Egg grading and consumers’ preferences with special reference to Iowa egg marketing

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EGG GRADING AMD CONSUMERS' PREFERENCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO IOWA EGG MARKETING

" '% r e t u r n s .

I t is re c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s method e n t a i l s some b i a s . t h i s b ia s i s , is n o t known.

liov.r im p o rta n t

I n any c a s e , i t v/as p o s s ib le by t h i s method

t o s e c u re r e tu r n s from th o more a c tiv e farm le a d o r s .

The s iz e o f th e

sample and th o s t a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n check ite m s , such as s i z e o f flo c k and fa m ily s i z e , in th o q u e s tio n n a ir e in d ic a te t h a t s ta te m e n ts b ased on t h i s su rv e y have some s ig n if ic a n c e to th e s t a t e as a w hole. Method o f " in te rv ie w " and p re fe re n c e s s o u g h t.

This su rv ey may be

c la s s e d a s a Bem i-m ail q u e s tio n n a ir e s in o e a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e i n ­ v e s t i g a t o r v/as a t hand t o i n t e r p r e t th e q u e s tio n s and p r e s e n t th e q u e s tio n n a ir e i n p erso n t o one o f th e groups r e p ly in g . form u sed i s

p re s e n te d i n th e ap p en d ix .

The q u e s tio n n a ire

Most o f th e q u e s tio n s asked

in

th e two su rv ey s w ere th e same, a lth o u g h in th e second y e a r some new q u e s tio n s were added and some were r e v is e d o r d ro p p ed , depending on th e q u a l ity o f th o answ ers re c e iv e d th e f i r s t y e a r .

They v/ere asked to

g iv e t h e i r y o lk and s h e l l c o lo r p r e f e r e n c e s , how th e y co u ld t e l l th e fre s h n e s s o f an opened eg g , w hat eggs th e y c o n sid e re d u n f i t f o r home u s e , th e k in d s o f eggs th e y p r e f e r r e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r u s e s , and to d e s c rib e

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

cau ses f o r d if f e r e n c e s i n th o f la v o r and odors o f eggs t h a t th ey had n o tic e d .

Many o f th e q u e s tio n s were o f th e "why", "how", and "open

end" ty p o . M orse, R ich ard L ., R eid , M argaret 0 . , and O d e rk irk , A.D. Des Moines consum ers' egg p r e f e r e n c e s , consum ption and buying p r a c t i c e s , 1940. ( l a . A gr. Exp. S ta . j r o j e c t 62fhi U npublished s tu d y .’ S -6 ) Purposo o f th e s tu d y .

This su rv ey was u n d e rta k e n to s e c u re in ­

fo rm a tio n co n cern in g th e egg p re fe re n c e s o f Des Moines consumers and some o f th e f a c to r s a f f e c t i n g th o s e p r e f e r e n c e s .

Also an a tte m p t was

made t o s e c u re in fo rm a tio n as to th e consum ers' egg buying p r a c tic e s and as t o th e consum ers' a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e egg m erch an d isin g methods of r e t a i l e r s .

The consum er su rv ey was one o f a number o f surveys made

in th e C ity o f Des M oines.

The o th e r surveys were made o f r e t a i l e r s ,

w h o le s a le rs and r o s ta u r a n ts and h o t e l s . Sourco of d a t a . b e s t Des M oines.

Dos M oines, Iowa, in c lu d in g F o rt Des Moines and

lie co rd s wero se c u re d from a p p ro x im ate ly 800 o r 1.5

p e r c e n t o f th e h o u s e h o ld s , r e p r e s e n tin g 1 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n o f Dec M oines.

The sample was s e le c to d b y co u n tin g ev ery 7 th household

i n th e s t r e e t and a d d re s s s e c ti o n o f Des Moines C ity D ir e c to r y , o m ittin g th e b u s in e s s d i s t r i c t .

The en u m erato r was g iv e n th o ad d re ss and

sometimes the name of th e head o f th o h o u se h o ld , th e h o u seh o ld b ein g th e sam pling u n i t .

I f he f a i l e d t o make th e c o n t a c t, he v/as re q u ir e d to

proceed t o th o n e x t h o u se h o ld , in th e d ir e c t i o n ho had b een d o in g , and in q u ir e as t o why th e s e le c te d h ousew ife was n o t a t home.

I f a re a so n

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

137.

such as shopping o r v i s i t i n g was g iv e n , t h i s n eig h b o rin g housew ife was in te rv ie w e d .

However, i f th e re a s o n was n o t of t h i s s o r t and th e r e

was re a s o n t o b e lie v e t h a t th e housew ife was c o n s is te n tly away in th e day tim e, th e in te r v ie w e r was re q u e s te d t o make a r e tu r n c a l l , p erhaps a n ig h t o r S atu rd ay a f te r n o o n c a l l i f n e c e s s a ry .

S u b s titu tio n s were made

by th e enum erator i n 28 p e r c e n t o f th e s e le c te d h o u s e h o ld s .

And i t

m s found n e c e ss a ry to make evening o r S atu rd ay a f te r n o o n c a l l s f o r 6 p e r c e n t o f th e s e le c te d h o u s e h o ld s . L a te r th e sample m s d i s t r i b u t e d among th e 44 census t r a c t s aiid th e p e r c e n t o f d w ellin g u n it s

(1940 cen su s) sam pled was c a lc u la te d .

Those p e rc e n ta g e s ran g e from 0 .2 5 to 2 .4 0 p e r c e n t w ith a mean v alu e of 1.52 p e r c e n t.

One census t r a c t in th e b u s in e s s d i s t r i c t was n o t i n ­

cluded i n th e sam p le, and a n o th e r t r a c t w hich was p r im a r ily a b u s in e s s d i s t r i c t was o nly p a r t l y in c lu d e d i n th e sam p le.

Only 0 .2 5 p e r c e n t

o f th e d w e llin g u n i t s in t h i s t r a c t wore in c lu d e d i n th e sam ple.

In

th e 43 cen su s t r a c t s sam pled betw een 1 and 2 p e r c e n t o f th e d w ellin g u n it s were in c lu d e d i n th e sam p le.

In 5 t r a c t s o v er 2 p e r c e n t o f th e

d w e llin g u n i t s were sam pled and i n 3 , le s s th a n 1 p e r o e n t.

H ence, b y

t h i s sam pling p ro c e d u re , w ide and f a i r l y u n ifo rm g e o g ra p h ic a l coverage o f th e c i t y was s e c u re d . Method o f in te r v ie w and p re fe re n c e s s o u g h t. conducted a t th e h o u se .

The in te r v ie w was

The enum erators employed were two u n d e rg ra d u a te s

o f Drake U n iv e r s ity , recommended b y th e Dean o f th e B u sin ess School} Drake U n iv e r s ity law sch o o l g ra d u a te ; e x p e rie n c e d in ta k in g s o h e d u le s ;

a

an Iowa S ta t e C o lleg e u n d e rg ra d u a te ,

and th e w r i t e r .

The enum erators were

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r e l a t i v e l y in e x p e rie n c e d i n en u m eratio n w ork, b u t o th e rw ise were w e ll q u a l if ie d f o r t h i s ty p e o f w ork.

The s u p e r v is o r , how ever, was in e x p e r­

ie n c e d and he s p e n t to o l i t t l e tim e w ith th e enum erators e i t h e r i n th e f i e l d o r i n p r e lim in a r y t r a i n i n g t o in s u r e t h a t th e enum erators had a common u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e is s u e s in v o lv ed i n th e q u e s tio n s and t h a t th e y asked th e same q u e s tio n s i n th o same m anner.

In r e c o g n itio n o f

t h i s d e f e c t, however, th e d a ta c o lle c te d by eac h en u m erato r w ere ta b u la te d and a n a ly se d s e p a r a te ly so t h a t m ajor d if f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as betw een enum erators a r e p e r c e p t i b l e .

A nother e r r o r i n th e method o f

s e c u rin g th e d a ta and in c o n t r o l li n g th e in te r v ie w l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e sc h e d u le s w ere n o t c a r e f u l l y e d ite d and checked a t th e tim e o f th e s u rv e y .

Iienoe, o n ly g ro s s e r r o r s i n th e method o f in te rv ie w

employed b y th e enum erator were cau g h t d u rin g th e co u rse o f th e s u rv e y . And \dien th o sch ed u les w ere f i n a l l y e d i t e d , many q u e s tio n s a ro s e and were l e f t unansw ered, b u t v/hich could have b een answ ered b y th e en u m erato r s h o r tly a f t e r th e so h ed u le had b een se c u re d . The sch ed u le^ r e q u ir e d from 15 t o 20 m in u tes t o co m p lete .

I t was

w e ll re o o iv e d by th e in te r v ie w e e , how ever, once a r a p p o r t had b een e s ta b ­ li s h e d .

This was s u r p r i s i n g l y e a sy t o e s t a b l i s h by m en tio n in g m erely

t h a t th e stu d y was b e in g conducted b y Iowa S ta t e C o lle g e .

Less th a n 2

p e r c e n t of th e so h ed u les were r e je c te d as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o r u n u s a b le . The number o f so h ed u les r e je c te d as u n u sab le had th o ty p e s o f h o u seh o ld t o be ch o sen had been c l e a r l y d e f in e d .

The sc h e d u le was d esig n ed f o r

th e in te rv ie w in g o f consum ers who liv e d a f a i r l y norm al home l i f e . The sch ed u le u sed i s p re s e n te d i n th e ap p en d ix .

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It

was n o t d esig n ed f o r in te r v ie w in g s in g le p erso n s and p erso n s who a t e m ost o f t h e i r m eals a t r e s t a u r a n t s .

N e v e rth e le ss suoh p e rs o n s wore

in c lu d e d in th e sam ple. W ith a few e x c e p tio n s th e q u e s tio n s were a sk e d i n th e o rd e r th e y ap p ea red on th e s c h e d u le .

However, i t was found a d v is a b le t o re s e rv e

t i l l th e end one o f th e f i r s t q u e s tio n s which re q u ire d th e housew ife to in v e n to ry th o f a m ily ’ s egg consum ption o f th e p a s t w eek.

This was to o

d i f f i c u l t a q u e s tio n w ith which to c o n fro n t th e consumer a t th o s t a r t o f th e in te r v ie w .

A lso c e r t a i n m inor changes were made n o c e ssa ry

b ecause o f s te n o g ra p h ic e r r o r s made when composing th e fo rm . was

But none

s e rio u s . The p re fe re n c e q u e s tio n s concerned y o lk c o lo r and s h e l l c o l o r , how

th e consumer co u ld t e l l i f an egg was f r e s h and w hat egg d e f e c ts con­ sumers had n o tic e d t h a t cau sed them to r e j e c t c e r t a i n eggs f o r poaching o r f r y in g .

The consum ers were a ls o asked w hat q u a l i t i e s o f eggs th e y

purchased f o r c e r t a i n u s e s and w h eth er a l l y o lk c o lo rs w ere e q u a lly s u i t a b l e f o r s p e c if ie d u s e s .

C e r ta in o th e r in fo rm a tio n th o u g h t t o b e

r e l a t e d to th e p re fe re n c e s o f th o consumer was se c u re d :

q u a l ity o f eggs

p u ro h ased , so u rce o f o g g s , u s e s made o f e g g s , w eekly incom e, o c c u p a tio n and r a c e . A n o v e l te c h n iq u e f o r s e c u rin g consum ers' y o lk c o lo r p re fe re n c e s i n a home-to-home su rv ey was em ployed:

The en u m erato r c a r r i e d w ith him

a w e ll f in i s h e d wooden b o x , s i z e 2-jj" x 5" x 18-jy*, i n w hich were d is p la y e d Bix y o lk c o l o r s .

I n s tr u c ti o n s w ere g iv en t o th o en u m erato r t o h o ld

th e c a se i n d a y lig h t so as t o m a in ta in as u n ifo rm a d is p la y as p o s s i b le .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

C o n sid erab le d i f f i c u l t y was had in se c u rin g eggs o f th e d e s ir e d c o lo rs o f y o lk w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t th e d is p la y s were n o t a s w e ll p reserv ed as th e y m ight o th e rw ise have b e e n .

The g e l a t i n i n w hich th o eggs were

s e t began t o c rac k and a i r b u b b le s appeared u n d e r th e w atch g la s s e s . The y o lk s w hich had b een darkened by an a e r a t i o n p ro cess ten d ed t o c ra c k . A lso , i t was im p o ssib le t o s e c u re f o r th e d is p la y eggs r a t h as d ark a y o lk a s i s f a i r l y common i n th e s p r in g .

The onum erators found th e box

a han d icap when ap p ro ach in g th o housew ife i n t h a t sho q u ite o f te n m istook them f o r salesm en .

However, t r i c k s were d ev iso d whereby th e box was

kopt o u t o f th e s i g h t o f th o housow ife u n t i l i t was n eed ed .

C o n sid erab le

i n t e r e s t was q u ite g e n e r a lly e x p ressed i n th o d is p la y . Summary a p p r a is a l o f th e consumer s u rv e y s . The s tu d ie s w hich have boen summarized have had a v a r i e t y o f purposes and u se d v a rio u s te c h n iq u e s .

Most o f th e s tu d ie s have boen concerned

w ith s e c u rin g a s t a t i c p ic tu r e o f consum ers’ p r e f e r e n c e s .

They have been

u n d e rta k e n n o t f o r th e purpose o f u n d e rs ta n d in g and a n a ly z in g th o f a c to r s a f f e c t in g consum ers’ p re fe re n c e s b u t w ith th e i n t e n t o f d is c o v e rin g w hat tho prefex'encos a r e so as t o en ab le p ro d u cers t o fin d th e b e s t m arket f o r th e eggs b ein g made a v a i la b l e o r to m odify th e ty p e o f egg p roduced. A n o ta b le e x c e p tio n i s found i n th e stu d y made by C o r b e tt, i n whioh stu d y a d e f i n i t e a tte m p t was made t o g e t a t th e "why” o f p r e f e r e n c e s .

L is to n

"'’One p u b lish e d and two u n p u b lish e d su rv ey s have n o t b een summarized b eca u se o f t h e i r v e ry q u e s tio n a b le v a lu e ; H o lt, Emory G. Egg and p o u lt r y consum ption i n s e le o te d I l l i n o i s com­ m u n itie s . U npublished M.A. T h e s is . U rbana, 111. U niv. o f 111. L ib r a r y . 1937. G a b r ie l, Ila rry S . The m a rk e tin g o f c h ic k e n s , tu r k e y s , and eggs in W ilm ington. D e l. A gr. Exp. S t a . B u i. 21 8 . 1939. B allo w , E.B . U .S . B u r. o f A gr. Eoon. Some f a c t o r s in f lu e n c in g demand f o r eggs i n th e New York m a rk e t. U npublished m a n u sc rip t. 1929. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

a ls o asked f o r -the "-why" o f p u rch ases i n o rd e r t o g e t a t th e "why" o f p r e fe r e n c e s .

A lthough o th e r s tu d ie s may have made th e r a t h e r

custom ary c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , e . g . income o r n a t i o n a l i t y in a n a ly z in g t h e i r d a t a , t h i s h as b een done p r im a r ily t o d is c o v e r th e c h a r a c te r o f th e e x i s t in g m a rk e ts . Many of th e s tu d ie s a r e concerned w ith m ark et a p p r a i s a l , th e i n t e r ­ r e l a t i o n s h i p o f consum er, r e t a i l e r and p ro d u cer in t h e i r f u n c tio n in g i n th e m a rk e t.

The custom ary c o n c lu sio n drawn th e re fro m i s t h a t th e

consum er, r e t a i l e r and o th e r m arket a g e n ts sh o u ld be educated t o a p p r e c ia te th e q u a l i t i e s o f th e egg and t h a t th e p ro d u cers sh o u ld become aw are t h a t th e r e e x i s t s a q u a l ity egg m a rk e t, g e n e r a lly among th e h ig h income b r a c k e t consum ers. None o f th e stu d ieB h a s

been conducted i n a m ark et i n w hich eggs

a r e s o ld on th e b a s is o f s ta n d a r d iz e d g ra d e s .

The eggs may have been

la b e lle d o r b ran d ed in some o f th e m a rk e ts , b u t s ta n d a rd iz e d te rm in o lo g y and s ta n d a rd s o f q u a l ity w ere n o t u s e d .

In such m arkets consum ers were

u n a b le t o make com parisons among v a rio u s q u a l i t i e s o f eggs o f f e r e d f o r s a le .

Hence, n e a r ly a l l s tu d ie s c o n s id e r th e s h e l l c o lo r and th e s iz e

o f th e eg g , th e obvious egg c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Language and co ncept

d i f f i c u l t i e s impede a tte m p ts t o g e t a t th e more im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The on ly te c h n iq u e s u sed t o g e t a t consum ers' p re fe re n c e s f o r th e q u a l i t i e s o f th e y o lk and th e w h ite , o th e r th a n y o lk c o l o r , have been t o a sk th e consumer how she d eterm in ed th e fre s h n e s s o f an egg o r w hat th e d e f e c ts were o f an u n u sab le eg g .

The d is p la y te c h n iq u e h as b een u se d f o r

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

m easuring consum ers' y o lk c o lo r p re fe re n c e s -with some s u c c e s s , a lth o u g h i t needs f u r t h e r e x p e rim e n ta tio n . A d e s c r ip tio n o f th e sam pling p ro ced u res u sed i s r e g r e t t a b l y n eg lo c te d i n th o r e p o r ts o f m ost o f th e s t u d i e s .

Tho b e t t e r s tu d ie s have

s e le o te d from th o t o t a l a r e a u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n c e r t a i n s p e c if i c a r e a s , " s t r a t a ” , as r e p r e s e n tin g d i f f e r e n t incom e, r a c i a l and n a t i o n a l i t y and o c c u p a tio n a l groups w hich when added to g e th e r would y i e l d a r e p r e s e n t­ a t iv e p ic tu r e o f th e t o t a l .

The c h i e f l i m i t a t i o n (as f o r in fo rm in g

th e r e a d e r) o f such in v e s t ig a t io n s i s t h a t th e y f a i l to s t a t e th e pro ced u re by w hich th e sam pling u n i t s were s e le c te d w ith in each s tra tu m .

N otable

e x c e p tio n s t o t h i s c r i t i c i s m a r e th e stu d y made in B altim o re where a s t r a t i f i e d random sam pling p ro ced u re was em ployed, and th e stu d y i n Dos K oines where a random ly s e le c te d sample was chosen,'*- i n t h a t a p r e c is e s ta te m e n t o f sam p lin g p ro ced u re i s g iv e n .

•*-It i s t o be re c o g n iz e d t h a t n eig h b o rin g f a m ilie s were r a r e l y ad m itte d to th e sample as s e le c te d in th e Des Moines su rv ey ( S - 5 ) . H ence, i f n eig h b o rin g f a m ilie s a r e assumed t o b e more a l i k e th a n non­ n e ig h b o rin g f a m ilie s li v in g w ith in a b lo o k o r tw o , t h i s a r t i f i c i a l d is p e r s io n o f th e sam pling u n i t s may be exp ected to in c re a s e th e v a ria n c e o f th e ite m s . Such an a r b i t r a r y d is p e r s io n o f th o sample u n i t s , on th e o th e r h an d , may y ie ld a good m easure o f th e c e n t r a l te n d e n c y . O f. S n ed eco r, George W. S t a t i s t i c a l m ethods. 3rd e d . Ames. The Towa S ta te C ollege P r e s s . 1940. p . 388-389.

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F in d in g s o f Consumer Surveys o f Egg P re fe re n c e s In t h i s s e c tio n w i l l b e g iv e n th e f in d in g s o f B tu d ies o f th e consumer su rv ey typo w hich have b e e n conducted t o g a in in fo rm a tio n co n cern in g consum ers’ egg p re fe re n c e s and f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g them . The f in d in g s a r e p re s e n te d m ain ly in t o p i c a l o r d e r .

However, b eca u se

o f th o d i v e r s i t y o f p ro c e d u re s in c o l le c t in g and p r e s e n tin g th e s e d a ta , i t w i l l be im p o ssib le t o ite m iz e th e egg c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to g e th e r w ith th e f in d in g s as t o q u a l i t y p r e f e r e n c e s .

The p ro ced u re s h a l l be t o

d is c u s s th e more in c lu s iv e ty p e o f m a te r ia l f i r s t , r e p o r tin g th o s e p a r t i c u l a r s t o w hich s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n has b een g iv e n i n th e s tu d ie s . How many consumers know w h at a freB h egg i s ?

Vthat a r e oonsumers *

c r ite r ia of fre sh n e ss? Fany s tu d ie s have i n v e s t ig a t e d consum ers’ a t t i t u d e s tow ard and knowledge o f " f r e s h " e g g s .

I n a p p r a is in g th e f in d in g s o f th e s e s tu d ie s

i t i s im p o rta n t to re c o g n iz e c e r t a i n f a c t s : 1.

The w ord, "F resh " a s u sed i n c o n n e c tio n w ith eggs i s a p e c u lia r s o r t o f w ord.

I n Borne s t a t e s , b y law , a f r e s h egg i s one which h as n o t

b een h e ld u n d er r e f r i g e r a t i o n more th a n 30 days and w hich i s n o t i n e d ib le .

In o th e r s t a t e s , b y law , f r e s h eggs a r e eggB w hich grade

U .S . Grade E x tra o r fip e o ia ls . f r e s h egg i s . ’*’

Fany s t a t e s f a i l t o d e fin e w hat a

F resh n ess i s q u ite f r e q u e n tly d e fin e d i n term s o f

\ a. B r ie f on S ta te Egg L e g i s la tio n i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Iowa A gr. E x t. S e r v ic e . M-577. p . 11.

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age o f th e egg.

Y et th e q u a l ity o f c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a

f r e s h l y l a i d egg may n o t be t h a t c o n s id e re d e s s e n t i a l t o a d e s ir a b le egg .

Some f r e s h eggs may be as rep u g n an t t o oonsumers as o th e r

q u ite o ld and d e o id e d ly s t a l e e g g s.

A f r e s h l y l a i d egg may have a

w a tery w h ite , a n o f f f la v o r o r a n u n u s u a lly c o lo re d y o lk .

As a

r e s u l t th e te c h n ic i a n i s more in c lin e d to om it th e word " f r e s h ” from h is v o o ab u lary and r e f e r to th e s p e c i f i c q u a l i t i e s f o r w hich s ta n d a rd s o f measurement have b e e n s e t up.-*-

These s ta n d a rd s a re b ased q u ite

g e n e r a lly on "w hat i s o r d i n a r i l y found in f r e s h - l a i d eggs."** 2.

A ll su rv ey s made t o d a te w hich c o n s id e r th e m anner i n w hich consumers ex p ress th em selv es i n th e m ark et when s e le c tin g th e b e t t e r eggs conclude t h a t th e v o o ab u lary o f oonsumers i s g e n e r a lly lim ite d to such words a s :

" f r e s h " , " s t r i c t l y f r e s h " , "c o u n try f r e s h " , sometimes

to g e th e r w ith term s d e s c r ip t iv e o f th e e g g 's s h e l l c o l o r , a r e a o f p ro d u c tio n and even s i z e ;

e . g . f r e s h w h ite , n earb y w h ite , la rg e

w h ite n e a rb y , J e r s e y w h ite , e t c .

L ik ew ise, r e t a i l e r s a re a ls o

found t o have e i t h e r a lim ite d v o o ab u lary o r a lim ite d a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e q u a l ity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a " f r e s h " eg g . 3.

Ilence, fre s h n e s s m u st be ta k e n t o mean a b u n d le o f q u a l i t i e s which a re th o u g h t t o be d e s i r a b l e . ^W ilhelm, L.A. Egg q u a l i t y - a l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w . U .S. Egg & P o u ltr y Mafe. V o l. 4 5 , Ho. 9 . p . 5 6 5-573. V o l. 4 5 , n o . 1 0 , p . 588-594, 619-624. V o l. 4 5 , n o . 1 1 , p . 6 7 5 -6 7 9 , p . 6 8 7-693.

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S e v e ra l s tu d ie s have b een made in whioh consumers were a sk e d , "Can you t e l l a f r e s h egg?" C o rb e tt r e p o r ts t h a t i n ansvrar t o t h i s q u e s tio n , f o r th e y e a rs 1928 and 1932, 18 and 24 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t iv e l y o f th e women i n P rovidence and 12 and 7 p e r o e n t r e s p e c t iv e l y o f th e women i n th e two v il la g e s answ ered th e y co u ld n o t t e l l th e fre s h n e s s o f an eg g .

H o lt asked th e

same q u e s tio n i n I l l i n o i s and r e p o r ts t h a t 72 p e r c e n t o f th e women could n o t t e l l th e fre s h n e s s o f an eg g .

Cron, e t a l . i n resp o n se to

t h i s q u e s tio n found t h a t 14 p e r c e n t o f th e housew ives - 30 p e r c e n t of th o s e in c o lo re d f a m i l i e s , as i n c o n t r a s t to 11 p e r c e n t o f th o s e o f w h ite f a m ilie s - r e p o r te d t h a t th e y wore u n a b le t o t e l l a f r e s h egg. In i n t e r p r e ti n g th e f in d in g s s e v e r a l th in g s sh o u ld be n o te d : (1) Many p erso n s e i t h e r b eca u se o f income o r p ro x im ity t o th e souroe o f su p p ly a r e n o t a b le to s e c u re s a t i s f a c t o r y e g g s , and hence f e e l t h a t th e y have n o t had a n o p p o r tu n ity to become a c q u a in te d w ith f r e s h e g g s . (2) Consumers may say t h a t th e y do re c o g n iz e a f r e s h egg when such i s n o t th o c a s e .

The re a so n s f o r such a r e p ly a r e many.

I n th e f i r s t

p la c e s t a l e eggs i n many in s ta n c e s a r e s o ld as f r e s h and oonsumers p u rch as­ in g and u sin g th e eggs may n o t be aware o f th e m is r e p r e s e n ta tio n .

Many

consumers m y b e aware o f t h e i r la c k o f knowledge o f f r e s h eggs b u t may be u n w illin g to adm it t h e i r ig n o ra n c e . t h e i r r e lu c ta n c e .

P rid e may be a f a c t o r in

(3) U n less th e q u e s tio n i s asked w ith some

q u a l i f i c a t i o n some consumers m y r e p ly "y es" b ecau se th e y th in k t h a t

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146.

th e q u e s tio n r e f e r s t o th e eggs removed from th e s h e l l , and some may answ er "no" b ecau se th e y t h i n k th e q u e s tio n r e f e r s t o th e egg i n th e s h e ll. A nother q u e s tio n ask ed o f consumers i s : egg?"

This q u e s tio n in v o lv e s two c o n c e p ts :

"How do you t e l l a f r e s h F resh n ess as d eterm ined

from th e egg in th o s h e l l , and fre s h n e s s as d eterm in ed from i t s b ro k en o u t ap p e a ra n c e .

Ih e two c o n s id e r a tio n s a r e a t tim es oonfounded.

In a t r i a l q u e s tio n u sed in stu d y (Q-1-V/-40) th e above q u e s tio n was asked o f th o farm women i n one county (A pnanooso).

Of th e 87 women

r e tu r n in g q u e s tio n n a ir e s , 58 r e p lie d to t h i s q u e s tio n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y ; 34 r e p li e d t h a t th e y could t o l l th e fre s h n e s s o f th e egg by i t s e x te r n a l a p p e a ra n c e , th e rou g h n ess o f th e s h e l l , i t s s h in in g n e s s , d u lln e s s , th e way i t b ro k e ;

21 r e p o r te d t h a t th e y co u ld t e l l by th e c o n d itio n o f

th e w h ite and th e ap p earan o e o f th e y o lk ;

3 m entioned b o th i n t e r n a l

and e x te r n a l o h a r a c te i'i s t ic s o f th e egg a s indexes o f f r e s h n e s s ;

In

c o n tin u in g th e su rv ey i n o th e r c o u n tie s th e q u e s tio n was changed t o re a d :

"How do you judge th e f r e s h n e s s o f a n opened e g g ? " , and th e

answ ers g iv e n w ere a lm o st c o m p lete ly i n th o form o f r e f e r e n c e s to th e y o lk and th e w h ite .

The answ ers to t h i s q u e s tio n w i l l be d is c u s s e d l a t e r .

C o r b e tt, H o lt and C ron, e t . a l . fo llo w ed t h e i r q u e s tio n :

Can you

t e l l a f r e s h egg? w ith th e "How" f o r th o s e p erso n s who s a id t h a t th e y co u ld t e l l a f r e s h eg g .

The resp o n ses a r e o f i n t e r e s t inasmuch a s th e y

r e f l e c t proneness o f a s i g n i f i c a n t p ro p o rtio n o f consumers to th in k o f f re s h n e s s i n term s o f e x t e r n a l r a th e r th a n i n t e r n a l ap p earan ce o f th e

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egg -when asked t h i s ty p o o f q u e s tio n .

C o rb e tt s t a t e s t h a t i n P rovidence

i n 1920, a lth o u g h 47 p e r c e n t r e p li e d th e y co u ld t e l l a f t e r opening th e eg g , 35 p e r c e n t o f th e consum ers r e p li e d t h a t th e y could t e l l th e f r e s h ­ n e ss o f an egg b e fo re opening i t ; not t e l l .

18 p e r c e n t re p o rte d t h a t th e y could

In 1932 a s m a lle r p o rc o n ta g e , 40 p e r o e n t, s a id they could

t e l l o n ly a f t e r opening th e eggj

a g a in 35 p e r c e n t r e p o r te d th e y co u ld

t e l l b e f o r e opening th e eg g , and 24 p e r c e n t re p o rte d th e y could n o t t e l l fresh n ess.

P erso n s gave s e v e r a l te c h n iq u e s f o r d eterm in in g th e

fre s h n e s s from e x te r n a l a p p e a ra n c e .

The r e s u l t s s t a t e d i n o rd er o f

te c h n iq u e s m ost f r e q u e n tly m entioned a r e : ap p e a ra n c e , w eig h t and o th e r s .

sh a k in g , -water t e s t , c a n d lin g ,

The v i l l a g e r s were more in c lin e d to

judge fr e s h n e s s from th e opened eg g . Cron r e p o r ts t h a t 7 1 .7 o f th e v /hite f a m ilie s as in c o n t r a s t w ith 40.5 o f th e c o lo re d f a m ilie s s t a t e d methods o f d ete rm in in g fre s h n e s s which r e q u ir e i n t e r n a l in s p e c tio n o f th e eg g .

V/hereas 1 4 .7 p e r c e n t o f

th e w h ite and 2 3 .0 p e r c e n t o f th e co lo re d f a m ilie s u sed methods w hich r e ­ q u ire d o n ly e x te r n a l in s p e c t io n .

The rem aining r e p o r t s , 13.6 p e r c e n t

o f th e w h ite and 33.2 p e r c e n t o f th o c o lo re d f a m ilie s co u ld g iv e no method o r gave m isc e lla n e o u s m ethods.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t a

h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f th e o o lo re d f a m ilie s e i t h e r were u n a b le t o judge fre s h n e s s o r s t a t e d methods b y w hich a t b e s t o nly v ery p oor eggs could be d is c e r n e d . In some s tu d ie s th e q u e s tio n has b een narrow ed down t o : you t e l l th e froshneBS o f a n opened egg?"

’’How can

This q u e s tio n presumes t h a t

th e resp o n d en t b e lie v e s t h a t he can t e l l a f r e s h egg and proceeds d i r e o t l y t o a s k how.

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

I t h as boon m entioned above t h a t t h i s q u e s tio n thus u se d i n th e (Q-l-W -40) su rv e y . of l i t t l e

Tho f in d in g s — th o s e o f a q u e s tio n n a ir e — vrere

s ig n if ic a n c e o th e r th a n t h a t th e y showed t h a t th e women

c o n s id e re d th e y o lk and th e v ih ite i n d ete rm in in g f r e s h n e s s .

Those

re p ly in g d id n o t ta k e th e tim e t o s p e l l o u t f u l l y w hat c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e y o lk and th e w h ite were c o n s id e re d t o be in d ex es o f h ig h o r low q u a lity . The same q u e s tio n was re p e a te d i n th e (S -5) su rv e y , b u t t h i s tim e was asked by an e n u m e ra to r, who was a b le by means o f a d d i tio n a l q u e s tio n s to g e t some answ ers h a v in g g r e a t e r p r e c is e n e s s .

In s p i t e o f t h i s

o p p o r tu n ity , how ever, many o f th e r o p li e s were v ery vag u e.

Tho re sp o n se s

were as fo llo w s : Item s

Humber

Housewives q u e s tio n e d

798

Houseivives in d ic a tin g some method o f t e l l i n g fre s h n e s s o f unopened egg

783

Those r e f e r r i n g to y o lk o n ly

329

S ta te d y o lk s ta n d s up o r i s firm

217

S ta te d y o lk b reak s i f egg i s s t a l e o r s t i c k s

38

Yolk m erely m entioned

74

Those r e f e r r i n g to w h ite o n ly

44

S ta te d w h ite f ir m aro u n d y o lk , n o t ru n n y , o r w atery i f s t a l e

25

Vihite m erely m entioned

20

Those r e f e r r i n g t o a co m b in atio n o f w h ite and y o lk Yolk s ta n d s up and w h ite f ir m around y o lk , n o t runny

205 50

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

ItemB

Humber

Yolk and w h ite m entioned

130

Yolk and w h ito and o th e r f a c t o r s m entioned

25

Yolk r e f e r r e d t o i n co m b in atio n s o th e r th a n w ith w h ite V.hite r e f e r r e d to i n co m b in atio n w ith c r i t e r i a o th e r th a n y o lk Those r e f e r r i n g to o dor

56

9

56

Odor a lo n e

28

Odor i n co m bination w ith o th e r c r i t e r i a

28

Those r e f e r r i n g t o t a s t e Ta3to a lo n e T aste in co m b in atio n w ith o th e r c r i t e r i a

11 1 10

From th e s e re sp o n se s i t would a p p e a r t h a t consumers much more fr e q u e n tly ju d g e f re s h n e s s o f an opened egg b y th e c o n d itio n o f th e y o lk th a n by th e w h ite . For th o q u a lity of m ost foods consumers have a n a re a o f to le r a n c e . Below a c e r t a i n q u a l ity eggs a r e n o t a c c e p ta b le .

S in ce many consumers

look upon f r e s h n e s s a s a c o n tr ib u tin g to s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y , t h e i r n o tio n s co n ce rn in g w hat c o n s t i t u t e s a s t a l e o r in e d ib le egg may i n d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t t h e i r n o tio n s co n cern in g fresh.noa3 o f e g g s . C o rb e tt ask ed th e h o u sew ife i f she had found any in e d ib le eggs i n h e r p u rc h a s e s , th e number o f them and th e d e f e c ts .

I n 1928, 56 p ar

c e n t , and i n 1932, 32 p e r c e n t re p o rte d hav in g p u rch ased in e d ib le eg g s.

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

Tho r e l a t i v e freq u en cy w ith which d e fe o ts w ere m entioned f o r th e y e a rs 192G and 1932, r e s p e c t iv e l y a r e : D efects Bad odor Blood s p o ts o r m eat s p o ts Rot Old W atery w h ite s Off c o l o r ( o f y o lk ) Dark o r s p o tte d y o lk Bad f l a v o r , f e r t i l e , e t c .

1928

1932

40 22 18 7 4 3 2 4

24 30 11 2 13 5 9 6

10C$

ioo£

In stu d y (S -5 ) a s i m i l a r p ro ced u re was fo llo w e d .

In t h i s case th e

consumer was ask ed t o g iv e th e d e fe c ts w hich made th e eggs u n f i t f o r u s e f o r poaching o r f r y in g .

The resp o n ses were a s fo llo w s :

Frequency w ith which d e f e c ts in eggs were m entioned b y 155 p erso n s who d e c la r e d eggs u n f i t f o r poaching o r f r y in g _______________ D efect Yolk Yolk m erely m entioned Blood c l o t o r m eat s p o t Bad c o l o r , d a rk sp o t M o ttled y o lk Yolk broke Would n o t s ta n d up S tuck to s h e l l

Frequency 104 47 21 13 11 10 1 1

Vihite Runny, w a te ry W hite m erely m entioned

30 26

Odor T aste G em d ev elo p m en t, f e r t i l e R o tten

36 12 8 3

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

From th e s e resp o n ses i t would a p p ea r t h a t consumers a re much more aw are o f d e f e o ts o f th e y o lk th a n th e y a r e o f d e f e c ts i n th e w h ite . In stu d y (Q-l-IV-iO) th e farm v/onon were asked n o t o n ly how th e y ju d g ed th e f r e s h n e s s o f a n opened eg g , b u t im m ed iately fo llo w in g were asked:

"Yihat k in d o f eggs do you c o n s id e r u n f i t f o r home u s e ? ”

many cases th e answ er was th e converse o f th e p re v io u s an sw er. m ost fr e q u e n t answ ers g iv e n w e re : o r s m e ll b a d .

In The

o ld e g g s, o r eggs which a r e s t a l e

N ext, i n o r d e r o f fre q u e n c y , w ere:

broken y o lk , blood

c l o t e g g s, w h ite runny and c lo u d y , d i r t y eggs and o th e r s . T a s te and odor Those q u a l i t i e s i n eggs a r e ex trem ely im p o rta n t to consumers i n s p i t e o f th e r e l a t i v e l y low number o f consumers m entioning them i n c o n n e c tio n w ith fre s h n e s s o r s ta le n e s s o f e g g s.

A lthough f la v o r and

odor s ta n d a rd s have boen d ev elo p ed f o r some fo o d s , m easures f o r s h e l l eggs have n o t dev elo p ed f o r o th e r th a n la b o r a to r y u s e ,^

S inoe th e s h e l l

m ust be bro k en f o r th e m easurem ent o f f la v o r and odor o f s h e l l e g g s, o n ly i f l o t s o f eggs a r e r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous would i t bo a d v isa b le to sample eggs f o r f la v o r and odor com m ercially . From th o above d is c u s s io n may be observed th e freq u en cy w ith w hich consum ers m entioned odor and f la v o r when d e s c r ib in g th e fre s h n e s s o f '''S harp , P a u l F . , S te w a r t, George F . , and H u tta r , J .C . E ffe c t of p ack in g m a te r ia ls on th e f la v o r o f s to r a g e e g g s. New York ( I th a c a ) A gr. Exp. S t a . Memoir 189, May, 1936, and f o r f u r t h e r rev iew o f l i t e r a t u r e s e e , W ilhelm , o p . o i t . p . 690-691.

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u n f it n e s s o f e g g s.

In b o th o a s e s , odor was m entioned more f r e q u e n tly

th a n f l a v o r . O o rb ett ask ed housew ives t o d e s c rib e th e f la v o r w hich th e y p r e f e r r e d . And as m ight have been e x p e o te d , language d i f f i c u l t i e s ren d ered th e r e s u l t s q u ite m e a n in g le ss: F la v o r seemed r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r ib e . I n 1928 th e r e were 257, o r 59 p e r c e n t , who d e s c rib e d th e d e s ir e d f la v o r as m ild ; 2 3 , o r 6 p e r c e n t , s ta te d th e y p r e f e r r e d a s tro n g f la v o r ; 2 0 , o r 7 p e r c e n t, used th e word " sw e e t" ; and a number o f o th e r term s were g iv e n . I n 1932 th e r e were few who ex p ressed an o p in io n on f l a v o r . Only 1 6 , o r 33 p e r c e n t , d e s ir e d a m ild f l a v o r ; 2 , o r 4 p e r c e n t, s t a t e d th e y p r e f e r r e d a s tr o n g f l a v o r ; 4 , o r 8 p e r c e n t, u sed th e word "sw eet"; and 1 7 , o r 35 p e r c e n t , p r e f e r r e d a " fre s h " f l a v o r . In th e v i l l a g e s , i n 1928, 1 7 , o r 57 p e r c e n t , gave m ild as th e d e s ir e d f la v o r. In 1932 no m ention was made o f f l a v o r , (p . 18) S in c e f la v o r and odor a r e i n p a r t a r e s u l t o f th e fe e d o f th e h e n , i t seemed a p p r o p r ia te t o a s k th e farm women who would have some in fo rm ­ a t i o n on t h i s m a tte r w h eth er th e y had n o tic e d d if f e r e n c e s i n f la v o r o f eggs vh ich m ight have b een cau sed b y f e e d . farm women were asked th e se ' q u e s tio n s :

I n s tu d y (Q -l-W -40), 1168

( l ) Have you n o tic e d any d i f f e r ­

ence in f la v o r o f eggs w hich may have b een caused by g re e n o r o th e r feed ? Yes - No.

(2) h h a t f la v o r s ?

(3) What o th e r th in g s have you n o tic e d

t h a t oause d if f e r e n c e s i n f l a v o r o f eggs?

Of th e number (81 p e r o e n t)

who r e p l i e d to th e f i r s t q u e s tio n , o n e - h a lf , o r 474, re p o rte d t h a t th e y had n o tic e d f la v o r s i n eggs t r a c e a b le to f e e d , and h a l f had n o t.

Of th e

474 r e p o r tin g t h a t th e y had n o tic e d f la v o r s tr a c e a b le to f e e d s , 347 women in answ er t o th e n e x t two q u e s tio n s r e p o r te d n o tic e a b le f l a v o r s .

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153.

S in ce th e f l a v o r ia m ost e a s i l y d e s c rib e d in term s o f i t s l i k e l y c a u s e , e . g . an o n io n t a s t e i s p ro b a b ly caused b y o n io n s , th e f la v o r s -were so d e s c rib e d b y th o women.

The fre q u e n c y w ith w hich th e women m entioned

each f la v o r o r cause o f f l a v o r i s giv en below : F lav o rs

Frequency re p o rte d

Onions S tro n g e r (because o f g re e n fe e d ) G reens o r g ra s s y f l a v o r Tankage Sweet c lo v e r and soybeans Feed Dip P o ta to e s w ith s p ro u ts and v e g e ta b le s Gold s to ra g e Age Mash Cod l i v e r o i l S ulph u r S tag n a n t w a te r Spray i n hen house

111 83 66 57 23 20 19 10 7 5 4 3 2 2 2

S u sp ectin g t h a t p e r s o n s ’ p re fe re n c e s f o r s h e l l c o lo r may i n p a r t be r e l a t e d t o th e f la v o r th o u g h t to be a s s o c ia t e d , ( in stu d y Q -l-W -40) 1168 farm women were asked s p e c i f i c a l l y :

’’Have you n o tic e d any d if f e r e n c e

i n t a s t e betw een w h ite , cream or brown s h e lle d eggs?

Y es, No.”

Of th e

1011 women r e p o r tin g o n ly 13 p e r c e n t r e p o r te d t h a t th e y had n o tic e d any d if f e r e n c e .

( i n Johnson o o u n ty , 38 p e r c e n t o f th e le a d e r s re p o rte d

th e y had n o tic e d a d i f f e r e n c e .

This g ro u p m s h ig h e s t i n p e rc e n ta g e

o f p erso n s w ith p re fe re n c e f o r s h e l l c o lo r (66 p e r c e n t ) , w ith 94 p e r o e n t o f th o s e w ith a p r e fe re n c e p r e f e r r in g brown s h e ll e d e g g s.

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Tho women were a ls o a s k e d :

"Have you n o tic e d any d if f e r e n c e i n t a s t e

betw een y o lk c o lo r o f th e s e e e l's? ” women r e p l i e d .

To t h i s 860 o r 74 p e r c e n t o f th e

T h irty p e r c e n t o f th e women r e p ly in g r e p o r te d th e y

had n o tic e d a d if f e r e n c e .

The Johnson oounty le a d e r group was a g a in

a t y p i c a l , w ith 56 p e r o e n t r e p o r tin g a n o tic e a b le d if f e r e n c e .

They

e x p re sse d a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f d i s l i k e s f o r l i g h t o o lo re d y o lk s (73.3 p e r c e n t ) , and a h ig h p re fe re n c e (4 4 .7 p e r c e n t) f o r a d a rk e r y o lk , medium d a rk , th a n any o th e r county g ro u p .

This q u e s tio n was re p e a te d

i n s tu d y (Q-l-W -41) and o f t h e 710 women a s k e d , 79 p e r o en t o r 559 Women r e p o r te d .

The d i v i s i o n was h a l f and h a l f a s betw een p erso n s

n o ti c in g a d if f e r e n c e and th o s e n o t n o tic in g a d if f e r e n c e in t a s t e . In s u p p o rt o f th e s u s p ic io n t h a t y o lk c o lo r and s h e l l c o lo r p r e f e r ­ ence i s i n d i r e o t l y and i n paid; an e x p re s s io n o f p re fe re n c e f o r eggs o f d e s ir a b le f l a v o r and o d o r, C o rb e tt r e p o r ts t h a t i n F rovidenoe o f th e 53 p erso n s who i n 1928 s ta t e d a p re fe re n c e f o r w h ite e g g s , 13 gave as reaso n s f o r t h e i r p re fe re n c e t h a t w h ite eggs a re f r e s h e r and 5 t h a t th e y t a s t e b e t t e r .

In 1932, 44 p r e f e r r e d w h ite eggs and 11 gave

" b e t t e r t a s t e ” and 1 , " f r e s h e r ” as t h e i r re a s o n .

In 1928, 206

p r e f e r r e d brown e g g s, 15 g iv in g " b e t t e r t a s t e " and 6 " f r e s h e r " as t h e i r re a so n .

In 1932, 246 p r e f e r r e d brown e g g s , 19 g iv in g " b e t t e r

t a s t e " and 2 " f r e s h e r " a s t h e i r re a s o n .

These d a ta a r e more s i g n i f i c a n t

i f i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e in d iv id u a ls may have b een c o n sid e rin g " t a s t e " when th e y gave a s t h e i r re a s o n s f o r c e r t a i n s h e l l c o lo r p r e f e r e n c e s :

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"y o lk c o l o r ," " b e t t o r e g g " , o r " r ic h e r " and even "ap p earan ce" and " p r e f e r e n c e " , th o o th e r more fre q u e n t re a so n s g iv e n . B allow r e p o r t s : The egg w ith a l i g h t co lo re d and m ilk fla v o re d y o lk i s in demand i n lJew-York f o r t a b l e u s e . T his i s e s p e c i a ll y t r u e o f housew ives who have c h ild r e n ; u n le s s th e y o lk s a r e m ild , i t was s t a t e d , c h ild r e n o b je c t to thorn and w i l l n o t e a t them . Many housew ives a p p a r e n tly w i l l pay a lm o st any p r ic e r a t h e r th a n se rv e eggs t h a t w i l l b e u n p a la ta b le to c h i l d r e n . The l i g h t c o lo re d and m ild y o lk s a re a s s o ­ c i a te d w ith w h ite s h e l l s in th e o p in io n s o f many New York h o u sew iv es, (p . 48) Cron r e p o r t s : Brown s h e ll e d eggs 7/ere p r e f e r r e d b ecau se th e y were r i c h e r o r b ecau se th e y were b e lie v e d t o have a d a rk e r y o lk and s tr o n g e r f l a v o r t h a t m s g r e a t l y d e s ir e d " in c a k e s " , (p . 157) P re fe re n c e s as r e l a t e d to u ses f o r eggs C o rb e tt r e p o r ts t h a t P rovidence housew ives u sed 44 p e r c e n t in 1920 and 40 p e r c e n t i n 1932 o f th e t o t a l eggs f o r cooking and bak in g p u rp o s e s .

H o lt rep o rb s t h a t oonsumers in te rv ie w e d u se d 40 p e r c e n t

o f t h e i r eggs f o r cooking and b a k in g . m ainly f o r e a tin g o r cooking?" a m ajo r u se o f e g g s .

Cron a sk e d :

"Do you u se eggs

Only o n e - th ir d re p o rte d " e a tin g " as

Tho p r o p o rtio n o f c o lo re d f a m ilie s uBing eggs

m ain ly f o r cooking v/as d o u b le t h a t o f th e w h ite f a m i l i e s . These d a ta g iv e a rough p ic tu r e o f th o p r o p o r tio n o f eggs u sed f o r cooking p u rp o s e s .

Q u a li tie s d e s ir e d f o r t a b l e eggs may n o t be th e same

as th e q u a l i t i e s d e s ir e d f o r cooking e g g s .

And c e r t a i n l y th e ty p e o f

egg re q u ire d f o r poaching i s rauoh more r e s t r i c t e d th a n t h a t re q u ire d

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f o r sc ra m b lin g .

Do consumers have d i f f e r e n t p re fe re n c e s f o r d i f f e r e n t

u se s? Do consumers buy and u s e th e same q u a l ity eggs f o r a l l p u rp o s e s ?^C o rb e tt asked th e women i n P ro v id en ce : f o r cooking?"

"Do you buy le s s ex p en siv e eggs

In 1928 29 p e r c e n t and i n th e d e p re s s io n y e a r o f 1932

36 p e r ce n t s a id th e y d id p u rch ase l e s s ex p en siv e eggs f o r cooking p u rp o s e s .

A ls o , i n 1932 th e resp o n ses ranged from 21 p e r o en t f o r th e

h ig h income group t o 39 p e r c e n t f o r th e low income g ro u p , and 47 p e r c e n t f o r th o p e rso n s o f s o u th e rn European o r i g i n .

W hile i n 1923 th e r e

was no r e l a t i o n o f resp o n se t o incom e, and th e lo w est resp o n se o f 20 p e r c e n t was g iv e n by th e p e rso n s o f s o u th e rn European o r i g i n . •*-It may be ex p ec ted t h a t r e p l i e s t o t h i s q u e s tio n w i l l be in flu e n c e d b y th r e e f a c t o r s : - (1 ) W hether o r n o t th o m ark et o f f e r s consumers a ch o ic e o f q u a l i t y . I f many g rad es a r e o f f e r e d in s t o r e s , consumers can choose from among them th o q u a l i t i e s d e s ir e d ; i f one q u a l ity o n ly is o f f e r e d , ch o ice i s lim ite d to a t b e s t "betw een s to r e " c h o ic e s , (2) A r e l a t e d p o i n t , i f th e eggs a re n o t graded and la b e le d , u se of oonsum ers' d i s c r e t i o n and judgm ent i n p u rch as­ in g i s i n h i b i t e d , (3) The income o f th e in d iv id u a l r e l a t i v e to th e g e n e ra l l e v e l o f egg p r ic e s sh o u ld in flu e n c e oonsum ers1 p ro n en ess t o make d i s t i n c t i o n s as to q u a l i t i e s . I f p r ic e s a r e low and incomes h ig h , consum ers may n o t be ex p eo ted t o purchase a low er q u a l ity egg sim p ly t o save on p r i c e , and (4) a r e l a t e d p o i n t , i f th e p r ic e d i f f e r e n t i a l s a s betw een q u a l i t i e s o f f e r e d a re n o t g r e a t , consumers w i l l be le s s in c lin e d t o mice a d i s t i n c t i o n and te n d t o buy f o r cooking th e eggs found s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r ta b le u s e .

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A s i m i la r q u e s tio n was ask ed b y Timmons and Sow ell i n Tampa:

"Do

you buy one q u a lity f o r one p u rp o se?" to w hich 76 p e r c e n t r e p li e d " n o ", 11 p e r o e n t f a i l e d to answ ers and o n ly 13 p e r c e n t s a id " y e s " . "y es" r e p l i e s were d i s t r i b u t e d a s fo llo w s : medium incom e, 17 p e r cent} 3 per oent each.

The

low incom e,10 p e r o e n tj

N egro, 13 p e r c e n t;

L a tin and h ig h incom es,

And i n resp o n se t o th e q u e s tio n :

"Do you buy d i f f e r ­

e n t q u a l i t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t seaso n s?" 94 p e r c e n t e i t h e r f a i l e d to answ er o r s a id th e y d id n o t .

The e x c e p tio n was th e Negro f a m i l i e s , 23 p e r

o e n t o f w hich r e p o r te d p u rc h a sin g d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t seasons. In stu d y (S -5) th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s were a sk e d :

"Do you buy

th e same q u a l ity eggs f o r p oaching and f ly i n g as f o r b ak in g ? w hat d i s t i n c t i o n do you make when buying?

I f n o t,

I f n o t , w hat d i s t i n c t i o n

•1

do you make when u s in g ? "

Of t h e 713 oonsumers asked th e f i r s t q u e s tio n ,

In a p re v io u s q u e s tio n th e housew ife had b e e n asked to ite m iz e th e q u a l i t i e s o f eggs th e r e t a i l e r had on h an d , and from th e s e answ ers i t i s e v id e n t t h a t e i t h e r m ost r e t a i l e r s i n Des Moines h an d led b u t one g rad e o f egg ( g e n e r a lly c o u n try ru n ) o r th o housew ife was unaware o f q u a l i t i e s o f eggs th e m erchant d id h a n d le . As a r e s u l t , th e s e q u e s tio n s were n o t found s u ita b le f o r Des Moines consum ers. From a random sam ple o f 10 p e r o e n t o f th e Des Moines s t o r e s (S -4 ) i t was found t h a t 60 p e r c e n t had no l a b e l , s ig n , o r s ta te m e n t g iv in g any s o r t od e s c r i p t i o n o f th o eggs o ffe re d f o r s a le * The term s u se d by th e rem ain in g 40 p e r c e n t g e n e r a lly d id n o t g iv e rauoh in fo rm a tio n . I t was a ls o found t h a t i n November when p r ic e s a re g e n e r a lly th e h ig h e s t , when th e r e e x istB a g r e a t e r demand f o r a low er p r ic e d e g g , o n ly 27 p e r o e n t o f th e s to r e s sam pled o a r r ie d 2 o r more q u a l i t i e s and o n ly 5 p e r c e n t o a r r ie d 3 g rad es} no s to r e s o a r r ie d f o u r g rad es o f e g g s.

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732 p erso n s re p o rte d t h a t th e y p urchased th e same eggs f o r p o aching and f iy i n g as f o r b ak in g or f a i l e d t o g iv e s e n s ib le r e p l i e s when asked w hat d i s t i n c t i o n th e y made i n buying o r u s in g d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t y e g g s .

The

d i s t i n c t i o n s w ere b ein g made by th e 51 p erso n s e i t h e r i n buying o r u s in g . These w ere, in o rd e r o f fre q u e n c y : f o r b a k in g " ;

"c o u n try eggs f o r ta b le u s e , s to r e eggs f o r c o o k in g ";

f o r e a t i n g , sm a ll f o r b a k in g " ; b a k in g " ;

1,B e st f o r poaching and f l y i n g , p o o re r

" s h e l l o o lo r " ;

" la r g e

" h ig h e r p r ic e f o r b a k in g , ch ea p er f o r

"y o lk c o lo r " .

L is to n fo llo w ed a s i m i l a r p ro ced u re by a sk in g h ousehold b u y ers i f th e y u s u a lly b o u g h t d i f f e r e n t eggs f o r d i f f e r e n t u s e s . a r e e q u a lly u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .

The r e s u l t s

Of th e 117 r e p o r ti n g , 20 housow ives w e ll

d i s t r i b u t e d among th e t h r e e income l e v e l s , s a id th e y bought d i f f e r e n t eggs f o r b o il in g o r p o aching th a n f o r ca k e -b a k in g . asked t o d e s c r ib e th e s e q u a l i t i e s o f eg g s:

These p erso n s were

" F re s h , l a r g e , brown eggs

were p r e f e r r e d f o r th e t a b l e b u t n o t n e o e s s a r ily f o r cake b a k in g .

About

o n e -h a lf o f th o s e who bought f o r two pu rp o ses commonly u sed Y /estem f r e s h eggs f o r b a k in g .

D e s c rip tio n s o f oooking eggs v/ere vague and

no one q u a l ity f a c t o r was o u ts ta n d in g ." (p . 14)

The d e s c r ip t io n g iv e n

by th o 97 p e rs o n s , who b o u g h t eggs f o r a l l p u rp o s e s , was e q u a lly vague: o v er tw o - th ir d s u sed th e te rm " fre s h " o r " s t r i c t l y f r e s h " ; s a id t h e i r s w ere " la r g e " ;

o n e - th ir d

brown s h e l l o o lo r waB p r e f e r r e d ;

such term s

as " s to o d up w e l l " , " b e a t up w e ll " , " g ra d e d " , " c a n d le d " , " l o c a l " , "y o lk deep y e llo w " , " i n f e r t i l e " and "no s p o ts " were a ls o m en tio n ed .

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159.

A f te r th e housew ife had b een p e r m itte d to d e s c r ib e i n h e r own words th e q u a l i t i e s sh e c o n s id e re d when making h e r egg p u rc h a s e s , th e enum erator d ir e c te d a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n s p e c if i c q u a l i t y f a o to r s and ask ed th e h ousew ife th e q u a l i t i e s sh e p r e f e r r e d f o r s p e c if i o u s e s .

The re sp o n se s

a r e ta b u la te d by L is to n show ing freq u en cy o f re sp o n se t o th e v a rio u s q u a l i t y f a c t o r s a s betw een p e rs o n s who p u rch ased eggs f o r t a b l e u s e , f o r co o k in g , and f o r g e n e r a l u s e .

The im p o rta n t r e s u l t s a r e as fo llo w s :

Age - m ost p erso n s m entioned one week o r le s s f o r t a b l e u s e , w h ile f o r cooking u s e , th e y w ere u n c e r t a i n .

S iz e - Large eggs were r e f e r r e d t o

m ost f r e q u e n t ly , a lth o u g h "medium" and "an y s iz e " w ere m ost f r e q u e n tly m entioned f o r c o o k in g .

S h e ll o o lo r - " E ith e r c o lo r" was moBt f r e q u e n tly

m en tio n ed , a lth o u g h brown was much more r e f e r r e d t o th a n w h ite f o r g e n e r a l u se o r f o r t a b l e u s e .

Yolk c o l o r - "Medium" was r e f e r r e d t o

m ost f r e q u e n t ly , a lth o u g h a la r g e number were u n c e r t a in f o r eggs purohased f o r g e n e ra l u se o r f o r c o o k in g .

Vihites - C h ie fly t h i c k w h ite was

r e f e r r e d t o f o r g e n e ra l o r t a b l e u s e , w h ile a t h i n w h ite was m entioned, m ost f r e q u e n tly f o r co o k in g .

I n f e r t i l e - Most p erso n s were u n c e r t a in .

Yolk - Eggs u sed f o r t a b le u s e were m ost f r e q u e n tly r e f e r r e d t o as "rounded" w h ile soma p erso n s were u n o e r ta in and some s a id " f l a t " f o r co o k in g .

These answ ers a re f a i r l y w e ll i n agreem ent w ith o th e r r e p o r t s .

I n stu d y (Q-l-W -40) th o farm women w ere q u e rie d r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r d is c r im in a tio n i n u se o f e g g s .

They were ask ed :

"Do you use th e same

eggs f o r poaching and f r y in g t h a t you u se f o r b ak in g ? w hat k in d o f egg do you p r e f e r f o r poaohing?

Yob,

f o r f r y in g ?

No.

I f n o t,

f o r o u s ta rd s ? "

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

I t i s t o be re c o g n iz e d t h a t r u r a l women a r e ex tre m ely f o r tu n a te i n t h a t th e y a r e c lo s e enough t o th e so u rc e of su p p ly t h a t m ost eggs a re f r e s h , o r th e re a so n v/hy th e y a r e n o t f r e s h i s known t o them .

lien ee, b ecau se

o f th e fa v o re d p o s i t i o n th e fa rm e r i s i n , such a q u e s tio n has lim ite d u s e f u ln e s s .

The r e s u l t s , how ever, a r e q u ite i n t e r e s t i n g .

Of th e 1168

q u e s tio n e d , 1071 r e p l i e d . t o th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e q u e s tio n and o f th e s e on ly 114 ( o r 11 p e r c e n t) s t a t e d t h a t th e y d id n o t u se th e same eggs f o r poaching o r f r y in g .

F resh o r 1 -d a y -o ld eggs were p r e f e r r e d f o r poaohing

and f r y in g , b u t f o r c u s ta r d s a much s m a lle r number p r e f e r r e d f r e s h o r one d ay o ld eggs and t h e l a r g e s t number p r e f e r r e d 2-3 day o ld eggs o r sim p ly " o ld e r" e g g s, and a f a i r l y la rg e number p r e f e r r e d dark o r d a rk e r y o lk ( to g iv e c o lo r t o th e c u s t a r d ) . Presum ing t h a t p e rso n s c lo s e t o egg p ro d u c tio n and w ith an u n d er­ s ta n d in g o f eggs m ight b e leB s squeam ish r e l a t i v e t o such o b je c ts as b lo o d s p o ts o r m eat s p o ts o c c a s io n a lly found i n e g g s, i n stu d y (Q-l-W -40) th e 1168 r u r a l women w ere a sk e d :

"How many eggs d e liv e r e d t o m ark et

were r e je o te d and r e tu r n e d t o you b ecau se o f b lo o d d o t o r meat s p o t l a s t week?

Do you e v e r u s e such eggs f o r poaohing o r fr y in g ?

For b ak in g ?

Y es, No."

Y es, No.

Only 1 p e r c e n t re p o rte d t h a t such eggs were

r e tu r n e d , n e v e r th e le s s 72 p e r c e n t ( o r 826) re p o rte d on th e second p a r t and 68 p e r c e n t ( o r 800) on t h e t h i r d p a r t o f th e q u e s tio n .

Of th e s e

p e rso n s r e p o r tin g t o th e l a s t t e n p a r ts o f th e q u e s tio n , o n ly 19 p e r o ent s a id th e y u sed su ch eggs f o r poaching o r f r y i n g , 1131116 33 p e r c e n t s a id th e y u se d them f o r b a k in g .

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In a s i m i l a r v e in , 710 p ro d u o ers i n stu d y (Q-l-W -41) wore ask ed : "Do you t r y to u se a l l crack ed and d i r t y eggs a t home?" ( r a th e r th a n s e l l them on th e m a rk e t), t o w hich q u e s tio n 576 r e p o r te d .

Of th e s e

96 p e r c e n t s a id th e y d id t r y to u se such eggB. Yolk c o lo r p re fe re n c e and u s e .

In two s tu d ie s th e consumer lias

been ask ed s p e c i f i c a l l y w h e th e r t h e i r p re fe re n c e f o r y o lk c o lo r i s r e l a t e d t o t h e u se w hich is made o f th e e g g s. Des Moines oonsumers w ere a sk e d : i n th e o o lo r o f th e y o lk ?

In stu d y (S -5) 783

"Have you e v e r n o tic e d muoh d if f e r e n c e

Y es, No."

Most o f th e consumers r e p lie d

t h a t th e y had n o tic e d a d if f e r e n c e i n y o lk c o l o r . a s e r ie s o f th r e e q u e s tio n s : poaohing and fr y in g ? Y es, Mo,"

Y es, No,

They w ere th e n asked

"Are a l l y o lk c o lo rs e q u a lly s u ita b le f o r For c u s ta r d s ?

Y es, No.

For b ak in g ?

Yolk c o lo rs w ere found e q u a lly s u i t a b l e f o r poaohing and

fr y in g b y 53 p e r c e n ts 69 p e r c e n t .

f o r c u s ta r d s , by 57 p e r o e n tj

f o r b a k in g , by

This g iv e s f u r t h e r ev id en ce o f consum ers' g r e a t e r

s e n s i t i v i t y t o q u a l ity f a c t o r s o f eggs f o r u se i n poaohing or f r y in g . A lthough th e r e were a number o f p erso n s who commented t h a t th e y g e n e r a lly wanted d a rk yollcs f o r cake and c u s ta r d s , a p p a r e n tly th e eggs p u rch ased by th e m a jo r ity o f them w ere d ark enough, i n t h a t consumers were le s s concerned w ith y o lk c o lo r f o r th e s e u s e s . In s tu d y (Q-l-W -40) a s im i la r q u e s tio n was ask ed o f th e 1168 r u r a l women i n Iowa: eggs?

Y es, Noj

"Are you p a r t i c u l a r ab o u t shade o f y o lk o o lo r f o r b a k in g f o r f r y in g and poaching?

Y es, N o,"

Of th e women

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a s k e d , a p p ro x im ate ly 70 p e r c e n t answ ered b o th q u e s tio n s .

And o f

th o s e an sw erin g , o n e - th ir d s a id th e y were and tw o - th ir d s s a id th e y were n o t p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t th e y o lk c o lo r o f eggs used f o r b a k in g .

Approx­

im a te ly th e same p r o p o r tio n r e s p e c tiv e ly s a id th e y were o r wore n o t p a r t i c u l a r ab o u t th e y o lk c o lo r o f eggs u s e d f o r p o ach in g o r f r y i n g . E i th e r th e q u e s tio n as worded had no meaning o r farm women a r e e q u a lly p a r t i c u l a r w ith t h e i r b ak in g as th e y a r e w ith t h e i r ta b l e e g g s.

It

seems h ig h ly p ro b ab le t h a t th e y p r e f e r d ark c o lo re d y o lk f o r b o th u s e s . The fo llo w in g w i l l te n d t o s u p p o rt th e l a t t e r s ta te m e n t. o f y o lk do you li k e ?

"'What c o lo r

L ig h t, Medium l i g h t , Medium, Medium d a r k , D ark,"

was th e n e x t q u o s tio n a s k e d .

Most o f t h e women ansvierod "medium".

Inasmuch a s th e r e is a ten d en cy f o r p erso n s to p r e f e r th in g s w hich a r e m ild and medium and d i s l i k e th e extremes-*1 i t may bo a p p r o p r ia te to d is c o u n t t h e f a c t t h a t 41 p e r c e n t s t a t e d t h a t th e y p r e f e r r e d th e medium o o lo r and p la o e more em phasis on th e f a c t t h a t 80 p e r c e n t o f th e p re fe re n c e s wore d i s t r i b u t e d betw een medium and d a r k .

The n e x t s e c tio n

w i l l be co n cern ed w ith f u r t h e r s tu d ie s o f y o lk o o lo r p r e f e r e n c e s . Yolk c o lo r p re fe re n c e s The d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv e d i n a tte m p tin g to m easure y o lk o o lo r p re fe re n c e s have a lre a d y b een d is c u s s e d .

F i r s t , th e r e i s th e language

d i f f i c u l t y , and a n absenoe o f a b s o lu te s ta n d a rd s b y w hich co n cep ts o f o o lo r oan v e r b a l ly be t r a n s f e r r e d from one p erso n t o a n o th e r .

W hile

co n d u ctin g th e Des Moines su rv e y th e a u th o r proved t o h im s e lf th e e x is te n c e ^Follow ing t h i s q u e s tio n co n ce rn in g t h e i r l i k e s , consumers were ask ed (B2B) t o d e s ig n a te th o s e c o lo rs th e y d i s l i k e d . And 89$ s t a t e d a d i s ­ l i k e f o r th e e x tre m e s , " l i g h t " and "d ark " w ith " l i g h t r e c e iv in g th e l a r g e r number o f d i s l i k e s .

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o f t h i s d i f f i c u l t y by a s k in g p e rso n s to s t a t e t h e i r o o lo r p r e f e r e n c e , f i r s t i n w o rd s, and th e n by s e le c tin g th e p r e f e r r e d o o lo r from an a c t u a l d is p la y o f y o lk c o l o r s .

P erso n s who s a id t h a t th e y p r e f e r r e d l i g h t

y o lk s s e le c te d from th e d is p la y as th e p r e f e r r e d c o lo r e v e ry o o lo r from l i g h t t o d a rk .

The second d i f f i c u l t y

l i e s i n th e arran g em en t o f th e

item s from w hich th e p e rso n i s to ch o o se. R eferen ce has a lre a d y

been

giv e n t o th e e x p e rim e n ta l d is p la y u sed a t Iowa Parm and Rome b’eek (S -7 )j w hich dem o n strated t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le

to show an a p p a re n t change i n

p re fe re n c e b y ohanging th e d is p la y m odel.

And i n th e d is c u s s io n immed­

ia te ly

p rece d in g t h i s

s e c ti o n i t wasd em o n strated t h a t p erso n s te n d to

s e le c t

th e m iddle and

a v o id extrem es when g iv in g t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s .

,J-ho d is o u s s io n h e re w i l l no lo n g e r co n ce rn th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv e d i n a tte m p ts t o m easure y o lk c o l o r p r e f e r e n c e , b u t w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o p re s e n tin g f o r t h r i g h t l y th e r e s u l t s secu red from th e s tu d ie s made. Yolk c o l o r p r e f e r e n c e s a s e x p re sse d i n words C o rb e tt a sk ed housew ives w hat y o lk o o lo r th e y w ish e d , p e rm ittin g th e housew ife f r e e ran g e o f e x p r e s s io n .

The answ ers w ere th e n e d ite d :

"Such

r e p l i e s as 'medium1 and b r i g h t 1 were p la c e d i n th o l i g h t and medium c l a s s , w h ile 'r e d 1, 1r i c h y e llo w 1, 'o r a n g e 1 and 'g o ld e n y e llo w 1 v/ere p la c e d in th e d a rk c l a s s . " ( p . 18)

The r e s u l t s se c u re d a r e a s f o llo w s :

L ig h t & Dark medium c o lo r o o lo r No p re f e r e n c e

P o p u la tio n

Y ear

T o ta l

P ro v id en ce

1928 1932

43 75

36 12

21 13

100# 100#

V illa g e s

1928 1932

25 70

43 27

32 3

100# 100#

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

C o rb e tt a t t r i b u t e s th e in c re a s e d p re fe re n c e f o r th e l i g h t t o medium c la s s in p a r t t o th e in o r e a s e d em phasis g iv e n i n a d v e r tis in g and e d u c a tio n a l work t o th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f l i g h t y o lk s .

’'These f ig u r e s show t h a t th e

r e c o g n itio n of l i g h t y o lk s a s an in d i c a ti o n o f good q u a l ity i n eggs had advanced c o n s id e ra b ly i n t h e f o u r - y e a r p e r io d 1928 t o 1932." (p . 18) Timmons and S ow ell co n clu d ed from t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n Tama t h a t 15 p e r c e n t p r e f e r r e d l i g h t ;

32 p e r c e n t "medium";

w h ile 9 p e r c e n t had no p r e f e r e n c e .

43 p e r c e n t " d a rk " ;

The L a tin and hegro showed th e

h ig h e s t proferen.ee (60-70 p e r c e n t) f o r "d ark " y o lk ; th e h ig h inoone group s t a t e d th e y had no p r e f e r e n c e .

25 p e r c e n t o f The h o te ls an d

r e s ta u r a n t managers in d io a te d a p re fe re n c e (44 p e r o e n t) f o r "d ark " y o lk e g g s , w h ile 28 p e r c e n t in d ic a te d a " l i g h t " y o lk o o lo r , 17 p e r c e n t a "medium" and 11 p e r c e n t no p r e f e r e n c e .

R e t a i l s to r e managers

" in d io a te d t h a t o n ly a sm a ll p ro p o rtio n o f th e cu sto m ers s p e c if ie d d e f i n i t e l y any y o lk c o l o r ." (p . 7 ) . Cron, e t . a l . found i n B altim o re t h a t among th e w h ite f a m ilie s 37 p e r c e n t p r e f e r r e d " d a rk y o lk " , 31, " l i g h t y o lk " , 28 p e r c e n t had no y o lk o o lo r p r e f e r e n c e , and 4 p e r c e n t s ta t e d t h a t th e y e a t th e l i g h t and cook th e dark y o lk ed e g g s .

IVhereas among th e c o lo re d f a m i l i e s , 65

p e r c e n t p r e f e r r e d th e d a rk y o lk s . The r e s u l t s o f s tu d y (C>-l-YJ-40) have b een c i t e d ab o v e. (See p . 44) There i t was s ta t e d t h a t 80 p e r c e n t o f th e r u r a l Iowa women who have a p r e f e r e n c e , p r e f e r r e d a "medium" to "d ark " y o lk ed eg g .

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165

Yolk o o lo r p re fe re n c e s as e x p re sse d i n tonus o f c o lo r s ta n d a r d s '*' Thomsen and W inton o f th e M isso u ri A g r ic u ltu r a l Experim ent s t a t i o n conducted an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f consum ers’ y o lk o o lo r p re fe re n c e s in New York C ity .

They p re s e n te d t o o h a in s to r e custom ers th r e e b ro k en

o u t eggs o f d e fin e d y o lk o o lo r s . The y o lk c o lo rs u sed -were:

"L ig h t" y o lk e d eggs pz-oduoed i n P a c if ic

C oast s t a t e s and U tah and p u rch ased i n hew York C ity ;

"Medium" and

"dark" y o lk ed eggs produced under c o n tro lle d feed c o n d itio n s by th e M issouri A g r ic u lt u r a l E xperim ent S ta t io n and sh ip p ed to New York C ity . The o o lo rs a r e d e fin e d i n terras o f launB ell o o lo r r e a d in g s .

However,

o o lo r re a d in g s on t h e S harp s c a le have b een ta k e n b y t h i s w r i t e r from th e o o lo r photographs o f th e eggs u s e d i n th e d is p la y . w ere:

L ig h t, 4 0 ;

medium, 55;

d a rk , 75.

The re a d in g s

These o o lo rs a r e g iv e n i n

term s o f th e Sharp s c a le h e re b ecau se t h i s s c a le v/as u sed i n th e o th e r two in v e s t ig a t io n s to b e c i t e d . The f in d in g s a r e a s f o llo w s :

" S lig h t ly more th a n o n e - th i r d o f th e

consumers in te rv ie w e d e x p re s s e d a p r e fe re n c e f o r l i g h t y o lk s , o n e -q u a rte r f o r dark y o lk s , o n e - f i f t h f o r y o lk s o f medium o o lo r , and th e rem aining f i f t h had no p r e f e r e n c e ." ( p . 23) The S c a n d in a v ia n , P o l i s h , German and I r i s h e x p ressed th e h ig h e s t p re fe re n c e (T able 3) f o r th e l i g h t y o lk s ; th e d ark y o lk c o lo r .

th e N egro, th e h ig h e s t f o r

The Jew ish and I t a l i a n d id n o t show as h ig h a

p re fe re n c e f o r th e l i g h t y o lk s as m ig h t have b een e x p e c te d .

2

3-For "Methods o f m easu rin g egg y o lk o o lo r w hich have b een d e v elo p ed ." C f. W ilhelm , L .A ., o p . o i t . p . 59 0 . o

C f. q u o ta tio n from B allo w .

p . 170, t h i s t h e s i s .

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L i t t l e , i f a n y , r e l a t i o n s h i p e x is te d betw een th e y o lk c o lo r p re fe re n c e end th e e s tim a te d p u rc h a s in g power o f th e in d iv id u a ls making th e c h o ic e . I t has b een m entioned above t h a t th e t i t l e o f t h i s stu d y i s m is­ le a d in g .

A lso th e co n c lu sio n s drawn from th e s tu d y a r e lik e w is e m is le a d in g .

A c tu a lly t h e s tu d y sampled a t b e s t o n ly th e c h ain s t o r e c u sto m e rs.

Chain

s to r e s q u ite l i k e l y have s ta n d a rd iz e d t h e i r m erchandise to s e l l to masses o f p eo p le and i t may be presum ed t h a t th e ch ain s w ere n o t i n p o s iti o n to o a t e r to th e few o r many p e rso n s who have an extrem e p re fe re n c e and who have th e means f o r s e a rc h in g f o r a so u rce o f su p p ly to s a t i s f y t h e i r a t y p ic a l demands.

H ence, theB e p erso n s w e re , by f o r c e o f c irc u m s ta n c e s,

ex clu d ed from th e p o p u la tio n sam pled.

I t i s q u ite p ro b a b le t h a t th e s e

a re th e p erso n s who a re w i l l i n g t o pay th e premium w hich t h i s b u l l e t i n concludes from i t s f in d in g s as b e in g u n j u s t i f i e d .

Had th e b u l l e t i n

in c lu d e d in fo rm a tio n co n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s o f th e s e v a rie d o o lo re d y o lk e d eggs b ein g s u p p lie d th e c h a in B tore custom ers s a y , th e volume o f P a c i f i c C oast and Utah eggs s u p p lie d th ro u g h th e c h a in , th e c r i t i c i s m may have b e e n found u n w arran ted .

Also i t i s q u e s tio n a b le

w hat b ia s e s a r e in v o lv ed i n t h i s ty p e of d is p la y u sed and how im p o rta n t th e b ia s e s a r e . Of th e women a tte n d in g Iowa Flarm and Home Week (S -7 ) 132 s e le c te d from a c o lo r ran g e m easured i n Sharp s c a le u n it s o f 2 5 , 3 5 , 4 5 , 5 5 , and 6 5 , y o lk c o lo r 55 as th e m ost p r e f e r r e d o o lo r .

And 101 s e le c te d o o lo r

65 from a c o lo r range o f 2 5 , 3 5 , 4 5 , 5 5 , 65, and 7 5 . 62 p e r c e n t s t a t e d th e y produoed a l l t h e i r eg g s;

Of th e 132 women,

55 p e r oent o f th e 101

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■woman v e ro ’p ro d u c e rs .

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i s p a r i t y i n th e

p re fe re n c e s o f th e "p ro d u c e rs" and " n o n -p ro d u c e rs". Women in th e o it y o f Des Moines (3 -5 ) when p re s e n te d w ith a y o lk c o lo r d is p la y c o n ta in in g 6 y o lk GO,

c o lo rs o f a p p ro x im ate ly 2 0 , 30, 4 0 , 50,

and 70 as m easured i n S harp s c a le u n i t s , s e le c te d c o lo rs 50 and 60

as th e p r e f e r r e d o o lo r s . t h a t do th e s e o o lo r s mean i n term s o f norm al egg p ro d u c tio n ? W ilhelm i n a p e rs o n a l l e t t e r ^ r e f e r r in g t o a c o lo r c h a r t o f 24 c o lo rs g iv e n i n " P o u ltry P o in te r s " No. 29, p u b lish e d b y th e W ashington E x ten sio n o S e r v ic e , s t a t e s . . . . " . . . At th e p r e s e n t tim e many o f th e P a c i f i c C oast eggs w i l l range i n c o lo r from "4" t o " 6 " , I b e lie v e th e av erag e c o lo r produced o u t h e re i s betw een "10" and "1 2 ", a s compared w ith "14" t o "16" f o r th e M iddle Yfest. Eggs produoed u n d e r g e n e ra l farm c o n d itio n s where th e b ir d s a re allo w ed t o ru n a t la rg e and e a t as much g re e n feed and y ello w c o rn as th e y d e s ir e may range i n c o lo r from "18" to " 2 4 " . * I n term s o f Sharp s c a le u n i t s , aB re a d from th e c o lo r c h a r ts p re s e n te d i n th e b u l l e t i n r e f e r r e d t o , t h i s means t h a t s p rin g P a c if ic C oast eggs a re c o lo r 25 o r l i g h t e r ; and 4 0 ;

th e average P a c i f i c C oast egg i s betw een 35

th e av erag e M iddle West egg i s 50 t o 5 5 , b u t in th e s p rin g

M idwest eggs o f c o lo rs 70 and 75 a re n o t u n u s u a l, and may range as dark as 80 o r 90. ^W ilhelm , L.A. P u llm an , Wash. P r iv a te com m unication. 1940. ''Wash. E x t. S e r v ic e . 1937.

In fo rm a tio n on y o lk o o lo r m easu res.

Eggs and t h e i r c a r e .

P o u ltr y P o in te r s 2 9 .

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Yolk o o lo r h as oom m eroial s ig n if ic a n c e n o t o n ly because o f consum ers' p r e f e r e n c e , b u t a l s o b ecau se of th e method used com m ercially f o r determ ­ in in g egg q u a l i t y .

This method te n d s t o d i s c r e d i t th e dark y o lk eg g s.

V i s i b i l i t y of th e y o lk o f th e egg a s i t i s tw ir l e d b e fo re th e can d le i s one o f th e b a s e s f o r d e te rm in in g th e g rad e o f th e eg g .

The shadow which

th e y o lk c a s ts is in p a r t r e l a t e d to th e deepness o f th e c o lo r o f th e 12 3 a yo llc, * * w hich in tu r n i s i n p a r t a f u n c tio n o f th e h e n 's f e e d ,4 th e Midwest g re e n fe e d and y e llo w c o rn i s th e econom ical f e e d .

In

Com­

m e rc ia l p ro d u cers on th e P a c i f i c C oast an d , l a t e r , th o s e on th e A tla n tic C oast re c o g n iz e d t h a t eggs o f o th e rw ise e q u a l q u a l ity b u t o f d a rk e r y o lk s a r e low ered i n grade as s e e n b e fo re th e can d le and have s u b s t itu t e d o th e r fe e d s which produce a l i g h t e r yo lk ed eg g ,

Tire M id-w estern i n t e r e s t s

have arg u ed on th e one hand t h a t consumers do n o t p r e f e r th e l i g h t yo lk ed egg

b u t p r e f e r a go ld en y o lk e d egg, and on th e o t h e r , t h a t th e grade

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s sh o u ld be ch an g ed , ■^Stewart, Cans and S h a rp , The r e l a t i o n of th e c o lo r o f y o lk t o th e i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y as d eterm in e d by can d lin g and from th e opened egg, U .S . Egg la P o u ltry M agazine, V o l. 39. n o . 1 0 , O ct. 1933. " I t i s p ro b ab le t h a t d is c r im in a tio n has b een made a g a i n s t eggs o f d eep e r y o lk o o lo r s , even when e q u iv a le n t changes i n i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y a re n o t p r e s e n t." ( p . 5) 2 A lm q u ist, H .J . R e la tio n o f c a n d lin g ap p earan ces o f eggs to t h e i r i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y . C a l i f . Agr. Exp. S ta . B u i. 561. Nov, 1933. " C o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t s in d ic a to t h a t th e r e i s a s tro n g tr e n d o f y o lk shadow w ith y o lk o o lo r and t h a t y o lk o o lo r i n norm al f r e s h eggs can be e s tim a te d w ith m oderate a c c u ra c y by c a n d lin g ." (p . 3) ^Thomsen, F .L . and W inton, B e rle y , op. o i t . C f. p . 8 -9 . Yollc v i s ­ i b i l i t y m ost oapable o f o b je c tiv e d e te rm in a tio n b e fo re th e c a n d le . ^W ilhelm , L.A . op. o i t . p . 59 0 -2 . E f f e c t o f fe e d on egg y o lk . Cg * Thomsen and W inton, o p . o i t . p . 2 2 -2 3 . Summary and c o n c lu s io n s .

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169.

S h e ll o o lo r p ro fe re n o e s S h e ll c o lo r p re fe re n o e i s th e su b ject: o f much p o p u la r d is c u s s io n . I t i s a q u a l i t y f a o to r f o r which th e consumer can w e ll e x p re s s h im s e lf i n th e m a rk e t.

I t i s a v i s i b l e f a c t o r w h ich , to g e th e r w ith s h e l l con­

d i t i o n and s i z e , c o n s t i t u t e s one o f th e few judgm ents th e consumer can e x e rc is e when p u rc h a sin g e g g s.

For t h i s same r e a s o n , p e r f o r c e , i t is

n o t a q u a l i t y f a o to r w hich needs much s tu d y t o d eterm in e i t s e l i g i b i l i t y f o r in o lu s io n i n g rad e s ta n d a r d s .

The s tu d ie s w hich have b een conducted

have found w hat ap p ea rs t o t h i s a u th o r to be a s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e number o f p erso n s w ith e i t h e r a brown o r w h ite egg p re fe re n o e to w a rra n t c o n s id ­ e r a t i o n o f a s e p a r a te g rad e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r s h e l l c o l o r .

In Des M oines,

58 p e r c e n t o f th e housew ives s t a t e d th e y had no s h e l l c o lo r p re fe re n o e , b u t s tu d ie s conducted i n th e e a s t show a l a r g e r p e rc e n ta g e o f p erso n s who have e i t h e r a w h ite or a brown s h e l l c o lo r p r e f e r e n o e .

I f eggs were

graded as to o th e r f a c t o r s so t h a t th e consumer would f e e l t h a t h e r ch o ice o f s h e l l c o lo r was n o t a l s o a ch o ic e o f some i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y f a o t o r , i t i s q u e s tio n a b le w h eth er th e p re fe re n o e f o r s h e l l i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s tro n g t o w a rra n t a premium p r i c e .

C o rb e tt r e p o r ts t h a t o n ly 4 p e r c e n t o f

th e housew ives e i t h e r i n P ro v id en ce o r i n th e v i l l a g e would pay a premium f o r s h e l l c o l o r . Of i n t e r e s t i s th e "why11 o f s h e l l o o lo r p r e f e r e n c e .

Cron i n B a ltim o re ,

Thomsen and Vfinton i n New York C ity , and Timmons and S ow ell i n Tampa r e p o r t a Negro p re fe re n c e f o r brow n e g g s .

C o rb e tt and L is to n i n th e e a s t (P ro v-

id e n o e , Rhode I s la n d and B u rlin g to n , Vermont) found t h a t th o s e who had a

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

170.

p re fe re n c e p red o m in an tly p r e f e r r e d brown e g g s.

L ik ew ise, Timmons and

Sow ell d isc o v e re d a brown s h e l l o o lo r p re fe re n o e among a l l groups i n Tampa, F lo r id a e x c e p t i n th e h ig h income g ro u p .

And i n s tu d ie s (S-5)

and (Q-1-1V-40 and 41) i t was found t h a t consumers i n Des Moines and r u r a l women i n Iowa p r e f e r r e d brown eggs t o w h ite i n a two to one r a t i o , a lth o u g h m ost p erso n s e x p re s s e d no p r e f e r e n o e . Thomsen and Y/inton oonolude from t h e i r in v e s t ig a t io n s i n New York C ity t h a t s l i g h t l y le s s th a n o n e - h a lf o f th e consumers in te rv ie w e d ex­ p re s s e d a p re fe re n c e f o r w h ite s h e i l a , alth o u g h 30 p e r c e n t p r e f e r r e d a brown s h e l l and o n ly 21 p e r c e n t e x p re sse d no p r e f e r e n o e .

Cron in

B altim o re found t h a t among th e w hite f a m ilie s th e r e was a g r e a t e r p r e f e r ­ ence f o r w h ite e g g s.

The r o t a i l m e rc h a n ts , how ever, e s tim a te d th e w h ite

s h e l l c o lo r p re fe re n c e o f consumers to be much h ig h e r .

The w h ite s h e l l

o o lo r p re fe re n c e by ra c e o r n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n New York C ity i s m ost in te n s e f o r th e S can d in av ian ? a r e above av e ra g e f o r th e c i t y .

th e P o lis h , Jew ish and German and I r i s h The I t a l i a n s and A m erican e x p re sse d

le s s p r e f e r e n c e , w h ile Negroes e x p re sse d l e a s t p re fe re n o e f o r w h ite s h e l l c o lo r.

These f in d in g s f a i l to c o rro b o ra te th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s made by

B allow , however re a s o n a b le th e y may sounds Tho re a s o n why housew ives pay more f o r w h ite eggs th a n f o r brown a p p a r e n tly a r e many and v a r ie d . Some o f them do n o t know why? o th e rs seem to a s s o c ia t e f re s h n e s s w ith w h ite s h e l l s . The Jew s, e s p e c i a ll y orthodox Jew s, p r e f e r w h ite eggs f o r r e l i g ­ io u s re a s o n s . And th e I t a l i a n s p r e f e r w h ite eggs la r g e ly b ecau se o f custom , s in o e in t h e i r n a tiv e c o u n try , where th e M ed iterran ean b re e d s o f c h ick en s a r e fo u n d , o n ly w h ite eggs a r e pro d u ced . The I t a l i a n s a l s o u se la r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f eggs i n d rin k s where th e p a le y o lk , common t o w h ite eggs com m ercially p ro d u ced , i s a f a c t o r i n t h e i r demand. O th er n a t i o n a l i t i e s do

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n o t ap p ear t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y p re ju d ic e d i n fa v o r o f w h ite e g g s , b u t i n M e tro p o lita n New York th e Jews and I t a l i a n s make up a v e ry la r g e p a r t o f th e p o p u la tio n , (p , 47) C o rb e tt asked th e consumers who s ta t e d a s h e l l o o lo r p re fe re n c e w hat was th e re a so n f o r t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e .

Of th e 206 p erso n s i n 1928

who gave a re a so n f o r p r e f e r r in g brown eg g s, 43 s t a t e d b ecau se th e y o lk s were d a rk e r and r i c h e r , 36 s a id brown eggs had more food v a lu e and 15 re p o rte d th e y t a s t e b e t t e r .

In th e n e x t y e a r , th e l a r g e s t p r o p o rtio n

o f reaso n s g iv e n were " p r e f e r e n c e " , "a p p e a ra n c e ", o r o th e r p e rs o n a l re a s o n s , th e f u l l meaning o f whioh i s n e b u lo u s,

A s u f f i c i e n t number

f a i l e d t o e x p re s s a p re fe re n c e f o r w h ite e g g s , o r give re a so n s f o r t h e i r p re fe re n c e to w a rra n t a more d e t a ile d summary th a n t h a t approx­ im a te ly o n e - h a lf b ased t h e i r re a s o n on t a s t e , food v a lu e , and y o lk c o lo r . Summary o f consum ers’ egg p re fe re n c e s in d ic a te d in consumer surveys 1,

S u f f i c i e n t number o f oonsumers ex p re ss a s h e l l c o lo r p re fe re n o e t o w a rra n t th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f a s e p a ra te g rad e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r s h e ll c o lo r,

(A s i m i la r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s a ls o needed f o r egg s iz e

and f o r s h e l l c l e a n l i n e s s ) , 2,

The Midwest p re fe re n c e f o r y o lk c o lo r i s f o r a c o lo r s im i la r t o t h a t o f eggs produced i n t h a t a r e a , w h ile o n e - th ir d o f th e New York C ity consum ers in te rv ie w e d i n c h a in s to r e s p r e f e r r e d a muoh l i g h t e r y o lk ,

3,

Consumers a re aware o f th e th in n e s s o f th e w h ite , th e shape and c o n d itio n o f th e y o lk , and th e p resen ce o r ab sen ce o f fo r e ig n o b je e ts such as b lo o d c l o t s and m eat s p o ts a s c r i t e r i a f o r d is o e m in g

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th o d e s ir a b le n e s s o f e g g s .

T ests o f q u a l ity and grade s p e c if i c a t io n s

b ased on th e s e q u a l ity f a c t o r s w i l l r e f l e c t r e l i a b l y consumer p r e f e r ­ en ces.

Also th o o r d in a l r e l a t i o n o f th e p re fe re n c e s o f th e q u a l i t i e s

o f th o egg c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous. 4.

Consumers a r e more p a r t i c u l a r co n cern in g th e f r e s h n e s s (as m easured by th e la b o r a to r y te c h n ic ia n ) f o r poaching and f r y in g th a n th e y a re f o r co oking u s e s .

There is evidenoe t h a t th e c o lo r o f y o lk i s

o o n sid e re d b y many consumers f o r cake making and f o r u se in c u s ta rd s and i n such o th e r u s e s w hich tr a n s m it th e o o lo r o f th e y o lk i n t o th e f i n a l p ro d u c t. 5.

I t i s q u e s tio n a b le , how ever, w h eth er y o lk o o lo r p re fe re n o e f o r eggs used i n t a b l e u ses is d i f f e r e n t from th e c o lo r p r e f e r r e d f o r eggs t o be u s e d in co o k in g .

There i s evidence t h a t th e c o lo r o f th e y o lk

te n d s t o d i s o r e d i t th e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f th e egg as p r e s e n tly m easured co m m ercially , and new m easures sh o u ld be developed which w i l l p e rm it d is tin g u is h in g th e cau ses f o r y o lk v i s i b i l i t y when c a n d lin g ;

y o lk

c o lo r or w atery w h ite . 6.

There i s re a s o n to b e lie v e t h a t e x i s t i n g p re fe re n c e s a r e in p a r t a r e s u l t o f m isin fo rm a tio n on th e p a r t o f th e consumer and m ark et a g e n ts , and i n p a r t b ecau se consumers in t e r e s t e d i n p u rc h a sin g a d e s ir a b le p ro d u o t m ust g ra s p w h atev er c r i t e r i a a r e a v a i l a b l e , d e s p ite t h e i r in a d e q u a c ie s .

And t h a t i f more r e l i a b l e m easures o f th e q u a l i t i e s

p r e f e r r e d beoome a v a i l a b l e , c e r t a i n o f th e p re fe re n c e s of oonsumers w i l l lo s e s i g n i f i c a n c e , e . g . , s h e l l o o lo r p r e f e r e n c e s , a t t i t u d e tow ard s to ra g e eggs and p ro c e s s e d e g g s.

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175.

7.

P re fe re n c e s s ta t e d f o r s to ra g e e g g s , h eld e g g s , p ro cessed e g g s, s h e l l t r e a t e d e g g s, e t c . have n o t been d is c u s s e d in t h a t th e s e a r e b u t means by w hich eggs o f d e s ire d q u a l i t i e s may be s u p p lie d . term s a r e c o l o r f u l ;

The

th e words have been abused i n com m ercial u s a g e .

The r e s u l t s w hich would be se c u re d by a sk in g consumers d i r e c t l y abo u t th e s e p ro c e sse s would bo o f l i t t l e v a lu e . M arket D ata Surveys o f Oonsumers* Egg P re fe re n c e s Ho s tu d ie s o f th e q u a n t ity - q u a l ity r e l a t i o n s h i p ty p e o f m ark et d a ta su rv ey t o t h e knowledge o f th e w r i t e r have b een made f o r e g g s.

The

m arket d a ta surveys whioh have been made o f eggs co n cern p r i c e - q u a l i t y re la tio n s h ip s .

These a r e e s s e n t i a l l y o f two k in d s :

one w hich m easures

th e a s s o c ia t io n o f p r ic e and q u a l i t y o f eggs s o ld a t r e t a i l j

th e o th e r ,

a stu d y o f th e p r ic e premiums p aid f o r d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s o f eggs s o ld a t egg a u o tio n s . Both th e method and t h e f in d in g s of th e m ark et su rv ey s which in v e s t ig a t e d consum ers’ p re fe re n c e s f o r eggs w i l l be sum m arized. A u ctio n Surveys A uotion surveys a re o f s ig n if ic a n c e i n t h a t th o m a jo r ity o f th e bu y ers a t th e s e a u c tio n s buy f o r r e t a i l s t o r e s , h o te ls o r r e s ta u r a n ts o r a re jo b b e rs or h u c k s te r s who s e l l d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y to consum ers, and th u s te n d i n some m easure to r e f l e o t consumers* p r e f e r e n c e s .

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174.

" F a c to rs a f f e c t i n g p r ic e s a t tv/o C o n n ecticu t egg a u c tio n s " were s tu d ie d b y E.A. P e rre g a u x , B .c . W right and R.G. B r e s s le r .^

The p r ic e

d a ta were s e le c te d a t random, from s a le s d a ta o f two c o o p e ra tiv e a u c tio n s f o r th e f i r s t fo u r s a le s i n th e months o f J u ly , O cto b er, Jan u ary end A p r il, 1935-36.

'Hie in fo rm a tio n c o n s id e re d w as:

p r i c e ,t h e g ro ss w eig h t

p e r case o f e g g s , s h e l l o o lo r , number of caseB p e r l o t and th e g rad es u n d e r w hich th o eggs w ere s o ld — " S p e c ia ls " , " E x tra s " and "C o n n ecticu t G a th e re d ".

The C o n n e c tic u t G athered eggs were u n g rad ed , b u t were

i d e n t i f i e d b y th e p ro d u c e r's number so t h a t th e so u rc e o f su p p ly was known.

And th e m a jo r ity o f th e eggs i n t h i s grade were o f th e "E x tra"

g rade o r b e t t e r . For each p e r io d p r ic e s p aid wore c o r r e l a te d w ith w e ig h t, d e s ig n a te d g rade and o o lo r o f th e e g g s.

P r ic e s were found to be h ig h ly a s s o c ia te d

w ith w e ig h t, v a ry in g i n d eg ree o f a s s o c ia t io n by th e s e a s o n a l s h i f t s in su p p ly i

q u a l ity and t o a l e s s e r e x te n t o o lo r was a ls o a s s o c ia te d w ith

p ric e .

I t i s n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t m ost of th o v a r i a t i o n i n p r ic e was

found a t t r i b u t a b l e t o w e ig h t beoause th e eggs h an d led by th e s e a u c tio n s were g e n e r a lly o f h ig h q u a l i t y . O ther s tu d ie s o f a u c tio n s a le s have shown t h a t w eig h t an d , t o a l e s s e r d e g re e , q u a l ity o f eggs have a n impox*tant b e a r in g on th e p r i c e . The s tu d ie s t o b e c i t e d have se c u re d t h e i r d a ta from p u b lish e d U .S.D .A. ^ P e rre g a u x , E .A ., W rig h t, B .C . and B r e s s le r , R .G ., J r . F a c to rs a f f e c t in g p r ic e s a t two C o n n ecticu t egg a u c tio n s , Conn. ( S to r r s ) A gr. Exp. S t a . B u i. 22 5 . 1938.

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r e p o r ts o f p r ic e s p a id a t th e v a rio u s a u c t io n s .

The eggs a t th o s e

a u c tio n s a re g rad ed ac c o rd in g t o U .S. Government s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , th e q u a l i t y g rad es b e in g U .S . E x tra and U .S . S tan d ard and th o s iz e g rad es b e in g la r g e and medium. Cray^ co n clu d es t h a t th e premium p a id f o r egg s i z e a t th r e e Ohio egg a u c tio n s d u rin g th e y e a r Septem ber 1 , 1939 t o A ugust 3 1 , 1940 was ap p ro x im a te ly tw ic e as g r e a t as th e premium p a id f o r i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y , lie a ls o r e p o r ts s i m i l a r r e s u l t s from s tu d ie s made a t th e Ytooster egg a u c t io n , W ooster, O hio, i n 1935 and l a t e r a t th e D oylestow n Egg A u ctio n , D oylestow n, P e n n sy lv a n ia . G u sler^ u s in g d a ta o f p r ic e s p aid a t th e a u c tio n s o f W ooster and V e rs a ille s , Ohio and Y o rlc v ille , I l l i n o i s , a l s o concludes t h a t th e l a r g e s t premiums were p a id f o r s i z e .

He a ls o s t a t e s t h a t th e premiums f o r s iz e

were g r e a t e r f o r eggs o f th e b e t t e r q u a l i t y and t h a t th e y were a ls o g r e a t e r d u rin g th e f a l l months when l a r g e r eggs a r e l e s s p l e n t i f u l .

The

premiums f o r egg q u a l i t y w ere h ig h e r i n summer and f a l l when t h e av erag e q u a l i t y o f eggs i s low er and h ig h e r q u a l i t y eggs a r e s c a r c e .

The

premium f o r w h ite o v e r brown s h e ll e d eggs was g r e a t e r d u rin g m ost o f th e y e a r th a n waB th e premium o f "ex tras'* o v er " s ta n d a r d s " .

G u sle r w r ite s :

. .. ." T h e f a c t t h a t q u a l i t y premiums were n o t g r e a t e r p ro b a b ly i s beoause s ta n d a rd s a r e r e l a t i v e l y good eggs and b ecau se g ra d in g i s l e s s c e r t a i n as to i n t e r i o r q u a lity th a n as to s h e l l o o lo r ." (p . 2)

A lso , farm ers

•*-Gray, R .E . E f f e c t o f egg s i z e and i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y (as d eterm in ed by c a n d lin g ) on egg p r i c e s . Ohio A gr. Exp. S t a . The B i-m onthly B u l l e t i n V o l. XXVII. No. 215. M arch -A p ril, 1942. p p . 76 -8 0 . 2 G u s le r , G i l b e r t . Ydiat a r e s i z e , c o lo r and q u a l i t y w o rth ? American P o u ltr y J o u r n a l. V o l. 72. No. 4 . A p r il, 1941. p p . 2 , 1 0 , 11.

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who B e ll through th ese a u ctio n s are known t o tak e good care o f t h e ir flo o k s and the eggs a f t e r la i d . From th o se s tu d ie s have come ad v ice t o s u p p lie r s o f th e m ark e t. Both Gray and G u sler conclude t h a t fa n n e rs should g iv e s e r io u s c o n s id e r­ a t io n t o t h e i r b re e d in g program , i n t h a t egg s iz e i s p r im a r ily an in h e r i te d c h a ra c te ris tic .

C onoem ing ad v ic e t o farm e rs as to t h e i r q u a l ity program ,

Cray concludes t h a t farm ers sh o u ld fo llo w management p r a c t ic e s i n th e h a n d lin g of t h e i r eggs so as t o in s u re th e l e a s t amount o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n . G u s le r, on th e o th e r h an d , r e s t s judgment a s t o th e economic a d v i s a b i l­ i t y of su ch e f f o r t upon th e farm er h im s e lf: The f a c t t h a t premiums f o r i n t e r i o r q u a l ity a s betw een e x tra s and s ta n d a rd s a r e no g r e a t e r e x p la in s why some p ro d u cers who s e l l th ro u g h a u c tio n s , e s p e c ia lly farm ers w ith th e s m a lle r f lo c k s , say t h a t th e p r ic e d if f e r e n c e h a rd ly w a rra n ts th e e x t r a w ork, c a r e , and c o s t re q u ire d t o produce th e to p g ra d e s . Concerning t h i s p o in t , each p ro d u cer p ro b ab ly i s i n th e b e s t p o s iti o n t o judge f o r h im s e lf , (p . 11) These s tu d ie s a re desig n ed m erely to inform p ro d u cers as t o w hat p o s s i b i l i t i e s l i e i n s to r e f o r them in terras o f p r ic e g a in s th e y may ex p ec t t o re c e iv e i f th e y a l t e r t h e i r farm management p r a c t ic e s and produce th o q u a l i t y o f egg p r e f e r r e d .

These d a ta serv e to summarize f o r th o

farm e r a ty p o o f o u tlo o k m a te r ia l which e n a b le s him t o a l l o c a t e h is re s o u rc e s more i n t e l l i g e n t l y to produce w hat consumers a r e w ill in g t o pay f o r . They r e p r e s e n t th e manner i n which economic e d u c a tio n a l work may be u n d e rta k e n w ith farao rB once a grade program and b e t t e r m arket s t a t i s t i c s a r e made a v a i l a b l e .

C ray’ s a d v ic e r e f l e c t s th e g e n e ra l ty p e o f e x te n s io n

with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

s e r v ic e a d v ic e , "produce f o r q u a l ity w h eth er i t pays or n o t," w hile G u s le r 's remarks r e f l e c t a n o th e r a t t i t u d e . th e m arket w i l l p ay .

He r e p o r t s t

Here is w hat

The E x te n sio n S e rv ic e recommends th o fo llo w in g

p r a c tic e s whioh you m ust a d o p t i f you w ish t o su p p ly t h i s q u a lity o f egg.

i

. '■'i

j i

The e s tim a te o f c o s t f o r changing y o u r p ro d u c tio n and m ark etin g

p ra o tic e s would be

?

And how does t h i s compare w ith th o in c re a s e i n

revenue you m ight e x p e o t i n view o f th e s e premiums?

Y.'ould i t n o t pay

you t o change y o u r p ro d u c tio n and m ark etin g p r a c t ic e s ? They a ls o p r e s e n t p ro o f t h a t g ra d e , s iz e and s h e l l c o lo r a r e d is tin g u is h in g egg q u a l i t y f a c t o r s t o b u y ers o f eggs f o r r e s a le t o oonsum ers.

Hence, i t may b e concluded t h a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s based on

th e s e q u a l i t y f a c t o r s would bo d e f e n s ib le . R e t a i l S to re Surveys

n

I n tr o d u c tio n S e v e ra l surveys have b e e n made which r e l a t e th e r e t a i l p r ic e charged

a

f o r eggs t o th e q u a l i t y o f eggs s o ld .

None o f them , how ever, a r e

p a r t i c u l a r l y in fo rm a tiv e s in c e m ajor li m it a ti o n s c o n fro n t such s u rv e y s . Some of th e su rv ey s co n cern th e p r i c e - q u a l i t y r e la tio n s h ip f o r eggs p u rch ased from a g roup o f s to r e s sampled a t a c e r t a i n d a te ; c o n s id e r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o v er a tim e p e r io d .

o th e rs

Those s tu d ie s whioh r e l a t e

p r ic e t o q u a l ity o v e r tim e seo u re somewhat s p u rio u s r e s u l t s .

The v a r ­

ia b le s a r e j o i n t l y r e l a t e d inasm uch as th e y a l l te n d t o v ary c o n s id e ra b ly

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

o v er tin io .

H ence, th e d a ta a r e n o t in d e p e n d e n t, and th e u se of

s t a t i s t i c a l m easures o f r e l a t i o n s h i p whioh a re a p p lic a b le f o r independ­ e n t d a ta can n o t b e u sed -w ithout making c e r t a i n a d ju stm e n ts f o r t h i s s e r ia l c o rre la tio n . I t h as b e e n m entioned ab o v e, i n pages 93 to 9 7 , t h a t one o f th e s e r io u s l i m it a ti o n s of th e m arket d a ta su rv ey l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t i n some m arkets i t is d i f f i c u l t f o r consumers t o e x p re s s t h e i r p re fe re n c e s a t th e tim e o f t h e i r m ark et s e l e c t i o n s . s tu d ie s v/hich have b een made o f e g g s .

This l i m i t a t i o n a p p lie s t o th e In c o n t r a s t w ith th e a u c tio n

d a ta c i te d above v/hich w ere based on p r ic e s and e s ta b l is h e d q u a l ity g rad es whioh w ere th e b a s is f o r tr a d in g on th o s e m a rk e ts , th e r e t a i l s to r e d a ta a r e secu red from m arkets i n w hich th e r e i s l i t t l e o r no u n if o r m ity o f g r a d in g .

The one p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n t o t h i s s ta te m e n t

i s th e s tu d y made by Gans i n New York C ity i n th e y e a rs 1931 and 1932. In t h i s m ark et a com pulsory egg g ra d in g law had b e e n i n e f f e c t s in c e 1929, a n te d a te d b y a com pulsory egg g ra d in g law o f 1927 which had p e rm itte d an " u n c la s s if ie d " grade i n a d d itio n t o th e "A", "B ", "C" g ra d e s .

D esp ite

th e law , how ever, as la r g e a p ro p o rtio n as 35 p e r c e n t o f th e dozens o f eggs bought i n t h e m ark et and an aly zed i n t h i s su rv ey c a r r i e d no g rad e mark w h a tso e v e r. A nother l i m i t a t i o n m entioned above is t h a t th e q u a l i t y m easures used b y th e i n v e s t i g a t o r may d i f f e r from th o s e made a v a ila b le t o o r u sed by th e oonsum ers.

F or s p e c ia l re f e r e n c e t o th e egg su rv ey s th e Gans

stu d y may a g a in be c i t e d .

Gans r e p o r ts t h a t in one y e a r only 20 p e r

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c e n t o f th e eggs exam ined, whioh c a r r ie d a g rad e m ark, a g re e d i n grade w ith th e grad e as determ in ed b y th e in s p e c t o r , (p . 48)

And

”As f a r as th e p r ic e w hich th e consumers p aid f o r th e eggs was co n c e rn e d , th e g ra d e on th e o o n ta in e r was a much more im p o rta n t f a o to r th a n th e grade o f th e i n s p e c t o r . ,, (p . 49) The o th e r li m i t a t i o n s o u tlin e d i n th e e a r l i e r s e c ti o n a r e a p p lic a b le to th e s tu d ie s which have b een made o f e g g s .

But s in c e th e y a re com­

monly re c o g n iz e d , and no problem s p e c u l ia r t o eggs a p p ea r v/hich have n o t been m entioned e ls e w h e re , th e r e i s no need t o c i t e them w ith r e f e r ­ ence t o th e egg m ark et s tu d ie s w hich have b een made. Summary o f s tu d ie s S ince th e r e l i a b i l i t y of th e r e s u l t s i s so dependent on th e methods u sed in o b ta in in g and a n a ly z in g th e d a t a , th e s tu d ie s w i l l be summarized s e p a r a te ly and i n o h ro n o lo g ic a l o r d e r .

No a tte m p t w i l l be

made t o summarize them b y s u b je c t m a tte r . B enner, Claude L. and G a b r ie l, H arry S . M arketing o f Delav/are e g g s . (D el. A gr. Exp. S ta . B u i. 150. 1927. p . 2 2 -2 6 . ) T his stu d y i s th e e a r l i e s t made o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r io e to v a rio u s q u a l ity f a c t o r s .

The purpose was to d is c o v e r to w hat e x te n t

q u a l ity was r e c e iv in g r e c o g n itio n i n th e r e t a i l m ark et i n W ilm ington, D elaw are.

The w h o le s a le rs in t h i s m arket were b u y in g eggs on a o u r r e n t

re c e ip t b a s is .

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An a tte m p t was made t o se c u re one dozen o f e v e ry g rad e o f eggs so ld i n th e c i t y i n e v e ry ty p e o f B to re .

The in v e s t ig a t o r s p u rch ased

54 dozen o f eggs on th e same day i n M arch, 1927,

The eggs were g ra d e d ,

u s in g U .S. g ra d e s ,a n d n u m e ric a l v alu es were a s s ig n e d to each g ra d e . Only 23 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r i a t i o n i n th e r e t a i l p r ic e o f th e eggs was acco u n ted f o r b y w e ig h t o f th e eg g , c l e a n l i n e s s , q u a l ity and ty p e of s to re .

And o n ly 18 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r i a t i o n i n p r ic e was acco u n ted

f o r by s h e l l c l e a n l i n e s s , w eipjht, and q u a l i t y , i n th o o rd e r o f t h e i r im p o rta n c e .

The a u th o rs s p e c u la te t h a t o th e r c a u se s f o r d if f e r e n c e s

i n r e t a i l p r ic e s a re s h e l l c o l o r , th e carb o n o r package i n w hich th e eggs a r e s o ld , and p ro b a b ly m ost im p o rta n t, th e m arg in c e r t a i n m erchants charge f o r h a n d lin g e g g s . L indsey , A d ria n H. and Y ount, H u b ert W. R e la tio n betw een egg q u a l i t y and p r i c e . (Mass. A gr. Exp. S ta . B u i, 282"il May, 1932. j This s tu d y was u n d e rta k e n to answ er th e q u e s tio n as to w hat q u a l ity f a c t o r s consum ers a r e w i l l i n g t o pay f o r .

The need f o r th e stu d y

p u rp o rte d ly grew o u t of d is c o u ra g in g a tte m p ts b y th o e x te n s io n s e rv io e s o f th e Mew England S ta te s t o c a r r y th e id e a o f q u a l ity to th e consumer th ro u g h b u ild in g up consumer r e c o g n itio n o f g rad es and t h e i r id e n tif y i n g marks su ch a s la b e ls and tirade nam es.

The a u th o rs had come t o f e e l t h a t

e i t h e r consumers " f a i l t o u n d e rsta n d th e f a c t o r s e n te r in g in to a good grade o f eggs v e rsu s a b ad g r a d e ,” o r t h a t ”th e f a o to r s v/hich th e s u p e r­ v is o r y a u t h o r i t i e s have c o n s id e re d i n making up th e g rad es a r e n o t th e

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f a c to r s r e a l l y c o n s id e re d b y oonsumers i n b u y in g e g g s.

Hence, t h i s

stu d y a tte m p ts t o d is c o v e r w h eth er any r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een q u a l i t y and p r ic e e x i s t s , and i f th e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p to "d eterm in e th e e x te n t to w hich th e s e q u a lity f a c t o r s a f f e o t p r ic e and th e r e l a t i v e im portance o f e a c h , i f s t a t i s t i c a l m easures a re a p p lie d ." Eggs were p u rch ased a t r e t a i l from a s e le c te d sam ple o f s to r e s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e consuming a r e a s i n M assa ch u setts a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t tim es o f t h e y e a r (1 9 2 8 -8 9 ).

Eggs w ere th e n s c o re d as t o e x te r n a l

q u a lity f a c t o r s , e . g . c l e a n li n e s s o f s h e l l , c o l o r , soundness o f th e s h e l l , w eig h t and range i n w e ig h t;

and as t o i n t e r n a l q u a l ity f a c t o r s ,

s p e c i f i c a l l y , 5 c la s s e s o f a i r s p a c e , 3 o la s s e s o f y o lk v i s i b i l i t y and 3 c la s s e s o f w h ite c o n d itio n .

Eaoh of th e s e f a o to r s was g iv e n a sc o re

in o rd e r t o p e rm it o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .

The d a ta f o r each tim e

p e rio d and f o r eaoh m a jo r ty p e o f s to r e were a n a ly z e d s e p a r a t e ly . In summary, th e f in d in g s ag re e w ith w hat m ig h t be e x p e c te d from r e s u l t s o f o th e r s t u d i e s .

P r ic e was more d i r e c t l y a s s o c ia te d w ith

w eig h t th a n w ith any o f th e o th e r q u a l i t y f a o t o r s ; r e l a tio n s h ip v a r ie d i n s tr e n g t h b y s e a s o n s .

and t h a t t h i s

The c o n d itio n o f th e w h ite

and th e y o lk were r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o rta n t w h ile a i r c e l l was more im p o rta n t a s r e l a t e d t o p r i c e .

The a i r c e l l was more d i r e o t l y a s s o c ia te d

w ith p r ic e i n November w hen s to r a g e eggB were on th e m a rk e t.

The

r e l a t i v e im portance o f th e a i r c e l l a r i s e s n o t from consum ers' p r e f e r ­ ences d i r e c t l y b u t from th e em phasis com m ercial g ra d e rs p la c e upon i t when ju d g in g th e i n t e r n a l q u a l ity o f th e s h e l l eg g .

The a v e ra g e q u a l ity

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182.

o f ’'e a s te r n " eggs was h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f ’’w e ste rn " e g g s , a r e s u l t whioh a r i s e s o u t of th e p r a c t ic e o f s e l l i n g good w e s te rn eggs as " e a s te r n " o g g s.

Branded and uribranded eggs were e q u a lly v a r ia b le as t o q u a l ity

and p r ic e w hich s i g n i f i e s t h a t consumers d id n o t have a v a ila b le r e l i a b l y graded eggs by which th e y could ex p ress t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s . G ans, A.R. R e la tio n o f q u a l ity t o th e r e t a i l p r ic e o f eggs i n Hew York C ity . ( N.Y. ( ith a c a ) A gr. Exp. S t a . B u i. 597. A p r il, 1934.) The p urpose o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d eterm in e some o f th o q u a l ity f a c t o r s whioh in flu e n c e th e consumer demand f o r eg g s; t o measure q u a n t i t a t i v e l y th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e s e f a o to r s t o th e r e t a i l p r ic e s a c t u a l l y p a id f o r eggB in th e m arket; and to d eterm ine t h e e x te n t t o v/hich th e p r e s e n t New York g rad e re q u ire m e n ts r e f l e c t th e consum er p re fe re n c e s f o r v a rio u s q u a l ity f a c t o r s , (p . 3) Tho d a ta were c o l le c t e d i n th e New York M e tro p o lita n a r e a by o f f i c i a l in s p e c to r s o f th e D airy and Food Bureau o f th e S ta te Departm ent o f A g r ic u ltu r e and M ark ets.

I n th e y e a rs 1930 and 1931, 2060 re c o rd s

were o b ta in e d , h a l f of v/hich were c o lle c te d in Ja n u a ry and th e o th e rs i n th e months o f December, F e b ru a ry , March and A p r i l .

In th e fo llo w in g

y e a r , 1932, 886 re c o rd s were o b ta in e d e v en ly d i s t r i b u t e d th ro u g h th e months of F e b ru a iy , March and A p r i l , The r e t a i l p r ic e s were found t o be s e r i a l l y c o r r e l a te d and t o fo llo w w h o le s a le p r ic e q u o ta tio n s r a t h e r c lo s e ly i n 1930-31.

T his was

a d ju s te d b y e x p re s s in g p r ic e as a d e v ia tio n from a -wholesale q u o ta tio n . There was no tre n d found i n th e e x te r n a l q u a l i t y f a o to r s t o which th e s e a d ju s te d p r ic e d a ta were r e l a t e d .

No s ta te m e n t is made, how ever, r e l a t i v e

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

t o th o ohange in i n t e r n a l q u a l i t y f a c t o r s over t h i s tim e p e r io d , a p e rio d in w hich i t m ight b e ex p ected t h a t q u a l ity co u ld ohange d e o id e d ly . (Such a tr e n d vras found th e fo llo w in g y e a r )

D uring th e fo llo w in g y e a r

(1932) Gans d id n o t f in d a s c lo se a r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e r e t a i l p r ic e and w h o le s a le q u o ta tio n s .

H ence, no a d ju stm e n ts f o r s e r i a l

c o r r e l a t i o n were made i n t h e d a ta o f th e second y e a r .

The downward

s h i f t i n r e t a i l p r ic e s he a t t r i b u t e d i n p a r t t o th e downward t r e n d o f a com posite in d ex of i n t e r i o r q u a l ity o f e g g s . A trem endous amount o f en erg y and care was ta k e n i n th e s t a t i s t i c a l m a n ip u la tio n o f th e d a t a .

Numerous l i n e a r and c u r v i l i n e a r r e g r e s s io n

e q u a tio n s have b een s o lv e d and p lo tn e d .

M u ltip le c o r r e l a ti o n s have

been computed and c u r v i l i n e a r and j o i n t - c o r r e l a t i o n s u r f a c e s have b een c o n s tru c te d . how ever.

Ho s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s o f s ig n if ic a n c e have b een made,

F u rth erm o re , th e r e i s some q u e s tio n as t o w hat th e number o f

s t a t i s t i c a l l y in d e p en d en t o b s e rv a tio n s a c t u a l l y i s . Many o f th e more im p o rta n t li m it a ti o n s o f t h i s s tu d y have been p re s e n te d j

nam ely, th e la r g e p e rc e n ta g e o f eggs whioh o a r r ie d g rad e

m arks, th o in a d e q u a te r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e grade m ark and th e grad e as d eterm in ed by th e o f f i c i a l in s p e c t o r , th e in ad eq u acy o f c a n d lin g as an a o c u ra te means f o r m easuring th e s p e c i f i c q u a l ity f a c t o r s o f eggs as b ro k en o u t and as view ed b y th e consum er, th e g e n e ra l v a r i a t i o n o f s to r e s e r v ic e s and m a rg in s, and s e r i a l c o r r e l a ti o n w hich p e r s i s t s i n m ost egg d a t a .

Henoo o n ly th o s e f in d in g s which seem t o make sen se t o t h i s

a u th o r w i l l be p r e s e n te d .

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P e r ti n e n t f in d in g s o f G ans’ s tu d y : 1.

A lthough consum ers p a id a premium f o r w h ite eggs o v er brown o r mixed e g g s , when d if f e r e n c e s i n q u a l i t y were a c c o u n te d f o r , ap p ro x im a te ly th e same p r ic e was p a id f o r eggs r e g a r d le s s of s h e l l c o lo r .

2.

Eggs w ith d i r t y s h e ll s were d is c o u n te d i n p r i c e .

3.

Eggs o f u n ifo rm shape re c e iv e d a premium o v e r th o s e la c k in g u n if o r m ity in s h a p e , b u t no premium was p a id f o r u n if o r m ity in s i z e .

4.

Eggs la b e lle d as G rades B and C s o ld a t a low er p r ic e th a n eggs

of

e q u a l q u a l i t y b u t u n la b e lle d as to g ra d e . 5.

The g rad e mark c o n ta in e d on th e package o f th e egg was more h ig h ly a s s o c ia te d w ith p r ic e th a n th e q u a l ity a s m easured by th e o f f i c i a l in s p e c to r.

Consumers w ith o u t d o u b t would b e in flu e n c e d i n t h e i r

m ark et s e l e c t i o n b y th e grade d e s ig n a tio n w h eth er o r n o t i t was a c c u r a te . 6.

A ll m easures o f i n t e r i o r q u a l ity w ere h ig h ly i n t e r o o r r e l a t e d and a l l were r e l a t e d t o p r ic e i n th e same d i r e c t i o n .

Hence, th e r e is

re a s o n t o b e l ie v e t h a t th e r e i s g e n e r a l co n fo rm ity o f o p in io n among some consumers as t o w hat c o n s t i t u t e d e s ir a b le i n t e r i o r q u a l i t i e s . 7.

The r e la tio n s h ip s betw een th e w e ig h t, i n t e r i o r c o n d itio n and p r ic e o f eggs w ere b o th o u r v i l i n e a r and j o i n t .

I n g e n e ra l r e l a t i v e l y

l i t t l e premium was p a id f o r s iz e i f th e i n t e r i o r q u a l ity was low ( s ig n if y in g t h a t some consumers have imposed a c e i lin g p r ic e p e r dozen above whioh th e y w i l l n o t pay f o r w e ig h t u n le s s q u a l ity was

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up to g g iv e n s ta n d a r d .

As b o th th o w e ig h t and th e i n t e r i o r

q u a l ity in c ro a s o d , th e r a t e o f in e re a s e o f th e premiums d e c re a s e d , s ig n if y in g a o o ilin g p r ic e p e r dozen above w hioh consumers would n o t pay a s f r e e l y f o r in c re a s e d v /eig h t o r q u a l i t y , Wiseman, Ray 0 , 1957 s tu d y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f egg q u a lity to th e r e t a i l p r ic e o f eggs i n e i g h t Ohio c i t i e s . (D iv isio n o f M a rk ets, Ohio Departm ont o f A g r ic u ltu r e . 1938.) This p u b lic a tio n p r e s e n ts th e u n an aly zed d a ta o f dozens o f eggs p u rch ased a t s p e o if ie d d a te s in s p e c if i e d c i t i e s i n O hio. used a re th e U .S . g r a d e s .

The g rad es

The ta b u l a t i o n g iv e s th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f eggs

b y p r ic e b y g rad e f o r eac h dozen p u rc h a se d .

I t a l s o g iv e s th e average

o f eggs b o u g h t in eaoh c i t y th e p reced ijig two y e a r s . Wiseman co n clu d es from in s p e c tio n o f th e s e d a ta t h a t th e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r i c e p a id and th e q u a l ity re c e iv e d , " y e t p r ic e i s no in s u ra n c e o f e i t h e r h ig h q u a l ity o r la rg e s iz e when used as a c r i t e r i o n in buying e g g s ." These d a ta as p r e s e n te d a r e n o t o f much v a lu e , b u t a r e in c lu d e d h e re becau se th e p u b lic a tio n s have b e e n f e a tu r e d p u b li c ly in th e developm ent o f governm ent g rad in g i n O hio. C ron, Lawrence E. An a p p l ic a t io n o f a n a ly s is o f c o v a ria n c e t o p r lo e q u a l i t y r e la tio n s h ip s o f e g g s . (J o u rn a l o f Farm Econom ics, V ol. X XII, No. 2 . May, 1940. p p . 4 4 0 -4 4 5 . ) The p u rp o se of t h i s stu d y was p r im a r ily to a p p ly a s p e c i f i c s t a t i s t i c a l method t o th e ty p e o f problem u n d er d is c u s s io n .

The d a ta

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186

were c o l le c t e d in th e C ity o f B altim o re in co n n e c tio n w ith an egg m arket survey.'*'

Once each month f o r 12 months i n 1938 one dozen o f each g rad e

o f eggs o f f e r e d b y 50 s t o r e s w asip u rch ased a t r e t a i l .

The eggs were

eggs w eighed and g rad ed on th e b a s is o f U.S. g ra d e s .

A sc o re was d e v e l­

oped f o r e ac h g r a d e r , a system o f premiums and p e n a lty so o re s were developed f o r eggs w hich were l a r g e r o r s m a lle r th a n a v e ra g e .

Thus,

i I

!

w eight and q u a l i t y f a c t o r s a r e confounded. !

Cron s u b je c ts th ese.: p r ic e and q u a l ity sc o re d a ta t o an a n a ly s is o f ! v a ria n c e and c o v a ria h c e , c o n s id e rin g as so u rces o f v a r i a b i l i t y : s e a s o n , / t s to r e and r e s i d u e . / 'Hie d a ta by - th e ir v ery n a tu re do n o t conform t o th e assum ptions i m p l i c i t i n th o m ethod o f a n a ly s is u sed by Cron. a re n o t in d e p e n d e n t.

The d a ta

And i t i s q u e s tio n a b le w h eth er th e r e la tio n s h ip s

measured a r e l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d .

The s e r i a l c o r r e l a t i o n i n th e d a ta

does n o t p e rm it as f u l l u se o f th e t e s t s o f s ig n if ic a n c e as was u sed by Cron, w h ile an in c o r r e c t assum ption o f l i n e a r i t y m erely means t h a t a low er c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was secu red th a n had th e d a ta boon f i t t e d o u rv ilin e a rly . The r e s u l t s from C ro n 's a n a ly s is a r e o f lim ite d u s e f u ln e s s .

A f te r

e lim in a tin g v a r i a t i o n in th e p r ic e and q u a l ity due t o d if f e r e n c e s in s e a s o n , th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een p r ic e and q u a l ity f o r a l l s to r e s was .6 8 5 3. T hat i s , 47 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r i a t i o n i n q u a lity i s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e p r ic e s ch arg ed by a l l s t o r e s , th e e f f e c t o f seaso n h e ld c o n s ta n t.

Hence,

/.

th e r e i s some r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een pirico and q u a l i t y in th e B altim o re m a rk e t. 1

C f. C ron, L .E . e t . a l . m a rk e t, op. c i t .

E eo n o j^iejp n aly sis o f th e B altim o re egg i

"\

i

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I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t -when only th e e f f e c t o f seaso n i s h e ld o o n s ta n t th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een q u a lity and p r ic e was -.0 2 9 3 . This n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h ip r e f l o a t s th e s i t u a t i o n t h a t when th e supply o f eggs i s most p l e n t i f u l , in th e s p r in g , th e q u a l i t y i s h ig h e r and th e p r ic e low er th a n i n th e w in te r when th e p r ic e s a re g e n e r a lly h ig h e r and th e q u a l i t y lo w er. These r e s u l t s sorvo t o confirm th e g e n e ra l b e l i e f t h a t h ig h e r q u a lity eggs a re g e n e r a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith h ig h e r p r i c e s .

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CHAPTER V I .

GRADING- YjIT U RESPECT I’O THE MARKETING OF IOTA EGGS

The purpose o f t h i s c h a p te r is tw o - f o ld :

( l ) to g iv e s u f f i c i e n t

d e s c r ip t io n o f th e g rad in g and m a rk etin g o f Iowa eggs to in d ic a te th e way th e m arket f u n c tio n s i n in d ic a tin g consum ers' p re fe re n c e s to p ro d u c e rs; and (2) to in c lu d e w ith such d e s c r ip t io n an a n a ly s is o f a t t i t u d e s and in flu e n c e s w hich b e a r upon th e developm ent o f g ra d in g i n th e m arket i n Iowa and w hich must be c o n s id e re d when fo rm u la tin g a p o s itiv e program f o r m ark et reform w ith r e s p e c t t o g ra d in g . Y/ho Consumes Iow a' s Eggs ? h e l l o v er 50 p e r c e n t o f Io w a's eggs a re m arketed o u ts id e o f th e s ta te .

I t i s e s tim a te d t h a t f o r 1940 o n ly 31 p e r c e n t o f a l l eggs produced

i n Iowa were consumed i n Iowa;

5 p e r c e n t were u s e d f o r h a tc h in g , w h ile

48 p e r cen t were sh ip p ed t o t h e 4 m ajor m a rk e ts , New York, C hicago, B oston, and P h ila d e lp h ia ;

and th e rem ain in g 16 p e r c e n t w ere sh ip p ed p ro b a b ly to

s o u th e a s te r n s t a t e s o r ao co u n ted f o r as l o s s .

These d a ta a re p re s e n te d

g r a p h ic a lly i n th e p ie c h a r t , F ig u re 1 and i n t a b u l a r form w ith re fe re n c e s i n Table 1 .

A lso th e im p o rtan ce o f Io w a's p ro d u c tio n as a so u ro e o f

su p p ly t o th e e a s t e r n m ark ets i s shown by th e fo llo w in g data"*- f o r 1941:. 27 p e r c e n t o f th e eggs r e c e iv e d a t New York C ity , 26 p e r c e n t of th o s e re c e iv e d a t C h icago, 23 p e r c e n t a t P h ila d e lp h ia and 9 p e r c e n t a t Boston were from Iowa.

That i s , i n 1941 Iowa s u p p lie d 25 p e r c e n t o f th e eggs

re o e iv e d a t th o s e fo u r m a rk e ts . •*•1941 Annual Summary D airy and P o u ltr y M arketing S t a t i s t i c s , A gr. M arketing Adm., U .S .D .A ., VJashington, D.C. A p r il, 1942.

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189.

21/i New York 48# IOWA SHELL EGGS RECEIVED AT 4 EASTERN MARKETS

P h ila d e lp h ia

21# Chicago

B oston

33# CONSUMED IN IOWA HOUSEHOLDS

16# OTHER MARKETS AND LOSS

1?# i n P roducers

1# in N on-producers

1# Farm H atching Commercial H atching

13# i n Urban Households F ig u re 1 . Table 1 .

D is p o s itio n o f Iowa’ s Egg P ro d u c tio n

D is p o s itio n o f Io w a's Egg P ro d u c tio n , 1940

D e s tin a tio n

M illio n s o f eggs

P er c e n t

436a 356

17 14

128

5

1236

48

410 2566

16 100#

Consumed i n h o u seh o ld s o f p ro d u cers Consumed i n Iowa ( o th e r th a n p ro d u c e rs) 30.5^ consumed i n h o u seh o ld s o f r u r a l n o n -p ro d u cers 325.3° consumed i n h o u seh o ld s o f u rb a n consumers Used f o r h a tc h in g 23® u sed f o r farm h a tc h in g 106** u sed f o r com m ercial h a tc h in g S h e ll egg r e c e ip ts a t 4 m ark ets s.6 536 Chicago 548 Hew York 110 B oston 42 P h ila d e lp h ia O ther m arkets and loss*1 T o ta l egg p ro d u c tio n , Iowa, 1940

S o u rce: a . T able 2 6 , L iv e s to c k , D airy and P o u ltry S t a t i s t i c s o f Iovra. l a . D ept, o f A g ri. B u i. 9 2 .3 . b . Only 92# o f farm s r e p o r t p o u ltr y on hand as o f A p r il 1 , 1940 (1940 c e n s u s ) . T h ere fo re 7# o f r u r a l p o p u la tio n w ere n o n -p ro d u cers consuming ap p ro x im ate ly 300 eggs p e r c a p i t a . c . 1940 Iowa u rb a n p o p u la tio n a t 300 eggs p e r c a p i t a . d . Assume 5# o f p ro d u c tio n u se d f o r h a tc h in g . e . R esid u a l f ig u r e o f Table 2 6 , i b i d . f . R e s id u a l. g . T ables 30 and 3 1 , i b i d . h . R e s id u a l. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

F u r th e r evidenoe t h a t Iow a’ s eggs flow tow ard e a s te r n m arkets is shown i n F ig u re 2 , v/hich p r e s e n ts a p ic tu r e o f th e p e r c a p ita egg produc­ t i o n in th o U nited S t a t e s , by s t a t e s , f o r 1940. given i n T able 2 .

The s u p p o rtin g d a ta a re

U sing 300 eggs p e r p e rso n a s a norm, a l l b u t B s t a t e s

d i r e o t l y e a s t o f Iowa a re " d e f i c i t " s t a t e s and m ust be su p p lie d by s t a t e s w est o f th e M is s is s i p p i, many o f w hich a re " s u rp lu s " s t a t e s .

Iowa ranks

i n th e to p group in p e r c a p i ta p ro d u c tio n o f e g g s. Ylhat Are Consumers’ P re fe re n c e s i n Those Consuming M arkets? The f o u r m ajor m ark ets o f Iowa eggB, i n o r d e r o f im p o rtan ce , a re Mew York C ity , C hicago, Iowa non-farm com m unities, and B o sto n .

Consumers'

p re fe re n c e s as r e f l e c t e d i n d e a l e r 's a t t i t u d e as v /o ll as th o s e re v e a le d by s c a tt e r e d s tu d ie s of consumers* p re fe re n c e s would in d ic a te t h a t f o r some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s consum ers' p re fe re n c e s f o r eggs a re r e l a t i v e l y homogen­ eous i n th e v a rio u s m a rk e ts i n which Iowa eggs a re s o ld . premium f o r la r g e oggs and f o r c le a n e g g s .

There i s a

Those consum ers who p r o f e s s

to know th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a good i n c o n t r a s t w ith a s t a l e egg i d e n t i f y i t i n term s o f such th in g s as th e u p stan d in g c h a r a c te r o f th e y o lk , how e a s i l y th e y o lk membrane r u p t u r e s , i t s freedom from a m o ttle d a p p e a ra n c e , c o l o r , freedom from germ developm ent, la rg e blood c l o t , o r m eat s p o ts and b lo o d j

by th e th ic k n e s s o f th e w h ite ;

b y th e ab sen ce o f o ff-o d o rs

o r o ff-fla v o rs . Iowa eggs a r e s o ld i n some m arkets where eggs a r e b o u g h t by th e w hole­ s a l e r s on a g rad ed b a s i s , and in some o f th e m arkets oggs a r e s o ld a ls o

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Reproduced RAND

with permission

M9NALLY

of the copyright owner.

LOOSC LEAF OUTUNC MAP

Further reproduction

PRODUCTION OF EGGS PER CAPITA

$

CZI

7 ! - ZOO

tf

EZ3 E S P TO

200 - 2 9 9 300 - 399 4 0 0 -6 9 9

ma Fig. 2

PER

C A P IT A

EG G

700

PRO D U CTIO N,

UNITED STATES

prohibited without permission.

S2T q

- to t I

BY S T A T E S ,

1940

Table 2*

S ta te

P er C a p ita Egg P ro d u c tio n by G eographic D iv is io n s and S t a t e s , 1940 : : i

X

Eggs produced (1 ,0 0 0 )

:

t

P o p u la tio n

•«

s :

Eggs p e r c a p ita

flew England Maine New Hampshire Vermont M assach u setts Hhode Is la n d C o n n ecticu t

1 ,3 7 8 ,0 0 0 250,000 172,000 129,000 432,000 51,000 344,000

8,4 3 7 ,2 9 0 847,226 491,524 359,231 4 ,3 1 6 ,7 2 1 713,346 1,70 9 ,2 4 2

163 295 350 359 100 71 201

M iddle A tla n tic New York New J e r s e y P en n sy lv an ia

4 ,5 5 3 ,0 0 0 1 ,8 2 0 ,0 0 0 691,000 2 ,0 4 2 ,0 0 0

2 7 ,5 3 9 ,4 8 7 13,479,142 4 ,1 6 0 ,1 6 5 9 ,9 0 0 ,1 8 0

165 135 166 206

E a s t N orth C e n tra l Ohio In d ia n a Illin o is M ichigan W isconsin

8 ,7 8 5 ,0 0 0 2 ,2 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,5 1 2 ,0 0 0 1 ,9 2 4 ,0 0 0 1 ,2 9 5 ,0 0 0 1 ,8 0 4 ,0 0 0

26,626,342 6,90 7 ,6 1 2 3,427,796 7 ,897,241 5 ,2 5 6 ,1 0 6 3,1 3 7 ,5 8 7

330 326 441 244 246 575

10,0 1 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,886,000 2 ,5 6 6 ,0 0 0 >*■ 1 ,9 6 4 ,0 0 0 362,000 583,000 1 ,1 2 9 ,0 0 0 1,520,000

13,516,990 2 ,7 9 2 ,3 0 0 2,5 3 8 ,2 6 8 3,78 4 ,6 6 4 641,935 642,961 1 ,3 1 5 ,8 3 4 1,801,028

741 675 1011 519 564 907 858 844

3,5 3 2 ,0 0 0 116,000 351,000 960,000 419,000 670,000 285,000 535,000 196,000

17,823,151 266,505 1 ,8 2 1 ,2 4 4 2 ,6 7 7 ,7 7 3 1 ,9 0 1 ,9 7 4 3 ,5 7 1 ,6 2 3 1 ,8 9 9 ,8 0 4 3 ,1 2 3 ,7 2 3 1 ,8 9 7 ,4 1 4

198 435 193 359 220 188 150 171 103

West N orth C e n tra l M innesota Iowa M isso u ri N orth D akota South Dakota N ebraska Kansas Soutli A tla n tic Delaware M aryland V ir g in ia West V ir g in ia N orth C a ro lin a S outh C a ro lin a G eorgia F lo r id a

"

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Table 2 . (c o n tin u ed ) i : «

S ta te

Eggs produced (1 ,0 0 0 )

> s P o p u la tio n

• •

: s

Eggs p e r o a p ita

E a s t South C e n tra l Kentucky Tennessee Alabama M is s is s ip p i

2 ,4 4 7 ,0 0 0 839,000 707,000 487,000 414,000

10,778,225 2 ,8 4 5 ,6 2 7 2 ,9 1 5 ,8 4 1 2 ,83 2 ,9 6 1 2 ,1 8 3 ,7 9 6

227 295 242 172 190

W est South C en tral A rkansas L o u isia n a Oklahoma Texas

3,93 3 ,0 0 0 581,000 282,000 931,000 2 ,1 3 9 ,0 0 0

13,064,525 1,9 4 9 ,3 8 7 2 ,3 6 3 ,8 8 0 2 ,3 3 6 ,4 3 4 6 ,4 1 4 ,8 2 4

301 298 119 398 333

M ountain Montana Idaho Wyoming Colorado New Mexico A rizona Utah Nevada

1 ,3 5 3 ,0 0 0 209,000 260,000 75,000 370,000 100,000 58,000 256,000 25,000

4 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 3 559,456 524,873 250,742 1 ,1 2 3 ,2 9 6 531,818 499,261 550,310 110,247

325 374 495 299 329 188 116 465 227

P a c if ic W ashington Oregon C a lif o r n ia

2 ,8 8 8 ,0 0 0 723,000 ^ 355,000 1 ,8 1 0 ,0 0 0

9 ,735,262 1 ,7 3 6 ,1 9 1 1 ,089,684 6 ,907,38 7

297 416 326 262

U n ite d S ta te s

3 8 ,8 79,000

131,669,275

295

Source o f d a ta t

'

Compiled from "Farm P ro d u c tio n , Farm D is p o s itio n and Income, Chickens and E ggs, 1939-1940", B u r. o f A gr. Econ. U .S.D .A . and P o p u la tio n Summary o f S ix te e n th Census o f th e U n ited S t a t e s , 1940.

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t o consumers on th e b a s is o f g ra d e s .

The grade s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , in

g e n e r a l, ta k e in to acco u n t th e above c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a re r a th e r g e n e r a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith good e g g s.

In some m ark ets where Iowa eggs

a r e so ld w ith o u t th e b e n e f i t o f g r a d in g , as i s th e case i n many c i t i e s o f Iowa, f o r exam ple, th e r e i s c o n s id e ra b le d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among con­ sumers co n cern in g th e q u a l i t y o f eggs made a v a i l a b l e .

This f a c t w i l l

bo b ro u g h t o u t l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p te r . For some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th e r e i s some ev id en ce t h a t p re fe re n c e s uro n o t homogeneous.

The m a jo r ity o f consumers i n some m a rk e ts , f o r

exam ple, a p p ea r t o fa v o r w h ite s h e lle d oggs and in o th e r m arkets th e y a p p e a r to f a v o r brown s h e ll e d eg g s; to b e i n d i f f e r e n t to s h e l l c o l o r .

and in s t i l l o th e rs th e y ap p ear There i s a ls o some ev id en ce t h a t

th e r e a re d if f e r e n c e s i n p re fe re n c e s among th e m ark ets in to which Iowa eggs move w ith r e s p e c t t o y o lk c o lo r . S ince th e e x is te n c e o f a g rad in g system h as an im p o rta n t b e a rin g on th e p re fe re n c e s e x p re s s e d b y egg b u y ers in m ark ets where g rad es a re u s e d , i t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o n o te th e egg l e g i s l a t i o n o f th e v a rio u s s t a t e s . (See F igure 3 ) .

Vftiether th e s e laws r e f l e c t consum ers’ demands or n o t

th e y a re s i g n i f i c a n t inasm uch as th e jf seem t o d e s ig n a te th e q u a l i t y of eggs whioh may be s o ld as o f g iv e n g rad es in th o s e s t a t e s .

New York

S ta te re q u ir e s t h a t a l l eggs be s o ld a t r e t a i l on g ra d e , and th e rem ain­ in g s t a t e s i n Nevr England to g e th e r w ith P e n n sy lv a n ia , In d ia n a , M ichigan, New J e r s e y , Ohio and M aryland have e n a c te d "F resh Egg Law", law s which r e q u ir e t h a t o n ly eggs w hich m eet th e s ta n d a rd s o f U .S . Grade A o r

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i 196.

F ig u re 3 . (c o n tin u e d ) Types o f s t a t e egg law s i n th e U nited S t a t e s , 1942—c l a s s i f i e d la r g e ly

/ on th e b a s is o f em p h asis. A com pulsory r e t a i l g ra d in g law i s one which r e q u ir e s a l l eggs t o be s o ld a t r e t a i l on th e b a s is o f gradeB whioh a r e prom ulgated i n th e law o r th e law s e ts up th e b a s is f o r p ro m u lg atio n . 2.

A p e rm issiv e r e t a i l g rad e law i s one whioh p ro v id e s t h a t eggs may be s o ld a t r e t a i l , e i t h e r g rad ed o r ungraded b u t th e grade must be d e s ig ­ n a te d o r th e f a c t t h a t th e eggs a r e ungraded made known.

Some o f

th e s e laws a l s o have " f r e s h egg law" p r o v is io n s . 3.

A f r e s h egg law , a ty p e of p erm issiv e grade law , i s one whose m ajor o b je c t i s t o d e f in e eggs w hich may be s o ld as f r e s h t o th e consuming p u b lic *

4 . C andling lav/s p ro v id e t h a t eggs m ust be candled a t .th e tim e o f p u rch ase - u s u a ll y from th e p ro d u cer - and paid f o r on a lo s s o f f b a s is . 5.

Ho laws - some o f th e s t a t e s which have been p la c e d i n th e "no law" c l a s s have c o ld s to ra g e la w s , b u t f o r a l l p r a c t i o a l purposes th e s e s t a t e s have no egg law s.

Cold s to r a g e laws as a p p lie d t o eggs

a r e so outmoded t h a t few s t a t e s a tte m p t to e n fo rc e them .

Also

in c lu d e d a re laws vfoioh r e q u ir e o n ly t h a t eggs be la b e lle d as to t h e i r s t a t e o f o r ig i n , o r la b e lle d as "sh ip p ed " i f eggs o r ig in a te from o u t o f th e home s t a t e . S o u rce:

l a . Ag. E x t. S e rv ic e I.M577, A b r i e f on s t a t e egg l e g i s ­ l a t i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . R evised from F ig u re 2 , Types o f egg law s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1940. p . 3.

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b e t t o r may be m arketed as F re s h .

The b u lk o f Io w a's eggs a r e s o ld i n

m arkets whose l e g i s l a t i o n goes beyond r e q u ir in g ca n d lin g to s o r t o u t o n ly th e d i s t i n c t l y "bad" e g g s. Many s t a t e s a ls o r e q u ir e l a b e l l i n g as "co ld s to r a g e " , oggs w hich have been h e ld i n s to ra g e o v er 30 d a y s.

Many s t a t e s have a p r o v is io n whioh

b a r s from th e to p grade o r F resh e g g s , eggs which have trem u lo u s a i r c e l l s . B oth th e co ld s to ra g e and th e trem u lo u s a i r c e l l p ro v is io n s 1 *2 may be h e ld b y Iowa p ro d u cers as j u s t grounds f o r co m p lain t inasm uch as th e y do r e f l e c t a g rad in g s p e c i f i c a t i o n n o t ba3od on consum ers' p r e f e r e n c e s . The c o ld s to r a g e law s a r e p r a c t i c a l l y u n e n fo rc e a b le in t h a t th e r e has been developed no a o o u ra te method f o r d eterm in in g w h eth er an egg has been i n co ld s to r a g e . A g e n e r a l p r a c t ic e i s t o s o r t th e eggs w hioh have b een in s to r a g e , s e l l i n g th e b e t t e r eggs a s f r e s h and th e p o o re r eggs as co ld s t o r ­ age. Hence, cold s to r a g e e g g s , as s o ld , a r e g e n e r a lly eggs o f low er q u a lity , p

&Ih some s t a t e s , in c lu d in g New Y ork, eggs w ith a trem u lo u s a i r c e l l a re excluded from th e to p g ra d e . The a i r c e l l i s th e space a t th e la r g e end o f th e egg betw een th e o u te r membrane w hich ad h ere s to th e s h e l l , and an in n e r membrane w hich e n c a se s th e album en. These membranes a re c lo s e to g e th e r and do n o t beoome s e p a ra te d ex ce p t f o r th e a i r space whioh develops as th e f r e s h egg c o o ls and as i t ages and lo s e s m o istu re and g ases e s c a p e . I f th e egg i s sh ak en , such as i t v e ry l i k e l y i s as i t t r a v e l s by r a i l o r even tr u c k from Y/est t o E a s t, th e s e membranes a re l i a b l e to beoome p a r t i a l l y i f n o t t o t a l l y s e p a r a te , th u s cau sin g a trem ­ u lo u s o r f r e e a i r c e l l . A trem u lo u s a i r o e l l i s d is c r e d i ta b l e o n ly i n s o f a r as i t m ight become a f r e e a i r o e l l . And a f r e e a i r o e l l con­ d i t i o n means t h a t th e c a n d le r i s u n ab le t o ju d g e ouch f a o to r s as th e m o b ility o f th e y o lk and th e firm n e ss o f th e w h ite i n t h a t th e s e a r e gen­ e r a l l y observed from th e resp o n se o f th o y o lk and w h ite when th e egg is tw irle d . YYhon th o two membranes a r e s e p a r a te , th e i n t e r i o r o f th o egg i s s e m i- is o la te d from th e s h e l l and th e t w i s t a p p lie d to th e 3 h e ll does n o t t w i r l tho e g g 's c o n te n ts (any more th a n does th e t w i r l i n g o f a pan c o n ta in in g w a te r and a f l o a t i n g o o rk , t w i r l th o c o r k ) . The d is c r im in a tio n a t th e r e t a i l le v e l a g a i n s t eggs w ith trem u lo u s a i r c e l l s i s u n w arran ted b ecau se th e s i g n i f i c a n t q u a l ity f a c t o r s a re m easur­ a b le and i n e f f e c t c o n s t i t u t e a t r a d e b a r r i e r a g a in s t eggs from d i s t a n t re g io n s . N e v e rth e le ss d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t suoh eggs a t sh ip p in g

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

P re fe re n c e s ex p ressed f o r eggs v ary among b u y e rs . t h e i r m arkets a r e changing r a p i d l y .

But th e demands o f

An in c re a s in g number o f Io w a's eggs

a r c so ld in d r ie d , fro z e n o r liq u id form.

D rie d , li q u i d and f r o z e n egg

consum ption i n 1935 was e s tim a te d t o c o n s t i t u t e 9 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l eggs u sed in th o U n ited J t a t e s .

The fro z e n egg in d u s tr y has developed

becau se o f t h e i r low er s to ra g e c o s ts as oompared w ith s h e l l e g g s, b ecau se o f th e e lim in a tio n o f s p o ila g e d u rin g s to r a g e and b e c a u se o f t h e i r economy i n th o making o f baked p r o d u c ts , n o o d le s, s a la d d r e s s in g , m ayonnaise, c o n f e c tio n s , e t c .

D ried egg p ro d u c tio n * re c e iv e d i t s i n i t i a l im petus

when im p o rts wore c u r t a i l e d i n 1927 w ith th e o u tb reak o f tho China c i v i l w ar;

w ith th e t a r i f f in c re a s e in 1931 th e in d u s tr y expanded f u r t h e r ;

w h ile th e p r e s e n t w ar has made i t a booming in d u s tr y .

I t is q u ite p o s s ib le

t h a t th e w ar-tim e ex p an sio n o f egg d ry in g in th e U n ited S ta te s may g iv e r i s e to now p ro c e s s in g te c h n iq u e s and a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e u s e s t o w h ich d rie d eggs may be p u t , and t h a t i n p o st-w a r y e a rs an in c re a s e d p e rc e n ta g e o f Io w a's eggs may bo m arketed as d r ie d eggs f o r d o m estic consum ption. p o in t i s j u s t i f i a b l e inasm uch as a la r g e pei’u entage o f th e s e eggs a re l i k e l y to a r r iv e as eggs w ith f r e e a i r c e l l s . The s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h i s f a c t o r i s made e v id e n t from th e r e s u l t s o f an I l l i n o i s s tu d y . Eggs sh ip p e d from S o u th e a s te rn I l l i n o i s t o New York C ity in c re a s e d i n p e r c e n t o f eggs w ith trem u lo u s a i r c e l ls from 4$ a t sh ip p in g p o in t t o ZZ% a t Hew York C ity . C f. A lp , H .H ., Ashby, R .C ., and Card, L .E , S tu d ie s o f th e m arket q u a l i t y o f eggs from 109 farm s i n S o u th e a s te rn I l l i n o i s . 111. A gr. Exp. S ta . B u i. 44 1 . 1938. p . 409. *Term ohlen, W.D., W arren, E .L ., W arren, C.C. The egg dry in g in d u s tr y i n th e U nited S t a t e s . U .S.D .A . U arkot In fo rm a tio n S e r ie s . PSM-1. 1938.

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Tho p re fe re n c e s o f com m ercial u s e rs o f f r o z e n , d r i e d , and liq u id eggs d i f f e r somewhat from consum ers1 p re fe re n c e s f o r eggs in th e s h e l l . The c o lo r o f th o s h e l l o f th e oggs i s n o t a f a c t o r .

Yolk c o l o r , a c c u r a te ly

m easurab le i n t h i s form , i s an im p o rta n t q u a lity f a c t o r b ecau se m an u factu r­ e r s o f noodles,'*' baking p ro d u c ts and mayonnaise g e n e r a lly w ant th e c o lo r o f th e d a rk e r y o lk so t h a t t h e i r p ro d u c t w i l l be " r ic h e r " i n a p p e a ra n c e . H o ts, o d o rifo ro u s oggs and eggs c o n ta in in g b lo o d r in g s can be e lim in a te d by ca n d lin g b e fo re b r e a k in g , and d u rin g th e b re a k in g o p e r a tio n s , w h ile m eat s p o ts and p ie o e s o f s h e l l can be e lim in a te d by s t r a i n i n g th e liq u id p ro d u c t. T echniques w i l l be dev elo p ed so t h a t th e eggs v d th d i r t y s h e ll s con be h an d led so t h a t th e y w i l l n o t c o n tr ib u te im p o rta n tly t o th e b a c t e r i a l c o u n t o f th e f i n a l p r o d u c t.

.And u n t i l more c o n c lu siv e ev id en ce is p re s e n te d to

th e c o n tr a r y , d r ie d , fr o z e n o r liq u id eggs made from eggs of g e n o r a lly low er q u a l ity (w atery w h ite s and f l a t y o lk s ) w i l l be c o n s id e re d e q u a lly a c c e p ta b le f o r most pu rp o ses as d r ie d , fro z e n o r liq u id eggs made from eggs o f b e t t e r q u a l i t y .

A d m itted ly , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n eed e d , b u t

fin d in g s t o d a te seem t o i n d i c a te t h a t f o r somo u ses eggs which i f s o ld in th e s h e l l would b e r a te d as low i n q u a l ity may y ie ld even a b e t t e r p ro d u ct th a n eggs r a tin g h ig h r i n q u a l i t y . Of p ro b ab le s ig n if ic a n c e t o Iowa p ro d u cers a r e developm ents w hich have b een made i n te clm iq u o s f o r s h e l l t r e a t i n g o r p ro c e s s in g o f e g g s.

By

t h i s method th e p o re s o f th e egg s h e l l a r e s e a le d , o r q u a l ity d e t e r i o r a t i o n % .S . D ept, o f A g r ic u ltu r e .

F.ggs and egg p r o d u o ts .

C iro . 583.

1941.

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chocked.

I f no stig m a s i m i l a r t o t h a t a tta c h e d t o sto ra g o eggs comes t o

ho a s s o c ia te d w ith such p ro c e sse d e g g s , p ro d u cers d i s t a n t from th e m ark et and w ith s u f f i c i e n t l y la r g e f lo c k s t o w a rra n t th e e f f o r t , may fin d such p ro c o ssin g a means o f m e rc h an d isin g q u a l ity o g g s.

P r o te c tio n o f consumers

co u ld bo aohioved by c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f p ro d u c e rs ’ p ro c e s s in g methods and te c h n iq u e s so t h a t th o oggs w i l l have a '’knovm" h i s t o r y . Techniques i n th o egg m ark et a r e such t h a t i t i s a lm o st im p o ssib le t o p r e d ic t w hat eggs 'w ill f in d ac c e p ta n c e i n p o s t-w a r y e a r s .

C onceivably

s h e l l - t r e a t e d eggs may su p p ly th e " ta b le -e g g " m a rk e t w ith q u a l ity eggs c e r t i f i e d on a h i s t o r y b a s i s .

C onceivably f r o z e n , and p a r t i c u l a r l y d r ie d

eggs may su p p ly th e m ark et w ith eggs f o r d om estic c u lin a r y u se s and com­ m e rc ia l u s o s .

S tan d a rd s f o r th e s e p ro d u cts v r ill u n d o u b ted ly bo developed

w ith v/ider u se o f th o p ro d u c t and as needs f o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r i s e .

For

many p ro d u ct u s e s , ho w ev er, fro z e n and d r ie d eggs w i l l p ro v id e an econom ical o u t l e t f o r lo w er q u a l i t y e g g s . In tim e , a s r e s e a r c h e s i n te c h n iq u e s f o r d r y in g , p r o c e s s in g , b re a k in g and f r e e z in g c o n tin u e ;

as r e s e a rc h e s in th e c u lin a r y and com m ercial usos

o f eggs and egg p ro d u c ts d e v elo p ;

and as consumers and com m ercial u s e rs

le a r n more a b o u t th e new p ro d u c ts and to a d a p t th em selv es t o them , th e r e l a t i v e p re fe re n c e s f o r eggs may undergo c o n s id e ra b le change. S a t i s f a c t i o n o f Consumers i n Des M oines, Iowa w ith Eggs P urchased Consumers’ s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e q u a l ity o f th e p ro d u c t secu red is an im p o rta n t method o f a p p r a is in g a m a rk e t.

S e v e ra l q u e s tio n s b e a rin g on

t R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

consum ers' s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith eggs purchased, were aslced i n a oonsumer su rv ey made i n t h a t c i t y . In s tu d y S -5 , 783 consumers were asked d u rin g S eptem ber, 1940 "Did you buy any oggs l a s t month you p r e f e r r e d n o t t o u se f o r p o aching or fry in g ? "

Of t h e s e , 571 s a id th ey had had no d i f f i c u lt} / 5_n th e p a s t

month w h ile 137 r e p lie d t h a t th e y h a d .

Of th e s e 137 who h ad made un­

s a t i s f a c t o r y p u rc h a s e s , 121 had p u rch ased eggs a t r e t a i l s t o r e s .

Only

h a l f o f th o consumers q u e s tio n e d had made t h e i r l a s t p u rch ase o f eggs a t s to re s j

th e o th e rs had p u rch ased from farm ers o r d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t­

a t iv e s o f f a r m e r s .

I t would a p p ea r i n many c ases t h a t consum ers in

Dos MoinoB have fo u n d i t n e c e s s a ry t o buy from farm ers in o r d e r to g e t eggs o f a s a t i s f a c t o r y q u a l i t y . Iowa Egg P ro d u ctio n S cale o f p ro d u c tio n o f in d iv id u a l farm s has a n im p o rta n t b e a rin g on th e i n t e r e s t o f farm e rs i n improved te c h n iq u e s . Iowa owes i t s im p o rtan ce as an egg p roducing s t a t e t o la rg e numbers o f farm flo c k s (187,866 o u t of 213,318 farm s i n 1 9 4 0 ). on more farms th a n i s any o th e r liv e s to c k p ro d u c t. 1940 c e n s u s , 88^ o f th e farm s produced eg g s.

Eggs a re produced

A t th e tim e o f th e

VJhile th e r e i s some com­

m e rc ia l p ro d u c tio n , th e r e i s no s p e c ia liz e d egg prodixoing a re a i n th e s ta te .

For th e m ost p a r t , Iowa p o u ltr y flo c k s a r e c l a s s i f i e d as "farm

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flo c k s " w hich a rc su p p lem en tary t o o th e r m ajor farm e n t e r p r i s e s , th e average s i z e o f flo c k b e in g a b o u t 150 hens.-*A su rv ey o f th e egg m ark etin g p r a c tic e s o f Iowa farm ers re v e a le d only ap p ro x im ate ly 20 p e r c e n t s e l l i n g more th a n a 30-dozen case in th e p rev io u s week i n March (Q-l-VY-40), and o n ly 14 p e r c e n t s e l l i n g more th a n a 30-dozen case in th e p re v io u s week i n January and F eb ru ary (Q -l-W -41) . A lthough Iowa is th e le a d in g egg producing s t a t e , egg p ro d u c tio n in Iowa is n o t c o n sid ere d b y m ost farm ers as th e m ajo r farm e n t e r p r i s e . I n 1941, a l a r g e r c a sh income was r e c e iv e d by egg p ro d u cers i n Iowa th a n by th o s e i n any o th e r s t a t e .

Y et c ash income re c e iv e d from eggs in th e

p e rio d 1935-39 was o n ly 5.06 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l cash farm income. The v alu e o f th e egg c ro p t o th e Iowa farm e r i s exceeded i n income by h o g s, c a t t l e , m ilk and c o m .

In c o n t r a s t th e p o u ltr y in d u s tr y in C onnect­

i c u t c o n s t i t u t e s th e second l a r g e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l b u s in e s s in th e s t a t e . L a rg e -sc a lo com mercial egg p ro d u c tio n h as b een developed la r g e ly on th e P a c if ic C oast and in th e N orth A tla n tio . H i s t o r i c a l l y th e "farm flo c k " has been c o n s id e re d as a " p in money" 2 e n t e r p r is e f o r th e farm e r’ s w ife t o ru n . The egg money q u ite o f te n purchased th e g r o c e r ie s and th e hens and eggs s u p p lie d th e d in n e r t a b l e . ■^Cf. s p o t diagram showing d i s t r i b u t i o n i n IT.hi. o f flo c k s o f 5 0 -9 9 , 100-199, 200-399, 4 0 0 -6 9 9 , 700-999, 1000 o r more ch ick en s on farms A p ril 1 , 1930. Neg. 25024, B u r. o f A gr. E c o n ., U .S.]),A . P re se n te d on p . 2 6 . Y/is. Crop and L iv esto ck R eporting S e rv ic e . W isconsin P o u ltr y B u i. No. 176. A A llb au g h , L.O. The p la c e o f th e p o u ltr y e n t e r p r is e i n th o (co rn b e l t ) farm b u s in e s s . P ro ceed in g s o f th e Seventh W orld’s P o u ltry Congress and E x p o s itio n . C le v e la n d , O hio. 1939. p . 312-318.

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In th e s p rin g th e hens a r e tu rn e d o ut to range i n th e g re e n g rass and a re c o n fin e d only when th e c o ld w eath e r r e q u ir e s t h a t th e y b e housed. During th e e a r ly la y in g se a so n th o farm ers may fe e d mash and p rep ared feed s t o th o f lo c k s , b u t when o th e r farm e n t e r p r is e s mako demands upon th e fa rm e r’ s tim e , th o hens a re g iv e n l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n .

The need f o r

ex p an sio n o f th o p o u ltr y e n t e r p r is e i s b ein g g r e a t ly s t r e s s e d in th o a g r i c u l t u r a l g o a ls o f 1942.

I t may bo t h a t good flo c k managomont and

fe e d in g p r a c tic e s w i l l be more w id ely u se d . I t i3 e s tim a te d t h a t ovor 80 p e r c e n t o f Town ogg p ro d u c tio n w hich i s m a rk e ted , i s m arketed i n th e six-m onth p e rio d Liar eh th ro u g h August. This i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t th e s e and eggs from o th e r M idw estern s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e th e m ajor su p p ly o f o o ld s to ra g e eggs to bo s o ld i n th e f a l l , h ig h -p r io e m onths.

H ence, co ld s to r a g e laws w hich r e q u ir e th e la b e lin g

o f o o ld s to r a g e eggs te n d t o p u t M idwestern eggs a t a s p e c ia l d is a d ­ v a n ta g e . 1 2 The G en eral P a tte r n o f th e M arketing P ro cess * P ro d u cers in Iowa s e l l th e m ajor p a r t o f t h e i r eggs t o g ro c e ry s t o r e s , o th e r bu y ers b ein g of much le s s im portance as i n i t i a l r e c e iv e r s o f eggs from th e farm .

Most eggs a r e e v e n tu a lly lian d lo d , how ever, by c a r l o t

^O d erk irk , A. D. Methods and c o s ts o f m ark etin g Iowa p o u ltr y and oggs. P ro ceed in g s o f th e S ev en th W orld’ s P o u ltry Congress and E x p o s itio n . C le v e la n d , O hio. 1939. p . 334-345. 2

O d e rk irk , A.D. and M orse, R iohard I,. Economy i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f eggs - w ar emergency c o n s id e r a tio n s . I n . Agr. Exp. S ta . T ra n sp o rt­ a t i o n Memo. No. 21. R e v ise d . 1942. ----------------------— T r a n s p o r ta tio n o f eggs - w artim e c o n s id e r a tio n s . U .S. Egg & P o u ltr y Mag. 4 8 , n o . 10*560-561, 573-575. 1942

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s h ip p e rs who c o n c e n tra te them in to th o s e m arket c h an n e ls which d i r e c t th e eggs t o t h e l a r g e r consum ing c e n t e r s .

In d ia g ra m a tic form , th e s e

m ark et ch an n els may be p re s e n te d as in F ig u re 4 . An e s tim a te o f th e r e l a t i v e numbers of buying a g e n c ie s and t h e i r r e l a t i v e im portance as i n i t i a l buyors o f eggs i s p re s e n te d i n Table 3. Table 3 .

Where Iowa Farmers 3e l l Eggsa

:P e r o ent of:Num ber : eggs s o ld : o f :by farm e rs : d e a le rs 1929 : 1929 To s to r e s 70-90 To buying s t a t i o n s 5-20 To c a r l o t egg s h ip p e rs 0- 5 S h ipping t o la r g e m a rk e ts , h a t c h e r ie s 0 and m isc e lla n e o u s 0- 5

:P e r c e n t:P e r c e n t o f Per cent of : of : eggs s o ld s Number of : t o t a l :by farm ers : to ta l { d e a le rs : 1942 { d e a le rss d e a le r s • •

5267 1584

70.33 21.15

60-80 5-20

5000 1200

71.02 17.04

201

2 .6 9

0- 8

196

2.78

457

5 .8 3

2-10

645

9.16

7489

100.00

7041

100.00

a D ata d e riv e d from two s o u rc e s : IV.D. Termohlen and G .S . S hepherd. M arketing Iow a’ s p o u ltr y p ro d u c ts . E x t. B u i.173. May, 1931. Iowa Agr. Exp. S ta . Ames, Iowa. (Q -3, Q-4) U n p u b lish ed d a t a . I a . A gr. Exp. S t a . P r o je c t 628. ^ O d e rk irk , A.D. and M orse, R ich ard L. T r a n s p o r ta tio n Memo No. 2. p . 11. The te rm " c a r l o t s h ip p e r 11 r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o la r g e s c a le p la n ts which can s h ip i n la r g e q u a n t i t i e s and command econom ies o f f r e i g h t c o s ts by so d o in g . W ith e x p an sio n o f tr u c k in g t o m ark et such a d e s ig ­ n a t io n has l o s t some o f i t s form er moaning b u t is u sed t o r e f e r t o la rg e volume p la n ts as opposed t o sm a ll lo c a l b u y e rs . ° H a tc h e rie s a r e n o t lic e n s e d as egg b u y ers when eggs a re used o n ly f o r h a tc h in g . However, when engaged i n a l s o buying f o r m ark et purposes such bu y ers a r e r e q u ir e d to o b ta in li c e n s e s . About 800 h a tc h e r ie s a r e i n o p e r a tio n i n Iowa. W hile th e y a re an im p o rta n t s p e c ia liz e d o u t l e t f o r e g g s , t h e i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problem s a re i n t e g r a te d w ith fe e d and s p e c ia l s e r v ic e s w hioh have n o t b een c o n sid e re d h e r e .

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Reproduced with permission

lo c a / B u y e r-T ru c k D elivery o f f a r m Pure, h a se s o r fr o m O f h e r B u y e r s

BUYING

of the copyright owner.

3 m j* r Tr*tA or

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STATIONS MISC.

P la n t Owned

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5

LOCAL

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Fig. 4. M AJO R TRANSPORTATION CHANNELS FROM FARMS, BETW EEN LOCAL M ARK ETS AND TO PRINCIPAL MARKETS FOR IOWA EGGS Source: Oderkirk, A.D- & Morse,R.L.

—

Transportation Memo No. 2 (Rerisec/J op.c/t. cf. F ig .S

Tho d a ta in d i c a te th e dominance o f s to r e bu y ers as i n i t i a l r e c e iv e r s of eggs i u Iowa, fo llo w e d , t o a m arkedly l e s s e r e x t e n t , by buying s t a t i o n s .^ 2 ^ C a rlo t s h ip p e r s * C a rlo t s h ip p o re w a r r a n t s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n a lth o u g h p ro b ab ly le s s th a n 10 po r c o n t of th o farm ers s e l l d i r a o t l y to them o r t h e i r tr u c k e r s , N e v e rth e le ss th e y u lt im a te ly a re th e r e c e iv e r s o f th e b u lk o f th e s u rp lu s eggs which a r e so ld i n e a s te r n consum ption m a rk e ts ^ .

This is tr u e i n

•'■Substantial agreem ent i s found betw een th e s e d a ta and d a ta from o th e r M idw estern s t a t e s . a . A pproxim ately 80$ o f th e egg lic e n s e h o ld e rs i n M innesota i n 1938 were s t o r e s . D ankors, Y/.Ji. lia rk e tin g M innesota eggs and p o u ltr y . M inn. A gr. E x t. S e r v . , E x t. B u i. 222, J u n e , 1941. b . C o tto n , Yi.P. and W ilso n , 1't.O, P o u ltry and egg m a rk etin g i n S outh D akota, u n p u b lish e d , i n m ss. f o r p u b li c a ti o n . The fo llo w in g p e rc e n ta g e s of p ro d u cers r e p o r te d t h a t th o y m arketed more th a n Idfa o f t h e i r eggs th ro u g h s p e c if i e d o u t l e t s : g ro c e rie s and m eat m a rk e ts , 65$j c o o p e r a tiv e s , 7.5$ j produce houses 5 .7 $ .

o

C f. O d erk irk and M orse, o p . c i t . p . 11. There a r e "o a r l o t s h ip p e r s " i n 89 o f th e 99 c o u n tie s o f th e s t a t e . Of th e 193 p la n ts l i s t e d as h a n d lin g o g g s, 133 a r e equipped w ith r e f r i g e r a t i o n , th e r e b ein g only 15 o o u n tie s where th e r e i s no r e f r i g ­ e r a t i o n f o r h o ld in g eggs f o r in d o to rm in a to p e r io d s . There a r e ap p ro x im a te ly 60 c o o p e ra tiv e s engaged i n m a rk etin g p o u ltry and eggs i n th e s t a t e , most o f w hich a re d ep artm en ts o f p u rch asin g a s s o c i a t i o n s , s t o r e s , crea m erie s o r e l e v a to r s . C o o p erativ es a re im p o rta n t i n a few com m unities b u t han d le Ic e s th a n 2$ o f th o t o t a l fann egg s a le s i n th e s t a t e . C o o p erativ es o f im portance s h ip t h e i r eggs to e a s te r n m ark ets and assem ble t h e i r r e c e i p t s l a r g e ly from farm e r d e l i v e r i e s .

®Due t o th e w a r, p ro c e s s in g p la n ts in Iowa a re o f in c re a s in g im p o rtan ce. P ro c e s s in g f a c i l i t i e s uro a v a ila b le in 19 c o u n tie s o f th e s t a t e f o r b reak in g s h e l l eggs and f r e e z in g them f o r b a k e ry o r o th e r demands, o r f o r d r ie d egg p r o c e s s in g . In J u n e , 1942, e i g h t d ry in g p la n ts were i n o p e r a tio n i n 7 o o u n tie s w ith lik e lih o o d o f f u tu r e e x p a n sio n . There

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p a r t becau se s t o r e s , th e p rim ary buyers o f fa rm e rs ’ e g g s , c an n o t s e l l a l l th e eggs re c e iv e d "o v er th e c o u n te r" t o t h e i r custom ers and vory o f te n do n o t p u rch ase a s u f f i c i e n t volume to p erfo rm e f f i c i e n t l y th e assem b lin g and s o r tin g n e c e s s a ry f o r shipm ent to d i s t a n t m a rk e ts .

The

s to r e m ust th e n d isp o se of i t s " s u r p lu s " eggs by s e l l i n g t o a lo c a l buying s t a t i o n o r , more t y p i c a l l y , t o a c a r l o t s h ip p e r . Thus th e c a r l o t s h ip p e rs s e rv e as th e m ajo r f o o a l p o in t w ith in th e s t a t e , re c e iv in g th e s u p p lie s o f eggs o f th e farm ers and s a t i s ­ fy in g th e demands o f th e consuming m a rk e ts. (F o o tn o te s co n tin u e d ) ai*e 30 egg b re a k in g p la n ts o p e ra tin g (s p rin g o f 1942) in co n n ec tio n w ith egg d ry in g p la n ts o r s e p a r a t e ly . O d erk irk and W orse, ib i d . p . 13.

A

^ S to re and buying s t a t i o n o u t l e t s f o r e g g s. S to re s lo c a te d i n la r g e u rb an com m unities s e l l e i t h e r a l l o r th e b u lk o f t h e i r eggs to t h e i r c u sto m e rs. I n s u rp lu s s e a s o n s , eggs a ro s o ld t o produce b u y ers o r i t i n e r a n t t r u c k e r s . I n r u r a l a r e a s , s to r e s s e l l o n ly a sm all p e r c e n t t o custom ers and se rv e as th e p rim ary a s s e m b le rs . In a s tu d y made i n J u l y , 1940, h a l f th e s to r e s r e p o r te d t h a t 50 to .100# o f th e eggs h an d led were so ld d i r e c t to produce p la n ts and more th a n 503? r e p o r te d s a l e o f l e s s th a n 25% o f t h e i r egg r e c e ip ts to consum ers. Thus th e m ost im p o rta n t u ltim a te o u t l e t f o r oggs from s to r e s in u rb a n a r e a s i s th e consumer, and in r u r a l a re a s d ir e o t s a le s t o c a r l o t s h ip p e r p la n ts o r t h e i r tr u c k b u y e rs . Buying s t a t i o n s r e p o r tin g i n 'the 1940 su rv ey in d ic a te d t h a t 70# s e l l 75)5 to 100# o f t h e i r r e c e ip ts t o c a r l o t s h ip p e r s . The buying s t a t i o n s a ro th u s c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith th o c a r l o t s h ip p e rs and a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f t h e i r egg r e c e ip ts go to o th e r in d iv id u a l o u t l e t s . O derkirk und H o rse, i b i d . p . 13.

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Tho E x te n t o f G rading by V arious M arket Agents The g ra d in g o f eggs i s f a r from u n iv e r s a l i n Iowa m a rk e ts. g rad in g does ooour.

Some

A d e a le r who must B ell on a grade b a s is is much

more l i k e l y to buy on a g rad ed b a s is th a n one who s e l l s ungraded eg g s. Eggs s o ld in to e a s te r n m ark ets m ust i n many cases be g ra d e d .

I t is

n o t s tr a n g e , th e r e f o r e , t h a t much o f th o i n t e r e s t in g rad in g c e n te rs in d e a le r s who s h ip la rg e q u a n t iti e s o f eggs o u ts id e th e s t a t e . Fanners* r e p o r ts o f g rad e s e l l i n g t o th e v a rio u s a genc ie s In 15 c o u n tie s o f Iowa 1878 r u r a l women wore asked t o r e p o r t th e agency t o w hich th e y s o ld t h e i r eggs " l a s t week" and to r e p o r t as to w hether th e y so ld t h e i r eggs on a grade b a s i s .

These d a ta a re

p re s e n te d i n Table 4 . Table 4 .

Farmers* R eports as t o Vjhethor o r Not They S e l l on a Grade B a s is , as R e la te d to Agency t o Yfliich They Sold Eggsa

Agency so ld to S to ro s Produce p la n ts and buying s t a t i o n s H a tc h e rie s Truok b u y ers O thers and com binations Agency unknown T o ta l (1556) (322 were n o t s e l l i n g eggs) aSouroe: (Q-l-W-40 and Q-l-Yf-41) S ta . P r o je c t 628.

; Do you s e l l on gr ade?__ j : ~ :F a ile d to : Yes : No s answer 63 201 53 22 61 17

632 117 16 40 106 77

23 13 6 1 10 80

422

1000

134

U npublished d a ta • l a . Agr. Exp.

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

Of th o se s e l l i n g e g g s, ro u g h ly tw o - th ir d s re p o r te d th e y were n o t s e ll in g on n grade b a s i s .

Of th o s e viio tr a d e w ith s t o r e s , th e p r o p o rtio n

s e l l i n g on a n o -g rad e b a s is i s te n tim e s th e number s e ll in g on a grade b a s is .

Of th o s e who tr a d e w ith produce p la n ts and buying s t a t i o n s ,

th e p ro p o rtio n i s in th e o th e r d i r e c t i o n ; r e p o r t s e l l i n g on a grade b a s is

as

ap p ro x im a te ly tw ic e as many

on an ungraded b a s i s .

'..lien th o su rv ey was re p e a te d th e fo llo w in g y e a r , tho women wore ask ed n o t o n ly w h eth er th e y s o ld on a grade b a s i s , b u t i f s e l l i n g on a g rade b a s i s , t o g iv e th e q u a n t i t i e s and p r ic e s re c e iv e d by g rad e f o r t h e i r l a s t w eek 's egg s a l e s .

Only 140 o u t o f 570 re p o r te d s e l l i n g on

a grade b a s is and o n e - f o u r th o f th e s e f a i l e d t o in d i c a te how t h e i r eggs were g rad ed . Many o f th e r e p li e s made to th e q u e s tio n n a ir e were h ig h ly u n s a t i s ­ fa c to ry .

For exam ple, sornewhat more th a n o n e - f i f t h o f th o s e r e p o r tin g

how t h e i r eggs were g rad ed s ta t e d t h a t eggs v/ere c la s s e d in to o n ly one g ra d e .

Such a r e p ly i s o b v io u sly m e a n in g le ss.

A v ery sm all p ro p o rtio n

(26 p e r c e n t) o f th o s e r e p o r tin g t h a t th e ag en c ies t o which th e y so ld u se d g rad es s t a t e d t h a t th r e e o r f o u r g rad es were u s e d . D e a le rs ' r e p o r ts o f g rad e buying F u rth e r d a ta on number o f g rad es a r e a v a ila b le from lic e n s e d buyers s e c u re d in a n o th e r su rv ey conducted by th e Iowa A g r ic u lt u r a l Experim ent S ta tio n .'* '

These d a ta w ere o b ta in e d by means o f m a ll q u e s tio n n a ir e s e n t

•'■la. A gr. Exp. S t a . (Q-3 and Q -4 ). P ro je o t 628.

U npublished d a ta c o l le c t e d u n d er

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

t o th e 7,284 lic e n s e d egpj d e a l e r s . s o lf- a d d r o s s e d p o s tc a r d . "*• th e lic e n s e d d e a l e r s .

Tho q u e s tio n s were p r in te d on a

R etu rn s were secu red from 28 p e r c e n t o f

The range o f r e tu r n s was from 2 5 .2 per cen t

i n Crop R ep o rtin g D i s t r i c t Ho. 9 to 33.0 p e r c e n t i n Crop R ep o rtin g D i s t r i c t Ho. 1 , showing f a i r l y uniform g e o g ra p h ic a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f re tu rn s . Tho lic e n s e d d e a le r s we re asked th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s :

"fthat

p o r c e n t o f th e eggs which you h an d led l a s t week did you buy as c u r r e n t r e c e ip ts ?

What p e r c e n t on a g rad e baB is 7

do you have?"

llow many buying g rad es

The p e r t i n e n t d a ta a re p re s e n te d i n T able 5 c l a s s i f i e d

by tho ty p e o f b u s in e s s th e re sp o n d e n t o laim ed . th e d a ta secu red from th e r u r a l women;

These d a ta c o rro b o ra te

few s to r e s bought on g ra d e ,

■while b u y in g s t a t i o n s and produce p la n ts more f r e q u e n tly b o u g h t on a grade b a s i s . A r e f l e c t i o n o f th e ten d en cy f o r g rad in g t o inoi-ease as eggs a r e c o n c e n tra te d and as eggs flow tow ard th e prim ary s u p p lie r s o f consumers i s g iv e n in T able 6 .

These d a ta were d e riv e d by a sk in g th e same

q u e s tio n s as ab o v e, v /ith th e words " s e l l " o r " s e lli n g " s u b s t itu t e d f o r "buy" and "b u y in g ".

The d a ta show a g e n e r a l in o re a s e o f g rad e s e l l i n g

over g ra d e buying b y th e s e a g e n c ie s . S p e c ia l r e p o r t from c a r l o t s h ip p e r s . C a rlo t s h ip p e rs were s e n t O a s p e c ia l q u e s tio n n a ir e , one whioh was lo n g e r and more n e a r ly f i t t e d ^•Presented in th e ap p en d ix , o P re s e n te d i n th e ap p en d ix .

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Table 5 .

• : F a ile d : s t o : Ho : : r e p o r t : g rad e :

Buying agency S to re s Buying s t a t i o n and produce p la n t T ruckers and o th e r

■^Sources

Q -3,

S toreB Buying s t a t i o n s and produce p la n t T ruckers and o th e r

•^-Source:

Q-3.

8

1121

2 0 10

: 1 :

: 2 :

••

••

••

••

••

3 : 4 : «• ••

5 : :

6 : :

7 : T o ta l ••

41

10

4

0

0

0

1241

192 17

57 t J 0 ■0

28 3

24 2

7 2

1 1

2 0

1 0

257 25

1330

57

72

36

13

2

2

1

1523

l a . Agr. Exp. S ta .

Table 6 .

Buying agency

Grade Buying and Humber o f Buying Grades Employed^

P r o je c t 628,

U npublished d a ta •

Grade S e ll in g and Uumber o f Se l l i n g Grades Employed-*:F a i le d : : : t o : Mo : : r e p o r t: grade : 26

999

12 _0 38

• 1 : • •

109

: 2 : ••

: 3 :

: 4 :

5 :

6 :

: 7 : T o ta l

84

15

4

1

2

1

1241

169 __ 14

3 27 __ 1 J 5

18 _2

8 3

9 _1

4 _0

7 _1

257 25

1182

113 114

35

15

11

6

9

1523

I a . A gr. Exp. S ta .

P r o je c t 628,

U npublished d a t a .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

to th e co m p lica ted n a tu re o f t h e i r b u s in e s s .

Only 50 o f th e 187

c a r l o t s h ip p e rs r e p o r te d , y e t th e r e was re a s o n to believe-*- t h a t th e s e d a ta p re s e n te d a r e p r e s e n t a tiv e p ic tu r e o f c a r l o t s h ip n e r o p e r a tio n s . The q u e s tio n n a ir e re q u e s te d t h a t th e s h ip p e r ite m iz e by source o f su p p ly th e t o t a l number o f c a s e s b o u g h t " l a s t w eek".

He was a ls o re q u e s te d

t o e s tim a te th e p e rc e n ta g e o f eggs b o u g h t from each Bourco as c u r r e n t r e c e ip ts and as g ra d e d . b a r c h a r t in F iguro 5 .

The d a ta a re p re s e n te d in a two-way r e l a t i v e The h e ig h t o f th e b a r r e p r e s e n ts th e p e rc e n ta g e

o f eggs bought on grade from th e d e s ig n a te d source w ith th e rem ain d er showing th e p r o p o r tio n bo u g h t ungraded and th e w id th o f th e b a r re p r e s e n ts th e r e l a t i v e volume from th e d e s ig n a te d s o u rc e .

Henoo, th e

mass o f b la c k r e l a t i v e to th e t o t a l sq u are r e p r e s e n ts th e r e l a t i v e volume of eggs bought by c a r l o t s h ip p e rs as g ra d e d .

This i s a l s o

p re s e n te d l i n e a r l y i n th e column t o th e r i g h t o f th e s q u a re .

The

a b s o lu te d a ta from which t h e b a r c h a r t was d e riv e d a r e p re s e n te d in T able 7 .

From th e s e d a ta i t i s e v id e n t t h a t c a r l o t s h ip p e rs have p u r­

sued a p o lic y o f grade bu y in g from fa rm e rs , c u r r e n t r e c e i p t b u y in g from s to r e s and o th e r c u r r e n t r o c e i p t b u y e rs . I n c o n c lu s io n , grade bu y in g has n o t b een v ery e x te n s iv e in Iowa. '■fyie c h i e f b u y er o f eggs from p ro d u c e rs , th e s t o r e s , r a r e l y buys eggs on g ra d e .

The c a r l o t s h ip p e r s g e n e r a lly buy eggs from p ro d u cers on a grade

b a s i s , b u t th e l a r g e s t p e rc e n ta g e o f t h e i r egg r e c e ip ts a re from s to r e i

O pinion o f A.D. O derlcirk, E x ten sio n P o u ltr y M arketing S p e c i a l i s t .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

d O jr to g

p 9 4 & u b * 'i d ( j

UJO JJ

p a p p jg

jy £ n c ? g

* iu n fo /\

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

fig.5 RELATIVE VOLUME OF EGGS BOUGHT BY SELECTED IOWA CARLOT SHIPPERS AS GRADED & UNGRADED FROM DESIGNATED SOURCES: JULY 1940

t\'r

(

213.

Table 7 .

Bought from

Farmers

Volume o f Eggs Bought by S e le c te d Iowa C a r lo t S h ip p ers as Graded and Ungraded from th e D esig n ated Sou r o e s ; One T.'eek l a J u l y , 1940 i s I s

Number o f c a se s b o u g h t • ! Graded : Ungraded t T o ta l 6595

1948

8543

S to re

413

9432

9845

Truck b u y e r

728

2265

2993

2597

5008

7605

404

2031

2435

10,737

2 0,684

31,421

Produce s t a t i o n O thers T o ta l S ources

(Q-4) U n p u b lish ed d a t a . P r o je c t 638,

I a . A gr. Exp. S ta .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

and sm all d e a le r s from which th e y buy on a c u r r o n t r e c e i p t o r n o -g rad e b a s is . The Grades and Grade S p e c if ic a tio n s B eing Used b y Egg BuyorB The method by w hich egg q u a l ity i s commonly m easured i s known as " o a n d lin g " .^

By t h i s method i t i s p o s s ib le t o i d e n t i f y th e b e t t e r eggs

and th e p o o re r eggs w ith re a so n a b le a c c u ra c y , a lth o u g h o n ly w ith d e c id e d ly le s s acc u racy i3 i t p o s s ib lo t o g ra d e th e " in betw een" q u a l i t i e s , ^

In

com m ercial usage i t i s th e o n ly method o f m easuring s h e l l egg q u a lity .® •^For th e b e n e f i t o f th e r e a d e r who may n o t bo a c q u a in te d w ith th e p r e s e n tl y a c c e p te d method f o r m easuring q u a l ity o f s h e l l e g g s, a b r i e f s ta te m e n t i s g iv e n co n cern in g th e te c h n iq u e o f c a n d lin g . The equipm ent needed i s a c a n d le , a w eig h t s c a le and a re a s o n a b ly d ark room w ith acc ess t o d a y lig h t f o r s o r tin g f o r s h e l l c o l o r . N e ith e r an a c c e p ta b le can d le n o r an a c c e p ta b le w e ig h t s c a le c o s ts more th a n two d o l l a r s . The te c h n iq u e i s to h o ld th o egg by th e t i p s o f th o f in g e r s and below th e l e v e l o f th e e y e , la r g e end up so t h a t th e a i r c e l l may be se e n ; p la c e i t b e fo re th o o n e -in c h h o le so t h a t i t i n t e r c e p t s th e beam o f l i g h t s h in in g th ro u g h th e h o le ; and th e n t w i r l th e egg so t h a t th e m o b ility and v i s i b i l i t y o f th e y o lk , c le a r n e s s o f t h e w h ite and p resen ce o r ab sen ce o f germ d e v e l­ opm ent, b lo o d , f o r e ig n m a tte r , e t c . may bo o b se rv e d . The te c h n iq u e r e q u ir e s a f a i r amount o f s k i l l . I t i s n o t a p e r f e c t method and re q u ir e s c o n s id e ra b le stu d y and im provem ent. C f. S te w a r t, George F r a n k lin . P o u ltry p ro d u c ts r e s e a r c h . l a . .Agr. Exp. S t a . R es. B u i. 29 9 . 1942. C f. "G rading e g g s " , p . 711-12. o

S te w a r t, G .F ., G ans, A .R ., and S h arp , P .F . A summary o f th e av erag e c a n d le r* s g rad es w ith opened egg sc o re s on f i f t y - n i n e dozens o f eg g s. U .S . Egg & P o u ltry Mag. 39 n o . 2 :3 7 . F e b ru a ry , 1933.

s

A lthough many eggs a r e judged on th e b a s is o f t h e i r h i s t o r y , cand­ lin g i s n e c e ss a ry i f th e b lo o d and m eat s p o ts o r o th e r f o r e ig n o b je c ts a re to be i d e n t i f i e d .

with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

C andling i s r e q u ir e d u n d er r e g u la tio n s o f th o Iowa S ta te D epartm ent o f A g r ic u ltu r e h u t i t is q u e s tio n a b le how w e ll t h i s ro q u iro m en t i s being e n fo rc e d . in e d ib le e g g s . to egg g r a d in g .

The law r e q u ir e s f u r t h e r t h a t no p erso n may pay f o r This is th e e x te n t to w hich l e g i s l a t i o n in Iowa r e l a t e s As a r e s u l t , w h atev er g ra d in g is p r a c tic e d i s done

on th e b a s is o f g rad es fo rm u lated and in t e r p r e t e d b y th e buying ag en cy . Hence, th e r e e x i s t s l i t t l e u n ifo rm ity o f grade names and grad e s p e c ific a tio n s .

Uniform g rad es betw een lo c a l m arkets a re found o v er

th e s t a t e o nly whore p la n ts o f th o same o r g a n iz a tio n a r e fo u n d .

And

even grade i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as betw een th e p la n ts may v a ry c o n s id e ra b ly as th e r e s u l t o f c o m p e titiv e c o n d itio n s in th o lo c a l m a rk e t.

A su rv ey cf

grad in g methods conducted i n 1932 in d ic a te d t h a t 50 grade d e s ig n a tio n s were b ein g u sed b y 281 f ir m s .

Grades "No. 1 , No. 2" were most f r e q u e n t.

Tho u s u a l tw o -g rad e system is t o p u t i n th e to p grade (No. 1) th e l a r g e r and b e t t e r q u a lity e g g s, and in th e second g rad e (No. 2) th e s m a lle r e g g s, th e la r g e r eggs o f low er q u a lity ,, and th o s e w ith d i r t y o r chocked s h e l l s .

But th e p ro ced u re is f a r from u n ifo rm .

"For

exam ple, 75 firm s u sin g th o No. 1 and No. 2 grade d e s c rib e d th e w eig h t req u irem en ts f o r No. 1.

They wore found to be u s in g 22 d i f f e r e n t

groupings."^The c a r l o t s h ip p e rs were asked in 1941 t o l i s t th o names o f t h e i r buying grad es and t o l i s t th e s p e c if i c a t io n s o f e a c h .

Most o f th e

^■Temohlen, Vi.I). R ep o rt o f a su rv ey o f grad ed egg buying i n Iowa. I a . Agr. ICxp. S ta . C ir c u la r 135. 1932. p . 16.

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

s p e c if i c a t io n s were based, upon th e s p e c if i c a t io n s f o r U .S . g r a d e s , and some o f th e p la n ts even r e f e r r e d t o t h e i r grades as U .S . lix tr a s , U .S. S ta n d a rd s , e t c .

In r e c e n t y e a rs ^ o e r ta in la r g e o rg a n iz a tio n s

have made a d ecid ed e f f o r t w ith f a i r su ccess t o t r a i n t h e i r p la n t o a n d le rs and g ra d e rs t o g ra d e on th e b a s is o f th e s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . However, alth o u g h such a p o lic y i s in tro d u c e d , th e names g iv e n th e s e g rad es a re th o s e o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n and th e r e i s no re a so n t o b e lie v e t h a t th e d eg ree t o which th e p la n ts a re re q u ire d t o grade i n accordance w ith th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i s u n ifo rm as betw een p l a n t s .

Each p la n t has

a un iq u e c o m p e titiv e s i t u a t i o n and s ta n d a rd s a re l i a b l e to change as betw een d i f f e r e n t seasons o f th e y e a r . Uniform g rad in g r e q u ir e s n o t o n ly uniform g rad e names and u n ifo rm grad e s p e c if i c a t io n s b u t a ls o u n ifo rm i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th o s e s p e c if i c a t io n s on th o p a r t o f th e g r a d e r s .

For in s ta n c e , th e c o n d itio n o f th e w h ite f o r

"U .S. E x tra " grad e m ust bo " f ir m " , w h ile f o r "U .S. S ta n d a rd s " , i t may be " re a s o n a b ly f ir m " .

I f th e r e i s to be u n ifo rm ity o f g ra d in g , th e r e

must be co n fo rm ity o f o p in io n as to what c o n s t i t u t e s a "firm " end " re a s o n a b ly firm " w h ite .

I n r e c e n t y e a rs a number o f p l a n t managers

i n Iowa liave become aware o f t h e i r in a d eq u ate g ra d in g m ethods.

Some

p la n ts o r firm s w hich have so ld eggs to th e U .S. Government f o r Lendle a s e o r f o r S u rp lu s M arketing A d m in istra tio n have e x p e rie n c e d d i f f i c u l t y w ith t h e i r g ra d in g methods when th e y a tte m p te d to pack t h e i r eggs in ■^Egg c a n d lin g sch o o ls co n d u cted b y th e l a . A gr. E x t. S e rv ic e a t Ames, have b een w e ll a tte n d e d . The p rim ary purpose o f th e s e sch o o ls i s to te a c h th e g r a d e r th e q u a l i t y f a c to r s o f a b ro k en o u t e g g , how t o i n t e r p r e t th e s e f a c t o r s when se e n b e fo re th e c a n d le , in term s o f U .S . g ra d e s .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .

co n fo rm ity w ith governm ent g ra d e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

'.'.hen th e s e eggs

were sampled and g rad ed by a n a g e n t lic e n s e d by th e U .S . Departm ent o f A g ric u ltu re and th e in s p e c tio n showed t h a t th e eggs f a i l e d to meet grade s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , th o p la n t manager d is c o v e re d t h a t h is g ra d e rs d id n o t know how t o grade o r t h a t h is id e a s o f th o grade s p e c if i c a t io n s had been in c o r r e c t. U nless th e g rad in g i s r i g i d l y s u p e rv is e d , u n ifo rm ity of g ra d in g w i l l n o t and can n o t e x i s t .

lien ee, i n any lo c a l m arket i n Iowa th e o nly

a c c u ra te b a s is upon w hich farm e rs can compare th e p r ic e th e y can g e t f o r t h e i r eggs i s t o compare th e c u r r e n t r e c e i p t p r i c e s .

Grade term s a re

n o t s ta n d a r d iz e d , g rad e s p e c if i c a t io n s a re unknown an d , i f known, th e r e e x i s t s no s u p e rv is in g agency w hich would g u a ra n te e an u n b ia sed and uniform i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e grade s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

lienee, i t i s im­

p o s s ib le to compare a c c u r a te ly p r ic e s o f g rad e b u y e r s . I t i s th u s u n d e rs ta n d a b le why farm ers a r e h e s i t a n t t o s e l l t h e i r eggs on g ra d e . And i t seems h ig h ly p ro b ab lo th o grade b u y in g from farm ers w i l l n e v e r be w e ll a c c e p te d b y farm ers u n t i l th o g ra d e s a re s ta n d a rd iz e d b o th a s t o name and as t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Such o ta n d a rd iz e .tio n may come e i t h e r

th ro u g h j o i n t a d o p tio n by th e l a r g e r p ack er o r g a n iz a tio n o r th ro u g h s t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n and en fo rcem en t. ^ I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th o m arket p r ic e q u o ta tio n u sed by m ost lo c a l m erchants i s b ased on Chicago c u r r e n t r e c e i p t p r i c e . Term inal m arket g rad es do n o t reac h as f a r baok i n th e m arket p ro c e ss as s t o r e s . This is u n d e rs ta n d a b le , i n t h a t o th e r te rm in a l m arket g rad es a re n o t w id ely u n d e rs to o d , w hereas a c u r r e n t r e c e ip t p r ic e i s . S in ce 1923 g e s tu r e s have b een made by th e Hew York M e rc a n tile Exchange and th e Chicago M ercan tile Exchange t o a d o p t a u n ifo rm grade system b u t w ith o u t s u c ­ c e s s . I t i s e x p ec ted t h a t w ith in s e v e r a l months th e Exchanges w i l l be fo rc e d t o co n d u ct tr a d i n g o p e ra tio n s on th e b a s is o f grade to be prom ulgated by th e S e c re ta ry o f A g r ic u ltu r e . This may h e lp t o s ta n d a r d iz e and encourage g rad in g a t c o u n try p o i n t s .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

In summary, alth o u g h th e r e i s a t "best a ten d en cy t o g rad e i n acc o rd ­ ance w ith U .S. Government g r a d e s , th e r e i s no re a s o n to b e lie v e t h a t th o se g rad es may be in t e r p r e t e d b y th e farm e r as having th e e f f e c t o f a u n ifo rm and s ta n d a rd iz e d grade s y ste m .

Much o f th e g ra d in g which is c a r r i e d on

i s o f a nebulous c h a r a c te r , te n d s t o em phasize w e ig h t and s h e l l c le a n ­ l i n e s s w ith lo s s em phasis p la c e d on i n t e r i o r q u a l i t y .

There i s a

s u f f i c i o n t number of l a r g e r d e a le r s who a re g ra d in g on a b a s is s i m i la r t o th e U .S . G rad es, how ever, so t h a t a r i g i d l y e n fo rc e d and w e lls u p e rv is e d system of g ra d in g could be i n s t i t u t e d a t t h i s le v e l w ith in a y e a r 's tim e .

S in ce th e su rv ey s have been ta k e n governm ent buying a t

sh ip p in g p o in t h as h elp ed c o n s id e ra b ly t o inform p la n t managers o f th e ad v an tag es o f a s ta n d a rd iz e d g rad in g sy stem . Egg Q u a lity i n th o Des k o in e s M arket Although le s s th a n 15 p e r c e n t o f th e eggs produced in Iowa a re s o ld to Iowa u rb an consum ers, th e q u a l ity o f eggs s u p p lie d and method by which th e y a r e r e t a i l e d t o th e s e consum ers, sh o u ld n o t be n e g le c te d . h i t h i n Iowa th e r e a re th r e e c o u n tie s w hich d u rin g m ost of th e yes.r, do n o t su p p ly enough eggs t o m eet consum ption n e e d s.

The c i t y o f DesMoines

l i e s in th e c e n te r o f one o f th e s e o o u n tie s , and was s e le o te d f o r s p e c ia l 1 stu d y b y two g ro u p s: The A g r ic u ltu r a l Trade E o la tio n s , I n c . , and th e g Iowa A g r ic u ltu r a l E xperim ent S t a t i o n . The f i r s t s tu d y was made to ^ A g r ic u ltu r a l Trade R e la tio n s . 0£ , o i t . O °M orse, R ichard L ., R eid , J fa rg a re t G ., and O d e rk irk , A.D. Des Moines r e t a i l e r s 1 egg m a rk e tin g p r a c t i c e s , f a l l , 1940. ( S - 4 ) , U npublished d a ta c o lle c te d u n d er pr o j e c t 628. l a . A gr. Exp. S ta .

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

s e c u re a p ic tu r e o f consum ers' and r e t a i l o r s ' a t t i t u d e s toward th e manner in w hich eggs were m erchandised in Dob M oines.

The l a t e r stu d y

was concerned w ith th e manner i n w hich jo b b e rs o f e g g s , r e t a i l e r s and consumers o p e ra te d i n tho m ark et as w e ll as t h e i r a t t i t u d o tow ard th e m a rk e t.

A few o b s e rv a tio n s d e riv e d from th e s e s tu d ie s w i l l bo g iv en

t o p re s e n t some o f th e problem s o f a d e f i c i t m arket i n th e h e a r t o f a s u rp lu s egg p ro d u cin g a r e a . Both s tu d ie s d e p ic t some o f consum ers' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e q u a l ity o f eggs re c e iv e d i n th e Des Moines m arket i n c o n t r a s t t o an alm o st a p p a re n t t o t a l unaw areness on t h e p a r t o f th o r e t a i l e r o f th e consum ers' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . Most o f th e r e t a i l e r s h an d le " f a r m e r s '" eggs and assume th e a t t i t u d e t h a t no egg co u ld be f r e s h e r th a n

" f a r m e r 's " e g g s .

In a s i m i la r

s p i r i t eggs a r e g e n e r a lly a d v e r tis e d and r e f e r r e d t o as " f r e s h " or "o o u n tiy f r e s h " .

One r e t a i l e r r e t o r t e d q u ite in d ig n a n tly when asked

where she had p u rch ased h e r e g g s: tru c k e d them i n . "

" R ig h t from th e fa rm .

The men j u s t

I t so happened t h a t th e eggs she was s e l l i n g showed

smoke s t a i n on th e s h e l l and w areundoubtedly p a r t o f th e l o t o f eggs dumped i n th e Des Moines m ark et from an egg c o n c e n tr a tin g p la n t which had j u s t p re v io u s ly b een b u rn e d . Roughly tw o - th ir d s o f th e r e t a i l e r s i n DeB Moines pu rch ase t h e i r eggs from farm ers (o r f a r m e r s ’ r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s ) d u rin g n in e months o f th e y e a r .

The rem ain in g th r e e months th e y p u rch ase some, i f n o t a l l of

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

t h e i r e g g s , from Des Moinos egg d e a l e r s .

Some s to r e s oven i n th e h e a r t

o f th o o i t y have s u f f i c i e n t farm e r tr a d e so t h a t i t i s o nly o c c a s io n a lly t h a t th e y have t o buy from c i t y egg d o a lo r s . purchase eggs from f a n n e r s .

Almost a l l s to r e s w i l l

Few o f th o s to r e s can d led t h e i r eg g s,

claim in g t h a t th e y knew th e farm e rs and co u ld t r u s t th o so u rce o f s u p p ly . This p r a o tic e o a c u rre d i n s p i t e o f tine f a c t t h a t Iowa l e g i s l a t i o n re q u ire s t h a t a l l eggs s o ld be c a n d le d .

Tho la x 'g e r s t o r e s , how ever,

d id can d le t h e i r eggs b e f o r e s e l l i n g them t o t h o i r c u sto m ers.

I f th e

eggs were g ra d e d , th e y were graded on th o b a s is o f s i s o , s h e l l c le a n lin e s s and s h e l l c o l o r .

Q u ite g e n e r a lly r e t a i l e r s were unaware o f th e d e lic a c y

o f th o i n t e r n a l q u a lity o f e g g s.

bhen th e y wore ask ed t o d e s c rib e th e

q u a l ity o f eggs th e y p u rc h a s e d , th e answ er m ost commonly re c e iv e d was: eggs o f a c e r t a i n w e ig h t p e r c a s e .

And when s e v e r a l r e t a i l e r s were

asked why th e y d id n o t k e e p t h o i r eggs u n d er r e f r i g e r a t i o n , th e y e i t h e r s a id i t was u n n e c e ssa ry or t h a t consum ers would th in k th e y wore cold stora& e e g g s. R e ta ilo r s ex p ressed s k e p tic is m o f egg d e a l e r s , s u s p e c tin g t h a t th e y were o f te n tim e s so ld co ld s to ra g e eggs w ith o u t t h e i r b ein g in fo rm ed . I n m ost ca se s t h e i r s k e p tic is m seems t o have b e e n w a rra n te d .

They a ls o

w ere h e s i t a n t t o t r u s t th e egg d e a l e r , knowing t h a t th e egg d e a le r s o r te d o u t tho f a r m e r s ' eggs i n t o d i f f e r e n t g rad es w hich th e r e t a i l e r did n o t f u l l y u n d e rs ta n d .

F u rth erm o re , th e r e t a i l o r could g e n e r a lly p u rch ase

eggs from farm ers a t a lo w er p r ic e th a n th e y had t o pay f o r graded eggs

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from tlio d e a l e r , i . e . th e y could circum vent i n p a r t th o c o s ts of th e e x t r a h a n d lin g by th e egg d e a l e r . Eggs were p u rch ased i n Des Moines from some 50 r e t a i l s t o r e s , once each i n Septem ber, O otober and November.

At th e tim e o f p u rch ase th e

d e a l e r was ask ed when ho p u rch ased h is e g g s, th e p r ic e p aid and th e g rad e b o u g h t.

P r ic e q u o ta tio n s by grade were a ls o se c u re d from Des

Moines egg d e a le r s w ith whom th e r e t a i l d a ta were ch eck ed .

hhon th e r e

was a d i s p a r i t y betw een th e in fo rm a tio n from th e two so u rces egg d e a le r s were ask ed t o e x p la in i t .

The d e a le r s w ere u n u s u a lly c o o p e ra tiv e and

were w ill in g to g iv e w h atev e r in fo rm a tio n was r e q u e s te d .

Some d e a le rs

m a in ta in e d u n ifo rm g rad es and p r ic e q u o ta tio n s f o r a l l b u y e rs;

and a l l

s to r e s p u ro h asin g from th e s e d e a le r s quoted i d e n t i o a l g rad e names and p ric e s . dem ands."

O th er d e a le r s "made th e g rad e and p r ic e to s u i t th e r e t a i l e r ’s A lthough th e s e d e a le r s had t h e i r own d e f i n i t e g rad es o r

p r i c e s , th e s e -were n o t q u o ted to th e r e t a i l e r .

I t m ig h t be t h a t

"Ho, 1 ," " E x tr a s ," and " S e le c ts " wore a c tu a lly a l l th o same g rad e o f eg g , s o ld u n d er th e s e d i f f e r e n t names t o d i f f e r e n t r e t a i l e r s ,

And r e t a i l e r s

who were u n w illin g t o pay t h e p r ic e f o r t h i s g rad e wore s o ld eggs a t a low er p rio e and oommonly receiv ed cold s to ra g e e g g s .

S e v e ra l d e a le r s

a d m itte d t h a t th e y mixod o o ld s to r a g e i n w ith th e f r e s h e g g s, o th e rs s a id th e y to ld th o r e t a i l e r w h e th e r th e eggs wore o o ld s to r a g e o r n o t o n ly when ask ed .

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The p l i g h t o f th e egg d e a le r s was w e ll e x p re sse d by one o f th e d e a le rs :

"Nine months o f t h e y e a r we a re t r y i n g to f in d r e t a i l e r s who

w i l l buy e g g s , th e o th e r th r e e months we s e a rc h th e c o u n try f o r enough eggs t o su p p ly them .

How ca n we d ev elo p a m erch an d isin g orogram?

They

don’t w ant o u r eggs when th e eggs a re good and p l e n t i f u l , b u t th e y want them when good eggs a r e s c a rc e i f th e y a re to be had a t a l l . "

The

egg d e a le r i3 a ls o f r u s t r a t e d by tho ig n o ran ce o f most r e t a i l e r s con­ c ern in g egg q u a l i t y .

No d e a le r has boen s u c c e s s f u l in s e l l i n g to

r e t a i l e r s a b e t t o r q u a l ity eg g .

This i s in p a r t b ecau se r e t a i l o r s do

n o t u n d e rsta n d egg q u a l ity and a ls o beoauso th e y f e e l t h a t consumers w ould b e u n w illin g t o pay th e e x tr a p r ic e o v er w hat th e y m ust pay f o r s o - c a ll e d " c o u n try f r e s h " e g g s, or 7/hat th e r e t a i l e r would have to pay t o g o t a c t u a l l y co u n try f r e s h e g g s. Thore i s a ls o some re a s o n t o s u s p e c t do n o t know egg q u a l i t y .

t h a t some o f th e egg d e a le rs

Die l a r g e s t s u p p lie r o f eggs to ues Moines

r e t a i l o r s , a f t e r h av in g re c e iv e d a c o n t r a c t to su p p ly two q u a l i t i e s o f eggs to th o l a r g e s t c h a in s to r o i n Des M oines, re q u e s te d t h a t an in s p e c tio n be made o f th e s e e g g s .

He s a id he was a tte m p tin g t o p u t in th e to p grade

th e e q u iv a lo n t o f U .S. E x tra s and i n th e second g rad e U .S . S ta n d a rd s . Eggs 7/ore p u rch ased a t th o s to r e s and in s p e c te d . b e a r o u t th o p o lic y o f th e d e a lo r j i n q u a l ity o f th e two g r a d e s .

The r e s u l t s f a i l e d to

th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e

F U rther in s p e c tio n conducted a t th e

d e a l e r ’ s e s ta b lis h m e n t le d t o th e b e l i e f t h a t th e grade o f eggs packed f o r th e r e t a i l e r was d eterm in e d more b y th e q u a l i t y o f eggs as reo eiv ed

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by th e egg d e a l e r th a n b y th o e f f o r t s o f th e g r a d e r ;

t h a t i s , th e to p

g ra d e , graded " e x tr a s " i f th e o r i g i n a l eggs were o f " e x tra " q u a l i t y , and " s ta n d a rd s " i f th e o r i g i n a l f r e s h ware o f " sta n d a rd " q u a l i t y .

The

g ra d e rs a p p a r e n tly had no sta n d a rd s o f judgm ent. The consum er r e a c t i o n t o th e manner in w hich eggs a re m erchandised i n Des Moines was s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f r e t a i l e r s ;

w h erev er p o s s ib le th e y

ten d ed t o p u rch ase fa rm e rs ’ eggs and many r e p o r te d t h a t th e y re fu s e d to buy " s to r e " e g g s.

F u r th e r s ta te m e n ts co n ce rn in g consum ers’ a t t i t u d e s

i s g iv e n i n th e c h a p te r on consum ers’ p r e f e r e n c e s . The q u a l ity o f eggs s u p p lie d by r e t a i l e r s t o Dos Moines consumers i n th e mohths o f Septem ber, O ctober and November in 1940 av erag ed U .S. S ta n d a rd s .

The q u a l i t y was low er i n Septem ber th a n in November.

Of

th e eggs sampled from th e 55 s to r e s d u rin g th e s e th r e e months o n ly one dozen g rad ed as h ig h as U .S. li'x tra , w h ile 5 dozen graded U .S . Trades o r lo w er.

I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o n o te t h a t C a lif o r n ia p r o h ib i ts th e s a le a t

r e t a i l o f eggs o f U .S . T ra d e s.

The q u a l ity o f eggs p u rch ased from s to r e s

■which r e p o r te d ly p u rch ased from farm ers was s l i g h t l y h ig h e r i n one month and low er in th o n e x t th a n eggs pu ro h ased from s to r e s w hich p u rch ased eggs from egg d e a l e r s .

The d a ta do n o t s u p p o rt th e n o tio n t h a t

" fa rm e rs ’ " eggs s o ld i n Des Moines t o r e t a i l e r s a r e o f h ig h e r q u a l ity th a n th o s e reac h in g r e t a i l o r s th ro u g h in te r v e n in g m iddlem en. In c o n c lu sio n i t may be s a id t h a t th e e n t i r e Des Moines egg m ark et i s c o n fu se d .

The q u a l i t y o f eggs o ffe re d a t r e t a i l i s low er th a n m ight

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be ex p eo ted c o n s id e rin g i t s p ro x im ity to egg p ro d u c tio n a r e a s .

U n til

m arket s ta n d a rd s a re d eveloped th e m ark et te rm in o lo g y and su ch g rad in g as o ccu rs may n o t be ex p ec ted t o im prove. Some F a o to rs VJhiah R etard o r Promote Egg G rading S e v e ra l f a o to r s te n d to promote developm ent o f egg g rad in g i n Iowa: 1.

P urch ases o f eggs by th e A g r ic u ltu r a l M arketing A d m in is tra tio n f o r le n d -le a s e and r e l i e f d i s t r i b u t i o n , and p u rch ases by th e Army and Navy have b een e f f e c t i v e i n e d u c a tin g d e a le r s in Iowa as w e ll as i n o th e r m arkets a b o u t governm ent g ra d e s p e c if i c a t io n s and s ta n d a r d s . Much o f th e c r i t i c i s m o f government g ra d in g , w hich ap p ears t o have b een q u ite w id esp read in Iow a, h as a r i s e n o u t o f m isin fo rm a tio n and m isu n d e rsta n d in g .

M isu n d erstan d in g o f U .S . g r a d e s , how ever, has n o t

b een co n fin e d t o Iowa.

One o f th e l a r g e r r e c e iv e r s i n Hew York C ity

co n fessed t o th e w r i t e r t h a t he was q u ite o h ag rin e d a f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r o f la r g e - s c a le governm ent b u y in g o f eggs a t having f a i l e d t o r e a l ­ i z e t h a t had he known t h e governm ent g rad es he oould have made c o n s id e r­ a b le money.

And s i g n i f i c a n t a ls o a r e th e r e p o r ts of egg in s p e c to rs

o p e ra tin g i n th e s t a t e o f Iowa r e l a t i v e t o th e change in a t t i t u d e o f many-.of th e l a r g e r d e a le r s tow ard governm ent g r a d e s .

These d e a le rs

a r e b eg in n in g t o a p p r e c ia te th e v a lu e o f a s t r i c t grade program . 2.

The eg & g ra d in g s h o r t c o u r s e s , conducted a n n u a lly by Iowa S ta t e C ollege i n re c e n t y e a r s , have u n d o u b ted ly h e lp e d t o e d u o ate r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s

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o f th e la r g e r d e a le r s i n Iowa as to a c c e p ta b le g ra d in g .

Also th e r e

has been developed s u f f i c i e n t e x p e rie n c e i n h a n d lin g th e s e sch o o ls so t h a t i t i s now f e l t t h a t th e y could be conducted th ro u g h o u t th e s t a t e in one-week i n t e r v a l s and i n one y e a r 's tim e th e e n t i r e s t a t e oould b e covered and a l l egg g ra d e rs examined and c e r t i f i e d . 3.

There i s c o n s id e ra b le d is c u s s io n to th e e f f e c t t h a t w ith in a month o r two th e S e c re ta ry o f A g r ic u ltu r e w i l l prom ulgate o f f i c i a l egg g ra d e s .

I f t h i s o ccu rs i t m i l mean t h a t a l l exchanges u n d er th e

p ro v is io n s o f th e Commodity Ibcohange Act w i l l be re q u ire d t o tr a d e on th e b a s is o f th e s e g r a d e s .

I t i s ex p ected t h a t t h i s a c tio n w i l l

g r e a t ly s tim u la te th o a d o p tio n o f th o se s ta n d a rd s f o r g ra d in g i n Iow a. 4.

A ll s t a t e s d i r e c t l y e a s t o f Iowa w ith th e o x o ep tio n o f I l l i n o i s have e n a c te d egg l e g i s l a t i o n t o p r o te c t t h o i r q u a l i t y egg m a rk e ts.

There

a re i n d i c a t i o n s 't h a t more s t a t e s a r e b e g in n in g t o r e a l i z e t h a t le g ­ i s l a t i o n is a ls o needed t o p r o t e c t th e consumers o f low er q u a l ity e g g s, and t h a t " f r e s h egg law s" have b een only a s t a r t . *

Mow York S ta te

•*-Gtte, A lfre d V«. , In C harge, D iv is io n o f P o u ltr y and Eggs, S ta te D epart­ ment o f A g r ic u ltu r e , C o n n e c tic u t, J u ly 10, 1942. P e rs o n a l l e t t e r t o Mr. Ralph B ak er. " A fte r e le v e n y e a rs o f egg law enforcem ent I f ir m ly b e lie v e t h a t a l l o f th e v a rio u s groups a f f e c t e d by t h i s law (p o ultrym on, w h o le s a le r s , jo b b e r s , r e t a i l e r s and consum ers) have p r o f it e d g r e a t l y ; th o consumer by b ein g a s s u re d o f r e c e iv in g th e q u a l ity o f oggs which he can r e a s ­ on ab ly e x p e c t when bu y in g f r e s h e g g s, and a l l o f th e o th e rs named b y th e e lim in a tio n o f u n f a i r c o m p e titio n due t o i n f e r i o r ogg3 b ein g s o ld as eggs o f h ig h q u a l i t y , w hich was th e case p rev io u s t o th o tim e th e lav/ w ent in t o e f f e c t . "Wide p u b l i c i t y d u rin g th e f i r s t few y e a rs of t h i s law v e ry d e f i n i t e l y , I b e l i e v e , made th e p ro d u cer more q u a l ity co n scio u s and a s a r e s u l t

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r e q u ir e s t h a t a l l eggs s o ld a t r e t a i l be g rad ed and s o ld i n acco rd w ith s t i p u l a t e d g rad e l a b e l s ;

w h ile m ost o f th o o th e r s t a t e s r e q u ir e t h a t i f

an egg i s t o be c a l l e d ’’f r e s h " , i t m ust b e " f r e s h " as d e fin e d by law . Because Io w a's eggs a r e so ld o u ts id e th e s t a t e , th o f u l l e f f o o t o f th e s e s t a t e law s m i l be f e l t in Iowa i n tim e .

.ils o i t i s q u ito p o s s ib le t h a t

th e O ffic e o f P r ic e A d m in is tra tio n m y fin d i t n e c e s s a ry to re q u ir e t h a t a l l eggs be so ld a t r e t a i l in acco rd w ith s t i p u l a t o d g r a d e s . S e v e ra l f a o to r s te n d t o r e ta r d developm ent o f egg g rad in g i n Iowa: Lack o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p ro b lem .

P ro b ab ly th e c h i e f o b s ta c le t o

refo rm i s th e la c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c o n d itio n s which e x i s t and f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c ia te w hat th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a ro f o r re fo rm .

This f a c t

was c l e a r l y b ro u g h t o u t in th e co u rse o f th e su rv ey made i n th e c i t y o f Des k o in e s .

When th e a u th o r was p lan n in g th e above-m entioned surveys

conducted i n Des Moines he c o n ta o te d Mr. P o t t e r , th e S e c re ta ry of th e Des Moines R e t a il G ro c e rs ’ and Moat D e a le rs ’ A s s o c ia tio n ,

P erso n n el

and o f f i c e f a c i l i t i e s had b e e n o f f e r e d t o th e A g r ic u ltu r a l Experim ent S ta t io n by th e A g r ic u I tu r n l Trade R e la tio n s , I n c . , a p u b lic r e l a t i o n s he i s p roducing eggs o f a much h ig h o r q u a l ity th a n was tr u e in form er y e a rs. "Ono o r i t i c i s m t h a t I have o f t h i s law i s t h a t i t does n o t cover th e com plete range in q u a l i t y , t h a t i s S p e c ia ls , E x tr a s , S tan d ard s and T rad e s, and I b e lie v e t h a t a lav; s im i la r t o th e ono now in e f f e c t in New York S ta te would prove even more b e n e f i c i a l th a n th e ty p e now i n e f f e c t i n C o n n e c tic u t, I am o f th e o p in io n t h a t i t would be p o s s ib le f o r us t o ohange t o t h i s ty p e o f law any tim e w ith o u t muoh o p p o s itio n from any o f th e groups in v o lv e d . T h is , o f c o u rs e , would in c re a s e th e en fo rcem en t d i f f i c u l t i e s as th e y w ould be s l i g h t l y more co m p lica ted . I would n o t , how ever, recommend t h a t a s t a t e p re v io u s ly w ith o u t any egg law a d o p t a com pulsory law such as th e New York S ta te Law. They sh o u ld work in to i t g r a d u a lly u s in g a v o lu n ta ry law such as i s now i n e f f e c t i n C o n n e c tic u t.”

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o rg a n iz a tio n o f c h ain s t o r e s , and th e lo o a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f in d ep en d en t s t o r e s .

Mr. P o tte r o f f e r e d o f f ic e f a c i l i t i e s and

such o th e r h e lp a s he m ight be a b le to re n d e r , on th e s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t th e su rv ey was n o t t o be usod to s e c u re egg l e g i s l a t i o n .

He

reco g n ized th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p u b lis h in g th e fin d in g s o f th e survey which would be made a v a ila b le f o r th o u se o f any groups w hich chose t o use them f o r s u p p o rt o f l e g i s l a t i o n o r any o th e r p u rp o se,

Vdien

th e eggs were p u rch ased a t r e t a i l i n Dos M oines, Mr. P o tte r was in v i te d t o w atch th e in s p e c t o r as he graded th e eggs and t o p e rs o n a lly in s p e c t th e q u a l ity o f eggs as r e t a i l e d by th e members o f h is a s s o c ia t io n .

In h is n e x t n e w s le tte r t o th o a s s o c ia t io n he

reprim anded th e membership f o r th e q u a lity o f eggs b ein g sold."*" R e t a il G rocers & Meat D ealers a s s o c ia tio n B u l l e t i n . Des M oines. O ctober 2 9 , 1940. "S atu rd ay morning X w ent over to one o f th e p acking companies and w atched two boys from Iowa S ta te C ollege a t Ames grade e g g s. These eggs were p u rch ased in dozen l o t s from v a rio u s g ro c e ry s to r e s h e re in Des I,loine3. How i f you w i l l r e f e r t o th e c h a r t w hich I s e n t you ab o u t two weeks ag o , you w i l l know w hat I mean when I say t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f th e s e eggs wont u n d er th o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f 's t a n d a r d s , ' and n o t more th a n two o ut o f any one dozen would grade 's p e c i a l ' o r 'e x t r a s p e c i a l '. a s u r p r is in g ly la r g e number were checked o r crack ed and were c l a s s i f i e d as d i r t y . Out o f t h i s group o f e g g s, I would say t h a t most o f them wore s to ra g e o r had b ean h eld f o r some tim e . I u se d t o th in k t h a t I could t e l l a f r e s h egg by h a n d lin g i t , b u t n o t th e s e oggs as th e s h e ll s ap p eared to have b een tr e a t e d t o e i t h e r ta k e o f f th e s h in e , o r t o make them lo o k c le a n . "The s to r y back o f t h i s i s t h a t you can g e t b e t t e r eggs i n th e e a s te r n s t a t e s th a n you can r i g h t h e r e . L a te r on you w i l l p ro b ab ly le a r n t h a t someone w ants t o p ass s t r i c t e r egg laws h e re i n th e s t a t e o f Iowa. I t iB my o p in io n t h a t o u r b e s t eggs may be g o in g e a s t o r e ls e we have v e ry poor en fo rcem en t o f th e egg laws we a lre a d y h a v e . C e r ta in ly th e s e eggs e i t h e r w ere n o t can d led a t a l l when th e y oame from th e

with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

Opo w u v

•

W ith in a month ho "began ta llc o f l e g i s l a t i o n , and w ith in th r e e months lie had a rra n g e d f o r a m ooting w ith a r e p r e s e n t a tiv e i n th e le g is la tu re . 2♦

Lack o f group s u p p o rt f o r reform l e g i s l a t i o n The c a r l o t s h ip p e r s ' o r g a n iz a tio n , i t is f e l t , would fa v o r th e in a u g u ra tio n o f a w e ll-e n f o r c e d and com prehensive grade sy stem . This is i n p a r t u n d e rs ta n d a b le b o th because i n m ost ca se s th e y s e l l in t o m ark ets where eggs a r e bought and so ld on a graded b a s i s . The r e t a i l s to r e group as a u n i t s e e s g rad in g s o n ly as som ething which w i l l h u r t th e s m a ll d e a le r and b e n e f i t th o b ig p a c k e r.

The

le a d in g farm o r g a n iz a tio n s o f th e s t a t e havo n o t p re s s e d f o r egg g rad in g l e g i s l a t i o n ,

alth o u g h i n 1940-41 th e Iowa Farm bureau

F e d e ra tio n ex p ressed an i n t e r e s t in fo rm u la tin g an egg g rad in g b i l l t o p re s e n t to th e l e g i s l a t u r e .

But when th e Farm Bureau promoted

th e "Iowa "Poultry P ro d u c e rs ' M arketing A s s o c ia tio n " and f a i l e d , i n t e r e s t co ased .

The o n ly reaso n g iv e n f o r th e sudden lo s s o f

i n t e r e s t b y t h e i r r e p r e s e n ta tiv e was t h a t th e y had conducted re s e a rc h and concluded t h a t i t was q u e s tio n a b le w hether egg g ra d in g was b e n e f i c i a l t o th e f a n n e r .

Thus th o o n ly p r e s s u r e group w hich has

to C hicago; j> to P h i l . ; ft to B oston;

j

to Des M oinesf

p o i n t s , s p o c if y c i t i e s

j

to o th e r Iowa p o in ts ; ._______________________ ;

$ to o th e r w estern f> to o th e r e a s te r n

p o i n t s , s p e c if y c i t i e s ___________________________ . Towa“ STfaTe~College- oT A g r ic u ltu r e an d M echanrc~A rt's,“ Exte'hsio'n- S d rv ice R. K. B l i s s , D ir e c t o r . C o o p erativ e E x t. work in A gr, and Home Econom ics, I . S . C . , U .S.D .A . c o o p e ra tin g . D is tr ib u t e d in F u rth e ra n c e o f th e A cts of C ongress o f Kay S and Ju n e 30 , 191^.

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

S chedule No. 5 - Consumer Schedule

280

*

S“0

I n te r v ie w e r____________________

1.

How many p e rs o n s a day a r e you p r e p a r in g m eals fo r?

_.______________ p erso n s

2.

How many eggs d id you u s e l a s t w e e k ? ___________ dozen

3.

Number and u s e s o f eggs u se d l a s t week. Times f o r : ______________ b r e a k f a s t eg g s. U ses: A____ b_____ c____ ______________ n o o n ________e g g s . a ____ b_____ c_____ ______________ n ig h t eg g s. a ____ b_____ c_____ T o ta l eg g s. a—poaching, f r y in g , b o il in g b—c u s ta r d s , s o u f f le s , eggnogs, om elets c—bak in g w ith f lo u r m ix tu re s

ty. Do you in c lu d e eggs in d i e t of c h ild r e n 2-7 y e a rs o f age? Yes No___ b) How many eggs a day p e r c h ild d id you u se l a s t w e e k ? _____ eggs. 5. 6.

Are th e r e any members o f y o u r fa m ily on s p e c ia l egg d ie t? Yes No___ b) C irc u m stan ce s:______________________________ __________ _________________________ Are th e re any members of y o u r fa m ily who d o n 't e a t eggs? Yes No___ b) Reason why: A lle rg y ________ ; d i s l i k e ; o th e r ___________________ _

7.

Do you se rv e eggs more f r e q u e n tly on F rid a y s th a n on o th e r days?

2.

At what seaso n of

9 . At what season of

l a s t y e a r d id you u se most eggs?

Yes

No____

_________

Why?_____________

l a s t y e a r d id you u se l e a s t eggs? _________

Why?_____________

10. Seasons when you u se l e a s t eggs, what u s e s do you e lim in a te ? ___________________ 11. Seasons when you u se most eggs, what a r e th e a d d i tio n a l u se s? __________________ 12. How many r e c ip e s f o r egg d is h e s , in c lu d in g an g el food cak es, have you c o l l e c t e d t h i s p a s t y e a r? ________ b) Do you keep a f i l e of r e c ip e s ? ______________________ 13. Do you bake most o f y o u r own cakes? Yes_____No_ b) How many cakes have you bought in l a s t two weeks?_________

lb . Do you buy eggs y o u r s e lf ?

, O rder by phone?

Made?________

, Or send c h ild r e n ? _______

15. Where d id you l a s t p u rc h a se eggs?_______ ________ __________________________________ b) How many d id you -purchase? d o zen . What p r i c e d id you pay? 4 p e r doz. 16 . How many d i f f e r e n t q u a l ity eggs d id r e t a i l e r have? a ) _________________________ b) 17 .

( P r ic e and d e s c r ip tio n ) c ) __________________________

Which g rad e d id you buy? b e s t brown w hite No. 1 c h e a p e st fre sh a b c____ b) Did r e t a i l e r have eggs u n d er r e f r i g e r a t i o n on c o u n te r c a rto n s ___

No. 2

p u l l e t ___

in c a s e s

in

12. Where do you buy y o u r eggs most f r e q u e n tly ? __________________________________ b) S to re Milk r o u te farm er egg d e a le r h u c k s te r su p er m arket___ c) Are most o f y o u r g r o c e r ie s from t h i s source? Yes________No__ d) D istan ce to s to re ? _______ b lo c k s 19 .

From what o th e r s to r e s o r d e a le r s have you p u rch ased eggs in l a s t month?_________ _______________________ b) In l a s t y e a r? __________________ c ) Where were b e s t q u a l ity eggs of l a s t month p u rch ased ?__________________________

R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.

281.

20. Do you make a p r a c t i c e of w atching f o r s to r e a d v e rtis e m e n ts in th e p a p e r or s to r e c ir c u la r s ? Yes No_____ b) Buy t h e i r b a rg a in s? Yes No__ c) Where d id you l a s t see eggs a d v e r tis e d ? ___________________ 21. Hov; many tim es a week do you p u rch ase eggs? Summer_______ Y /inter______ b) How many eggs do you buy a t a tim e? Summer. dozen. W inter dozen. 22. Do you g e n e r a lly buy eggs: In sack , in 3 ^ ' c a r to n b ) Do you ev er buy eggs w ith q u a lity se a l? Yes No 23.

S h e ll c o lo r d e s ir e d :

, in 2x6 c a r to n . Where?__________________

Y/hite_____ , brown_____ , no p re f e r e n c e _____ .

2*+. Do you buy th e same q u a lity of eggs f o r poaching and f r y in g th a t you b’iy f o r bailing? Yes No b) I f n o t, what d i s t i n c t i o n do you make when buying?______ ____________________________________ Y/hen u sin g ? _______________________________________ 25.

How many eggs would you u se n e x t week i f th e p r ic e were. 9!? b) You d id buy ______ dozen l a s t week, c) To what u se would you p u t th e a d d i tio n a l eggs?_______

26. Hov; many eggs would you u se i f th e p r ic e were _______ 9/? b) Y/here would you cut down?_______________________________________________________ __ c ) What would you s u b s t itu t e ? ________________________________________________________ 27.

How much a re eggs s e l l i n g f o r now? ________________