vol. i, ch. iv (1943) T. R. Robinson, "Grapefruit and Pummelo," Econ. Bat., 6:228 (1953). ;

(L. D. B.; W. B. Sr.) given to any species of Miiscari, a genus of the lily family (LiUaceae, g.ii.), comprising about 50 species, natives chiefly of the Mediterranean region and southwest Asia. They are small bulbous plants with narrow fleshy basal leaves and small usually blue urn-shaped or globose flowers, nodding or pendulous, in a more or less dense cluster terminating a

GRAPE HYACINTH,

the

name

single flowering stalk.

The common grape hyacinth {M. flower, babies'-breath

and

botryoides). called also grape-

bluebell, widely cultivated in gardens, is

GRAPE SUGAR—GRAPH native to southern

Europe and

western Asia and has run wild in

meadows and

thickets in the east-

ern United States, It has narrow erect leaves about as long as the flower stalk, which latter usually

grows from 4

to 12 in. high,

in.

bearing at the top blue, or in

some

many

globose

varieties white,

or pink, faintly scented flowers,

about ^

crowded

long,

in.

in

a

cluster.

The

starch

grape

hyacinth

(M. racemosiim) native ,

rope and found in sandy

to

Eu-

fields in

POCHE

England and Scotland, has be-

GRAPE HYACINTH (MuscARi BOTRY-

come

OIDES)

United States.

naturalized in the eastern

It grows about a high and bears numerous blue flowers. About a dozen other species are cultivated, notably the musk hyacinth (M. moschatum) the tassel hyacinth (M. comosum) and the beautiful feather hyacinth (M. comosum monstrosiim) The latter two pro-

foot

,

.

duce mostly sterile flowers. All make sheets of colour when naturalized en masse in the lawn. The bulbs should be planted in early autumn about three inches deep and three inches apart in rich light soil. (N. Tr.; X.) see Carbohydrates; Monosaccharides: D-Glucose. A graph is a pictorial representation of a functional

GRAPE SUGAR: GRAPH.

Whenever one

relationship.

variable

is

functionally related to an-

they vary together in some definite way), then the relationship may be geometrically realized in the form of a graph. Generally the easiest graphs to prepare are those involving two variables, each of which ranges over a segment of a line; thus other (that

is,

y = fix) where a-^xi=ih and y is a real number. In a common example, y (the dependent variable) might represent sales of a cough medicine, and x (the independent variable) could represent the months of the year. A simple graph of the relationship covering a period of five years would probably show that sales rise during the colder months. As the number of independent or depfendent variables increases, the problem of graphing becomes more difficult and special techniques must be adopted to make a geometric display at all possible. If, for example, both x and y are complex numbers then a direct geometric representation would require a four-dimensional geometry. Techniques for geometric representation in such cases are an important topic in the theory of functions of a complex variable (see Function; Analysis: Functions). The advantage in producing a graph of a given function represented by an analytic expression (a formula of some kind, or a table of values) lies in helping people understand the consequences of a formula or column of many-digit numbers. Interest is usually ,

focused on such basic geometric properties of the function as the zeros (roots) of the function, i.e., places where f{x) =0; the poles

the

of

lli(x)

=

function, the

0;

i.e.,

maxima

where and

minima of the function (ftg. 1); and so on {see Critical Points; Statistics).

Co-ordinate Systems.

— Con-

sider first a rectangular Cartesian

co-ordinate system and a graph in

such a system {see Analytic

Draw

Geometry). straight line ient point line.

The

and

on

it

at

a horizontal

any conven-

erect a vertical

intersection point

called the origin

and

all

is

measure-

ments are referred to it. Lay off along each line the unit of measure

appropriate

to

the

corre-

•f

693

694

GRAPHITE

GRAPHOLOGY—GRAPTOLITE

695

overy that graphite could be manufactured was made by Edward i. Acheson (g.v.) while experimenting with the effect of high temleratures on carborundum or silicon carbide (g.v.). It was found hat carborundum decomposed at about 7,500° F. (4,107 C), he silicon being vaporized and the carbon being left behind in

he graphitic form. In 1896 Acheson was granted a patent for the nanufacture of graphite, and commercial production began in 1897. 'etroleum coke, anthracite culm (hard coal dust) or mixtures of arbon, quartz, sand and sawdust were used as late as 1918 to iroduce manufactured graphite. Since 1918, however, petroleum oke, which consists of small imperfect crystals of graphite surounded by organic compounds, has been almost the only raw maerial utilized. After heating until all the volatile material has been iriven off the remaining product, graphite, with a carbon content

99%

if

to

miform

99.5% or

better,

is

—The value

Uses.

xu/_Y

cooled, pulverized and graded to

sizes.

I of graphite to industry

based upon suitable ipplication of one or more of its inherent qualities, such as unctujusness, or plastic qualities; refractoriness, or ability to withstand ligh temperatures; conductivity of heat and electricity; inertness and miscibility with other materials ;o a large range of reagents ind liquids. The most important uses of natural graphite are in ubricants, crucibles, foundry facings, shoe and stove polishes, 3rake linings, pencils, packings, steelmaking, batteries and carbon is

;

Drushes.

Manufactured graphite competes with natural graphite in some among which are lubricants, foundry facings, pencils, polishes, jatteries and carbon brushes. Only manufactured graphite of a purity of better than 99.5% is juitable for use as a reactor moderator, for which it is used more sxtensively than any other material, and as structural material in itomic energy plants. Other major uses are in electrodes, electrolytic cells, bushings, disks, electrical contacts and furnace jses,

linings.

See Atomic Energy: Achievement oj a Chain Reaction; CarFurnace, Electric; Pencil; see also references under 'Graphite" in the Index volume. Bibliography. E. G. Acheson, "Graphite Its Formation and Manufacture," Jour. Franklin Inst., pp. 475^86 (1899); J. F. Fletcher and W. A. Snyder, "Use of Graphite in the Atomic Energy Program," Bull. 4m. Ceram. Soc, vol, 36, no. 3, pp. 101-104 (March 1957) C. L. Mantell, Industrial Carbon (1946); G. R. Gwinn, "Graphite for the Manufacture of Crucibles," Min. Tech. (July 1945, trans. 1947); "Graphite," Industrial Minerals and Rocks, pp. 415^35 (1949); W. C. Kalb (ed.). Carbon, Graphite and Metal Graphite Brushes (1946); 5peer Carbon Co,, Black Magic, The Story of Manufactured Carbon H, Spatzek and G, Frank, "Austrian Graphite Miners Use (1949) New Chemical and Flotation Methods," Mining World, vol, 18, no. 6, bon;

—

;

;

pp.

(G, R, G.)

56-sg (June 1956).

RCPROOUC£D BT PEnuiSSION Of

EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS OF GRAPTOLITE COLONIES DURING THE ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN PERIODS SHOWING CHANGES IN NUMBER AND POSITION OF BRANCHES

The growth

habit and form, deduced from preserved specimens, first individual of a graptolite colony was the

indicate that the

was attached to the sea bottom by a flexible was suspended by a chitinous thread (the nema) to a One or more series of successive cuplike buds floating object. (thecae) comprised the branches (stipes), whose growth direction is characteristic of particular genera and species. One or both conical sicula, which

stalk or

stone."

edges of each stipe may be saw-toothed. Evolution of graptolites was characterized by persistent tendencies or trends that affected independent groups (see figure). These tendencies include progressive reduction in the number of stipes from many to one during the Ordovician; gradual changes to upin the direction of stipe growth from downward (pendent) ward along the nema (scandent) and elaboration of the apertures

Paleozoic

of the thecae.

GRAPHOLOGY:

see HANDVi^RiTiNG. a class, Graptozoa or Graptolithina, of exThey are tinct colonial marine animals of uncertain relationship. preserved most commonly on bedding planes of black shale as

GRAPTOLITE,

flattened, leafiike, twiglike or weblike films of

pencil

marks

— the

name

is

carbon that resemble

from the Greek meaning "written

Their remains are restricted to the lower half of the era with greatest abundance in the Ordovician and Silurian periods during the interval from about 500,000,000 to 350,000,000 years ago. Uncrushed examples showing fine details of structure, e.,?,, impressions of muscle attachment are occasionally found in limestone and flint, and may be recovered by acid dissolution of the rock matrix surrounding the remarkably resistant chitinous skeletal material.

Many in

groups of graptolites show marked evolutionary changes many species are diagnostic of restricted time units.

time, and

as indicators of geologic age. Four successive graptolite faunas are recognized over the world, each From older in characteristic stages of evolutionary development.

They therefore are important

to younger, these are: Anisograptid, Dichograptid, Diplograptid and Monograptid faunas. The first three occur in the Ordovician, the last in the Silurian. They are further subdivided by O. M. B. Bulman into nine chronological subfaunas and many zones of local

extent.

;

Most of the primitive graptolites, the tiny bushlike Dendroibases, appardea, with thickened stems and expanded attachment usually remains weblike Their floor. the sea to attached were ently organisms of are associated with the fossils of bottom-dwelling distribution: but shallow waters and are restricted in geographic Dictyoncma

jiabellijorme, one of the

most advanced and most

suspended widely distributed species of the group, probably lived world. from floating objects which carried it throughout the graptolites of the order It is believed that the more advanced the decompoGraptoloidea also were attached to floating seaweeds, material to the fine-grained carbonaceous supplied which of sition characteristically found. black shales in which graptolites are so The affinities of the graptolites arc in doubt.

The

biological

original anatomy, leavchitinous exoskeleton reflects little of the colony development. of mode and form ing as evidence only the of such divergent Graptolites have been considered members cephalopods, coebryozoans, plants, corals, groups as sponges,

GRASMERE— GRASSES

696

two groups lenterates and pterobranches; however, only the last desen'e serious consideration as possible graptohte relatives.

The comprehensive work pterobranch (protochordatel

of R. Kozlowski in 194S pointed to affinity, since the wall structure char-

acteristic of graptolites is also

found in a living pterobranch (Rhab-

However. B. Bohlin and, earlier, C. E. Decker, impressed by a discovery of supposed nematothecae ("cups bearing nematocysts or as stinging cells) in Cambrian graptolites, tended to regard them specialized coelenterates. BiBLiOGR.iPHV.— Birger Bohlin, "The Affinities of the Graptolites," BuU. seal. Instn. Univ. Uppsala, vol. 34 (I9.S0); O. M. B. Bulman, "Graptnlithina," pt. v. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology (1955) and "The Sequence of Graptolite Faunas," Palaeontology, vol. 1 Invertebrate (1958) R. R. Shrock and W. H. Twenhofel, Principles of (N- D. N.) Paleontology (1953). ;

GRASMERE,

a village and lake of Westmorland, Eng., is in Lake district (q.v.). Pop. (1951) 1,043. The village lies near the head of the lake, 13 mi. S.S.E. of Keswick and 4 mi. N.W. of Ambleside. The valley is very beautiful and almost encircled by mountains. To the north the road to Keswick climbs the Dunmail Raise pass, and to the southeast the road to Ambleside follows the Rothay river which flows into Rydal water. On the south is Loughrigg fell and on the west Silver How, beyond which The village still preserves some is Easdale, a subsidiary valley.

the heart of the

picturesque appearance, though developed as a tourist centre, and the neighbourhood has become residential since William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy settled at Dove cottage in its

1799.

There Wordsworth brought

his wife

and they remained

in

The cottage (later the home of Thomas de Quincey) and the adjacent Wordsworth museum are the district the rest of their lives.

open on weekdays. St. Oswald's church is architecturally curious, but unassuming. In the churchyard are the graves of the Wordsworth family and of Hartley Coleridge, son of S. T. Coleridge. The Rushbearing, an ancient custom, is observed annually on the Saturday nearest St. Oswald's day, Aug. 5, and Grasmere sports, an athletics meeting with a local flavour, is held on the third Thursday after August bank holiday. The lake of Grasmere is oval in shape, being about 1 mi. long and \ mi. broad, with an island in the middle. (B. L. T.) GRASSE, FRANgOIS JOSEPH PAUL, Marquis de Grasse-Tilly. Comte de 1722-1788), French naval commander who engaged British forces during the American Revolutionary War, was born at Bar (Alpes Maritimes). In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the French service. Shortly after France and the United States joined forces in the Revolutionary War, he was dispatched to America as (

commander

of a squadron.

De Grasse fought the English off the West Indies. In 1781 he was promoted to the rank of admiral and was successful in defeating Adm. Samuel Hood and in taking Tobago. When In 1779-80

Washington and Rochambeau determined to join forces with Lafayette's

army

to

march

to Virginia

against Cornwallis,

Wash-

ington requested the co-operation of De Grasse's fleet. De Grasse therefore sailed from the Indies to the Chesapeake river, where he was joined by a fleet under Count de Barras. A British force

under Adm. Thomas Graves attempted to prevent this juncture by engaging De Grasse's fleet when it arrived at the Chesapeake but was unsuccessful. French naval supremacy in the waters off "Vorktown was instrumental in the success of the siege of that city.

After Cornwallis' surrender, De Grasse returned to the West where he captured the island of St. Kitts in Jan. 1782. In April, however, he was defeated by Admiral Rodney and taken Indies,

prisoner.

On

jttstificati)

and was acquitted by

in Paris,

his

return

to

France, he published a a court-martial in 1 784.

Memoire

He

died

Jan. 11, 1788.

GRASSE,

an arrondissement in the dfpartement of 1860 in that of Var), France, 124 mi. N.N.W. of Cannes by rail. Pop. (1962) 25.161. Grasse is built in an amphitheatre at a height of 1.066 ft., on a south slope facing the Mediterranean. It possesses a mild climate and is well supplied with water. The town is particularly celebrated for its perfumes, capital of

Alpcs-Maritimes

(till

distilling of essences is its chief industrial activity.

For

purpose roses and other flowers and oranges are cultivated abundantly in the neighbourhood. The town also manufactures wax, soap and olive oil. There are a subprefecture and a tribunal this

of

commerce.

to 1790 Grasse was an episcopal see; thereafter it was included in the diocese of Frejus till 1860, when the region was annexed to the newly formed departement of Alpes-Maritimes. The town has a 12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church, and an ancient tower of uncertain date near the 13th-century town

From 1244

dopleura).

of

and the

The library contains the (formerly the bishop's palace). of the abbey of Lerins, on the island of St. Honorat opposite Cannes. The town has a Fragonard museum (Fragonard hall

muniments

was born there), and in the chapel of the old hospital are three by Rubens. GRASSES. Of all the groups of flowering plants (angiosperms; q.v.) none is of greater importance to man, or more widespread, than the grasses. Although only those plants that belong to the large family Gramineae (or Poaceae) may properly be called grasses, the term grass is commonly used for many other

pictures

plants, of widely different families, that superficially resemble true

grasses in their foliage;

knotgrass

e.g.,

(Polygonaceae), cotton

grass (Cyperaceae), rib grass (Plantaginaceae), blue-eyed grass

(Iridaceae), yellow-eyed grass (Xyridaceae), star grass (Amaryl-

and eelgrass (Potamogetonaceae). lilies and rushes, has a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palmlike trunk which bears a crown of long, narrow, grasslike leaves and stalked heads of In agriculture the word "grass" small densely crowded flowers.

lidaceae), bear grass (Liliaceae)

The

grass tree of Australia, a desert plant allied to the

has an extended significance in that it may include the various forage plants, especially the legumes. Grasses were recognized as a natural group long before there

was a science of botany or a system of

classification.

Common

meadow

grasses such as bluegrass, bent grass, timothy and fescue are the best known, and the wild prairie grasses and such weeds as crab grass and quack grass also are familiar.

lawn, pasture and

grains or cereals, such as wheat, rice, oats, barley and corn (maize), are also true grasses, as are sugar cane, sorghum and millet, and even the giant woody-stemmed bamboos. Geographic Distribution. The Gramineae are the world's most universally distributed flowering plants. R. Pool estimated

The

—

in

1948 that perhaps

30%

of the land vegetation of the globe

is

dominated by grasses, or at least may be classified as potential grassland. Probably the best-known and most extensive of these areas are the steppes of Asia and the prairies and plains of North America. Other regions in which grasses are dominant, although sometimes mixed with scattered trees, are to be found in South America, Africa and Australia. In number of species the Gramineae are far exceeded by the Compositae, Orchidaceae and Leguminosae, but with respect to numbers of individuals, grasses hold undisputed first place. Numerous species, moreover, have such wide ranges that the proportion of grasses to other families in the various floras of the world is much higher than the number of species would indicate. Species of grasses are most numerous in the savannas of the tropics, but the

number

of individuals

is

greatest in temperate

As the colder latitudes are approached, grasses become relatively more numerous, and in arctic and antarctic regions they comprise about one-fourth of all the species. They reach the limits of vegetation, except for some Hchens and algae, in the polar regions and on mountaintops. Indeed, on all the great mountain systems of the world, grasses are the dominant plants above timber Hne. They are dominant also in arid regions, as well as on sand dunes, in salt marshes and in

and cold regions of the world.

life are exceedingly severe. Grasses are essentially plants of the open and are rarely seen in dense forests. A few broad-leaved species grow on the forest floor in the tropics, and in temperate regions, also, there are a few

other places where conditions for plant

woodland

grasses.

Some species of grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common reed, Phragmites communis. A number of others are found throughout the warm regions of the earth; e.g., Hackelochloa L

GRASSES granulans, Eleusine indica,

Cynodon dactylon and such weeds

697

as

when not in flower, may be recognized and readily members of other plant families by the following structural features. The stems are jointed, hollow as in wheat or oats, or pithy as in maize, sugar cane and sorghum. The leaves Grasses, even

Auxin is present even when the culm is erect, but it is evenly distributed around the stem with the result that growth is uniform and no bending occurs. The exterior of the culm, which is more or less concealed by the

two ranks, and consist of two parts, the sheath and the blade. The sheath surrounds the stem like a tube but is usually open along one side, and the blade is more or less divergent. At the junction of the sheath and blade there is usually a small membranous organ (sometimes represented only by hairs, are alternate in

as the ligule.

Members

accomplished by

ence of gravity, tends to accumulate on the lower side of the stem, causing increased multiplication and enlargement of the cells.

distinguished from

known

is

the action of a growth hormone (auxin), which, under the influ-

STRUCTURE

or missing)

This

nodes.

Echinochloa and Setaria. In contrast to these wide-ranging grasses are the relatively few genera with extremely limited distribution. Examples of such endemics are Anomochloa of Brazil, Opizia of Mexico and Buergersiochloa of New Guinea.

sheaths, is usually smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing an leaf

of the closely related

sedge family are often confused with grasses, but for the most part they have solid triangular stems on which the leaves are borne in three ranks. The leaf sheath, moreover, is always closed

amount

and the ligule is lacking. Root. In grasses the roots are fibrous and are often much branched and widely spreading. These, in combination with underground and creeping aerial stems, serve to anchor the plants firmly in the soil. Roots of many grasses are extensive, and in some species the roots of a single plant, if dug up and placed end to end, would total a length of several miles. These extensive root systems enable grasses to hold the soil in position against the forces of water and wind, thus rendering them of great value in the prevention of erosion and floods and in the reclamation of

terial

leave,

of

after

A

skeleton.

silica

suflScient

to

burning, a distinct white siliceous ma-

(tabasheer). found in the joints of several bamboos, was

—

once thought to have medicinal FIG,

1,

— INTERNODE

CULM WITH

ITS

OF A GRASS LEAF (BLADE AND

SHEATH)

properties.

In

some grasses a

few of the lower nodes become swollen and subglobular, these functioning

as

storage

organs.

Examples of such bulbous grasses are timothy (Phleum) and

tall

oat grass (Arrhenatherum).

soil

Although many grasses produce only simple culms, branching from the upper nodes is not uncommon. Branches originate in the axils of sheaths and at the point of origin there is produced, on

re-

the side next to the parent culm, a characteristic two-keeled organ

claimed as a result of their presence. One species, 5. townsendi, has been planted extensively along the coast of the Netherlands, where it is adding to the usable land area at a spectacular rate. Stem. In perennial grasses underground stems or rootstocks (rhizomes) are often well developed; they may be long and creeping as in quack grass (Agropyron) and marram or beach grass (Ammophila). That rhizomes are stems and not roots is evident from the fact that they have distinct joints (nodes) and sheathing

(prophyllum), which is the first leaf of the branch. Many tropimuch branched, particularly the bamboos, Dinochloa, a Malaysian genus, is scandent and climbs over trees as much as 100 ft, in height. Among grasses other than bamboos, Olyra and Lasiacis are also woody climbers, and their culms and branches often attain a length

devastated areas. The cord grasses builders,

(species

of

Spartina)

and many square miles of

salt

are

important

marshes have been

—

scales (leaves), features that are lacking in roots.

Rhizomes are

always solid and the internal structure is that of the usual monocotyledonous stem. Some grasses produce, instead of rhizomes, extensive horizontal stems that creep along the surface of the soil (stolons). An ex-

ample of a stoloniferous species is buffalo grass (Biichloe) of the North American plains. Both rhizomes and stolons, being stems, give off branches from Thus each their nodes, and adventitious roots are also formed. node is potentially capable of giving rise to a new plant. Grasses possessing these structures, and especially rhizomes, are able to form dense sod, and for this reason bluegrass (Poa pratensis) and bent grass {Agrostis) are valuable for lawns and golf greens. In the formation of rhizomes and stolons, which are really branches from the main shoot, these break directly through the sheath in the axil of which they originate. In other cases, the branches grow upward inside the sheath, which is ultimately pulled away from

mode

of growth is seen in the tillertufted plant with many erect branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. It is also the manner of growth of the bunch grasses so common in arid grassthe parent culm.

ing of cereals,

This latter

and

results in a

lands.

The upright stems (culms)

of grasses are usually cylindrical

and conspicuously jointed. The nodes are always solid, whereas the internodes (fig. 1) are commonly hollow but occasionally solid as in maize and sugar cane. At the base of each internode there is an actively growing (meristematic) re(rarely flattened)

gion in

and

which the

cells

this causes the

continue to divide for a considerable period, When the culms are forced

stem to elongate.

because of the action of rain, wind, animals or other agents, they tend to rise again by bending at the into a horizontal position,

cal grasses are

of

many

feet.

Grass culms grow with great rapidity. In bamboos a height of 25 ft, may be attained in a single month, and some species have been known to grow 2 or 3 ft, in a period of 24 hours. Leaves. These are borne singly at each node and are tworanked, the leaf at each succeeding node being turned 180° from

—

The leaf consists of two distinct porthat immediately below. and the blade. The sheath encircles the stem and may be shorter or longer than the internode. It forms a firm

tions, the sheath

protection for the internode, and particularly for the younger basal portion (growing zone or meristem), which remains delicate and As a rule the sheath is split fragile for a considerable period. down its entire length, but in a few grasses (species of Poa, Bromus, etc) the margins are united. Occasionally the sheaths are much serve dilated, and in Hygroryza, a Malaysian aquatic, they actually as floats.

At the summit of the sheath,

at its junction with the

usually a small membranous appendage (sometimes In some species this more in length) called the ligule. an inch or it is organ is represented only by a tuft of hairs, while in others In certain grasses (species of Miihlenbcrgia lacking altogether. tongueand others) in addition to the ligule there is a green, erect, margin of the sheath. like process extending upward from each The blade is borne at the summit of the sheath and diverges there from the culm at a more or less acute angle. In some cases the blade, small are produced, one on either side at the base of These appendages, outgrowths which tend to clasp the culm. are most frequently seen among members of blade, there

known

is

as auricles,

The usual form of the blade is familiarthe tribe Hordeae. tapering to a point and entire sessile, more or less ribbon-shaped, In a few grasses, such as Rharus. Pariatm. Zeugites at the edge. the there is a short petiole between the sheath and and bamboos, blade is articulated with blade. In most bamboos, moreover, the Although most grasses deciduous. is it which the sheath, from

.

GRASSES

698

Streptochaeta, have narrow linear leaves, there are some (e.g., or more inches two may be blade which the Olyra, Pharus) in In all wide and not more than twice this dimension in length. grass leaves, however, the venation

is

rfsm£

somewhat

fijORET

which

there are a number with broad blades Cincluding the bamboos above connecting cross veins as well. The tissue is often raised face; upper the on usually ridges, longitudinal the veins, forming the stomata are in lines in the intervening furrows. The blades of many grasses, particularly those of arid regions, This is are capable of rolling up or folding along the midrib. accomplished by means of large thin-walled cells rbulliform or )

.Ks the humidity desituated between the veins. toward creases, these cells lose water and the blade folds or rolls to the face on which they occur. This rolling or folding serves

motor

flattened on the back, next to the rachiUa.

The flower in grasses is much reduced, consisting t>"pically of a single pistil bearing two feather>' stigmas, and three stamens.

strictly parallel, although

in

La

At the base of the pistil there are two small scales Oodiculesi. which are thought to represent the perianth. At flowering time (an thesis the lodicules become much swollen, and this causes the lemma and palea to separate, exposing the stamens and stigmas i

cells;

SPIKELET

In the flowers of some Cfig. 4). bamboos there are three lodicules.

protect the plant against excessive drying, since the majority of the stomata occur on the protected surface.

FIG. 3.

Epidermal appendages of various sorts commonly occur on blades and sheaths. Frequently the leaf has a rough ^'scabrous; texture, due to the presence of numerous sharp-pointed siliceous spicules. These may occur on all surfaces, and are sometimes of

six stamens and three stigmas. Such flowers are considered to resemble most closely the ancestral type. In the flowers of some other grasses e.g., Oryza and Ehrharta) six stamens also are found occasionally, and three lodicules

and frequency to impart a serrate appearance to the leaf margin. Epidermal hairs are also common, and these may be weak or stiff, long or short and sparse or dense. Sometimes the base of the hair is enlarged and bulbous. Examples of extreme hairiness are found in the common velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) and Alopecurus lanatus of Asia Minor.

rarely occur in flowers of genera other than bamboos e.g., Stipa). Infrequently in the flowers of some bamboos and in those of Parp-

sufficient size

—In

Inflorescence.

grasses the

the spikelet and not a single flower as in the case of many other tmit of the inflorescence

is

plants.

jjjg simplest type of in-

the spike, as seen in which the are sessile along the

florescence spikelets

PJ5PET

SPlKEiXT

— FIVE-FU)WERED

OF FESTUCA AND OPENED FLORET

A

is

wheat or rye,

main

axis.

A raceme differs

from

SPIKELET a spike in that the spikelets are PARTIALLY pediceled. Simple racemes are rare in grasses, an

example being

The commonest type

semaphore grass (Pleuropogon).

of inflores-

minor importance in classifion the other hand, show great variabiUty, and their modifications and arrangements are very useful in identification and in suggesting relationships. Glumes are almost universally present, although occasionally one (e.g., Lolium, Paspalum) or even both (e.g., Leersia, Reimarochloa) may be wanting. Usually they are similar in shape and texture, but the first is often smaller and with fewer nerves. Sometimes the midnerve is Or tended as a bristle Cawn;. and the glumes may be reduced entirely to bristles as in some species of Elymus. Among members of the ity in their structure that they are of

tribe

glume

The

spikelets,

Andropogoneae, is

the

first

usually indurate, some-

a panicle is a compound raceme, but in the Gramineae the term is applied to any branching inflorescence, even though some of the spikelets in the group may be quite sessile. Panicles may be open and diffuse, as in bluegrass, or much con-

times strongly so. and may be In sculptured (Hackelochloa). the more primitive grasses, lemmas are similar to the glumes, but many modifications occur. In certain genera (Panicum, Phala-

tracted and spikelike,

ris,

cence found

among

grasses

is

the panicle, characterized

pediceled spikelets borne on a branching axis.

by having

Strictly defined,

as in timothy. Sometimes the panicle branches are directed to one side, as in orchard grass or cocksfoot (Dactylis) and dog's tail (Cynosurus). Spikes or racemes also may be asymmetrical, with spikelets borne on one side of the axis only, as in crab grass (Diptarmj cord grass (Spartina) and grama (Boutelona). ,

,

The

spikelet. as the

rescence

—a spike

name

Cfig. 2. 3;.

suggests,

A

is itself

a miniature

inflo-

generalized spikelet consists of a

short axis Crachiila; bearing, in two-ranked arrangement, a series of modified leaves ''bracts;, some of which produce flowers in

The two bwermost bracts, which are empty, are called These are not borne at precisely the same level, but one Hower or first glume; is slightly below the other upper or second glume;. The bracts above the glumes are designated lemmas f formerly called flowering glumes;. Facing each lemma and partially enclosed by it. is a second bract (^palea;, which Ijears the flower. The lemma and palea with the enclosed flower are termed the floret (^fig. 2;. The lemma bears an odd number of nerves or veins (\, 3, S, 7, etc.;, and the palea is two-nerved and their axils.

glumes.

f^

Ij

:

cation.

in

Z.

I

ana and Luziola (which are unisexual;, more than six stamens occur: up to 100 have been counted When the typical flower of Gramineae is compared with that of the general monocotyledonous type, as represented by LUiaceae, (i ; the outer periantk it is found to differ in the following ways whorl ( sepals; is missing entirely; (2) the inner whorl ("petals) has one member missing, the remaining two being represented bjr lodicules; C3; the inner whorl of stamens is lacking; ("4; ooe stigma is no longer present, and only one carpel of the ovary is

rescences are the tassel of maize, the head of wheat and the panicle jj£ ij^jj

Fl«.

1

fimctionaL As indicated above, however, each of the usually missing organs can be found normally, or as an occasional develc^ ment. in some genera. The flowers of grasses are so reduced and exhibit such uniform-

Jl£mv* GLUME

'

below, discussed never occur singly on a plant, but a number of them are aggregated to form an infloFamiliar grass inflorescence. Spikelets.

almost

SECOND

SPIKELET OF PANICUM AND DETAIL OF FERTILE FLORET

Olyra) the

lemma

is

hard and

shining, whereas the glumes are

of the usual

membranous

texture.

In most members of the Andropogoneae, on the other hand, the lemmas are very thin and may be transparent. The firm lemmas of Stipa and Arhtida have a sharp(callus;, which is formed where the lemmas break away obliquely from the rachilla.

pointed base

are very common on lemmas, and these may be straight or bent one or more times. When they are bent (geniculate; the Fie. 4. FLOWER OF LOLIUM PALEA basal segment is often more or ENNE ATTACHED TO ITS

Awns

—

less twisted.

In addition to the

median awn, there may be additional ones formed by the exten-: sion of the lateral nerves (e.g., Pappophorum). The palea, whid>
rise. The latter and alternatives such conditions several upon depend They valid conditions, cost of machinery, laas topographv and soil-moisture managing crazing fencing and the skill of the operator in

bour and and Though green feeding is practised wth justification animals disadvantages have hmited its use profit under some conditions, its (5ee also Feeds, Animal).

GRASSMANN—GRASS-OF-PARNASSUS

7o6

BREEDING AND IMPROVEMENT OF FORAGE GRASSES AND LEGUMES advances have been made in the developand legumes in the second half of the 20th century, the major effort to improve the forage plants grown in many parts of the world continues to be through the introduction and testing of species and strains in new environments,

Although

ment

vigour and high seed quality to facilitate establishment of crested wheat suboptimum soil moisture and seeding conditions. Piper Sudan grass. A high-yielding, heavy tillering variety low in prussic add potential developed and released to reduce the danger of prussic acid poisoning in animals that graze on Sudan grass, Potomac orchard grass. A hay and pasture type with some resistance grass under

significant

of superior forage grasses

—

—

rather than through the breeding and improvement of the plants

to foliage diseases, particularly rust. Ranger alfalfa. winter-hardy variety developed and released for its resistance to bacterial wUt, a disease that has destroyed alfalfa crops within two or three years after establishment. WUt-resistant Ranger

themselves.

has persisted and remained productive in wilt-infested areas for ten or

enormous because so many different species are involved. Reduction in the number of species may be attained by improvements that extend the use of certain species into new areas, and thus remove the need Nevertheless, a great many species are for some other species. needed to meet the climatic, soil and use requirements throughout

The scope

of forage plant

improvement work

is

the world, or even within a single country. The forage plant breeder has many objectives, depending

upon

the species and the problems recognized as most pressing in his area. Disease resistance, greater seed size and seedling vigour that aid in establishment, insect resistance, tolerance to specific weather

hazards, leafiness, persistence under grazing and higher yield may be sought. Elimination of or reduction in toxic or growth-retard-

may be desired. Improved palatability worthy objective with productive grasses or legumes otherwise well adapted. To accomplish these and other objectives, the aping substances in the plant is

a

plication of many basic sciences is required including genetics, physiology, chemistry, nutrition, pathology, entomology, mathe-

matics, microbiology and taxonomy.

vantages of both parental species. This crossing technique is used also to produce segregating populations of plants in normally apomictic (egg not fertilized) species. Chromosome doubling has been used to create new varieties, to facilitate the crossing of species with different chromosome numbers and to restore fertility in sterile hybrids. Seeds or other plant parts may be irradiated to produce desired characteristics not found in the species. Segregating plant populations produced by these and other methods are then selected and tested for one or more of the desired charac-

teristics listed in the foregoing objectives.

Occasionally it is possible to select superior plants for a new variety within an existing variety or plant population without resorting to more involved methods. Regardless of the procedure followed, the desired end product is a variety better in one or more important characteristics than the one it replaces. A few examples of new or improved varieties are cited to illustrate the past accomplishments of forage plant breeders in various parts of the world:

—

Borre sweet blue lupine. A vigorous, high-yielding sweet blue variety palatable to livestock. Climax timothy. A leafy variety of medium late maturity better suited to delayed bay harvesting in its area of adaptation than ordinary

—

timothy. Coastal

and

is

of

Bermuda

grass.

with high yield,

lespedeza.

—Root-knot

hybrid),

is

— — — —

—

See Grasses; see also references under "Grassland" in the Index volume. Bibliography. William Davies, The Grass Crop, 2nd ed. (1961); United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Yearbook of Food and Agricultural Statistics (annually) Jack R. Harlan, Theory and Dynamics of Grassland Agriculture (1956); H. D, Hughes et al., Forages (1951); Ray W, Ingham, Grass Silage and Dairying (1949); E. H, Mcllvain and D, A. Savage, Advances in Agronomy, vol, vi, pp. 1-61 (1954) R. B, Musgrave and W. K, Kennedy, Advances in Agronomy, vol, ii, pp, 273-315 (1950); Proceedings, Sixth International

—

;

Grassland Congress (1952), Proceedings, land Congress (1956); U,S, Department Yearbook of Agriculture (1948) W. A. Crops (1950); American Association for Grassland (1959), ;

wide adaptation

with

in its area of adaptation. crested wheat grass. Developed with large seed size, seedUng

—

.

-

OF

-

PARNASplant of the

(family

Saxi-

fragaceae; q.v.), found in

damp

Parnassia

places throughout the north tem-

perate zone.

They

ally cultivated in

Zealand white clover.— A persistent, higher yielding, more uni-

Nordan

for his

SUS, any herbaceous genus

yielding variety.

form variety

remembered

(L, R.)

outstanding seedling vigour and high seed yielding capacity. Mrrkeron \apier graij.— Developed and released for high yield and resistance to cyespot disease. Mt. Barker subclover.~A widely adapted, superior reseeding, high-

New

of Science,

(D. F. Bd.)

GRASS

—

frost-resistant, high-yielding variety

Advancement

eventually inspired the continental school of vector analysts. Later, through the work of E. Cartan, they have shown their utility in the study of differential forms, with its important applications to analysis and geometry. For an introduction to Grassmann's work see H. G. Forder, The Calculus of Extension (1941).

—

—A

the

.

—

clover.

Wheeler, Forage and Pasture

(1809-1877), major work. Die Ausdehnungslehre or calculus of extension, was born at Stettin (now Szczecin, Pol,) on April 15, 1809, where he taught until his death on Sept. 26, 1877. In Die Ausdehnungslehre (1844) he developed the idea, due to Leibniz, of an algebra in which symbols representing geometric entities (points, lines, planes are .) manipulated according to certain rules. In suitable circumstances this calculus proves far more powerful than earlier methods of co-ordinate geometry. To Grassmann is due also the notion of representing subspaces of a given space {e.g., the lines in threedimensional space) by co-ordinates; this leads to a mapping by points of an algebraic manifold, called the Grassmannian. Somewhat similar ideas were propounded independently and contemporaneously by W. R. Hamilton in his quaternion theory; indeed Grassmann, Hamilton (and also G. Boole) were the pioneers in the field of modern algebra. Although Grassmann's methods were only slowly adopted, because of his obscure exposition, they chiefly

resbtant to root-knot nematode its

Seventh International Crassof Agriculture, "Grass," 1948

GRASSMANN, HERMANN GUNTHER

German mathematician

Du Puils alfalfa. Noted for vigour of establishment, early season production and high yield. //-/ rye grass.— A leafy, vigorous, high-yielding variety that produces more forage in short-term leys than longer-lived perennials. Kenland red clover. Southern anthracnose-resistant, superior yielding variety with greater persistence in its area of adaptation. Lahontan alfalfa. Developed for resistance to stem nematode, this high-yielding variety is also resistant to bacterial wilt and the spotted Madrid sweet

variety

—

characteristic.

alfalfa aphid.

nematode-resistant

S25 rye grass. A leafy type especially adapted for grazing and with greater persistence in its adapted area. Sioo white clover. Released for its higher yield and wider range of adaptation, S143 orchard grass. A late maturing, leafy pasture variety better suited for grazing than the taller growing, early maturing hay types. Starr pearl millet. A late-maturing, leafy, high-yielding variety superior for grazing. Sweet Sudan grass. A widely adapted, sweet, juicy variety. Tetra alsike. A tetraploid variety of high yield and nutritive value.

quality.

Dixie crimson c/ovfr.— Developed and released for

and reseeding

years.

Rowan Korean

— A high-yielding, tall-growing hay type that

sterile

good forage

more

;

and intergeneric hybridization may be used to transfer desirable germ plasm from one species to another or to produce new combinations of characteristics that possess the adInterspecific

produces no seed (a

—A

RUTHERFORD PLATT

GRAssoF-PARNASsus (PARNASSIA)

are occasion-

bog gardens.

The white regular flower is rendered attractive by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a fringe of dellcatc

I

—

GRASSQUIT—GRATTAN filaments ending in a yellow knob.

and look

like a

These glisten in the sunshine Nectar is secreted at the base of

drop of honey.

each of the scales.

There are 40

45 species of Pamassia, of which the commonest

to

About

13 other species occur in mostly in the northern United States and Canada.

is

P. palustris.

GRASSQUIT, common

Tiaris

One

in

North America (N. Tr.

X.)

any small finch of the genera Sporopiiila and tropical and subtropical America and the West

torqueola sharpei, Sharpe's seedeater, ranges into the Rio Grande valley of Texas; and two others, T. bicolor, the Bahama or black-faced grassquit, and T. canora, the Cuban or melodious grassquit, occur as stragglers in Florida. The Indies.

birds,

species,

about 4

in.

S.

long, dull coloured, with poor song, feed on

seeds,

GRASS TREE, any plant Lihaceae; q.v.),

all

native to Australia.

known

as blackboy.

One of the species {X. preissii) is commonly The plants have thick palmlike stems, long

leaves in a tuft at the top

those of the bulrush.

of the genus Xarithorrhoea (family of which are woody perennials

five species

A

and long spikes

resin

is

of flowers resembling obtained from the bases of the

old leaves.

GRATIAN

(Flavius Gratianus) (359-3S3), Roman emperor from 367 to 383, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia in 359, the son of Valentinian {q.v.). On Aug. 24, 367, he was proclaimed Augustus by his father, now emperor, at Samarobriva (Amiens). His education was entrusted to the poet Ausonius. In 374 he married the 12-year-old Constantia, posthumous daughter of ConstanLius II. When Valentinian died on Nov. 17, 375, Gratian was appointed sole ruler of the west at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), but on Nov. 22 his four-year-old half brother Valentinian II was proclaimed emperor by the troops at Aquincum (near Budapest) without the knowledge of Gratian, who. however, recognized him

Under Ausonius' influence Gratian tried to make mild and popular. Most of his reign was spent in Gaul repelling the barbarians who lived across the Rhine; and Gratian, engaged with these, was unable to reach his uncle Valens, emperor of the east, in time to take part in the disastrous battle of Adrianople in 378. On Jan. 19, 379, he appointed Theodosius (q.v.) to rule as emperor of the east, and thereafter devoted himself to the defense of the west, though he occasionally visited Italy. (He had been in Rome in 376.) Late in his reign the bishop Ambrose (St. Ambrose) gained great influence over him, and he omitted the words pontifex maxinms from his title, the first emperor to do so, and ordered the statue of Victory to be removed from the senate house in Rome. An emas a colleague. his rule

bassy of the senators, led by Q. Aurelius Symmachus, failed to persuade him to rescind his instructions on this matter. In 383 his wife died childless and was buried in Constantinople on Sept. 12. In the same year, while in the province of Raetia, preparing repel the Alamanni, he heard that Magnus Maximus {see Maximus) had been proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain to

and had crossed over into Gaul. Gratian hurried as far as Paris to meet the usurper; but his troops, jealous of the favour he showed to some Alani mercenaries, deserted him. With a few companions he set out to escape beyond the Alps, but was treacherously murdered in Lugdunum (Lyons) on Aug. 25, 383, by Count Andragathius. Gratian was a likable person, interested in literature and His a fluent speaker, but neither very effective nor very efticient. great interest

was hunting, a sport that sometimes interfered with He was an earnest Catholic and took

his attention to his duties.

many

steps against the pagans.

The

historian

Ammianus Marcel-

shrewd judge of character, felt that Gratian would have been comparable to the best of the emperors had not his associates brought out his weaknesses. See A. Piganiol, L'empire chrilien: 325-395 (1947); E. Stein, His(E- A. T.) toire du Bas-Empire, vol. i (1960). (Gratianus, Magister Gratianus) (fl. c. 1140) has been called the father of the science of canon law because his linus, a

GRATIAN

writing and teaching initiated a

new branch

of learning in the 12th

century, the study of church law as a discipline distinct from theology. By confusing him with later personalities, bibliographers

have sometimes given his

name wrongly

as

Johannes Gratianus or

707

Franciscus Gratianus.

Very little is kno\vn about Gratian's life. He was born, presumably in the late 1th century, in central Italy somewhere between Orvieto and Chiusi, perhaps at the hamlet of 1

Carraria-FicuUe. Professed as a monk in the Camaldolese congregation of the Benedictine order, he became lecturer {maiisler) at the monastery of SS. Felix and Nabor in Bologna, the city which just then began to acquire fame as centre of the revived study of

Roman

law and a new civil jurisprudence. There he completed, between 1139 and about 1150, his Concordantia discordantiiim canotium, a collection of nearly 3,800 texts touching upon all fields of church discipline, which he presented in the framework of a treatise designed to resolve into harmony (concordia) all the contradictions and inconsistencies existing in the millenarj' tradition of rules accumulated from divers sources (discordantes canones). Gratian is once mentioned in 1143 as consultant to a papal judge, and there is evidence that he was dead before 1159.

Later generations of chroniclers tacked several legends onto this his life, pretending that he was a half brother of the celebrated theologian Peter Lombard, or that he became a bishop or even a cardinal. Actually his person is entirely effaced by his work. Although by no means the first systematic compilation of canon law, it proved to be the right book at the right time because of its completeness and because of its superior method in

meagre record of

combining the juristic with the scholastic approach. For the former, Gratian was indebted to the Bolognese doctors of civil law; for the latter, some directives had already been given by earlier canonists e.g., Ivo of Chartres but a more direct influence came from the trends of contemporary theology in France. The Concordantia discordantiiim canonum, soon to be cited for short as Decreta or Decretwn Gratiani, became the basic text on which the masters of canon law lectured and commented in the schools, first at Bologna, soon also at Paris. Oxford and other centres of learning. What is more, without ever receiving formal approbation, it was used as a book of authorities for the "old"

—

law in the practice of the papal Curia. Even after much of its content had become obsolete by later papal legislation, it remained the first part of the traditional corpus of canon law of the Roman Catholic Church until the codification of 1917. See also Canon

Law.

—

Bibliography. Amleto Giovanni Cicognani, Canon Law, trans, by Joseph M. O'Hara and Francis Brennan (19.^5) Stephan Kuttncr, "The Father of the Science of Canon Law," Jurist, vol. i, pp. 1-18 (1941); Alphonse Van Hove, Prolegomena (Commentarium Lovaniense in ;

iiiris canonici, vol. i, book 1, 2ntl ed., pp. 538-J48, with full bibliography (1945) Studia Gratiana, ed. by Giuseppe Forchielli and (S. G. K.) .Mfons M. Stickler, 7 vol. (1953-60).

Codicem

;

GRATTAN, HENRY

(1746-1820), Irish statesman devoted independence for Ireland, was born in Dublin on July His father James Grattan was for years recorder of 3, 1746. Dublin, and his mother was daughter of Thomas Marlay who became chief justice. At Trinity college, Dublin, Henry Grattan acquired a devotion to the classics and was inspired by the great orators. Called to the Irish bar in 1772, he made no serious effort to practise, but continued his pursuit of eloquence on the model He was at of the greatest contemporary and classical masters. first drawn strongly to life in England, but he was given a seat in the Irish parliament by Lord Charlemont. and was soon involved in the campaign of Henry Flood (q.v.) for national independence and the agitation for free trade. Flood at this time had forfeited his popular leadership by accepting government office and Grattan, with his brilliant eloquence, quickly became the leading .spokesman to achieving

of the nationalist agitation, which

aimed

at

liberating the Irish

parliament from its subservience to the English privy council. Repeal of Poynings' Act. Grattan formally demanded in April 1 780 the repeal of Poynings' act, which had made all Irish legThe Irish islation subject to approval by the English parliament. American agitation gained impetus quickly under the impact of the

—

Revolution and

it

was soon connected with the new demand for

of adequate relaxation of the anti-Catholic laws. In the absence Irish volundefensive forces against possible French invasion, the organization. The teers came into being as a spontaneous militar>' more influenCatholics were still forbidden to carry arms but the tial

of

them co-operated generously.

In

this

new

situation Grat-

GRAUBUNDEN

7o8

and patriotism made him the recognized and reform. At a mass meeting

tan's inspired speeches

champion

of Irish independence

of the Ulster volunteers at

Dungannon

in Feb. 1782, resolutions

independence and a relaxation of the penal laws. Grattan's earlier attempts to achieve these reforms in parliament had all been defeated, but on April 16 he moved for the third time his Declaration of Rights and it was carried unanimously in both houses. The English parliament soon yielded and Grattan, as a sign of national gratitude, was voted a With this he later bought grant of i50,000 to buy an estate. Moyanna, near Stradbally in Queen's county. Grattan's sense of his own contribution to winning Irish inde-

were passed demanding both

legislative

pendence was expressed in his famous assertion: "I am now to address a free people. ... I found Ireland on her knees, I watched over her with a paternal solicitude. I have traced her progress Ireland is now from injuries to arms, and from arms to liberty. a nation; in that new character I hail her, and bowing in her august presence I say Esto Perpetim." However, the English government only conceded a repeal of Poynings' law. It created two independent legislatures but retained one overriding executive under the control of Westminster. The result was "an ingenious blend of native oligarchy with a despotism controlled by an alien democracy, a system well calculated to bring out the worst qualities inherent both in absolute and in popular government" (A. E. Zimmern, Henry Grattan, 1902). Grattan himself was to protest bitterly in 1791 that "the Irish government in its perverted state, is composed of responsible officers who are not resident and resi.

.

.

dent officers who are not responsible." Political Conflicts. Absorbed in legal and political conflicts which were often remote from reaUty, Grattan was blind to the actual predominance of Enghsh control and to the close restrictions upon the composition of the Irish parliament, with its majority of pocket-borough representatives. The Cathohcs, though they formed the mass of the people, could not even vote in political elections. He urged their right to vote but at first scarcely contemplated their admission to parliament. Grattan's immediate problem after the concession of legislative independence in 1782 was the personal rivalry of Henry Flood, who now accused Grattan of accepting less than the "simple repeal" which would have signified a formal surrender of English authority in Ireland. He had, moreover, encouraged a total disbanding of the Irish volunteers, while Flood demanded their revival. His prestige fell heavily dur-

—

ing the bitter controversy with Flood about "simple repeal."

But when Grattan brought forward the contentious proposal for commuting tithes, which were levied chiefly upon a Catholic population of peasants, to provide endowments for an it

revived quickly

alien Protestant church.

In the surge of popular excitement and infusion of democratic French Revolution, Grattan regained his lost popularity as a champion of free institutions and was in 1790 ideas which followed the

elected for Dublin city.

Cathohc rehef

bill

He

supported Sir Hercules Langrishe's in 1792, which had been largely inspired by

Edmund

Burke. When Lord Fitzwilliam was appointed in 1794 as the new Irish viceroy pledged to introduce wide reforms and measures for Catholic relief, Grattan renewed his efforts but was over-

whelmed by

the diehard reaction in Dublin castle, which obtained Fitzwilliam's recall in Feb. 179S. new phase of stern repression and military violence followed, and Grattan protested repeatedly with impassioned speeches.

A

Yielding to the combined discouragements of ill-health and political defeat, he retired from parliament in May 1797, after issuing a rousing "Letter to the Citizens of Dublin." Military repression

became more

ruthless and widespread while the United Irishmen's society pursued their preparations for a rebellion; plans which were

believed to be secret but were betrayed in ers and paid government spies.

all

directions

by inform-

Union, 1801.— Grattan,

suffering from acute physical disabilhad retired to England, and he was there during the rebellion of 1798. Immediately after its suppression William Pitt set in motion his plans for bringing about a legislative union of the Irish and English parliaments. Grattan became the foremost ities,

leader of resistance to that policy.

He

had an intense

belief in

the sacred cause of Irish national independence, even though it meant in practice the continuance of oligarchic government by the

Protestant and landowning ascendancy. His agitation for parliamentary reform and for Catholic relief had made him appear as an ally of the United Irishmen, whose aims were avowedly Jacobin and republican. He was now formally expelled from the Irish privy council, and even from the Dublin merchants guild. But

undisguised efforts to bribe a majority of the Irish parliaits own extinction revived Grattan's former prestige. He rose nobly to the demands made upon him. He had no seat in parliament, but was enabled to buy a pocket borough in Wicklow on Jan. 15, 1800, in time to take an active part in the house of commons during its last session. Though he was still in his early 50s he was too weak to stand and was allowed to adPitt's

ment

into voting

The debates were prolonged until May 26 delivered his final oration against the impending union, declaring that "I will remain anchored here with fidelity to dress the house seated.

when Grattan

the fortunes of my country, faithful to her freedom, faithful to her fall," For some years after the union of 1801, Grattan remained outside parliament, but in 1805 he was elected to the English house

commons as member for Malton. C. J. Fox and Lord Grenville regarded him as a useful ally, but he refused their invitation to accept office in 1806, as he had previously refused in 1782 and 1795. Henceforward he devoted himself almost entirely to the fight for Catholic emancipation, subject to safeguards which he thought necessary to protect the Protestant establishment. His efforts were hampered by the rise of a bolder and more confident CathoHc agitation in Ireland, led by the young barrister Daniel O'Connell {q.v.), who refused to accept any proposal for a government veto upon the choice of Catholic bishops. Grattan had readily accepted the veto proposals in the belief that the Catholic Church in the United Kingdom must be subject to some political control. His biU for Catholic relief in 1813, which contained the veto provisions, was narrowly defeated in the house of commons. He defied his doctors by undertaking the long journey to London in May 1820 for a last debate on Catholic rights. He was too ill to fulfill his purpose and he died in London, on June 6, 1820. On his deathbed he commanded his son to commemorate his words "I die with a love of liberty in my heart and this declaration in favour of my country in my hands." He was buried in Westminster abbey, close to the tombs of Pitt and Fox. Grattan's principal gifts were as a public orator of superb and compelling eloquence who could arouse both popular enthusiasm and devoted service. His personal integrity and pure patriotism were never in question. But he lacked the ability to master complicated questions and he had no aptitude for dealing with the rapidly changing conditions of his age. Bibliography. Memoirs and Speeches oj Henry Grattan, 5 vol., ed. by his son Henry Grattan (1839-46) W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (1912); A. E. Zimmern, Henry Grattan (1902) Stephen Gwynn, Henry Grattan and His Times (1939). of

—

;

;

GRAUBUNDEN

(D. G.)

Grigioni; Romansh Grishun), most easterly of the Swiss cantons and the largest, though relatively sparsely populated. Pop. (1960) 147,458, giving a density of 53.7 per square mile. Its area is 2,745 sq.mi., of which more than a half is classed as productive (forests covering about one-fifth of the total), but it has 138.6 sq.mi. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous. The principal glacier groups comprise those of the Todi (11,876 ft.) to the north; the Medels (10,531 ft.) to the southwest; the Adula group to the southwest, including the Rheinwaldhorn (11,161 ft.); the Bernina (13,284 ft.) (Fr.

Grisons;

It.

most extensive of the Albula, and Piz Kejch (11,214 ft.) to the east; and the Silvretta group including Piz Linard (11,191 ft.) to the northeast. to the southeast, the

The

principal valleys are those of the upper

Inn (or Engadine, the canton.

The

q.v.).

The main sources

valley of the Vorder Rhein

Rhine and of

the

of the Rhine are in is

called the Biindner

Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhein the Val Medel and that of the Hinter Rhein, in different parts of its course, the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the Domleschg vaUey. The upper valley of the

—

GRAUN Julia

is

named

the Oberhalbstein.

Other streams join the Ticino

and so the Po, the Adda and the Adige. The inner valleys are the highest in central Europe; among the loftiest villages is Juf, 6.998 ft. (the highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps) /at the head of the Avers valley. Below Chur, near Malans, good wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, maize (corn) and chestnuts flourish. Forests and the mountain pasturages are the chief source of wealth. There

many

mineral springs. The climate, except on the southern is Alpine but seldom severe. Many tourists visit the valleys, spas and resorts in the canton, which include Arosa, Davos, St. Moritz, Pontresina, Films, Klosters, Lenzerheide, Scuol-Tarasp-Vulpera, Celerina, Samedan, Sils (Segl) and Zuoz! Railways and roads link up Graubiinden with all countries of Europe. From Landquart and Chur the Rhaetian railway runs over the Bernina pass to connect with the Italian railways and over the Oberalp pass to the Gotthard railway and the canton of Valais. The many Alpine passes and valley highways enable the motorist to explore the region. Federal postal motor coaches link up all the are

slope of the Alps,

side valleys.

—

tution) elected

by universal

suffrage.

The

"obligatory referen-

dum"

obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure and revisions of the constitution. Chur {q.v.) is the cantonal capital.

—The greater part

ing valleys)

of the

(excluding the three Italian-speak-

modern canton

of Graubiinden formed the

southern part of the province of Rhaetia (Raetia [q.v.] ) probably the aboriginal inhabitants, the Rhaeti, were Celts rather than, as was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The Romanized inhabitants were to a certain extent Teutonized under the Ostrogoths Governors (a.d. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 on). ;

called Praesides are

members

In 1436, the third Rhaetian league was founded by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose dynasty then became they included the inhabitants of the Priitigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden and the lordship of

extinct;

Belfort

mentioned

in the 7th

and 8th

centuries, while

same family occupied the episcopal see of Coire (Chur) which was first mentioned in 452. About 806 Charlemagne made this region into a county, but in 831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption ("immunity") from the jurisdiction of the counts. Before 887 the see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the German province of Mainz (Mayence). The bishop became a prince of of the

and later allied himself with the rising power Habsburgs. This led in 1367 to the foundation of the Gotteshausbund (League of God's House), chiefly in order to stem his rising power. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of the Lugnetz valley and the great feudal lords of Razuns and Sax, joined in 1399 by the counts of Werdenberg, formed anthe empire in 1170

(in the region) of the

other league, called the

Oberbund (comprising the highlands

in

the Vorder Rhein valley) or the Grauer Bund (Gray league), the word gray deriving from the homespun gray cloth which was worn by the men and which has given rise to the name of Grisons (French gris gray, Romansh grisch) or Graubiinden (the Gray

leagues) for the whole canton.

The view

that the

name

derives

from the league of counts {graven or grajen) cannot be maintained.

{i.e.,

the region round Alvaneu), and formed ten bailiwicks,

whence the name of the league

Zehngerichtcnbuttd (League of In 1450 Zehngerichtenbund concluded an alliance with the Gotteshausbund and in 1471 with the Oberbund; but of the so-called triple perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefencastel, there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though diets were held there. In 1496 the possessions of the extinct counts of Toggenburg passed to the elder Habsburgs, the head of whom, Maximilian, was already emperor-elect, and desired to maintain the rights of his family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the Oberbund and in 1498 the Gotteshausbund became allies of the Swiss confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was ended by the great Swiss victory (May 22, 1499) at the battle of the Calven gorge (above Malles; which, added to another Swiss victory at Dornach near

Ten Courts).

(

compeUed

emperor pendence of the Swiss and their Basel),

The German-speaking part of the population live mainly around Chur, Arosa and Davos, the Italian-speaking in the Val Mesocco, Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo. The characteristic tongue of Graubiinden is a survival of an ancient Romance language which has a fairly important literature, and is still widely spoken. It is distinguished by two dialects: Romansh, which prevails in the Biindner Oberland and in the Hinter Rhein valley, and Ladin, which survives in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of Bergiin, Oberhalbstein and Miinster. There are, however, in these regions German-speaking people, mostly as a result of immigration from the upper Valais in the 13th century. Much of the population is engaged in catering for tourists, but there is a considerable trade with Italy, particularly in the wines of the Valtellina. Some lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are now abandoned. The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts and includes 224 communes. It sends members to the federal Stdnderat and to the federal Nationalrat. The cantonal constitution has created a legislature (Grossrat no numbers fixed by the consti-

History.

709

the

to recognize

the practical inde-

allies of the empire. In 1526, by the articles of Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1512 the three leagues had conquered from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina,

with Bormio and Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands until in 1797 they were annexed to the Cisalpine republic. After the emperor had formally recognized, by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the Swiss confederation, the rights of the Habsburgs in the Pratigau and the Lower Engadine

were bought up (1649 and 1652). in

In 1803, after a brief inclusion

the Helvetic republic, the district entered

the reconstituted

Swiss confederation as the ISth canton of the Graubiinden or the Grisons.

See also Engadine; Jenatsch, Georg; Valtellina.

—

"Codex diplomaticus Raetiae" (1848-69) from Archiv. der Gesch. der Republik Graubiinden, ed. by C. von Mohr, and continuation by C. Jecklen, Urkunden zu Verjassungsgesch. GraubUndens (1883); Biindnergeschichle, i vol., by various authors (1900-02); S. Andrea, Das Bergell Wandergn, u. Gesch. (1901); G. Theobald, Nalurbilder atis den rkatischen Alpen, 4th ed. (1920); F. Pieih, Biindnergeschichle (1945). (P. Ju.) Bibliography.

GRAUN, KARL HEINRICH composer known for Saxony, den.

in

1704-1759), German at Wahrenbriick, was a chorister in his youth at Dres-

his sacred music,

1703 or 1704.

He

At an early age he composed

a

{c.

was born

number

of sacred cantatas

and other pieces for the church service. He completed his studies under J. C. Schmidt (1664-1728) and profited much from the In Italian operas performed at Dresden under .Antonio Lotti. 1725 Graun made his debut as a tenor in opera at Brunswick in a work by G. C. Schiirmann, but, not being satisfied with the arias assigned to him, he rewrote them and, in consequence, was commissioned to compose a whole opera for the next season. This work, with five other operas and two settings of the Passion, belong to his Brunswick period. In 1735 the crown prince of Prussia, later Frederick the Great, engaged Graun at Rheinsberg. where he composed a number of cantatas. On Frederick's accession to the throne in 1740, he sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera company to be established in Berlin. On his return to Berlin he was appointed Kapellmeister and composed about 30 operas to Italian words. Graun's Passion cantata, Der Tod Jesu (1755), long held a place in Germany similar to that enjoyed by Handel's Messiah in England, being regularly performed in Holy Week for a century and a half after its composer's death. The Te Deum written in 1757 to celebrate the Prussian victory at Prague was also a favourite work with German audiences. He died at Berlin on Aug.

8,

1759.

As a composer Graun was a leading exponent of the "Berlin school," which also included C. P. E. Bach, Graun's elder brother Johann Gottlieb, J. J. Quantz and Frederick the Great himself. The Berlin school was one of the first groups to show the rising preclassic style; one of the chief charms of the music is the fascinating combination of old and new melodic and formal concepts. Johann Gottlieb Graun (c. 1703-71), elder brother of the

}

GRAUPNER—GRAVESEND

yio

preceding, was a violinist and orchestral leader, known for his chamber music and symphonies. He entered the service of Fredconerick the Great at about the same time as his brother and was

ductor at Berlin and Potsdam from 1740 onward.

Bibliography.— A. Maver-Reinach, K. H. Graun als OpernKomponisl (1899); K. Mennicke, Hasse und die Briider Graun als Sinioniker (1906); A. Yorke Long, Music at Court (1934). (Cs. Ch.)

GRAUPNER, CHRISTOPH

(1683-1760), German com-

poser, one of the earliest pioneers in the field of the symphony, was born at Kirchberg in Saxony on Jan. 13, 1683. He first studied with local musicians and later at the Thomasschule in Leipzig. In

1706, because of a threat of Swedish invasion, he sought refuge Hamburg, becoming harpsichordist at the opera house under the direction of R. Reiser. About 1710 he entered the service of the

at

landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, becoming Kapellmeister in 1712 and remaining at Darmstadt for the rest of his life. In 1722 he was offered the cantorship of St. Thomas at Leipzig but declined Graupner died in Darmstadt on it, and it passed to J. S. Bach. May 10, 1760. He was a prolific composer, writing several operas and a vast amount of church and chamber music, including 116

His harpsichord music

symphonies.

is

very charming.

See W. Nagel, Christoph Graupner als Sinfoniker (1912); F. No(Cs. Ch.) ack, Christoph Graupners Kirchenmusiken (1916).

GRAU SAN MARTIN, RAMON

( 1 88 7) Cuban poand physician, was born Sept. 13, 1887, in Pinar del Rio into a wealthy family. He took a University of Havana medical degree in 1908, and also studied medicine in Eu-

litical

rope.

,

leader, writer

He became

professor of physiology at the University of

and for the next 27 years divided his time between A political progressive, politics, medical practice and teaching. he was jailed in 1931, participated in the overthrow of the dictator Gerardo Machado (Aug. 1933), and became provisional president

Havana

in 1921

(Sept. 10, 1933-Jan. 14, 1934) after Fulgencio Batista's sergeants' Grau San Martin broke with Batista, established the

revolt.

Autentico party, went into exile (1935-38), and in 1940 led his party to successful control of the constitutional convention. He

1940 to Batista, but was elected initiated social reforms and, on completing his term in 1948, retired from politics. His administration was characterized by internal dissension and social unrest, but

lost the presidential election of

He

to the presidency in 1944.

he was credited with strict adherence to democratic principles. He wrote a dozen books on politics, more on medicine, and contributed (C. C. CxJ.) regularly to medical and scientific journals.

GRAVE

Cemetery Funerary Rites and Customs. GRAVEL, an aggregate of more or less rounded rock fragments coarser than sand, technically more than two millimetres :

in diameter.

see

tin.

of the latter

some places contain accumulations major native metals in nugget form. A notable example

Gravel beds or is

in

the extensive auriferous gravel of Tertiary age in

California, goal of

GRAVENHAGE, 'S- see Hague, The. GRAVES, ROBERT RANKE 1895:

(

much hydraulic

mining.

Gravels also are widely

used building materials (see Concrete).

The rounding of gravel results from abrasion in the course of stream transport or milling by the sea. Gravel deposits accumulate in parts of stream channels or on beaches where the water action is too rapid to permit sand to remain. Because of changing conditions, gravel formations are generally more limited and more variable in coarseness, thickness and configuration than are sand or clay deposits. Persistent accumulation of gravel or pebble beds may take place along an inner breaker zone, on a beach otherwise sandy. Cobble and pebble beaches (shingle beaches) often take their origin from the points of rocky cliffs. In many regions there are marine gravels wholly resembling those of the seashore, at levels tens of hundreds of feet above tide level. Such gravel terraces (or raised beaches) may extend great distances and indicate that the sea at one time stood relatively higher. River gravels occur mostly in the middle and upper parts of streams where the currents are most active. Ancient terraces of gravel are found at levels much above those of the present rivers. They mark a former greater activity of streams or are evidence of uplift of the land or lowering of the sea, whereby the rivers

),

English poet,

and scholar, one of the most gifted and versatile English men of letters of his time, was bom at Wimbledon on July 26, 1895, the son of A. P. Graves, the Irish song writer, and a descendant of Von Ranke, the great German historian. Graves's work in verse and prose combines scholarship with a lyrical and narrative gift that has a direct and wide appeal. He served during World War I with the Royal Welsh Fusiliers and his autobiography, Good-Bye to All That (1929, revised edition 1957), is a classic among modern war memoirs in its blunt, unadorned grimness. He went to Oxford after the war and was allowed to qualify for his degree by writing a thesis on modern poetry. His critical writings, always lively, have shown a growing intolerance of the work of many of his contemporaries. He began before 1914 as a typical "Georgian" poet, but his war experiences and the difficulties of his personal life gave his later poetry a much deeper and more painful note, though Graves remained a traditionalist, rather than a modernist, in form. His sometimes almost unbearably sad love poems are among the most poignant in modern English and he has also a remarkable talent for "satires and grotesques" in verse. He has considered his prose work apart from The White Goddess (1947), a book which bases poetic inspiration on sexual love and dread^ as of minor importance compared to his poetry. Of his numerous historical novels, at once deeply scholarly and boldly speculative, perhaps the best is /, Claudius (1934). His writings on the Chris-

novelist, essayist

—

tian religion, particularly

cussion

Poems

among

in 1959. ford university.

King Jesus (1946), occasioned much

dis-

He

published his Collected In 1961 he was elected professor of poetry at Ox-

scholars and critics.

—

BiBLiOGR.iPHY. Martin Sevmour-Smith, Robert Graves (1956); S. Eraser, Vision and Rhetoric (1959) J. M. Cohen, Robert Graves (G. S. F.) (1960).

G.

;

of heavy minerals, such as metallic ores, as cassiterite, a

source of

have been able to cut their beds to a lower level. The Lafayette and related terrace gravel formations of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains of North America are products of both fluvial and marine action. Fragments in gravels range from pebble to boulder size. Prolonged weathering and extended transport by long rivers on continental masses result in more complete rounding and selection as to size and physically and chemically durable rock materials. Gravels on smaller land masses, and where siliceous rocks are missing, are less well selected and less recognizable as definite rock formations. Conglomerates (g.i).) are cemented gravels. See also (C. K. We.) Alluvium; Beach; Sedimentary Rocks.

;

GRAVES, THOMAS GRAVES,

ist

Baron (i725?-i8o2),

of the British forces in the battle of the Virginia Capes, during the American Revolution, was the son of Adm. Thomas Graves of Cornwall. Graves met De Grasse's fleet, which had sailed from the West Indies to aid the American

British naval officer,

commander

and French land forces, off the entrance to Chesapeake bay on Sept. 5, 1781, and was decisively defeated. De Grasse then drew Graves to the south for three days so as to permit a squadron from Newport to enter the Chesapeake. Although the battle cost the British only one ship, it sealed the fate of Lord Comwallis, who was penned in on the Yorktown peninsula and expecting rescue by the Royal Navy. CornwaUis surrendered on Oct. 19. Graves became a vice-admiral and then admiral, and was made a baron for his share in the battle of June i, 1794, during the war with France.

A

severe wound in the right arm, received during this battle, caused him to resign his command. He died in Feb. 1802. (J. B. Hn.)

GRAVESEND, a municipal borough and river port in the Gravesend parliamentary division of Kent, Eng., on the right bank Pop. (1961) of the Thames, 22 mi. E.S.E. of London by road. 51,388. At Swanscombe, about 2 mi. W., fragments of the skull of Swanscombe man dating from the Great Interglacial Age were found during quarrying (1935-55). Nearby was situated the Roman settlement of Vagniacae. Gravesend is mentioned in Domesday Book as Gravesham, possessing a landing place, or hithe, op the river. Although the town was originally concerned with agti-i culture, Richard II granted sole ferry rights for conveying passen-j

,

|

I

1

i

:

:

GRAVIES—GRAVITATION London.

Arising out of these ferry rights, for more than four centuries many illustrious persons were received in the borgers to

ough on their way

to

and from the

capital.

The borough was

in-

corporated in 1562, the present charter dating from 1632. Pocahontas (g.v.), the American Indian princess, died at Gravesend in 1617, and was buried in St. George's church, since 1953 known as St. George's Chapel of Unity (Pocahontas memorial with two windows presented by the Society of Colonial Dames in Virginia). Leonard Calvert (second son of Lord Baltimore and first governor

Maryland) set sail from Gravesend in 1633. For a variety of reasons, not least of them the ferry rights, the town for centuries has been closely associated with administrative duties in relation to shipping on London's river. From the 16th century onward it became increasingly active in the handling of Britain's expanding maritime trade. Gravesend is now the centre for customs, the Port of London Health authority and the Trinity House pilots. There is a passenger and vehicle ferry across the of

Thames to Tilbury. The town's prosperity

first

half of

the 19th century when, as a result of the coming of the steamboat, Gravesend became well known as a health resort and watering

This period saw rapid growth, the building of the Town pier and the Royal Terrace pier, and the purchasing and layout of many parks and public gardens. There followed a process of transition to its present state as a modern industrial, commercial and maritime centre. Jetties of paper mills, cement factories, engineering works, tire and rubber works, printing works, shipbuilding and replace.

pair slipways flank the river

frontage opposite Tilbury docks.

Gravesend is the shopping, commercial, educational and entertainment centre for a prosperous industrial belt stretching along several miles of the south bank of the Thames. To the south and east on rising ground lie the residential areas of the town, which are bounded by agricultural land. GRAVIES: see Food Preparation: Stuffings and Gravies.

GRAVING DOCK:

see Dock. The study of

GRAVITATION.

gravitation

is

the physical

science concerned with the attraction of bodies for one another. This article is divided into the following four main sections covering the principal aspects of gravitation I.

II.

III.

Introduction

Measurements of Gravitational Force Measurements of the Acceleration Due to Gravity A. Absolute Measurement of Gravity B. Relative Measurements of Gravity; Pendulum Measurements C. Relative Measurements of Gravity: Gravity Meters

traditional tale of Sir Isaac

of significance for

fall

its stress

toward the earth.

They

and

their sateUites to keep to their orbits instead of flying off at Some of Newton's contemporaries, includmg B. Hooke

a tangent.

and C. Huygens.

realized that Kepler s third law (that the squares of the periodic times that the planets take to describe their orbits round the sun are proportional to the cubes of their respective

distances from the sun) implied a force which decreased inversely as the square of the distance. Newton's speculations about the

cause of the fall of bodies led him to connect the behaviour of the apple with the deviation of the moon from a straight-line course. Bodies on the earth, whether deep down in mines or more distantly

removed from

Newton and

upon the fall

the falling apple

fact that bodies tend to

because they have weight, and

is

the earth.

This attraction is an all-pervading force that depends only upon the masses of the bodies and upon their distance apart. The earth therefore exerts an attraction on the moon just as it does on an apple. The demonstration that these two particular attractions follow the same mathematical law was the main contribution made by Newton to the study of heavenly bodies. The idea of interaction among members of the solar system and even of all separate masses was not new. Ptolemy (fl. 2nd century A.n. ), whose formulation of the elaborate scheme of cycles and epicycles used by Hipparchus for planetary and solar orbits in a geocentric system was accepted until the time of Copernicus (1473-1543), appears

have visualized some force that held bodies down to the surface of the earth and also maintained the entity of the universe. The revolution in astronomy begun by Copernicus and continued by J. Kepler with the help of the first well-recorded and accurate foundations details of planetary motion by Tycho Brahe laid the Although for the Newtonian generalizations that were to follow. Kepler was more intent upon unraveling the underlying mathematical harmony of the universe {see Cosmology) than upon a

surface on mountaintops, always tended

its

move downward, and

it

appeared plausible that the force caus-

was inherently connected with the earth and that there

ing this

was no reason why

it

should not continue with an inverse square

relation out into space.

The moon

is

about 240.000 mi. from the earth,

the distance of bodies at the earth's surface from

its

i.e.,

60 times There-

centre.

assuming the inverse square law, the force exerted by the moon should be only 1/3,600 of that which it exerts at its own surface. The fall of a body toward the earth in one second should therefore be 3,600 times the distance that the moon is deviated from a straight-line path in space in the same time. Astronomical measurements show that in one second the moon must be pulled back into its circular orbit by 0.0044 ft. A body fore,

earth at the

at the earth's surface should, therefore, fall 0.0044

X

3,600,

i.e.,

per second, which is the value observed. One underlying inference from this calculation is that the earth's sphere behaves as if all of its mass were concentrated at its centre. Although in extraterrestrial calculations the sun and the planets can be regarded as massive points, the earth is by no means small com-

about 16

ft.

pared with the distance between itself and an apple. Newton was for a long time held up by this difliculty, but at last showed that the gravitational force exerted by a sphere on external bodies was the same as would obtain if the whole mass were considered as acting at the central point. Therefore the calculation comparing the moon with the apple was valid, and the connection between gra\n-

and the forces controlling was successfully demonstrated to be due

tational effects at the surface of the earth

the motion of the planets

unknown

cause.

of gravitation of classical mechanics deduced

by New-

may

be stated thus: mutual action exists between each particle of matter and every other such that each particle is attracted to every other with a force varying as the product of the masses of the particles and inversely as the square of the distance between ton

the attraction that exists between the matter of which they are formed and the matter that comprises the cause of their weight

to

Galileo's researches

The law

L INTRODUCTION The

more advanced mathematical deductions. had shown that no continual exertion of force was needed to maintain a body in motion; and. as a corollary to this, that some force must be present to cause the planets

available for

to a single

rV. Theories of Gravitation

is

search for empirical rules he did, in fact, with his three laws, summarize the experimental observations in a form which made them

to

increased greatly during the

711

them.

This law

is

formulated as

F

=G

MiMi

(1)

were F is the force between the two particles of mass Af , and A/j, d is the distance between them and G is a constant for all kinds of matter and is called the gravitational constant. This constant is mass and T is has the dimensions L^M-'^T'^ (L is length. time), and a numerical value depending on the units used. The application of this law to the solar system not only rationalized

M

all of Kepler's laws but enabled all the intricate movements of the planets and their satellites to be deduced in such a manner as to agree with observations. The law also showed the reason for the motion of the .sea that results in the tides (g.v.). Kepler had

thought that the tides were due to the moon, but had confused his By calculating the ideas about this with his astrological beliefs. attraction of both sun and moon on the waters of the earth Newton amplifylaid the foundation of modern tidal theory, including the gravitaing effect of narrow channels on the height of tides. The earth's crust, tional attraction of the sun and moon affect the movements of raising earth tides which show themselves as small

the apparently solid surface.

Measurement of these movements

GRAVITATION

712

provides information about the elasticity of the material comprising the earth.

For bodies at the earth's surface, the universal law of gravitation provides the basis for Galileo's observation that any body The force F actis attracted by a force proportional to its mass. ing on a body of mass M^ is its weight W, and is due to the whole acting as if concentrated at its attraction of the earth's mass = GM-^AU/r^, where r is the radius Therefore, F centre.

=W

Mo

But the force per unit mass is W/M^, which is equal force acting on the body Mi may also be con= sidered as defined by Newton's second law of motion; i.e., attracthe by caused would be that acceleration is the M^a where a tion of the earth if the body were allowed to fall freely. Thus the force at the body is exactly the same as if it were being accelerated at a rate a = H'/Mj, and when the attraction of the earth is expressed as a force per unit mass, it is exactly equivalent to an acceleration. Therefore the expression g = GMo/r- (where g is the acceleration due to gravity) is important and much used in discussing the behaviour of bodies on the earth. The enumeration of the earth. to

CMz/r-.

The

W

of the fundamental law of gravitational attraction, besides tidying the mathematical theories, made it possible to find the mass of the

planets and, incidentally, that of the earth. As the same law of attraction applied to all bodies, whatever their mass or distance apart, it was clearly possible to measure the force of attraction

between bodies of known mass and hence to calculate the value of the constant of gravitation. This is the reason why Henry Cavendish's famous laboratory experiment was popularly known as weighing the earth. Although the astronomical observations that helped Newton to formulate his general law of gravitation are sufficient to give the most accurate confirmation of the part of the law pertaining to

toward same primary body only allow the calculation of the ratio of the masses of the different bodies. For example, the acceleration of a planet toward the sun and of a satelUte toward the planet may be obtained from observations made on the orbits of satellite and planet. Thus, the acceleration of satellite toward planet is G X /"/(distance of satellite)^, and the acceleration of planet toward sun is G X 5/ (distance of planet )2; where P and 5 are the masses of planet and sun respectively. By division G is eliminated to give the ratio P/S. Astronomy, in fact, gives the product G X mass but not the separate values of G or mass. In view distance, the relative accelerations of different sateUites

the

of

its

fundamental importance, the experimental determination of

the gravitational constant

G

assumed great

significance for physi-

immediately Newton's law was formulated. The value of G is very small (6.7 X lO^^c.g.s. units), as is evidenced by the fact that objects do not attract each other enough to move noticeably toward each other. Two large cannon balls placed one inch apart, for example, would show a mutual gravitational pull of about 0.1 dyne. It is not surprising that Newton discarded any idea of measuring such small forces with the experimental facilities at his disposal and turned to the larger attractions provided by the earth itself. Newton knew that gravitational forces were small because the product G X was given by the measured acceleration due to gravity; and Umits to M, the mass of the earth, were set by common sense. It is perhaps more in line with the historical development of the subject of gravitation to write the mass of earth in terms of the mean density A of the material forming the earth. Then cists

M

GM

G/4

\

4 (2)

so that

47rf

(3)

ter, covered on all sides with water, was less dense than water, it would emerge somewhere; and the subsiding water falling back, would be gathered to the opposite side. And such is the condition

of our earth, which, in great measure, if

a very good guess at A, using the following reasoning: "But that our globe of earth is of greater density than it would be if the whole consisted of water only, I thus make out.

whole consisted of water only, whatever was of less density than water, because of its less specific gravity, would emerge and float above. And upon this account, if a globe of terrestrial matIf the

covered with seas.

The

it

to the centre.

Since, therefore, the

common

matter of our earth

on the surface thereof, is about twice as heavy as water, and a Httle lower, in mines is found about three or four, or even five times more heavy; it is probable that the quantity of the whole matter of the earth may be five or six times greater than if it consisted all of water, especially since I have before shewed that the earth is about four times more dense than Jupiter." (Prmcipia, book iii, prop. 10; vol. ii, p. 230 of the edition of 1729.) The mean density of the earth, determined by a variety of methods, is about 5.5; so that Newton's estimate is remarkably accurate. Although gravitational forces are small, the difficulties of measuring them in the laboratory have been overcome by using the great sensitivities of the torsion balance and the common balance to record the attraction between small suspended masses and larger fixed masses. In the field, a natural mass such as a mountain or a section of the earth's crust is selected. The mass of the attracting body is calculated from topographical and rock sampling surveys, and the force that the natural mass exerts on a small known mass can be used to calculate G directly. However, the experiments were usually so arranged that the attraction was compared with that of the whole earth for the small mass. This gives the mass of the earth in terms of the mass of, e.g., a selected mounIn tain; hence A can be determined and G can be calculated. one class of experiments, the sideways pull of a mountain on a plumb bob is compared with the downward pull of the whole earth. The quantity that is measured is the deflection of the supporting line of the plumb bob from the vertical as determined by observations on stars in a place remote from the effect of the mountain. The attractions may also be compared by observing their effects on the period of a pendulum of fixed length. Great accuracy can be achieved by timing a large number of pendulum swings. Many attempts were made, after the discovery of the law of gravitation, to determine any modifications needed to take account of changes in external conditions. The behaviour of electric and magnetic fields is influenced by the media through which they operate; but there is no sign of any similar modification to the gravitational field by the interposition of any substance between two mutually attracting bodies. There is, for example, no evidence that the side of the earth more distant from the sun is shielded from the effect of the sun's pull by the side nearer to the sun; and the general conclusion from everything that can be observed is that a mass in Australia acts on a mass in London precisely as if the earth were not interposed between the two. The attraction of the earth, which gives weight to bodies on its surface, is not altered by temperature or by chemical reaction except insofar as any escape of energy occurs and in general the attraction between bodies bears no relation to the physical or chemical conditions of the acting masses or to the intervening medium. Some of the thoughts of early workers on gravitational effects were directed toward the possibility of changes in gravitation which might be caused by relative motion of masses or by a finite speed of travel of the gravitational influence. The rapid motion of the heavenly bodies might conceivably result in some change in either the direction or the amount of their attraction toward each other at each moment but such was found not to be the case even with the most rapidly moving bodies of the solar system. If the action of gravitation were not absolutely instantaneous the force would not be exactly in the line adjoining two bodies but would be affected by the motion of the line during that time required for the influence to pass from the one body to the other. Then again, there were doubts as to whether the Newtonian law ;

;

Newton made

is

was not for its greater density, would emerge from the seas, and according to its degree of levity, would be raised more or less above their surface, the water and the seas flowing backwards to the opposite side. By the same argument, the spots of the sun which float upon the lucid matter thereof, are lighter than that matter. And however the Planets have been form'd while they were yet in fluid masses, all the heavier matter subsided earth,

—

GRAVITATION would hold at all distances. All experiments and observations were, however, consistent with the law, from the short distances employed in laboratory experiments to the long ranges used in interplanetary calculations. The possibiUty was recognized that some types of matter might behave differently from others, or that some form of anisotropy could exist, such as is observed in the optical or electrical properties of crystals, but none of the investigations that were carried out succeeded in showing that gravitation is related to anything other than the masses of the attracting and attracted bodies and their distance apart. However, all these old generalizations should be viewed in the light of more modern theories of gravitation.

Before the time of Einstein, the study of graxdtation had borne no relation to other parts of physics for, despite all practical and theoretical endeavours, no nongravitational influence on gravitation had been detected. Einstein, however, in the general theory of relativity, accounted for gravitation in terms of a wider description of the world as a whole. (See Relativity: General Theory This theory was in itself an extraordinary intelof Relativity.) lectual achievement and, on the practical side, it enabled him to explain a minute discrepancy in the behaviour of the planet Mercury and to predict two new effects of gravitation on light, i.e., the deflection of hght rays by the attraction of heavy bodies such as the sun, and the decrease of frequency of hght emitted from heavy The latter, however, is deduced from more elementary bodies. ideas than that of general relati\aty. Einstein himself and other workers endeavoured to construct yet more general theories to include electromagnetic and other forces as well as gravitation. Other theoretical descriptions of gravitation alone also appeared but did not command the same wide assent as general relativity, while the problem of applying the ideas of quantum mechanics to gravdtation remained unsolved in the early 1960s. Thus, although the practical calculation of gravitational effects can be carried out with extremely high accuracy over an enormous range of conditions, the relation of gravitation to other departments of physics remained in many respects still an enigma. The more practical aspects of gravitation are concerned with the special case of the attraction of everyday objects by the earth. The force of gravity must be taken into account not only to ensure the accuracy of survey and navigation but also to facilitate theoretical discussions on the shape of the earth. Abnormal attractions of a plumb bob cause errors in the determination of dis-

tances from star sights.

The

plotting and possible use of the tracks

of artificial satellites for measuring terrestrial distances add interest to these determinations, and the way in which the satellites

move under

the gravitational attraction of the earth enables the extent of polar flattening of the earth to be found very accurately. Artificial satellites have two uses in the study of the shape of the earth.

In the

first

place they provide points of observation that

clearly defined than are heavenly bodies, so that greater accuracy in measuring angular separations between different points on the earth's surface is attained. Secondly, since the artificial

are

more

satellites are nearer the earth than natural orbiting bodies, the perturbations of their orbits are more sensitive to the attractive

forces exerted

by the

earth.

of local values of the acceleration due to gravity has achieved great importance in determining the subsurface geology of the earth as an aid in finding oil and minerals. It is interesting to note that the first patented gravity meter was

The measurement

designed by Sir William Siemens in 1876 for use at sea, because "it would be possible for a captain to find the depth of water without a plumb-line." Unfortunately the isostatic balance that is operative over the oceans makes it impossible for the instrument to perform this function, but gravity measurements at sea may be useful for latitude determinations from submerged craft, and are certainly needed to calculate the true shape of the earth. atIt is the value of g, the acceleration due to the gravitational traction of the earth on bodies at its surface, rather than that of

G, the gravitational constant, that is of most practical interest. The International Association of Geodesy, formed in 1863, ensures the uniformity of measurements over all parts of the earth. The observations of g consist mainly of comparisons with the accepted

713

standard which was established in 1906 as the value at Potsdam, Ger., but the need lor a more accurate absolute standard encouraged fresh determinations employing methods inherently more exact than the old pendulum measurements.

U.

MEASUREMENTS OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

Practical determinations of G have been made since Pierre Bouguer's experiments in 1740, and an excellent account of this early

work may be found in J. H. Poynting. Sir J. J. Thomson and G. W. Todd, Properties of Matter, ch. iii (1947). The experiments fall naturally into two classes. In the one, the attraction for a small mass of a topographical feature, such as a mountain, is compared with the attraction of the whole earth for the mass. In the other, an artificial mass is constructed in the laboratory and the force of attraction between it and a known small mass is measured. Although the use of topographical features provides a large value of one of the attracting masses in the relation F = GA/jA/j/r-, the forces are still small because the distances are necessarily greater than in laboratory experiments, the terrestrial determinations of G (or Al require painstaking observations and their accuracy is hmited by the uncertainty of the mass determination of the particular feature chosen.

Comparison of the Earth's Pull With That of a Natural Mass Bougiter's E.xperimenls. The earliest experiments made by Bouguer are recorded in his Figure de la Terre (1749). They

—

In the first he determined the length of the seconds pendulum and thus g at different elevations. At Quito, Peru, which may be regarded as on a tableland with an elevation of about 9,400 ft., and again on the Isle of Inca at sea level, he determined g with pendulum apparatus. From the known difference in elevation of the two points of observation the measured value at sea level was projected to the elevation of the plateau by the inverse r- law, assuming that only free air occupied the intervening space. Actually his observed value of g at the elevated

were of two kinds.

was 1/6,983 greater than this calculated value, which difference he immediately assigned to the attraction of the 9,400 ft. of plateau material actually underlying the elevated station. Thus the experiment indicated that the attraction of the whole earth was station

6,983 times that of the plateau. Since the attraction of the plateau could be calculated on the assumption that it was effectively an infinite slab of known thickness, Bouguer concluded that the density of the earth

obviously

much

was

4.7 times that of the plateau.

This result

is

too large.

In the second type of experiment he attempted to measure the horizontal pull of a 20,000-ft. mountain by suitable observations on the deflection of a plumb Une. Because of experimental difficulties his results were inaccurate, but the importance of the ex-

periment lies in its indication of the possibihties of the method. Maskelyne's Experiment.— In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne iPhil. Trans., p. 495, 1775) repeated the plumb line deflection measure-

ments at the mountain of Schiehallion in Perthshire, Scot. The mountain was chosen for its steeply sloping north and south flanks; the deflections of a plumb bob to north and south of the mountain were observed by taking star transits (see Transit Circle) and were compared with the latitude difference of the two observing stations as calculated from a survey on the ground. experiment Airy's Experiment.— A modification of Bouguer's in was carried out by Sir G. B. Airy (Phil. Trans., p. 297, 1856) consisted in 1854 at Harton mine near South Shields, Eng. This swings of comparing gravity at the top and bottom of a mine by the ratio of the pull of the the same pendulum and thus finding the If the earth is intervening strata to the pull of the whole earth. the ratio assumed to be made up of homogeneous concentric shells,

down in terms of G, of the two gravity movements may be written and the density of earth the of radius the mine, the the depth of Stations were chosen in the the outer shell that includes the mine. other 1 .250 ft. same vertical, one near the head of the shaft and the 1,250-ft. outer the pull of The working. below in an abandoned 1/14,000 of the attraction of the shell of the earth's crust was only shell was 1/5,500 of the inner of the volume The earth. the rest of of the mine shaft so that, bottom the sphere of the earth below density of the the density of the sheU to be 2.5, the

assuming

GRAVITATION

714

2.5 = 6.4. earth was found to be (14,000/5,500) exR. von Sterneck's Experiment. Sterneck repeated the mine and Czech., Pribram, shaft at Adalbert at the periment in 1882-83 Ger. However, alin 1885 at the Abraham shaft near Freiberg, of large size, so that advantage have the masses natural though attraction of forces are produced which can be compared with the cannot be the earth, they have the fatal defect that their density

—

X

selected, exactly determined. Even when a solid mountain block is surrounding the extent of the root of this block and its relation to and underlying rock strata is uncertain; so that terrestrial observathan tions are really more useful in studying the crust of the earth

determining the fundamental gravitational constant. It is poswith the aid of gravity meters, to improve on the techniques used in the old experiments of the Airy type, but the errors inin

sible,

herent in determining the mass of the attracting natural body will always be present. For this reason the accepted values of G are based on delicate experiments made in the laboratory. Laboratory Methods of Determining G. The forces be-

—

tween masses which can be accurately constructed and which can be handled in precision measurements are very small. For example, a sphere of 20 kg. mass is attracted by only 0.25 mg. weight if its centre is placed 30 cm. from the centre of a 150 kg. mass. The only methods of measuring force that have yielded useful results in experiments to determine G have employed the principle

common balance or that of the torsion balance. Many of the well-known determinations are of historical interest only, either of the

and

will

be referred to in detail only when they illustrate an im-

portant point of technique.

—

Cavendish's Experiment. This celebrated experiment {Phil. was planned by the Rev. John Michell. He completed an apparatus but did not live to begin work on the experiment. After Michell's death the apparatus came into the posTrans., p. 469, 1798)

session of Cavendish,

who

largely reconstructed

it

and

in

1797-98

carried out the experiment.

The essential feature of the experiment consisted in the determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 12 in. in diameter on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the force measurement being made with a torsion balance. Fig. 1 shows the essential features of the apparatus. A horizontal beam hh, 6 ft. long, was suspended Two lead baUs m, each 2 in. in at its centre by a torsion wire Ig. diameter, were suspended at the ends of the beam. One end of the beam carried a suitable index whereby its angular position with respect to a horizontal scale could be determined very accurately by viewing through a distant telescope. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case to shield it from convection currents. Outside

M

were hung from an the case, two 1 2 in. diameter lead spheres arm that could be turned on a vertical axis colinear with the suspension Ig of the torsion balance.

Suppose that first the spheres are so placed that one is a distance d in front of the left-hand ball and the other is the same distance behind the right-hand ball. The gravitational attraction of the two sphere-ball pairs will be additive in tending to turn the If the torsion balance counterclockwise as viewed from above. big spheres are then moved around so as to be on the opposite sides of their adjacent small balls, the torque on the torsion arm The angle 2d between will be reversed and it will turn clockwise. the two rest positions of the balance arm is four times as great

would result from the approach of one sphere (The cross-attraction of the right sphere on the left

as the deflection that to

one

ball.

left sphere on the right ball has been neglected.) operating the torsion balance as a torsion pendulum and determining its period, or by other means, the torsion constant of the suspension may be determined. Thus the force acting at lever arm length a to produce the observed deflection 26 may be and m, and distance d calculated, and with the mass-values of known, equation (1) in principle gives directly the value of the

ball

and the

By

M

gravitational constant G.

Cavendish performed his experiment in an outbuilding in his garden at Clapham common, London. He took great precautions to avoid inequalities of air temperature and consequent air cur(placing) the apparatus in a room which should rerents by ". main constantly shut, and to observe the motion of the arm from without by means of a telescope." Allowances were made for the attraction of the torsion bar that held the small masses and for the suspending rods of the large masses. It is generally accepted that Cavendish's experimental work was of magnificent quality, and one of the few criticisms was that the time of vibration might have been more accurately determined. The mean value from 29 separate determinations of the density of the earth is given by Poynting (The Mean Density of the Earth, 1894) as A = 5.448 0.033. However, the distribution of the 29 results shown by Poynting ranges from 4.8 to 5.8 and a reaUstic standard error would appear to be several times that quoted. One of the peculiar facts about measurements of G or A is the tendency to quote results to the third decimal place, when the scatter of the individual readings for one person's experiment and the divergences between one method of measuring G and another suggest that the accuracy of .

.

±

even the second decimal figure is in doubt. However, the work of Cavendish was undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment; in fact, it was not really improved upon until nearly a century later. F. Reich (1838, 1852) and F. Baily (1841^2) made minor modifications to Cavendish's method but do not seem to have improved upon the original experiment. C. V. Boys concluded

(published 1895) that smaller dimensions of the apparatus would reduce temperature variations and resultant air disturbances and therefore constructed a torsion balance with a beam only 2.4 cm. long. Boys was the first to make very fine quartz fibres, and he achieved the necessary sensitivity by using one of these fibres as A notable feature of the work of the Jesuit the torsion wire. K. Braun (pubKshed 1896) consisted in exhausting the chamber which, surrounded the torsion balance, so that disturbances due

were reduced to a minimum. Braun measured the time of vibration of the torsion system in position near to and removed from the attracting masses rather than the deflection of to air currents

the beam.

G. K. Burgess (thesis, 1901) buoyed the torsion system by a mercury bath, so that the masses could be increased in size and yet the torsion fibre could be kept fine, since it only had to support part of the weight of the attracted masses. Eotvos measured the periods of vibration of a torsion balance when the balance beam was in line with and when it was perpendicular to the line joining the centres of two fixed lead pillars, pubfloat in a

lishing his results in 1896. P.

FIG.

1.

—CAVENDISH BALANCE

between 1878 and 1881, measured the increase in mass caused by a lead sphere about 1 m. in diamThe attraction of the lead sphere on the second pan of the

von

Jolly,

weight of a eter.

5 kg.

—

GRAVITATION balance was

made

negligible

by arranging

a vertical separation of

m. between the scale pans. A similar experiment was carried out, between 1884 and 1898, by F. Richarz and 0. Krigar-Menzel. However, the best of the common balance experiments was due 21

to Poynting.

He gave an account of the full experiment carried out with a large balance and with much greater The balance had a 4 ft. beam. The scale pans were recare. moved and from the two arms were hung lead spheres, each weighing about 20 kg. at a level about 120 cm. below the beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal turntable, the axis of which was vertically below the central knife-edge of gravitational measurements.

the balance.

On

this turntable

was mounted

a lead sphere weighing ISO kg.

the attracting mass,

The

centre of the large sphere was 30 cm. below the level of the centres of the hanging weights.

The

turntable could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was first directly below one of the hanging weights and then directly below the other. It was found necessary to add a second balancing mass to the turntable at twice the radius of the large mass in order to eliminate a spurious tilting of the balance sup-

port due to the shifting weight of the turntable. The balance beam was equipped with a special mirror arrangement which magnified the tilt of the beam about 150 times. About

mirror was a telescope and scale for observing The experiment indicated that in moving the attracting mass from under one weight to a position under the opposite weight the balance beam changed deflection a little more than 1 second of arc equivalent to a change in weight of 5

m. from

the

tilt

this

of the mirror.

—

about 0.4 mg. After a careful review of the work of Boys Heyl's Experiment. and Braun, Paul R. Heyl concluded {U.S. Bureau oj Standards Journal of Research, vol. 5, p. 1243, 1930) that increased precision in the determination of G could hardly be expected of the direct deflection method, whereas, as stated by Braun, the possibihties of .Tn his the time-of-swing method had not been fully utilized. repetition of the Cavendish experiment, Heyl therefore decided The apparatus was deto use only the time-of-swing method. signed after the general pattern of Braun's but with a considerable increase in the attracting masses. The torsion pendulum consisted of two small spheres, 50 gm. each, hung from the ends of a very hght separator rod about 20 cm. long which in turn was supported from its ends by truss wires attached to a fine tungsten filament about 1 m. long which comA small mirror attached at the prised the torsion- suspension. point of suspension in conjunction with a telescope and scale 3.5 m. distant permitted observations of the angular motion of the

—

moving system. A motion of one minute of arc system was exhibited as a shift of about 2 mm. of

of the

moving

the scale in the

of the telescope. The timing of the torsion pendulum was accompHshed by manually recording transits of the pendulum on a chronograph which also carried seconds signals derived from a

field

Riefler clock rated daily against naval observatory signals. The attracting masses were two 66 kg. steel cylinders mounted

with axes vertical and suspended from a rotatable support such that the Hne forming their mass centres could be made coincident with the line of centres of the masses on the torsion pendulum or In the former at right angles thereto (as in Eotvos' experiment).

add to the restoring force of the and the period of the pendulum is a minimum. With the large masses at right angles to the axis of the pendulum the position the gravitational forces torsion wire

period

is

and was presumed accurate to about 1 part in 3,300. Precautions were taken that all mass and length measurements were well within the tolerance required to assure that such quantities

could not introduce errors

about 1/10,000.

Poynting's Experiment.— In 1878, Po>'nting published an account {Phil. Trans., vol. 182, A, p. 565, 1891) of a preliminary experiment of the type of Jolly's but on a smaller scale with a view to demonstrating that the common balance could be adapted to

at a

maximum.

Particularly in the near position the nonuniform gravitational field and

attracting masses produce a

pendulum oscillations are not strictly sinusoidal (nonisochronous), a detail which must be considered in timing the pendulum. According to Heyl the time of swing in the near position was usually about 1,754 sec. and in the far position about 2,081 the

sec, and each could be measured to about 0.1 sec. The difference, 327 sec, formed the critical quantity of the whole measurement

715

The

in the derived value of G within use of steel cylinders rather than the usual

was intended to ensure accuracy of measurement, uniform density and permanency of measured values at the cost of some inconvenience and mathematical labour. Heyl used gold, platinum and glass balls as masses on the moving system, but not with the idea of obtaining any different x-alue of G due to difference in material. The original gold balls were found to absorb mercury from the trap used in the evacuating system, and in five months their weights (49.10679 g.) increased by 0.1379 g. To avoid this difficulty the platinum balls were coated thinly with lacquer. The glass balls were made of highquahty optical glass ground truly spherical. This material was selected because it would permit visual examination to ensure perfect homogeneity of the mass. The moving system was housed in an airtight container exhausted to a pressure of about 2 mm. of mercury to decrease the damping and minimize convection disturbances. The lower portion of the housing containing the beam system was of soft iron material to shield the pendulum magnetically, because the massive steel cylinders, when moved from one to another of the two obser%'ation positions, altered the earth's magnetic field. While the small masses used on the beam were not of ferromagnetic material, they were either paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and the resultant magnetic effect would be appreciable. The effectiveness of the magnetic shielding was tested by artificial magnetic fields before gravitational observations were made. In order to start the pendulum swinging for an observation, bottles of mercury were moved manually in resonance with the gravitationally induced swings of the pendulum until the desired amplitude of oscillation had been attained. Thereafter