Egg Innovations and Strategies for Improvements 0128008792, 9780128008799

Table of contents :
Content: Section 1: Introduction 1. Chicken Eggs 2. Quail Eggs 3. Duck Eggs 4. Guinea Fowl, Goose, Turkey, Ostrich, and Emu Eggs Section 2: Management and Housing 5. Steroid Hormones and Female Energy Balance: Relation to Offspring Primary Sex Ratio 6. Breeder Hen Influence on Nutrient Availability for the Embryo and Hatchling 7. The Effect of Lighting and Photoperiod on Chicken Egg Production and Quality 8. Enrichments in Cages 9. Commercial Free-Range Egg Production Practices 10. Organic Farming and Mineral Content of Chicken Eggs 11. Controlling Feather Pecking and Cannibalism in Egg Laying Flocks Section 3: Food Safety 12. Effects of Temperature and Storage Conditions on Eggs 13. The Eggshell Microbial Activity 14. Effects of Propolis on Eggshell 15. The Eggshell Proteome Yields Insight into its Antimicrobial Protection 16. Shell Egg Pasteurization 17. Effects of Gamma Radiation for Microbiological Control in Eggs Section 4: Composition of Eggs 18. Cholesterol in Chicken Eggs: Still a Dietary Concern for Some 19. Lutein and Zeaxanthin Carotenoids in Eggs 20. Vitamins in Eggs Section 5: Use of Eggs 21. Economic and Cultural Aspects of the Table Egg as an Edible Commodity 22. Use of Hen Egg White Lysozyme in the Food Industry 23. Function and Separation of Ovotransferrin from Chicken Egg 24. The Use of Egg and Egg Products in Pasta Production 25. The Eggshell and its Commercial and Production Importance 26. Nutraceutical Egg Products Section 6: Improving Production 27. Use of Dietary Probiotics to Improve Laying Hen Performance 28. Improving Performance Traits of Laying Hens with Vitamin C 29. Modifying Protein in Feed 30. Improving Egg Production and Hen Health with Calcium 31. Use of Ginseng in Animal Production 32. Preventive Measures for Avoiding the Deleterious Effects of Heat Stress on Egg Production and Quality Section 7: Improving Composition 33. Supplemental Linseed on Egg Production 34. Supplemental Flax and Impact on n3 and 6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Eggs 35. Supplemental Fish Oil and its Impact on n-3 Fatty Acids in Eggs 36. Microalgal Feed Supplementation to Enrich Eggs with Omega-3 Fatty Acids 37. Supplemental Iodine Section 8: Preserving Eggs 38. Pickling Eggs 39. Sodium Chloride Preservation in Duck Eggs 40. Inorganic Elements in Preserved Eggs Section 9: Adverse Non-Microbial Contaminants 41. The Effect of Estrogens on Egg-Laying Performance 42. Antimicrobial Residues in Table Eggs 43. Nitrofuran Veterinary Drug Residues in Chicken Eggs 44. Anthelmintic Benzimidazoles in Eggs 45. Flame Retardants in Wild Bird Eggs and in Relation to Eggs in the Human Food Supply 46. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins, Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans, and Dioxin-Like Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Chicken Eggs 47. Influence of Plant Toxins on Laying Hen Performance and Egg Quality Section 10: Microbial or Parasitic Contaminants 48. Salmonella and Impact on Egg Production 49. Colibacillosis and its Impact on Egg Production 50. Mycoplasmosis in Egg Laying Flocks 51. Avian Influenza Virus and Newcastle Disease Virus 52. Infectious Bronchitis 53. Coccidiosis in Egg-laying Poultry 54. Mycotoxin Impact on Egg Production 55. Parasites in Laying Hen Housing Systems

Citation preview

Egg Innovations and Strategies for Improvements

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Egg Innovations and Strategies for Improvements

Edited by

Patricia Y. Hester

Department of Animal Sciences Purdue University, West Lafayette IN, United States

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-800879-9 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Nikki Levy Acquisition Editor: Nancy Maragioglio Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez Production Project Manager: Caroline Johnson Designer: Mark Rogers Typeset by Thomson Digital

To my Dad, John Morgan Young, who ate an egg a day.

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Contents Contributors xvii

Section I Introduction 1. Chicken Eggs James R. Chambers, Khalid Zaheer, Humayoun Akhtar and El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal Origin of the Egg Producing Chicken Management Systems for Egg Production Global Production and Consumption Egg Components Value for Human Nutrition and Health Manipulation of Egg Nutrients Measures to Ensure Egg Food Safety Measures to Maintain Egg Quality Challenges Conclusions References

3 3 5 5 6 7 7 8 10 10 10

2. Quail Eggs

Feed Requirements Duck Egg Physical Characteristics Nutrient Composition of Duck Eggs Production Systems Processed Duck Egg Products The Regulatory Environment in the United States Disease and Food Safety Issues Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

24 25 26 26 28 29 29 30 30 31

4. Guinea Fowl, Goose, Turkey, Ostrich, and Emu Eggs Dariusz Kokoszyn´ski Eggs in the Human Diet Guinea Fowl Eggs Goose Eggs Turkey Eggs Ostrich Eggs Emu Eggs Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

33 33 37 38 39 40 41 41 41

Jennifer Arthur and Masoumeh Bejaei Worldwide Production and Consumption Quail Species and Life Cycle Egg Characteristics Egg Production Common Disease and Food Safety Issues Enhancing Production and Egg Composition Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

13 13 14 15 18 19 19 19 20

3. Duck Eggs Jennifer Arthur Regional Preferences and Production Statistics Duck Layer Breeds Stages of Growth and Egg Production

23 23 24

Section II Management and Housing 5. Steroid Hormones and Female Energy Balance: Relation to Offspring Primary Sex Ratio Muhammad Aamir Aslam and Henri Woelders Introduction Potential Mechanisms of Primary Sex Ratio Bias in Birds The Relationship of Egg Sex with Gonadal Sex Steroid Hormones Relationship of Egg Sex with Female Parental Stress, Corticosterone, and Physical Parameters of the Egg

47 47 49

50

vii

viii

Contents

Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

52 52 53 53

Ruth Catriona Newberry

Patricia Y. Hester 55 56 57 59 61 62 62 62

Introduction 89 Defining Free-Range 89 Free-Range Chicken Egg Production Methods 90 Free-Range Chicken Egg Characteristics 96 Free-Range Duck Egg Production 98 Assessment of Free-Range Eggs 98 Strategies for Improvement 98 Analytical Methods 99 Conclusions 99 References 100

10. Organic Farming and Mineral Content of Chicken Eggs Kamil Küçükyılmaz and Mehmet Bozkurt

7. Effect of Lighting and Photoperiod on Chicken Egg Production and Quality Grégoy Y. Bédécarrats and Charlene Hanlon Introduction The Physiology: Overview of the Reproductive Axis and its Control by Light Lighting Paradigms and Their Impact on Egg Laying Light Spectrum Lighting’s Effect on Egg Weight and Quality Lighting Effects on Hen Welfare Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods to Assess Light Quality Conclusions References

85 85 86 86

  9. Commercial Free-Range Egg Production Practices

6. Breeder Hen Influence on Nutrient Availability for the Embryo and Hatchling Nutrients Deposited in the Chicken Egg Nutrient Assimilation into the Egg by the Breeder Hen Nutrient Retrieval by the Embryo and Hatchling Influence of Breeder Hen Diet on Nutrient Availabilty to the Embryo and Hatchling Influence of Breeder Hen Condition and the Embryo’s Metabolism on Nutrient Availabilty Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

Do Pullets Need Enrichments too? Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

65 65 67 70 71 71 72 73 73 73

Introduction Mineral Content of Hen’s Eggs and Factors Affecting its Nutritive Value Effect of Organic Rearing System on Egg Mineral Content Hazardous Heavy Metal Residues in Organic Rearing System Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

103 103 105 107 108 108 109 109

11. Controlling Feather Pecking and Cannibalism in Egg Laying Flocks Courtney Lynd Daigle

8. Enrichments in Cages Patricia Y. Hester The Political Environment Europe South and Central America and Asia The United States The Nest Area Perches Scratch Pad and Foraging Area Nail Trimmers How Much Space do Hens Need in Large Enriched Cages?

77 77 78 78 80 80 81 83 85

Cannibalism Feather Pecking Impact of Coping Style on Feather Pecking Behavior The Behavioral Phenotypes of Feather Pecking Risk Factors for Developing Feather Pecking The Importance of Litter in the Environment Access to Perches Feeding and Watering Use of Space Access to Outdoors and Range Lighting, Temperature, and Air Quality Environmental Enrichment

111 112 113 114 114 114 115 115 116 116 117 117

Contents

Applicability to Other Commercial Egg Laying Species Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods to Assess Feather Pecking Behavior Conclusions References

117 117 118 118 119

Kevin M. Keener

12. Effects of Temperature and Storage Conditions on Eggs Patricia Y. Hester 125 125 126 127 128 131 132 132 132

13. The Eggshell Microbial Activity Ali Aygun The Eggshell and Membranes Microbial Contaminants of Eggshell Microbial Contamination of Eggshell Factors Affecting Microbial Activity Analytical Methods Conclusions References

135 137 139 139 142 143 143

14. Effects of Propolis on Eggshell Ali Aygun Description of Propolis Antimicrobial Effects of Propolis Use of Propolis to Extend the Shelf Life of Eggs Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

145 150 152 154 154 155 155

15. The Eggshell Proteome Yields Insight Into Its Antimicrobial Protection Megan Rose-Martel and Maxwell T. Hincke Introduction Eggshell Structure

160 161 161 162 162

16. Shell Egg Pasteurization

Section III Food Safety

Introduction The Aging Egg The Aging Hen Storing Table Eggs Storing Hatching Eggs Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

Antimicrobial Molecules and Their Mechanisms Future Challenges Conclusions Acknowledgments References

ix

157 158

Egg Washing Thermal Pasteurization Nonthermal Pasteurization Surface Pasteurization of Shell Eggs Rapid Cooling Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

165 168 169 170 172 173 173 173

17. Effects of Gamma Radiation for Microbiological Control in Eggs Marcia Nalesso Costa Harder and Valter Arthur Introduction Background Information on Radiation Irradiation of Food Irradiation of Eggs Other Uses of Gamma Irradiation in Food Legislation Consumer Perception Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

177 177 178 179 182 182 183 183 183 183 184

Section IV Composition of Eggs 18. Cholesterol in Chicken Eggs: Still a Dietary Concern for Some Robert G. Elkin Introduction Meta-analyses Versus Observational Studies: Groups Versus Individuals Cholesterol in Chicken Eggs: Why it Should Still be a Target for Reduction Other Evidence of Inter-Individual Variability in Cholesterol Homeostasis in Humans Cholesterol Content has Been Decreasing in Eggs from American Flocks

189 190 190 192 192

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Egg Cholesterol Contents: Perspectives on Analytical Techniques and Reporting Data Experimental Approaches to Egg Cholesterol Reduction What Does the Future Hold with Regard to Reducing Egg Cholesterol? Phosphatidylcholine Content of Eggs: A New Concern with Regard to Cardiovascular Disease Pathogenesis? Analytical Methods Conclusions Acknowledgment References

193 193 194

194 194 195 195 195

19. Lutein and Zeaxanthin Carotenoids in Eggs

199 199 202 202 203 204 205 205 205

20. Vitamins in Eggs Nelson E. Ward Fat Soluble Vitamins Water Soluble Vitamins Vitamin Levels in Eggs From Alternative Egg Production Sensory, Functional Property, and Toxicity Relative to Recommended Daily Allowances Analytical Methods Conclusions References

207 213 215 216 216 218 218 218

Section V Use of Eggs 21. Economic and Cultural Aspects of the Table Egg as an Edible Commodity Antonio Gilberto Bertechini Egg Production Trends Egg Consumption Trends

22. Use of Hen Egg White Lysozyme in the Food Industry Tiziana Silvetti, Stefano Morandi, Martin Hintersteiner and Milena Brasca

El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal, Humayoun Akhtar, James R. Chambers and Khalid Zaheer Chicken Eggs Carotenoids in Eggs and Their Analysis Effect of Feed Composition on Egg Carotenoids Carotenoids in Organic Eggs Effect of Cooking and Processing on Egg Carotenoids Egg Carotenoids and Human Health Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

Availability of Eggs 223 Technology, Innovation, and Geographics 224 Culture, Lifestyle, and Food Traditions 226 Consumer Attitudes 226 Purchaser Preferences 228 Consumer Misconceptions 228 Global Trade 229 Marketing: Competition, Trends, and Strategies 229 Strategies for Improvement 230 Conclusions 230 References 230

223 223

Lysozyme Extraction and Purification from Egg Albumen Structure and Mode of Action Current Research and Applications in the Food Industry Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

234 234 237 240 240 240

23. Function and Separation of Ovotransferrin from Chicken Egg Edirisingha Dewage Nalaka Sandun Abeyrathne and Dong Uk Douglas Ahn Structure of Ovotransferrin Use of Ovotransferrin and its Derived Peptides Separation of Ovotransferrin Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

243 243 245 247 247 247

24. The Use of Egg and Egg Products in Pasta Production Cristina Alamprese Introduction Production Process of Fresh and Dried Egg Pasta The Role of Eggs on Pasta Quality The Role of Eggs in Gluten-Free Pasta Products Use of Non-chicken Eggs in Pasta Production Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques for the Determination of Egg Content and Quality in Pasta Conclusions References

251 251 254 255 255 256 256 257 258

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Contents

25. The Eggshell and Its Commercial and Production Importance Evandro de Abreu Fernandes and Fernanda Heloisa Litz Introduction Role of the Eggshell Eggshell Composition and Structure Eggshell Formation The Mutual Relationship Between the Organic and Inorganic Matrix of the Eggshell Factors Influencing Eggshell Quality Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods for Measuring Shell Quality Conclusions References

261 261 262 263 264 264 268 268 268 269

26. Nutraceutical Egg Products Reza Tahergorabi and Jacek Jaczynski Introduction Development of Novel Nutraceutical Egg Products with Omega-3 Fatty Acid Rich Oils Nutritional Composition and Potential Health Benefits of Nutraceutical Egg Products Sensory Quality and Consumer Acceptability of Nutraceutical Egg Products Market for Nutraceutical Egg Products Fortified with Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Strategies for Improvement of Nutraceutical Egg Products Analytical Methods Conclusions References

271 272

290 291 291 291 292 292 292

28. Improving Performance Traits of Laying Hens with Vitamin C Zain ul Abidin and Aisha Khatoon Introduction Physiological Role of Vitamin C Stressors The Effect of Vitamin C on Performance Traits Supplemental Vitamin C in Japanese quail and Other Breeds of Chickens Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

297 297 300 300 305 305 305 305 306

29. Modifying Protein in Feed

273

Paul Hanes Patterson and Heather Kristin Burley

276

Introduction Importance of Protein in Laying Hen Diets Symptoms of Deficiencies and Excesses of Protein Importance of Protein for Growth and Egg Production Protein Impact on Egg Composition and Size Dietary Protein Influence in Other Species of Poultry Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques for Feed Protein and Amino Acids Conclusions References

278 278 278 279 279

Section VI Improving Production 27. Use of Dietary Probiotics to Improve Laying Hen Performance

309 309 311 311 312 314 315 315 316 316

30. Improving Egg Production and Hen Health with Calcium

Anas Abdelqader Introduction Probiotics as a Feed Additive for Laying Hens Egg Laying Performance Egg Weight Feed Utilization Shell Quality Traits Internal Egg Quality Traits Egg Composition

Biological Mechanism of Probiotics Impact of Stress on Intestinal Microbiota Balance in Laying Hens Other Egg Laying Species Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques Conclusions References

283 283 284 286 286 286 288 289

Patricia Y. Hester Egg Formation Calcium Vitamin D Phosphorus Avian Bone Osteoporosis Relationship Between Egg Production Traits and Osteoporosis

319 321 322 323 324 325 326

xii

Contents

Strategies to Improve Bone Strength and Egg Production in Laying Hens Analytical Methods Conclusions References

326 327 327 328

31. Use of Ginseng in Animal Production Aiane Aparecida da Silva Catalan, Valdir Silveira de Avila, Francisco Noé da Fonseca, Everton Luis Krabbe, Fernanda Vieira de Avila, Eduardo Gonçalves Xavier and Victor Fernando Büttow Roll Introduction Ginseng in Animal Production Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

331 332 334 334 335 335

32. Preventive Measures for Avoiding the Deleterious Effects of Heat Stress on Egg Production and Quality Patricia Y. Hester Production Responses to Heat Stress Coping Mechanisms Used by Hens to Ameliorate Heat Stress Environmental Manipulation to Ameliorate Heat Stress Managing Feed to Ameliorate Heat Stress Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

337 337 340 341 344 344 344

Gita Cherian Egg Lipids Modifying the Egg Lipid Profile Omega-6 (n−6) and Omega-3 (n−3) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Eggs Human Requirement of n−3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Metabolism of Dietary Fat in Laying Hens and Origin of n−3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Eggs Dietary Sources for n−3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Enrichment Nutritional Value of Flaxseed Influence of Form and Type of Flaxseed and Antioxidants on Egg n−3 Fatty Acid Incorporation Effects on Yolk Fatty Acids of Eggs from Hens Consuming Flax Effects of Feeding Flax to Laying Hens on Production and Egg Quality Sensory Aspects and Oxidative Stability of Eggs from Hens Consuming Flax Human Clinical Studies on Eggs from Hens Fed Flax Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

365 365 366 366

366 367 367

369 369 370 370 371 371 371 371

35. Supplemental Fish Oil and its Impact on n−3 Fatty Acids in Eggs Hasan Yalcin

Section VII Improving Composition 33. Supplemental Linseed on Egg Production Shakeel Ahmad, Zahid Kamran and Konstantinos C. Koutoulis Introduction Linseed as an Ingredient for Laying Hen Diets Antinutritional Factors Dietary Linseed, Linseed meal, and Linseed Oil on Production Performance of Laying Hens Effect on Interior Egg Quality Effect on Egg Shell Quality Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

34. Supplemental Flax and Impact on n3 and n6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Eggs

349 349 350

352 358 361 362 362 362 362

Introduction Fatty Acid Composition Cholesterol Level Oxidative Stability Sensory Properties Hen Performance Human Health Benefits Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

373 373 375 376 376 377 379 379 379 380

36. Microalgal Feed Supplementation to Enrich Eggs with Omega-3 Fatty Acids Charlotte Lemahieu, Charlotte Bruneel, Koenraad Muylaert, Johan Buyse and Imogen Foubert Health Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids 383 Microalgae as an Alternative n−3 Longer Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Source 384 Enrichment of Eggs from Laying Hens 385

Contents

Analytical Methods Strategies for Improvement Conclusions Acknowledgment References

388 388 389 389 389

Sebastian Opalin´ski 393 393 394 397 398 400 400 401 401

Section VIII Preserving Eggs Jessie Usaga, Oscar Acosta, Elizabeth K. Sullivan and Olga I. Padilla-Zakour 405 405 406 407 411 412 412

Introduction The Processing Principles of Preserved Egg The Processing Methods of Preserved Egg Elements and Distribution Characteristic in Preserved Egg Recommended Daily Intake of Minerals Used in Preserved Egg Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

427 427 428 428 431 431 432 432 433

Section IX Adverse Nonmicrobial Contaminants 41. The Effect of Estrogens on Egg-Laying Performance Introduction Chickens Quail Ducks Guinea Fowl, Geese, and Other Less Common Birds Wild Birds Estrogen Effects on Egg Quality Estrogen Effects on Human Health Analytical Methods Conclusions References

437 439 439 440 441 441 441 442 443 444 444

42. Antimicrobial Residues in Table Eggs

39. Sodium Chloride Preservation in Duck Eggs

Akram R. Alaboudi

Soottawat Benjakul and Thammarat Kaewmanee Introduction Role of Sodium Chloride in Preservation and Characteristics of Salted Eggs Salting Processes of Duck Egg Changes in Chemical Composition of Egg White and Yolk During Salting Change in Physicochemical and Rheological Properties During Salting Alternative Uses of Salted Egg

40. Inorganic Elements in Preserved Egg

Hüseyin Baki Çiftci

38. Pickling Eggs

Introduction Pertinent Safety Parameters Regulations and Safety Concerns Pickled Egg Production Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

424 424 424

Yonggang Tu and Yan Zhao

37. Supplemental Iodine Introduction: Is Iodine Deficiency Still a Worldwide Problem? The Role of Iodine in Poultry Metabolism and Iodine Requirements Iodine Content of Eggs Compared with Other Foods The Influence of Iodine Supplementation on Laying Hen Performance The Effect of Supplemental Iodine on Egg Traits and Egg Content (Iodine Transfer) Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques: Brief Overview of Iodine Determination Methods Conclusions References

Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

xiii

415 415 416 417 419 421

Antimicrobials Residues in Eggs Distribution of Antimicrobials Residues in Egg Yolk and Albumen Fluoroquinolones: Enrofloxacin and Ciprofloxacin Residues in Table Eggs Chlortetracycline Residues in Table Eggs Sulfanilamide Residues in Table Eggs The Effect of Processing on Antimicrobial Residues Applicability to Other Egg Laying Species Analytical Techniques

448 448 449 450 450 451 453 453

xiv

Contents

Drug Residues and Antimicrobial Resistance Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

453 454 454 454

43. Nitrofuran Veterinary Drug Residues in Chicken Eggs Fernando Ramos, Lúcia Santos and Jorge Barbosa Introduction Chemical Structure, Metabolism, and Bioavailability Mutagenic and Toxic Effects Regulatory Framework on the Prohibition of Nitrofuran Use Monitoring Nitrofurans in Food and by-Products Nitrofuran Drug Residues in Chicken Eggs Nitrofuran Drug Residues in Chicken Egg Products Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques Conclusions References

457 457 458 459 459 460 461 461 461 462 463

44. Anthelmintic Benzimidazoles in Eggs Encarnación Rodríguez-Gonzalo, María Mateos-Vivas, Javier Domínguez-Álvarez, Diego García-Gómez and Rita Carabias-Martínez Introduction General Characteristics of Anthelmintic Benzimidazoles Presence of Anthelmintic Benzimidazoles in Eggs Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods for the Determination of Anthelmintic Benzimidazoles in Eggs Conclusions References

Burcu Olanca Chemical and Toxicological Properties Origins Transport into the Food Chain Toxic Effects, Tissue Distribution, and Bioavailability Regulations An Overview of Recent Data on Contaminant Levels in Eggs Dioxin Crisis in Poultry Strategies for Improvement and Intervention Methods Analytical Techniques Conclusions References

465

Introduction Alkaloids Glycosides Proteins, Amino Acids, Amino Acid Derivatives, and Nitriles Lipids Phenolic Compounds Other Toxins Analytical Methods Conclusions References

469 472 472

Da Chen, Yan Wu and Hillary Marler 475 476 477 479 480

485 488 488 489 490 491 494 495 495 496 496

47. Influence of Plant Toxins on Laying Hen Performance and Egg Quality Robert G. Elkin

467 469

480 481 481

46. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins, Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans, and Dioxin-Like Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Chicken Eggs

465

45. Flame Retardants in Wild Bird Eggs and in Relation to Eggs in the Human Food Supply Introduction Toxicological Impacts of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers on Avian Eggs Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Wild Bird Eggs Flame Retardants in Eggs of the Human Food Supply Strategies for Improvement

Analytical Method for Measurement of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Eggs Conclusions References

499 499 502 503 505 505 507 508 508 508

Section X Microbial or Parasitic Contaminants 48. Salmonella and Impact on Egg Production Richard K. Gast and Deana R. Jones Introduction: Salmonella Enteritidis and the Egg Industry

515

Contents

Salmonella and Commercial Egg Production Analytical Methods for Salmonella in Poultry and Eggs Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

516 518 519 519 519

49. Colibacillosis and Its Impact on Egg Production S.M. Lutful Kabir, Mahmudul Hasan Sikder, Jahangir Alam, Sucharit Basu Neogi and Shinji Yamasaki Introduction Characteristics of Avian Pathogenic E. coli Pathology Entry Routes for Avian Pathogenic E. coli The Immune Response of the Host Bacterial Virulence Factors in the Counterattack Virulence Gene Profiles Antimicrobial Resistance Zoonotic Potential Control Strategies of Avian Colibacillosis Additional Strategies for Improvement Analytical Techniques and Infection Models Conclusions References

523 523 524 524 525 526 528 529 529 529 530 531 532 533

50. Mycoplasmosis in Egg Laying Flocks Edgar David Peebles Introduction Mycoplasmas Mycoplasma gallisepticum Live Attenuated Vaccines Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

537 537 537 538 543 544 544 544

51. Avian Influenza Virus and Newcastle Disease Virus Kateri Bertran, Leonardo Susta and Patti J. Miller Avian Influenza Newcastle Disease Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

547 551 555 555 556 556

xv

52. Infectious Bronchitis Juliet R Roberts and Kapil K Chousalkar Introduction Trophism of Infectious Bronchitis Strains Effects of Infectious Bronchitis Virus on Production and Egg Quality Effects of Infectious Bronchitis Virus on the Oviduct of the Laying Hen Effectiveness of Vaccination in Preventing Adverse Effects of Infectious Virus on the Hen Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods for Viral Isolation and Identification Conclusions References

561 561 562 563

566 566 567 567 567

53. Coccidiosis in Egg Laying Poultry Hilary David Chapman Introduction Background Life Cycle and Biology Etiology Management Chemotherapy Vaccination Vaccination or Chemotherapy in Egg Laying Stock? Turkeys and Game Birds Strategies for Improvement Conclusions References

571 571 571 573 574 574 575 576 577 577 577 577

54. Mycotoxin Impact on Egg Production Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira, Diane Valganon de Neeff, Ágatha Cristina de Pinho Carão and Carlos Humberto Corassin Introduction Main Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Poultry Feeds Toxicological Effects of Mycotoxins in Laying Hens Aflatoxins Fumonisins Trichothecenes Zearalenone Ochratoxin A Residues of Mycotoxins in Eggs Prevention of Mycotoxicoses

581 581 585 585 585 589 589 590 590 591 591

xvi

Contents

Strategies for Improvement Detection and Measurement of Mycotoxins Conclusions References

593 593 594 594

55. Parasites in Laying Hen Housing Systems Bradley A. Mullens and Amy C. Murillo Introduction Life Cycles of Selected Pests

597 597

Effect of Habitat Complexity on Pest Infestations Parasite Management Options Strategies for Improvement Analytical Methods Conclusions References

601 603 603 604 605 605

Index 607

Contributors El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal  Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada Anas Abdelqader  Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan Edirisingha Dewage Nalaka Sandun Abeyrathne  Department of Animal Science, Uva Wellassa University, Badulla, Sri Lanka Zain ul Abidin  Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore Cantt, Pakistan Oscar Acosta  National Center of Food Science and Technology, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica Shakeel Ahmad  Al-Watania Poultry Institute of Technology, Al-Bukayriyah, Saudi Arabia Dong Uk Douglas Ahn  Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Humayoun Akhtar  Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada Akram R. Alaboudi  Department of Animal Pathology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan Jahangir Alam  Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Biotechnology, Ganakbari, Ashulia, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh Cristina Alamprese  Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy Jennifer Arthur  Avian Research Centre, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Valter Arthur  Nuclear Energy Center in Agriculture, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil Muhammad Aamir Aslam  Animal Breeding and Genomics Centre, Wageningen UR Livestock Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands; Institute of Microbiology, United States–Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Fernanda Vieira de Avila  Pharmacist, Specialist in Forensic Biology and Genetics, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Valdir Silveira de Avila  EMBRAPA Swine and Poultry, Concórdia, Santa Catarina, Brazil

Ali Aygun  Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey Jorge Barbosa  Center for Pharmaceutical Studies, Department of Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Coimbra University, Coimbra; National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research, Oeiras, Portugal Grégoy Y. Bédécarrats  Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada Masoumeh Bejaei  Sustainable Agriculture Program, Faculty of Science and Horticulture, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Richmond, BC, Canada Soottawat Benjakul  Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand Antonio Gilberto Bertechini  Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil Kateri Bertran  Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, United States Mehmet Bozkurt  Erbeyli Poultry Research Institute, Aydin, Turkey Milena Brasca  Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Italian National Research Council, Milan, Italy Charlotte Bruneel  Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), Leuven; Research Unit Food and Lipids, Kortrijk, Belgium Heather Kristin Burley  Department of Animal Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States Johan Buyse  Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe); Division of Livestock-Nutrition-Quality, Leuven, Belgium Rita Carabias-Martínez  Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Aiane Aparecida da Silva Catalan  Graduate Program in Animal Science, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil xvii

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Contributors

James R. Chambers  Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada Hilary David Chapman  Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States Da Chen  Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory; Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States Gita Cherian  Department of Animal and Rangeland Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States Kapil K. Chousalkar  School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia Hüseyin Baki Çiftci  Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey Carlos Humberto Corassin  Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil Courtney Lynd Daigle  Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, TX, United States Diane Valganon de Neeff  Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira  Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil Ágatha Cristina de Pinho Carão  Department of Nutrition and Animal Production, School of Veterinary Medicine University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil Javier Domínguez-Álvarez  Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Robert G. Elkin  Department of Animal Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States Evandro de Abreu Fernandes  Animal Production, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil Francisco Noé da Fonseca  EMBRAPA Swine and Poultry, Concórdia, Santa Catarina, Brazil Imogen Foubert  Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), Leuven; Research Unit Food and Lipids, Kortrijk, Belgium Diego García-Gómez  Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Richard K. Gast  United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Athens, GA, United States Charlene Hanlon  Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Marcia Nalesso Costa Harder  Technology College of Piracicaba—FATEC-Piracicaba/CEETEPS, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil Patricia Y. Hester  Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States Maxwell T. Hincke  Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Martin Hintersteiner  Bioseutica B.V., Lugano, Switzerland Jacek Jaczynski  Division of Animal and Nutritional Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States Deana R. Jones  United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Egg Safety and Quality Research Unit, Athens, GA, United States Thammarat Kaewmanee  Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand Zahid Kamran  University College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan Kevin M. Keener  Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States Aisha Khatoon  Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Dariusz Kokoszyński  Department of Poultry Breeding and Animal Products Evaluation, Faculty of Animal Breeding and Biology, UTP University of Science and Technology in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland Konstantinos C. Koutoulis  Department of Avian Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece Everton Luis Krabbe  EMBRAPA Swine and Poultry, Concórdia, Santa Catarina, Brazil Kamil Küçükyılmaz  Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey Charlotte Lemahieu  Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Centre (LFoRCe), Leuven; Research Unit Food and Lipids, Kortrijk, Belgium Fernanda Heloisa Litz  Animal Production, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil S.M. Lutful Kabir  Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan; Department of Microbiology and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh Hillary Marler  Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States María Mateos-Vivas  Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Contributors

Patti J. Miller  Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, United States National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA, United States Stefano Morandi  Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Italian National Research Council, Milan, Italy Bradley A. Mullens  Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States Amy C. Murillo  Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States Koenraad Muylaert  Research Unit Aquatic Biology, Kortrijk, Belgium Sucharit Basu Neogi  Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan Ruth Catriona Newberry  Department of Animal and Aquacultural Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway Burcu Olanca  National Food Reference Laboratory, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Yenimahalle, Ankara, Turkey Sebastian Opaliński  Department of Environment, Animal Hygiene and Welfare, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland Olga I. Padilla-Zakour  Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, United States Paul Hanes Patterson  Department of Animal Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States Edgar David Peebles  Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, United States Fernando Ramos  Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology; Center for Pharmaceutical Studies, Department of Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Juliet R. Roberts  Animal Science, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia Encarnación Rodríguez-Gonzalo  Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

xix

Victor Fernando Büttow Roll  Graduate Program in Animal Science, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Megan Rose-Martel  Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada Lúcia Santos  Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology; Center for Pharmaceutical Studies, Department of Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Mahmudul Hasan Sikder  Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh Tiziana Silvetti  Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Italian National Research Council, Milan, Italy Elizabeth K. Sullivan  Department of Food Science, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, United States Leonardo Susta  Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada Reza Tahergorabi  North Carolina Agricultural & Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States Yonggang Tu  Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products and Functional Food, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China Jessie Usaga  National Center of Food Science and Technology, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica Nelson E. Ward  Animal Nutrition & Health, DSM Nutritional Products, Inc., Ringoes, NJ, United States Henri Woelders  Animal Breeding and Genomics Centre, Wageningen UR Livestock Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands Yan Wu  Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States Eduardo Gonçalves Xavier  Graduate Program in Animal Science, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Hasan Yalcin  Engineering Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey Shinji Yamasaki  Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, Japan Khalid Zaheer  Consultant, Toronto, ON, Canada Yan Zhao  Engineering Research Center of Biomass Conversion Ministry of Education, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China

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Section I

Introduction 1. Chicken Eggs 2. Quail Eggs 3. Duck Eggs

3 13 23

4. Guinea Fowl, Goose, Turkey, Ostrich, and Emu Eggs

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Chapter 1

Chicken Eggs James R. Chambers*, Khalid Zaheer**, Humayoun Akhtar* and El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal* *Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada; **Consultant, Toronto, ON, Canada

ORIGIN OF THE EGG PRODUCING CHICKEN Phylogenetic studies have revealed that ancestors of the red jungle fowl originated from the green jungle fowl, Gallus varius about 35,000 years ago. The DNA sequences of red and green jungle fowls formed reciprocally monophyletic clusters (Sawai et al., 2010). The major progenitor of the egg-producing domestic chicken, Gallus gallus domesticus, is the red jungle fowl, Gallus gallus gallus, with minor infusions of gray jungle fowl, Gallus sonneratii, and of Ceylon jungle fowl, Gallus lafayetti (Nishibori et al., 2005; Eriksson et al., 2008). Mitochondrial DNA analyses of clades, groups possessing a common ancestor, revealed several separate domestications throughout southwest China, and southern and southeast Asia (Storey et al., 2012; Miao et al., 2013). Global spread of the domestic chicken occurred over the millennia. Specific regions and dates are not always clear; however, the available information is listed in Table 1.1. Chickens and man have coexisted for several millennia. The chicken was maintained initially for either cockfighting or religious sacrifices. Development and use of chicken breeds for food, especially for egg production, became evident during the Roman Empire (Elson, 2011). Chicken breeds with novel traits were developed during the first half of the 19th century for exhibitions throughout Europe (Yamada, 1988). Some breeds have contributed to those used in current chicken production.

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR EGG PRODUCTION Wild chickens meet their needs naturally. Global spread and utilization of the domestic chicken have introduced new requirements such as protection from the climates and various levels of confinement including housing. Confinement facilitates: egg collection, chicken capture, and protection from predators, pests, and adverse climates. Confinement systems include: on range in fields/paddocks where climates are warm enough, confined indoors in pens with access to range, and confined totally indoors either in pens or cages with either single or multiple hens per cage. Houses must incorporate ventilation systems to provide fresh air and to maintain temperature and humidity produced by the chickens. Layers generate a great deal of body heat. Management systems: Management systems have developed to meet the chicken’s needs for health and safety. These usually include: provision of water and feed, shelter and/or ventilation, artificial lighting, and cleaning and/or disinfection of facilities. These needs become more intensive and critical as the space per hen is reduced and production increases. During the past century, improved feeding and lighting systems have led to a year-round egg production, which was supported by advanced confinement and management systems. Globally, a range of relevant management systems is applied. The specific type is determined largely by climatic and economic constraints. These systems have increased production efficiency and reduced labor. Nutrition: Proper nutrition is critical for optimal production. Energy, protein, mineral, and vitamin requirements of laying hens are determined by maintenance, body weight, and level of egg production (Leeson, 2011). Ingredients are selected on availability, price, and, if available, nutrient bioavailability estimates, to minimize ration costs. Laying hens require higher levels of calcium and vitamins A, D, and choline than other chickens. Recommended crude protein level is 20% as production commences, and it declines to 15.5% after 1 year of age. Likewise, corresponding metabolizable energy levels commence at 2800–2850 kcal/kg of diet. These levels are elevated when Egg Innovations and Strategies for Improvements. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800879-9.00001-9 Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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TABLE 1.1 Global Spread of the Domestic Chicken Estimated Time

Origin

New Area

References

Post 6000 BC

China

Surrounding nations

West and Zhou (1989)a

Post 2500 BC

Indus valley

Numerous areas

Zeuner (1963)b

1650 BC

Asia (probable)

East Africa

Mwacharo et al. (2013)c

About 1000 BC

Indus valley (probable)

Persia and Mesopotamia

Crawford (1990)d

After 1000 BC

Persia and Mesopotamia

Mediterranean regions, Rome

Crawford (1990)d

Pre 1200 BC

Uncertain

Some European locations

Yamada (1988)e

1200–550 BC

Uncertain

Europe

Yamada (1988)e

1000 BC

Southern Asia

Polynesia

Storey et al. (2012)f

End of BC Era

The Roman Empire

Europe and England

Yamada (1988)e

1500 AD

Europe

New World

Yamada (1988)e

1500 AD

Spanish traders

Some Polynesian areas, South America

Thompson et al. (2014)g

a

West, B., Zhou, B.X., 1989. Did chickens go north? New evidence for domestication. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 45, 205–218. Zeuner, F.E., 1963. A History of Domestic Animals. Harper and Row Publication, New York, NY, United States. Mwacharo, J.M., Bjǿrnstad, G., Han, J.L., Hanotte, O., 2013. The history of African village chickens: an archeological and molecular perspective. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 30, 97–114. d Crawford, R.D., 1990. Origin and history of poultry species. In: Crawford, R.D. (Ed.), Poultry Breeding and Genetics. Elsevier Publication, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 1–18. e Yamada, Y., 1988. The contributions of poultry science to society. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 44, 172–178. f Storey, A.A., Athens, J.S., Bryant, D., Carson, M., Emery, K., deFrance, S., Higham, C., Huyen, L., Intoh, M., Jones, S., Kirch, P.V., Ladefoged, T., McCoy, P., Morales-Muñiz, A., Quiroz, D., Reitz, E., Robins, J., Walter, R., Matisoo-Smith, E., 2012. Investigating the global dispersal of chickens in prehistory using ancient mitochondrial DNA signatures. PLoS One 7, e39171. g Thomson, V.A., Lebrasseur, O., Austin, J.J., Hunt, T.L., Burney, D.A., Denham, T., Rawlence, N.J., Wood, J.R., Gongora, J., Girdland Flink, L., Linderholm, A., Dobney, K., Larson, G., Cooper, A., 2014. Using ancient DNA to study the origins and dispersal of ancestral Polynesian chickens across the Pacific. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111, 4826–4831. b c

excessive heat causes hens to eat less. The amino acid and vitamin/mineral supplement levels are designed to maintain proper nutrient balances and vary to accommodate the diet ingredients used. Advanced genetics, nutrition, and management systems allow the modern hen to achieve a peak egg production per day of 96% (on a flock basis), lay 320 eggs weighing 63 g on average, over 12 months of production (Hy-Line W-36 Performance Standards Manual, 2012) under optimum conditions. Operation size: Layer operation size in developed countries has increased dramatically during the last century. Flocks of 100,000 laying hens are common with some exceeding 1 million (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2013). Large layer farms consist of several large houses of in-line and off-line types (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). In in-line production systems, eggs from all houses are gathered and transferred to an adjacent plant for processing and refrigeration prior to shipping. Housing: Most egg production is carried out using conventional cage systems, where layers live in cages and have limited mobility. Housing density and reduced space per hen have aroused concern about the hen’s welfare. The European Union Council Directive on welfare of laying hens, 1999/74/EC, required conventional laying cages to be phased out by 2012 (Commission of the European Communities, 1999). Traditional cages have been modified with enrichments and noncage systems encouraged. Production costs of eggs from free-range hens versus caged hens may be increased by 50% or more (European Commission, 2004; Sumner et al., 2011). Family poultry production systems are promoted in Ghana, Tanzania, and Zambia by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Egg Commission. Recommendations to improve management and production for these smaller operations are made available (Kumaresan et al., 2008; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012). Housing facilities (conventional cages vs. enriched cages vs. pens) accounted for relatively small differences in egg production, mortality, and feed used per egg (Gerzilov et al., 2012). Organic eggs: Where climates permit and to meet consumer demands, “organic eggs” are now produced by avoiding antibiotics and synthetic chemicals. Hens producing organic eggs must have access to the outdoors and cannot be housed in cages. The hen’s feed must be free of antibiotics and synthetic chemicals and must include grains from only crops certified as “organic.” Land to produce such crops must have been free of “genetically modified” crops and synthetic fertilizers for 3 or more years. Antibiotic use is permitted only for disease outbreaks.

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TABLE 1.2 The World’s Top Egg Producing Countries for the Year 2012 Country

Egg Production (tonne)a

World Total (%)b

China, mainland

24,500,000

36.9

United States

5,435,168

8.2

India

3,600,000

5.4

Japan

2,506,768

3.8

Mexico

2,318,261

3.5

a

One tonne = 1000 kg. b Total egg production worldwide in 2012 was 66,373,179 tonnes. Source: Data taken from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division (FAOSTAT), 2014. Production: Livestock Primary: Eggs Primary. Available from: http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E

GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION Eggs are an economical source of nutrients for a healthy diet and life. Increased egg production and consumption in the developed and developing world would significantly improve food and nutrition security. It is especially important for the mental development of growing children (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012). In 2012, about 21.2 billion chickens were located in: Asia, 12.0; America, 5.28; Europe, 2.01; Africa, 1.79; and Oceania, 0.13 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division, 2014). They accounted for over 90% of global shell egg production. Total shell egg production was 66.4 million tonnes in 2012 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division, 2014) with 57.8% provided by only five countries (Table 1.2). Global egg production has increased 23.4% from 2000 to 2012, although the regions varied (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division, 2014). The Food and Agriculture Organization predicts production of 89 million tonnes of eggs in 2030. A major proportion of the increase will come from developing countries. Based on data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and China’s projected 2% compound annual growth rate, the country will produce 34.2 million tonnes of eggs by 2020 and 39 million by 2030 (Wattagnet.com, 2012). Two other countries, Brazil and Russia, have shown marked increases in egg production since 2008. In EU countries, the ban in 2012 imposed on use of conventional cages, appears to have restricted growth since 2008 to 1% annually associated with the increased production costs. In 2012, growth actually declined in the European Union as noted by a decrease in tonnes of eggs produced (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division, 2014). By 2050, the world’s population is expected to reach 9 billion people, with the highest population growth rates occurring in regions suffering most from food insecurity. The International Egg Commission’s vision is to facilitate an independent and sustainable food supply, ensuring food self-sufficiency for people now and in the future (International Egg Foundation, 2014). Global egg consumption has tripled in the past 40 years with consumer quality expectations increasing just as rapidly (Windhorst, 2011). Countries vary largely in egg consumption levels. Annual consumption of eggs determined largely by the country’s wealth, ranges from 300 g per person in African countries to 19.1 kg in Japan. Only 9 of 43 sub-Saharan African countries have an average consumption higher than 2 kg. Most Asian and American people eat at least twice that amount (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012).

EGG COMPONENTS The egg has a yolk at the center, surrounded by albumen (egg white), both enclosed by membranes within the shell. The detailed structure is illustrated in Fig. 1.1. The formation and development of the yolk occurs in the hen’s ovary. Following ovulation, egg formation continues in the oviduct where the albumen and later the shell membranes and the shell, are deposited. On average the shell, albumen, and yolk make up 10, 60, and 30% of the egg, respectively. Respective total solids of the albumen and yolk are about 11 and 51%. The shell, made up of 94% calcium carbonate, is a porous, semipermeable structure limiting the passage of air and water. Shells are more commonly white or brown but may be blue or green determined by the hen’s genotype. Color influences regional consumer demand but does not influence egg quality or taste (Bell, 2002).

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FIGURE 1.1  Diagram depicting egg components.

Several membranes keep egg components organized. An outer shell coating, the bloom or cuticle, helps to exclude bacteria and dust. Inner and outer eggshell membranes separating the shell and albumen provide an efficient defense against bacterial invasion and a base for shell formation. The air cell, between the outer and inner membranes at the egg’s blunt end, forms as the egg contents cool and contract after oviposition. The chalazae, opaque ropes of egg white, hold the yolk in the center of the egg. The vitelline membrane, a transparent barrier enclosing the yolk, prevents leakage of yolk contents into the albumen. Egg composition is relatively consistent in terms of total protein, essential amino acids, total lipid, phospholipids, phosphorus, and iron. Other components, such as fatty acid, minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, antioxidants, and cholesterol, are influenced by the diet of the hen and are more variable. Small differences that exist in egg composition may be attributable to strain, age, and environmental conditions (Rizzi and Marangon, 2012). Due to the decline in some egg proportions as the hen ages, flocks are replaced after one production cycle by younger flocks; however, molting tends to restore egg proportions of aged hens (Anderson, 2013). Proper production methods also tend to reduce this variation in components and facilitate egg marketing.

VALUE FOR HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH Eggs, a staple in the human diet, are consumed globally. They represent a “complete food” required for well-being and are recognized by consumers as versatile and wholesome with a balance of essential nutrients (Song and Kerver, 2000; Singh et al., 2012). In addition, eggs have health promoting properties; many are preventative in nature, and others have therapeutic potential. Eggs are an inexpensive and low-calorie source of high-quality protein and other nutrients beneficial to human health. Egg proteins, about 6.5 g per egg, contain a balanced supply of the nine amino acids essential to human health: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine (Lunven et al., 1973). Protein quality, a measure of the efficiency of use of the consumed protein by the human body, is determined by the presence and proportions of these amino acids of the protein. The protein quality of eggs is high, 91% if cooked (Evenepoel et al., 1998), and is the standard for evaluating other foods (Sparks, 2006). Amino acids are vital for production of enzymes, some hormones, hormone receptors, DNA components, and other functional components required for growth, tissue maintenance, and regulation of metabolic functions. The egg contains essential long-chain fatty acids, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These are components of phospholipids which contribute flexibility to cell membranes and reduce plasma cholesterol levels (Seuss-Baum, 2011). EPA and DHA also appear to reduce risks of cardiovascular, central nervous system, and mental health diseases, inflammation, and immune infections (Fraeye et al., 2012). In addition, they have preventive and therapeutic roles for other chronic diseases. The DHA is more effective for reducing specific cardiovascular risks and for development of the brain and of retinal and neural tissues of embryos and young children (Fraeye et al., 2012). The relatively low level of these n−3 fatty acids in eggs can be augmented via the hen’s diet. Egg contains fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K, and water soluble B vitamins: thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), biotin (B7), folate (B9), cobalamine (B12), and choline. Levels of B2 and B12 are relatively high; levels of B5, B9, A, and D are moderate. Adequate maternal folate levels reduce the risk of neural tube defects in newborn infants (Garza and Rasmussen, 2000). It also contains the minerals calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc. The egg contains about 200 mg of cholesterol which has suppressed egg consumption in the past (Brown and Schrader, 1990); however, cholesterol has many important functions in the human body. There is no association between

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egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease. With the exception of familial hypercholesterolemia subjects (Ruxton, 2010), consumption of one egg per day does not increase serum cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular disease among healthy men and women (Shin et al., 2013). Eggs contain several antioxidants which reduce free radicals arising from cellular metabolism. Positive associations between oxidative stress and the incidence of chronic diseases, such as cancers and heart diseases, have been reported (Rao and Rao, 2007). These antioxidants include: selenium, which acts to reduce the oxidative stress from free radicals promoting heart disease (Wong, 2010); in egg yolks, carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, play a role in the prevention of cataracts and age-related macular degeneration (Abdel-Aal et al., 2013); vitamin E reduces the oxidation of fats in low-density lipoprotein improving cholesterol transportation and balance with decreased risk of heart attack and death from heart disease (Wong, 2010). There are many methods of preparing and serving eggs. For breakfasts, eggs are often scrambled, fried, poached, or boiled in shell. Both sweet and savory egg servings are made and used worldwide. These and numerous other preparations including bakery products make eggs a cosmopolitan functional food. For food preparations, yolks act as an emulsifier and in custards, as a thickener. Foaming properties of whites enhance their use in desserts as meringues and in mousse preparations. Liquid egg is used in a variety of food products and, if dried, in prepared food mixes such as cake mixes.

MANIPULATION OF EGG NUTRIENTS Eggs may differ in their nutrient content based on how the chickens were raised and fed. As an example, some components of the egg can be transformed by fortifying the hen’s diet to enrich the egg (Singh et al., 2012). These include the polyunsaturated essential fatty acids, the carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene), vitamins, and minerals. Eggs from hens on range have omega-3 fatty acid levels sixfold (Scheideler and Lewis, 2002) higher than those from caged hens. Omega-3 fatty acid levels in eggs can be elevated by feeding canola oil, soybean oil, flaxseed, walnut, spinach, and mustard greens which are rich sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Enrichment of hen’s feed with carotenoids, such as canthaxanthin and lycopenes, and sources, such as marigold, chilly, or corn, can enrich the egg carotenoids and intensify the yellow color of yolk (Grashorn and Steinberg, 2002). By feeding tomato pulp to hens, eggs can also be fortified with lycopenes from a natural source (Johnson, 2002). Supplementing the hen’s diet with vitamins A, D, and E can increase yolk contents up to 10-fold. High concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the yolk enhance the antioxidant effect of vitamin E (Edem, 2009). Dietary sources can increase the egg content of the water-soluble vitamins B2, B12, B1, biotin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid. Many minerals, especially selenium and iron, may also be incorporated. Conjugated linoleic acids, not normally present in the egg, can be established by dietary supplementation of hens (Du et al., 1999). Physiological benefits of some conjugated linoleic acids in animals include an anticarcinogenic effect, enhancements of immune function along with reductions in inflammation, catabolic effects of immune stimulation, asthma, arteriosclerosis, diabetes symptoms, and hypertension (Pariza et al., 2003). More information on the relative roles of n−3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids is required as a basis for recommendations involving conjugated linoleic acid fortification of eggs. The aforementioned changes appeal to the consumer’s desire for healthier or value added eggs. Nutrient fortified and “designer” eggs may be marketed with appropriate labels provided the label meets with egg marketing regulations of that region. Initially eggs with higher omega-3 content were featured; however, many modifications are available enabling producers to provide a more diversified product thereby increasing product demand (Wong, 2010).

MEASURES TO ENSURE EGG FOOD SAFETY Proper practices in egg production and processing must be followed to avoid potential foodborne consumer illnesses. These illnesses may arise from either chemical (toxicants) or microbial contamination of eggs. Producers must ensure that the product marketed complies with the regulations governing the safety of food products. Chemical contaminants originate from residues of either intended treatments involving veterinary drugs or feed additives, or inadvertent contaminants of environmental origin such as dioxins, furans, and polychlorobiphenyls (Jondreville et al., 2011). Treatments with drugs and feed additives are regulated according to the toxicity of the drug and its potency based on maximum residue limits, treatment, and the withdrawal periods. All products during the medication and withdrawal periods are unfit for human consumption and must be discarded. Some drugs are banned and MUST NOT be used in food animal production. There are safe drugs that do not require withdrawal periods when used for food animals. In addition, hens may consume contaminated soil, feed, or water. These toxicants are often pesticides applied on crops and soils.

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Microbial contaminants of eggs are usually enteric bacteria, Salmonella enteritidis being the greatest threat. Egg contents are often suitable media for bacterial growth. Hence, risk of egg contamination by pathogenic bacteria, especially S. enteritidis, is a major concern for egg production and egg product manufacturing industries (Baran and Jan, 2011). The “Code of Hygienic Practice for Eggs and Egg Products (CAC/RCP 15–1976),” adopted in 1976, revised in 2007, recommends practices for primary production, sorting, grading, storage, transport, processing, and distribution of eggs for human consumption. Overall, this document deals with key aspects of hygiene in controlling and preventing contamination of eggs and egg products (Food and Drug Administration, 2009). Measures taken to avoid contamination of the hens include: the selection of breeding stocks for pathogen resistance, maintain a pathogen-free status in parental flocks, use systems and procedures that prevent cracked eggs, decontaminate facilities between flocks, vaccinate hens against pathogens, use pathogen-free feeds and feedstuffs, maintain pest-free facilities, facilitate gastric microbiota development to enhance passive immunity, and maintain facilities favoring clean egg production. Those measures to maintain pathogen-free eggs include: collect and cool as soon as possible and maintain in cool, clean storage; clean soiled eggs; and if possible, pasteurize contaminated eggs.

MEASURES TO MAINTAIN EGG QUALITY Egg quality defines those characteristics of an egg that affect consumer acceptability and preference. Components of quality include shell quality and interior egg quality for shell eggs, and interior egg quality for further processed eggs. The quality of the egg once it is laid cannot be improved. Hence, its maintenance is mostly a preventive process. Egg quality is influenced by several factors including rearing, temperature, humidity, handling, storage, and egg age (Stadelman, 1977; Bozkurt et al., 2012). Shell quality: There are five major classes of shell defects: integrity, texture, shape, color, and cleanliness (Chukwuka et al., 2011). Measures influencing shell quality are listed in Table 1.3. Interior egg quality: Interior egg quality, most important to consumers, begins to decline as soon as the egg is laid and has three components: yolk quality, albumen quality, and overall quality. In addition, the air cell grows larger as the egg ages. Rapid gathering and cooling of eggs and refrigerated storage at appropriate temperature and humidity reduce this decline in quality. See Table 1.4 for influential factors. Many egg defects are seldom seen by the consumer because defective eggs are detected either before or at grading and are rejected. Moreover, proper housing systems and feed management, egg storage, and egg handling, together with selection efforts by poultry breeders reduce their incidence to low levels. In many countries, shell eggs are graded by weight to enhance egg size uniformity. The weight range of different sizes of eggs sold in Canada and the United States are listed in Table 1.5 (United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service, 2000; Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 2013).

TABLE 1.3 Factors Affecting the Exterior Quality (the Shell) of the Egg General

Specific

Details

Flock strain

Color

Determines whether shells are white or brown, brown shade may vary

Thickness

Genetic differences in addition to other factors

Management

Biosecurity and health

Reduced by avian diseases causing defective shells (rough, thin, and no shells) Chemotherapeutic treatments can alter shell color

Nutrition

Optimum mineral levels are crucial, especially calcium, and adequate nutrients to maintain proper shell formation and color

Environment

Extremely high temperatures increase shell defects—can be reduced by supplements Good hygiene (especially nesting areas) reduces stained and soiled eggs

Rough handling of hens

Can increase deformed shells

Equipment

Improper design or maintenance may increase cracked shells

Egg handling

Hen stress

If excessive, increases cracks and shape defects

Roughness

Roughness increases cracked shells

Source: Data taken from Chukwuka, O.K., Okoli, I.C., Okeudo, N.J., Udedibie, A.B.I., Ogbuewu, I.P., Aladi, N.O., Iheshiulor, O.O.M., Omede, A.A., 2011. Egg quality defects in poultry management and food safety. Asian J. Agric. Res. 5, 1–16.

Chicken Eggs Chapter | 1

TABLE 1.4 Flock Measures Affecting Interior Egg Quality Component

Property

Influential Factors

Yolk

Color

Determined by dietary xanthophyll levels—bad colors from some plants (excessive cottonseed meal, some weeds, and weed seeds) Pale yolks are attributed to worm infestation, impaired liver function (aflatoxin B1), some viral flock infections Mottled yolks—attributed to some coccidiostats, vermifuges (in excess), gossypol, some antioxidants, calcium deficiency—reduced by improper storage conditions such as improper temperature or prolonged storage

Texture

Rubbery yolks are caused by freezing or extreme chilling, and consumption of some plants (crude cottonseed oil and weed seeds)

Firmness

Declines as the egg ages so yolk is flatter

Consistency

Decreases as hen ages and as egg ages. Rate of decline increases as egg temperature rises and may be delayed by oiling eggs Eggs of some flock strains have lower albumen consistency Can be reduced by avian disease infections

Appearance

Albumen becomes discolored if eggs are in poor storage conditions for extended durations Discoloration also associated with blood spots and with cyclopropene fatty acids from some plants

Functional properties

Influenced by albumen consistency

Blood spots

Increase with rise in vitamin K deficiency Some flock strains may be more prone to blood spot Increase following avian encephalomyelitis infection

Meat spots

Increase as flock ages Influenced by flock strain, may be more frequent in brown-shell strains

Microbial contamination

Bacterial and fungal contamination, more often with structural shell defects, cause black, green, or red rot of egg contents causing a putrid appearance and smell Minimized by proper handling and storage following collection

Round worms

Rarely observed in properly managed flocks, avoided by proper flock hygiene

Off odors/flavors

Usually attributed to hens consuming diets high in fish products or storage near other food material with strong flavors, disinfectants, kerosene, or molds

Albumen

Overall egg

Source: Data taken from Chukwuka, O.K., Okoli, I.C., Okeudo, N.J., Udedibie, A.B.I., Ogbuewu, I.P., Aladi, N.O., Iheshiulor, O.O.M., Omede, A.A., 2011. Egg quality defects in poultry management and food safety. Asian J. Agric. Res. 5, 1–16.

TABLE 1.5 The Weight Range of Different Sizes of Eggs in Canada and the United States Weight Range Size

Canadaa (g/egg)

United Statesb (oz/dozen)

Pee wee