Emotional Processes in Music Therapy [1 ed.] 9781937440022, 9781891278518

Citation preview

Emotional Processes in Music Therapy

Emotional Processes in Music Therapy John Pellitteri, Ph.D., LCAT

Copyright © 2009 by Barcelona Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form whatsoever, or stored for retireval in any medium, without written permission from Barcelona Publishers. The Hevner Mood Wheel on page 32 from American Journal of Psychology. Copyright 1936 by the Board of Trustees of the Univerity of Illinois. Used with permission of the author and the University of Illinois. ISBN: 978-1-891278-51-8 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Disbributed throughout the worlds by: Barcelona Publishers 4 White Brook Road Gilsum, New Hampshire 03448 Telephone: 603-357-0236 • Fax: 603-357-2073 Web site: www.barcelonapublishers.com SAN 298-6299 Cover design © 2009 by Frank McShane Book design and production coordination by Susan Hayes

To the memory of my father who gave me the gift of music and to Alexander and Maya who keep the song going . . . . . . .

ACKOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my wife, Leda Sabio, and my children, Alexander and Maya, for all their support during the long process of writing of this book. I would like to thank the many teachers, colleagues, and friends, both past and present, who have been inspirations for me on my own emotional journey and in my work in music therapy, psychology, and emotional intelligence: Dr. David Gonzalez, Dr. Ken Bruscia, Dr. Barbara Hesser, Dr. Jesse Vasquez, Dr. Howard Margolis, Dr. Robin Stern, Dr. Charles Fasano, Dr. John Kugler, Matt Simmons, Alessandra Gonzaga, Dr. Lisa Suzuki, Dr. Peter Salovey, Dr. Jack Mayer, Dr. David Caruso, John Sheehan, Michael DeGrottole, and Dr. Marc Brackett. I would also like to thank my graduate students Joyce Lau and Angilina Abramchayeva for their assistance with the final formatting of the manuscript. A special thanks goes to Dr. Michael Dealy, whose emotional intelligence has inspired and saved so many people.

CONTENTS About the Author / xv Preface / xvii

PART ONE: FRAMEWORKS Chapter 1 Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process 1 The Intimacy of Music and Emotions / 1 The Centrality of Emotion in Human Experience / 5 The Art and Science of Music Therapy / 7 Frameworks for the Therapeutic Process / 13 An aesthetic frame of the client / 13 The psychological field of interpersonal process / 15 Adaptation and therapeutic outcome / 19

Chapter 2 The Architecture of Emotions 22 Components of Emotions / 22 Definitions of Terms / 24 A Model of Emotional Processes / 26 Representing and Measuring Emotions / 28

Chapter 3 Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives on Emotions and Music 34 Evolutionary Perspectives / 36 Emotions as adaptation to the natural world / 36 Animal songs and human music / 39 Music & the auditory environment in the creation of narratives / 41 Music, language, and emotion / 45 Ecopsychology / 46 Anthropological Perspectives / 49 Emotions in the organization of social structures and identity / 49 Music making and socialization / 52 Meaning in culture, emotion and music / 54 Clinical Implications / 59

PART TWO: FOUNDATIONS Chapter 4 Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions 65 A Brief Review of the Brain / 66 Neuroanatomy / 69 The limbic system / 71 Emotional Elicitors / 73 Internal and external / 75 Individual differences and sociocultural influences / 77 Emotional States / 78 Physiological-Behavioral view (James-Lange Theory) / 79 Cognitive view (Lazarus’s Appraisal Theory) / 83 Cognitive view (Implicit Memory Model) / 83 Physiological-Cognitive view (Schachter & Singer’s Theory) / 85 Social-Cognitive view (Sociology & Cultural Psychology) / 87

Emotional Expressions / 89 Non-verbal indicators / 89 Verbal indicators / 92 Emotional Experiences / 93

Chapter 5 Psychophysiological Foundations of Music 97 Neuromusicology / 98 Complexity theory / 101 Complexity in clinical process / 103 The Physiology of Music / 105 Emotion theory and music physiology / 107 Musical Behavior / 109 Emotional dimensions of musical behavior / 111 Social Basis of Music / 1114 Group dynamics in clinical music therapy / 114 The Psychophysiology of Musical Emotions / 116

Chapter 6 Emotions and Music in Personality Development 119 Ego Psychology and the Regulation of Emotions / 123 Emotions and Internalization in Object Relations Theory / 126 Emotions in Early Attachment Styles / 129 Interpersonal Experience and Brain Development / 132 Music and Maternal Attunement / 134 Implications for the Client-Therapist Relationship / 138 Emotions and Music in Identity Development / 140

PART THREE: CLINICAL APPLICATION Chapter 7 An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy 147 The Therapeutic Field of the Client-Therapist Encounter / 148

The stimulus environment / 150 The therapeutic encounter / 152 Using Music to Facilitate Emotional Processes / 155 Music as stimulus / 155 Music to alter emotional states / 156 Musical improvisation as emotional expression / 158 Musical experience as basis for emotional experience / 158 Interventions in Psychophysiological Processes / 160 Physiological interventions / 161 Behavioral interventions / 163 Cognitive interventions / 164 Social interventions / 164 Emotions in Decision-Making and Clinical Process / 167

Chapter 8 The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion 172 Music as Emotional Metaphor / 172 Synesthesia and the Aesthetic Approach / 176 Vitality Affects and Dynamic Forms / 180 Congruence in the Musical-Emotional Field / 183 Affective Exchange and Engaging the Core Self / 186

Chapter 9 Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy 190 The Abilities Model of Emotional Intelligence / 191 Distinctions from related constructs / 191 Definitions and components / 193 Emotional Intelligence and Adaptation / 198 Using Music to Develop Emotional Intelligence / 200 Emotional intelligence in clinical process / 200 Music in social-emotional learning curricula / 203 Emotional Intelligence and the Music Therapist / 206

Chapter 10 An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods 210 Nordoff-Robbins’s Creative Music Therapy / 211 Priestly’s Analytic Music Therapy / 214 Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music / 219 Conclusion / 223

PART FOUR: PROFESSIONALISM Chapter 11 Emotional Awareness and the Professional Music Therapist / 227 Professional Identity: The “Scientist-Artist” View / 227 Communicating as a Scientific Professional / 230 Communicating as a Creative Artist / 231 Emotional Intelligence & the Professional Music Therapist / 233

Epilogue / 235 References / 237 Index / 253

ABOUT THE AUTHOR John S. Pellitteri, Ph.D., LCAT has worked for more than twenty years in various clinical and educational settings in the New York area. He was a music therapist for children with disabilities at the Northside Center for Child Development, the Jewish Board for Family and Children Services, Mt Loretto Dual-Diagnosis Residential Program (Catholic Charities), and the First Step Preschool (Heartshare Services) among others. He was a therapist and clinical supervisor, has served on the board of directors, and is currently on the advisory board for the Heartsong Music and Art Therapy Program in Bronxville, N.Y. Presently he conducts clinical work for children with disabilities through the Music Therapy Project in New York. Dr. Pellitteri was a fieldwork supervisor for the NYU music therapy program for several years. He has also worked as a music educator in pre-K to high school at various private schools. Other clinical work includes school counselor, psychotherapist, and psychological consultant. Dr. Pellitteri received a B.S. in music education with a special education concentration and a M.A. in music therapy from New York University. He received an Ed. M. degree in psychological counseling at Teachers College, Columbia University and then his doctoral degree in Counseling Psychology at NYU. He holds licenses as a psychologist and as a creative art therapist in New York State. Currently he is an associate professor and the director of the Graduate Program in Counseling at Queens College of the City University of New York. His research concentration is in the area of emotional intelligence where he has several scholarly publica-

xvi

About the Author

tions and has made both national and international presentations. He is the lead editor for the book, Emotionally Intelligent School Counseling (Erlbaum, 2006). Dr. Pellitteri serves in an advisory group for the Health, Emotion, and Behavior lab at Yale University. Other areas of interest include his work in career development at the Bay Ridge Preparatory School in Brooklyn, NY, and his involvement in aesthetic education as a member of the Teacher Education Collaborative of the Lincoln Center Institute for the Arts in Education.

PREFACE As the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century draws near, the need to understand emotional processes becomes ever more pressing. Emotions are central factors at all levels of human endeavor from global crises and international conflicts to local community and family issues to interpersonal relationships and individual well-being. Despite the significant role of emotions in human relations and artistic expression, there has been little attention in the scientific literature. After many centuries of neglect, however, scientific inquiry has finally been directed toward more formal and sophisticated studies of emotions as they are now viewed as an important and adaptive aspects of human functioning. The field of music therapy is ideal for the development of emotional functioning given its clinical interpersonal nature as well as the medium of music, each of which are intricately related to emotions. Music therapy is both an art and a science and emotional processes can be understood, and must be examined, from both frames. This book draws upon the science of emotion research and related areas in order to provide an empirically supported knowledge base for music therapists and other creative art therapists. Such knowledge can deepen our understandings of our work and of the change processes that we facilitate in our clients. The book also focuses on the art of music therapy as it blends emotional processes into the creative and aesthetic aspects of our clinical work. As music therapists we have this intuitive “knowing” of the

xviii

Preface

connection between music and emotion. This book will provide the science that underscores such intuition. In order to more fully grasp the roots of these connections, the first section of the book present three chapters that will provide various frameworks. The introduction (chapter 1) will lay out basic assumptions of music, emotion, and therapy and will provide three specific “frames” of clinical work. Chapter 2 will review basic definitions of emotion and related terms and will present two models (psychophysiological systems and emotional processes) that are the “continuos” and cannons for the orchestration and organization of the book’s content on emotions. In chapter 3, the perspectives of evolutionary science and anthropology will provide a historical frame for understanding emotions, music, and their connections to each other and the deep roots of each in human nature. The second section presents three chapters that draw upon the fields of psychology, physiology, and neuroscience to provide empirical foundations. The four major psychophysiological systems of emotional construction will be examined in chapter 4 within the emotional processes model. These same systems will be applied to understanding musical processes in chapter 5. In chapter 6 the role of emotions and music in personality development will be examined as a foundation for working with individuals in therapy. The third section, Clinical Application, contains four chapters. Chapter 7 will revisit the models and frameworks described earlier in light of clinical music therapy and will present specific techniques for using an emotional focus in therapy. Chapter 8 will examine the underlying structures between music and emotions as a basis for interpersonal change and dynamic interventions. In Chapter 9 the theory of emotional intelligence will be presented and clinical implications for music therapy will be described. Chapter 10 will examine emotional processes from three major clinical music therapy approaches. Chapter 11 will look at issues of professionalism and the role of emotional intelligence at the workplace. While this level of discussion is not specifically clinical or theoretical, understanding our

Preface

xix

professional identities, how we communicate about our work and how we use emotions with other professionals is essential for effective adaptation to the work place. It is important to keep in mind that the clinical techniques and ideas presented in the book may not be new. It is the perspective of viewing our work through the lens of emotions that may provide a new vista. The blending of empirical science and creative aesthetics also creates a type of professionalism that promises to have a positive impact in our field.

Emotional Processes in Music Therapy

PART ONE

FRAMEWORKS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Chapter 1

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process The Intimacy of Music and Emotions Music therapists intuitively understand the relationships between music and emotion. We see it, or more accurately feel it, in our own music making and in the music of the clients that we serve. Emotions are the spark of life in the eyes of a child as she reaches for an instrument and begins exploring the world of sound. It is in the smile of a person who has just transcended his perceived disability and accomplished a creative feat that was never before considered possible. Emotion is in the color of the dark and intense music that emerges from a conflicted client who is struggling for resolution and clarity. It is in the poignant moments at the conclusion of an involved clinical improvisation with a client where you have both traveled together to a new plane of experience and your gazes interlock at the pinnacle of your journey. Emotion is in music. And music is in emotion. The uplifted mood on a bright and sunny day is congruent with upbeat songs. The affective exchanges of interpersonal interactions that convey meaning and intent have a musical form. There is a somber and dirge-like tone in the experience of grief and loss. The feeling of being in love can resound so fully with an orchestral resonance. Music therapists understand these connections. Through our work we can reach beyond the ordinary into the sublime and in doing so we transverse the emotional worlds of our clients and ourselves. The inherent qualities of music can naturally activate emotions in a person. Music therapists use this potential in music to create a mood in the environment of the therapy session. As we 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

engage in musical experiences with our clients, we enter their psychological space and in doing so create a new interpersonal space. It is in the context of the therapeutic relationship that emotions, once activated, can find expression and be transformed. It requires a trained therapist, however, to utilize the emotional material of the client to bring about healing. The creativity and artistic acuity of the therapist applies not only to his or her musicality, but to the therapeutic process as well. Like a symphonic composer, the music therapist orchestrates the conditions and elements of the clinical encounter to optimize the potential for change. The client’s readiness to engage with the music and with the therapeutic process depends, in part, on the relationship with the music therapist. It is in the “dance” between the client and therapist, where therapeutic movement unfolds. The word “e-motion,” interestingly, suggests movement. Emotional transformations may precede, accompany, and/or result from the clinical movement that we tend to label as therapeutic progress. When we are deeply touched by another, we often use the phrase that we “are moved” by the experience. Thus emotion is inherently part of therapeutic movement. It is the interpersonal contact—the “touch” between the client and therapist—as well as the music itself that can ignite the emotions. It is essential for music therapists to understand emotional processes. Clients’ affective responses during a session are indicators of their intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics and serve as cues for the therapist to moderate his or her clinical interventions. The behaviors that accompany emotional processes (such as facial expressions, tone of voice, body posture, increases in activity or intensity, etc.) can be measurable markers of interpersonal relatedness, client engagement in the clinical process, and therapeutic progress. When these affective indicators are added to the indicators of musical behaviors the music therapist has a more comprehensive understanding of the client in the immediate moment of the session and in the therapeutic process. Emotions are the dynamics within the psychological structure of the individual 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

5

and represent, in many ways, the individual’s relationship with the surrounding environment as well as with his or her own developmental history. “We cannot understand the workings of the mind and their influence on behavior without understanding the role of emotional processes.” (Feldman-Barrett & Salovey, 2002, p. 7). Empirically supported knowledge about emotions provides grounding for music therapists. Emotional processes are embedded within personality, social functioning, and general well-being. An understanding of the psychological and physiological underpinnings of emotions allows therapists to more fully identify how a client’s “disability” or condition may impact psychosocial development and adjustment. Clinicians can broaden their therapeutic use of music by understanding how emotions are intertwined with musical experiences. An empirical grounding in emotion research provides the therapist with the scientific language with which to communicate with other health-related professionals and to illustrate the effectiveness of music’s transformative potential. The following sections will introduce some basic considerations for approaching the idea of emotional processes in music therapy. The first section examines the central role of emotions in human functioning. The next section considers how the creative process in music therapy is both artistic and scientific. The final section will describe three frameworks that can be useful in viewing the client, the therapeutic process, and therapy outcomes.

The Centrality of Emotion in Human Experience Emotional processes are central to everyday human functioning and human experience. They are embedded in interpersonal relationships, personal sense of identity and well-being, and to varying degrees, in any human phenomena that is described as “meaningful.” Humans share emotional processes with other animal species and emotions have been central elements in human evolution. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Yet emotions, however archaic in origin, saturate human existence throughout the lifespan. Emotions guide, enrich, and ennoble life; they provide meaning to everyday existence; they render the valuation placed on life and property. Emotions promote behaviors that protect life, form the basis for the continuity in life, and compel the termination of life. They can be essential ingredients for, as well as overwhelming obstacles to, optimizing human potential, and they often serve as the engines for intellectual development (Cacioppo, Berntson, Larsen, Poehlmann, & Ito, 2000, p. 173). The major function of emotions throughout human history has been adaptation to the environment. Humans, like all higher animal species (i.e., mammalian, birds), need to respond to threats in their surroundings (i.e., predators) as well as to cues that signify food, opportunities for mating, nurturing off-spring, and safety. Emotions serve the purpose of coordinating the many adaptive response sequences that have been programmed into the animal brain (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000). Anger and fear, for example, correspond to the basic “fight or flight” response. Sadness is a response to loss. Joy and happiness are responses to satisfaction of needs. Emotions energize and motivate an organism for rapid action and also form the attachment bond between infant and caretaker which are crucial for survival. Emotions are ever present in interpersonal interactions on a daily basis. If a person expresses anger, then that is a signal to keep away, since he or she may potentially be a threat. By contrast, a genuine and warm smile conveys the message that the immediate environment is safe. The person who receives these affective messages and interprets them accurately, will adapt his or her behaviors accordingly. Thus emotions serve the function of communication of intent and convey information about the immediate environment. This aspect of emotion is significant in understanding emotional

1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

7

functioning and has direct implications for clinical work and the goals of adaptation. It is understandable, given the centrality of emotions in human experience, that they would become a focus of examination in philosophy and later psychology. Historically, there have been different views on the function of emotions that have oscillated between positive and negative. Aristotle recognized that emotions transform one’s state, influence motivation, and can affect perception (Hergenhahn, 1992). In the seventeenth century, philosophers considered emotions or the “passions” to be disruptive to reasoning and needed to be controlled (Solomon, 2000). The Humanistic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries challenged this view and moved emotions to a central and more positive position. The study of emotion during the late twentieth century and today considers the interaction between emotions and cognitions and how each influences the other (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Acceptance and understanding of one’s emotions are generally seen as necessary for stability and personal well-being and are often a focus for insight oriented psychotherapy.

The Art and Science of Music Therapy Music therapy can be viewed within the larger context of psychotherapy research in that it shares essential components with many other forms of counseling and psychotherapy. The various methods of traditional “talk” therapies generally rest upon the importance of the relationship between the client and the clinician (Teyber, 2006; Welfel & Patterson, 2005). Research in counseling process has established the therapeutic relationship, sometimes referred to as the working alliance, as a central component in change process (see Horvath & Greenberg, 1994). The relational dimension of therapy varies in its importance across different schools being more central to Humanistic, Psychodynamic, and

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Interpersonal approaches and less central to the Cognitive and Behavioral methods that facilitate change through psychoeducational and directive means. Several dynamically oriented authors, in writing about verbal psychotherapy, draw heavily upon music not only as a metaphor, but as way of knowing the client and becoming attuned to his or her emotions (Knoblauch, 2000; OdellMiller 2003; Rose, 2004). One distinction between creative art therapies and traditional verbal therapies is the addition of the artistic modality. In this case, the therapeutic environment includes not only the clinician, but the tools of the artistic medium (i.e., musical instruments, art materials, a dance space) and the expectation of engaging in a creative process. These additional, nonverbal channels of expression exponentially increase the number of possibilities that can unfold in the therapy process. The music in music therapy is a significant and unique element in the psychological field of the therapeutic encounter. Bruscia (1998) provides a working definition of music therapy. “Music therapy is a systematic process of intervention wherein the therapist helps the client to promote health, using music experiences and the relationships that develop through them as dynamic forces of change.” (p. 20). Bruscia describes the relationships within music therapy as being intrapersonal, intramusical, interpersonal, intermusical, and sociocultural. Like all relationships, emotions play a role. A client’s motivation to attend a music therapy session and engage in the therapeutic process depends upon the positive emotions associated with the music experiences as well as the feelings of trust in the therapist. Even in the case of a client’s relationships to the music itself, the client’s feelings about music are dynamic forces, such as in the case of a Guided Imagery & Music session, where the music becomes part of the imagery environment. The major modalities of musical experience include: (1) improvisation, (2) re-creation of songs, (3) composing music, and (4) listening to music (Bruscia (1998). Each of these modalities allow for different types of experience with music and can 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

9

structure the relationship with the therapist. The role of the therapist will vary in activity and directiveness depending on the modality, the client’s level of development, and the client’s need for support from the therapist. In all cases however, the client’s emotions toward the therapist and emotional experiences within the therapeutic process are significant factors to be considered. Emotions are in the “experiences” as well as in the “relationships” and in this way emotions, in Bruscia’s definition, are the “dynamic forces of change.” Creativity is central to music therapy by its very nature. Like all verbal and creative art therapies, there is a constructive process to how the therapist takes a position to build a special relationship with the intention of facilitating change in a client. The client as a unique individual provides material for the therapeutic work (emotions, issues, conflicts, personal values, belief systems, cultural norms, personal histories, etc.). These materials, like the colors of a painter’s palette, will form the basis of the painting that will unfold in a unique manner. The visual artist may not know what the final painting will look like, and along the way many dynamics may occur that affect what colors are chosen and how they are combined. The creative process for the therapist is how to construct experiences that allow the client to find access to his or her own emotions and personal meanings, to explore these issues, to encounter new experiences, and to create new meanings and personal patterns that are more adaptive. Slight changes in the client’s materials (i.e., the particular meaning of having the label “disability” for example) will alter how the therapist constructs the experiences in the session. The emotional significance of different issues or conflicts will determine which topics become salient and take a more prominent role in the therapy. Thus the organizing themes of the therapeutic work may be determined at times by the emotional intensity of the issue. This does not simply translate into the formula where the more intense the issue, the more priority it receives. If a client’s capacity and readiness to address a conflict are not adequate, then the more serious issue may need to 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

be suspended for a later point in the process while a more manageable theme becomes the focus of the current work. In this way the therapist must be creative in choosing the best intervention given the client’s emotions around different issues, the client’s potential for therapeutic work, and the constraints of the therapy session. In addition to the creativity of therapy itself, the music therapist has the joy and the challenge of creating music. Along with the clinical choices of how to best establish a relationship and address the most pertinent issues, the music therapist must choose how to create music with each particular client. There are many musical choices such as specific songs, types and number of instruments, types of activities, structures within each activity, musical genres, emphases on musical elements (i.e., dynamics, rhythm, melody, timbre), etc. In my work with special education preschool children one activity involved each child holding one instrument and engaging in a song where they had opportunities to play as a group altering between sections with one soloist. These musical choices created opportunities for group cohesion (playing together) as well as individual expression (soloist). It allowed opportunities for impulse control (waiting turn) as well as cathartic release (improvising freely with few constraints). By contrast an activity with one shared instrument that was passed around the circle offered different opportunities for musical creation and social interaction. Emotional processes are pertinent in these clinical and artistic choices since the type of emotion that is potentially created by the music and the activity will determine the therapeutic value. There will be different points in the therapy group where various emotions would be utilized. Since music therapy is both an art and a science, this book will adopt a “scientist-artist” perspective of the field. As discussed above, there is an artistic process to create music and to conduct therapy. There is however a science to music, such as sound influencing particular physiological functions, and a science to therapy that stems from empirically based research on measurable change. 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

11

Often science and art are pitted as being at odds with each other. However, one can consider how scientific “discovery” involves a great deal of creativity in dealing with the natural ambiguities in the area of study. Likewise artists use their work and products to represent the world around them as they see it. Great works of art have enduring qualities in that they capture something of human nature or human culture in a particular way that can transcend boundaries. In this way, understanding the world through an artistic process (as a producer or consumer of any artistic medium) is similar to the scientist who seeks to understand some aspect of the world. The scientist, however, uses empirical measures and attempts to quantify observations for systematic analysis. The artist uses the self as a channel to take in the world and transform its energy and information into a creative product. One may think that science is “objective” and quantitative while art is “subjective” and qualitative, however, these distinctions are not nearly as clear as one might expect (Weisberg, 2006). It is perhaps the role of science to attempt to understand and solve problems of a more concrete nature while it is the role of art to focus on the sublime that can never be measured. Lewis, Amini, and Lannon (2000) transcend the distinction of art and science in using poetry and artistic metaphors to describe the science of the biopsychology of emotions. Modell (2003) in examining the biological roots of metaphor and meaning in the mind insists that the intersubjective field of the first and second person is necessary in order to fully understand the objective thirdperson perspective of neuroscience. Thus not all types of ‘knowing” can be measurable and objectified. The personal, subjective, and “artistic” views hold value as well, especially in the clinical fields that rest upon the foundation of interpersonal relationships. Nystul (2006) talks about the art and science perspective in counseling that can be applied to music therapy. There is a need for the clinician to focus on the subject world of the client and personally understand the “material” of this unique person’s life space. This requires sensitivity, empathy, and human compassion. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

At the same time, the clinician needs to understand the mechanical processes of empirically constructed systems (i.e., physiological, psychological) that affect behavioral patterns. This requires knowledge in psychology that can improve prediction of human behavior and therapeutic change. The effective therapist is able to combine both approaches. “From this perspective, the counselor [and music therapist], like an artist, can sensitively reach into the world of the client, yet on some level maintain a sense of professional and scientific objectivity” (Nystul, 2006, p. 3). The role of clinical theory influences the work of the music therapist as it guides the decision-making process at any one moment in the clinical session. Theories lead the therapist as to what observations to make, what factors will have more importance, and which interventions are most relevant. Likewise, different theoretical approaches (psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic-existential, multicultural, spiritual-transpersonal) will lead to changes in different dimensions of human functioning. Again there is a creative process in matching the particular clinical approach to the needs of the individual in the particular therapeutic setting. Many therapist draw upon various schools of thought and work in an integrative manner that can allow a broad range of clinical interventions to a large array of clients with diverse clinical conditions. This book does not ascribe to one particular model of therapy, but rather draws upon various constructs from several schools. Emotions are part of human nature and each approach to psychotherapy will address affect material differently. In this way, however, the topic of emotions is transtheoretical. Knowledge from the field of emotion research provides a science to emotions that is important for therapists of any orientation to know. How this knowledge guides the clinical work of a music therapist will depend upon the creativity of the clinician in integrating it into his or her work. The overall therapeutic goal of improving a clients functioning in his or her world can take many forms and be achieved through various channels. In this way, the artistic creativity of the 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

13

music therapist can be an asset on any professional teams working with clients in that the therapist can provide an opened and optimistic perspective that considers possibilities for improvement and well-being. The creative artist within the music therapist can see what is possible, as the human spirit knows few limits. The scientist within the music therapist uses theory and research to provide a means of reaching such aspirations.

Frameworks for the Therapeutic Process There are numerous concepts that have been used to describe the therapeutic process. Every therapist will, intentionally or unintentionally, use theories and constructs to guide clinical judgment and interventions. The three themes presented here can be considered as guides that provide certain perspectives of the therapeutic process. They can be compatible with many approaches to therapy and hopefully expand the reader’s conceptualization of the client and the therapeutic process. These frameworks are also the backgrounds for understanding the main themes in the book and can serve to help integrate the knowledge of emotions, music, and therapy. The first frame uses an aesthetic perspective to encompass the multiple dimensions of the client. The second uses field theory to understand the complex dynamics of the therapeutic encounter. The third frame describes the construct of adaptation as a synthesizing model for therapeutic outcomes.

An aesthetic frame of the client Maxine Greene (2001), an eminent philosopher on aesthetic education, speaks about possibilities as part of aesthetic inquiry of a work of art. Aesthetic inquiry involves one’s relationship to an art work (i.e., visual art, music, dance, theater, etc.) and being open to “noticing what there is to notice” (2001, p. 6). An aesthetic encounter with a work of art opens one to multiple perspectives, 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

deeper meanings, and a sense of the sublime. Much like the client’s relationship to the music in a therapy session, an individual’s encounter with art, given a certain state of mind, can be a transformative experience. Works of art, be they visual, music, drama, dance, are multilayered entities that arise from the artist, but can take on something much greater than the artist him- or herself. Art works embody emotion, ideas, symbols, and meanings. They reflect the culture in which they were created. They are multidimensional and because of this, have potential to evoke a wide range of reactions from various individuals. In applying aesthetic learning to the music therapy process, one can use the metaphor of the client as an artistic work in progress. With such a frame the music therapist is opened to the possibilities of where the therapeutic process can go and is prepared for the unexpected that may arise in the encounter. This metaphor is useful in that it avoids mechanistic and reductionistic views of the client. Just as a work of art is multidimensional as it exists in its wholeness, the person with whom you have a therapeutic encounter, is a whole, multidimensional being. Works of art allow us to grasp these many dimensions and perspectives as integrated wholes. In this way, it is important for the music therapist to view the client in a holistic manner so to consider his or her many dimensions and potentials in a comprehensive way. By keeping a stance of openness to multiple dimensions and multiple frames, the therapist has the possibilities to make therapeutic movement within various levels. The aesthetic frame of the client is particularly useful in an art and science approach to music therapy. In viewing the client as a work of art with a multidimensional nature, the therapist can embrace both the art and science of the clinical work, and can dare to discard the dichotomy between the two. It is possible then to consider how empirically supported scientific research could blend with the subjective and aesthetic qualities of the interpersonal therapeutic encounter. In viewing a client in a holistic manner, we can understand both the cognitive-emotional activations of 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

15

the brain regions along with spiritual-transpersonal experiences. We can focus on the behavioral level of stimulus-response connections while understanding how behaviors can shape internal representations and one’s deeply personal subjective sense of self. We can be objective in analyzing the interpersonal dynamics of social relations in a therapy group while also knowing that we are building a sense of community in the group that can have farreaching effects in each individual’s life. We can conduct an assessment of a client’s personality functions or a checklist of adaptive behaviors only to get lost in a musical-emotional encounter with this unique person during clinical improvisation. Arthur Robbins (1989) describes the aesthetic dimensions of psychodynamic therapies and the significance of music and other art forms in capturing and expressing deep layers of personal meaning. He summarizes concepts from Albert Rothenberg’s work in creativity: Rothenberg describes two specific modes of creative cognition: “homospatial process,” consisting of actively conceiving two or more discrete entities occupying the same space, and “janusian process,” which is defined as actively conceiving simultaneously two or more opposites or antithetical entities. Each, he demonstrates, plays a major role in the metaphorical and empathic contact with patients (Robbins, 1989, p. 6).

The psychological field of interpersonal process When a client and therapist begin to work together they are developing a special and unique type of relationship that does not exist in any other type of societal role. Each individual in this encounter brings his or her own history, within the particular structure of each personality, and includes each individual’s needs, values, expectations, and emotions. The “term life space” (Conyne & Cook, 2004; Lewin, 1951/1997) refers to the system that 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

contains these intrapersonal elements. Together, the two life spaces of the client-therapist dyad create an interpersonal field. There is now a system that includes all of the interconnections between the two individuals and creates, in its own way, a synergy, which is a set of unique forces that emerge from the interactions between the two. Kurt Lewin (1951/1997), a major theorist from Gestalt psychology in the mid-twentieth century, proposed the concept of field theory to explain motivation. He borrowed the idea of field from physics and attempted to explain how various psychological forces can interact to determine the direction and strength of behavior. Forces in the field can be intrapersonal (within an individual) or interpersonal (between individuals) or be stimuli within the physical environment. The combination of forces can strengthen behavior toward one goal over another. Often there are competing forces within a field that can pull a client in various directions. The field theory approach considers all of the factors both within and between the two individuals as potential forces that can interact and motivate behavior. In this way, it reconfigures how one sees the therapeutic encounter—as one system with many potential interactions. This view also includes stimuli in the physical environment that can act as forces within the field. In a music therapy session, the presence of instruments can be powerful elements. The appeal and natural reinforcement of making music can motivate a client to take an instrument to play. The client’s behavior can be shaped by the contingency that certain actions must be performed before the client can receive the rewards. For example, a hyperactive child must sit for a few seconds before he can be allowed to play the instrument. Since the instrument is rewarding, then it will exert a force that motivates the client to engage in sitting behavior. This force is channeled through the conditions (structure) established by the therapist, namely to sit in a controlled way in the seat. From a behavioral school, this is a basic principle of positive reinforcement. Lewin’s approach, however, is

1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

17

transtheoretical and in this way it can explain how unconscious associations and environmental stimuli can exert forces in the same field. If the client has a transference reaction to the therapist, then there may be an intrapersonal force (need, motivation) to be oppositional to the authority figure. In this case, if the force of opposing authority is greater than the force (motivation) to play the instrument, then rebellious behavior rather than compliance will occur. The idea of a psychological field is that all elements in the system are related. This includes intrapersonal (i.e., unconscious emotions associated with parents), interpersonal (i.e., client’s relationship with the therapist) and physical (i.e., musical instruments) elements and their influence on each other. Field theory therefore can be compatible with any of the theories of psychotherapy since each theory basically explains a different dimension and different type of force within the one interpersonal field. Psychodynamic views consider unconscious forces that by nature are emotional. Cognitive theories consider beliefs, expectations, and attributions that structure thought processes and create emotional states. Humanistic models consider needs, values, and growth potential as motivators within the field. Multicultural theories consider how identity formed from membership in various social groups (ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, etc.) can be in conflict with oppression and prejudice in society. In this last case, the psychological field includes the client and the larger social systems where he or she is embedded. Spiritual-transpersonal models can consider metaphysical forces beyond ordinary consciousness as influences upon the client. The aesthetic frame of the individual client allows one to embrace all of these perspectives simultaneously and to shift to different dimensions depending upon the needs presented in the therapeutic encounter. Lewin’s work has been extended to a range of areas such as personality, development, group dynamics, social conflict, action research, and international relations (see Wheelan, Pepitone, &

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

18

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Abt, 1990; Wiggins & Trobst, 1999). Field theory is particularly applicable to group therapy. Compared to the one-on-one encounter of an individual session, the group is a larger field with more participants and offers more possible forces for combination. A therapist may struggle in influencing a client’s particular behavior in an individual session, however the same client in a group session may engage in the desired behavior given the social models and reinforcement of the other group members that act as additional forces in the field. In consultations in educational settings, the students’ relationships to teachers, other students, the subject matter, and physical arrangement of the classroom must be considered together in order to understand motivation toward goals (Pellitteri, 2006). The size and limits of the field can change from a client-therapist dyad, to a therapy group, to a family system, to a whole classroom in a school, to a unit in a hospital setting, to a large agency, and even to larger social and cultural contexts. One important implication in the application of field theory to therapy, is that the therapist is a significant force within the psychological field. The therapist’s intrapersonal and interpersonal elements will influence the client. The therapist’s theoretical orientation is a set of beliefs (cognitive structures) that will influence how the therapist intervenes to shape the field. Countertransference and unconscious biases act as forces in the field and can disrupt a client’s progress. If a new therapist has anxieties about “performing” or being correct or if the therapist has negative associations toward the client, then these emotions will be forces in the field that can adversely affect the client and the process. The importance of self-awareness cannot be understated. The extent that the therapist is aware of his or her intrapersonal elements, determines the degree of control over those unconscious forces that might detract from the therapeutic process. Often unacknowledged emotional states on the part of the therapist can result in countertransference and unconscious bias. Knowledge of emo-

1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

19

tional processes in general is important for understanding the therapist as well as the client.

Adaptation and therapeutic outcome There can be various outcome goals in music therapy and these often depend upon the theoretical orientation of the therapist and/or the agency where the services are offered. A common focus in all therapy outcome goals is adaptation, which refers to the capacity to function in the environment. Progress and success in clinical work will be determined by evidence of the client’s increased capacity to function in a particular setting and/or a capacity to function effectively in a greater range of contexts. Terms such as “resiliency” and “coping” relate to the concept of adaptation. When a person can cope adequately with the demands and challenges in various situations, he or she is considered to be welladjusted. There is a balance between the demands of the situation and the person’s capacity to respond to those demands. Stress arises from an imbalance where the environmental demands exceed the individual’s capacities to respond effectively. Mathews, Zeidner, & Roberts (2002) state that “adaptive refers to the effectiveness of the coping process to improve outcomes for the person.” (p. 284). Resiliency refers to the capacity to adapt to extreme stress and trauma and requires the individual to utilize resources within the self as well as within the environment. A person does not just “adapt,” he or she “adapts to” a particular context or environment. The capacity to adapt, by its nature, requires creativity in that an individual must be able to establish a “fit” between him- or herself (the person) and the environment. Examples of adaptation my include: changing behavioral patterns, learning the conditions (i.e., the stimuli) under which certain behaviors produce rewards or other desirable goals, refraining from particular behaviors (i.e., impulse control), directing attention to significant cues that provide necessary information, altering think-

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

ing in order to change perspectives of the environment, developing realistic expectations from the self and from others, seeking assistance from others, accurately identifying resources within the self and the environment, to name but a few. The basic underlying processes of adaptation require the person to accommodate, that is, to alter thinking and behaviors in order to respond differently in certain environments in a manner that leads to desirable outcomes. An important construct that is embedded in the idea of adaptation is the person-environment interactions. Kurt Lewin’s (1951/1997) well known equation B =fPE (Behavior is a function of the Person and the Environment) is a basic concept that underscores this idea. An individual may be maladaptive in one setting, but function quite well in another. It is therefore critical to consider the ecological system of the individual before labeling him or her as maladaptive or pathological. Sometimes the most effective clinical intervention is to change the environment rather than the person because the sources of conflict come from unreasonable external demands rather than personal inadequacies. Interventions that aim to adjust the environment to match the needs of the individual person are more difficult than facilitating individual changes because of the exponentially greater possibilities in the larger psychological field of the environment. In music therapy however, the therapist has the power in group and individual sessions to create an environment that is accommodating the specific needs of a client and thus reduces the demands for individual change to a manageable level for the client. Adaptation and optimal functioning within the therapy environment can be a basis for generalizing adaptive processes into other environments outside of the therapy room. The concept of intelligence is closely akin to adaptation and is sometimes used synonymously (Sternberg, 2000). Intelligent people are adaptive in numerous contexts to various demands. Intelligence also describes the capacity to “learn,” that is, to develop skills and create strategies that did not previously exist, but would 1st pass

Emotion, Music, and the Therapeutic Process

21

be effective in the current situation. In this way, intelligence and adaptation involve a notable degree of creativity. By its very nature then, music therapy is developing a particular type of intelligence through the creative process. This is not merely the musical intelligence described by Gardner (1983) in his theory of multiple intelligence. I am referring here to how creativity and the emotional processes involved with it, are engaging the individual self in a dynamic process of becoming. This experience of engagement establishes a capacity for adaptation. The theory of emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1997) as will be described in chapter 9 is important in framing how emotions can be used in therapy to create the capacities for adaptive behaviors and improved person-environment fit. Intelligence about emotions relies on particular cognitive-affective abilities. Music therapy provides an opportunity for the creation of moods and the activation and experience of emotions that in turn, forms the basis for therapeutic process and adaptive outcomes.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

Chapter 2

The Architecture of Emotions The field of emotion research is extensive and has increased in the past two decades. A full survey of emotion research would be beyond the scope of this book. It is essential, however, that the reader has a background and framework for understanding basic terms and concepts of emotions. This chapter will provide a brief overview of emotional terms and processes. Chapter 4 will cover these theories in greater detail in the context of clinical work. The first section will outline the four basic psychophysiological components of emotions that will be discussed throughout the book. Section two will delineate between various emotion-related terms. The following section will provide a model of emotional processes that will also be used to organize discussions of emotional phenomena. The fourth section will present models for representing and conceptualizing emotions as well as methods and challenges of measuring emotions.

Components of Emotions There are many challenges in defining and understanding emotions, in part, because definitions depend upon the point of view of the discipline of study. In addition, there is a dynamic process where emotions are created, experienced, and expressed, and the study of emotions will vary depending on the point in that process (Lewis, 2000). It is generally agreed upon however, that emotions are multidimensional and include various components (Frijda, 2000). The “components” of emotions are interconnected biological and psychological systems that operate simultaneously.” The four major

1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

23

components/systems that will be the focus of this book are physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and social. (1) The physiological component includes two major systems: Somatovisceral includes indicators such as heart rate, respiration, galvanic skin response, and muscular states. Neurological is comprised of patterns of central nervous system activation, brain anatomy, and neurochemical levels. These body and brain systems work in conjunction with each other and are the biological basis for emotions. Psychopharmacology for example, influences emotional functioning by alterations in neurochemical levels in the brain. (2) The cognitive component is a psychological basis for emotions and is comprised of several mental processes such as: the perception of internal (bodily) as well as external (social) cues, the interpretation of the meaning of such stimuli, and the evaluation of the relevance of such stimuli (i.e., determining threat or reward). Attention is a cognitive activity that influences the construction of emotional states. However, conscious awareness of emotional elicitors is not always necessary for the creation of emotion. A higher level cognitive component is knowledge of emotions (such as emotion schemas or concepts) which relates to the intellectual understanding and the intentional regulation of emotions. Cognitive approaches to therapy aim to influence emotions by changing the structure and processes of thinking. (3) The behavioral components include physical markers such as facial expressions, tone of voice, body language, and activity level that comprise emotional expression and corresponded to emotional states. Such behavioral indicators of emotions may actually precede the experience of an emotional state or be incongruent with emotional experiences. Beyond the physical expressions of emotions, intentional actions on the part of an individual convey meaning and express emotion such as when a violent act results from anger or rage. Behavior is one of the psychological bases of emotions and is a key in the measurement of emotional states. Behavior therapy works from the premise that 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

24

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

changes in behavior will lead to changes in emotions, or alterations of the environment that will later affect emotional states. (4) The social component of emotion is psychological in nature, but extends beyond the individual to include the family, cultural values, and the larger societal norms. Sociocultural influences on emotions include meaning systems that determine the interpretation of social cues and underlying rules of emotional expression (also referred to as display rules). The social environment serves as the source of emotional elicitors. Emotions are a form of communication and interpersonal interactions between people, therefore, by nature, they are social. Psychotherapeutic work is inherently a social process and the therapeutic relationship is essential in any significant change process. It is important to emphasize that each of these systems and their respective subsystems are activated to different degrees throughout the process of emotional construction, experience, and expression. It is advantageous to consider the totality of the multilevel dynamics of emotional processes rather than each component system in isolation. Artificial separation of these systems, however, may be necessary at times to understand their mechanisms. Since the cognitive, behavioral, and, to an extent, social systems fall within the psychological realm, in this book the term psychophysiological will refer to all of these four systems operating in coordination. The various strands of these psychophysiological processes of emotions will interact and reciprocally influence each other.

Definitions of Terms It is important to make distinctions between the various common terms of emotions, feelings, affect, and mood. Emotions are psychophysiological processes that have behavioral correlates and occur within an interpersonal, sociocultural context. Emotions can be “nonconscious” and it is not necessary for an individual to be aware of emotions in order for that emotion to influence behavior 1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

25

and motivation. Feelings by contrast, are subjective states of which an individual is consciously aware. Common language tends to equate feelings with emotions, however this is not the case in empirical study of emotions. Feelings are merely the consciously experienced aspect of a more intricate and complex psychophysiological process. Let us assume that the familiar end products of emotion—what we usually consider in everyday thinking as the common feelings of anger, fear, sadness, or joy—are actually not central to the initial experience of emotion. Let us also assume that emotions do not necessarily exist at all as we may usually think of them: as some kind of packets of something that can be experienced, identified, and expressed, as implied in the statement, “Just get your feelings out.” Instead, let’s consider that emotions represent dynamic processes created within the socially influenced, value-appraising processes of the brain. (Siegel, 1999, p. 123). The term affect has also been equated with emotion but it is generally, in the research literature, used to refer to expression of emotional states. Affect is the emotional element found in tone of voice, facial expressions, and body language. These affective behaviors serve the purpose of social signals that communicate emotional states to others. Affect is also used in contrast to cognition, the latter being more purely intellectual in nature and contained to the more developed areas of the cerebral cortex in the brain. While feelings are the subjective experience of emotion and affect is the behavioral expression of emotion, mood applies to an accumulation of affective indicators and feelings. “Mood refers to the general tone of emotions across time . . . [and is] a bias of the system toward certain categorical emotions . . . mood shapes the interpretation of perceptual processing and gives a ‘slant’ to thinking, self-reflection, and recollections.” (Siegel, 1999, p. 130). 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

26

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Mood tends to have a temporal quality in that it can extend over a period of time. The focus of this book is on the complex multidimensional processes of emotions that are central to the other terms of feelings, affect, and mood. With regard to therapy, articulating and expressing a clients feelings, may not always be a desirable or even therapeutic goal. Making the client feel better, such as shifting to a “happy” mood, may actually be superficial and ineffective. The music therapist is required to understand the various components of emotional processes and to be able to place emotional functioning within the even larger context of the whole person and the scope of clinical treatment. There may be times when an effective intervention is to build skills for understanding, regulating, and expressing emotions, however other times, the music therapist may use his or her knowledge of emotional processes to influence a client’s functioning without the client’s awareness. Emotionally based interventions may also be warranted for the purpose of modulating a cognitive or relational structure. In any case, emotional processes may be directly or indirectly associated with the purpose of the clinical intervention.

A Model of Emotional Processes Lewis (2000) provides a topology of emotions that outlines the processes of emotional life. His model attempts to rectify the disparities in emotion research as well as the differing theoretical viewpoints of emotions. Differences in research findings are due, in part, to the research focusing on different features of this topology. This model of emotional processes consists of (1) elicitors, (2) states, (3) expressions, and (4) experiences. As describe previously, the term feeling is an individual’s emotional experience while affect refers to aspects of emotional expressions (i.e., tone of voice, body language, etc.). These distinctions are useful in that they outline a temporal sequence—an elicitor is present in the environment that 1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

27

sets off an emotional state. The state, in turn, leads simultaneously to the expression and experience of emotions. The emotional state is an intermediate variable between the elicitor and the expression or experience. Emotional states in this case are inferred since an observer can only see the elicitor and the emotional expression. The experience of the emotion will have to be reported by the person. This temporal sequence, however, is not unidirectional, that is, the four parts of the process can influence each of the other parts. For example, when a person is in a certain emotional state (i.e., fear), then stimuli in the environment take on different qualities and a wider range of elicitors can become signals for threat. Thus states can influence elicitors. Expressions of emotions such as vocal tone and rate of respiration, when ambiguous in their source, lead the person to engage in a cognitive process of labeling one’s emotional state. The attribution that the person makes to explain his or her level of affective arousal will influence his or her emotional state. Thus expressions can influence states. The four major components of emotions as described above— physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and social—are mutually interactive at each of the steps in the emotional process. An elicitor may set off cognitive associations or conditioned behavioral responses that will construct the emotional state. A change in the neurochemical levels in one’s brain, a physical behavioral state, or a social cue can be the elicitors in the emotional process. One’s emotional state is influenced by and mutually influences cognition, social meanings, physiological states, and behaviors. Emotional expressions are behaviors and are influenced by social norms and display rules for the particular culture and situation. The experience of emotions likewise depends upon physiological states, cognitive processes, and the social situation. In general, the psychophysiological components provide a vertical view of the mechanisms that combine to create emotions at a discrete point in time while the sequential process model (elicitors, states, expressions, experiences) are a horizontal view across time. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

28

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

When examining emotions in clinical work, it is important for the music therapist to be mindful which of these four aspects of the sequential process are involved. These four aspects are closely connected and transition from one part of the process to the other may be indistinguishable. There may also be multiple sequence in rapid succession where the end point of one sequence (i.e., an emotional experience) becomes an elicitor that begins a new sequential process. Alterations in the psychophysiological mechanisms will change the sequential process. For example, changing how one thinks about a situation (cognitive component) may alter one’s emotional state that will lead to a different emotional experience. Clinical interventions are targeted at either modifying one of the psychophysiological components or one aspect of the emotional sequence process.

Representing and Measuring Emotions There are different ways to conceptualize emotions and the particular representation will influence how the music therapist uses emotions in clinical work. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) describe major methods of approaching the study of emotion. The two approaches that will be emphasized here are the categorical and the dimensional. According to the categorical approach, people experience emotions as categories that are distinct from each other. Essential to this approach is the concept of basic emotions; that is, the idea that there is a limited number of innate and universal emotion categories from which all other emotional states can be derived (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001, p. 76). The categorical approach is consistent with the early seminal work in emotion research by Ekman (1972) and Izard (1977) that 1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

29

identified similar facial expressions of emotions across various cultures in the world. This position argues that emotions are universal, basic to human biology, and have served the same adaptive function throughout evolution. Variations and modifications of these basic emotions result in the broad range of secondary emotions, blends of emotions, and increasing complexity of emotions. While there is support for the existence of basic emotions, researchers disagree on the number of basic categories. In general, however, five categories tend to be identified in almost all groupings: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust.

High Angry

Joyful

Fearful

Happy

Intensity Sad

Calm

Disappointed

Serene

Negative

Positive

Low Valence Figure 2.1. Dimensional model of emotional representation with examples of emotions in each of the quadrants. Limitations with the categorical approach include the disagreement on the number of categories and the dependence upon 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

definitions of emotions to create these categories. Categorical structures also fail to capture subtly and nuances in the dynamic variations of emotional states. Mixed emotions and blends of emotions may be difficult to represent when thinking with discrete and distinct categories. A second approach to representing emotions considers the dimensions of activation and valence (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). In this approach all emotional states are considered in terms of valence (the degree of pleasant to unpleasant) and the degree of activation (intensity). A four quadrant schema can be created with pleasant-unpleasant on the x-axis and high-low intensity on the y-axis (see Figure 2.1). Emotions such as happiness and joy would be high in pleasantness and intensity. Calm and relaxed would be high in pleasantness but low in intensity. Sad would be low in pleasantness and in intensity while fear and anger would be low in pleasantness but high in intensity. The advantage of the dimensional approach is that emotions are represented in terms of degrees (along the two dimensions) and have implications that they can change on these dimensions without changing the basic emotional state. That is, one can be extremely excited (high pleasanthigh intensity) but slower and less energizing music can lower the intensity of the mood to stay pleasant but to become more moderate in its intensity. Such an intervention, for example, might be applicable with a hyperactive client who would need to regulate his or her emotional states to be less extreme. Limitations of the dimensional approach is that it does not distinguish related emotions. For example fear and anger are both low in pleasantness and high in intensity. These distinct emotions have different meanings and action potentials. The simplicity of the dimensional approach makes it applicable for clinical and educational use. Brackett and colleagues use a dimensional model of emotions—the “mood meter”—in their social-emotional learning program for elementary school students (Brackett & Caruso, 2005; Brackett, Kremenitzer, Maurer, Carpenter, Rivers, & Katulak, 2007). The categorical and dimensional approaches are not in1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

31

compatible, but rather are complimentary (Slodoba & Juslin, 2001) and provide different ways to conceptualize the phenomena of emotion. Several circumplex models of emotions have been created to represent the clustering of similar emotions and provide an organizational schema of the range of emotional qualities (Hevner, 1936; Plutchik, 1980; Russell, 1980). The circumplex model of Russell (1980; as cited in Slodoba & Juslin, 2001) is based on the two dimensional four-quadrant schema. The Hevner mood wheel consists of 8 clusters of related emotions organized in a circular configuration and has been used extensively in research on music and emotions (see Figure 2.2; Bonny & Savary, 1973; Gabrielsson & Lindstrom, 2001). The moods within each cluster of the Hevner wheel are closely related (sad, mournful, gloomy) and adjacent clusters are moderately related (cluster 6—happy and cluster 7— excited). Diametrically opposite clusters reflect opposite moods that are more distantly related (cluster 8 vigorous and cluster 4— serene). Unlike the Russell model, Hevner’s model is not confined to the four quadrants formed by the valence and intensity dimensions. Hevner also includes descriptive qualities of moods and not just distinct emotions (for example, heavy and dark are included in the same cluster as depressed, melancholy, and mournful). Such aesthetic verbal descriptors can be useful in the expression and understanding of emotions, particularly as they arise in musical experiences. Plutchik’s (1993) circumplex model is more complex in that it considers the blends of emotions between each of the branches (clusters) as well as the intensity of emotions in each cluster Methods of measuring emotions present even more challenges than conceptual representations. Three major approaches to measuring emotion include (a) self report, (b) expressive behavior, and (c) physiological measures (Slodoba & Juslin, 2001). While selfreports of subjective feelings (emotional experience) and observations of affective indicators (behavioral expressions) can be measured, their correspondence with underlying emotional states 1st pass

32

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS VI bright cheerful happy joyous merry VII agitated dramatic exciting exhilarated impetuous passionate restless sensational soaring triumphant

V delicate fanciful graceful humorous light playful quaint sprightly whimsical

VIII emphatic exalting majestic robust vigorous

IV calm leisurely lyrical ponderous quiet soothing serene satisfying tranquil I awe-inspiring dignified lofty sacred serious sober solemn spiritual

III dreamy longing plaintive pleading sentimental tender yearning yielding II dark depressing frustrated gloomy heavy melancholy mournful pathetic sad tragic

Figure 2.2. Hevner Mood Wheel (Hevner, 1936, adapted from Gabrielsson & Lindstrom, 2001). Underlined words represent the name of the cluster. 1st pass

The Architecture of Emotions

33

is inconsistent. That is, self-report and observation of expressive behaviors is not always reliable. States can only be inferred from such methods. The fact the individuals can be unaware of their emotional states and/or incongruent between their expressions and states leaves a certain degree of uncertainty with measures of emotions. Physiological measures (i.e., heart rate, respiration, galvanic skin response) have been inconsistent in that no set pattern of physical signs clearly correspond with discrete emotions. The most predominant method of emotional measurement in clinical work is observation of behavioral expressions of emotions. Experienced therapist of various modalities can read the nonverbal cues of clients as indicators of emotional states. In music therapy as well as other therapies, these signs include facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language as well as activity level, energy level, and intensity of movements (such as muscle tension and force). Self-report of feeling states may occur with some clients and tend to be more reliable and sophisticated with older, more cognitively advanced clients. Accurate physiological measures that rely on complex instruments tend to occur within the context of emotion research and are unlikely to be used in clinical work.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

Chapter 3

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives on Emotions and Music Evolutionary and anthropological perspective provides a broad context from which we can gain perspective of ourselves as a species. Such perspectives allow us to understand where we have come from in terms of the evolution of our human group, and what drives our behaviors both on an individual level and as a society. Both perspectives consider the universals in the human experience—common themes that unite all of us such as the need to adapt to the environment, the natural inclination to form social bonds, and the necessity to procreate. However, both perspectives also consider the diversity of our development and the distinct cultures around the globe and throughout history. While such a broad species-wide view would not likely be salient in the moment-tomoment interactions between the therapist and client, evolution and culture impact how we think about emotions, music, and human nature itself, and therefore provides a larger framework for viewing the work of music therapy. It helps to distinguish those human traits and tendencies that may be ingrained in our nature and are less malleable from those that are shaped by individual history and are perhaps more amenable to change. Music is a deeply rooted part of our human history. Archeological evidence of music in primitive human cultures dates back to between 36,000 to 82,000 years ago in the Paleolithic era with the discovery of a bone flute at a Neanderthal site (Huron, 2003; Kunej & Turk, 2000). This find indicates two important points.

1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

35

Neanderthals were hominids—a species that were cousins to our Homo sapiens species. Music making was not limited to humans and may have predated our own species. Second, flutes are complex constructions that likely evolved after more simplistic musical instruments such as drums or rattles. It is estimated that musical instruments may extend to 100,000 years ago (Huron, 2003). One must also consider that vocal music and sound production predated instruments. When we are engaged in music making, we are recreating patterns of behavior that may be similar in form and function to those of our human and prehuman ancestors. Anthropological perspectives provide an understanding of how human cultures evolve and come to shape our thinking, our ways of feeling, and our construction of reality. The biological drives to form social bonds and the natural tendency for social structures to form and organize leads cultural development to be viewed as a natural extension within the process of evolution (Becker, 2001; Huron, 2003). Molino (2000) sees the development and transformation of cultures as distinct from the biological and genetic transmissions of traits, but adhering to similar rules of Darwinism. The epigenesis of culture may lay in the intersection of primitive human groups and their natural environments with their attempts to make sense of the world and to survive within it. Music and emotion are believed to have served important functions in this adaptive process to the natural world. The social structures formed by early humans gave rise to customs, rituals, and increasingly complex social roles. Music played (and continues to play) a significant function in ritualized behaviors throughout all known cultures. The structure of roles, rituals, and customs serve to create particular emotional states and to dictate how emotions are constructed and expressed. A major aspect of culture is language, which defines and unites the people of an ethnic group. Language is also a major evolutionary milestone that distinguishes humans from our mammalian cousins. Formal, complex language systems along with the pro-

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

36

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

duction musical systems are possible because of the evolution of the cerebral cortex in the human brain that allows the capacity for symbolic representation. Music and verbal language are considered the two major sound systems of the human species, however the roots of their evolutionary relationship are still debated (Brown, 2000; Marler, 2000; Molino, 2000). Both systems are essential in the expression of emotion and communication. The origins of language intersect with humans’ connection to the natural environment (Maffi, 2001) and language development occurs within a socio-cultural context to influence the structure and content of individual thought (Vygotsky, 1978). Individual identity— a person’s sense of self—is dependent upon language and the way it structures consciousness, which in turn stems from sociocultural and biocultural contexts. This chapter will first describe theories of how music and emotion were a significant part of this evolutionary process where the human species differentiated from the natural world and developed complex systems of language and thought. The second part will examine how music and emotions are the underpinnings of our social and cultural systems. The clinical implications section will draw connections from these frameworks to the therapeutic process and suggest applications to clinical music therapy.

Evolutionary Perspectives Emotion as adaptation to the natural world Emotions have been central to human functioning and to the process of adaptation over the course of our species’ existence. Early humans (Homo sapiens) and our hominid cousin species (i.e., Neanderthals) had the ever-challenging task of surviving in a hostile and dangerous world. The tasks of survival included: avoiding predators, gathering /hunting for food, finding shelter

1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

37

from the elements, mating, and forming social bonds. These complex tasks required various abilities as well as the coordination and execution of appropriate behaviors in response to the environmental demand. For example, when stalking an animal during a hunt, primitive humans had to suppress their immediate feelings of hunger and impulses to attack if the situation warranted they wait for the best timing to kill their prey. Natural selection determined that humans who acted in adapted ways had increased opportunities to pass on their traits to their offspring. Cosmides and Tooby (2000) propose a theory that emotions served to organize the psychological processes of primitive humans in adaptive ways by activating certain responses and suppressing others. For example, they describe how the behaviors of sleeping and avoiding a predator are incompatible, because the former action would reduce survival in the presence of danger. The fear reaction in response to the threat of a predator would arouse the physiological systems (i.e., increase heart beat, respiration) resulting not only in an inability to sleep, but in a focused goal-directed series of decisions and actions to reach safety. In an emotional state of fear, an individual has a sharpened perception, is highly attentive to every cue in the environment, is ready to make quick either-or decisions, is oriented to the immediate goal of safety, and is considering various survival actions (i.e., run, hide, fight) (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000). In such a state, the person is not thinking about yesterday or planning for tomorrow and is not concerned with nonessential needs (such as hunger or hygiene). The person in a state of fear shifts his or her perception of the environmental configurations such as a tree that was hardly ever noticed can become a valued goal if it can lead to a safe escape from the threat. Decision making and information processing changes where the person needs less information to react to the presumed threat thus increasing the chances of escape (if the threat is real) but also increasing the chance of reacting to a “false alarm” (Cosmides & Tooby, 2000, p. 93).

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

38

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Emotions allow for a rapid response to threat or what is commonly referred to as the “fight or flight” response. In each case, emotional states that arise from elicitors in the environment, not only create the fight-or-flight response, but increase the potential for successful adaptation through the response. Thus the emotional state of fear that underscores flight, increases the motivation and energy level for running away. You will not only run away from a life-threatening situation but you will likely run faster than you ever did before. Similarly, the emotional state of anger creates the fight response. Anger like fear, also focuses attention, increases adrenalin levels, and enhances goal directedness. Resources are mobilized to destroy the object of threat, and to feel less pain in the process of battle. Where fear may lead you to run faster than you ever did, anger may evoke a strength like you never felt before. The fight-or flight response is common in animals as well as humans, and underscores the notion that emotions are adaptive to the physical environment. Emotional states can be signals that provide information about one’s immediate surroundings. Schwarz (2002) describes how affective cues “inform us about the benign or problematic nature of the situation. Our thought processes, in turn, are tuned to meet these situational requirements” (p. 144). Thus the cognitive problem-solving strategies necessary to respond to threats or challenges are often triggered by affect. Emotions lay at this intersection between the person and his or her environment. Lastly, emotions are central to the formation of social bonds, especially in the formation of attachments between infants and caretakers. These social bonds were (and continue to be) critical for survival in the world. For primitive humans, membership in a group meant protection from other potentially hostile groups of humans and from predators. In addition, group bonds meant greater resources for hunting, gathering food, and building shelters. For humans in the current society, family units and social groups serve the same basic functions although the sources of threat and survival needs have shifted. As the human species has evolved to become more psychologically complex, families and so1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

39

cial groups are essential in the development of individual identity and psychological meaning.

Animal songs and human music The origins of human music can be better understood from the study of animal sound production. The creation of organized sound is a behavior that is shared among humans, primates, other mammals, and certain birds, and serves adaptive functions for all. The field of evolutionary musicology seeks to understand the origins of human music by examination of fossil records and comparisons to existing animals species that produce organized sound. A question in this field is whether the sound productions created by animals can be considered music or is music exclusive to the human species? Marler (2000) studied sound production in apes and songbirds. Apes produce a rather limited and fixed repertoire of sounds that is believed to be innate. Songbirds by contrast, improvise a large repertoire of melodic phrases that are created from simpler motifs. While apes are considered more evolved and closer to humans, they are not as evolved musically as songbirds. Given a minimalist’s definition of what music can be, Marler (2000) suggests that the melodic phrases of certain songbirds can be defined as music. Slater (2000) however, clearly takes the position that, “Any similarity between birdsong and human music is by analogy, as vocal learning evolved quite separately in the two cases” (p. 49). The ability to combine simple sounds into more complex patterns is referred to as “phonocoding” (i.e., combinations of phonemes) and is present in songbirds (Marler, 2000) and whales (Payne, 2000) who can be perceived as improvising new patterns. It is believed that diversity of songs in a repertoire is associated with mating practices where a greater number of created songs is perceived by potential mates as more attractive. Like humans, songs are learned in birds and whales (Slater, 2000; Payne, 2000). It has also been considered that the production of songs in animals has a particular aesthetic enjoyment for the animal. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

There is a general agreement that in primates and other mammals, vocalizations arise as an expression of an emotional state (Geissmann, 2000; Hauser, 2000). Thus from an evolutionary perspective, the inner emotional state of the animal is reflected in the outward vocal expression. However, just as in human music, animal calls can have multiple dimensions and purposes. Both Hauser (2000) and Marler (2000) refer to a seminal study of vervet monkeys in Africa who exhibited different alarm calls to signal the presence of different predators. The primates who hear the calls respond in different ways to the particular type of threat. If the call is signaling that an eagle is present, the monkeys will hide in a bush. In response to the call associated with leopards, they will hide in a tree. In response to the snake alarm call, they will stand on only their legs and scan the ground around them. The importance of this study, is that the vocal signals were not merely expressions of the fearful state of one individual, but conveyed information that led to adaptive survival responses. The vervet monkey study is akin to the use of human music for referential purposes, that is, the music represents something else outside of itself. The distinct alarm calls of the vervets are symbolic of the predator. Geissmann (2000) studied gibbons, which are small apes living in Southeast Asia. He suggests that “loud calls,” which served numerous functions of communication, were the basis of human music. Loud calls are believed to serve a variety of functions, including territorial advertisement; intergroup intimidation and spacing; announcing the precise location of specific individuals, food sources, or danger; and strengthening intragroup cohesion . . . to display and possibly reinforce the unity of a social group toward other groups (Geissmann, 2000, p. 119). In sum, vocalizations in animals serves the function of communication (i.e., danger, attracting a mate) and can arise from 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

41

emotional states (i.e., fear at the sight of a predator). There is disagreement however, as to whether animal vocalizations could be considered music.

Music and the auditory environment in the creation of narratives Adaptation to the environment requires that one be able to respond to relevant stimuli, interpret their meaning, and respond in appropriate ways that enhance survival. For primitive humans and hominids, auditory discrimination and processing was critical. The sounds of predators were conditioned (or perhaps unconditioned) stimuli that indicated the presence of danger, elicited a fear reaction, and subsequently enacted escape or avoidant behavioral strategies. Sound, vision, and smell are the major sensory channels for humans and animals to gather information from the immediate surroundings. Unlike vision, sound can be transmitted at night and around obstacles, and unlike olfactory stimuli (i.e., a scent that marks a territory), sounds can be complex and change quickly to convey messages (Slater, 2000). Sound is an efficient medium of communication between members of a species. As described previously, birds and apes emit calls that signal the presence of a predator to others. In our current day, the emotional tone of a person’s shout or scream or another type of loud sound, will immediately draw our attention to respond to the potential threat or concern that is signaled by the sound. A major premise is that natural sounds elicit emotional reactions. A sudden, loud and intense sound may indicate a large animal and elicit a startled or fearful emotional state. By contrast a soft gentle sound created by the breeze in the treetops or by a small bird will not. An unfamiliar sound typically elicits attention and a heightened degree of emotional arousal. After the initial exposure however, once the source of the sound is determined to be nonthreatening, the repeated experience of the sound will not likely produce strong emotions. Sound is directly connected to 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

42

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

emotional responses and this auditory-affective connection is deeply rooted in our ancestral history and our neurophysiological systems. The auditory dimensions of our primitive ancestors’ natural world included not only potential predators, but the elements of nature such as weather conditions. To primitive humans and hominids who presumably had a limited understanding of meteorological systems, the loud and sudden sounds of thunder and rain would have initially elicited startled or fear responses. Like humans of today, it may be presumed that warm and sunny weather conditions would likely induce a calm and relaxed emotional state in primitive humans (assuming that predators or starvation weren’t more prominent stimuli). In a metaphorical sense, the intensity of the weather conditions around the individual can be said to be reflected in the quality of the emotional state within the individual (i.e., a violent storm creates comparably intense levels of anxiety). This congruence and lack of distinction between the inner and outer states has implications for the notion of ecopsychology (Roszak, Gomes, & Kanner, 1995) to be discussed in more detail below. As humans and hominids evolved in the cognitive capacities for symbolic representation and the creation of meaning, they attempted to make sense of their environment. There was likely a tendency to anthropomorphize—that is, ascribe human qualities to the elements of nature. In this way, an explanation for the loud and fear-producing thunder may have been that the gods of the sky became angry. Such a personification of natural elements occurred because of the similarity between the qualities of the emotional states of anger in a person and the characteristics of the thunder. It may have been too, that both an angry person and the storm produced a similar emotional state in others. With the evolving cognitive capacities of primitive minds the noted similarities between inner emotional states and outward environmental conditions likely influenced (and were influenced by) the use of metaphors. 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

43

Initially humans were without language and communicated by means of signs andgestures. Metaphor was then the primary mode of knowing and understanding . . . [It was] an animistic world in which the structure of mind was projected outward as a metaphor derived from bodily experience. In fact, metaphor was understood not as a figure of speech . . . but as a vital means of understanding the world (Modell, 2003, p. 15). In this light, vocalization by early humans may have served the purpose of imitating the sounds of nature. Molino (2000) argues that imitation was a necessary function in the process of mentally representing the world. Creating a mental representation (i.e., a concept or image) of something was a means of internalizing elements from the environment and in doing so, gaining control over it. Primitive humans would need to make sense of a range of phenomena such as landscapes, weather conditions, animal behaviors, other humans, etc. [B]eings, objects, and scenes are incarnated and played out in the very act of imitation. Mimetic culture would correspond to a step in the evolution of culture in which . . . a group of hominids would perform activities of collective imitation without language but accompanied by vocalizations and organized by rhythm: these would in fact, be the first forms of the representations of scenes, that is, of narratives, leading to rite and to myth (Molino, 2000, p. 174). Rhythm is a central element in music that serves a primary function of organization. A rhythmic accompaniment to a ritual would establish a commonality of pulse and unity between the members. A repeated rhythmic pattern is predictable and therefore would lead to a sense of control and order in an otherwise chaotic and unpredictable world. Such a sense of order and social unity 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

44

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

would likely have been reinforced by the reduction of anxiety and the positive emotional states associated with interpersonal connections. The development of narrative (i.e., stories) representing the world may have been a critical foundation for language development, thought, and culture. The use of parables as teaching tools has been evident throughout human history. More recently, narrative psychology (Angus & McLeod, 2004) has become a developing approach in psychotherapy, which finds therapeutic benefit in examining one’s life stories. Thus, the structure created by narratives has significance in human psychology, and finds its elementary roots in these acts of internalizing the environment. Stories that were passed down through cultural practices became myths and led to the formation of archetypes that helped to structure the human psyche. Mache (1992) uses myths to explain the creation of music from the experiences of the natural world and sees it as a bridge between the natural and the cultural. When primitive humans hunted an animal, they imitated its calls in order to attract it. These vocalizations also served a psychological function of internalizing the animal (i.e., it was considered that the voice of the animal was being created from within the person imitating the call). “The accuracy of these imitations fulfills both the practical function of attracting the quarry and the magical function of identification” (Mache, 1992, p. 39). Music was necessary to facilitate this magical function of internalizing the spirit of the animal, of mentally representing the animal, and of creating the narratives about it especially in prelinguistic cultures. John Blacking studied the music of the Venda tribes of South Africa, and examined their styles of music making. He considered the ability to use music to express meaning as an innate biological capacity that includes the perceptions of the natural world and the structure of one’s culture. “Musical styles are based on what people have chosen to select from nature as a part of their cultural expression rather than on what nature has imposed on them.” (Blacking, 1995, p. 33). The formation of culture therefore lies at 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

45

this intersection between music and nature and the attempt to make sense of the natural world.

Music, language, and emotion Bickerton (2000) notes that evolutionary processes require, “some kind of selection pressure . . .that is a set of circumstances that renders the trait adaptive . . . and a degree of genetic variability . . . from which the trait can be selected.” (p. 156). With regard to music and language, the two primary vocal systems in humans, the need for sound production interacted with the varying capacity to produce sound. Sound production that served adaptive purpose in hominids and humans was reinforced through natural selection and evolved into more complex and distinct vocal systems. It is important to consider that the forms of language and music as used in the current day, may not have resembled the prototype forms of language and music that existed in early stages of evolution. Such prototypes may have been primitive vocalizations in the forms of grunts, screams, or cries, etc. The various possibilities of “protolanguage” and “protomusic” and their respective development into current forms has been outlined by Brown (2000). He proposes a musilanguage model of evolution where a common sound system developed that later differentiated into the branches of music and language. In the musilanguage model, several characterisitcs that are shared between music and language emerged first. These characteristics include lexical tone (i.e., pitch conveys semantic meaning), combinatorial phrase formation (combination of sounds) and expressive phrasing (more complex meanings) (Brown, 2000). The model distinguishes music and language based on the predominant use of sound as referential meaning (as in language) and sound as emotive meaning (as in music). Here we see the role of emotion as embedded within the early forms of language and music. Another model of music and language evolution is proposed by Molino (2000) who suggests that various components of sound 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

46

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

systems developed separately and later combined to form music and language. The three common components include—melodic, rhythmic, and the affective-semantics (Molino, 2000). The melodic qualities of language are critical in conveying meaning such as when someone raises the pitch of the voice to ask a question. Both language and music rely on rhythm as an organizing structure. And again the role of each sound system as conveying affective meaning is emphasized. The musical qualities of spoken speech (prosody) convey the emotion of the speaker. From these evolutionary views, music (or at least musical components such as pitch) and emotion are intimately linked. The affective-semantics of language are due to the musical quality of spoken voice. Both Brown (2000) and Molino (2000) note the importance of neuropsychology in the foundations of their theories. As the human brain evolved and became more complex, it was capable of more complex and differentiated functions. The role of imitation is prominent in explaining the acquisition of such complex soundproduction systems as language and music. Imitation in turn, depends on brain complexity and the capacity for higher cognitive processes. Brown’s (2000) view of sound as a reference to objects, actions, and people requires the cognitive capacity for mental representation. Thus, language requires higher psychological processes that are imbued with meaning and context. Music by contrast, as a basic form of emotional expression, requires less intellectual capacities. However, in order to extract referential meaning from music (i.e. when a song represents something outside itself) the listener must have the cognitive capacity for mental representation as well. Regarding therapy, the cognitive capacities of the client determine the degree to which music and language can be meaningful.

Ecopsychology As described earlier, it is believed that emotions played a significant role in modulating the relationship between primitive humans and their environments. Natural occurrences such as 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

47

weather conditions created auditory stimuli that gave rise to emotional states. As is true today, internal emotional states provide information about the immediate situation and motivate adaptive action. The heightened arousal and valence of emotional states can be seen as parallels and isomorphic qualities of the conditions of the surrounding environment. In this way, the boundaries between self and environment can be blurred and lack distinction. This position—that there are fluid connections between individuals and the natural world—underscores the basic premises of ecopsychology (Hillman 1995; Roszak, 1995). The field of ecopsychology considers the balance between humans and the natural ecology as a necessary factor in mental health (Gray, 1995; Metzner, 1995). Modern-day urban lifestyles are often not conducive to contact with the natural world and this disconnect may contribute to emotional dysfunctions. When one considers how civilization as we know it constitutes only a small percentage of human existence on earth, and that for millions of years humans and homids lived in “natural” ecologies, then it becomes easier to see how our relationships to nature are so deeply embedded in our psychological functioning. The ecopsychology perspective broadens the boundaries of the individual sense of “self” to consider our relationships to the whole planet and to all living things. Roszak (1995) draws upon the notion of Gaia, that the whole planet and all it living constituents function as one huge, interconnected organism. We are interdependent with the natural world and therefore the environmental crises that cripple the planet directly affect us—not just with regard to economics and medical health but on an emotional level. Emotions are central to relationships and this includes relationships to the animate as well as inanimate objects of the physical world. E. O. Wilson’s notion of “biophilia . . . the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms” (as cited in Roszak, 1995, p. 4) suggests that emotional processes are the channels to healthy and adaptive relationships not just on an interpersonal level, but on an ecological level. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

48

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

Roszak (1995) makes the argument that therapists need to consider ecological factors in the diagnosis and treatment of socalled clinical disorders and that such disorders may actually represent not intrapersonal deficits, but the illness that is created by human abuse of the natural environment. Shamans or medicine men, who were the first therapists, were relied upon by ancient people to bring about healing due to their special connection to the spirits of nature (Bromberg, 1975). Gray (1995) proposes the idea that contemporary counselors working with indigenous people may need to draw upon shamanic principles due to the indigenous people’s deeply held beliefs of harmony with nature. Dealy (1993) considers how the martial arts, due to their ancient roots, can be used therapeutically to understand nature and to achieve emotional balance and healing. A distinction should be made between ecopysychology and the related field of ecological counseling (Conyne & Cook, 2004). Both share the same basic notion of the individual’s relationship to the environment, however, the latter considers the assessment of and interventions in social contexts to enhance individual treatment approaches while the former considers the context of the natural world and makes arguments for advocacy of environmental protection. From an emotional perspective, ecopsychology and ecological counseling view emotional states as being embedded within and influenced by external contexts. This view is supported by evolutionary perspectives and is essential in understanding the nature of emotions.

Anthropological Perspectives Anthropology examines human culture and the functions of social behavioral patterns. Much of what we do, how we think, and what we feel is a function of our cultural systems even though we may not be aware of the larger abstract social networks that surround us. As mentioned previously, the development of culture 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

49

has been considered as an extension of the biological processes of evolution (Becker, 2001; Huron, 2003; Maffi, 2001). Our biological nature gives rise to social processes that lead into the complex systems that we identify as culture. There are innate biological tendencies for human infants to form bonds with caretakers, and for the hormonal releases in new mothers to contribute to this bonding process. Infant brain development relies upon the interpersonal relationships with caretakers (Davies, 2004). Developmental psychology has found robust support for infant-caretaker attachment as a major adaptive structure in individual personality and considers its role in evolutionary theories (Simpson, 1999; Belsky, 1999). Thus the social nature of humans has been central to individual survival as well as to the evolutionary adaptation of our species. The basic units of social bonding in early childhood are the building blocks for the formations of cultures and social systems. Emotions are central and organizing dynamics in interpersonal relations and in group functioning. Many of the rituals and myths that have developed from cultural practices serve to express and transform emotions and their associated meanings. Music is a phenomena that is embedded in numerous aspects of social orders throughout history. Musical behavior is a significant human activity that is found in every known culture. Therefore the relationships among emotions, music, and sociocultural functioning warrants a closer examination.

Emotions in the organization of social structures and identity Human social structures form in large part because of the biological tendencies for humans to form attachments. Natural, hormonally driven bonds between infants and caretakers lead to the establishment of family units, clans, and to larger social groups. Emotions serve a significant role in this social process in that they shape behaviors, modulate the person-environment relationship, and guide psychological and social development. From 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

50

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

the perspective of behaviorism, positive (pleasant) emotional states serve as reinforcers for particular behaviors while negative (unpleasant) emotions serve as aversive stimuli and punishment leading to avoidant behaviors. Human behavior in general is guided by this principle of hedonism. The positive emotions that are experienced in the context of infant-parent bonds reinforce the parent-child relationship. Larger social structures form because of the immediate and long-term benefits that they provide. Early humans and hominids would likely feel safe when in the presence of a group. The reduction in fear and anxiety would motivate continued group affiliation. This is an example of negative reinforcement where the elimination (i.e., negation) of an unpleasant emotion motivates social affiliation. Similarly, the positive emotions associated with finding food (which is more likely to be successful in a group) would be a positive reinforcement for group alliances. Within the structure of groups, functional behavioral patterns would arise to maintain coordinated activities within the group and to ensure the survival of the collective. As with any human group, patterns emerge that become group norms and come to dictate rules that limits of future behavior of group members. Social constraints on emotional expression serve the benefit of the group as a whole as in the case where aggressive behavior toward other group members would be condemned. Similarly, the communication of needs would benefit from socially agreed upon expressions that could be readily interpreted by others. Communication patterns (both linguistic and nonverbal) therefore would be reinforced by the positive emotions that result from being understood by others and the meeting of individual needs. Emotions as part of social group dynamics come to form group structures and patterns of interactions as well as be guided by the group norms. In current examination of culture and emotions, “display rules” are typically understood as the culturally sanctioned and appropriate means of expressing emotions (Saarni, 1984). While the universality of human emotions has been supported by Ekman’s (1972) work that 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

51

illustrated similar facial expressions of basic emotions, the conditions for when such expressions can take place, toward which members of the group, and the intensity of such affect are determined by sociocultural forces. Sociocultural groups create the meaning systems within which we construct reality and interact with the world. The developing brain of an infant and young child is influenced by the interactions with caretakers and others in the community. This process transmits cultural values, norms, expectations that pattern thought content, and the subsequent emotions that arise from thoughts. Socialization entails the internalization of such sociocultural patterns that become so embedded within the functioning of the brain that we are hardly aware of these deep structures that determine our emotional reactions, interests, preferences, expectations, and our automatic thoughts. There is a cultural matrix that formats our minds and becomes the infrastructure of our experiences and our identities (J. Vasquez, personal communication 6-4-08). An important psychological function of sociocultural groups is that they provide the environment within which individual identity forms. Group membership comes to shape the way an individual constructs his or her sense of self through the almost incalculable number of interpersonal interactions with others throughout the lifespan. Our self perceptions as well as the perceptions of others toward us comprise this process of identity construction. “Differences seem to remain in how persons think of themselves in relation to other persons, and these differences are often markedly cultural” (Becker, 2001, p. 141). In the current society there are multiple groups memberships that each of us hold, including our gender, ethnicity /race, age, nationality, sexual orientation, and the possible presence of a disability. Membership in such groups is often beyond the intentional choices of the individual and yet, each of these group memberships will significantly influence how others perceive us. Other group affiliations may arise at different points in the lifespan and reflect individual choices such as religious/spiritual affiliation, being in recovery for alcohol 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

52

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

or substance abuse, being a new parent, living in an urban as opposed to rural region, being a clinical professional, or joining a political party. Individual identity is embedded within social group affiliation. The powerful influence of identity is strong, but may often go unnoticed until threats to identity arise in which intense emotional reactions can result. As evident throughout human history, between-group conflicts inevitably develop and represent competition for natural or political resources and power. All instances of racism, genocide, prejudice, and oppression are rooted in cultural or class differences. The underlying cognitive processes associated with prejudice create particular attitudes and emotions toward the “outside” group that maintain power differences and strengthen the “in-group” identity (Duckett, 2003). This illustrates the importance of anthropological factors in societal and individual development and the significant emotional dimensions of such factors.

Music making and socialization Throughout human history music-making behaviors have generally occurred in social groups. It is believed that primitive human groups made music together and that these activities had adaptive evolutionary purposes (Geissmann, 2000; Huron, 2003; Molino, 2000) Group music making is a means of creating cohesion through a common emotional experience between the participants and this, in turn, forms a rudimentary structure for the socialization process. “Music might have originated as an adaptation for social bonding—more particularly, a way of synchronizing the mood of many individuals in a larger group. That is, music helps to prepare the group to act in unison.” (Huron, 2003, p. 68). The empathic connection between participants in a music making activity would have survival value and benefits for other activities such as hunting, defending against predators and outside hostile groups, and increasing cooperation. Examples may include chanting and “war 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

53

songs” prior to entering battle, or singing in rhythm when pulling a heavy object, or campfire singing that may have increased peaceful interpersonal exchanges. It is interesting to think that modern humans, when making music at a campfire, may be recreating an ancient practice that existed in our earliest ancestors. Huron (2003) outlines several psychophysiological processes that may explain the uses of music for social bonding. One consideration is hormonal release. Music is believed to increase the release of oxytocin in the brain that facilitates human bonding. As described previously, rhythm is an organizing factor in music. The beat and rhythm of the music influences heartbeat, breathing, and other physiological processes that in turn become a foundation for the creation of emotional states (see chapter 4). The increase or reduction of physiological arousal would help to mobilize groups of humans toward certain common goal-oriented actions. As cultures evolved to increasing levels of complexity in social order, music also evolved in its form and purposes. Music has been used for formal rituals in every known society. Rituals serve to create cultural meaning and to facilitate psychological transitions. Music may have been used for symbolic representation in spiritual or religious practice. The function of music in these socializing processes may be that it evokes a particular state of consciousness that is conducive for the higher purpose of the ritual (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). Music has also served as a means of “transgenerational communication” as illustrated by folk ballads that tell stories and provide meaningful knowledge that is passed on over many years through the song (Huron, 2003). An often cited classic work is The Anthropology of Music (Merriam, 1964) that outlines 10 major purposes of music at the sociocultural level. Radocy and Boyle (2003) summarize Merriam’s 10 functions as: (a) emotional expression (b) aesthetic enjoyment 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

54

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

(c) entertainment (d) communication (e) symbolic representation (f) physical response (g) enforcing conformity to social norms (h) validation of social institutions and religious rituals (i) contributions to the continuity and stability of culture (j) contributions to the integration of society. Music clearly serves multiple functions in many societies and musical behavior is one of the myriad categories of behaviors that serve to structure group functioning. The social and emotional benefits of these functions are evident. In the same way that pleasant and unpleasant emotions shape and organize human behavior in general through the principles of reinforcement, so too are musical behaviors shaped by their resulting affects. As with the development of any culturally patterned behavior, music making serves a socializing function by ascribing particular roles (i.e., to musicians of various instruments or parts and /or to listeners or dancers). Continued practices of music making over generations only led to the reinforcement of social roles and expectations as well as to increased complexity of social relationships that form the substrate of cultural systems.

Meaning in culture, emotion, and music A culture can be considered a collective value and belief system that is shared by a group of individuals and “consists of meanings, conceptions, and interpretive schemes” (Shweder & Haidt, 2000, p. 398). We cannot discuss the notion of “meaning” without also examining the sociocultural context that creates the meaning. Culture forms a matrix by which we organize our psychological functions and make sense of our worlds. As mentioned previously with regard to evolution, culture is viewed as developing from biological processes related to adaptation to the environment 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

55

(Becker, 2001). Music and emotion—two essential and innately human dimensions—are intricately involved in this intricate and reciprocal biocultural process. In current uses, the term culture can be extensive and include not merely ethnicity but also age, gender, religious/spiritual, and sexual orientation but to name a few. Subcultures also provide significant structures for meaning and may include smaller more idiocratic groups such as a particular classroom of students in a school, a corporate office workplace, a street gang, or a therapy group. In each case the cultural context establishes a structure that creates meaning, sets rules and expectations for behaviors, and facilitates particular states of consciousness that have potential for thought, affect, and action. Cultural contexts influence emotional and musical experiences through the cognitive structure that are used to interpret events and ascribe meaning. Cultural rules, norms, and expectations are internalized at an early age through the socialization process in families and other social networks. Cognition brings about meaning through an evaluation process of one’s experiences by determining what is significant about a stimulus or an event. Meaning by it very nature has an emotional dimension to it. When something is meaningful it, stands out from other related phenomena—it is distinguished as significant and it conveys relevant information. In this way there is a different emotional tone to a meaningful event or stimulus than to a nonmeaningful event based on the importance and relevance of the information that it contains. Meaning is accompanied by affect and often includes a potential motivation for behavior. A parent is a meaningful person to a child who, ideally, elicits feelings of comfort, safety, and a sense of personal validation, and would motivate approach and attachment behaviors in the child. The accomplishment of a task or goal is considered meaningful when it is valued by others in the sociocultural context. Accomplishments may lead to feelings of pride, would reinforce the behaviors that led to the goal attainment, and increase motivation to continue those behaviors. A strange sound 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

56

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

is an unfamiliar place is a meaningful stimulus in a particular moment in that it may signal danger or elicit fear or surprise that in turn motivates attention and readiness for action (i.e., fight or flight). A particular behavior in a social situation may be perceived as offensive because it is interpreted against the underlying social rules of behavior that are shared and expected by others in the situation. In such instances there may be feelings of anger or insult and the resulting emotional disequilibrium motivates a change in behavior to reestablish adherence to the social norms or rules that were violated. In a different context however, the same behavior might not conflict with the underlying social rules and therefore would have a different meaning, different emotional tone, and different (if any) potential motivation. Leonard Meyer in his classic book, Emotion and Meaning in Music, notes how “emotion or affect is aroused when a tendency to respond is arrested or inhibited” (1956, p. 14). Regarding music, he argues that musical context creates certain expectations that may or may not resolve as anticipated, which in turn creates emotional reactions to the music. The amount of information that is conveyed by the melodic and harmonic aspects of music depends upon the structural characteristics of the music as well as the listener’s “cultural redundancy” that is, his or her familiarity with the musical style and forms (Radocy & Boyle, 2003, p. 245). In this view, meaning results from the perception of a stimulus (a musical melody, harmony or rhythm for example) that is compared against the background of the expectations that were established by the earlier structures in the musical piece. The mismatch between what is immediately experienced in the music and what was expected creates emotion. That is, Meyer’s perspective is that emotion is the arousal that results from a disequilibrium within one’s expectations of the immediate environment. This notion of disequilibrium is similar to views of emotion as serving an adaptive function in primitive humans where particular sounds from the natural environment might convey information (i.e., signal dan-

1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

57

ger) and create an imbalance in the expectations (of the previous stable and safe environment) eliciting fear and the fight-or-flight response. Regarding emotion in music, Meyer considers how the learned syntax of a musical style is necessary for emotional engagement in the music. Thus, the role of culture is significant in providing this learning through repeated exposure to particular musical structures and patterns. Uncertainty of what is to come as patterns unfold in unexpected directions is an important aspect of emotional and aesthetic responses to music and other arts (Meyer, 2001). In this way, aesthetic engagement with the arts parallels an individual’s encounter with aspects of the larger world and allows for emotional reactions to be experienced in a contained and controlled manner. Works of art are embodiments of the world (or at least the artist’s representations of his or her experiences of the world) and aesthetic encounters with art (as a listener/observer or as a a creator/ participant) provide a means of practice and repeated encounters of this person-environment interaction. Aesthetic encounters are similar in form to the process where primitive humans would make sense (i.e., meaning) of their natural environment through noticing patterns in the auditory or visual field and by imitating sounds as a means of control and identification of their world. As humans evolved, the role of culture figured more prominently into the structure of the psyche and the capacities for symbolic (and linguistic) representation of the world. Culture creates the structures of cognition that filter the perception of the environmental stimuli and establishes the psychological mechanisms for which we experience emotion, create meaning, approach music and other art forms, interact with others, and experience our selves. In her anthropological study of music and emotions, Becker (2001) considers how the construct of self—as culturally determined, serves to influence how we listen to music and how we experience emotional reactions to music. As with many cultural

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

58

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

influences our assumptions and expectations are unconscious, having been transmitted through interpersonal interactions and social modeling over the course of child development. Our habitus of listening is tacit, unexamined, seemingly completely, “natural.” We listen in a particular way without thinking about it, and without realizing that it is even in a particular way of listening. Most of our styles of listening have been learned through unconscious imitation of those who surround us and with whom we continually interact. A habitus of listening suggests, not a necessity or a rule, but an inclination, a disposition to listen with a particular kind of focus, to expect to experience particular kinds of emotion, to move with a certain stylized gestures, and to interpret the meaning of the sounds and one’s emotional responses to the musical event in a somewhat (never totally) predictable ways. (Becker, 2001, p. 138). Because these internalized culturally based cognitive structures are deeply embedded in the psychological make up of our minds, we often do not realize how we are influenced by them. Assumptions, expectations, and ways of perceiving that we take for granted may not be held by others from different cultural contexts. In this light, we cannot assume that others experience music and emotions (or the world for that matter) in the same way as we do. In her comparison between listeners of Western classical music and the Hindustani classical music of India, Becker (2001) notes how the outward behaviors of the listeners is similar—quiet, calm, reflective—however the inner emotional experiences are not. In the Western experience there is an exploration of the self and the interior of the music as it impacts this individualized self. “In Indian classical traditions, the pursuit of emotion, of rasa, in relation to listening to music, may be a path to greater awareness, leading one to cosmic insight” (Becker, 2001, p. 144). Regarding emotions 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

59

in the experience of Indian art forms (i.e., music, theater, dance) Rasa is a metaemotion, that is, it is a feeling about emotions that has various “flavors” or “colors” within the eight basic emotions outlined in traditional Sanskrit texts (Shweder & Haidt, 2000, p. 400). In this area of Indian culture, aesthetic experiences with arts have the potential to transport one out of their own selves to connect to a higher transcendental consciousness.

Clinical Implications Since emotions convey information about the immediate surrounding and serve as mediators between the person and his/her environment, the clinician needs to be aware of the emotional tone (mood) of the therapeutic field of the session. Throughout evolution, emotions have been adaptive in allowing for rapid responses to potential threats (e.g., fight or flight). In clinical work, it is important to consider the automated and rapid reaction to perceived threats that may be physical (i.e., a bully in a school setting) or psychological (i.e., failure at a task that can threaten selfesteem and self-efficacy). Negative (unpleasant emotions) may indicate a disequilibrium within the person-environment system. The organization of music serves to structure the auditory environment and bring order to the external world. The perception of order in the environment leads to predictability and reduces anxiety. Clinicians should be aware of the structure (and predictability) of the musical (and emotional) environment. The specific use of musical elements to structure the environment is particularly important for clients with autism and other sensory integration problems (Berger, 2002). Sound can naturally elicit emotional reactions. When the clinician is aware of the range of sounds available in a session he or she maximizes the potential for affect-producing auditory stimuli. Diverse or unusual sounds can also evoke a natural interest in the environment that serves to motivate therapeutic engagement. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

60

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

There is a tendency in humans to imitate sound from the environment that may have led to identification with, and internalization of, the external world. The innate tendency for imitation allows for modeling of musical patterns (as well as interpersonal behaviors). The clinician should be intentional in designing the musical environment of the session since the myriad stimuli can become part of an individual’s musical repertoire and the bank of musical memory. Narratives organize our experiences and create meaning. Musical experiences can be structured to tell a story. The clinician can consider how the elaboration of narratives through sounds and music can enhance the way a person remembers the story and extracts its subsequent meanings. The creation of one’s own story through musical or other means can have therapeutic value. Music and language have been intimately linked. The musical aspects of language (pitch, rhythm, tempo) serve to express emotions. Perception of these musical qualities can influence the perception of emotions. Clinicians can use music to increase language production as well as to develop the nuances of the musical-affective components of speech. Another clinical implication comes from the natural human tendency toward social bonding and forming groups. This tendency serves as a motivation for group music activities. Group music making provides a socialization function that reinforces certain patterns of behavior and the internalizations of group norms. Clinicians should be intentional in designing and facilitating group norms to serve therapeutic purposes. Cultural systems become internalized and structure our thinking, our ways of perceiving, the creation and expression of emotions, and our approach to aesthetic experiences such as music. Therapists should be mindful of each individual’s ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic culture in order to better understand how the client has learned to experience and express emotions and how he or she might make meaning out of music. Cultural contexts also influence the construction of individual identity through the integration of self-perceptions and the perceptions of others. Identity 1st pass

Evolutionary and Anthropological Perspectives

61

is a central structure of personality. The music therapy group becomes a type of mini-culture that influences the development of each client and in turn is influenced by each person’s participation. The clinician should be intentional in designing therapeutic cultures that facilitate growth, well-being, and the individual processes of identity construction.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

PART TWO

FOUNDATIONS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Chapter 4

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions An understanding of the psychological and physiological components of emotions is important for several reasons. First, emotions are complex multidimensional processes that depend on the interplay between these various components. Second, some of the psychophysiological processes between emotions and music are similar. Studying these processes enables one to see the interconnections between emotional and musical experiences. Third, a comprehensive conceptualization of emotions allows the music therapist to understand the role that emotions might have played in the clinical disorders that are the purpose of therapy as well as the potential resources that emotions serve for therapeutic progress. Lastly, knowledge of the psychophysiological components of emotions enables the therapist to communicate at a sophisticated scientifically oriented level with other mental health and educational professionals where the music therapy services are rendered. The topography of emotional processes (Lewis, 2000) that was presented in chapter 2 will serve as a basis for the foundations of emotions. This model considers the multidirectional influence of emotional (1) elicitors, (2) states, (3) expressions, and (4) experiences. As stated previously, these distinctions are important not only for organizing research about emotions, but also for understanding emotion-based interventions in therapy. Music therapists will likely intervene at one or another of these four steps. The four psychophysiological components of emotions (physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and social) are operating at every step to varying degrees. It is important to consider a holistic multidimensional 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

66

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

view of these four components as they interact and mutually influence the construction of emotions. The first part of this chapter will present a brief review of neuroanatomy for those unfamiliar with the structure of the brain and its related functions. The next sections will focus each of the four steps—elicitors, states, expressions, and experiences. In each of these sections the interactions of the psychophysiological components will be discussed.

A Brief Review of the Brain A brief section does not do justice to the immense complexity of the brain, therefore the reader wanting a more in-depth description of brain functions is directed to the work of Daniel Siegel (1999) whose book the Developing Mind describes brain processes in a succinct and understandable way. The brain is a complex system of neural subsystems that coordinates all levels of human functioning. Brain neurons are activated constantly and accompany every human process from basic life functions (i.e., respiration, heartbeat, physical movement) to cognitive functions (i.e., symbolic representation, information processing, language), to psychosocial functions (i.e., attachment relationships, social cognition) to higher levels of human experience (i.e., altered states of consciousness, imagination, creativity). The adult brain consists of “an estimated 100 billion neurons, which are collectively over two million miles long. Each neuron has an average of ten thousand connections that directly link itself to other neurons” (Siegel 1999, p. 13). It is by far, the most complex organ of the human body. Each brain neuron conveys messages in the forms of electrical impulses to different parts of the brain and/or the body. The impulse travels down the long body of the neuron (called the axon), which sets off neurochemical reactions at the end of the axon that

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

67

then transmits the message to the connected neurons. The space between the neurons is a called the synapse. The neurochemical “firing” of one neuron passes the impulse across the synapse to the dendrites of the receiving neuron thus transmitting the message. Since neurochemical levels in the brain are critical for the transmission of electrical messages, imbalances in neurochemical levels can interrupt or abnormally increase the neural firing in the brain. Such conditions are implicated in various psychiatric disorders (i.e., depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia) that often are treated with psychotropic medications that correct these imbalances. The brain of an infant actually has greater number of neurons than the adult brain, but experience and usage of the neural pathways strengthens some neural connections while the lack of use leads to the “pruning” of others. The classic adage, “Use it or lose it” applies here in that deprivation of sensory stimuli and suboptimal neural activation leads to deficits in neurological functioning. Sensory stimulation and interactions with caretakers during the infant and preschool years are critical for satisfactory brain development. The human brain is sensitive to the environment that provides the sensory stimuli to which it responds. The brain is prewired for basic human experiences such as developing attachments to caregivers, forming mental representations of the environment, and developing language. The brain in many ways is “shaped” by the patterns of interactions between the individual and the environment that facilitate the elaboration, differentiation, and specialization of brain regions (Schore, 1994). “The brain’s development is an ‘experience-dependent’ process, in which experience activates certain pathways in the brain, strengthening existing connections and creating new ones” (Siegel, 1999, p.13). Minor damage to one part of the brain can lead other areas to develop compensatory functions. The process is referred to as neuroplasticity (Davies, 2004) and suggests that, within limits, the brain has the potential for resiliency and reorganization. As the

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

68

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

individual develops however, neuroplasticity decreases. Thus, damage to the cortex between the ages of 1 and 5 years old can lead to brain functions being taken over by a related area of the brain. The same damage in adolescence or adulthood however, will lead to more permanent deficits of brain functions. Certain emotional trauma during the formative years however, will adversely affect the course of development. For example, the stress of physical abuse at an early age releases hormones as part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (Davies, 2004; Siegel, 1999). The stress reaction is part of the natural fight-or-flight response to threat in the immediate environment. A continuous pattern of abuse over time, will alter the neurochemical environment of the brain, disrupting the individual’s capacity for emotional regulation and interpersonal attachment. While an individual may be resilient to recover from some instances of personal trauma, it is the pattern—a continuous and repeated experience of stress— that leads to more permanent damage and/or developmental deviance. It is a general principle of development that the patterning over time, rather than a singular discrete experience, facilitates developmental progress and structuralization (Stroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005). In a similar way, the patterning of stable and secure interpersonal relationships will facilitate the optimal growth of an individual in body, brain, and mind. Siegel (1999) provides a conceptualization of the mind as arising from the patterning of neural activation in the brain as well as from interpersonal experience. “Human [interpersonal] connections shape the neural connections from which the mind emerges” (Siegel, 1999, p. 2). The attunement between a mother and child, or between therapist and client, creates a pattern of neural activation, which in turn constitutes the mind. It is the experience within this interpersonal space between two individuals, (two brains, two minds) that influences the processes of activation and the patterning of arousal and information flow (Siegel, 1999). The field of interpersonal

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

69

neurobiology (Siegel, 1999; Stern, 1985) examines how the interpersonal interactions of the therapeutic relationship can activate brain structures and alter brain processes that underlie clinical conditions.

Neuroanatomy There are numerous approaches to dividing and categorizing the brain structures and processes. Generally, there are three levels of brain anatomy that parallel the evolutionary stages of human brain development. The most primitive hindbrain consists of the brain stem that is the top of the spinal cord that enters the skull. The structures in this part regulate general arousal (i.e., consciousness) and basic bodily states (i.e., temperature). The next most evolved midbrain includes various structures that are responsible for sensory processing. The most highly evolved forebrain includes the cortex that coordinates various higher-level functions such as symbolic representation, abstract reasoning, and language. These three structures have been referred to as “triune structure” that parallel the progression of lower animals to higher mammals where more complex structures have develop on top of each other over the course of evolution. The hindbrain is the oldest, similar to reptiles, and controls processes that protect the self and the species, while the “neomammalian” midbrain’s limbic system established the capacity for emotions and parental bonds which lead to the “late mammalian/early primate brain” that includes the neocortex and is necessary for language and symbolic meaning (Hatfield & Rapson, 2000, p. 655). The cortex of the human brain is larger and more developed than any other mammal, indicating its role in distinctly human capacities such as complex language, the construction of self-identity, self-conscious emotions, reasoning, moral judgments, the creation of culture, creativity, and imagination. Within the cerebral cortex are four distinct lobes—frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital. The frontal lobe is located in the front

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

of the brain behind the forehead and eyes and is involved in reasoning and complex thinking. The temporal lobes are located on the sides of the brain behind the ears and are involved in auditory processing and memory. The parietal lobes, found on the sides of the head toward the back coordinate and integrate information. Lastly, the occipital lobe located in the back of the head is the visual cortex. Lateralization of the brain has been an important area of study. The right and left hemispheres of the cortex take on distinctly specific functions as evidenced by lesions or damage to particular areas. In general the left hemisphere processes, encodes, and retrieves verbal type of information. Language centers of the brain (i.e., Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, etc.) are found in the left hemisphere. The left-brain processes information in a logical, linear, and linguistic format. The right hemisphere by contrast processes nonlinear spatial information in a nonverbal format. Information in the right hemisphere has been considered unconscious, while the left more verbal information tends to be conscious, however, there appear to be conscious and unconscious aspects of each hemisphere (Joseph, 1990; Siegel, 1999). The distinction between right and left hemispheres is not as pronounced as once believed. Both sides of the brain are involved in complex functioning. The corpus callosum is the structure that transmits information between the hemispheres. Music was generally believed to be processed in the right hemisphere’s temporal lobe (Joseph, 1990). However, some of the linear aspects of music such as rhythm are processed by the left hemisphere. Rhythmic functions are also necessary for the production of speech. While language is predominantly a left hemisphere function, the musical aspects of language (i.e., contour of melody, pitch, intonation) are processed by the right hemisphere. Regarding hemispheric dominance for music, it is now generally accepted that the right hemisphere is more predominant for untrained nonprofessional musicians, while there is a left hemisphere dominance for more musically sophisticated trained musicians (Wigram, Pedersen, & 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

71

Bonde, 2002). The neurological aspects of music will be discussed further in the following chapter.

The limbic system The limbic system is a subsystem of structures located at the center of the brain and coordinates information processing from the lower levels to the higher level cortex. The limbic system is central in the appraisal of meaning and attaching value to stimuli from the environment (Siegel, 1999). The major structures that are usually considered as part of the limbic system include the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, anterior thalamus, septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and the obitalfrontal cortex. Since these structures have been identified in the processing of affective information, the limbic system has been referred to as the emotional brain. However, recent views on the limbic system concept have questioned its role in emotional processing (LeDoux & Phelps, 2000). Difficulties stem from defining exactly which anatomical structures should be included in this system and some of its basic structure (i.e., hippocampus) have a greater role in cognitive processing (i.e., memory) rather than affective. Panksepp (2000) argues that the “concept” of the limbic system should not be taken as a discrete neuroanatomical structure but should refer to “the general location of the families of functional neural systems that contribute most heavily to dynamic processes commonly placed under the conceptual umbrella of ‘emotions’ ” (p. 139). A central structure in the limbic system that has consistent support as necessary for emotional processing is the amygdala. The role of the amygdala is to assign affective significance to stimuli and events in the environment. Many research studies have shown that “the amygdala is a key structure in the assignment of reward values to stimuli . . . conditioning of fear . . . self-administration of rewarding brain stimulation . . . a host of behavioral and autonomic responses typical of emotional reactions” (LeDoux & Phelps, 2000, p.158). The amygdala as part of the limbic system, 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

72

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

can be considered a major neuroanatomical component in the construction of an emotional response. This structure is in contrast to the frontal cortex that is involved in more purely cognitive processes such as thinking, comparison, and interpretation. Debate in the field of emotion research exists over whether emotions require cortical (i.e. cognitive) involvement or whether emotions can occur without cognition. The work of LeDoux (1991, 1993: LeDoux & Phelps, 2000) supports the latter position. His studies examined the acquisition of learned fear responses in rats. When the lateral nucleus of the amygdala was damaged, rats were no longer able to be classically conditioned to exhibit a fear response. LeDoux and Phelps (2000) distinguish between a “low road” where conditioned auditory stimuli lead directly to the amygdala to create a fear response and a “high road” where a stimulus involves cortical involvement that interprets the stimuli before the fear reaction. Important implications of these studies are that some emotional reactions may bypass cognitive processes. “The existence of a subcortical pathway [that is not involving the cortex or cognition] allows the amygdala to detect threatening stimuli in the environment quickly, in the absence of a complete and time-consuming analysis of the stimuli [which would involve the higher cortical regions]” (LeDoux & Phelps, 2000, p.159). These findings are consistent with the triune model of brain structure where the limbic system and midbrain served as survival function for early mammals. Rapid emotional responses to threat in the environment enabled the organism to mobilize resources for a fight-or-flight response. At the neurological level, the quick “low road” pathway serves to prime other structures in the brain to prepare for an adaptive response to the environment. Panksepps (2000) describes key brain areas and neuromodulators (neurochemicals) that are associated with various discrete emotions (such as rage, fear, lust, panic, care, seeking, and play) although definitive mapping is not yet fully established. Gray (1991) outlines specific neural circuitry associated with approach and 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

73

avoidance behaviors respectively labeled the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS). These neural systems have been associated with the formation of personality traits and have implications in the etiology of emotional disorders (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Posner, 1994). Hypersensitivity in the BIS or BAS has been theoretically linked to the personality traits of neuroticism and extraversion respectively. The structures of these neurological subsystems comprise the biological substrate of personality and set a range for potential development of emotional regulation and adaptive behavioral functioning in individuals. In light of the neurological structures of emotions, the four steps of Lewis’s (2000) emotional processes will now be examined. It is important for clinicians to be mindful that brain activation occurs at every moment. In clinical practice, consideration of brain functions may be necessary for understanding emotions.

Emotional Elicitors Emotional elicitors are closely intertwined with the emotional states that they evoke. Elicitors by definition, lead to affective arousal, which creates or modifies the psychophysiological configurations that comprise what we label as emotional states. Elicitors can be external or internal to the organism. External elicitors generally include social components (i.e., facial expressions of others) as well as behavioral (i.e., actions of others) while the internal elicitors are the somatovisceral (i.e., bodily sensations) and cognitive (i.e., beliefs) components of emotional construction. At any one point in time, there is a constant stream of stimuli that bombard us (from within and from the environment). We are constantly scanning the physical and social environment to monitor the degree of safety and are tuned into cues that signal a need to respond. Our sensory channels (i.e., visual, auditory) continuously take in stimuli from the immediate environment where the 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

74

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

amygdala will interpret their potential meaning. This environmental scanning is often conducted in an unconscious manner that is illustrated by an example of being in a crowded room where several conversations are taking place. While you may be focused on a conversation with one person and have consciously blocked out the other sounds in order to be attentive to that person, another person calling your name will draw your attention. The stimuli of your name (which has significant meaning to you) become salient above the multitude of sounds from the crowded room. Likewise, a sudden loud sound will draw your attention away from a task as it evokes a startled or surprised emotional state. As described previously, such survival responses to potential threats may be processed directly by the amygdala before cognitive interpretation takes over. Thus, you may be initially startled by the loud sound before you realize what it is. Your emotional state may quickly shift to relief when your cognitive elaboration of the situation indicates that the sound was something benign. Not all stimuli elicit emotional responses. The “meaning” of an environmental stimuli and its potential to create an affective response will depend on the context as well as the individual. The stimulus involved in the activity of reading a book in a school setting can evoke anxiety and avoidance for a child with a reading disability who may feel embarrassed. However, at home, the same activity without the pressure of performance can be a stimulus for comfort and enjoyment with a parent. Internal cues such as images, thoughts, or memories can also be emotional elicitors depending on the particular meaning that they have for the individual.

External and internal External elicitors can be “nonsocial” such as a loud noise that leads to a startle response or “social” such as an inviting or friendly gesture that can make one feel comfortable (Lewis, 2000). Nonsocial stimuli are deeply rooted in the human brain and serve as adaptive 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

75

mechanisms when rapid responses to environmental dangers are necessary for survival. Physical dangers that evoke fear and the fight-or-flight response tend to be natural, unconditioned stimuli that are biologically based. Social stimuli tend to be learned through the process of classical and operant conditioning, although some would argue that a young infant’s interest in the human face may be hardwired into the brain (Davies, 2004). Likewise, once attachment to caregivers has been established, fear of strangers at around 9 months of age may also a biologically base emotional response. As the young child grows and acquires more experience in the social world, he or she is driven by both biological and learned responses. Social elicitors develop meaning as a result of the experience of pairing an event with a state of emotional arousal until the mere presentation of the stimuli elicits the state. The sound of a parent opening a door upon returning from work each day can elicit joy in the children. If the parent, however, is abusive then the same sound will be a signal of danger and elicit fear. Behavioral theories of classical conditioning established the basic principles of how external stimuli come to evoke responses in an organism. Pavlov’s famous study of the dog salivating to the sound of a bell after it was paired (presented) with meat illustrates this principle. Watson and Raynor’s (1920) seminal study involving an infant boy (Little Albert) demonstrated how an emotional reaction can be conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus. In the study a loud sound produced by banging a metal bar (unconditioned stimulus) was repeatedly paired with a white rat (neutral stimulus). Eventually, the neutral stimulus took on the potential to elicit the fearful reaction that was naturally created by the sound. At the presentation of the white rat alone without the sound, Albert would cry and react with fear. Emotional responses to a stimulus can be natural (unconditioned) or can be learned (conditioned). Whether innate or learned, elicitors can automatically trigger physiological reactions. The pattern of physiological arousal in the brain and the body at 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

76

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

the time of the presentation of a stimulus becomes associated with the stimulus so that later exposure to the stimulus elicits the physiological basis of the emotional state. Gredler (1997) offers an example of how a song that was shared by lovers can be an elicitor that activates the physiological and/or cognitive processes that create the pleasant emotional states associated with that relationship. Another example from Gredler (1997) involves a driver on a particular road who experiences extreme fear after almost having a collision. On a different day when driving at the same point on that road the driver experienced a fear reaction (conditioned response). The same somatovisceral indicators of fear (sweating, fast heart rate, and increased respiration) occurred in response to the visual and kinesthetic cues of driving in that exact location. Conditioned responses can be generalized to similar situations as when the driver passes on a spot on the road that is similar to the near accident and has a fear response. Internal elicitors include physiological, somatovisceral, and cognitive activations. Physiological changes might include a change in hormonal levels (as in heightened sexuality in adolescents) or neurochemicals (such as an imbalance in a clinically depressed person). In each of these cases a change in the neurochemicals of the brain elicited the particular emotional state and such shifts can occur in the absence of any relevant external stimuli. Somatovisceral cues include heart rate, respiration, and galvanic skin responses. An increase in heart rate and breathing is a sign of general arousal and may be interpreted by the social cues in the immediate environment. In the example of clients with anxiety disorders, somatovisceral signs in the absence of an overt cause and combined with thoughts about having a panic attack can create a panic attack. When increased heart beat and heavy breathing occurs after an athletic workout, it may be interpreted as a normal reaction and there would be no anxiety about it. Another internal elicitor is the activation of a cognitive structure such as a belief, thought, or expectation. Examples of cogni1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

77

tion are the beliefs that one has been cheated in a business deal or that a student has failed at an academic task. In these cases, the cognition creates the emotional state. An individual’s cognitive belief system is created through interactions and experiences in the sociocultural context where he or she developed. One would have to learn the value of money and the system of business deals to understand that he or she was cheated. A student would have to have a criteria for success and be able to evaluate his or her performance against that criteria in order to believe that he or she failed. Cognitive processes are typically involved to some degree in almost all emotional reactions to the extent that interpretation and evaluation of the stimuli is required to form a response. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) developed an influential theory of cognitive appraisal that suggests that emotions arise from dual processes of primary and secondary appraisal of an environmental stimuli. If, after the secondary appraisal of the environmental threat, it is determined that the individual is unable to respond effectively to the situation, then the resulting cognitive belief will be a cue for an emotional state of fear.

Individual differences and sociocultural influences Individuals differ in the degree that they respond to stimuli. Such responsiveness or reactiveness to environmental stimuli is the basis for determining personality types. Infants’ temperaments are classified based on their sensitivity to changing stimuli in the environment (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Temperament is based on the neurological wiring in the brain and, as mentioned previously, is the biological substrate of personality. A child with a “difficult” temperament will react negatively to a broader range of stimuli and may have greater intensity in that reaction. By contrast an “easy” temperament child will become distressed to a smaller range of stimuli and usually with less intensity. Therefore the potential for a stimuli to evoke an emotional reaction depends in large part on the neurological and personality dimensions of the individual. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

78

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

Temperament has direct influences on individual differences in the capacity for emotional regulation (Rothbart & Sheese, 2007). Sociocultural systems play a role by determining the value and meaning of stimuli. In an individualistic culture such as the United States, a person’s overt expression of needs may be tolerated as a sign of self-assertion where as in a collectivistic culture such as Asian or Latino societies, such individual assertions may be expected to be secondary to the needs of the family or group. The emotional reactions to the same act will differ based on the cultural frame of the individual and the meaning that is ascribed to the act. The same stimuli (e.g., a behavioral action of self-assertion) may elicit vastly different emotional reactions in individuals and group members. Display rules for emotional expression illustrate how cultural contexts influence emotional processes. The communication of disapproval may take the form of facial expressions (i.e., frown), body language (i.e., turning away), silence, or verbal feedback. Such emotional expressions are also stimuli for others and will likely be interpreted accurately by those who are familiar with the cultural norms. Ekman’s (1972, 1993) seminal studies on emotional expression propose universals in facial expressions of basic emotions (anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, happiness) that can be accurately interpreted by people from diverse cultures. Other argue that emotional expression is more predominantly guided by cultural norms (Shweder & Haidt, 2000), particularly for more nuanced secondary (nonbasic) emotions.

Emotional States A central aspect of emotional processes is the emotional state that arises as a reaction to an emotional elicitor and influences emotional expression and experience. Emotional expression, however, may precede the emotional state and emotional experience need not be congruent with a state. “Emotional states are inferred constructs. These states are defined as particular constellations of 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

79

changes in somatic and/or neurophysiological activity. Emotional states can occur without organisms being able to perceive these states” (Lewis, 2000, p. 267). The concept and utility of an emotional “state” is not fully accepted nor is there general agreement on how states are constructed. Different emotional states likely have different mechanisms that create them. Lewis (2000) outlined the contrasting views of states in the emotion research literature. One view considers that emotional states do exist as a result of physiological conditions, and that they are directly expressed through behavioral indicators (i.e., facial expressions). The other view does not posit specific emotional states (i.e., fear, happiness) but either general arousal states or no emotional states and that what we call emotions are created by cognitive mechanisms. On the foundation of these general views, five theories explaining the construction of emotional states will be presented below. This is not an exhaustive list of emotion theories, however, it highlights major views, each of which propose different psychophysiological components as central in the creation of emotions. Some theories are based on the models of individual researchers (i.e., James-Lange; Lazarus; Schachter & Singer) while others are based on groups of theoretical perspectives (i.e., implicit memories; sociology/cultural psychology). These particular theories serve as a basis for incorporating emotion research into clinical work. Each theory suggests different clinical methods and psychological constructs that are relevant to therapeutic interventions. Table 4.1. summarizes these theories and presents clinical approaches and constructs that are relevant.

Physiological-Behavioral view (The James-Lange theory) William James, an early pioneer in psychology, proposed that disturbances in bodily sensations precede and create emotional states rather than result from emotions. “James’s (1884) hypothesis that 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

80

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS TABLE 4.1 Summary of emotion theories and clinical approaches

Psychophysiological Components

Emotion Theories and Positions

Mechanism of Emotion Construction

PhysiologicalBehavioral

James-Lange

Physiological Behavior Therapy change and Psychosomatovisceral pharmacology cues lead to the creation of emotional states and experiences.

Cognitive

Lazarus

Primary & Cognitive Therapy secondary Self-efficacy theory (evaluation appraisal of threat & resources) of environmental cues determines emotions.

Cognitive

Implicit Memory

Cognitive Psychodynamic recall of Therapy implicit Cognitive Therapy (unconscious) information serves as internal elicitor to activate emotional state associated with the memory.

PhysiologicalCognitive

Schachter & Singer Interpretation Cognitive Therapy and labeling of Attribution theory general physiological states of arousal determines emotions.

Social-Cognitive

Sociology, Cultural Psychology

1st pass

Clinical Aproaches and Related Concepts

Social roles, status, and ethnically based rules/norms influence cognitions such as scripts & expectations leading to emotional states.

Multicultural Counseling Interpersonal psychotherapy

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

81

autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity produces the percepts of discrete emotional states implies that emotion-specific somatovisceral patterns generate emotional experiences, and that a somatovisceral pattern begins before the experience of the corresponding emotion” (Cacioppo et al., 2000, p. 175). This view considers that specific emotions (i.e., fear, anger, joy) correspond to specific physiological conditions and are expressed through specific emotional behavioral indicators (i.e., tone of voice, body language). In James’ model, somatovisceral cues occur signaling a change in the bodily state that in turn creates the emotional state. Due to the independent development of an almost identical theory by Lange, this model is referred to as the James-Lange theory of emotions. When we say that we have a “gut feeling” about something, we may be referring, literally, to a somatic representation in our brains of our “gut response”—the body’s response—to a stimulus. This feedback loop of bodily response leading to emotional reaction has been a perspective long held by researchers with much scientific validation (Siegel, 1999, p. 135). Proponents of this view include Panksepp (2000) whose work is mentioned previously and focuses on identifying specific neural circuitry that underscores specific emotional states. Izard (1977) and Ekman (1993) also support this view with their cross-cultural studies that suggest that emotional facial expressions are universal and therefore arise from consistent human physiological-behavioral components. Others argue that beyond facial expressions, there is little evidence for specific underlying physiological changes that correspond directly to specific emotions (Lewis, 2000). Psychopharmacological treatments of emotional disorders change the neurochemical conditions of the brain to alleviate emotional conditions. Implications of the James-Lange theory of emotion are that be1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

82

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

havior precedes the emotional state and a person’s experience of it. As an example, a person who is crying may infer that she is sad rather than the sadness creating the need to cry. Clinical applications for a depressed client would be for the therapist to get the person to engage in behaviors that are inconsistent with such behaviors as lethargy, low energy, and slow motor movements that are characteristic of depression. If a depressed client can actively move about and/or engage in “nondepressive” activities (i.e., exercising, singing cheerful songs) then he or she, at least for the moment, will not experience him- or herself in a depressed emotional state. This is not to suggest an overly simplistic layperson approach of denying the severity of depression and using “happy music” as an escape or a defense. The clinical use of music in this case must involve the genuine engagement of the client in the musical process and a mindful awareness on the part of the therapist of the client’s state. Happy music for some depressed clients may decrease involvement in the session and diminish the therapeutic alliance as it could signal insensitivity or lack of empathy. Behavioral approaches to therapy define disorders in concrete terms and work to alter those specific behaviors that characterize the disorder.

Cognitive view (Lazarus’s Cognitive Appraisal Theory) While physiological and behavioral indicators may be identified to infer emotional states, these indicators may not have been the central cause of the emotion. Cognitive views of emotions consider thinking to be the primary determinant of emotions and emotional states. The cognitive component of emotional construction may occur initially and then lead to physiological and behavioral components. Cognitive approaches to therapy (see Beck, 1995; Ellis, 1995 for reviews) rest upon this position that cognition is primary in the creation of emotion and that alterations of cognitions will lead to therapeutic changes in emotion and behavior. There is an acknowledgment, however, that emotional states 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

83

can be created without cognitive involvement such as the theory of innate releasing mechanism (IRM; Lewis, 2000). This theory considers how specific elicitors automatically produce discrete emotional states as when as an animal sees a predator and immediately enters a state of fear. Another example is the innate prewired tendency for an infant to bond with its caretaker (Siegel, 1999). The human face is an unconditioned stimulus for which the infant naturally takes interest. Given these responses in animals whose neocortex is less evolved than humans and in human infants whose cortex is underdeveloped, it is conceivable that basic prewired emotions have minimal cognitive involvement. Lewis (2000) distinguishes between emotional states that are prewired, (i.e., innate) and emotional states that are created by cognitive evaluations. The cognitive interpretation of environmental stimuli will determine the emotional state and subsequent response to the situation. Lazarus and colleagues (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Smith & Lazarus, 2001) describe the primary appraisal process where an individual determines a potential threat in the environment. However, the fight-or-flight response does not occur until the secondary appraisal process, which assesses whether the individual is capable of dealing with the threat. For example, a high school student is being physically threatened by peers in a school setting. If the assessment of his personal resources determine that he is capable of fighting to defend himself (secondary appraisal) then the ensuing emotion will be anger. If it is determined from the secondary appraisal that he cannot effectively defend himself, then the emotional state of fear will develop. This cognitive view has strong implications for the construct of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994) that represents an individual’s beliefs about his or her own competence in a specific area.

Cognitive view (Implicit Memory Model) The construct of implicit memories is not attributed to one single researcher and is not a formal theory of emotional construction. It 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

84

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

is included here, however, since implicit memories can have a significant impact on how a therapist approaches his or her clinical work and thinks about the application of emotion theory. Implicit memories are encoded from a very young age and are not readily accessible to consciousness, by contrast, explicit memories can be intentionally retrieved and include a subjective sense of recalling a memory (Siegel, 1999). Implicit memory may be thought of as “unconscious” for several reasons. Intentional efforts are not required for encoding or for retrieval, storage in the brain is in a format that is not necessarily logical, linear, or verbal, and activation of such memories can occur outside of conscious awareness. An implicit memory may become activated in response to an environmental stimulus or event and shift an individual’s emotional state and frame of mind. During infant development the brain is still forming and the capacity for linguistic memory is not yet available, therefore implicit memories are encoded in nonverbal formats. Repeated experiences in the infant’s world become mentally represented (encoded) and such representations form unconscious structures that influence how the developing individual interacts with the world. Activation of emotion-related brain structures is involved in the encoding of implicit memories and emotional tone is usually associated with such memories. Implicit memory relies on brain structures that are intact at birth and remain available to us throughout life. These structures include the amygdala and other limbic regions for emotional memory. . . . The infant’s mind is able to make “summations” or general representations from repeated experiences. . . . These generalizations form the basis of “mental models” or “schemata” which help the infant (in fact, each of us) to interpret present experiences as well as to anticipate future ones. Mental models are basic components of implicit memory (Siegel, 1999, p. 29). 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

85

A major source of personality development is the infant’s relationship with caretakers in the first years of life that becomes encoded along with the emotions associated of these interpersonal experiences. Research in attachment theory examines how “internal working models” are the relationship schemas that guide our experience of interpersonal relationships (see Bowlby, 1988; Cassidy & Shaver, 1999). These unconscious beliefs of ourselves and expectations of others are based upon implicit memories that can become activated and exert an influence on mood, behavior, and motivation during interpersonal interactions throughout life. Implicit memories, when activated, can serve as internal elicitors that create emotional states. The memories evoke the emotional state that was conditioned at the time of their encoding. A child who was neglected and experienced inconsistent parenting may have developed implicit memories associated with fears of abandonment. These memories and their accompanying emotional states may become activated in the context of an intimate adult relationship. Any sign of possible rejection or abandonment (real or perceived) on the part of an adult partner may activate the unconscious emotional states from the original experience of abandonment as an infant or young child. The individual may not actually be able to remember the experience of abandonment (it is unconscious), however, the emotional states of anxiety will become part of the adult’s current experience.

Physiological-Cognitive view (Schachter & Singer’s Model) Schachter and Singer (1962) presented an influential theory that takes a predominantly cognitive view in interaction with physiological processes. In their study, treatment and control group participants were injected with neurepinephrine that created a general state of physiological arousal. Control group participants were informed of the effects of the drug while the treatment group was misled about its effects. Each participant was then placed in a 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

86

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

waiting room with another person (whom they believed was another participant, but actually was a confederate and part of the experiment). The confederates exhibited different emotions in the waiting room (some showed happiness, while other expressed anger at having to wait). The research participants who were blind to the effects of the drug began to exhibit the emotions of the confederate in the room while those who correctly attributed their physiological arousal to the drug did not. This study illustrates how cognitive attributions for one’s arousal determined the emotional state as well as how the social environment influences our emotions. Undifferentiated autonomic activity can subserve discrete emotions. The mechanism by which this is accomplished, according to Schachter and Singer . . . is the perception of neutral, unexplained physiological arousal, which creates an “evaluative need” and motivates the individual to understand and label cognitively the arousal state (Cacioppo, et al. 2000, p. 175) Thus, according to this model, there are no discrete emotional states but only general states of physiological arousal. The emotion is experienced as a result of the interpretation and labeling of the arousal. In the Schachter and Singer study, participants with the same type of physiological arousal interpreted their states as extremely different emotions, depending upon the social cues that they were exposed to in the environment. This theory has implications for clinical work in three ways. First, it illustrates how emotions are created by the cognitive processes of interpreting and labeling internal states of arousal. This suggests that the creation of emotions is malleable and that emotional states will change upon alteration of cognitions. Second, the role of social influences is extremely important. Emotions are “contagious” and can be evoked in others in the social situation. Third, the degree of physiological arousal is necessary for the 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

87

creation of emotional states. Arousal has direct implications in the context of music therapy since music can naturally stimulate and influence arousal levels.

Social-Cognitive view (Sociology & Cultural Psychology) Social relations are central to human development and to adaptive functioning. As reviewed in chapter 3, emotions serve the function of communication between individuals and allow adaptation to the environment. In this light, it is understandable that a major factor contributing to the construction of emotional states would be social in nature. The psychophysiological component of cognition interacts with the social component in that information from the social environment is processed through cognitive channels. A major field of study in social psychology is social-cognition, which considers how thinking reciprocally influences and is influenced by social factors (Moskowitz, 2005). A relationship with another person leads to the mental representation of that person. Associated with the creation of a “concept” or image of another are the meanings that are derived from the power, status, and role of that person within the social context. Beliefs and expectations about another person will depend on the status that the person holds, the power that the person can exert over another, and the particular relationship role. For example, a teacher in a school has a certain degree of power and status by virtue of his or her role as the teacher in the educational context. If the students are children there is the added power differential of age and the responsibility of the adult to care for them. For students in a college setting the power afforded adults in society is equalized between the student and teacher. The emotional states that are activated during interactions between a student and teacher will result from these roles. A student may experience a certain degree of respect toward the teacher due to the teacher’s expert knowledge in the subject of study. However, expectations of 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

88

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

being evaluated by the teacher may create anxiety. The student would not have the same emotions in relation to another student since the social role and evaluative expectation would not be part of a peer relationship. The person in the teacher role may experience a sense of nurturance and responsibility toward the students. “A very large number of human emotions can be understood as reactions to the power and/or status meanings and implications of situations” (Kemper, 2000, p. 46). Cultural psychology is concerned with meanings but in a manner somewhat different from sociology. Rather than consider role relationships in a general social context, cultural perspectives consider how ethnicity (as well as other contexts such as age, gender, race, etc.) create meanings for individuals and how these internalized meanings influence emotions, behavior, and sense of identity. Cultural systems establish values and expectations that are in their own way implicit and usually unspoken. If a person in the social context violates a cultural norm or rule, it gives rise to an emotional reaction (i.e. offense, embarrassment, surprise, anger). As stated in previous chapters, our approach to aesthetics and our very experience of emotions in music is culturally based. It is necessary to have particular sociocultural structures established (on a cognitive level) in order for interpretation of behaviors and actions that give rise to emotional reactions. There is a parallel here with Leonard Meyer’s (1956) theory of emotions and meanings. When listening to music we are comparing each unit of stimuli to musical memories to which we were previously exposed (through our familiarity with the musical genre or within the immediate piece of music at hand). A deviation from the expectation, according to Meyer, creates the emotional reaction to the music. In the same way, behaviors and events in the general sociocultural context are compared and evaluated to the underlying sense of implicit norms and rules. Deviations from the norms can create emotions. The internalized sense of cultural norms (or “cultural matrix” J. Vazquez, personal communication, 6/4/08) provides a base and a reference point for the individual within the 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

89

sociocultural field in the same way that a “tonal center” establishes a base for a piece of music in a particular key. The structural base (and musical “bass”) determines the relationships and meanings of subsequent tones in the harmonic environment.

Emotional Expressions The expression of emotions can occur at two general levels—verbal and nonverbal. In the process of interpersonal interactions, the nonverbal indicators can often convey more information about the conveyer’s emotional state than the verbal ones. Conscious expressions of emotions through words may not fully communicate emotional states due to intentional deceit or due to a lack of awareness of the conveyer’s own states. In addition, emotional states are complex with subtle qualities and numerous dimensions, and may not be amenable to the cumbersome and limited capacities of verbal language. Therapists of any clinical approach that relies on interpersonal relationships, need to be able to read the nonverbal cues of their clients in order to infer their emotional states. When there is incongruence between the verbal expressions and the nonverbal expressions, the latter generally tends to be a more reliable affective indicator of the underlying dynamics.

Nonverbal indicators Nonverbal forms of emotional expression include visual cues (i.e., facial expressions, body language), auditory cues (i.e., tone of voice, speech prosody), and behavioral acts (i.e., intentional actions) although all of these indicators can be placed under the umbrella of behavior. The motor expressions (i.e., visual and auditory cues) are closely tied to physiological processes and are not always conscious to the individual expressing the emotion. Intentional acts (i.e., engaging in destructive behaviors when angry) require cognitive processes although the actions of individuals, when 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

90

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

driven by intense emotional states, may not always be rational, reasonable, or under conscious control. While it is generally assumed that emotional states lead to emotional expressions, as stated earlier with the James-Lange theory of emotion, behavioral expressions and somatovisceral cues created by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) may precede and lead to the creation of emotional states. Johnstone and Scherer (2000) note how physiological processes cause the somatovisceral cues of emotions. They recommend distinguishing between “push effects” where expression is created by physiological influences pushing out (i.e., increased respiration affecting vocal cues) and “pull effects” where the expectations of others (i.e., social norms; cultural display rules) pull the motor and behavioral expression of emotions in a certain direction (Johnstone & Scherer, 2000, p. 221). Saarni (1984) studied how children enact display rules to hide disappointment when it was not socially appropriate to express that emotion. Due to the sociocultural influences, emotional expressions based on the physiologically oriented push affects are likely to be more indicative of the actual emotional state and therefore are perceived as more trustworthy by others than the pull effects, which include verbal expression, and may be more susceptible to pretense. Motor expression serves an important function in the expression of emotions since it is the primary component of communication. When an individual is expressing an emotion, others will read the nonverbal cues in order to understand the emotional state of the communicator and his or her intentions. For example, angry facial expressions will communicate to others the potential for hostile actions. At the same time, emotional expressions may also elicit reactions from others that aid in adaptation. For example, if sadness is expressed through a quality of vocal tone, it may facilitate attention, concern, or nurturance from others. Ekman’s (1972) and Izard’s (1977) work on cross-cultural expressions of emotion supports the universality of emotional functions. Participants from different countries, including indigenous 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

91

tribes with little or no contact to industrialized societies, identified facial expressions of discrete emotions (i.e., anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, happiness). In addition, these participants were able to physically produce consistent facial expressions when given a context. For example, they were asked to show how one’s face would look when a friend dies or when you are angry. This supports the view that emotions serve the adaptive evolutionary function of bypassing language barriers in order to communicate with others. The universality of basic discrete emotions has received support. Keltner and Ekman (2000) outline evidence from neuropsychology studies that suggests that specific brain regions are activated during the expression and reception of facial expressions of emotions. Despite critiques of the methodology of cross-cultural studies, accumulated evidence from multiple methods finds similarities across cultures with regard to facial emotional expressions. Cultural variations are noted, however, in the intensity of emotions in facial displays, the inferences about dispositions drawn from facial expressions, the range of events eliciting similar emotions, and the range of expressions used to convey emotions (Keltner & Ekman, 2000). In addition to facial expressions, vocal expressions (i.e., tone of voice) are a major nonverbal modality for emotional expression. This modality has the greatest relevance to music as well as to evolutionary processes in social and emotional development. Vocal quality not only conveys emotion but has a the potential to evoke similar emotional states in others. Vocalizations are one of the least understood aspects of emotional expression. Although they seem to be important conveyors of emotional states. Indeed, vocal expressions are extremely powerful and may have the ability to elicit similar emotional states in others. Vocalization may be much more contagious than facial or body expressions (Lewis, 2000, p. 270). 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

92

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

Verbal indicators Verbal expressions of emotion depend upon the cognitive and linguistic development of the individual. Young children, due to their limitations in cognitive capacities and emotional regulation, will “act out” their emotions with their whole bodies, in tantrums and/or undifferentiated expressions. As the child develops, he or she acquires the capacity to conceptualize emotions as well as the increased vocabulary to express feelings. Sociocultural perspectives of human development emphasize how language shapes thought (Vygotsky, 1978). Emotion words help to create our emotion concepts. Our cultural contexts influence how emotions are understood, mentally represented, and subsequently experienced and expressed. In understanding emotions we must understand that they are viewed through the values and assumptions of our culture and language (White, 2000). Studies from other cultures indicate that while facial expressions may have some consistency, the verbal language used to communicate emotions is embedded within the cultural context. The idea of universals in emotion words, “is limited by the fact that ordinary emotion language conveys complex social and moral meanings that far exceed the referential significance of emotion terms” (White, 2000, p. 33). An increase in cognitive capacities, however, accompanies an increase in the ability to regulate emotions (i.e., control impulses, delay gratification), to understand emotions (i.e., label emotion states and understand their significance), and to verbally express feelings and needs. Emotional knowledge relies on the emotion vocabulary of the individual and in that way relates to the ability to verbally express feelings. In my clinical work I conducted a social-emotional education program for inner-city special-needs elementary students and noted the extremely limited emotion vocabulary of the students. Every experience was described in terms of being “happy,” “mad,” or “sad.” This limited the students’ capacities to understand and discuss their everyday experiences. If a student was embarrassed because peers laughed at him, the only 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

93

emotional response was “anger.” If a student was disappointed about something, his or her response was “sad.” While these emotions may be understandable given the context, related emotions were not understood and the subtle nuances of the emotional states were not clear. The students subsequent behaviors were based on this limited knowledge base and narrowly constricted linguistic base of their social-emotional world. As stated previously, the expectation of others in the forms of implicit rules of emotional display and cultural norms dictates how an individual may feel and how he or she can express the feelings. Emotion words therefore are more susceptible to masking the actual emotional state and denying one’s true experience of emotions. The nonverbal cues (which are more likely “pushed” by physiological processes) tend to be viewed as better indicators of emotional states. The musical quality of the voice (speech prosody, the melodic contours of the spoken words) conveys more accurately the emotional meaning than the words themselves. The same word spoken with different inflections convey different emotions. Facial expressions of emotions, when in contrast with the spoken words (i.e., a sad looking person saying that she is happy) are also better indicators that the verbal content. Part of the socialization process for young children in the United States mainstream culture is to shift from acting out emotions to “talking” about emotions. Other cultures, however, might express emotional states as bodily states. Rather than use an emotion word, an Asian client may speak about physical ailments that represent and embody the emotion. It is important for the clinician to be aware of cultural differences when reading the emotional expressions of others.

Emotional Experiences Emotional experiences refer an individual’s conscious attention to his or her physiological states and his or her evaluation of the states 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

94

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

and the social context where they occur (Lewis, 2000). Changes in somatovisceral cues, behaviors, and circumstances in the social setting can indicate to a person that his or her emotional state has changed. One possible pathway is that an emotional state and its expression occurs in response to an emotional elicitor. The individual attends to the cues and engages cognitive processes to interpret and evaluate the meaning of the emotional cues and thus has an emotional experience. The term feelings is reserved for the conscious experience of emotions. Cognition is a requirement for an emotional experience. In terms of personality structure, a basic concept of self is also required (Lewis, 2000). Infants have not yet developed a mental representation of self, and therefore it is not likely that they have conscious emotional experiences although they can still be in an emotional state. It is very likely that a person can be in an emotional state and not be conscious of the experience. Incongruence between experience and states can occur for several reasons. (1) A persons’ cognitive resources may be diverted elsewhere as in the case of a crisis where the person must act immediately and cannot tune into the experience of fear or anger. After the crisis has stabilized, the individual may be able to attend to his or her inner signals and experience the emotion. (2) A person may engage in defensive processes that distort his or her perception of reality and /or disconnect the individual from his or her emotional states. These unconscious mental processes serve to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by the experience of the emotional states that may be particularly painful, frightening, or intense. (3) The person may have difficulties in detecting the bodily cues of emotional states, in processing emotional information, and/or in understanding emotions. Such deficits in emotional intelligence may result from a history of trauma, emotional dysfunction during development, and/or neurological processing problems. Emotional awareness as an aspect of the larger process of selfawareness involves the perceptual abilities to identify emotional states and cues as well as the capacity to comprehend emotional 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Emotions

95

meanings. Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model of emotional intelligence includes emotional perception and the capacity for emotional expression as a major and basic level component. Often limitation in this emotional intelligence ability may lead one to “feel” something but be unable to identify or label the diffuse internal state. A lack of emotional vocabulary or emotional knowledge can contribute to this limitation. Particular behavioral disorders are characterized by dysfunction in the ability to identify emotional states and thus limit the capacity to subsequently regulate emotions. Given the malleability of emotions and the disconnection that can exist between emotional experiences (i.e., subjective feelings) and actual psychophysiological states, clinicians will want to monitor how a client attends to and labels his or her own inner experiences. A client’s self-reported experience of emotions, as noted in chapter 2, may not be a reliable indicator at all of the underlying state. For example, a young child may report that she is upset and did not like the music group because she did not get to play a desired instrument on the very last song. However, her overall emotional states during the rest of the group were highly positive and she actively participated. The cognitive limitation of the young child led her to only focus on and report the last moments of the group without consideration for the longer and more substantial moods that characterized the whole session. Another example can be found in social referencing (to be discussed in chapter 6). Children look toward models to determine “how” they should feel in a given situation. I witnessed an incident where a young child fell in a mild way while playing. The child quickly got up and initially appeared to be fine, implying that his emotional state was stable. A strong expression of anxiety and fear from a nearby adult, however, immediately led the young child to cry. The underlying emotional state was initially calm however the emotional “experience” for the child was negative as it was influenced by the adult reference. The child was quickly comforted, however, had the experience of crying continued, a more stable 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

96

FOUNDATIONS .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

negative emotional state would have developed. In this case, the experience would have preceded (and created) the negative emotional state that was not initially there upon falling. This example serves to illustrate how emotional experiences can be shaped by external influences (social, behavioral) and may not necessarily emanate from internal states. Lane and colleagues (Lane & Pollermann, 2002; Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, and Zeitlan, 1990) developed a model of the levels of emotional awareness that begin with bodily cues and become more complex and elaborate with cognitive interpretation and verbalization of emotional states. The experience of emotions requires that the individual directs attention to his or her own physical cues, reflect upon mental states (i.e., cognitions), and interpret the social situation. Accuracy in identifying and labeling emotional states can be increased with practice (Bracket & Caruso, 2005). Increases in emotional awareness and the congruence between actual states and their subsequent feelings are indicators of increased emotional intelligence and have adaptive value.

1st pass

Chapter 5

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music As with emotions, physiological, cognitive, social, and behavioral systems are activated during musical experiences. Listening to and creating music involves exposure to the organized auditory stimuli of music that influences physiological responses in the body (i.e., heart rate, respiration) and neurological processes in the brain. Cognitive representations of music (i.e., musical memories) are activated as well as other memories, images, and associations. Individuals listening to music may engage in particular behaviors (such as dancing or tapping one’s foot to the beat) and the activity of creating music requires specific behavioral skills with voices, body parts, and instruments. Like emotions, music occurs within a sociocultural context and is influenced by the immediate presence of others. In clinical interventions the music therapist intervenes in a manner that impacts one or more of these psychophysiological processes. It is therefore important to understand how the psychophysiological processes are activated during musical experiences and also how these processes relate to emotions. It is through changes in these processes that music therapists can influence emotions that in turn can be a basis for therapeutic progress. Interventions enacted in the context of the music activity, will lead to changes that will both influence the clients’ emotional processes and be manifested in the clients’ musical behaviors. Using music as a medium to activate emotional processes and engage the client on this level is one of the unique strengths of music therapy that distinguishes it from purely verbal therapies. As discussed in chapter 8 there is an isomorphism between music and emotion, that is, 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

98

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

they share similar forms and structures. This similarity between music and emotion may be more than metaphorical as it rests upon the similar psychophysiological processes that comprise them. This chapter will examine music from the perspectives of the four basic psychophysiological systems. The first section will present the field of neuromusicology, which addresses the area of brain activation during music. Included in this section will be the closely related cognitive processes of music and complexity theory in music. The next section will review the physiological processes of music and their direct relationship to processes of emotions. The third section will examine musical behavior in light of operant conditioning and principles of behaviorism. The social dimensions of music will be examined in the following section. The fifth section will highlight some of the psychophysiological connections between music and emotions that will form the basis for the clinical implications in the remainder of the book.

Neuromusicology The field of neuromusicology examines the brain functions (neurological and cognitive processes) that are associated with the perception and production of music (Brown, 2000). Recent advances in neuroimaging include methods such as positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and megnetoencephalography (MEG). These methods of brain scanning have made it possible to detect more fine-tuned areas of brain activation during musical tasks, allowing researchers to identify the neural substrates of music. Research studies tend to be based on one of two types of designs. In one type, researchers study patients with brain lesions where a particular loss of functioning has occurred while other functions remain intact. These studies provide evidence that the damaged or lesion area of the brain is the region responsible for the music-related function that has been impaired. The second type of research design involves the 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

99

neuroimaging of musicians and nonmusicians during musical tasks (i.e., listening to melodies or rhythms, creating music). In these studies profiles of brain activation are obtained that identify the neural circuits involved in the music processing. It had long been believed that the hemispheric lateralization of the brain divided the two major auditory systems that evolved in humans. Thus, language was believed to be predominantly processed in the left hemisphere, while music was processed in the right hemisphere. The temporal lobe was also considered a major “music center” in the brain. These beliefs have now been disputed. Results from numerous studies generally indicate that both hemispheres of the brain are involved to different extents in processing various components of music. In addition, other lobes of the cerebral cortex (i.e., frontal, parietal) other than the temporal lobe as well as noncortical regions of the brain (i.e., cerebellum) have been found to be involved in the processing of music. There is also support that rather than a “music center” in the brain, there may be specific neural circuits that process particular elements of musical stimuli (Altenmuller, 2003; Parsons, 2003) More specifically, melody (pitch) is processed in the right hemisphere of the brain, while rhythm (timing) is processed in the left hemisphere (Altenmuller, 2003; Halpern, 2003; Liegeois-Chauvel, Giraud, Badier, Marquis, & Chauvel, 2003; Parsons, 2003; Samson & Ehrle, 2003; Zatorre, 2003). Pitch is considered a “spectral” structure of music in that it falls on a tonal spectrum from low to high frequencies. Rhythm, including meter, is considered a “temporal” structure that involves timing and sequencing. These elements are distinctly different components of auditory stimuli that apply to both musical and nonmusical sound. Spoken language for example, also has pitch and rhythm, and the receptive process of listening to speech involves these same respective brain regions. The auditory cortex first interprets the basic units of sound from the ear (musical and nonmusical), but other parts of the brain order these distinct sounds into a recognizable pattern or gestalt that is perceived as an elements of music (or other sound patterns 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

from the environment). At the basic level, sounds at different frequencies (higher or lower pitch), for example, are processed on different areas of the auditory cortex. Liegeois-Chauvel et al. (2003) describe a “tonotopic map” of the auditory cortex where low frequencies activate the lateral region and higher frequencies gradually activate the medial region. However, this map holds for the right hemisphere but not the left and is consistent with the view of the perception of melody as predominantly a right hemisphere activity. Griffiths (2003) finds that “individual notes are analyzed in the pathway up to and including the auditory cortices, while higherorder patterns formed by those features are analyzed by distributed networks in the temporal lobe and frontal lobes distinct from the auditory cortices” (p. 168). Therefore, complex sounds such as music require various regions of the cerebral cortex (the temporal and frontal lobes) to interpret and integrate the distinct sounds that are initially processed at the lower level of the auditory cortex. Parsons (2003) notes how the cerebellum, a region of the brain that is distinct from the cerebral cortex, is also involved in the processing of rhythm and pitch. The parietal lobe, a region of the cerebral cortex involved in the integration of information has also been implicated in the neural processing of music (Altenmuller, 2003). The patterns of brain activations and the neuroanatomical structures required in the processing of music can be influenced by experience. Pascual-Leone (2003) notes how structural and functional changes occur in the brain as a result of the demands of learning to play a musical instrument. Capacities for the complex cognitive representation of information increases with age and with the development of the brain. As with any psychological function, continued experience (and the neural stimulation that accompanies such experience) affects the way the brain processes such information leading to greater differentiation and efficiency of neural activation. Experience with music, such as learning to read and to play an instrument, alters the way music is represented 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

101

and processed in the brain. Altenmuller (2003) described research where brain activation differed between professional musicians and nonmusicians or amateurs. “Professional musicians processed these tasks [harmonic and melodic discrimination] primarily in the left frontotemporal lobes, where as amateurs as well as nonmusicians bilaterally activated the frontal lobes and the right temporal lobe” (Altenmuller, 2003, p. 347). So while melody is generally processed in the right hemisphere, for trained musicians the higherlevel task of melodic discrimination occurs in the left hemisphere. It is believed that the reason for this distinction is that professional musicians have learned to represent music differently in the brain. More elaborate cognitive strategies are employed by trained musicians when processing musical stimuli. Musicians therefore, will be able to interact with more complexity in music through their stronger ability to process and then respond to more dimensions within the musical stimuli.

Complexity theory As with any learning process, greater levels of competence allows the individual to process more information in an efficient manner and to employ effective strategies to create responses to the task demands. For example, as music therapy clients improve their psychosocial skills they are better able to function in the social world and to respond adaptively to greater social demands and challenges. With regard to musical abilities, the higher level of ability enables a person to appreciate and to respond to more complex music. Music therapists will naturally adjust the music making with a client to the client’s current level of musical capacity. In this the therapist finds a balance of musical improvisation or activity that is neither too complex not too simplistic. Radocy and Boyle (2003) describe a classic theory of aesthetic preference referred to as complexity theory. This view considers the degree that music can be preferred or considered aesthetically pleasing and interesting. In this way, the complexity of the music 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

102

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

is an important factor in determining how the client will interact with and respond to the music. The critical aspect of a stimulus that determines its hedonic, or positive affect value, is its complexity. Complexity is measured by the amount of variability or uncertainty associated with an event. In terms of information theory, it is directly related to the amount of information conveyed by an event and indirectly related to redundancy (Radocy & Boyle, 2003, p. 342). There are two additional aspects of this theory. The first is that there is an optimal level of complexity that maximizes aesthetic or positive affective value. Music that is too simplistic for a client’s level will be suboptimal and not be motivating or facilitate engagement with the music. Likewise, highly complex music would be difficult to process and may reduce engagement with the music task. The optimal level of complexity, however, falls between these two extremes and would allow the client to process the musical stimuli that are presented leading to a positive affect response. The other aspect of complexity theory is that it considers the client’s ability level. Music training or continued exposure to a piece of music changes an individual’s optimal level. A moderately complex song that was optimal for a client may, after a period of time, become less interesting as is becomes less challenging. A complex musical task that the client was unable to perform at one point may be within the client’s capacity after experience with the task. In this way, the client’s capacity to handle musical complexity is an indicator that the musical structures in his or her brain have developed. Complexity theory is built upon Meyer’s (1956) notions of expectation and tension in music. Musical structures create tension (i.e., harmonic dissonance) that leads the listener to expect a resolution (to the tonic chord). These tensions and resolutions are

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

103

similar to emotional dynamics of tension and relief. In this way, the client’s (or listener’s) ability level matched with the degree of musical complexity established by the therapist (or performer) will determine the client/listener’s emotional intensity.

Complexity in clinical process This distinction between musicians and nonmusicians in terms of brain structure illustrates how there are individual “auditory learning biographies” of musical learning that can be detected in the patterns of brain activations during music (Altenmuller, 2003, p. 349). Continued experience develops and strengthens the circuits of the brain that are involved in the neural processing. This has implications for music therapy in that clients will enter the therapy process with different degrees of experience regarding music and require different levels of optimal complexity. In general, the left hemisphere of the brain would become more complex and generate new cognitive structures as a result of continued activation from musical stimuli, specifically through learning to play an instrument. While music therapy is not education in a formal sense, the demands of playing an instrument can be the same. Since different musical elements activate different parts of brain, therapists can intentionally use elements of music the stimulate areas of the brain that would benefit from such activation. More complex music requires more complex neural processing. This implication for music therapy requires clinicians to question how they use melodic and harmonic structures in songs and improvisations. It is hypothesized that since pitch is processed in the right hemisphere, then presenting increasingly complex melodic structures to clients during music activities will place greater demands upon those regions of their brains leading to greater usage and development. Likewise, presenting increasingly complex rhythmic patterns will influence the development of the left hemisphere. The therapist who takes such a neuromusicological

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

104

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

approach to clinical work will need to consider the client’s current level of musical experience along with any neurological or cognitive deficits that are part of a disability or clinical condition. In certain cases (i.e., brain trauma), stimulation of a particular part of the brain for rehabilitation might be a goal of the music therapy. From an emotional perspective, the degree of complexity will be a major factor in the client’s affective response to music with the optimal level of complexity leading to maximum positive or aesthetic affect (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). By considering the neurological processes required to perceive and interpret the musical information in the clinical environment, the therapist can better adjust the level of musical complexity. In a musical sense, the therapist “meets the client where he or she is at” by presenting musical stimuli at the best level for a particular client. An emotion-focused approach to music therapy requires that the clinician be mindful of the client’s emotional state. Regulating the degree of information-processing demands on the client is an important task for the therapist in that it provides a balance between frustration and disinterest in the musical activity. Complexity can be present in many forms such as melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic structures, the number of instruments, diversity of timbres, the orchestration, and arrangement of the music, and various other dimensions. Gradual increases in musical complexity will in turn lead to increased sophistication of cognitive representations of music. The therapist should consider the teaching notion of scaffolding that is derived from Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of zone of proximal development. Tasks demands that are just beyond the client’s ability level and can be performed with some assistance are the tasks that will foster the greatest degree of development and learning. Too much complexity can be overwhelming, can create frustration, and is beyond the zone of proximal development. A task demand that is well within the repertoire of abilities for a client might be comfortable, but will not foster greater skill levels. In this way, the music therapist grad-

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

105

ually increases the complexity of the musical experience for the client so to be challenging and to stretch the client’s abilities just a little bit beyond their current level.

The Physiology of Music Music as a stimulus not only activates brain circuits, but can exert an influence directly on bodily processes. Physiological correlates of music have important implications for the study of the relationship between music and emotion since the latter has a direct physiological dimension. Several purely physiological indicators have been used to measure responses to music. The major indicators are heart/pulse rate, respiration, electrodermal activity (galvanic skin response), electromyography (muscle tension), blood pressure, and brain waves (Hodges, 1980). Many studies examine the effects of stimulative and sedative music on physiological processes. While there are inconsistent, inconclusive, and sometimes contradictory results in the research on music physiology, some general tendencies emerge and appear to be intuitively accepted by many. “Characteristically stimulative music tended to increase physiological rates (e.g., heart rate), while characteristically sedative music tended to have soothing or relaxing effects (e.g., decreased muscle tension)” (Radocy & Boyle, 2003, p. 43) This underlying dimension of arousal (from sedative to stimulating) provides a continuum in which any music can be placed. Interestingly, this continuum of arousal parallels an underlying dimension used to describe emotions. In this way, emotions and music are conceptualized in a similar manner. The arousal aspect of music and emotion also allows for the dynamic quality of both where changes in arousal create changes in the dynamic system. Stimulative music is characterized by fast tempos, loud volume, and rhythmic patterns. “Rhythm characterized by detached percussive sounds tends to stimulate muscular activity . . . definitive

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

106

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

and repetitive rhythms . . . appear to stimulate physical movement. The more percussive, staccato, and accented the music, the greater the apparent physical response to it” (Radocy & Bolye, 2003, p. 42). Examples of stimulative music include marches and dance music. By contrast, sedative music is slow, soft, with little rhythmic activity other than a steady continuous underlying beat. Sedative music is more sustained and legato. Lullabies are prime examples of music at the lower end of the arousal continuum. Some of the research on the physiology of music indicates that stimulative music tends to increase physiological processes (heart and pulse rates, respiration, and muscle tension) while sedative music generally decreases these processes. Reviews of the research literature, however, tend to be less than conclusive. In some research studies, physiological effects were found in response to either type of music and in other cases no responses were found (Hodges, 1980; Radocy & Boyle, 2003). Contradictory findings may be due, however, to methodological problems such as conditions in the experimental situation (i.e., electrodes on subjects, loudness of the music stimulus, clarity of instructions, and the subject’s attention). Radocy and Boyle (2003) suggest that electromyography studies (muscle tension) have the least ambiguous findings and demonstrate a clear relationship between music arousal and muscle tension. Attempts to relate physiological music responses to discrete emotions is difficult, and few studies seem to go beyond establishing an effect on a physiological indicator to include psychological (i.e., self-report) measures of emotions. One recent study, however, combined both self-report and physiological measures in examining how the structure of musical elements is related to physiological responses (Gomez & Danuser, 2007). They found that the positive or negative valence of the emotions was related to musical structures such as mode, harmonic complexity, and rhythmic articulation. Emotional arousal (intensity) was more predominantly physiological and was related to tempo, accentuation, and rhythmic articulation. Gomez and Danuser conclude that rhythm 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

107

appears to be the major musical structure to determine physiological responses. As discussed in previous chapters, emotions are multidimensional and are constructed from the interaction of several psychophysiological processes. The physiological underpinnings of emotions are similar to those created by music. However, even if music elicits increases (or decreases) in heart rate or breathing, this effect may not be sufficient to produce an emotion in a formal sense. Psychological processes (cognitions, behaviors, social factors) are needed in addition to the physiological component.

Emotion theory and music physiology In the previous chapter, five theories of emotions were presented to illustrate interaction between pairs of the four major components of emotions. Two theories—the James-Lange theory and the model of Schachter and Singer—include the physiological component as a major contributor to the construction of emotions. In the James-Lange theory of emotion physiological changes occur in the body and, as a result the ensuing behaviors, the individual creates the experience of emotion. The physiological state and the behavior precede the experience of an emotional state. Clinical implications are that stimulative or sedative music can be used by the therapist to create the desired physiological levels of arousal. As a result, the client’s behavior can change and this shift in behavior will be the basis for a new emotional state. For example, a client in an anxious emotional state would likely have increased heart rate, respiration and/or have a high level of muscle tension. In a therapy session, through listening to selected pieces, engaging in a structured song, or improvising music of a sedative quality, the client’s heart rate, breathing, and/or muscle tension may decrease. Behavioral changes that may accompany such physiological changes can be a shift in body posture, slower more relaxed movements, or a slower rate of speech. It is the combination of the physiological and behavioral components that can 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

108

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

induce the experience of a calm emotional state. Recall that for an emotion to be experienced the individual must be aware of their state (even though we can be in an emotional state and not be aware of it). The music therapist may need to use reinforcement techniques or verbal interventions in addition to the sedative music to create and increase these shifts in behavior. The client’s capacity for emotional regulation (i.e., the ability to maintain such a relaxed state) will play a role. In this way the music therapist does not simply use music to relax the client, but considers the direct impact of the music on the client’s physiological and behavioral systems, the client’s personality factors (i.e., capacity for emotional regulation), and the interaction of these systems in creating the emotional state. The Schachter & Singer model of emotions considers the interaction of physiological arousal and client cognitions, specifically the attributions that a person makes for his or her emotions. Similar to the James-Lange theory, a general state of physiological arousal occurs first. This is followed by a cognitive process where a person “labels” his or her emotional state. However, different beliefs in the particular social situation will lead to different emotions. In this way, the music therapist uses the music to create a particular physiological level of arousal. If the therapy is in a group format, other participants in the immediate environment will influence how an individual may feel (i.e., if the group is happy then it is more likely that a person will interpret the arousal to mean that he or she is happy). For a client who is generally depressed, creating arousal and then labeling it as happy can have a therapeutic effect in that the client comes to believe that he or she is in an emotional state that is incompatible with depression, if only for brief moments during the music session. Even when the client returns to a depressed state later on, the memory of being”in an aroused and positive emotional state can be a resource for coping with states of depression in that it provides evidence to the client that the negative emotional state can change and that he or she has a degree of control over it. 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

109

Musical Behavior Behavior in general is governed by the principles of learning that include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theories. Classical conditioning as described in chapter 4 and illustrated by Pavlov’s famous experiment, refers to behaviors that are responses to stimuli. Learning in classic terms requires associations between the stimuli and the response. Naturally occurring responses (i.e., dog salivating in response to meat) are unconditioned responses while learned responses in reaction to conditioned stimuli (i.e., the bell) are referred to as conditioned responses. In operant conditioning as espoused by B. F. Skinner the behavior “operates” upon the environment and changes it to yield rewards or punishments that in turn influence the likelihood of the behaviors’ recurrence. For example, a primitive human climbing a tree to obtain a fruit when hungry will lead to the likelihood that tree-climbing behavior will occur again since obtaining the reward (i.e., fruit) followed the behavior. Falling from the tree and getting hurt would be a punishment that may decrease tree-climbing behavior or lead to an adjustment of the behavior (i.e., climb in a different way). Social learning theory developed by Albert Bandura, is based on the notion of modeling where another person can provide examples of behavior that are copied by the observer. Mere exposure to behavior leads to learning even if the observer does not immediately copy it. Thus, there is a cognitive component to social learning in that the model’s behavior is retained in memory. Social learning theory has significant implications for the overall environment where participants (i.e., children in a school setting) will be influenced by what they observe. Most musical behaviors, like any other class of behaviors, are learned. Like emotion, which requires an internal or external stimulus in order to be evoked, musical behaviors are generally in response to a musical stimulus. Behaviors connected to music can include passive types of responding (attention, listening, increase in activity level) and active types that include direct involvement 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

110

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

with the music (movement, creating vocal and instrumental sounds). The passive type of musical behaviors occurs, usually with little effort, in response to organized sound and are evident early in life. Trainor and Schmidt (2003) for example, found that infants directed more attention to infant-directed singing from their mothers than to general sounds or noninfant directed music. Being “in tune” with environmental sounds, as discussed in chapter 3, is an evolutionary adaptation in that we are processing information from the immediate surroundings. In this way, listening as a musical behavior is a natural and unconditioned response to environmental auditory stimuli. When music is introduced into any environment, it is a stimulus that competes with the other stimuli (auditory and visual) for attention. A person may naturally direct attention to a musical stimulus and listen to at least part of a song. This will engage the cognitive processes of memory retrieval and recognition to identify if the song is familiar. If the song is novel, then the musical structures of the song, its emotional content, or associational qualities will likely determine if the listening behaviors continue. The music itself (or a particular element of the music) is an ongoing stimulus that evokes continued musical behavior of listening. The novelty of the song can be considered rewarding and reinforces continued attention. Active types of musical behavior lead one to be involved in the music itself. Music making with instruments requires a particular set of skills that are learned. Simple behaviors such as tapping one’s foot to a beat or vocalizing occur in young children and may be unconditioned. More complex sequences of vocal and manual actions, however, require continued practice and experience. In the process of playing an instrument (including the voice as an instrument) when the musician is reading from a score, each movement that produces the precise sound can be considered a conditioned response to the stimulus of the musical notes on the score. The production of the music itself can be considered rein-

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

111

forcement for the precise music-making behaviors. Praise and other types of feedback from others regarding the music serve as additional reinforcers for the music-making behaviors. In a music therapy session for example, musical responses from the therapist or other group members that reflect or mirror motifs from a client’s improvised music can be reinforcers for the client’s continued musical behaviors. Any change in the environment may itself be considered a reinforcement for the behaviors that immediately preceded the change. In this way, music making may be self-reinforcing since the creation of sound influences and changes the immediate environment. Group music therapy provides an opportunity for social learning where a range of behaviors are exhibited. Musical and nonmusical behaviors occur and receive various types of reinforcement. When a modeled behavior receives reinforcement it is likely to be reproduced (i.e., copied) by the observer at another time, more so than modeled behaviors that receive no reinforcement or punishment. In this way, musical behaviors are learned through the mere social setting that involves music activities. Nonmusical behaviors such as waiting for one’s turn in a children’s music activity or appropriate verbal communications are also modeled and reinforced.

Emotional dimensions of musical behavior The emotional dimensions of musical behavior are significant in determining the stimuli and reinforcements that influence the behavior. One’s emotional response to the music itself can serve as a reinforcer for continued musical behavior. Musical behavior is the major medium of the music therapist and changes in a client’s music making can be a gauge for therapeutic progress. Therefore, influences on music behavior are key factors in the assessment and interventions used by clinicians. Musical behaviors must be considered in the context of nonmusical behaviors since nonmu-

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

112

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

sical behaviors are often the goals of the music therapy as well. When one influences the environment through the creation of sound there can be a sense of efficacy. The client perceives him- or herself as facilitating the change in the environment and eliciting the responses from others. The belief in one’s efficacy is usually associated with positive emotions. Positive emotions are usually assumed to function as rewards in that humans are motivated by hedonism—to seek pleasure and avoid pain. In this way, the emotional dimensions of music making are critical factors in determining the continuation of the behavior. The expressive power of music provides another complex example of the emotional dimension. When a client produces music that has similar structure to an internal feeling state, then one can consider that the feeling was expressed. Langer (1953) suggests that the structure and form of music parallels the structure of emotions. The “externalized” music matches the “internalized” emotional state of the music maker leading to a “synchrony” between the person and the environment. This synchrony between inner and outer need not always be a pleasant emotion. If sadness is expressed through music, then the expression of that emotion may be rewarding through the reduction of internal tensions. This would be an example of negative reinforcement where the removal of an aversive stimulus (i.e., inner tension) reinforces the behavior that caused the removal (i.e., expressive music making). The externalization of an unpleasant emotional state such as sadness may also lead to the client’s sense of efficacy in that what is externalized can be understood more fully and therefore fall under personal control. So even though the emotional state is unpleasant, along with this experience is a sense of expectation and hope that one can cope with the unpleasant mood. However, attention itself is a reinforcer. Drawing attention to the sad emotional state of a client may not be the most therapeutic intervention since it can likely amplify the emotional state. The simplistic layperson notion of “just get your feelings out” is

1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

113

often not sophisticated enough for the clinical work of a music therapist. For some clients playing sad music when they are depressed may only magnify the depressed state, leading to further clinical deterioration. A client who is not ready to process the negative emotional state (i.e., to reflect upon it, discuss it, represent it in another form, transform it) will not benefit from excessive attention to that state. The strength of the therapeutic relationship and the client’s ego functioning (i.e., coping capacity, self-regulation, reality base) are critical factors in determining if the client will benefit therapeutically from such an emotionally expressive experience. Effective application of the ISO principle (to be discussed in later chapters) is important in these cases to alter the mood of the client. The use of music in the workplace and in consumer settings to increase work behaviors and spending has been well established (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). While particular work tasks and shopping are not musical behavior per se, these findings illustrate how the mood created by the music can increase behaviors in the immediate setting. Often such increases in behavior occur beyond the awareness of the person. Applied to the music therapy setting, creating a mood in the therapeutic field will influence the immediate behaviors. As discussed previously, stimulative music will likely increase physiological activity level while sedative music will be soothing and decrease activity. Such moods will influence the rate and intensity of music making, while the actual act of making music will likely be guided by the structure of the therapy group setting, prior expectations of group norms, and the immediate facilitation of the therapist. In sum, musical behavior is influenced by the stimuli, reinforcements, and models in the immediate environment. Included in this stimulus field are the individual’s emotional states that are created and/or expressed by the music. The music therapist must consider all these factors that dynamically interact to facilitate and maintain musical behavior.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

114

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

Social Basis of Music Music is inherently social. The act of making music is complimented by the act of listening. In most cases (except for playing music in solitary) there is a performer and a listener that are connected through the music. This connection includes the expression of the performer’s emotional state through the medium of sound and the reactions (including the emotional response) of the listener. The music creates an interpersonal field and the meaning that is conveyed by the music is a basis for interpersonal connection through the similarity and/or complimentary aesthetic responses of both participants. The social nature of music making has its roots in the anthropological history of the human species. The structure of music itself warrants social effort. In many cases musical pieces require different instruments and /or parts to create a cohesive whole. The structure of organized songs is such, that different instruments may create different elements (such as rhythm and melody) and therefore, an interdependence is created between the participants contributing to the music. Harmony, for example, relies on at least two voices and by its nature is social. Musical activities can accommodate several participants at once and in this way, music used in education, therapy, and other social settings is inviting and inclusive.

Group dynamics in clinical music therapy Music therapists will often provide services in a group format. While this may be due to the practical consideration of the clinical setting, it is also an ideal format given the social nature of music. In addition, psychosocial issues that are goals for treatment are usually better addressed in group settings. Group dynamics are complex and require the therapist to attend to several different layers of the psychological field at once. The behaviors of each individual client at one level combine to create a gestalt of group 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

115

dynamics at the systemic level. Self-expression on the musical plane conveys information about the personality and about interpersonal dynamics on the psychological plane. In this way, the metaphor presented in chapter 1 of the “client as a work of art” that allows one to embrace multiple dimensions at once also applies to the therapy group with its multiple layers of dynamics and array of aesthetic textures of human relationships. The structure of music offers possibilities for various combinations of participants to contribute rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic elements to the creation of the music. Music therapist can use this interdependence of elements to foster cooperative and collaborative exchanges among group therapy participants. Contrasts in the musical orchestration (for example, parts of the song are played in unison with other parts played by soloists) not only represent the psychological dynamics of the group functioning, but actually are these dynamics played out in a musical medium. The same socialization demands of any group setting apply. Such demands include: waiting for one’s turn, respecting another’s self-expression, listening to others, and responding to others. The musical behaviors of each participant reflect the degree that these social abilities are manifested. For example, a client who plays during another’s solo is not exhibiting self-control and/or may not be respectful to the soloist. A client who responds to another’s melody in a musically inconsistent way (i.e., plays extremely loud in response to the other’s soft playing) is demonstrating a lack of empathy and poor ability to formulate responses based on social information from the situation. As discussed in the previous section, music can serve as a stimulus and also a reinforcer of musical behavior. In the group setting, other participants as well as the therapist serve as role models of appropriate behavior and also as reinforcers of behavior. For example, an acting out client with poor social skills may be focused on playing his way regardless of how it fits musically with others. Such a client would benefit from the role modeling of others who can adjust their music to the group by playing in a way that is rhythmically and dynamically congruent. The reinforcement that 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

116

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

the model receives further strengthens that behavior as desirable and may exert pressure on the acting out client to adjust his musical behavior to match the rest of the group. This process of adjusting musical behavior is adaptive and therapeutic in that it requires self-regulation of emotions—he can’t just act impulsively on his feelings. It parallels the larger clinical issue of adapting to social environments in general. The social nature of the group music making creates a situation that places a demand on the acting out client. The actual sound production of the song is tangible evidence of sorts, that provides feedback to each participant on the degree of musical match (i.e., the clients would hear whether each instrument was in the same rhythmic beat or not). The positive emotions associated with musical expression and with the aesthetically pleasing product of a song are motivators (i.e., reinforcers) to facilitate controlled musical behaviors. In this way the music therapy group fosters the development of individual self-regulation as well as adaptive interpersonal interactions. The social act of making a complete musical product together builds group cohesion and connection. It is the social nature of music that provides the medium for this group process.

The Psychophysiology of Musical Emotions Music psychologists have encountered many challenges in examining the relationship between music and emotions. It is generally assumed that emotions serve biologically and socially adaptive purposes, however, the adaptive functions of music in everyday life are not clearly understood (Sloboda & O’Neill, 2001). There is a notion that “musical emotions”—those elicited from music—are distinct from general emotions elicited from other sources. One notable difference in musical emotion is that music does not provide the same type of elicitors that facilitate approach or avoidant behaviors or other type of goal-oriented action. Musical emotions 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

117

in this way, appear to be “noninstrumental” (Frijda, 1986 as cited in Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). When one experiences emotions elicited from music there is no clearly demonstrable benefit to immediate physical survival. This view however is limited by definitions of emotions as merely survival mechanisms and does not consider the role of emotions in the human capacity for higher levels of consciousness and general well-being. Music as well as other art forms and aesthetic experiences have grown in their function from the days of primitive humans’ struggle for daily survival to current times where the experience of self in an existential context requires the potential for meaning that music can provide. “To be sure, there are important differences between musical emotions and other emotions, both in antecedents and consequences, although this in itself does not imply that the emotions themselves are different.” (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001, p. 81). Trainor and Schmidt (2003) provide research that supports the notion that musically induced emotions are similar neurologically to emotions induced from other elicitors. In the studies they described the intensity of emotional reactions to musical excerpts correlated to the degree of intensity of activation in the frontal lobe. In addition, positive and negative musically induced emotions corresponded to the left and right hemispheres of the cortex that are generally implicated in the same emotional valences. “Both joy and happiness showed greater relative left frontal activation whereas both fear and sadness showed greater relative right activation . . . [providing] evidence that emotion induced by music activates frontal circuits in the brain similar to those activated by other emotional stimuli” (Trainor & Schmidt, 2003, p. 317). In a naturalistic study that examined music’s emotional impact in everyday life, Juslin, Liljestrom, Vastfjall, Barradas, and Silva (2008) found that subjects were listening to music 37 percent of the time during randomly sampled moments during typical days and that 64 percent of those times, the subjects reported that their feelings were influenced by the music to which they were listening. Other factors considered in the study were situational factors 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

118

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

(i.e., social verses solitary settings) and personality factors (i.e., neuroticism and extraversion traits) that moderated the music’s emotional impact and suggest that emotional construction is multifactoral. The most commonly experienced emotions during the music episodes were generally positive emotions (i.e., calm-content, happiness-elation), while negative emotions (i.e., anger-irritation, boredom-indifference, and anxiety-fear) were more commonly reported by subjects during the nonmusical episodes. Juslin et al. (2008) concluded that “contrary to previous claims in the literature . . . music did appear to induce ‘basic’ as well as ‘complex’ emotions (p. 678). Some views are that music can convey general emotions rather well, such as happy or sad, but more specific emotions or the subtle nuances between emotions are not easily expressed. For example, it might be easier to describe the context and particular cognitive meaning of guilt through words than it would be through musical sound. In this way music lacks the specificity of certain emotional meanings. From another perspective, however, music may be able to represent the intensities of emotional states and their underlying “dynamic forms” (Langer, 1953) that escapes the descriptive range of verbal language. The isomorphism of music and emotions suggests that the structure of music parallels the psychophysiological structures that create emotions. Thus music is not merely the “description” of emotion as would be conveyed by words, but the actual emotional state itself (see chapter 8). The direct impact of music on our physiological systems leads us to experience a general state of arousal. This general arousal corresponds to the intensity dimension of emotion in the dimensional model of emotion representation (see chapter 2). The ambiguity or lack of specificity of the music’s emotional content may lead this arousal to be interpreted differently and labeled with various emotion terms. Thus the particular emotion is a result of the physiological arousal in combination with cognitive influences (i.e., meanings, song titles) and social influence (i.e., context of the musical experience, reactions of others). Such a process of 1st pass

Psychophysiological Foundations of Music

119

emotional construction is directly in line with Schachter and Singer’s physiological-cognitive view of emotions (see chapter 4). Sloboda and Juslin (2001, p. 91) would support this view in suggesting that in musical emotions there is a “decoupling between the mechanisms that determine intensity of affect and those that determine emotional content.” This position has important implications for music therapists in that the musical experience of a session will, to a degree, provide the “intensity” of the emotions, however, the “content” or valance of the emotion will depend upon other cues (cognitive, social, behavioral) that are provided by the therapist, group members, or other contextual factors. The clinician must not only regulate the music of a therapy session, but, equally important, must be aware of the extrinsic factors that will impact the emotional experiences for the clients. There are times in the therapeutic process when intentionally keeping the extrinsic cues ambiguous is beneficial to allow for the emergence of the client’s emotional states and personality structures. The lack of extrinsic cues will lead the client to search for his or her own emotional meaning to the arousal of the musical experience. Very often we feel that there is an emotion present [in the music], we know it is of one general type rather than that of another, but we cannot quite tie it down. In such a state of ambiguity and cue-impoverishment we may well expect that the profound and semi-mystical experience that music seems to engender. Our own subconscious desires, memories, and preoccupations rise to the flesh of the emotional contours that the music suggests. The so-called “power” of music may very well be in its emotional cue-impoverishment. It is a kind of emotional Rorschach blot. (Sloboda, 2000, p. 226) Sloboda and Juslin (2001) have presented a model of how music elicits emotions. The three sources of emotion are: intrinsic, 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

120

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

iconic, and associative. The intrinsic source of emotions depends on the musical structure itself. The tensions, flow, peaks, and valleys of the musical contour can lead to corresponding emotional experiences in the listeners (see chapter 8). The physiological effects of the music contribute directly to emotional construction. Such processes include the experiences of “shivers” in response to music as well as heart rate and respiration (see Sloboda, 1991). Iconic sources of emotion in music are extrinsic and depend on the music’s capacity to represent something outside of itself. “Iconic relationships come about through some formal resemblance between a musical structure and some event or agent carrying emotional ‘tone’ ” (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001, p. 93). This source of emotion relates to primitive cultures’ use of music to internalize the environment by imitating its sounds (see chapter 3) and by representational music. A second extrinsic type of musical emotion is the associative source. This type depends upon the individual meanings that have become paired with a particular piece of music. Music that has a distinct association to a powerful movie or a special song between lovers will elicit the same emotional reactions associated with the movie or the relationship. Associative and iconic sources of emotion differ in that the former does not require the musical structures to resemble the external reference. Boxill’s (1985) notion of the “contact song” in music therapy is an example of associational source of emotion in that it can activate the emotions embedded within the therapeutic relationship and/or the emotional memories of previous sessions. In sum, music serves as a source of physiological arousal for emotional construction in combination with the cognitive, social, and behavioral processes of the musical context. Musical emotions, while differing in distinct adaptive functions, are similar to emotions elicited by other sources in terms of psychophysiological processes (Gomez & Danuser, 2007). Lastly, music can be linked with emotional processes through sources intrinsic to the music (i.e., structural) as well as extrinsic (i.e., representational and associative). 1st pass

Chapter 6

Emotions and Music in Personality Development Personality as a subfield within psychology has generated a wealth of research and theorizing over the past century,, and has been an important interest both in and outside of the discipline of psychology. An understanding of an individual’s personality allows one to predict tendencies toward certain behaviors, preferences, interests, goals, and motivations. This predictive power has value not only in clinical settings but in many facets of human functioning. Personality theories aim to explain the organization and stability of behaviors and personal experiences. Each theory offers a different view of the structure of personality organization. A central concept that is embedded within most models of personality is the notion of an individual “self.” William James (1890) was one of the first psychologists to discuss this concept. The term “identity” is often, but not always, used interchangeably with the terms “self” and “personality,” thus this construct has far-reaching applications and uses throughout the field of personality psychology. It should be noted however, that the actual concept of “self” is a western, culturally based notion that will vary depending upon the view of personality that one holds. Some philosophical views such as Buddhism may even question the existence of an actual self. Current views such as ecopsychology have extended the boundaries of the self to an extreme that include the natural ecology (Hillman, 1995) Sociocultural and family contexts play an important in the personality developmental of the individual. Each person develops “in relation” to others and these relationships form the basis of personality and shape its evolution. Personality as a construct is 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

122

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

juxtaposed at the meeting point between the biological-genetic forces within the individual and the socially constructed influences from the environment, and depends on the patterns of interaction between the two that unfold over time. Bronfenbrenner (1979) introduced the idea of individual development as occurring within multiple layers of overlapping ecological systems, such as the family, school, community, and larger society. In this way, one’s personality reflects aspects of the layers of the environment where the person developed. Clinical implications can be drawn here that suggest the importance of the interpersonal therapeutic space of the client-therapist encounter in personality change through therapy. Emotions as a central aspect of human functioning play an important role in the development of personality since affect is imbued within interpersonal interactions and social relationships. The capacity to regulate emotions and the behaviors that result from emotional states are central features in many models of personality. Disorders of personality and other clinical syndromes are often defined and expressed in terms of emotional functioning (i.e., labile, emotionally constricted, acting out). Pervin (1993) describes the role of emotions in various personality models and suggests that emotions play a significant role in determining the individual’s behavior and the situational context of that behavior. “The data suggested that individuals have patterns of stability and change in their behavior, and that these patterns can be understood largely in terms of the affective meaning of situations for them” (Pervin, 1993, p. 307). Personality factors will inevitably influence the thinking and decision-making processes of the therapist in the clinical situation. Particular aspects of clinical interventions may be based on the emotional needs of a client in light of the client’s personality configuration. The role of music in personality development, however, has received little attention. In part this may be due to the variety of musical styles across cultures, the diverse uses of music in different societies, and the numerous ways in which a developing person 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

123

may be exposed to music. While relationships are central to human functioning and therefore have been a focus of research in personality psychology, music has been more diverse, elusive, and less central than social relationships to human development. Nonetheless, as a facet of all human cultures, music can influence to varying degrees, the ecological systems within which individuals’ personalities develop. Each individual is a cultural being who contains and reflects aspects of his or her social and cultural worlds. To this extent, the music of a culture will be internalized and can represent aspects of individual personalities. This chapter will describe selected constructs from the broad array of personality and developmental theories that have relevance for clinical work. The models presented can be broadly described as process oriented models of personality in that they emphasize the interpersonal as well as the intrapersonal dynamic processes in personality functioning. Structural models of personality (i.e., trait theories) are less applicable to therapeutic approaches and are not considered here, although an examination of musical processes within particular personality traits would most certainly be a valuable investigation. The first three sections will be based upon three dynamically oriented models: (1) ego psychology, (2) object relations theory, and (3) attachment theory. Section four will consider the importance of brain development and interpersonal relationships. The next section will examine music in the context of infant-mother relationships. Finally, emotions and music will be examined together in the context of identity development. Implications for therapy can be drawn from the emphasis on the importance of relationships in personality development.

Ego Psychology and the Regulation of Emotion One of the most notable contributions to personality is the work of Sigmund Freud whose psychoanalytic models dominated the 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

124

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

first half the twentieth century, influenced several lines of personality theorizing, (Wiggins, 2003), and forms the basis for psychodynamic approaches to therapy. The models based on psychoanalytic thinking consider the unconscious processes of the mind and the dynamic quality of intrapersonal forces within a system. This model constitutes a “process” approach in that various dynamic processes occur such as the interactions between the child and caregiver, internal impulses in conflict with defenses and social constraints, or the process of symbolic meaning attributed to people and objects (i.e., the transference of a client toward a therapist). Psychodynamic is a broader term that refers to any model derived from the work of Freud whose own specific theory is referred to as psychoanalysis. Although psychodynamic models are considered “process” approaches, personality structures do develop as a result of continued interactions and experience. A central structure in the psychodynamic school is the ego (Blanck & Blanck, 1994). The ego is a broad hypothetical structure that includes various personality processes such as reality testing, rational thinking, regulation of affect (i.e., impulse control), defense mechanisms, sense of self, the capacity to integrate and synthesize experiences, self-efficacy (i.e., sense of competence and mastery) (Bellak, 1984). A major feature of the construct of ego, that is included in various definitions, is the capacity for self-regulation. The capacity to control oneself is an important dimension of personality, especially with regard to psychopathology and clinical work. An individual’s ability to regulate the intensity and the expression of his or her emotions is often a gauge of therapeutic progress. Emotions are embedded within psychodynamic thinking with regard to unconscious impulses striving for expression, defenses mechanisms that work to contain and modulate such expressions, and the symbolic meanings of actions that contain emotional tones. For example, the defense mechanism of displacement involves acting out aggressions toward a person or object that is different from the original object of aggression. Thus the emotional 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

125

state (i.e., anger) would remain the same, however, the expression of that state would be “displaced” from one object (i.e., an abusive parent) to another (i.e., a peer). Projection involves the perception of intentions, emotions, or traits in others that one finds unacceptable in the self. The emotional quality of disgust would be present in that a person would repel qualities in the self that are disturbing (i.e., weakness, aggression) and “project” these qualities onto others, even to the extent that they distort the realistic perception of others. The abilities of emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) to be discussed in chapter 9 are conceptually similar with the functions of the ego (Pellitteri, 2003). These abilities involve openness and engagement with emotional states as well as socially adaptive expression of emotions. The capacity to regulate emotions therefore, is an indicator of “ego strength” and adequate levels of ego functioning. It is interesting to note that many psychodynamic processes have been examined in the context of cognitive psychology (i.e., unconscious thought processes, regulation, self-efficacy). Cognitive processes (for example self-talk) that are subsumed within the construct of ego are means of regulating and modifying emotions. The child-parent relationship is critical in the development of the ego. The parent serves as the child’s ego for the first several years by providing regulatory functions (i.e., a mother holds and soothes the distressed infant until he calms down). This parental role gradually shifts and fades as the developing child slowly acquires the capacities for self-soothing and self-regulation. Music, as described below, can be used as a tool for the soothing function that parents provide for infants. Lullabies create a calm and relaxed emotional tone in the environment that is important in the infant’s emotional regulation. Noy (1979/1990) notes how the form in music and other artistic mediums serves as an ego in the process of adaptation of the individual to reality. The work of the music therapist can foster ego development through increasing the capacity for impulse control and tolerance 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

126

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

for frustration. The therapist herself may need to function as an ego for the client. Since the structure of music involves tensions and release, prolonging the degree of dissonance and tension during a musical improvisation will extend the amount of time and self-control the client needs to exert. For example, in my work with emotionally disturbed preschool children, one activity was to place a drum in front of each child at different times during the song, giving them the opportunity to strike it once to the beat of the song. The children did not know when their turn would come, which required that they be attentive and ready. For one boy with impulse-control problems, I intentionally increased the amount of time in between his turns in order to gradually extend the length of time that he would wait. As the therapy progressed, it was noted that he would be able to wait in his seat without getting up for longer periods of time. This is an indicator that his capacity for emotional regulation (and thus his ego strength) had increased. (A behaviorist explanation of this intervention will be discussed in chapter 7). It is important to note that during states of arousal, children with dysregulation problems often have diminished selfcontrol. The capacity for this boy to wait his turn during the excitement of the music making was especially significant. It is not only the structure of the music itself, but the structure of music therapy groups that can provide opportunities to practice selfregulation. It requires adequate ego functioning on the part of each member in order to participate cooperatively, to wait for one’s turn, to respond to the musical input of others, and to express one’s feelings within the appropriate confines of the music.

Emotions and Internalization in Object Relations Theory A personality theory that extends from psychoanalysis and is very closely related to ego psychology is object relations theory. The

1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

127

basic premise of this model is the examination ofsignificant others, predominantly the mother in early infant development, who become internalized and unconsciously represented in the child’s mind. These internalized objects create the structure of personality, and influence future relationships with others and patterns of interacting with the world. What is generally agreed upon about these internal images is that they constitute a residue within the mind of relationships with important people in the individual’s life. In some way crucial exchanges with others leave their mark; they are “internalized” and so come to shape subsequent attitudes, reactions, perceptions, and so on. (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983, p. 11) Emotions play a significant role in the internalization process in that they determine if the object (i.e., significant person) is represented as a “good object” or a “bad object.” Significant interactions over a period of time between the infant and caretaker that are characterized by pleasant emotional qualities (calm, soothing, happy, comfortable) will lead the internal representation of the caretaker to be associated with positive emotions. Likewise, abusive or negligent experiences between a child and caretaker will arouse stress, anxiety, fear, pain, and helplessness in the child. These emotional qualities will come to color the internal representation of the caretaker as a “bad object.” Note that the emotional world of infants is limited generally to a pleasant-unpleasant pole since the cognitive capacity for more complex mental representations has not yet developed. The internal-object world of each individual comes to be the core of the personality. The sense of “self” is comprised of these internal images such that a client with a poor self-concept or negative self-image has a preponderance of negative internalized objects. That is, in the developmental process there were a greater

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

128

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

number and/or a greater intensity of negative emotional experiences within the child-caretaker relationship. It is not just the image of the significant other, but the emotional tone of the relationship that is stored in memory and tagged onto the object image. Relationships with others are influenced by the activation of internal objects during the interpersonal exchange. A client who has extreme difficulties relating to other people may have internal objects of poor quality that are unstable. Defense mechanisms, aimed at reducing anxiety, can interfere with the accurate perceptions of others. In an interpersonal encounter, a person with severe psychopathology may be interacting with the projection of his internal object more than with the real and actual person in front of him. In this way, negative emotions enter the actual interpersonal field but might appear irrational or unwarranted to others since the emotional elicitors (i.e., the projected object of the psychiatric patient) are not apparent. Odell-Miller (2003) describe how music can be used within psychodynamic frameworks. She emphasizes the benefits of spontaneous and creative interactions within improvisation, and the development of an authentic relationship that is more in line with current psychoanalytic treatment approaches. “Live musical interaction through improvisation is like an active communication that requires some effort, but at the same time taps into the spontaneous flexibility of the brain to adapt and even manipulate its surroundings” (Odell-Miller, 2003, p. 165). The experience of emotions through musical improvisation in the context of therapeutic relationships allows the client to externalize the introjected objects. Priestly (1975) notes how improvisation can lead to an emotional conflict with disavowed aspects of the self. Through an analytic approach to improvisation, the client in relationship to the therapist, can repair the quality of internal objects. More importantly, the constructive process of mutual creative music making allows for the client to internalize the therapist as a “good” object and thus create a constant image with positive emotional tones that can bring stability and more adaptive functioning. 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

129

Emotions in Early Attachment Styles The role of the mother in personality development is significant since she is the primary relationship that begins even before birth through the biological uteral connection. This primary relationship with the main caretaker sets a structure for relationships that influences future psychosocial development. To use a computer metaphor, the primary relationship “formats” the computer program of the infant’s brain and influences how data is stored and processed. The brain is shaped by early relational experiences (Schore, 1994). The work of researchers John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth has found robust empirical support for the construct of attachment (Cassidy & Shaver, 1999). Infants and young children develop attachments to their primary caretakers and these attachments influence their relationships as well as adaptive behaviors later in life. The patterns of “attachment behaviors” in young children range from the degree of clinging to the parent to independent autonomous exploration of the environment. The designs of initial studies on attachment used the “strange situation” scenario that involved observations of how the young child (1 to 2 years old) reacted when the mother left the child alone in the laboratory room and then how they reacted when the mother returned a few minutes later. The patterns of reactions differed (from overt distress to indifference) and were related to the emotional availability of the caretaker. The children developed what is referred to as “internal working models” that are implicit cognitive structures of the self and expectations of others. There are several models of attachment that propose different numbers of types. The Bartholomew model (as cited in Feeney, 1999) presented four main types of attachment that are based on a combination of positive-negative beliefs about the self and others. These attachment styles are labeled: secure, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful. In a secure attachment style, the child would be slightly anxious 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

130

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

when the caretaker leaves but happy upon her return. This style predicted the best psychosocial adjustment in later years. For a preoccupied style (also referred to as dependent), the child would be extremely anxious upon the caretaker’s departure and clinging to her upon her return. These children tended to stay close to the caretaker and were hesitant to explore the environment for fear of abandonment. In the dismissing style (also referred to as avoidant), the child does not appear distressed upon the mother’s departure and seems disinterested when she returns. Subsequent studies indicated that in this style the child does not appear to show any signs of distress, however, physiological measures revealed that the children’s heart rates and other signs of anxiety increased (Strouf et al., 2005). They therefore experience negative and unpleasant emotions but use defense mechanisms to repress these feelings as a means of protection from the expectation of abandonment. The fearful attachment style (also referred to as disorganized) involves a mixture of the avoidant and dependent styles. Children with this style tended to be the most maladjusted and had higher incidents of psychopathology. Table 6.1 illustrates each style and the accompanying beliefs of self and other. Negative view of others

Positive view of others

Dismissing (Avoidant)

Secure

Fearful (Disorganized)

Preoccupied (Dependent)

Positive view of self

Negative view of self

Table 6.1. Attachment styles based on cognitions of self and others Each of the three insecure styles has been associated with different problems in the qualities of caretaker relationships and different emotional themes that characterize the interpersonal field those relationships. In the preoccupied style, mothers tended to 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

131

be overly anxious and would resist or inhibit the child’s natural curiosity to explore the environment. Fear is a predominant emotion in the child-parent relationship. In the dismissing style, the parents tended to be neglectful or disengaged. The inconsistencies in the emotional availability of the parent led the child to feel abandoned or to expect abandonment. The defensive repression of emotions in the avoidant child is a means of buffering further disappointment and sadness. Dismissing children also appear to experience anger or resentment at the parent for not being consistently available. Children who exhibited the fearful style of attachment tended to have experienced abuse. The excessive degree of stress and trauma overwhelms the young child’s capacity for coping and creates severe deficits in personality organization. Although attachment theory grows out of the psychodynamic tradition, there are clear cognitive components within it. As a result of the child-caretaker relationship, each individual develops positive or negative beliefs about the self and about others that unconsciously affect all other relationships. The view of the self determines if the person believes that he or she is worthy of love from others. The views of others determine whether the individual believes that other people can be trusted and available. These unconscious cognitive structures (internal working models) are the same as the implicit memories described in chapter 4 and can become internal elicitors of emotions in relational situations. Attachment behaviors are activated when a partner in an adult relationship perceives the other as either abandoning or being “too close for comfort.” A therapist working with a client can infer the underlying cognitions based on the style of attachment that is presented. This can guide the focus of clinical interventions toward restructuring the underlying cognitions about self and/or others. A client with a dismissing (avoidant) style would require experiences that build the trust in the therapist and in others. A preoccupied (dependent) client needs to experience him or herself as positive and to be able to function more autonomously and independently. A 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

132

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

client with a fearful (disorganized) attachment style would require a particularly safe environment where positive experiences of the self and others can occur.

Interpersonal Experiences and Brain Development Ego psychology, object relations theory, and attachment theory are based on the premise that the relationship with the caretakers is central to the development of personality. The ongoing patterns of transactions between child and caretaker over the period of these formative years of life lead to the development of various personality structures. In ego psychology the structure is the capacity for self-regulation and adaptation to the world, in object relations theory it is the internal images that become part of the self and influence perceptions of others, and in attachment theory it is the cognitive template for self and others that guides future relationships. These personality structures rest upon the neural networks of various brain regions and processes. In other words, the mental representations of self and the processes of regulatory capacities of personality are processes of brain activation. The consistency of these dynamic patterns of neurological arousal form the “structure” of personality in these process-oriented theories. It is commonly accepted that these patterns of brain processes were shaped by the early relational experiences with caretakers. Allan Schore’s (1994) seminal work on the neurobiology of emotional development describes how the early relationships between an infant and mother shape various regions of the brain that are responsible for emotional regulation and personality functioning. The structures of the brain are not set at birth but develop and differentiate by the patterns of experiences in the early years of life. The brain is “experience-dependent” in terms of its maturational growth, that is, the environmental stimuli that impinge upon infants’ senses stimulate the differentiation and development of particular regions and networks of the brain. The caretakers are 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

133

not only the moderators of the interactions between the infant and his or her environment, but in some ways are the actual environment for the newborn. By mediating and modulating environmental input, the primary caretaker supplies the “experience” required for the experience-dependent maturation of a structural system responsible for the regulation of the individual’s socioemotional function. By providing well modulated sociaffective stimulation, the mother facilitates the growth of connections between the cortical limbic and subcortical limbic structures that neurobiologically mediate self-regulatory functions . . . This regulatory capacity allows for a continued expansion of the affect array—the emergence of more intense discrete affects and then a blending of these affects into more complex emotions—over the stages of childhood. The core of the self lies in the patterns of affect regulation that integrate a sense of self across state transitions, thereby allowing for a continuity of inner experience. Dyadic failures [between mother and infant] of affect regulation result in the developmental psychopathology that underlies various forms of later forming psychiatric disorders. (Schore, 1994, p. 33) The primary caretaker therefore plays a significant role in stimulating the brain of the infant to allow adequate capacity for emotional regulation. This capacity to modulate the intensity of affective states is critical for the formation of the self as a personality structure. The caretaker as a surrogate “ego” for the infant initially provides this regulatory function through soothing, caring, and calming the infant when distressed, but also by providing stimulation, arousal, and exciting experiences as well. As the child’s brain matures these regulatory capacities become autonomous and require less of the caretakers assistance. Thus the 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

134

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

ego structure of personality is developed. The young child has learned to regulate his or her own affective states, to negotiate between wishes and the constraints of reality, and to control impulses and the expression of emotional states. These capacities are essential for the preschool and school-age years when the psychosocial demands that involve peer interactions and adherence to social rules require the regulation of emotions. Failures in the caretaker—infant relationship such as abuse, neglect, extreme inconsistencies, confusing or mixed messages — will damage the developing personality structures by formatting the associated neural circuits in dysfunctional ways. Exposure to stress and trauma activates the fight-or-flight response in the individual by releasing the H-P-A hormones that mobilize the body for such threats. Continued exposure to threat causes excessive amount of H-P-A to be present in the physiological system that affect the neural wiring in these developing children (Davies, 2004). Therefore the brains of abused children will be different that those of children who developed under adequate conditions. The importance of infant-caretaker relationships for development has been supported from research in various disciplines such as neuroscience, infant research, and psychoanalysis (Schore, 1994). The role of emotion, particularly positive emotion, in these interpersonal and developmental processes is central. The intricate affective dimensions of the mother-infant interaction have therefore been a focus of study. It is in this area where music can be seen as having a direct and significant impact upon personality development.

Music and Maternal Attunement Maternal attunement requires that the caretaker is aligned emotionally with the infant. There must be a receptiveness to the subtle signs and signals that indicate the emotional state of the infant and responsiveness to the immediate needs of the child in that 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

135

moment. Communication involves multiple modalities: facial gaze, vocal tones, eye contact, kinesthetic input. This multisensory input enters the infant’s sensory channels and activates the respective brain networks that process and integrate such information. A mother’s smiling face will facilitate smiling in the infant. Cross modal transfer occurs when the infant’s visual sense modality receives input (i.e., seeing the mother’s smile) and transfers this information to a motor modality (i.e., the infant moves her facial muscles to create a smile) Likewise, vocalizations will lead to the infant’s sound production. The infant and mother mimic each other and reflect identical facial expressions and emotional tones. The mother is influenced by the infant’s reactions and therefore adjusts her expressions. The communication is reciprocal and mutually influencing each participant. In this way they are in synchrony, in “harmony” and “in tune” to use musical terms (that are actually more than metaphorical). Siegel (1999) describes such engagement as “resonance between two people’s states of mind: mutual influence of each person’s state on that of the other” (P.88). Attunement requires more than just matching the infant’s states. It requires that the caretaker disengage when too much sensory input needs to be processed. At these moments, infant studies have noted, the infant exhibits a “gaze aversion” where he or she looks away and the attuned mother discontinues the stimulation at that moment (Schore, 1994; Siegel, 1999). When the infant reestablishes a gaze toward the caretaker indicating the need for more stimulation the mother reestablishes the connection. Such modulations in the amount of stimuli allow the infant time to process the multimodal sensory information. Too much continuous stimulation may overwhelm the infant, who then becomes distressed or disengages without attempts to reengage. Likewise, too little stimulation will not reflect, amplify, or reinforce the affective states of the infant, thus lessening the level of affectivity to a suboptimal degree. This modulating function on the part of the caretaker is related 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

136

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

to complexity theory as described in chapter 5. An optimal degree of sensory information input will maximize the individual’s capacities to process and integrate such information. Like attuned parents, a music therapist must be highly sensitive to the subtle nuances and cues in the client that indicate a need to increase or decrease stimulation. Keeping the stimulation at an optimal level, whether it is facial and vocal cues in a mother-infant engagement or musical stimuli during a clinical improvisation, also conveys to the individual that the environment is tolerable and not overwhelming or uninteresting. In this way, the therapist in a clinical session and the mother in an infant’s world are gatekeepers of the immediate environment. A major role of each is to control the amount and type of information flow impacting the developing person. Attunement creates a resonance where each person is opened to being influenced by the other. Shifts in the affect of one person are followed by equivalent shifts in the other’s affect. Such interpersonal processes convey to the individual that his or her emotions have an impact upon the environment, specifically on the other person who feels the emotion of the individual. Empathy allows each mind to be in a congruent emotional state with the mind of the other. “It permits the two individuals’ minds to enter a form of resonance in which each is able to ‘feel felt’ by the other” (Siegel, 1999, p. 89). This process of empathy is a critical component in the emotional development of children as well as in therapy. Various treatment approach include empathy as a central component such as Humanistic therapy (Rogers, 1961), Self Psychology (Kohut, 1977), Interpersonal psychotherapy (Teyber, 2006) and Martial Arts Therapy (Dealy, 1993). The interpersonal engagement of attunement can be described as a musical duet of the infant-mother dyad. Many of the dimensions of this intimate interpersonal space have musical qualities. The expressions of each participant in the dyad are “in tune” in the way that musical tones are in tune and vibrate at the same frequency. There is harmony suggesting a congruent and consonant resounding of each person (or musically each tone) in a meaning1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

137

ful relationship. The mother is keeping “rhythm” with the changes in the infant’s engagement and gaze aversions. The interactions flow in a temporal sequence across time. Like the dynamics of music, there are increasing and decreasing periods of emotional intensity. The attunement moments parallel musical improvisations in many respects. The use of music by mothers in their attunement with their infants is universal and connects to our human heritage. Motherese—the singsong type of speaking that mothers use to engage infants—has a melodic quality and musical form (Dissanayake, 2000). The musical elements of mother-infant interactions, whether in the melodic contours of speech or in actual lullaby songs, convey emotional meaning to the infant. Dissanayake, (2000) proposes the idea that music evolved predominantly because of these mother-infant interactions. With hominid evolution and the increased need for affiliation and attachment these early relationships with caretakers became more significant. In this way, music has the direct function of creating emotional experiences for the infant and developing a rudimentary basis for emotional regulation, which is a major facet of personality development as well as for society’s evolution. The caretaker is the “ego” for the infant, the first “object” and the “secure base” of the primary attachment relationship. The caretaker is the gatekeeper between the developing infant and the environment. In this way, music in the mother-infant bond, serves not only as the representation of the environment, but in many respects the environment itself. The soft, gentle, and consistent qualities of children’s lullaby songs influence the physiological processes in the infant and create a calm and soothing emotional tone. This in turn conveys the message that the environment is safe. This feeling of safety is critical in the internalization process of significant objects as well as the development of secure attachments. In the same way, exciting and happy music stimulates and arouses the infant in a controlled and structured manner. The arousal of positive emotions in the context of a safe environment 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

138

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

establishes a range of affective intensities and is necessary for the regulation of affect as occurs in moments of maternal attunement. Gohm and Clore (2002) emphasize how affect is information about the environment. Music can be an important source of affective information about the new and unknown world of the infant. It not only establishes an emotional tone about the world but, in many respects, it can also structure the world. The forms of songs, with repetitive motifs, creates predictability and expectations. A steady rhythm establishes pulse and continuity. Melody is a spatial feature that leads the listener through the narrative of the song. Music establishes a regulatory pattern that creates expectations of what is to come, introduces variations that may disrupt the expectation, and offers heightened affective moments that are more salient than others (Dissanayake, 2000). In sum, musical elements communicate emotional information to the infant. Music structures moments of interpersonal interactions and contributes to attunement with caretakers. It can serve as a link between the infant and the larger environment, and creates positive and safe qualities to the external world that will become internalized as part of the infant’s sense of self.

Implications for the Client-Therapist Relationship A basic clinical implication that can be drawn from processoriented personality models and the research in brain development and attunement is that the client-therapist relationship is central. The therapeutic encounter can replicate the parent-child relationship through the attunement of the musical relationship. The concept of a corrective emotional experience (Gill, 1982) suggests that as a result of the experience of the relationship with the therapist, the client will have learned new patterns of relating and a new experience of the self in relationship to another. These therapeutic experiences will activate the brain processes associated with self and others only with a more positive emotional tone allowing, to 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

139

the extent possible, a restructuring of the mental representations contained within the mind. Siegel (1999, p. 335) described how the “resonance” that can develop within the interactions between two individuals activates brain processes and influences the capacity for neural integration of brain regions. However, if the client’s brain has developed differently to incorporate the dysfunctional interpersonal patterns of early childhood, then the tasks of the therapist are much more complicated. Development has occurred despite early trauma or deprivation, but has move along a dysfunctional trajectory rather than an optimal one. Clients will need to learn strategies for emotional regulation since the early emotional world was inadequately unreliable or unpredictable. Emotions convey information about the environment, especially about a “mismatch” between expectations of the environment. A social world with excessive mismatches would lead to excessively negative and intense emotions that would likely overwhelm the regulatory capacities of young developing children. The music therapist can use the subtle nuances of emotional dynamics within the intricate interactions of the immediate moment to provide increasingly challenging opportunities to regulate emotional experiences. Slight moments of dissonance for example, can be tolerated by a highly sensitive client in the supportive bond of the therapeutic relationship. Intentionally creating and increasing the dissonance in the music challenges the client and forces him or her to adapt to the emotional experience. When the challenges come close to the edge of the client’s capacity (the zone of proximal development), then the therapist needs to reduce the challenge and reestablish stability. A theory of emotional response to music in terms of “musical expectations” has clear explanatory value in relation to Frijda’s (1986) notion of emotions as a function of monitoring match and mismatch. Most compositional systems, such as the tonal system, provide a set of dimensions that establish psychological distance 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

140

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

from a “home” or “stability point.” Proximity or approach to this resting point involves reduction of tension; distance or departure involves increase of tension. Distance can be measured on a number of dimensions, including rhythm and meter (strong beats are stable, weak beats and syncopations are unstable), and tonality (the tonic is stable, non-diatonic notes are unstable). . . These features provide reference points against which the emotional system can plausibly compute match or mismatch in terms of envisaged end points. (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001, p. 92). The tonal center may be more than the “home” that establishes a reference point and harmonic meaning for the other tones in the key. On a psychodynamic level, the tonal center may be the emotional “home” of the therapeutic relationship. In attachment terms it is the secure base from where the toddler explores the environment, but has the knowledge that he or she can return. In this way, the therapist uses the musical system (and the projective symbolic meaning that it can represent) to influence emotional dynamics. The emotional processes at this level may be unconscious for the client. However, as the restructuring of the client’s inner emotional world takes place, noticeable changes become overt in terms of behavior and musical patterns.

Emotions and Music in Identity Development Identity consists of the multiple internalized experiences throughout childhood and the life span. Erik Erikson (1968) was famous for studying ego identity and described adolescence as a critical period of the identity development. The intrapersonal structures of identity rest upon self-representation (Harter, 2003) that are influenced by sociocultural forces. One cannot understand an individual’s personality without considering the cultural and social 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

141

context in which the person has developed. Family contexts are particularly potent forces in that individual identity emerges through the relationships and the separation process with family members. Grotevant and Cooper (1998) describe the importance the balance of individuality with interpersonal connections during the process of adolescent identity development. Narratives—the stories that individuals tell about themselves to others and to themselves—have come to be viewed as the essential substance of the elusive and almost indefinable construct referred to as the “self” (Bruner, 2004). The life stories that individuals tell are constantly being revised and re-written over the course of a life time. In this way, the self—one’s identity—is fluid and ever changing with the impact of events and experiences in one’s life. From this perspective, we are continuously inventing and creating our selves. Since stories can change and emphasize various aspects of a theme, they are filled not only with our histories, but also with the potential for future selves. Verbal psychotherapies are, in many ways, opportunities for the individual client to tell his or her story. The process of verbal exchange may be therapeutic in that it allows the client to clarify aspects of her narrative, take multiple perspectives of her story, elucidate underlying meanings, and ultimately rework her narrative to create a more meaningful life. Emotions serve a role in this complex process of identity development in that they come to color the building blocks of selfconcept as well as the themes of life narratives. A developing child internalizes the words and experiences of his or her world. The emotions associated with others’ statements about the child eventually become associated with the child’s self-statements and later the characteristics of the child’s self-concept. Throughout childhood, individuals are exposed to almost an infinite number of comments from significant others in their environments. Statements like: “He is a good athlete,” “She is so smart,” “You will never amount to anything,” “She is so shy” will contain explicit and implicit emotional meanings that can be positive or negative. These 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

142

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

statements become internalized and slip into an unconsciously encoded format in the brain to construct an implicit cognitive architecture of the self. Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes how language precedes thought, that is, children repeat the words they hear in their worlds and these words become the thoughts and beliefs of the young child’s mind. Language, therefore, is a necessary capacity for self-concept. Emotions are also central in the self-evaluation process that forms the basis of self-esteem. A client with a poor self-esteem has internalized messages with negative emotional associations. Therapists and other adults in the world of children should be particularly sensitive to the language and messages that are conveyed to children since these messages format the brains and evolving personality structures. Controlling the emotional tone of a child’s environment maximizes the opportunities for the construction of a positive and healthy sense of self. It is not only verbal information from others but feedback from experiences that shape self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. The feelings of pride after the accomplishment of a difficult task become absorbed into one’s sense of self. Identity then, in many ways is the container of a lifetime of experiences that are interwoven and integrated into the themes of one’s life story. With regards to therapy, the emotional experiences of the therapeutic process can become internalized into the self-system and exert an influence upon the client and how he or she constructs narratives. This process parallels (and in many ways is synonymous with) previously described internalization processes of ego psychology, object relations, and attachment theories. One can conceptualize the whole therapy phenomena as a contiguous series of experiences that gradually influence the client’s way of being as these experiences become integrated into the dynamic self-system of the client. It is helpful to think not about one particular intervention during a specific session that was therapeutic, but rather what impact will the whole process of treatment have on the life of the individual. Central to the success of the therapy is the emotionally rich therapeutic relationship. 1st pass

Emotions and Music in Personality Development

143

Music can play varying roles in the identity construction process. Since music is culturally based, it reflects the larger social system that is the ecology of an individual’s development. Qualities of particular musical genres represent a person’s world and may come to influence how he or she perceives and approaches the world. Consider the different worldviews of a Western-EuropeanClassical music tradition from that of American jazz music to the various folk and indigenous styles of music from around the world. The different feelings within each style both embody and come to shape the culture. Since identity is culturally embedded, then music has the potential to contribute to the complex tapestry of the self. Adolescence is a critical period for identity development so it is no wonder that musical preferences are generally important to many teenagers. During this stage, adolescents explore various identities and work toward a decision of how they want to be in the world. The choice of music is a public statement of one’s affiliation with a particular social group, value system, and worldview. Musical preference is an expression of self in adolescent development. The various types of identity—gender, sexual, racial, etc.— become more pronounced at this stage. Regarding music Sloboda and O’Neill (2001) refer to research on gender differences in the uses of music in adolescence: “Girls were more likely to report that music could be used as a means of mood regulation, whereas boys reported that music could be a means of creating an external impression with others” (p. 424). For the therapist, musical preference and patterns of music making can be reflective of the individual self. Given a basic premise of music therapy—that improvisation is an expression of the self—the way the individual creates music corresponds to the way that he or she approaches the world. It is important to keep a fluid and dynamic view of each individual client, whose narrative can (and most likely will) change over time to activate potential aspects of the self. In the same way that the client can be viewed as a multidimensional work of art, so must the clinician keep in mind 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

144

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FOUNDATIONS

the undeveloped potential and “possible selves” of the client. Musical improvisations are continually filled with possibilities. When a client explores the world of sound and experiments with the almost infinite ways to create music, she is practicing autonomy in the exertion of herself through the musical creations. Exploring the imagination through therapeutic improvisation parallels the larger process of identity exploration and development. Song writing activities can embody and directly express a client’s identity, and be a means of telling a story about the individual. Changes in the client’s style of making music and/or themes in song writing can reflect development of identity, expansion of the self, and progress in therapy. Musical qualities can also be considered as representations of personality. While theories of personality traits have not been examined here, the notion that each person is “musical” may be a worthwhile consideration in the assessment of the client. Individuals can be described more or less as predominantly “rhythmic— either smooth or choppy in their movements as well as their mannerisms, “melodic” in their speech as well as expressions, “dynamic”—as loud or soft in their presentations to the world, or as having a “tempo” with regard to the rapidity or lethargy of their energy and movement. Since the individual self is a dynamic system and music is a dynamic medium, then the qualities of music can more than represent the person, but actually be emotive and energetic expressions of the individual’s being.

1st pass

PART THREE

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Chapter 7

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy The major goal of this book is to examine emotional processes as they operate in clinical music therapy. Previous chapters have provided frameworks for examining music and emotions and described the psychophysiological foundations that link them. Building upon these foundations, this chapter will describe how emotional dynamics are embedded in the flow of the clinical process and how music itself can facilitate emotional processes. The three frameworks for the therapeutic process presented in chapter 1 will be integrated here to guide the discussion of clinical process. The psychological field theory model in particular will be used to frame the numerous levels of intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics between the client and therapist. From the scientific perspective, emotions are dynamic processes that are comprised of intersecting psychophysiological systems. For the artist, emotions can be a source of poetic inspiration, a driving force, or an energy that is equated with life itself. The aesthetic frame of the client allows the music therapist to embrace both perspectives within the therapeutic encounter. It may be helpful now to revisit Bruscia’s (1998) definition of music therapy: “Music therapy is a systematic process of intervention wherein the therapist helps the client to promote health, using music experiences and the relationships that develop through them as dynamic forces of change” (p. 20). As mentioned in chapter 1, emotions are contained in musical experiences as well as in relationships. In this way, emotions are the dynamics of the therapy and the therapist with an emotion focus has a passageway to deeper understandings of these dynamics. Given the importance of emotions on various levels, such a 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

148

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

central focus would be beneficial for understanding client behavior and motivation, establishing the therapeutic relationship, facilitating therapeutic change, and promoting adaptive well-being. Music therapists need not abandon their current approaches to clinical work, but rather can enhance their work through a more precise, complex, and multifaceted focus on emotional processes. The emotional focus has implications for making choices in the therapeutic moments of a session, for perceiving the potentials for client improvement, and for treatment planning and goal setting. The first section of the chapter revisits the field theory frame of therapy as a means of assessment and conceptualizing the interpersonal encounter with the client. Section two describes music within the four steps of emotional process (elicitors, states, expressions and experiences). The next section examines how music can be used to intervene at each of the four psychophysiological levels to influence emotional processes. In section four, the role of emotion in clinical decision making at choice points will be examined, and the importance of flexibility and clinical acuity will be emphasized. The last section will consider changes in emotions and in musical behaviors as indicators of outcomes and generalizability.

The Therapeutic Field of the Client-Therapist Encounter The client-therapist encounter has been framed as an integrated field where each part of the system can affect the whole. In a parallel manner to the aesthetic frame of the client, where multiple systems and dimensions operate simultaneously within one person, the psychological field of the clinical session has multiple dimensions. This interpersonal space is created in the therapy session, and is a rich source of emotional and dynamic information for the therapist. A music therapist working from such a frame allows for multiple perspectives in assessment, intervention, and 1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

149

interpretation. Based on the Gestalt psychology construct of Lewin’s (1951/1997) field theory, the field approach to therapy enables many psychotherapeutic approaches to be embraced without conflict. Unconscious forces from a psychoanalytic perspective, reinforcing stimuli from a behavioral model, and personal needs and values from a humanistic view can be considered together as equivalent forces influencing the field. The common criteria or end product of these field “forces” is measured by their impact on client behavior and motivation. The field theory model gives the therapist a wide and all encompassing range of factors to consider in a comprehensive manner. Kenny (1989) applies the field as a metaphor for the interpersonal space of the music therapy session. An important advantage of the field theory model is that both the internal states of the client and therapist (intrapersonal forces) and the external factors (interpersonal and physical forces) are considered in combination. Therefore the emotional state of the therapist is a force that can influence the field along with the physical stimuli of the musical instruments. Both will have an impact as the strength and direction of these forces will combine to determine client behavior. For example, a client may be initially drawn to a drum (a force motivating approach behaviors), however, if the therapist displays discouragement, his or her emotional expression may serve as a counteracting force (with an opposite direction) that stops the client’s approach behaviors. If the force of client’s motivation is stronger than the force of the therapist’s counterforce then approach behaviors will occur but with a lessened intensity. Similarly, if a client is hesitant to approach and take an instrument (i.e., a weak force to approach) but the therapist offers encouragement, then the positive emotional expression of the therapist offers a force in the same direction that combines and strengthens the client’s approach behaviors. These examples serve to illustrate how different forces in the field can interact to influence behavior. Emotional expressions are major factors in the field model since positive and negative emotions serve to create the direction of the force—leading behavior toward or away from 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

150

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

a goal. In addition, the positive or negative emotions associated with goals make those goals more or less desirable. In order to work from a field theory model, the music therapist must first prepare the space for the clinical encounter. Awareness of the stimulus environment allows for the therapist to better understand the client’s intrapersonal world through observing the client’s reactions to different stimuli. Such assessment of the client in the life space of the therapy session sets the ground for the clinical encounter. The psychological field can be divided into four main areas that provide stimuli and potential forces in the field. These areas are the: (1) physical environment, (2) intrapersonal space of the therapist, (3) intrapersonal space of the client, and (4) interpersonal space between the two participants. These last two areas (the intrapersonal space of the client and the interpersonal space) cannot be considered until the client enters the room at which point the psychological field immediately changes. In order to prepare for the therapeutic encounter before the session, the clinician can assess the physical space and his or her own intrapersonal world.

The stimulus environment The physical environment is the space where the therapy session will be conducted. It is comprised of its characteristics and visual stimuli. The adequacy of the physical space will influence the physical closeness and distance between the client and therapist, and offer room for creative movement during the session. Extraneous objects in the room will provide stimuli that may engage or distract the client. The musical instruments will ideally be the major stimuli available, which will spark the client’s interest and motivate engagement in music making. The music therapist must consider what instruments need to be available initially (too many can perhaps be overwhelming for clients with attention deficits or may distract clients from an opening activity as in the case of group therapy). The range of instruments available set the range of tones 1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

151

and timbres that can be available as resources in the session. In controlling the stimuli of the physical environment, the clinician controls the possible behaviors that may or may not unfold once the session starts. The physical space is comprised of any visual overt stimuli in the room such as chairs, empty space, and the musical instruments. Certain aspects such as the size of the room usually cannot be controlled, while others can (i.e., the availability of instruments). The therapist him- or herself is also a physical stimuli in the therapy space. Identifying characteristics such as the age, gender, ethnic/racial features, and physical/body features cannot be controlled and are subject to a response from the client. Style of dress and the interpersonal behaviors of the therapist however are stimuli that and be controlled. The intrapersonal space of the therapist is the second part of the field to be prepared before the clinical encounter. The therapist’s own emotional state is a significant factor that influences the interpersonal field. Emotions are contagious and a negative emotional mood in the therapist is not likely to be conducive to effective therapy if it is allowed to emerge. Emotions determine where we direct attention and influence our cognitive processing (Schwarz, 2002). In this way, in order to properly prepare for the therapeutic encounter, the therapist must be “in tune” with his or her own inner dynamics, and potential conflicts, biases, or issues, and work to contain these forces during the session. One can never completely be aware of every intrapersonal dynamic and inevitably the distorting type of countertransference may emerge through the clinical process. Likewise one cannot predict how a client may respond to the stimuli environment as we have arranged it since we cannot know the clients emotional state prior to entering the session. Awareness of the social-emotional stimuli as well as the physical stimuli will enable the clinician to have a ground for comparison and analysis of the client’s reactions once in the room. An intricate understanding of one’s own personality style also provides a point of comparison as clients will react differently to different 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

152

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

people. Particular personality characteristics may set off a transference reaction in the client. The emotional process focus in the therapeutic field considers how emotions are the interface between a person and his or her environment. The music therapist therefore controls the environment as best as he or she can in order to provide an optimal condition for therapeutic engagement. The emotional qualities of the therapist are notable forces that will shape this interpersonal space. Emotional awareness on the part of the therapist is therefore essential not only for the preparation but for understanding how the interpersonal dynamics unfold. The therapist can try to anticipate the possible potentials (desirable and not desirable) that may occur, but as always, must be prepared to respond to a new and unexpected clinical situations that do not fit into any predicted pattern.

The therapeutic encounter The intrapersonal space of the client is a central part of the psychological field since therapeutic progress will depend upon changes within the client even if clinical outcomes are measured by behavioral indicators. Once the client enters the therapy room the psychological field is changed by his or her presence. The clinician now has the task of determining what state the client is in and engaging the client in the process. The assessment of emotional states is inferred from behaviors and affective indicators. The first level of assessment can be more general as the therapist gets an impression or a sense of the client’s level of activity and emotional output. This informal assessment includes an amalgam of physical movements, facial expressions, vocal tone, verbalizations, eye contact, and other signs. The client’s general emotional state on the dimensions model (i.e., the four-quadrant mood meter) can be inferred (positive verses negative and high verse low energy). To the extent that the therapist is familiar with the client, he or she can compare the current energy level to previous pat1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

153

terns. Is the client particularly high in energy today compared to other days? Is this client always high in energy? It the client’s level of emotional energy notably lower than usual? Is the current emotional intensity level indicative of the client’s trait personality or is it a state reflecting a recent incident? Answers to these questions will direct the clinical decisions to be made and may warrant further exploration into the client’s emotional states. The meaning of the clients energy level and specific emotional state must be interpreted against existing knowledge of the client’s clinical history (with the current therapist and in general), the client’s personality structures, his or her capacities for regulation, insight and expression, the presenting disorder or disability, and the clinical goals of the treatment. From the very first moment, before the music experience begins and takes shape, the interpersonal space of the client-therapist relationship is formed. This relationship is a critical factor in the treatment and is comprised of both musical and nonmusical dimensions. Much of the client’s intrapersonal space can be inferred from examining the interpersonal interactions. Does the client make eye contact with the therapist? Is there a verbal exchange? Is there an immediate interest in the instruments or music making? Again, these interpersonal behaviors must be evaluated against the background of the client’s clinical history that shapes expectations and the implicit rules of the therapy room. The preparation for the clinical encounter is important here since what the client chooses to respond to in the environment can be revealing of the emotional state. Is the client reacting to the emotional state of the therapist? To new instruments in the room? To stimuli that are not relevant to music making? The focus on emotions naturally implies the potential for action in the immediate moment. Clinical decisions must then be made to either allow the client to explore his or her interests, or for the sake of maintaining a particular structure in the session, direct the client toward a different activity. The individual needs of the client at the moment are always weighed against the structure of the session. If 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

154

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

the client is motivated to destroy instruments for example, then this impulse must be redirected. In a group setting, a shy client’s self-initiated positive interaction with a peer may lead the therapist away from the planned structured activity to a spontaneous activity in order to accommodate this clinical opportunity for peer relationships. The use of music to induce emotional states (to be discussed in the next section) can be important in creating motivation toward desired clinical goals. The flexibility of the field theory model allows one to consider the influence of the past as well as the potential for the future within the immediate moment of the session. A client with a history of trauma for example, has developed particular cognitive structures (i.e., implicit negative beliefs about the self and others) and insecure interpersonal attachment styles that he or she carries into the psychological field of the session. In this way, the past exerts an influence on the present as these underlying intrapersonal dynamics in the client shape how he or she reacts to the therapist and the degree of trust and distance that is maintained in the relationship. Emotions in the therapeutic relationship usually stem from underlying emotions and inner conflicts within the client (i.e., transference). The self can never be totally disembedded from the relationship. Negative emotions from the client’s trauma (i.e., fear, anger) are present in the self and work their way into the quality of interpersonal exchanges in the therapeutic relationship. Overt or subtle expressions of anger toward the therapist, whether through musical, verbal, or other channels, can have meaning for the client with the traumatic past. As the emotional tensions may be seeking resolution, the client may unconsciously reenact victim-abuser roles with the therapist. The emotion-focused music therapist is attentive to the most subtle cues that could be affective indicators of emotions. These cues are not limited to the visual and verbal cues afforded in verbal therapies, but also include the emotional cues that arise in musical behaviors such as changes in tempo, alteration of rhythmic patterns, intensity of sound production, and the general gestalt or 1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

155

affective tone of the client’s music production. For clients with the verbal and cognitive capacities to reflect upon and discuss their music, the therapist can gain access into deeper meanings associated with music. The client’s own improvised music can be a stimulus that activates hidden emotions and their meanings. The “process variables” of interpersonal interactions (Teyber, 2006) as well as of music making can contain affective information regarding the client’s self structure and relationship dynamics. Music therapists need to examine this macro level of the psychological field over time in order to recognize the patterns that emerge.

Using Music to Facilitate Emotional Processes The intricate link between music and emotions enables one to use music as a catalyst for emotion. This is one of the unique strengths of creative arts in general over verbal therapies and of music therapy in particular. As will be discussed in chapter 8, music’s attributes are isomorphic—of similar meaning and structure—to emotions, providing the therapist with a range of possibilities for engaging affective dynamics. Music can play a role in any of the four steps of Lewis’s (2000) model of emotional processes.

Music as stimulus One of the most significant uses of music in the emotional process is that of an emotional elicitor. Music is a stimulus that inherently can create emotional responses. In the music psychology literature, there is discussion on the distinction of “musical emotions” from other discrete emotional state (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). In accordance with the Schactner and Singer and the James-Lange theories, physiological states are central in the formation of emotions. Musical stimuli, as described in chapter 5, can have a direct influence on heart rate, breathing, skin reactance, and muscle tension. Stimulative and/or sedative types of music can be elicitors 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

156

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

for generalized states of arousal that in turn are the basis for emotional states with the addition of cognitive or social factors. Music can serve as a stimulus for associated cognitions such as memories or images. Referential music applies to music that represents something other than itself (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). Certain pieces of music were composed with images of nature or other themes in mind. Guided Imagery and Music is founded upon the capacity of music to create and influence images. Select musical pieces are generally associated with rituals or other social functions (such as religious, patriotic, or celebratory music). So while music may serve as a stimulus to directly evoke emotional states, it may also elicit emotions through cognitive associational means. Social processes stimulated by music may include songs that have a particular meaning for pairs or groups of individuals as when romantic partners share a special song. Edith Boxill (1985) refers to the term “contact song” as a stimulus to represent the therapeutic relationship for a client. Finally, music can be a behavioral stimulus as illustrated when loud and fast music elicits foot tapping, clapping, or dancing. As will be discussed in a later section, entry into any of the four psychophysiological processes can be a pathway to emotional construction. From a field theory model, the music is a major stimulus that shapes the field in music therapy. The therapist’s choice of recorded, performed or improvised music is a choice of an emotional elicitor. The creative use of music as a stimulus to create moods and emotions is a powerful and unique method of the music therapy treatment modality.

Music to alter emotional states The discussion of music as an emotional elicitor is intertwined with the creation of emotional states since elicitors generally induce states. Music can, however, change or alter emotional states and moods. The ISO principle as described by Wigram, Pedersen,

1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

157

and Bonde (2002) refers to the process where the therapist matches the mood of the client by using music that is affectively similar to the client’s present mood and then proceeds to alter the mood by changing the music to a different affective quality. The notion is that the client’s mood gradually changes as the music changes after an initial connection with the similarly affective musical stimulus. This technique facilitates a gradiated alteration of music with each successive shift in musical elements being slightly different than before. A complimentary process is the “compensation principle” where music that is directly opposite of the client’s mood is used to induce a different emotional state (Wigram, Pedersen, and Bonde, 2002). The underlying assumption is that a change in mood or emotional state is a desireable therapeutic goal. There may be instances where a client is engaged, focused, and attentive in the clinical process and the therapist wants to maintain the current mood in order to sustain and reinforce the adaptive behaviors that are exhibited. Repetitive and continuous use of the current musical elements to create a holding pattern would aid in keeping the desired emotional state stable during the particular moment in the session. It is important that the therapist has conducted a thorough assessment of the factors contributing to the client’s mood and understands this emotional state in the larger context of the client’s personality and the treatment process. A negative (i.e., unpleasant) mood may not be undesirable as in the case of a sociopathic client who cannot feel remorse for hurting others. An experience of guilt is actually a sign of progress for a patient with such a personality disorder. As will be discussed in the chapter on emotional intelligence, emotional states are sources of information. Intelligent uses of such information are adaptive. A client who wishes to change or avoid an unpleasant mood may be exhibiting a defensive process. Depending on the stage of therapy (middle-working stage verses the initial rapport building) using music to maintain the unpleasant emotional state provides an opportunity for the client to

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

158

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

experience, tolerate, and possibly regulated emotions and to extract the underlying meanings of negative emotional states.

Musical improvisation as emotional expression The benefits of musical improvisation are predicated on the notion that music is a means of emotional expression. The spontaneous creation of sound through voice or instruments will inevitably be influenced by the emotional states of the improviser and serves to express those states. The unstructured or minimally structured format of clinical improvisation allows for the self-expression of personality dimensions and reflects the client’s manner of interacting with the world. The musical tapestry that is created from client-therapist improvisation provides a medium to externalize the inner world of the client and represents (in a sound form) the client-therapist relationship. Through improvisation, “one can externalize impulses, release energy, express ideas and feelings, and give form to one’s images and fantasies” (Bruscia, 1987, p. 560). Spontaneous musical creation can be an act of emotional expression that literally releases emotional tensions from within the body. The physical involvement of creating sounds allows for muscle movements (i.e., loud sounds require more physical force to produce). The dynamics of tension and release in the musical structure are isomorphic to the emotional states and allow for their direct expression. Qualities of the improvised musical piece can be representative of inner psychological meanings, projections of unconscious thoughts, or metaphors of one’s self and life. Changes in the quality and style of musical improvisation can be indicators of progress in therapy and reflect changes in the emotional processes of the client.

Musical experience as basis for emotional experience The isomorphism of music and emotion, which will be discussed further in the next chapter, refers to the similar meaning and sim1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

159

ilar structure of music and emotion. Given this premise, musical experiences in therapy are emotional experiences. As described in the previous section, the tensions and releases of musical structures (i.e., a dissonant chord resolving into a consonant chord) more than parallel the resolution of emotional tensions. In addition, the physical involvement required for making music can be the same muscular tensions associated with an emotional state. Emotional experiences require a degree of self-reflection involving attention to internal states and bodily cues. Musical improvisation as a method of emotional expression can facilitate the creation of emotional experience when the client notices aspects of the created music and/or reflects upon the musical experience. By externalizing inner emotional qualities through the music, the client has an opportunity to experience his or her inner world through a different channel and therefore may gain awareness and even mastery over his or her emotional processes. In nonimprovisational music therapy methods such as listening, writing, or playing precomposed songs, the client also has an opportunity for awareness of self in instances when the music reflects inner emotional state. There can be an identification with the music to the degree that one’s emotional state matches the qualities of the music. Songs can acquire significant meanings when such congruence between a person’s inner and outer worlds is established, as when a song reflects the values and personal ideas of a individual. It is important that the notion of “musical emotions” as distinct from general emotional states be considered (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). If the emotional experiences that are constructed distinctly from musical activity are notably different from emotions in other settings, then one has to be cautious of the inferences made from the musical emotions. Regardless, an emotional experience is an emotional experience and may still have value in a broader sense even if the causes of the experiences differ. Another consideration is that emotional experiences may be suspect since they do not necessarily or consistently match underlying 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

160

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

emotional states (Siegel, 1999). In the same way, the therapist must distinguish if the reported emotional experience of a client actually represents a deep layer of emotional state or a more transient state facilitated by the music in the moment. One must ask if the emotional experience is genuine, that is, is it deeply connected to, and congruent with, the person’s sense of self, or is it a superficial or masked emotional display? Does the client’s emotional experince reflect a reaction formation of other type of defense mechanism that distorts the actual underlying evaluation? The emotional intelligence of the therapist is critical here in making this distinction of authentic emotional expressions, which presumably reflect the client’s experiences. It may help to think of emotional experiences along a “degree” of depth, that is, as the therapy proceeds, the clients experiences become more deeply congruent with the self (Rogers, 1961).

Interventions in Psychophysiological Processes As presented throughout the book, four major systems (physiological, cognitive, social, and behavioral) interact to produce emotional phenomena. The construction and alteration of emotional states usually depends upon several, if not all, of these systems. In clinical work, the music therapist can intervene at an emotional level through multiple channels. Usually several systems may be engaged simultaneously by a therapeutic intervention or may need to be targeted in succession. The interventions listed below will be presented based upon the primary or initial system that is engaged by the intervention. It must be understood that such an artificial separation of the four systems is for illustration purposes only. In actual practice, there is an ongoing flow of activity at the physiological, cognitive, social, and behavioral levels at all times. To use a music metaphor, the four systems are like a string quartet or choral piece. The physiological system is the bass part, the cognitive system corresponds to the tenor, the social is the alto, and the behav1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

161

ioral is the soprano. A change in any of the four voices will alter the gestalt of the whole harmonic structure. As in the flow of any musical piece, each part is moving simultaneously. At times some parts are more prominent and others recede into the background, yet all parts are necessary and interlocked. A clinical intervention does not enter into an empty field or a blank slate. Rather, the therapist is moving carefully and thoughtfully into the flow of a client’s psychophysiological system to alter the “stream” of the emotional process. This is a dynamic between the client’s internal world as it dances with the external world in the immediate psychological field. This inner-outer dynamic is mediated by the therapist. The interventions listed below may not be unique in any way. Many, if not all, may be common techniques used by therapists. What may be different, however, is the underlying intention of the intervention to influence an emotional process. Also the combination of interventions and/or the sequence may be important for attaining the desired effect. The focus on emotions has implications for deeper levels of therapeutic change.

Physiological interventions In the total treatment plan of a client, psychopharmacological methods are often used to regulate physiological functioning through medications. Music therapists should be mindful that medication levels will influence a client’s emotional states and should be knowledgeable of prescribed medications or any other substances that have been recently ingested by a client. Likewise, other physical conditions (sleepiness, neurological disorders) that might affect functioning should be considered. (For example, in my work in special-education preschool programs, occasionally sessions with four-year-olds were scheduled during afternoon “nap” time). In the context of a music therapy session the clinician basically uses music as a stimulus to influence the physiological system. The therapist may have one of two major types of music: 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

162

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Stimulative music. Energetic music will arouse the physiological system with the intention to increase activity levels and increase emotional intensity. Stimulative music can be loud, fast, rhythmically uneven, and/or unpredictable. Sedative music. Low-energy music will decrease physiological arousal, reduce activity level, and lower emotional intensity. Sedative music is generally soft, slow, with steady and continuous rhythms, and predicable with no sudden changes. These categories are broad, however, most music will have the physiological effect of either arousing or reducing heart rate, breathing, etc. More often, a clinician may want to slightly increase the arousal level of moderately stimulating music. If a highly excited group is preparing to finish the music session, the therapist may want to gradually slow down the music to reduce the arousal level and enable the clients to be in a productive mood to transition to activities after the music session. The goal would not be to completely change the positive mood, but merely to reduce the intensity level. Therapists may shift the arousal levels within a piece of music (loud to soft, fast to slow) to allow clients to experience a range of intensities and enable them to practice regulating different moods. In group therapy the clinician must be mindful of the arousal level of the whole group and choose music according to the desired direction of the group’s emotion. As described previously, arousal level alone may not produce an emotional state. Arousal must be interpreted through a “cognitive label” as in using an emotion word to describe the state or through a “social model” where the display of another’s emotions influences the client to label his arousal in a similar way. In this way the therapist should not assume that the client will “experience” a calm emotional state as a result of sedative music. For certain clients, the follow-up to the sedative music should be a cognitive or social intervention that assists in labeling and/or reflecting upon one’s emotions.

1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

163

Behavioral interventions Behavioral and physiological interventions are closely intertwined. Some of the interventions listed here could also fall under the previous section. Aside from the more passive physiological interventions of listening to music, most physiological means require a behavioral movement. Dancing /Gross Motor Movement. Any movement arouses the brain, respiratory and muscular systems. Movements can be forceful and energetic, but also slow and graceful. Activities that allow for such gross motor movements as dancing or jumping will alter the mood of the group. Musical accompaniments can influence the degree of intensity of the movements. Facial Expressions/Body Posture. Activities that involve making facial expressions (i.e., exaggerated happy or sad faces) can influence moods through the muscular movements. Moods can sometimes be induced simply through facial and body postures. Musical Behaviors. Since muscle tension and movement corresponds to physiological dimensions of emotions, the intensity of movement used for sound production can induce components of emotional states. Interventions that influence the intensity of instrument or vocal production (i.e., playing the drum soft to loud) in turn create behavioral involvement. Breathing /Relaxation Techniques. Direct training in breathing exercises and relaxation techniques will naturally shift physiological states and affect mood. This technique could easily be listed in the physiological section. However, the behaviors required must be learned. These methods are procedural for GIM and may be incorporated in other approaches. Positive Reinforcement. A reward that follows an action will increase its likelihood of recurring. However, one must be cautious however in providing praise. A compliment for musical behaviors my convey the idea that “this” music was good, and imply that other types of musical expression were not good. In general, all

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

164

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

musical expression should be accepted as a reflection of the client at that moment and never be perceived in a judgmental manner (even if the judgment or evaluation is positive). Rather, the positive reinforcement can come from the music itself and the positive feelings of producing a musical piece.

Cognitive interventions Cognitive interventions include any technique that stimulates thinking, language, or imagination that will lead toward impacting an emotional state. Thinking can include conceptual processes (i.e., forming categories of emotional meanings), associations (generating memories related to a situation or theme), evaluative processes (comparing qualities of musical characteristics) or constructive processes (creating variations of a theme). Language involves words that in turn label experiences and cluster to form concepts. Imagination is mental visualizations that require associations and constructive processes. Cognitive functioning involves the processing of various types of information. Personality structures, while distinct from cognitive processes, can generally be placed under the realm of cognition. Self-concept (one’s beliefs about him- or herself) and self-efficacy (one’s beliefs about his or her abilities in a particular area) are inherently cognitive. As mentioned in chapter 4, implicit memories are unconscious sources of information that impact emotional states and can form the basis for the structure of the self and identity. Likewise, object relations and attachment styles are based on the unconscious mental representations of the self and others. In this way, the cognitive system is central to many personality functions. Interventions to influence emotions through primarily cognitive channels include: Verbal Interventions. The therapist’s words, like a leading melody in a song, direct the clients in the session. Limited only by the client’s verbal and comprehension capacities, what a therapist says will activate cognitive processes in the client. Words have 1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

165

association that may carry heavy emotional meaning. For example, the word “mother” may generate a range of associations and emotions for the client depending on his or her relationship, history, issues, etc. related to his or her parent. The therapist’s words can be emotional elicitors and must be chosen very carefully and intentionally. Labeling. Words can be used to label feeling states and to create a frame for understanding one’s own experiences. Therapists can use words to identify and label experiences for clients with limited verbal/comprehension abilities. Labeling interventions can influence emotional experiences since they aid in the cognitive process of self-reflection and awareness. Verbal reflection techniques (repeating an emotion word to a client to “reflect” back the feeling) are used in counseling to establish empathy. This technique may also be subsumed under labeling since it is specifically attaching a word to a feeling. Musical Complexity. Musical interventions activate cognitive systems since sounds are a type of information to be processed. Modulating the level of musical complexity increases or decreases cognitive demands on the client. The level of complexity relates to the level of challenge that motivates interest. By controlling the degree of complexity in music, the therapist allows enough of the cognitive resources to be used (i.e., it avoids overwhelming the client or boring the client). Musical Associations. Prescribed songs with a particular theme can be emotional elicitors for clients. Depending on the personal history as well as the individual history within the therapy, different associations will be connected to songs and contain affective tones (i.e., particular emotions). As an example of my clinical use of music within school counseling, I used the song, “Puff the Magic Dragon” with a young boy who had lost his father. The theme of separation and loss in the song, as intended, evoked the painful emotions that were a necessary step in his grieving process. Imagery. Mental visualizations contain multiple layers of meaning and emotion. Evoking images whether in GIM or in other 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

166

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

activities opens an inner world with many pathways to deeper levels of consciousness and personality. Emotional states that are associated with images may become directly activated.

Social interventions Social channels for influencing emotions rest upon the quality of relationships and the social power structures. A trusting relationship between a client and therapist affords the therapist more influence on the client. In group therapy, a client who is a natural leader will draw the respect of others and therefore be a more influential role model. The effectiveness of interventions that primarily target the social systems will depend upon these relationships and the configuration of the group dynamics. In individual music therapy session, the degree of social influence is limited to the therapist. Group therapy provides more opportunities for social interventions. Clinician’s Self-disclosure. Through verbal or musical means, the therapist can be a direct social influence on the client and create feelings of trust and rapport. It is important to be professional and appropriate when using a self-disclosure strategy. The immediacy of the client-therapist relationship is important in creating positive and comfortable emotions and establishing a foundation for therapeutic work. Group Cohesion Activities. A therapist can influence feelings of group belongingness and acceptance through specific activities. These can be structured musical activities, visual arts or dance work, or verbal sharing. There is generally a degree of anxiety in new groups as each member is assessing their safety in the new setting. Such interventions can reduce anxious emotions. Group cohesion activities may be enhanced by verbal/cognitive interventions that label and identify emotion states. Monitor Emotional Expression. If a client should have an emotional outburst, the therapist’s skill in regulating the client’s degree of intensity conveys to the rest of the group that they are safe 1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

167

and that the therapist is in control. Reciprocally, not allowing a client to fully express emotions when they are revealed in an appropriate manner conveys to the group that it is not safe to explore and express intense affect. The therapist’s own emotional expressions and ability to regulate client’s expressions can be a model for learning to share and process emotions in contained social settings. Monitor the Group Mood. The emotions of one member can be contagious to others. Negative emotions when not expressed constructively can be damaging to group cohesion and can influence others (who may have previously felt positively) to develop negative emotions. Allowing a channel to process negative emotions for the participants who need to reduce their potential to influence others in undesirable ways. Excessive attention to a negative mood, however, will amplify it and allow it to become a predominant force in the psychological field of the group. The creativity of the music therapist is important here in providing a musical activity that can allow expression of negative emotions for an individual, while simultaneously allowing for mood maintenance for the rest of the group members. Musical activities that offer each participant a solo turn and or a chance to choose how the group should play will be able to embrace such diverse moods and needs within the group.

Emotions in Decision-Making and Clinical Process The therapeutic encounter exists within the psychological field created by the client and therapist in relationship. At any moment in this field the intrapersonal areas of the client and the therapist contain emotional states that combine to form the emotional tone of the interpersonal space. Whether emotions are the focus of attention or not, they significantly influence the field. The emotional intelligence of the therapist is critical for effective outcomes and includes the abilities to accurately read the emotional cues of 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

168

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

the client, identify the client’s emotional states and understand their implied meanings, and to intervene in a manner that uses this affective information toward therapeutic goals. By understanding the emotional contents and potentials of the client’s intrapersonal space, the therapist can creatively orchestrate the elements of the psychological field to accommodate the needs of the client and facilitate the client’s movement toward therapeutic goals. An emotion-focused approach to music therapy involves using the emotional information from the client for clinical decisions. There are a multitude of moments in the flow of the clinical session where a therapist must make a choice: Do I choose one type of song over another as a stimulus? How much should I increase the intensity and/or complexity of the improvised music? Do I allow the client to lead completely or would he or she benefit from some directiveness at this time? Do I allow the client’s resistance to continue or would he or she benefit from being challenged to take a risk? How secure is the therapeutic relationship and could this client handle exploring an unpleasant theme? The emotional factors in the client as well as within the therapist can aid in such decisions. The dimensional approach to representing emotions (see chapter 2) can be useful in determining if the client’s emotional state is generally positive or negative and if the intensity is high or low. Within these four quadrants of the mood meter there are degrees of valence and intensity. This can be a general gauge for the type of clinical intervention, but as always the client’s emotions must be interpreted against the background of the client’s personality, past behavioral patterns, and clinical goals. For example, a client who has been stuck in a passive position in the negative-low energy quadrant typically exhibits depressive emotions. Taking a psychodynamic position on depression as anger turned inward, an outward expression of anger (negative-high energy quadrant) can be a sign of therapeutic movement. The increase in emotional energy

1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

169

could signify a “loosening” of the emotions and a release of the repressed anger. The clinical decision to support the expression through appropriate means would move the client toward greater control and understanding of his or her emotions, and a possible resolution of the threats that were sustaining the unconscious angry emotional state. The same expression of anger from a client who is typically in the negative-high energy quadrant all the time would have a different meaning. The clinical intervention may not be to support the emotional expression but to reframe the cognitions and interpretations of events that are sustaining the anger with the goal of moving the client toward the positive-high/low energy quadrants. It is not simply identifying the client’s emotions and facilitating a change, but understanding the meaning of the emotional expressions in the context of significant personal and clinical factors. There is always a balance and tension between maintaining rapport and challenging the client toward therapeutic movement. A novice therapist may move to change an emotion before it is fully understood or may simplistically apply reflection techniques (that amplify emotions) without considering the clinical benefits or dangers of doing so. In the case of a client with a personality disorder, he or she may be expressing inappropriate emotions that are not based on rational or realistic factors. Negative emotions may be stimulated by internal images or thoughts and/or projections of negative intent onto others. Patients with borderline personality disorders, for example, tend to experience and express emotions of high intensity and have difficulty integrating emotions within their selfstructures. Clinical interventions would likely be aimed at increasing the capacities for emotional regulation and for gradually tolerating unintegrated emotional states to allow for deeper processing. In this way, the degree of intensity of the emotional state will determine if it can be tolerated, accepted, and integrated. Clinical improvisations may work toward maintaining a moderate

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

170

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

or even mild level of intensity that does not overwhelm the client’s fragile capacity to process emotions. In the case of the young boy who was grieving the sudden loss of his father, even a minimal expression of sadness would be met with a holding technique to sustain the emotional state. If his ego strength was adequate and there were indications of openness to tolerate more intensity, then an amplifying technique would be used to move past the defenses that were repressing the emotions and allow the feelings to be experienced more fully. The clinical decisions in these types of intervention would be based on determining the client’s capacity and readiness to go deeper and experience more intensity. How much emotional intensity could and should this client experience at this particular clinical moment? The emotion-focused therapist must have a strong acuity to read the client’s body language, tone of voice, eye contact, and musical indicators. Tension in the body, sudden changes in eye contact (after considering the client’s typical cultural patterns of eye contact), or hesitation in the rhythm of the voice or the music, could all be indicators of increased anxiety and defensiveness. Along with these affective cues, the therapist must consider various clinical factors such as: the client’s age, cognitive capacities, ego strength, quality of the therapeutic alliance, and past instance of the client’s capacity to experience emotions. The therapist may want to test the limits of the client’s capacity to experience unpleasant emotions. At the first sign of resistance, the therapist may push and increase the emotional intensity and monitor how the client reacts. The second push at the nearest opportunity will determine the client’s readiness. If there is a strong resistance in comparison to the resistance of the first push, then the client’s anxiety has increased a great deal and the therapist should pull back since further challenges would likely be unproductive, may weaken the therapeutic relationship, and possibly close down the client for future opportunities. If the client’s resistance to the second push is substantially weaker than the resist-

1st pass

An Emotional Process Focus in Clinical Music Therapy

171

ant the first, then the anxiety level has not increased tremendously and it may be possible to push further or go deeper with the issue. As in every situation, the client’s emotional states and expressions are evaluated against some sort of baseline to determine their intensity and potential influence in the intrapersonal or interpersonal fields.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

Chapter 8

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

Music as Emotional Metaphor Music and emotions are isomorphic—that is, they share similar underlying structures. The distinct elements that comprise music—pitch, tempo, rhythm, loudness, timbre, and harmony— can also represent the forms of emotions. This similarity of underlying structures explains the intimate connection between music and emotions, and is the basis for music’s effectiveness in clinical work. From an artistic perspective, music therapists can draw upon this isomorphism and use music to capture the nuances of emotions in a manner more accurate than words. This process can create an experience where the client perceives externally (in the musical production) affective qualities that are internal. In the context of the therapeutic field, the externalization of inner emotional states provides a reflection back to the client and establishes congruence between the person and the immediate environment. In this way, the music therapist uses the emotional isomorphism of the music to convey empathy to the client. The reproduction of emotional states within an auditory format, allows the client and therapist to understand these emotional processes over time and in a dynamic medium that closely parallels the ever-changing flow of emotions. In this metaphorical view, music “represents” a client’s emotions. Wigram. Pedersen, and Bonde (2002) describe music as analogy and metaphor. They note how “many music therapists talk 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

173

and write about music based on the (more or less conscious) axiom that the client’s music, expression, or experience is closely related—an analogy—to the client’s personality or pathology (p. 97). Applied to this current discussion, music can be an analogy for the client’s emotional states. The application of the ISO principle suggests that changes in the client’s music will lead to, or parallel, a corresponding change in the client’s emotions. While there is a clear metaphor between music and emotions, they may actually reflect a deeper similarity. As will be discussed in a later section, there are neurological processes involved in both phenomena. There can be several structures that are used to understand music and emotions. The four major dimensions used here will be space, time, intensity, and dynamics. Analysis of the aesthetic language used to describe music and emotions suggests that these dimensions underlie our experiences. Everyday references to feelings and moods often contain such metaphors. Emotions can be described as “high” or “low,” which implies a spatial dimension similar to the pitch of melodic phrase. In a sad emotional state, a person will feel “down” and likewise sad music may include more descending intervals and lower tones in contrast to joyful music that is “up” and may build to a melodic climax in the upper register pitches of an instrument. Happy or pleasant emotions tend to be expansive, spreading into a larger space, while sad or depressed emotions tend to constrict and turn inward into a smaller space. In a dance medium, physical movement through space that is expansive (i.e., arms outstretched) or inward (i.e., closed as in a fetal position) can respectively convey similar emotions. Emotions relate also to the cognitive space of mental activity. Isen’s (2000) work on the influence of mood on cognitive processes indicates that in mild positive moods, people are able to generate a greater number of creative word associations, have increased flexibility, and improved decision making. Thus positive mood “expands” the possibilities and creative connections within the field of one’s mental activity. In the temporal dimension, a particular emotion leads an 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

174

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

individual to move at a certain pace—fast to slow, indicating the tempo of the emotion. Happy music tends to be described as “upbeat,” while calm or peaceful music is sedative and has a slower pace. Psychomotor retardation is a clinical symptom of depression and, likewise, certain negative emotional states are associated with a slow tempo. However, the characteristics of fear, another type of negative emotion, may lead one toward rapid movements as in adaptive escape behaviors or nervous twitching. The experience of emotion proceeds in a particular organized fashion similarly to how rhythm structures and organizes a musical piece. Music with complex syncopated rhythms will create a more complex, agitated, or aroused feeling state than an even, continuous, and repetitive rhythmic pattern. Recall Meyer’s (1956) notion of expectation leading to emotion in music. Steady rhythmic patterns are predictable and less likely to lead to “surprise” or the type of affective arousal that is elicited with sudden change. Fear, surprise, or excitement, for example, suggest a sudden change in the rhythm of physical and cognitive movement where calm, satisfied, content emotions tend to be represented by smooth and steady rhythms. A third point of comparison is the intensity dimension that parallels the vertical axis of the mood meter (see chapter 2). One musical element in intensity is loudness. Emotional states can be loud and energized in a physical manner as when a person screams out of anger or fear. This would be contrasted with the whimpers and soft sounds associated with disappointment or loneliness. However, emotional intensity can be comprised of more than just loudness. Rhythm can create intensity through pulse, syncopation, and complexity. The primitive rhythmic patterns of Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring contribute to the energized intensity of the piece. Intensity in music (and emotions) can also be created by the tensions of conflict as in dissonant harmony where two or more tones clash in the context of a tonal center. Again in line with Meyer’s views, the tones do not fit into the expectations that were established by the tonal key of the music. Harmony, like melody (pitch), can be placed in a spatial dimension since there is distance be1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

175

tween two tones and also between a tone and the tonal center. The relational nature of harmony can be a metaphor for interpersonal relations between humans as suggested when people are said to be “in harmony” (presumably consonant harmony) and there is a lack of tension or conflict. The fourth structural similarity between music and emotions is the dynamic dimension. Like the closely related dimension of intensity, there are several musical elements that combine into dynamics. While intensity usually changes over time, it is predominantly the “amount” of something. Dynamics have fluid, ever-changing qualities that proceed and unfold over time and also have “direction”—forces that move. The constant change, flow, and movement of emotions are metaphorical to the ocean that is in a continuous flux where one can be carried by a current in a direction through the water. In this way, dynamics portray the “energy” of music and emotions that motivate action and change. There is room for increase or decrease in the energy level. Dynamics unfold upon the spatial dimension with the direction of movement as well as the amount of space that is involved. Michael Mahoney (1991) in his seminal book Human Change Processes describes the oscillation between expansion and contraction that occurs in the dynamic process of therapeutic development. Several musical elements contribute to the overall dynamics of music. Melody is often a salient stimulus in the tapestry of the sound field that draws attention and leads the listener. The spatial changes in pitch provide direction to the music. Harmony and orchestration can contrast with different layers of texture as voicings change and there are multiple numbers of tones and/or instruments sounding at different times. Loudness by nature is dynamic and provides the energy to the melody’s direction. As dynamics unfold through the space-time-intensity dimensions there is a sense of “what is to come.” Music creates expectations, which itself is an emotional state. The emotional metaphors include how each particular emotional state has potential for motivation and movement and there is an anticipation of what is to come in the 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

176

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

emotional narrative. Emotions provide direction (like melody) and are textured with meaning (like harmony and orchestration). There is also the intensity dimension of emotion that becomes a force in the dynamics. Annoyance is a lower level of intensity than anger, which is lower than rage. Each intensity level carries with it, the potential for action that will impact the environment. The multicomponent construction of emotion itself is a dynamic interplay of physiological, cognitive, social, and behavioral processes. A clinical intervention that alters one of these components will change the dynamics of the emotion—like the alteration of a musical element changes the song. In sum, the four major isomorphic dimensions are comprised of musical elements that in turn contribute to an aesthetic understanding of emotional structure. Space includes pitch, melody, harmony; time includes rhythm and tempo; intensity results from a combination of loudness, rhythm, and harmony and dynamics are created by melody, harmony, orchestration, and loudness. While these are descriptive terms and not empirically derived, they provide the music therapist with an aesthetic language to understand the qualities of affect and to relate the structures of music and emotion.

Synesthesia and the Aesthetic Approach While not a formal dimension per se, color is another aesthetic quality that is useful in describing both music and emotion. Colors are the visual tones that are comparable to the tonality and timbre in music. Colors posses a range of degrees—hues that vary from bright or dull, and deep or light. The degree of dissonance and consonance in harmony can translate into the experience of brightness or dullness. The texture of an orchestral chord with many different tones sounding together over several octaves will have more depth than a simple and light two-tone interval on a keyboard. Color in music is also related to the timbre or tone qual1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

177

ity of the instruments. The timbre of gongs, string instruments, or woodwinds creates distinct sound qualities that can also be described with aesthetic language such as bright to dark and sharp to dull. In the visual art modality, color is associated with emotion. In psychodynamic projective methods of personality assessment (i.e., Rorschach inkblot method) the identification of color is an indicator of unconscious emotional processes (Exner, 1993). Bright colors generally represent a greater degree of pleasantness (positive valence) and dark colors may represent more unpleasant emotions. In using the two-dimensional mood meter the horizontal axis (pleasant to unpleasant) could be represented by varying degrees of color. The connection of visual and auditory modalities presents an interesting line of inquiry that has implications for the music-emotion isomorphism as well as for conceptualizing and measuring emotions. Synesthesia has been a topic of study by psychologists and artists and refers to a neurological capacity to experience crossmodal senses, that is, there is a blending of different sensory channels (Cytowic, 1995). For instance a person may “hear” a color, or “smell” a sound. Numbers may be in colors and shapes may have a taste. Many artists and musicians throughout history have been known to have this capacity, which is not considered a disorder, but a sensory-perceptual tendency. There is no agreement between individuals with synesthesia on the parallel of cross-sensory channels nor upon the qualities that are perceived, i.e., different people with this ability will see varied colors in response to the same musical tone. Alexander Scriabin, and early twentieth-century Russian composer had synesthesia: According to Scriabin, colors were associated with tonality, not with singular notes. He told Myers (1914), that he often experienced a shift in color with the change of tonality, but not always. He reported that his synesthesia was not always of the same quality and intensity. Normally, he would have a faint “feeling” of color when 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

178

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

listening to music. But as he got more emotionally involved in the music, the synesthetic sensations of color would become stronger, more intense, and pass over to give an “image” of color. And not every piece of music would elicit synesthetic responses in Scriabin. Beethoven’s music was too intellectual and did not evoke synesthesia, according to Scriabin, while modern music, which was more psychological, i.e., more emotional, evoked much better synesthetic sensations. Scriabin explained that: “the color underlines the tonality; it makes the tonality more evident” (Myers, 1914, p. 8) . . . Starting from the fact that his synesthesia had an emotional basis that intensified his experience of music, Scriabin explored the artistic possibilities of the simultaneous playing of colors and music. (van Campen, 1997, p. 3). For Scriabin and presume-ably other synesthetes, there is a relationship between emotions and sensory experiences. The blending of the auditory and visual sensations appears to be evoked by the emotional characteristics of the music and enhanced by increased emotionality in the individual. Scriabin describes how the color is embedded within the tonality. Such cross-modal descriptions of music are common. Many musicians, most who do not have synesthesia, describe tonality as conveying a certain mood and color—although the use of color in someone without synesthetic experiences is more likely an aesthetic and descriptive term. Nonsynesthetes can imagine the color of music, where as a true synesthete experiences the actual sensation. Nonetheless, synesthesia illustrates, at a neurological level, that sensation and perception play a role in emotions. At a descriptive level, it suggests that affect can be represented through different modalities and that the aesthetic language used to describe music and emotions may be more than merely poetic but contain underlying neurological processes. While synesthesia is relatively rare in the general 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

179

population, the idea of multisensory channels for describing emotion and music can be applied to all. This “broad” use of the term synesthesia serves as a foundation for what I term the “aesthetic approach” to representing emotions. The use of aesthetic descriptive language (i.e., colors, shapes, textures) creates an interface for music and other arts in the process of emotional representation. The area of emotional intelligence, as will be described in chapter 9, involves emotional representation as part of emotional knowledge. Aesthetic language was incorporated in the first abilities-based measure of emotional intelligence—the Multifactoral Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 1999). One of the MEIS subtest is entitled “Synethesia” and required respondents to describe emotions along a semantic differential scale. For example, one item might ask to describe sadness as being more blue or more orange. It may be a combination of the two and the level on the 7-point scale (with blue and orange at each end) will determine the respondent’s degree of particular color used to represent that emotion. Anger could be described on a scale as sharp or dull, happiness as light or heavy. Each emotion on the MEIS synesthesia subtest is rated according to several aesthetic qualities that included various sensory channels. Higher scores on the subtest reflect the degree of agreement with the choices from the normative sample group used in the test development. The subtest is not a measure of synesthesia, but used the word in this broader sense of a general representation of emotions. The aesthetic approach to emotional representation forms a bridge between music and other creative art modalities in the use of common descriptive language. Playing music that is “blue” and painting or dancing to the image of blue can enhance the experience of this aesthetic quality and its associated emotions through multisensory stimulation. A rich and complex representation of emotion through the creative process expands one’s emotional repertoire and emotional knowledge, leading to greater selfawareness. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

180

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Vitality Affects and Dynamic Forms The use of aesthetic language to describe and represent emotions is directly related to what Stern (1985) refers to as “vitality affects.” While not emotions in the formal sense, vitality affects represent the underlying affective structures of our various experiences. They are the isomorphs of emotions that are most readily captured by the dynamics of musical forms. Sloboda and Juslin (2001) provide a description: Stern (1985) introduced the concept of vitality affects to describe a set of elusive qualities related to intensity, shape, contour, and movement. These characteristics are best described in dynamic terms such as crescendo, fleeting, explosive, diminuendo, etc. These qualities are not emotions, but rather abstract “forms” of feelings that occur both together with, and in the absence of, proper emotions. The vitality affects are “amodal” in the sense that they are common to all modes of expression. Stern (1985) suggests that the vitality affects are of a particular importance in the early communicative acts of mother and infant. Mother and infant respond to one another by constantly adapting and adjusting the intensity, timing, and contour of their expressive acts. This process of constant matching of gestural events is referred to as attunement. (p. 79). Vitality affects, like the aesthetic language needed to describe them, relate to various art modalities as well as affective movements of everyday actions. The quality of moment-to moment gestures and the nuances of interpersonal interactions contain vitality affects. Bunt and Pavlicevic (2001) describe how, “a ‘bursting’ into tears (or laughter), a bursting watermelon, a musical sforzando, or an athlete’s final ‘burst’ of speed may well share—in our minds— the same ‘vitality affects’ in terms of intensity, motion, contour, 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

181

and rhythm” (p. 194). While aesthetic language can provide verbal labels to such “elusive qualities,” it is music than can capture the dynamic reality of such affects. It is this capacity to create emotional dynamics in an auditory field that enables music therapists to work so intimately (and therapeutically) with client’s emotions. The amodal qualities of vitality affects exist in our minds and form the ways that we make sense of our worlds particularly our emotional worlds. Stern’s work emphasizes mother-infant interactions, and the vitality affects are likely the aesthetic structures that an infant uses to understand the range of sensory stimuli that impinge upon him or her. Maternal attunement, like a therapist’s empathy, is critical for healthy development and aligning the neurological structures of the developing brain (Schore, 1994). The accurate representation of a client’s inner world in the interpersonal field of the client-therapist musical improvisation allows for a rich and deep type of empathy that might only be comparable to the mother-child attunement experiences of early life. In this way, the music therapist may have access to deeper levels of the client’s personality than through purely verbal forms of therapy. Several authors relate Stern’s (1985) concept of vitality affects to Langer’s (1953) idea of dynamic form (Bunt and Pavlicevic, 2001; Gabrielsson & Lindstrom, 2001; Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). While many do not consider dynamic forms as emotions in themselves, they are the isomorphism of music and emotions. It is the underlying common structure that is described with aesthetic language and expressed through musical elements. “The tonal structures we call ‘music’ bear a close logical similarity to the forms of human feeling . . . music is a tonal analogue of emotive life” (Langer, 1953, p. 27). Bunt & Pavlicevic (2001) have applied the concept of dynamic forms to music therapy and assert that in the clinical setting the “dynamic forms are both musical and relational” (p. 194). The emotions in the client come from both the musical vitality affects as well as the interpersonal connections with the therapist. Knoblauch (2000) implicitly draws upon the isomorphism of 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

182

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

music and emotion in suggesting that psychotherapists listen to the rhythm, tone, and harmony of a client’s verbal and nonverbal communications in the analytic encounter. The interpersonal relation between the client and analyst, even though it is based on a primarily verbal format, is a musical improvisation. Tuning into the speech prosody and the “musical” qualities of the encounter can increase the empathic and therapeutic connection with the client. The musical nature of vitality affects is illustrated in the research of Silverman and Silverman (as cited in Rose, 2004) that involved examining the audio recordings of suicidal individuals, many of whom succeeded in their attempts. The analysis of the vocal qualities revealed notable distinctions in prosody and musical tone between typically depressed but nonsuicidal individuals and those that were highly suicidal: Not surprisingly, some of the vocal patterns included features commonly noted in depression: loss of energy and power, and monotonous, repetitious, uninflected speech. The most compelling finding, however, was that the voice sounded hollow and toneless, as though lacking a center, and irrespective of volume and tempo, already “dead and gone.” In contrast to the hollowness of depression, the lifelessness of near-term suicidal persons’ voices may reflect a decrease in harmonic overtones and resonance, reflecting an internal state different from depression . . . These persons reported an experience of “falling into a hole”—suggesting radical disturbance in representation and imagery. In contrast to the voice of the depressed person, which strikes the listener as that of one suffering from an illness, the high-risk near-term suicidal person sounds as though already dying. Also in contrast to depression, and probably unique for suicidality, is an absence of vocal patterns associated with anxiety, such as tremulousness. (Rose, 2004, p. 10) 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

183

The “lacking- a-center” quality of the toneless flat affect speech prosody of a suicidal patient may be more than metaphorical, and could actually reflect and directly indicate a musical-emotional disturbance in the person’s being. A tonal center, that forms a musical grounding and reference point, may be missing or silent in the life of such seriously disturbed individuals. As verbally oriented therapists are turning to musical form for such insights, music therapists already possess the tools to relate to the core emotions and to breath vitality back into the client.

Congruence in the Musical-Emotional Field Synesthesia considers the blends of sensory channels related to emotions and vitality affects are the dynamic forms that are isomorphic between emotions, music, and other experiences. The aesthetic approach to representing emotions attempts to use language to describe these underlying isomorphs. However, the connection between affective structures and various sensory modalities may be more than descriptive and in actuality reflect an underlying neurological reality. For example, more intense colors may reflect more intense emotions. The intensity of a color stimulus impacts the visual cortex to different degrees. Thus, the intensity of an emotional experience parallels the intensity of the sensory stimulation. With regard to the spatial dimension of melody, higher pitches actually stimulate “higher” areas of the auditory cortex in the right hemisphere (Liegeois-Chauvel, et al., 2003). Thus space, in a melodic sense, may parallel the space of the brain region involved in melody perception. The inner cortical reality of the brain is isomorphic to the auditory-spatial perception of the melody. The temporal dimension involves rhythm and tempo. Music can create physiological conditions that are identical to the physiological processes of particular emotions such as slower heartbeat and breathing rates for sad or calm music. When the descriptive aesthetic word “calm” is used to refer to a person’s emotions, 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

184

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

it is describing the steady and sedate rhythm of the person’s heart and breathing, as well as the rhythm of the music being produced by that person. Again, the music and the physiological state are synonymous. Muscle tension has been one of the least ambiguous and consistently established areas in music’s ability to directly arouse emotions (Radocy & Boyle, 2003). Emotional “tension” perceived in the music may result from the dissonance or other tensions created by the combinations of musical elements that in turn has impacted the physical tensions in one’s body. A client entering a session feeling tense will reflect this emotion through various affective physical cues that will in turn create tension in his or her manner of playing. Recall the James-Lange theory of emotional construction (see chapter 4) where behaviors and physical states occur first and then influence the emotional state. In using the descriptor tense one is describing the musical elements, physical states, and emotional states simultaneously. There is thus, a blurring of boundaries between the emotions of the music and the individual in that the aesthetic quality of tension (a vitality affect) exists in all areas of the psychological field. From personal experiences of creating music, most of us as musicians and music therapists can relate to those moments of deep involvement where one’s musical expression is intimately linked to an inner feeling. This may not occur all the time but only at certain states of mind when there is a synchrony and a flow between the resonance of our emotional states and our musical expression. There is a congruence between the inner and the outer reality of the person. In such instances there can be a loss of “self” within the music. Given the isomorphism between music and emotions, during such deeply involved and highly congruent musical-emotional experiences (that are not confounded by distractions or other influences on expressive musical behavior) the music of the client becomes more than a mere representation of emotions. In such instances, the therapist can consider the music to “be” the emotions since there are so many levels of synchrony. It 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

185

is so important that the therapist allows the client the space to create congruent moments and not interfere in the process. So, in such states of congruence is the emotion in the person or in the music or both? This question parallels the issues in research on music and emotion that examines emotion as perceived in the music or emotion as experienced in the self (Sloboda & Juslin, 2001). There can be multiple influences on emotions and multiple factors that shape musical expression during therapy. When such an inner-outer congruence occurs between the person and his or her musical expression then I claim that the answer is both. The loss of self, or at least the deep involvement of self, indicates that one is in an altered state of consciousness. The essence of the musical creation is supported by the emotions activated within the person. The music is embedded with the emotion as the person is filled with the music. It is in these instances where a client can experience healing through wholeness and completeness even if only for the moment. A resonance exists where the musical-emotional elements (the dynamic forms of rhythm, space, direction, tone, etc.) are so perfectly in synchrony that an objective distinction is not possible. If the client or therapist in such instances attempted to analyze the experience at that moment, then the activation of the intellectual analytic functions in the brain would remove the person from the deep emotional state. Thus, the inner-outer congruence can only be perceived as such to someone in such a state of receptive emotional attunement. To perceive the music “as” the emotion, the perceiver must feel it as well. This illustrates most exclusively the “art” of music therapy over the “science” since there can be no objective stance for empirical observation. I find an interesting parallel between the inner-outer congruence of a client with his or her immediate musical environment and the tenets of ecopsychology as described in chapter 3. In ecopsychology, the conceptualization of self is broad and lacks the distinctions between an internal “self” and the external natural world (Roszak, et al., 1995). Thus, the health of the natural world 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

186

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

translates to individual health. Primitive humans were closely connected to the states of their immediate environments as a matter of survival. A balance between the person and the environment is a significant indicator of mental health and adjustment (Conyne & Cook, 2004). In the same manner, a client is sensitive to the therapeutic environment created by the therapist. The mood and emotions in the environment convey information as to whether the immediate space is safe, which directly impacts the client’s anxiety level. This in turn will motivate the client to either engage in the therapeutic relationship and in music making, or take a more defensive stance of self-protection. The environment will influence whether a state of congruence can be attained. The emotionally intelligent music therapist therefore, through awareness of his or her own emotional states, musical expressions, and clinical acuity, creates an environment that contains “therapeutic emotions.” The emotional tone of the therapy session environment is the foundation for the clinical process. It opens the door for the possibility of client transformation through emotional experiences.

Affective Exchange and Engaging the Core Self A client in the process of producing music is re-creating his or her inner emotional states through outward behavioral expressions. This has implications for the immediate moment-to-moment interactions between a client and therapist during musical improvisation. As the musical improvisation captures the vitality affects of the client in the moment, the music therapist establishes an intimate personal connection with the client, the nature of which is the essence of therapy. The subtle responsiveness to the client’s dynamic forms conveys empathy and communicates that the client has been received emotionally by the therapist. “These musical sounds correspond to the mechanism of ‘nonverbal communication,’ enabling the therapist to ‘receive’ and directly (and viscer1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

187

ally) experience the patient’s musical utterances as a presentation of themselves—and also as a presentation of their clinical pathology” (Bunt & Pavlicevic, 2001, p. 195). While pathology may be evident in the musical and emotional patterns of clinical improvisation, the type of deep contact that can occur is with the core of the person that, from a humanistic perspective, is essentially positive and healthy. Beyond pathology lies what Nordoff and Robbins (1977, p. 1) refer to as the “music child.” The essence of therapeutic change rests upon the deep interpersonal connect between the core selves of the client and therapist. Benezon presents an approach to music therapy treatment based on the ISO principle as the assumption “of an internal sound that is characteristic of each of us and individualizes us, a sound that is the sum total of our sound archetypes” (as cited in Bruscia, 1987, p. 383). The notion here is that there is a core existence of sound, an inner music, that is part of each person’s uniqueness. Musical improvisation is a means of connecting to the client’s core self since the music bypasses verbal mediation, reflects the deep vitality affects, and creates the dynamic forms of the client’s emotions. The inner-outer congruence described above sets the stage for the emotional engagement between the client and therapist. The degree of musical-emotional congruence, that is, the degree to which the client’s improvised music accurately represents his or her inner emotional states, determines the extent to which change can be instituted in that moment of the therapy. When there is congruence, alterations in the music can be direct alterations of the emotions of the core self. The client responding to a therapist during a musical improvisation is adjusting his or her emotional state to produce a slightly different music output. This process of adjustment to the demands of the immediate music moment is the therapeutic process at its essence. A highly skilled clinician is deeply perceptive to the subtleties and nuances of the client’s emotional state and can fine-tune intricate musical stimuli, which will create a mild disequilibrium that fosters the client’s adjustment. Deep contact, rapport, trust and a therapeutic alliance 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

188

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

must be established before the therapist can attempt such a bold intervention that facilitates change. For example, with a client that tends to play very simplistic and steady beats and does not explore or expand (due to anxiety perhaps), the music therapist may interject syncopated rhythms that cut against the steady rhythm. The introduction of this new music element creates a dissonance (on the rhythmic level) that contrasts with the client’s steady and rigid beat. How does the client respond to this? If the anxiety level is high, the client will likely tend to be more rigid and defensive. A rhythmic pattern that is too extreme will only reinforce the defensive position and close the client off to the possibility of playing in a new way. The therapist needs to consider the client’s zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), that is, the capacity for the client to play slightly outside his or her comfort zone with the support of a guide. A finetuned intervention is important since challenging the client too much at this point will go far from the comfort zone and increase anxiety. Playing in a manner that is not challenging the client’s music making will not offer an opportunity to expand or grow. Such non-challenging and supportive playing is appropriate in an early stage of therapy where rapport building takes predominance. Once a trusting therapeutic relationship is established, then the client associates a “safe” emotion with the therapist and is more likely to take risks in the challenges of the middle stage of therapy. The perceptive therapist gauges his or her interventions based on feedback from the client. Are there physical affective cues— facial expressions, physical tensions—that convey a sense of anxiety? Is the client’s music changing? Resistance to exploring more expansive rhythms may manifest in louder music that maintains the same rigid beat (on a drum for example) but indicates increased tension through more forceful beating. Loudness tends to be an immediate and consistent indicator of emotional tension since sound production on instruments is usually highly sensitive to physical force tht in turn is dependent on muscular tension associated with emotional states. 1st pass

The Isomorphism of Music and Emotion

189

In the immediate moment of the clinical encounter, the ability to perceive the subtle cues of client affect is critical for responding in an effective manner that facilitates emotional movement. It is important to determine where the client is regarding the change process. Mahoney (1991) describes an oscillating process between expansion and contraction that cycles through the treatment process over time. A client in a phase of contraction may need more supportive emotional nurturance from the therapist, while a client in active expansion may need to be challenged or amplified. In this way, the therapist is following the rhythm of the client over time (in the session and across several sessions). The type and degree of emotional energy provided by the therapist can facilitate the therapeutic process and move the client further into change. When the emotional structure sustaining the core self is realigned and transformed, then significant therapeutic change has occurred (Dealy, 1993, personal communication 10-12-08). The empathic therapist must develop a deep and genuine sense of his or her own self in order to transform the client at a “core” emotional level. The emotional depth of the therapist—the vitality, the energy, the wellspring of positive affect—sets the range for the potential depth of an existential therapeutic connection. “Only in this ‘central experience’ is human reality, only here is aliveness, only here is the basis for love” (Fromm, 1956, p. 103). Love is a core emotion (Priestly, 1975), and can be a central factor in healing, therapy and well-being (Pellitteri, 1988). Such an essential human connection, like a mother’s attunement, a lover’s presence, or a therapist’s deep empathy can have an impact on the brain’s neurological structure. Lewis, Amini & Lannon (2000) examine the psychobiology of emotions and the brain: “In relationships, one mind revises the another, one heart changes its partner . . . Who we are and who we become depends, in part, on whom we love” (p. 144).

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

Chapter 9

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy Combining the concept of “emotions” with that of “intelligence” narrows the focus of the current work from the general principles of emotional processes and functions to a specific field of emotionrelated abilities. The construct of intelligence is well known and is inherently associated with adaptation. People who are considered highly intelligent are considered to have superior abilities, more efficient and effective skills, and greater knowledge (Sternberg, 1990). Emotional intelligence (EI) therefore, is a subset of the larger field of emotions research and refers to a set of mental abilities that involve the use of affective information for adaptive purposes. EI involves emotional stimuli, states, expressions, and experiences, and in addition considers how these emotional processes can be utilized for purposeful and productive goals. In this way, EI is naturally aligned with many of the outcome goals for therapy. The term emotional intelligence was first proposed as an organized theory by Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer in 1990. The four main areas of EI abilities include: emotional perception, emotional facilitation of thinking, the use of emotional knowledge, and regulation of emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Each of these four skill sets can be related to various terms in the clinical literature such as psychosocial adaptation, self-regulation, personal adjustment, optimal development, healthy functioning, and well-being. Since emotional processes are part of the coping and resiliency processes that develop through therapy, then intelligence about emotions would of course be a central facet. EI is inherent in many

1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

191

clinical approaches, although it may not be explicitly identified or emphasized. Given the intimate link between music and emotions, the use of music to develop EI appears natural. Learning about emotions requires the experience of emotions as a basis. Music can be used to activate and/or alter emotional states and experiences that in turn can be used to “teach” about emotional processes. The work of the music therapist who chooses to focus on emotional processes will inherently involve EI abilities in one or more ways. This chapter will first outline the Mayer and Salovey (1997) abilities-based model of EI. The second section will discuss how EI abilities relate to clients’ adaptation and clinical goals. Section three presents strategies for music therapists to develop EI abilities in their clients. The last section addresses the EI of the music therapist and its importance in effective clinical skills.

The Abilities Model of Emotional Intelligence Distinctions from related constructs EI has received a good deal of attention in the popular media, which highlights its appeal and applicability but also served to create distortions about the original construct. EI is a type of intelligence that is distinct from the traditional, intellectual type of intelligence commonly measured by standardized IQ tests (i.e., Weschler Adult Intelligence Scales). IQ represents sets of verbal, mathematical, and visual-perceptual abilities that are believed to be necessary for academic success. By contrast, EI (which is also referred to as EQ or emotional quotient) is an intelligence in using emotions and social information. The types of intelligence are distinct but also related. The distinction lays in the information involved (verbal and visual stimuli verses emotional). The overlap is based on the cognitive processing associated with any

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

192

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

intelligence, such as perception, evaluation, representation, and transformation of information. A construct that is closely related to EI is social intelligence. Social intelligence is broader than EI in that it includes social scripts and sociocultural rules and norms. Such information about the social environment and cultural systems is extremely important for adaptive social functioning. Since EI focused exclusively on cognitive-emotional processes, then it is more circumscribed and narrow than the broader construct of social intelligence. Historically, the construct of social intelligence was proposed early in the twentieth century (Thorndike & Stein, 1937), but faced conceptual difficulties since its precise definition and measurement were elusive. The narrow and specific focus of EI as a set of emotionrelated abilities has allowed the construct to be more easily measured and empirically validated (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Mayer, 2006). While intelligence about the social world at large is important, the capacity to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions is a central and precluding aspect of the larger adaptation process. EI includes awareness not only of other’s emotions (interpersonal intelligence) but also of one’s own emotional states (intrapersonal intelligence). In this way, it combines the two personal intelligences of Gardner’s (1983) well-known theory of multiple intelligence. The other types of intelligence in Gardner’s model include linguistic, logico-mathematical, and spatial (which comprise traditional IQ intelligence) as well as musical and body kinesthetic (which are unique types). Musical intelligence can be considered related to innate musical abilities and basic capacities for auditory discrimination and auditory processing. (Such abilities, with regard to the clinical music therapy process, would allow a greater degree of complexity in musical processing and expression, however, musical ability should not matter with regard to the therapeutic relationship and clinical outcome). Another important distinction in EI is between its own competing theories. Goleman (1995) popularized the term emotional 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

193

intelligence with a best-selling book that was based on Salovey and Mayer’s 1990 EI theory. His claims about the predictive power of EI as superior to IQ were overstated and premature. Recent research, however, has proposed a more balanced understanding of EI with regard to adaptive functioning (Mathews, Zeidner, and Roberts, 2002; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000a). Goleman’s current conceptualization of EI is considered a “trait-model” in that EI is consider a fixed trait in the individual as opposed to a set of abilities. Goleman’s model and another trait-based EI model proposed by Bar-On (1996) are considered “mixed models” in that they blend aspects of social intelligence and personality theory with EI (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000b). While broad encompassing theories have an advantage of greater applicability, they face the limitations and challenges of measurement and conceptual pitfalls. The mixed models are also limited in their conceptualization of EI as traits that aligns them more closely with theories of personality rather than as an actual intelligence. The abilitiesbased model is much more relevant to clinical work since abilities, unlike traits, are process oriented and are amenable to development through interventions.

Definitions and components The original definition of EI (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) was expanded and revised in 1997. These four branches of EI, perception, facilitation, knowledge, and regulation, organize the range of emotional abilities (see Table 9.1). The revised definition is: Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 10). 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

194

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Table 9.1 Components of Emotional Intelligence I. Emotional Perception 1) Ability to identify emotion in physical states and thoughts 2) Ability to identify emotion in other people 3) Ability to accurately express emotion 4) Ability to discriminate between honest versus dishonest expressions of emotion (II)Emotional Facilitation of Thinking 1) Emotions direct attention and prioritize thinking 2) Emotions can be generated to aid in judgments 3) Emotional mood swings can change perspectives 4) Emotional states encourage specific problem-solving approaches (III) Using Emotional Knowledge 1) Ability to label emotions 2) Ability to interpret the meanings that emotions convey 3) Ability to understand complex feelings or blends of feelings 4) Ability to recognize transitions of emotions and intensities (IV) Reflective Regulation of Emotions 1) Ability to stay open to pleasant and unpleasant feelings 2) Ability to engage or disengage from emotions 3) Ability to monitor emotions in oneself and others 4) Ability to moderate and enhance emotions without repression [Note: Roman numerals I–IV indicate the four main branches of the Mayer & Salovey (1997) EI model. Each branch contains four specific and related abilities.] Emotional Perception includes the accurate identification of emotions in oneself and in others. In this way EI is akin to selfawareness, although the latter is generally broader to include nonemotional aspects of the self (i.e., value, interests, belief systems, 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

195

etc.). In their description of the emotional perception component, Mayer and Salovey include the “ability to identify emotions in other people, designs, artwork, etc., through language, sound, appearance, and behavior” (1997, p. 11). The first comprehensive abilities-based EI measure, the Multifactoral Emotional Intelligence Scales (MEIS; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 1999) included several subtests of emotional perception that taken together comprised the overall emotional perception score for an individual. These subtests included the identification of emotions in the characters of written story scenarios, in visual designs/artwork, and in short musical excerpts. The tasks required respondents to rate the degree of emotion present in the stimuli (story, design, or music). There is an acknowledgment of emotions in art in general and in music in particular. The accuracy with which a person identifies the emotions in music indicates a greater degree perception and a higher overall level of EI. In the clinical setting, music therapists may encounter particular disorders and conditions that are characterized by poor emotional perception such as those falling on the spectrum of pervasive developmental disorder, nonverbal learning disabilities, and other conditions with extreme social impairments. Emotional perception appears to stand as a distinct ability across several studies (Mathews, Zeidner & Roberts, 2002; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 1999). This area of emotional functioning is a foundation for the other three areas of EI abilities. Emotional facilitation of thinking reverses the historical assumptions about emotions as being disruptive to reasoning. It represents the interaction between emotions and cognitions and considers their reciprocal influence. This includes the ability to use emotions to prioritize attention and thinking, such as when a child expresses cues of emotional distress (i.e., cries) so others will immediately pay attention. If a client in a therapy group setting exhibits tones of anxiety in his or her voice this may direct the clinician to address this concern before addressing another group member whose issues may be less emotionally significant. 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

196

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Emotional facilitation also includes the capacity to gain access to one’s own emotions such as remembering the feelings associated with a past event in order to extract meaning and/or make judgments. Recalling unpleasant emotions from a past experience can be a tool to assist in directing current behaviors and choices. Another aspect of emotional facilitation is to recognize how one’s mood can influence thinking. Alice Isen’s (2000) research indicates how positive mood increases the efficiency of cognitive processes. When participants in her studies were induced into positive moods, they were able to generate a greater number of unusual and creative connections in word-association tasks. Negative emotions, by contrast, require more resources in cognitive processing and activate defense mechanism or coping skills in order to reduce and contain the negative mood. Therefore, less attention and thinking capacities are available. This research has implications for educational settings where the positive emotional tone of a classroom will increase the capacities of the student to better learn the academic material. Applications can also be made for the clinical setting where the emotional tone of the psychological field of individual or group therapy sessions will influence the clients’ creativity and personal expressiveness. Emotional knowledge involves the abilities to label emotions, to interpret their meanings, to understand the blends of different emotions, and to understand how emotions transition and change over time (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). While knowledge itself is not an ability, the abilities of this component refer to one’s capacity to form emotion concepts and to use emotional knowledge. In this regard, the emotional knowledge component is the most cognitive by nature and most closely dependent on intellectual capacities. A person’s level of cognitive development and capacities to create elaborate mental representations will influence his or her understanding of emotions. Emotional meanings, for example, include the ideas that sadness comes from a sense of loss, fear from some type of threat, and happiness from the satisfaction of needs. Knowledge about the transitions of emotions includes the understand1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

197

ing that emotions will likely diminish in their intensity over time. Emotional blends consider how different emotions can be mixed, like surprise and disappointment, or anger and hurt. Research comparing EI to dynamic personality structures represented by ego functions found that emotional knowledge corresponded more closely than other EI abilities to adaptive defense mechanisms (Pellitteri, 2002) and to overall ego strength (Pellitteri, 2003). An accurate base of knowledge about emotions enables an individual to function at a more adaptive level that will support social relationships. As cognitive processes are a major psychophysiological element in emotions, then cognitive structures (i.e., emotion concepts) will naturally play a role. Emotional regulation is the fourth component of the abilitiesbased EI model and involves various skills regarding the management of emotional states in oneself and others. The cluster of skills includes the ability to maintain access to current emotional states (i.e., stay opened to emotions) even if the emotions are unpleasant. Such an ability will allow an individual to experience an emotional state longer and allow opportunities to practice modulation of the emotional state and intensity. Related to this is the ability to detach from or engage with an emotional state, as when a client needs to shift out of a negative mood or let go of an obsessive idea. Emotional regulation involves reasoning about emotions, but not just as concepts, as in the emotional knowledge component, but as a reflective process in the self to examine if the emotions are clear, reasonable, and how they are embedded in the social situation. Managing emotions builds upon the other EI components in that it requires recognition of the cues of the emotional state (perception), examination of one’s thinking and meaning related to the emotion (facilitation and knowledge), and then the use of strategies to increase or decrease the emotional intensity. Emotional regulation also refers to a person’s abilities to influence the moods and emotions of others. Mayer and Salovey (1997) describe this particular skill as the, “ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderating negative emotions and 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

198

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

enhancing pleasant ones, without repressing or exaggerating information they may convey” (p. 11). In this way, decreasing negative (unpleasant) emotional states is not a defensive process like denial or projection, but allows the unpleasant emotion to be under control without loosing the value that its meaning may have.

Emotional Intelligence and Adaptation As described in chapter 1, adaptation is a general overarching construct that relates to all types of therapy outcomes. Adaptation requires creativity, flexibility, and the capacity to take multiple perspectives in order to perceive solutions to problems and resolutions to conflicts. The process of adaptation involves accommodation in thinking and behavior in order to attain desired goals. The aim of music therapy, as well as other therapeutic approaches, is generally to facilitate change associated with improved client functioning, that is, an improvement in the person-environment fit. Sometimes the clinical intervention is to alter the environment rather than the individual. In clinical music therapy practice, the therapist controls the immediate environment (i.e., the psychological field) of the individual or group therapy sessions. The creative arrangement of the therapeutic environment around the needs and potentials of the individual client allows that person to “fit.” Success in the context of the music therapy group is a first step toward generalizing adaptive behaviors in other contexts (i.e., school setting, family, psychiatric ward, work setting, etc.). EI abilities are important in the creative process of fitting a person to a context. Recall the evolutionary theories of emotions that suggest that emotions provide information about the environment. Accurate perception of emotions is essential then in determining the immediate state of the environment by reading the affective cues expressed by others. Emotions are indicators of the degree of match between a person and the environment. For 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

199

example, a child in a hyperactive state can be disruptive to others in a school setting where the class is trying to study quietly. The degree of negative emotions in others and the level of intensity of emotions can indicate that there is a mismatch between the individual child and the academic task at hand. The perception of annoyance in others is feedback that may or may not be perceived and used by the individual child. The ability to perceive emotions in others is necessary in order to derive the affective information from the immediate social environment. The expression of emotions establishes a communication process that allows other to understand our internal states and to respond to our needs. Emotional expression then can lead to the facilitation of thinking and intentional goal-directed behavior. Understanding how emotions influence thinking and the meanings of emotions (emotional knowledge) enables an individual to accurately interpret others in the environment as well as to understand how one’s own emotional state may impact others. Finally, the regulation of emotions has been identified as a critical ability in many types of adaptation (Gross, 2007). Such regulatory capacities include impulse control and self-restrain persistence toward a goal despite frustration or doubt, intentionally accessing and being opened to experiencing emotional states, and modulating emotional intensities (without changing the type of emotion). Progress in therapy may be determined by the extent to which one has learned the cues of specific conditions and matched appropriate and effective emotional responses to the environmental challenges at hand. Adaptive responses include not only the type of emotion but also the degree of emotional intensity. The “intelligence” of EI refers to the adaptive nature of the construct. Mathews and Zeidner (2000) relate EI to adaptation in stating that “adaptive coping might be conceptualized as emotional intelligence in action, supporting mastery of emotions, emotional growth, and both cognitive and emotional differentiation, allowing us to evolve in an ever-changing world” (p. 460). The music therapist in establishing clinical goals will inevitably involve 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

emotional abilities either directly or implicitly. The adaptive process may directly require an EI skill such as recognizing the emotions in others and responding appropriately. In some cases, however, the clinical goal may not be to develop a discrete EI skill, but may require an EI ability to be accomplished such as when a student must stay focused on an academic task and persistence would mean regulating and restraining the impulse to stop.

Using Music to Develop Emotional Intelligence There are two main areas where EI and music therapy can be integrated—the clinical process and in educational contexts. In the context of clinical treatment, the music therapist uses opportunities in the sessions to specifically develop EI in clients. In educational contexts that may employ a Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) curriculum, music can be used at an auxiliary or augmentative level to aid in teaching EI skills.

Emotional intelligence in clinical process Since emotional processes are activated, or potentially activated, at any moment in an interpersonal exchange, opportunities to utilize one or more of the four EI abilities are always present. The music therapist taking an EI approach to treatment will look for these opportunities to engage and alter the clients’ abilities. Developing EI may be accomplished through the music alone, but at times will also require verbal interventions in order to make connections and to encode the concepts more formally. Clinicians may use both structured and informal methods to create such windows of opportunity for learning and therapeutic change. Pellitteri, Stern & Nahkutina (1999) describe a music therapy program in a special-education setting with elementary school children. Music activities were designed to increase the perception and expression of emotion in music. In the game-like for1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

201

mat, clients had to recognize an emotion and express it through improvised instrumental music. The other clients in the group had to determine from the musical expression what the player (improviser) was feeling. This required coordinated efforts and aesthetic choices for the player and listening and interpretive skills for the listeners. In one case, a boy played the drum in a loud, forceful, and intense manner to which the other clients accurately labeled as “angry.” In the follow-up discussion, the boy revealed that he was feeling “sad.” This discrepancy between emotions was an indication of deficits in EI and was an underlying factor in the boy’s social adjustment difficulties and poor peer relations. The discrepancy may have been due to difficulty with emotional labeling, difficulties in distinguishing mixed feelings, and/or limitations in translating feelings through musical behaviors. The feedback that the boy received from his peers highlighted this discrepancy and indicated that what he experienced internally was notably different than what he expressed outwardly. Feedback is the first step in providing a corrective process that leads to more accurate perceptions expressions and knowledge of emotions. The previous example illustrates a structured activity aimed at increasing EI. At a more specific level, the structure of particular songs creates opportunities for experiential learning. The children’s song “Tinga Layo,” for example, has a natural pause for three beats during the chorus section. During this pause the therapist can choose to have the clients in the group be silent and then continue to play instruments or vocalize at the start of the next measure. This is especially effective for developing emotional regulation. The clients are in an aroused and excited state since the song is upbeat and energetic. Then at the precise moment they must stop and restrain the tendency to play for the few brief seconds of the three beats. This instance of self-control requires the regulation of muscular tensions and movements as well as activating cognitive processes of restraint. It is direct and concrete feedback to the client that he or she can stop. Oftentimes, clients with dysregulation disorders become even more impaired during states 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

202

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

of arousal. Therefore the practice of stopping at precise moments of arousal counteracts this tendency and builds self-regulatory capacities. Informal methods for developing EI through music therapy come during improvised music. During interactive exchanges between the client and the therapist, the client is responding musically and therefore emotionally to the therapist’s created music. The shifts in musical forms (i.e., slowing tempo, creating complimentary melodies, matching alterations in dynamics and intensities) require that the client is perceptive to changes in the music. Perception to musical cues in many ways parallels the perception necessary for emotional cues. Speech prosody, for example, is the musical quality (i.e., melody and rhythm) of the spoken expression that conveys emotion. Loudness, tempo, and dynamics are also musical forms that convey affect through one’s tone of voice. Research studies have indicated a relationship between musical experiences and increased accuracy in reading speech prosody (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain, 2004). At more advanced stages of the therapeutic process, the therapist can create opportunities that move beyond a holding environment and challenge the client to make adjustments. The therapist can intentionally change his or her music during improvisation (i.e., increase tempo, introduce more complex or syncopated rhythms, change loudness, play variations of the melody). The client must respond flexibly and adaptively in order to maintain the balance of synchrony and musical integrity. When a client tries to “match” his or her music to the therapist it requires coordinated, flexible, and self-regulated behaviors. Musical improvisation at the interpersonal level allows for the experience of interpersonal exchanges that by nature involve emotional dimensions. This is similar to a mother adjusting to an infant’s expressions in the process of attunement (see chapter 6). Only in the case of such advanced interventions, it is the client that is meeting the demands of the therapist in the interpersonal situation. Responding musically and emotionally to the therapist’s music is 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

203

an indication of client maturity and personality development as well as adaptive use of EI skills. In therapy with high-functioning clients who have the cognitive capacities for self-reflection and insight and the verbal capacities for expression, music therapy can lead to more complex levels of EI development. In moving beyond a pure music approach to incorporate verbal-cognitive methods, the clinician can impact a broader range of psychological functions, including EI skills. Verbal discussion of improvised music and/or responses to music listening can generate a range of associations (i.e., images, thoughts, memories, sensations) as in Analytic Music Therapy (Priestly, 1975). Such associations are an illustration of the EI ability of emotional facilitation of thinking. Emotional dimensions of the music can evoke a range of aesthetic and cognitive responses. Discussion of such responses can lead to greater awareness of the emotional-cognitive connections within the person. In a similar way, the discussion phase of Guided Imagery & Music sessions can lead to insight and greater emotional knowledge. The client can become aware of the deeper meanings and emotions that are contained in the images. In most cases, any degree of awareness through musical-verbal methods will likely create potential to improve client adaptation. Contained under the larger umbrella of self-awareness are the EI abilities of emotional perception, facilitation, knowledge, and regulation.

Music in social-emotional learning curricula SEL programs are important in schools and can be a means of improving academic achievement (Zins, Weissberg, Wang & Walberg, 2004). Emotions influence cognitive organization and engagement in learning activities. In educational settings at the auxiliary and augmentative levels of practice, music may be used to enhance didactic goals (Bruscia, 1998). Music and other creative arts can be a means of teaching and developing EI skills whether through a formal SEL curriculum or as incorporated into 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

204

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

an existing academic curriculum (Brackett, Kremenitzer, Maurer, Carpenter, Rivers & Katulak, 2007). In music education for example, therapeutic interventions can be applied to address EI development (Pellitteri, 2006). When music is used as part of an SEL curriculum, it becomes secondary to the primary goal of teaching social and emotional skills. The major intervention is psychoeducational and may serve the purposes of prevention for clients facing at-risk conditions. Music therapy, as used in this role, can employ many of the same techniques as in more clinical roles. Music can be used as a stimulus to induce emotions that become the point of discussion about emotions. In examining the emotional qualities in a recorded piece of music or a student’s emotional and aesthetic responses to music, participants are learning about emotional perception. Such a discussion about music may take place in a music education or general classroom context. Labeling emotions, using the terms from the Hevner Mood Wheel for example, not only increases emotional perception, but builds more complex emotion concepts by associating the qualities of the music (i.e., dynamic forms and vitality affects, see chapter 8) with the emotional label. Richer emotion concepts form a basis for greater emotional knowledge. Emotional vocabulary is important for emotional knowledge, facilitation, and expression. This can be illustrated from a clinical example in the school-based project reported by Pellitteri, Stern & Nahkutina (1999). The emotional vocabulary exhibited by the inner-city special education fourth grade students was limited to “happy,” “mad,” and “sad.” The verbal limitations led to conceptual and behavioral limits in social situations. Students could not label other emotions such as embarrassed, disappointed, or frustrated, and likewise only reacted with angry or sad responses to unpleasant situations. The psychoeducational goal of increasing emotional vocabulary and emotional knowledge can be aided by musical examples. In combination with the aesthetic approach to

1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

205

emotion representation (see chapter 8) and aesthetic education in general (Greene, 2001), music therapy methods can form the experiential basis for such emotional learning goals (Pellitteri, 2008). Emotional vocabulary has also been incorporated into emerging assessment methods of EI in children (Pellitteri & Stern, 2003). A recent school-based emotional literacy curriculum that has received empirical support has been developed by Bracket and colleagues (2007). The basic EI concepts are organized around the acronym of RULER (Recognition, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, and Regulating emotions). After teaching the concepts, artistic activities, including music, are used to enhance the concept. The multimodal experiences of using arts increase the number of stimulated neurosensory channels. In the brain this results in a greater number of associations and more stable, encoded representations of the emotional concept. At a basic level, EI curriculum goals and clinical treatment goals aim to develop adaptive coping mechanisms that can be applied in various contexts. While recognizing and labeling emotions in oneself and others is a basic skill, larger attitudes and personality traits can also develop from and EI-focused approach. Optimism, for example, can lead one to generate positive and hopeful emotions in difficult situations. Looking on bright side rather than be excessively negative keeps a greater range of possibilities open, maintains persistence at tasks, and may lead to the discovery of solutions that would have otherwise been missed. Optimism is also counter indicative of depression and other mood disorders. Positive affect provides a buffer for the stress of unpleasant affect. There are times, however, when a more negative or serious emotional response is required to reach a desired effect. An EI person can make these distinctions and learn to respond with the “best” emotion at the optimal level of intensity in a given situation. Many of the EI skills that are desirable goals for clients are also abilities that need to be developed in therapists as will be described in the next section.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

206

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Emotional Intelligence and the Music Therapist If a clinician approaches treatment with an EI framework and aims to increase EI abilities in clients, then ideally he or she should have developed a notable degree of EI. The process of self-awareness should be a central facet in any professional clinical training program for this reason. Recognition of countertransference as well as unconscious bias is essential for therapists to deliver effective treatment. The ability to regulate the emotional tone of the therapy environment as well as the emotional intensities of the client is a hallmark of a skilled clinician. Many interpersonally based approaches to treatment rest upon humanistic foundations that are naturally aligned with the tenets of EI (Pellitteri, Stern, Shelton & Ackerman, 2006). A clinician’s use of the four EI abilities during treatment can lead to better clinical judgment and technique. At a basic level, emotional perception is the essential nature of empathy, which is a core condition in humanistic approaches (Rogers, 1961). The music therapist, of course, must recognize what the client is feeling in order to adjust the musical stimuli and clinical intervention at the immediate moment. As mentioned previously, emotional facilitation is necessary to prioritize the significance of emotional stimuli, which determines who and what the therapist responds to at any decision point in the session. It is one thing to recognize and label the clients feelings, however a more advanced level of skill requires that the therapist determine the client’s readiness to be challenged and the degree of challenge or whether the client needs a more nurturing, nondemanding, holding environment. This determination can be made by considering the cues of anxiety and any subtle changes in those indicators on a moment-tomoment basis during the flow of the therapy session. It is a novice therapist who rushes in to fix a problem before fully understanding the nature and extent of the clinical condition. Such premature actions likely stem from the therapist’s own anxiety about being effective and being a “good” therapist. These 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

207

mistakes may be typical as a new therapist is at an early stage of developing self-efficacy as a clinician. The awareness and containment of one’s own anxiety in a clinical moment requires the EI skills of self-perception and regulation, respectively. It is built into human nature through evolution and reinforced at times through socialization to direct more attention to negative stimuli in the environment. This obviously had survival value for primitive humans who could respond more rapidly to potential threats. In many clinical and educational settings, however, this tendency may result in focusing excessively on the “problem,” namely, what is wrong, disordered, or disabled. Symptoms and disabilities often carry a negative affective tone and therefore draw more attention. The danger in this is that the positive assets and strengths of the client may be overlooked or overshadowed by the problems. The EI ability of emotional facilitation of thinking is important because the clinician, aware that the negative affect may bias thinking, will not limit the attention to problems or disorders, but will seek to attend to the healthy and positive aspects of the client that are resources for treatment. Another common mistake for beginning therapists includes the layperson’s assumption that therapy is just about “getting your feelings out.” Again, the assessment of the client’s readiness to express emotions is important. The therapist must also consider the client’s personality structures, particularly ego strength, which include the capacity to tolerate and to integrate intense emotional states. Expressing highly aggressive or painful emotions may lead the client to decompensate, become overly defensive, and/or to disengage from the therapeutic connection as the emotions themselves may be perceived as threatening. Such a blanket application of this simplistic assumption reflects rigidity in the therapist and an inability to think through the purpose of therapy at a deep level. Likewise, there may be a tendency in novice therapists to overuse the technique of reflection and respond immediately to every expressed emotion. Reflection and any type of attention to a client’s emotional expression will likely amplify that emotional 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

208

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

state. Seasoned therapists will carefully choose what emotions to respond to and when to magnify such states. It is necessary to have a clear intention behind a clinical technique, and the therapist should ask him- or herself, “Will increasing the intensity of a client’s emotion be therapeutic at this time?” Such clinical decisions require the coordination of emotional knowledge about the possible meanings of a client’s affective states with knowledge about personality and stage of clinical process. The therapist should also consider how the client’s emotions and cognition will reciprocally affect each other. It is important for therapists to be aware of how his or her emotions can influence thinking with regard to their own assumptions and clinical judgment. Garb (1998) identifies the confirmatory hypothesis bias in clinical diagnoses. This is the tendency to make an assumption about a disorder early on in the assessment process before a sufficient amount of information has been attained. The clinician is then biased for the rest of the assessment procedures to seek out information that confirms the initial and premature hypothesis and to ignore or minimize information that disconfirms it. While this bias is in cognitive information processing it has an emotional basis, namely, the therapist’s anxiety about bringing closure to whatever questions he or she is asking in the assessment. In other words, a therapist may want to know something about the client and as soon as some information is presented that may resolve this disequilibrium (i.e., the feelings of uncertainty underlying the question) the therapist comes to a hypothesis. The EI ability of emotional regulation, however, allows the clinician to “stay opened” to the uncertainty and be calm during a state of disequilibrium. Staying opened allows one to consider multiple possibilities and perspectives and to at least gather more complete information before coming to a conclusion about what exactly is the client’s issue or problem. Emotional regulation is relevant in allowing one to disengage from an emotion. This is important in clinical process when one must let go of one possibility for the sake of another. (For example, 1st pass

Emotional Intelligence and Music Therapy

209

in a group session you cannot allow each person an instrumental solo if you are also working on a song that involves everyone singing together). Both options may have clinical value and therefore be desirable, however, it is important to detach from one pathway in order to follow another. Disengaging from emotions is highly relevant with regard to the therapist’s own emotional states. Stress, tensions, or negative emotions from our personal lives have no place in the clinical space of the therapeutic encounter. Therapists must be able to regulate their own moods in order to be fully present and mindful with clients. Addressing countertransference may require disengaging from a feeling and/or containing it so it does not interfere with the emotional availability for the client. The same, but reciprocal, skill of openness to emotions is necessary for engagement with clients. The therapist must be willing and prepared to empathize with negative and unpleasant emotions in clients. If a client senses that the therapist is uncomfortable with negative or intense emotions, then he or she may be reluctant to share deep feelings in the future. A nonverbal message has been communicated—that it is not safe or okay to feel this way in the session. Therapy often involves alterations in emotional processes and the therapist, working at such a deep level, must be fully willing to respond and engage with the client’s emotions. This is not meant to imply that every emotion must be addressed as it emerges. If a client, in a transference reaction, expresses intense anger at the therapist, it may or may not be effective to reflect and amplify this emotional state. The therapist must consider the strength of the therapeutic relationship, and whether it can tolerate such intense interpersonal conflicts; the client’s capacity to modulate and tolerate such emotions; and the meaning of the emotion in the context of the clinical process. An effective intervention, in cases of intense negative emotions, may be to modulate the emotion to a more manageable level where the client can still be opened to it (in order to work through it), but also have the cognitive, verbal, or musical capacities to integrate the emotion.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

Chapter 10

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

An emphasis on emotional processes hopes to bring a new light to the existing work of music therapists. The goals of this book are to clarify views on emotions and their relationships to music and therapy as well as to provide frameworks that integrate the science and art of music therapy. Clinicians already focus on emotional processes to various degrees and intuitively seem to understand this natural link between emotions and music. The emotional process focus in music therapy, as described in chapter 7, gave a general perspective of how clinicians can consider emotions as forces within the psychological field of the therapeutic encounter. Chapter 8 considered the underlying isomorphic structures of music and emotion, and how a musical intervention can also be an emotional intervention simultaneously. In chapter 9, the set of abilities referred to as emotional intelligence were presented as an element of the overall clinical goals of adaptation. This current chapter examines three major methods of music therapy—Nordoff-Robbins’s Creative Music Therapy, Priestly’s Analytic Music Therapy, and the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery & Music. Each section will provide an “emotional lens,” that is, consider the emotional processes that are inherently embedded in the respective methods. Music therapists need not change their existing approach to treatment, but rather view it through a frame of emotions. The emphasis on emotional processes can provide new perspectives and potential connections in the dynamic interplay of the therapist, the client, and the music.

1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

211

Nordoff-Robbins’s Creative Music Therapy Creative Music Therapy is a music-centered improvisational approach that engages individual clients through musical processes (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977). It is music centered in that is relies predominantly upon music as a form of expression and communication and minimizes verbal interventions. Creative Music Therapy was influenced by the work of Rudolf Steiner, a founder of anthroposophy, which can be considered the science of the spirit, as well as Maslow’s humanistic psychology (Bruscia, 1987). These philosophical bases led to the importance of the core musical sensitivity that is inherent within each individual and is central to the work. Nordoff & Robbins refer to this innate responsiveness to music as the “music child.” The Music Child is therefore the individualized musicality inborn in each child: the term as reference to the universality of musical sensitivity—the heritage of complex sensitivity to the ordering and relationship of tonal and rhythmic movement; it also points to the distinctly personal significance of each child’s musical responsiveness. (1977, p. 1) The emphasis on innate musicality relates to the evolutionary perspectives of music as described in chapter 3. The concept of the music child frames the therapeutic encounter in a manner that allows for a deep interpersonal connection. The emphasis on nonverbal methods makes the Nordoff-Robbins approach suitable for persons with disabilities who may have limited language capacity. Drawing upon our innate human heritage and responsiveness to the patterning of sound, creative music therapy transcends the barriers of disabilities or other clinical conditions. From an emotional process perspective, the music engages the core of the individual who enters a unique relationship with the therapist and with the music. Thus emotional states that exist within the individual are

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

212

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

brought into the musical field created in the session and find direct expression through musical forms. The musical improvisation in turn can influence immediate emotional states. A basic assumption of the approach is that changes in music making over the course of the treatment process reflect changes within the individual. The isomorphism of musical and emotional forms applies to the improvisational process, particularly the vitality affects and dynamic forms as described in chapter 8. Creativity is central to the approach. The music therapist improvises music in response to the client’s musical and behavioral actions. Bruscia (1987, p. 24) describes three types of creativity that are interrelated: (1) creation of music in response to the client in the immediate moment, (2) creation of a therapeutic environment, and (3) creation of the sequence of therapeutic experiences. The resources within the session are predominantly the music and the therapist’s creativity. For Nordoff and Robbins the music informs the therapeutic process rather than models of psychotherapy that guide how music is used. The relationship between the client and therapist exists through their musical interactions. In this regard, emotional processes are created, expressed, and experienced through musical structures. The notion of musical complexity (see chapter 5) relates to this aspect of the approach with regard to matching the improvised music to the client’s cognitivemusical level of development. Complexity will also be an indicator of the client’s musical freedom within the improvisational experience, that is, the extent to which the client creates musical forms and expands his or her expressiveness. Similar to the field theory described in chapter 7, the creative music therapy approach begins by establishing a “musicalemotional environment” (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977, p. 93). The clinical process begins when the therapist matches the client’s presence and affective display with musical forms, thus inviting the client into an aesthetic engagement. The interpersonal relationship thus starts with a musical connection. Perception of the client’s emotional states is essential for the therapist to make aesthetic 1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

213

choices in creating the music that effectively engages the client. The initial goal of the therapy procedures is to “meet” the client where he is at, in other words, consider the client’s emotional state as it affects his being at that moment. This technique of matching the music to the client’s emotions is used throughout the treatment. Offering contrasts to the client’s current mood is a way of challenging the client to respond in a different manner that expands his or her musicality. Moving from a nondirective style to a more directive influencing intervention must be done with care so to not rupture the relationship or threaten the client’s limits of comfort in the session. The therapist’s emotional intelligence is critical here in the ability to envision the ranges of emotional intensity and to determine how much contrast or complexity will challenge the client toward therapeutic movement, and at what point the emotional challenges will exceed the clients readiness or capacity. Nordoff and Robbins developed various methods for assessing and categorizing the client’s music making as a means of analyzing patterns and relationships and to track progress over the course of treatment. They proposed thirteen categories of responses based on observations of musical responses on the drum, piano, and voice that are the basic instruments used in the individual approach (Nordoff & Robbins, 1983). In addition, they developed two scales to assess the development of the client-therapist relationship and musical communicativeness (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977). A third scale was in development, but remained incomplete at the time of Paul Nordoff’s death. Bruscia, (1987) presented an abridged version of the Musical Response Scale III that was eventually completed by Clive Robbins. Nordoff and Robbins (1977) designed a “tempo-dynamic” schema that Bruscia (1987) presented as a means of assessment. The schema categorizes the fast-slow dimensions of tempo in combination with the loud-soft dimension of musical dynamics and relates various descriptions of emotions to each of the dimensions. Pathological music occurs when a client is rigidly stuck playing only at one extreme of the spectrum (i.e., only loud, fast music). 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

214

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

The creative music therapist will attempt to engage the client and through the improvisational process, move the client into a more “normal” or flexible degree of music making. By expanding the range of musical stimuli and expressiveness, the client can begin to encompass the emotions associated with each tempo-dynamic category. Thus an expansion of musical expressiveness can create (or result from) and expansion of emotionality. While Creative Music Therapy is considered a music-focused approach and the therapy is guided and unfolds exclusively through the music, the relationship with the therapist is an essential component. The therapeutic relationship is the context where the interpersonal emotions exist. Emotions are at the heart of therapy. Consider the paucity of the emotional lives of these children [clients] . . .With the best of intentions you cannot give him [the client] your feelings about life, or about him, nor can you easily make him feel the things you feel. But if you can share experiences—and the arts are shared experiences, are languages by which feelings are communicated—then you and he can feel the same thing, can be in emotional rapport. (Nordoff & Robbins, 1983, p. 239). It is the emotional rapport that is created through the shared experience of musical improvisation that expands the client’s emotional world. The new experiences of emotions, in the context of an accepting, respectful relationship become forces within the client’s intrapersonal systems that bring healing, foster movement, and facilitate growth.

Priestly’s Analytic Music Therapy Analytic music therapy is based on psychodynamic principles of psychotherapy (Priestly, 1975). Mary Priestly’s work with psychi1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

215

atric patients in the 1970s was influenced predominantly by the work of Freud and Klein as well as Jung, Adler, and Lowen (Bruscia, 1987). Her work has since been expanded to include a broader range of populations and ages. Within the psychoanalytic framework, music serves as a means of unconscious expression as well as a source of symbolic meaning. Analytic Music Therapy (also referred to as Analytically-Oriented Music Therapy) is essentially an emotion-based approach. The experience, expression, interpretation, and integration of affect is central to the work. Music therapy permits what the analyst discourages: the acting out of the emotions. But with music this is done with some control through the guilt-free medium of nonverbal sound. Feelings which are beneath the level of consciousness can rise to the surface with great force when they can be contained by a sound matrix. Such feelings, by the force of their physical expression, overwhelmingly convince the client that they are there. The analytical music therapist . . . then has the task of tying them up with understanding and realization in words (Priestly, 1975, p. 19). The process of Analytic Music Therapy involves four major steps: identify the issue, define roles for the improvisation, improvise music according to the title selection, and discuss the improvisation (Bruscia, 1987). In the first step the client chooses the area of personal investigation and exploration. An important consideration at this step is the client’s readiness to address particular issues. The therapist’s emotional perception and clinical judgment is important in assessing the client’s level of anxiety and determining the client’s capacity to tolerate intense and possibly unpleasant emotions. In the second step, defining roles, the importance of relationships becomes salient. Transference and countertransference dynamics emerge in psychoanalytic therapies in the context of the relationship. The roles during the improvi1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

216

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

sation, (i.e., therapist as leading, following, collaborating, or observing a client play solo) will enact significant relationships in the client’s world. The therapist and client may take turns improvising music to represent significant others or aspects of the client’s personality (i.e., client’s parent, the “child” of the adult client, and ideal self). In the third step, the client improvises the music within the context of the assigned role. Improvisation goes beyond imagining a significant other (for example one’s parent) but involves making aesthetic choices and creating music that reflects and expresses the qualities of that significant person in the client’s life. The creative musical process here has significantly more power and expressive potential than mere verbal descriptions. The client is not merely discussing the issue or significant person but musically creating a representation of the issue that is imbued with associated emotions. In order for the improvisation to be therapeutic however, “the client must be in musical contact with his/her own feelings . . . [and] the therapist be in musical contact with the client’s feelings as well as his/her own (Bruscia, 1987, p. 127). The fourth step brings in the verbal component of the method and involves discussion, interpretation, and insight into the emotions, themes, and conflicts that emerged during the improvisation. “Whereas in the previous phase, the task was to translate feelings into music, here the challenge is to translate feelings expressed musically into words.” (Bruscia, 1987, p. 128). This cognitive-verbal component offers an opportunity for the client to make sense of the previously unexpressed emotions. Intellectual frameworks allow the emotions to become integrated within the client’s various belief systems about the self, relationships, and life. The cognitive process of interpretation is within the context of psychodynamic theory and can lead to insight and self-awareness. In Analytic Music Therapy emotions come into play through the act of creating music as well as through other creative means such as movement or artwork. Physical involvement allows the

1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

217

client to be immersed in the experience and allows emotions to be felt and perceived in the body. Through deep involvement in the improvisational process “altered state of consciousness” may develop that can alter brain waves and activate implicit memory structures. The use of metaphors and symbols in the process may also activate deep-rooted structures in the psyche that are associated with the unconscious configurations of personality. The social nature of the assigned roles for improvisation (i.e., parent-child, lovers, actual-ideal selves) can evoke emotions and/or conflicted themes. Through musical channels conscious filters and defense mechanisms are circumvented and unconscious material is allowed to emerge. Often there are strongly associated emotions within each theme that develops. The perception and identification of emotional cues can usually be the first step to determining the unconscious issues that is striving for expression. The emotional experience of the client may be the “string” or tag that can be used to “pull” the unconscious themes onto the conscious level. An internal emotional cue, no matter how subtle, can be the “tip” of the iceberg. An assessment tool used in Analytic Music Therapy is the Emotional Spectrum (Priestly, 1975; Bruscia, 1987). This model of emotional mapping is based on the conceptual ideas of Alexander Lowen and Bruno Bettlehheim. It is comprised of three core emotions: love, joy, and peace that are surrounded by other emotional types such as sorrow, guilt, anger, and fear. Each of the emotions has a positive or negative valence depending upon its adaptability. This model is not based on empirical research, does not include the full range of emotions, and does not consider psychophysiological factors. It is therefore limited in its use within a scientistartist approach to music therapy. “Priestly believes that interpreting the data according to the emotional spectrum is an intuitive rather than scientific process” (Bruscia, 1987, p. 147). Interference from the therapist’s countertransferences therefore would limit the use of this model. Despite the unscientific nature

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

218

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

of the emotional spectrum and the limitations of its terminology, client improvisations based on an emotional theme (like any theme) may still provide useful information about the client. Wigram, Pedersen, and Bonde (2002) note important therapist factors as the capacity to let go of complete control (so to allow the client’s improvisation to be unrestricted) and to maintain a “double awareness” of monitoring the interpersonal musical dynamics while engaging in the musical experience (p. 124). Such therapeutic capacities involve emotional intelligence as in the ability to be open to experience and to tolerate the uncertainty of ambiguity. The therapist’s need for control may stem from his or her own anxiety. The clinician’s emotional perception is also critical in the ability to detect subtle nuances of affective expression in the client’s body language and in the musical parameters. Awareness of such emotions is a critical component in therapist training. Priestly developed a specialized clinical training program (intertherapy) to foster emotional awareness and psychoanalytic insights in music therapists. Application of psychophysiological knowledge and emotion research to Analytic Music Therapy can include the understanding of emotional states. The implicit memory theory of emotions (see chapter 4) suggests that unconscious cognitive structures exert an influence on the creation of emotions. Alterations of unconscious meaning systems can lead to changes in emotional functioning. Detection of unconscious alterations and therapeutic progress can be noted by significant changes in musical-emotional expressions. The disconnect between emotional states and emotional experiences is important for therapists to understand. A client’s reported affective experience may not be completely accurate, depending upon the degree of defensiveness and the clients’ capacities of emotional awareness and insight. The analytically oriented music therapist will look for the unconscious emotional themes that may or may not be evident within the client’s verbal discussions, but are more likely found in the client’s music. Interpretation of the client’s ego strength and object relations can also 1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

219

be conducted through an analysis of the client’s musical creation and the quality of interpersonal interactions with the therapist.

Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music Guided Imagery and Music (GIM) is the use of music and imagery in an altered state of consciousness. As originally developed by Helen Bonny (Bonny & Savary, 1973; Bonny, 1978), GIM is a holistic approach based in humanistic psychology as well as transpersonal/spiritual work. The access to deeper layers of consciousness naturally aligns the method with psychodynamically oriented therapies and Bonny’s method has evolved to include these approaches (see Bruscia & Grocke, 2002). The Bonny method of GIM is used in individual and group formats with a variety of clinical and nonclinical populations for therapeutic as well as for personal growth purposes. GIM essentially uses relaxation techniques coupled with programmed classical music to induce altered states of consciousness. With eyes closed in a relaxed position, the client “travels” through a world created in his or her imagination. The images and experiences that are created are an amalgam of responses to the musical elements of the programmed classical pieces and the material of the client’s unconscious, intrapersonal world. The therapist (referred to as the facilitator) assists the client in the exploration and experience of the images through verbal dialogue. The therapist facilitates the process, however, the client is encouraged to allow the music to lead and shape the imagery. Ventry (2002) outlines the five components of a GIM session. The first component is an intake interview that is conducted in the initial session. This provides the therapist with background information and a sense of the client’s ego strengths and capacity for regressive work into an altered state of consciousness. It serves to determine the client’s appropriateness and readiness for the work. In the preliminary conversation the therapist assesses the client’s 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

220

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

current issues, needs, and energy level. The client may identify a theme to explore or build upon from the previous session. Based on this verbal dialogue, the therapist chooses the particular programmed music and the type of induction to be used. In the induction phase, the therapist leads the client through a relaxation process and provides a focus for attention (i.e., an image of significance). The purpose of this phase is to block out external distractions and to adopt an internal-imagination focus. The fourth component is the music listening period where the client experiences the imagery in response to the music and lasts from thirty to fifty minutes depending on the taped music. Bonny (1978, p. 24) described three subphases, which include a prelude of rapidly changing images at a more surface level of altered consciousness, followed by a bridge where the client ascends or descends into a deeper level, and finally the heart or major message of the session. In the postlude or post-session integration, the therapist assists the client in returning to a nonaltered state of consciousness and to refocus on external stimuli. Here the client processes the experience sometimes through artwork, drawing mandalas, or writing in a journal. In the verbal exchange with the therapist there may be interpretation of the imagery experience aimed at developing insight and /or for integrating of the deeper meanings of the session into the clients conscious functioning. Clark (2002) describes some of the basic premises of GIM such as an emphasis on holism, healing, and a humanistic view on human potential and growth. The GIM process can encompass personal dimensions but also reach into transpersonal levels that connect the client to mystical, universal, or peak experiences. Altered states of consciousness, like dream states, are not bound by the constraints of reality and allow for multiple dimensions of meaning and symbolism. Imagery therefore may contain several emotional themes and have personal significance to each individual client. Psychodynamic perspectives provide a wealth of frameworks for interpretation of imagery meanings. Jungian approaches (Ward, 1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

221

2002), Freudian concepts (Bruscia, 2002), and Gestalt dreamwork (Clarkson, 2002) have been integrated with the GIM method. Each of these dynamic traditions have their own systems of dream interpretation that lend themselves very well to the processing postlude phase of the therapy. Concepts such as resistance and transference are also highly useful for explaining the images and the clients process within the imagery world. Given the richness of imagery, there can be many emotional processes in GIM. The clients reaction (as a character in the imagery) can also reveal emotional themes. An image can contain a particular emotion (i.e., an wild animal can represent one’s anger). The client’s feeling of fear or concern or love toward the image of another person reflects the conscious or unconscious feelings toward that person in real life. The way that the client interacts with the images can identify a clinical issue or need and can determine the movement in the therapeutic process. Imagery provides metaphors that visually represent a meaningful theme. For example, in the images if a client is stuck in the mud, then this likely represents a personal or interpersonal dynamic of stagnation in the client’s life. While the emotions may not always be directly evident, they can be implied, inferred, as they are embedded within the meaning of the image. For the client who is stuck in the thick mud, the feeling of trying to struggle toward freedom can imply frustration and /or determination. If the client passively stays there with no attempt to move, then the implied emotion might be despair or hopelessness. The GIM method has a unique therapeutic power in that the images and music together can evoke actual emotional reactions within the client. Images are cognitive process that can create emotional states. Implicit memories and other unconscious structures can exert an influence through the images that are formed by and represent such memories. During a GIM session the client will likely activate the physiological components of emotions, that is, the client’s reactions to the meaning of the images during the altered states may be physiologically identical to the client reacting 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

222

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

to a real-life situation. This creates a “learning opportunity” where the client can “practice” a response to the image rather than react to a real person in his or her life. In the client’s own imagery he or she can practice new “imagined” behavioral patterns and experience new emotional states to the images and what they represent. An example from clinical work is provided by Pellitteri (1998): “The avoidance response (running away from the figures) was replaced with an approach response (confronting the figures) and thus accompanied a different emotional reaction to the parental images” (p. 489). The change in behavior even if it is only within one’s own imagery, leads to a reconditioning of the physiological and cognitive systems. The client experiences a different emotion that can be a resource for the real-world emotions outside of the session. The dynamic and almost limitless potential of imagery allows the client to work through the identified emotional issues within the imagery field. In addition, the expansive nature of the psyche in an altered state allows for multiple and unique perspectives and discoveries. Resources within one’s own mind can become available. Symbols in the imagery—a companion, an amulet, an energy—can represent a real potential within the client that can be used in the journey. For one client, a small “forest creature” that initially embodied fear and timidity, later became a companion to accompany him on a difficult task. In another imagery session, a client picked up a sunflower while walking down a tree-lined path that became a symbol of love and strength to be carried in future sessions as well as in real life. The music itself is often a source of energy within the session and the therapist might suggest for the client to use the music on the journey. In improvisational approaches a musical-emotional field is created and has potential for client’s intrapersonal and interpersonal changes within it. In a similar manner, GIM unfolds within an imagery field (within the clients imagination) that includes the symbols of the client’s psyche, the energy and structure of the music, and the guiding support of the therapist. Being in a psychological 1st pass

An Emotional Lens on Music Therapy Methods

223

field allows the client to move about in space and therefore take perspectives that might be difficult in other situations. In the interpretation phase of one imagery session, a gestalt dream interpretation technique was used and the client described the images from the perspective of the significant other person who was facing her in the imagery scene. When she took the other person’s perspective, she was able to see behind herself and noticed a brilliant and rich array of colors that had not been seen before. This new perspective elicited strong positive emotions that came to influence her view of herself and her life.

Conclusion As music is intricately linked with emotions, every music therapy method has potential to access and utilize emotional processes in the clinical work. In the Creative Music Therapy approach, the therapist draws upon the isomorphism between music and emotions to create and facilitate musical communications with the client that expand the client’s musicality and emotionality. In Analytic Music Therapy improvisation is used to bypass defenses and access deeper dimensions of the personality where unconscious emotions emerge and are processed through the music and/or verbally. In Guided Imagery and Music unconscious emotions and conflicts emerge through the symbolism of the images and can be transformed as the client interacts with and alters the images and their embedded meanings. The emotional “lens” provided here offers a deeper understanding of the emotional processes that are already inherent in the clinical methods.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Part Four

Professionalism

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Chapter 11

Emotional Awareness and the Professional Music Therapist The chapters in this book have emphasized the intimate link between music and emotions, examined the place of both in human functioning, and suggested their implications for clinical process. The four psychophysiological systems provide a multidimensional model for the creation of emotions, while the emotional process model (Lewis, 2000) considers a temporal relationship between the different emotional phenomena. While many of the sections in the chapters focused on the client’s emotional processes, some have emphasized the importance of the therapist’s emotional intelligence and clinical skills. This chapter will now examine the emotional processes of the therapist exclusively in the context of his or her role as a professional clinician. The first section will discuss professional identity and propose the “Scientist-Artist” view as reflecting key components of the field and providing a stance that can be effective in impacting the perceptions of other professionals. Sections 2 and 3 respectively, elaborate on the scientist-artist model and offer prescriptions of how a music therapist can communicate in professional contexts. The last section emphasizes the importance of emotional intelligence for the personal and professional well-being of the therapist in the larger context of career development.

Professional Identity: The “Scientist-Artist” View As professional music therapists we have the challenge of advocating for the recognition and acceptance of our clinical profes1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

228

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

PROFESSIONALISM

sional specialty. While most people can have an intuitive understanding of the therapeutic potentials of music, many professionals and lay people alike perceive music therapists as teachers or recreation specialists. Such misperceptions can lead to frustration for the music therapist who must constantly be educating and clarifying for others. It is important therefore, to correct this perception. Sometimes this can be accomplished by simple explanations, however, to truly understand what a music therapist can do, others need to experience it directly and /or to witness the effects of the clinical work on the clients. When colleagues in other helping professions see how a client or a patient has changed as a result of music therapy, they begin to appreciate the benefits and unique power of the methods. Another way that professional music therapists can enlighten others about our field is through their professional demeanor in the workplace. The clinician must ask him- or herself: How am I perceived by other professionals at my job? Am I considered to be professional, reliable, competent, sophisticated as a clinician? What are others’ assumptions and perceptions of music therapy? Every interaction in the work environment, whether in a formal role (i.e., team meeting, consultation) or through an informal role, is an opportunity to create our professional identities and influence the perceptions of others. The way we dress, the way we communicate, the style and skill in which we interact with others, and the reliability and efficiency of how we work combines to determine others’ perceptions of us as professionals. Part of our professional identity is that of musicians and we are often perceived as artistic/creative people. However, we are also professional clinicians and therapists. The multidisciplinary nature of the music therapy profession can lead to confusion since grasping the coexistence of both identities (musicians and therapists) may be rather complex for some. It is necessary therefore, for music therapist to be clear about our own professional identities so to present ourselves and our clinical specialty in a manner to others that commands respect and 1st pass

Emotional Awareness and the Professional Music Therapist 229

understanding. Other clinical professions embrace training philosophies that expresses the nature of their professions and shape the underlying assumptions about the work. The field of psychology, for example, adopts a “scientist-practitioner” model. Psychologists are perceived as possessing an empirically supported base to their clinical work that rests upon research (the scientist part). In addition, they are perceived as professional who can effectively apply the knowledge of human behavior (the practitioner part). In music therapy, the practitioner part (i.e., clinical, therapeutic) is combined with the artistic nature of our work that rests upon creativity. It may be easier for others to understand the artistic part of music therapy given the medium of music, however, the empirical basis of our clinical work, like most clinical work, can be misunderstood. I propose that music therapy training programs and individual therapists adopt a “scientist-artist” approach that combines the terminology and concepts for both empirical scientific research and creative arts. The emphasis on empirical clinical research conveys a particular degree of certainty and competence to others. When therapists genuinely hold a belief in the therapeutic power of music along with empirical grounding, then they will communicate with an emotional tone as highly skilled clinicians. We are not just artists, but we are also scientists, with respect for research and with an extensive base of empirical knowledge. Our attitudes, which are based on our deeper identities as professionals, will influence others’ perceptions of us. The emotional processes of professional identity require us to avoid expressing feelings of insecurity or uncertainty in work settings. Rather our emotional tone, in our professional roles, should be one of competence as clinicians. In an early stage of career when that sense of self-efficacy is still forming, one can rely upon the scientific grounding of clinical work in general, and music therapy in particular, as a source of certainty. As music therapy is our chosen career, it is assumed that it will have deep personal meaning for each therapist. Vocational self-concept (Super, 1990) refers to our sense of self in our particular career roles and is an impor1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

230

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

PROFESSIONALISM

tant dimension of overall identity. In this way, music therapy as a career is a rich source of personal emotions.

Communicating as a Scientific Professional While we may hold a deep sense of passion about our work, we cannot assume that others will feel the same way or approach the needs of the clients with a similar value system. It is also important to recognize the passion and dedication of other professionals about their own professions and their needs to be recognized and appreciated in the work place. The genuine appreciation of the work of other professionals leads to a better emotional tone in the work environment and also may lead to greater appreciation of the work of the music therapist. It is necessary to understand the role of music therapy in the larger context of the total treatment. Is the music being used in an auxiliary, augmentative, intensive, or primary level (Bruscia, 1998)? Every level is important and while some clinicians may feel that the music therapy treatment can and should be primary, the role of music therapy in the particular work setting may be at a different level, which is nonetheless valuable for the client. When the music therapist is a team player rather than an isolated individual, there is a more positive and collaborative emotional tone in colleague relationships. The theories, concepts, and ideas presented in this book serve to enhance the music therapist’s understanding of emotions and provide empirically based terminology from which to communicate with other professionals and researchers. Using terminology and concepts from the research literature (without sounding presumptuous!) conveys to others a sense of knowledge and competence. This scientific side of the music therapist is important in order to be taken seriously and respected. It is not merely the use of scientific language, which alone can sound shallow and fake, but the incorporation of scientific thinking. A good clinician will think like a scientist and question the way a scientist would ques1st pass

Emotional Awareness and the Professional Music Therapist 231

tion. A scientist would not accept methods or theories as having empirical validity if they were developed only through personal idiographic manners. A good scientist would ask: Was this method or idea a result of careful theorizing, with a review, synthesis, and integration of a research literature? New-age ideas based on personal opinions may appeal to some or offer poetic metaphors that are useful for representing phenomena. However, such unscientific methods should never be considered as more than descriptive and should never be presented as empirical clinical approaches. Such ideas may be useful in some ways, but as a scientist you must be cautious about accepting an idea with little or no validity. A good scientist questions research studies with small “n” (sample size) since such a small number of research participants would lack applicability or have extremely limited generalizability. Even if the study showed favorable results, the limited generalizability should be acknowledged and application of its methods should be made with careful consideration. Such critical thinking demonstrates restraint and a commitment toward higher standards, which can lead to a more favorable view of music therapy as a serious clinical modality.

Communicating as a Creative Artist The artistic side of the music therapist is creative, spontaneous, playful, improvisational, and resides in the dynamic interplay of the here-and-now moment. The artist embraces the humanistic aspects of each client and looks to the positive tendencies toward growth and health. Artists can hold multiple dimensions simultaneously and therefore can consider various perspectives. Creativity is not limited to the music therapy session however, but extends to all areas of clinical work and to an approach toward life itself. The music therapist, because of his or her training, is equipped to provide creative solutions to various work-related issues beyond just clinical goals. For example, a music therapist in a school 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

232

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

PROFESSIONALISM

setting may be part of a team of educators trying to address the issue of peer conflicts that occur with students in between classes. Music may provide useful metaphors—the students are in “dissonant” relationships or not in “rhythm” or one student may be “out of tune” with the rest. Techniques for addressing peer conflicts in a music group may be applied to this nonclinical but important situation. The creativity of the music therapist and the potential to adhere to a nonjudgmental and humanistic view of the clients is a certain strength to any professional team. The creative artist can see the aesthetic dimensions of everyday life and notice what there is to be noticed (Greene, 2001). Artists can see relationships, patterns, metaphors, and underlying meaning structures. We can view the world in unique ways that offer a richness to others and (like art usually can) we can inspire others to see the world from other points of view and to dare to be different. Creative art therapists can remind others, adults and children alike, of how to play, be spontaneous, and be free from constraints and, in essence, to be oneself. It is important to be able to see the relationship between art and science and be able to switch between the terminology and conceptualization of both worlds when needed. At times it may be important to discuss how a client’s neurological processes and personality configurations combine with particular behavioral patterns of peers to create conflicted interpersonal interactions. One’s knowledge of clinical theory would be essential here. However, in the same conversation with colleagues, it may be important to be creative in one’s perception of the client (especially if others tend to be overly negative about a client). The music therapist may need to frame the client’s disruptive behaviors as creative (though sometimes unsuccessful) attempts at adaptation. Thus a sophisticated clinical picture of human behavior can be created along with creativity and flexibility of the unique individual. The integration and synthesis of clinical data is a creative process necessary to develop a comprehensive view of a client. At the same time, creative approaches to clinical solutions are scientific in testing hypothe1st pass

Emotional Awareness and the Professional Music Therapist 233

ses and discovering answers to questions. One can conceive of the clinical work with every client as an individual research study of that person.

Emotional Intelligence and the Professional Music Therapist An essential aspect of being an effective professional music therapist is self-awareness. The development of the abilities of emotional intelligence enable the clinician to be a more fully functioning person that, in turn, can enhance the capacity for therapeutic alliances and guide the client to a deeper level of emotional awareness. A music therapist can develop greater awareness through personal exploration such as intertherapy (Priestly, 1975), deep self-reflection upon music therapy process, and clinical work, and/or ongoing professional supervision. Clinicians who enter their own individual therapy certainly have an opportunity for growth and development. Awareness of our own biases and underlying assumptions is critical in order to avoid imposing these on our clients or restricting our capacities for nonjudgmental acceptance of others. It is important also to be aware of our own “dark sides” and intrapersonal dynamics that can be barriers in the clinical process. While creativity can be positive and therapeutic, it is necessary to be mindful of the unhealthy side of creativity that maintains dysfunctional patterns and repeats ineffective tendencies (Kavaler-Adler, 1993). The use of emotional intelligence is important not only for the clients but to support and boost the morale and effectiveness of other professionals. When a clinician can influence the emotional processes of colleagues in a positive and growth-oriented manner, then the whole work environment (and the therapeutic services that it provides) will improve. Any clinical professional who adopts an emotional intelligent focus can become an “emotional center” (Pellitteri, Stern, Shelton, Muller-Ackerman, 2006, p. 4) 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

234

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

PROFESSIONALISM

to his or her workplace and orchestrate the emotional dynamics of the clinical staff. In being a source of positive emotions in the environment, the music therapist can influence the emotional processes of all who are in the psychological field of the hospital, agency, or school. As mentioned previously Super (1990) proposed the idea of vocational self-concept, which is the aspect of one’s self-concept that is expressed through career choice and the meaning of vocational endeavors. The nature of each individual’s career reciprocally influences one’s sense of self. Applied to music therapy, our choices to enter this profession reflect aspects of our self-concepts, including the values, interests, and needs that comprise our personalities. In turn, our creative clinical work as scientist-artists influences how we perceive and experience ourselves. A good deal of deep and meaningful emotion is embedded in our careers as music therapists. These emotions can be a source of sensitivity when our profession and work is misunderstood, underappreciated, or disrespected. In these cases, we must use our emotional intelligence to manage unpleasant emotional states. At the same time, our deeprooted convictions for the therapeutic value of music can be positive forces for change both in the therapy room as well as at the staff meetings. Emotional processes are central to therapy since the therapeutic relationship is a foundation for clinical work. To this extent, the degree of emotional knowledge and self-awareness in the therapist will influence the potential for a client’s emotional development and transformation through music therapy. A therapist who continuously strives for greater self-development and engages in lifelong learning will undoubtedly rise above the others who do not take such an approach. In this way, emotional awareness in music therapy becomes more than an enhancement of clinical work, but can become part of one’s life philosophy and way of being that moves us toward a greater good in ourselves and for the world.

1st pass

Epilogue Processes are dynamic flows of energy that can unfold to create a story. Life itself is one huge process that evolves in the context of time, space, and feeling. The integrating themes of this life narrative are the emotional meanings of our experiences that shape us, provide direction, and connect us to others. Life’s narrative is a song that moves us along this metaphorical pathway. On this road, we see, hear, and touch many things—a row of trees, the distant point on the horizon, the breeze moving about us, the sound of the waves on the beach, the different textures of nature, and the rich colors of the soul. We may pause at times to reflect, to sense the sweet sadness of experiences left behind, the joy of life in the present moment, and the hope for the future. We may pick up a sunflower or an autumn leaf or stop by a lake to touch the surface of the water or view the wonder of the nighttime stars in the mountain skies or walk with a friend along the road. The emotions of such moments provide the harmonious synchrony to an inner music. Even when these experiences come to an end, the echoes and tones remain within us as the colors of emotions blend into more radiant hues that we carry with us into our next journey. Music, like emotions, can be compared to water—with their fluid and dynamic qualities. Emotions flow between the self and others, between one’s inner space and nature’s rhythm, and between our history and our future. We may feel the stream in which we stand and as it moves forward and hear the roar of the mighty waterfall that it becomes. Our hearts may lead us to an ocean of feelings with its depths, darkness, and ever-changing, yet everconstant currents. Music therapy is not so much a product as it is a process. Therapy is a means to discover our song, and in many ways to compose it. Throughout the changing contexts of life’s journey, we may be required to adjust our music to be more in harmony with the 1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

236

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

FRAMEWORKS

tonalities of our emotional environment. When we are “in tune” with our inner music, we are “in harmony” with our deepest self, with others, and with nature. When in harmony, we have the opportunity to comprehend the deeper mysteries of the universe, to experience the essence of being truly alive, and to feel “eternal emotions”—at the very core of existence itself. It is the scientist-artist who brings the sophistication of empirical clinical practice into the field of the therapeutic encounter along with the creative energies and unique perspectives of the artist. Openness to the sublime, to the infinities of imagination, and to the subtle textures of aesthetic experiences lead one into the world of emotions and to the deep sense of existence, identity, and meaning. The emotional awareness of the therapist opens the window for deep emotional experiences for the clients. Such deep, core emotions can lead to experiences that are transcendental, connecting us to the whole universe. Yet, in the intimacy of empathic connection, the intensity of musical-affective communication can lead to an inner depth of tremendous magnitude within the core of the self that has a connection to the collective self of humanity. Martin Buber (1958) speaks of the I-Thou relationship where two individuals create a unique interpersonal space. The nature of this space is essentially musical. Such a depth of emotional connection can be found in the sublime moments of a genuine therapeutic encounter . . . in the same way that true love, can exist, in the brief space of a kiss.

1st pass

References Altenmuller, E.O. (2003). How many music centers are in the brain? In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 346–353). New York: Oxford University Press. Angus, L. & McLeod, J. (Eds.) (2004). The handbook of narrative and psychotherapy:Practice, theory and research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). New York: Academic Press. Bar-On, R. (1996, August). The era of the EQ: Defining and assessing emotional intelligence. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada. Beck, J. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. New York: Guilford Press. Becker, J. (2001). Anthropological perspectives on music and emotion. In P. N. Jusling & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 135–160). New York: Oxford University Press. Bellak, L. (1984). Basic aspects of ego function assessment. In L. Bellak & L. Goldsmith (Eds.), The broad scope of ego function assessment (pp. 6–19). New York: Wiley. Belsky, J. (1999). Modern evolutionary theory and patterns of attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical application (pp. 141–161). New York: Guilford Press. Berger, D. S. (2002). Music therapy, sensory integration and the autistic child. London: Kingsley Publishers. Bickerton, D. (2000). Can biomusicology learn from language evolution studies? In N. L. Wallin, B. Merker & S. Brown (eds.), The origins of music (pp. 153–163). Cambridge: MIT Press. Blacking, J. (1995). Expressing human experience through music. In R. Byron (Ed). Music, culture, & experience: Selected papers of John Blacking (pp. 31–53). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Blanck, G. & Blanck, R. (1994). Ego psychology: Theory and practice, second edition. New York: Columbia University Press.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

238

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

Bonny, H. (1978). GIM monograph #1: Facilitating GIM sessions. Salina, KS: Bonny Foundation. Bonny, H. & Savary, L. (1973). Music and your mind: Listening with a new consciousness. New York: Harper & Row. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York: Basic Books. Boxill, E. (1985). Music therapy for the developmentally disabled. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems. Brackett, M. & Caruso, D. (2005). Emotional Literacy for Educators. Emotionally Intelligent School, LLC. www.ei-schools.com Brackett, M., Kremenitzer, J. P., Maurer, M., Carpenter, M. D., Rivers, S. E., & Katulak, N. A. (Eds.), (2007). Emotional literacy in the classroom: Upper elementary, Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Bromberg, W. (1975). From shaman to psychotherapist: A history of the treatment of mental illness. Chicago: Henry Regnery Company. Brown, S. (2000). The “Musilanguage” model of music evolution. In N. L. Wallin, B. Merker & S. Brown (eds.), The origins of music (pp. 271-300). Cambridge: MIT Press. Bruner, J. (2004). The narrative creation of self. In L. E. Angus & J. McLeod, (Eds.), The handbook of narrative and psychotherapy: Practice, theory and research. (pp. 3–14). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bruscia, K. E. (1987). Improvisational models of music therapy. Springfield Il: Thomas Publishers. Bruscia, K. E. (1998). Defining music therapy, second edition. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers Bruscia, K. E. (2002). A psychodynamic orientation to the Bonny method. In K. E. Bruscia & D. E. Grocke (Eds.), Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond (pp. 225–244). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Bruscia, K. E. & Grocke, D. (Eds.), (2002). Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond. Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Buber, M. (1958). I and Thou. (R. G. Smith, Trans.). New York: Scribner. (Original work published in 1923). Bunt, L. & Pavlicevic, M. (2001). Music and emotions: Perspectives

1st pass

References

239

from music therapy. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 181–222). New York: Oxford University Press. Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Larsen, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., & Ito, T. A. (2000). The psychophysiology of emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 173–191. New York: The Guilford Press. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (1999). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications. New York: Guilford Press. Clark, M. F. (2002). The evolution of the Bonny method of Guided Imagery and Music (BMGIM). In K. E. Bruscia & D. E. Grocke (Eds.), Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond (pp. 5–28). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Clarkson, G. (2002). Combining Gestalt dreamwork and the Bonny method. In K. E. Bruscia & D. E. Grocke (Eds.), Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond (pp. 245–256). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Conyne, R. & Cook, E. (Eds.), (2004). Ecological counseling: An innovative approach to conceptualizing person-environment interaction. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Cosmides, L. & Tooby, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 91–115. New York: Guilford Press. Cytowic, R. (1995). Synesthesia: Phenomenology and neuropsychology: A review of current knowledge. Psyche, 2 (10), July. Retrieved September 15, 2008 from http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/v2/psyche-210-cytowic.html. Davies, D. (2004). Child development: A practitioner’s guide, second edition. New York: Guildford Press. Dealy, M. T. (1993). Martial arts therapy. Brooklyn: Hopeful Press. Dissanayake, E. (2000). Antecedents of human music through sexual selection. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 389–410). Cambridge: MIT Press Duckett, J. (2003). Prejudice and intergroup hostility. In D. Sears, L. Huddy & R. Jervis (Eds.). Oxford handbook of political psychology. (pp. 559–600). New York: Oxford University Press.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

240

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In J. K. Cole (Ed.). Nebraska symposium on motivation vol. 19, (pp. 207–283). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48, 384–392. Ellis, A. (1995). Rational emotive behavior therapy. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies fifth edition, pp. 162– 196. Itasca, IL: Peacock Publishers. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Exner, J. (1993). The Rorschach: A comprehensive system volume 1: Basic foundations, third edition. New York: Wiley. Feeney, J. (1999). Adult romantic attachment and couple relationships. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications. (pp. 335–377). New York: Guilford Press. Feldman-Barrett, L. & Salovey, P. (2002). The wisdom in feeling: Psychological processes in emotional intelligence. New York: Guilford Press. Frijda, N. (2000). The psychologists’ point of view. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 59–73). New York: Guilford Press. Fromm, E. (1956). The art of loving. New York: Harper & Row. Gabrielsson, A. & Lindstrom, E. (2001). The influence of musical structure on emotional expression. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 223–248). New York: Oxford University Press. Garb, H. (1998). Studying the clinician. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Harper Collins. Geissmann, T. (2000). Gibbon songs and human music from an evolutionary perspective. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 103–123). Cambridge: MA: MIT Press. Gill. M. (1982). Analysis of transference. New York: International University Press. Gohm, C. L. & Clore, G. L. (2002). Affect as information: An individ-

1st pass

References

241

ual-differences approach. In L. Feldman-Barrett & P. Salovey (Eds.), The wisdom in feeling: Psychological processes in emotional intelligence (pp. 89–113). New York: Guilford Press. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. Gomez, P. & Danuser, B. (2007). Relationship between musical structure and psychophysiological measures of emotion. Emotion 7, 2, 377– 387. Gray, J. A. (1991). The neuropsychology of temperament. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.), Explorations in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement (pp. 105–28). London: Plenum. Gray, L. (1995). Shamanic counseling and ecopsycholgy. In T. Roszak, M. E.Gomes, & A. D. Kanner. (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth healing the mind. (pp. 172–182). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Gredler, M. (1997) Learning and instruction, third edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Greene, M. (2001). Variations on a blue guitar: The Lincoln Center institute lectures on aesthetic education. New York: Teachers College. Greenberg, J. R. & Mitchell, S. A. (1983). Object relations in psychoanalytic theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Griffiths, T. D. (2003). The neural processing of complex sounds. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 168–177). New York: Oxford University Press. Gross, J. (Ed.), (2007). Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford Press. Grotevant, H. & Cooper, C. (1998). Individuality and connectedness in adolescent development. In E. Skoe & A. von der Lippe (Eds.), Personality development in adolescence: A cross national and life span perspective. (pp.3–37). London: Routledge. Halpern, A. (2003). Cerebral substrates for musical imagery. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 217– 230). New York: Oxford University Press. Harter, S. (2003). The development of self-representations during childhood and adolescence. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 610-642). New York: Guilford Press.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

242

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

Hatfield, E. & Rapson, R. L. (2000). Love and attachment processes. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 662. New York: Guilford Press. Hauser, M. D. (2000). The sound and the fury: Primate vocalization as reflections of emotion and thought. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 77–102). Cambridge: MIT Press. Hergenhahn, B. R. (1992). An introduction to the history of psychology, second edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. Hevner, K. (1936). Experimental studies of the elements of expression in music. American Journal of Psychology, 48, 246–68. Hillman, J. (1995). A psyche the size of the earth: A psychological foreword. In T. Roszak, M. E.Gomes, & A. D. Kanner. (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth healing the mind. (pp. Xvii–xxiii). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Hodges, D. A. (1980). Neurophysiology and musical behavior. In D. A. Hodges (Ed.), Handbook of music psychology. (pp. 195–223). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishers. Horvath, A. O. & Greenberg, L. S. (Eds.), (1994). The working alliance: Theory, research and practice. New York: Wiley. Huron, D. (2003). Is music an evolutionary adaptation? In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 57-75). New York: Oxford University Press. Isen, A. M. (2000). Positive affect and decision making. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 417–435. New York: Guilford Press. Izard, C. E. (1977). Human emotions. New York: Plenum. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vols. I and II). New York: Holt. Johnstone, T. & Scherer, K. (2000). Vocal communication of emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 220–235. New York: Guilford Press. Joseph, R. (1990). Neuropsychology, neuropsychiatry, and behavioral neurology. New York: Plenum. Juslin, P.N., Liljestrom, S., Vastfjall, D., Barradas, G., & Silva, A. (2008). An experience sampling study of emotional reactions to music: Listener, music and situation. Emotion, 8, 5, 668–683.

1st pass

References

243

Kavaler-Adler, S. (1993). The compulsion to create: A psychoanalytic study of women artists. New York: Routledge. Keltner, D. & Ekman, P. (2000). Facial expression of emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 236–249. New York: Guilford Press. Kemper, T. D. (2000). Social models in the explanation of emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 45–58. New York: Guilford Press. Kenny, C. B. (1989). The field of play: A guide for the theory and practice of music therapy. Atascadero, CA: Ridgeview Publishing. Knoblauch, S. H. (2000). The musical edge of therapeutic dialogue. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press. Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York: International Universities Press. Kunej, D. & Turk, I. (2000). New perspectives on the beginnings of music: Archeological and musicological analysis of a middle Paleolithic bone “flute.” In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 235–268). Cambridge: MIT Press. Lane, R. D. & Pollermann, B. Z. (2002). Complexity in emotion representations. In L. Feldman-Barrett & P. Salovey (Eds.), The wisdom in feeling: Psychological processes in emotional intelligence (pp. 271–293). New York: Guilford Press. Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D., Schwartz, G., Walker, P., & Zeitlan, S. (1990). The levels of emotional awareness scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of Personality Assessment 55, 1& 2, 124–134. Langer, S. K. (1953). Feeling and form. New York: Charles Scribner. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer. LeDoux, J. E. (1991). Emotion and the limbic system concept. Concepts in Neuroscience, (2), 169–199. LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Emotional memory systems in the brain. Behavioural Brain Research, 58, 69–79. LeDoux, J. E. & Phelps, E. A. (2000). Emotional networks in the brain. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 157–172. New York: Guilford Press. Lewin, K. (1997). Field theory in social science. Washington, DC: Amer-

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

244

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

ican Psychological Association. (Original work published in 1951.) Lewis, M. (2000). The emergence of human emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 280). New York: Guilford Press. Lewis, T. Amini, F. & Lannon, R. (2000). A general theory of love. New York: Vintage. Liegeois-Chauvel, C., Giraud, K., Badier, J., Marquis, P., & Chauvel,P. (2003). Intracerebral evoked potentials in pitch perception reveal a functional asymmetry of human auditory cortex. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 152–167). New York: Oxford University Press. Mache, F. B. (1992). Music, myth and nature or the dolphins of Arion. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers. Maffi, L. (Ed.) (2001). On biocultural diversity: Linking language, knowledge and the environment. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Mahoney, M. (1991). Human change processes: The scientific foundations of psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books. Marler, P. (2000). Origins of music and speech: Insights from animals. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 31–48). Cambridge: MIT Press. Mathews, G. & Zeidner, M. (2000). Emotional intelligence, adaptation to stressful encounters, and health outcomes. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment and application at home, school and in the workplace. (pp. 459–489). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mathews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge: MIT Press. Mayer, J. (2006). A new field guide to emotional intelligence. In J. Ciarrochi, J.P. Forgas & J. Mayer (Eds.), Emotional intelligence in everyday life, second edition, pp. 3–26. New York: Psychology Press. Mayer, J. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In Salovey, P., & Sluyter, D. J. Emotional development and emotional intelligence. pp. 3–31. New York: HarperCollins. Mayer, J., Salovey, P. & Caruso, D. (1999). Test manual for the MSCEIT research version 1.1, third edition. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.

1st pass

References

245

Mayer, J., Salovey, P. & Caruso, D. (2000a). Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality, and as a mental ability. In R. Bar-On & J. Parker (Eds.). The handbook of emotional intelligence. pp. 92–117. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mayer, J., Salovey, P. & Caruso, D. (2000b) Models of emotional intelligence. In R. Sternberg (Ed.) Handbook of intelligence. pp. 396–420. New York: Cambridge University Press. Merriam, A. P. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Metzner, P. (1995). The psychopathology of the human-nature relationship. In T. Roszak, M. E.Gomes, & A. D. Kanner. (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth healing the mind. (pp.55–67). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Meyer, L. B. (1956). Emotion and meaning in music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Meyer, L. B. (2001). Music and emotion: Distinctions and uncertainties. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.). Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 341–360). New York: Oxford University Press. Modell, A. H. (2003). Imagination and the meaningful brain. Cambridge: MIT Press. Molino, J. (2000). Toward an evolutionary theory of music and language. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 165–176). Cambridge: MIT Press. Moskowitz, G. B. (2005). Social cognition: Understanding self and others. New York: Guilford Press. Nordoff, P. & Robbins, C. (1977). Creative music therapy. New York: John Day. Nordoff, P. & Robbins, C. (1983). Music therapy in special education, second edition. St, Louis, MO: Magnamusic-Baton. Noy, P. (1990). Form creation in art: An ego psychological approach to creativity. In S. Feder, R., L. Karmel & G. H. Pollock (Eds.), Psychoanalytic explorations in music. (pp. 209–231). Madison, CT: International Universities Press. (Original work published in 1979). Nystul, M. (2006). Introduction to counseling: An art and science perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Odell-Miller, H. (2003). Are words enough? Music therapy as an influence in psychoanalytic psychotherapy. In L. King & R. Randall

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

246

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

(Eds.), The future of psychoanalytic psychotherapy.(pp. 153–166). London: Whurr Publishers. Panksepp, J. (2000). Emotions as natural kinds within the mammalian brain. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 137–156). New York: Guilford Press. Parsons, L. (2003). Exploring the functional neuroanatomy of music performance, perception, and comprehension. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 247–268). New York: Oxford University Press. Pascual-Leone, A. (2003). The brain that makes music and is changed by it. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 396–409). New York: Oxford University Press. Payne, K. (2000). The progressively changing songs of humpback whales: A window on the creative process in a wild animal. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 135–150). Cambridge: MIT Press. Pellitteri, J. S. (1988). Love as an element of the therapeutic relationship. Unpublished master’s thesis. New York University, New York. Pellitteri, J. S. (1998). A self-analysis of transference in Guided Imagery and Music. In K. E. Bruscia (Ed.), The dynamics of music psychotherapy. (pp. 481–490). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Pellitteri, J. S. (2002). The relationship between emotional intelligence and ego defense mechanisms. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 136, 2 182–194. Pellitteri, J. S. (2003). Emotional intelligence in the context of adaptive personality [unpublished manuscript] Pellitteri, J. S. (2006). The use of music to facilitate emotional learning. In J. S. Pellitteri, R. Stern, C. Shelton & B. Muller-Ackerman (Eds.), Emotionally intelligent school counseling (pp. 185–199). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Pellitteri, J. S. (2008). The Emotional Intelligence of Aesthetic Edution. In H. Fairbank, A. Love & J. S. Pellitteri (Eds.). Proceedings of the second annual Queens College Equity Studies Research Center Conference: Aesthetic Education: Expanding the Notions of Excellence in K–12 School. http://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/Education/AE% 20Conference%20Prodceedings/

1st pass

References

247

Pellitteri, J. S. & Stern, R. (2003). The Children’s Emotional Intelligence Assessment manual [unpublished]. Pellitteri, J. S., Stern, R. & Nakhutina, L. (1999). Music: The sounds of emotional intelligence. Voices from the Middle 7, 1, 25–29. Pellitteri, J. S., Stern, R., Shelton, C. & Muller-Ackerman, B. (2006). The emotional intelligence of school counseling. In J. S. Pellitteri, R. Stern, C. Shelton & B. Muller-Ackerman (Eds.), Emotionally intelligent school counseling (pp. 3–14). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Pervin, L. A. (1993). Affect and personality. In In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 301–311). New York: Guilford Press. Plutchik, R. (1980). Emotions: A psychoevolutionary synthesis. New York: Harper & Row. Plutchik, R. (1993). Emotions and their vicissitudes: Emotions and psychopathology. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 53–66). New York: Guilford Press. Priestly, M. (1975). Music therapy in action, second edition. St. Louis, MO: Magnamusic-Baton. Radocy, R. E. & Boyle, J. D. (2003). Psychological foundations of musical behavior, fourth editon. Springfield IL: Thomas Publisher. Robbins, A. (1989). The psychoaesthetic experience: An approach to depthoriented treatment. New York: Human Science Press. Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rose, G. J. (2004). Between couch and piano: Psychoanalysis, music, art and neuroscience. New York: Brunner-Routledge. Roszak, T. (1995). Where psyche meets Gaia. In T. Roszak, M. E.Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth healing the mind. (pp. 1–17). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Roszak, T., Gomes, M. E., & Kanner, A. D. (Eds.). (1995). Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Rothbart, M. K., Derryberry, D. & Posner, M. I. (1994). A psychobiological approach to the development of temperament. In J. Bates & T. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior. (pp. 83–116). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rothbart, M. K. & Sheese, B. E. (2007). Temperament and emotion reg-

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

248

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

ulation. In J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation. (pp. 331– 350). New York: Guilford Press. Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–78. Saarni, C. (1984). Observing children’s use of display rules: Age and sex differences. Child Development, 55, 1504–13. Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 3, 185–211. Samson, S. & Ehrle, N. (2003). Cerebral substrates for musical temporal processing. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 204–216). New York: Oxford University Press. Schachter, S. and Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional states. Psychological Review, 69, 379– 399. Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neurobiology of emotional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Schwarz, N. (2002). Situated cognition and the wisdom in feelings: Cognitive tuning. In L. Feldman-Barrett & P. Salovey (Eds.), The wisdom in feeling:Psychological processes in emotional intelligence (pp. 144–167). New York: Guilford Press. Shweder, R. A. & Haidt, J. (2000). The cultural psychology of the emotions: Ancient and new. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 397–414). New York: Guilford Press. Siegel, D. J. (1999). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. New York: Guilford Press. Simpson, J. (1999). Attachment theory in modern evolutionary perspectives. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical application (pp. 115–140). New York: Guilford Press. Slater, P. J. B. (2000). Birdsong repertoires: Their origins and use. In N. L. Wallin, M. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music (pp. 4963). Cambridge: MIT Press. Sloboda, J. A. (1991). Music structure and emotional response: Some empirical findings. Psychology of Music 19, 110–120. Sloboda, J. A. (2000). Musical performance and emotion: Issues and de-

1st pass

References

249

velopments. In S.W.Yi (Ed.), Music, mind and science (pp. 220–238). Seoul, Korea: Western Music Research Institute. Sloboda, J. A. & Juslin, P. N. (2001). Psychological perspectives on music and emotion. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research. (pp. 71–104). New York: Oxford University Press. Sloboda, J. A. & O’Neill, S. A. (2001). Emotions in everyday listening to music. In P. N. Juslin & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and emotion: Theory and research (pp. 415–430). New York: Oxford University Press. Smith, C. A. & Lazarus, R. S. (2001). Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions. In W. G. Parrott (Ed.), Emotions in social psychology: Essential readings. (pp. 94–114). Ann Arbor, MI: Psychology Press. Solomon, R. C. (2000). The philosophy of emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 3–15. New York: Guilford Press. Stern, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. New York: Basic Books. Sternberg, R. (1990). Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. (2000). The concept of intelligence. In R. Sternberg (Ed). Handbook of intelligence pp. 3–15. New York: Cambridge University Press. Stroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York: Guilford Press. Super, D. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development, second editon, pp. 197–261. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Teyber, E. (2006). Interpersonal process in psychotherapy, fifth edition. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Thomas, A. & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner /Mazel. Thompson, W. F., Schellenberg, E. G. & Husain, G. (2004). Decoding speech prosody: do music lessons help? Emotion, 4, 1, 46–64.

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

250

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

References

Thorndike, R. & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure socialintelligence. The Psychological Bulletin, 34 (5), 275– 285. Trainor, L. J. & Schmidt, L. A. (2003). Processing emotions induced by music. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 310–324). New York: Oxford University Press. van Campen, C. (1997). Synesthesia and artistic experimentation. Psyche 3 (6), November. Retrieved September 15, 2008 from http://psche.cs.monash.edu.au/v2/psyche-3-06-vancampen.html Ventry, M. (2002). The individual form of the Bonny method of guided imagery and music (BMGIM). In K. E. Bruscia & D. E. Grocke (Eds.), Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond (pp. 29–36). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological process. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Ward, K. (2002). A Jungian orientation to the Bonny method. In K. E. Bruscia & D. E. Grocke (Eds.), Guided imagery and music: The Bonny method and beyond (pp. 207–224). Gilsum, NH: Barcelona Publishers. Watson, J. B., and Raynor, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1–14. Weisberg, R. W. (2006). Creativity: Understanding innovation in problem solving, science, invention, and the arts. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. Welfel, E. & Patterson, L. (2005). The counseling process, sixth editon. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Wheelan, S. A., Pepitone, E. A., & Abt, V. (Eds.), (1990). Advances in field theory. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. White, G. M. (2000). Representing emotional meaning: Category, metaphor, schema, discourse. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions, second edition, pp. 30–44. New York: Guilford Press. Wiggins, J. S. (2003). Paradigms of personality assessment. New York: Guilford Press. Wiggins, J. S. & Trobst, K. K. (1999). The fields of interpersonal behavior. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality, second edition, pp. 653–670). New York: Guilford Press. Wigram, T., Pedersen, I. N. & Bonde, L. O. (2002). A comprehensive

1st pass

References

251

guide to music therapy: Theory, clinical practice, research and training. London: Kingsley. Zatorre, R. (2003). Neural specializations for tonal processing. In I. Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of music (pp. 231–246). New York: Oxford University Press. Zins, J., Weissberg, R., Wang, M. & Walberg, H. (Eds.), (2004) Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers College Press.

Index

1st pass

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R 1st pass

Index Adaptation, 6, 19, 36–37, 198–199 Adolescence, 143 Aesthetic, 13, 232 engagement 57 emotional representation, 179, 183 Affect, 25 Altered states of consciousness, 185 Analytic Music Therapy, 203, 210, 214–218, 223 Animal songs, 39 Anthropology, 34, 48 Anthropomorphism, 42 Assessment, 152, 205, 213, 217 Attachment theory, 85, 129–132 Attunement, 134–137, 180, 185, 202 Behaviorism, 109 Brain, 66–73 auditory cortex, 99, 183 cerebral cortex, 69 development, 132 hemispheric differences, 99 limbic system,71 Child-parent relationships, 125 Client-therapist relationships, 138, 148, 153 Clinical implications, 59, 138 Cognitive appraisal, 82–83 Communication, 6, 50

1st pass

Complexity theory, 101–104, 135 Confirmatory Hypothesis Bias, 208 Congruence, 184–185 Contact song, 156 Corrective emotional experience, 138 Creative cognition, 15 Creative Music Therapy, 210 –211, 214, 223 Creativity, 9, 212, 231 Culture, 35, 54–55, 60, 88 Cultural matrix, 51, 54, 88 Dynamic forms, 181 Ecopsychology, 42, 46–48, 185 Ego psychology, 123 Emotion components, 22 definitions, 24 display rules, 78 evolution, 37 measurement, 31 musical sources, 119–120 philosophy, 7 processes, 4, 26, 65 representation, 28, 168 circumplex models, 31 aesthetic approach, 179, 183 theory, 80, 107 universal, 91 Emotional awareness, 94 levels of, 96

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

254

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R

INDEX

Emotional elicitors, 73–77 Emotional experience, 93 Emotional expression, 89 Emotional Intelligence, 21, 95, 125, 157, 167, 190–202, 206, 233–234 Emotional states, 78–79, 94 Empathy, 136 Evolution, 34 Musilanguage model, 45 Field theory, 16–18, 149–154, 212 Fight-or-flight response, 38, 134 Flute, bone, 34–35 Frameworks, therapeutic process, 13–19, 147 Group dynamics. 114, 166–167 Group music, 52, 114 Guided Imagery & Music, 156, 203, 210, 219–223 Habitus of listening, 58 Identity, 36, 51–52, 121, 140–144 Implicit memory, 83–85, 218, 221 Improvisation, 128, 158 Intelligence, 20, 191 Iso principle, 156, 173, 187 Isomorphism, 97, 118, 155, 158, 172–176, 181 James-Lange theory, 79–82, 184 Language, 35–36, 60, 142, 164 Life space, 15 Love, 189 Meaning, 55

1st pass

and emotion in music, 56 Metaphor, 43, 172 Mood, 25 Mood meter, 29–30, 168–169, 174, 177 Mood wheel, 31, 32, 204 Mother-infant interactions, 137, 181 Multifactoral Emotional Intelligence Scale, 179, 195 Multiple Intelligence, 192 Music child, 187, 211 Music, functions of, 53–54 Music therapy activities, 10 definition, 8, 147 modalities, 8 physiology, 105, 118 scientist-artist perspective, 10–11, 227, 229 theory, 12 Musical emotions, 116, 155, 159 Musical-emotional environment, 212, 222 Musical intelligence, 21 Narrative, 44, 141 Neuroanatomy, 69 Neuromusicology, 98 Object relations theory, 126 Person-environment fit, 20 Personality, 121, 144, 164 Phonocoding, 39 Professional identity, 227–229 Psychodynamic, 124, 215, 220 Psychophysiology, 24, 65, 97–98, 116, 160–161 Psychotherapy, 7

Index

Scientist-Artist perspective, 10–11, 227, 229 (see music therapy) Scriabin, A., 177 Self-efficacy, 112, 229 Self-regulation, 124 Social bonds, 38 Social-emotional learning, 200, 203–205 Social intelligence, 192 Social learning, 111 Social referencing, 95 Socialization, 53 Sound environment, 41

1st pass

255

Speech prosody, 182–183, 202 Synesthesia, 177–179 Systems, 24 Temperament, 77 Transference, 215 Vitality Affect, 180, 181 Vocalizations, 91 Vocal signals, 40 Vocational self-concept, 229, 234 Zone of proximal development, 104, 188

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34S 35R