Educational Management [1 ed.] 9789350440025, 9788184888966

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Educational Management Ms. Ashima, V. Deshmukh Dr. Anju P. Naik

First Edition: 2010

I§I GJIirnalaya GpgblishingGJIouse MUMBAI • NEW DELHI • NAGPUR • BENGALURU • HYDERABAD • CHENNAJ • PUNE • lUCKNOW • AHMEDABAD • ERNAKULAM • BHUBANESWAR • INDORE' KOlKATA

, © Authors No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form of by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publishers.

ISBN

: 978-81-84888-96-6

First Edition: 2010

Published by

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Branch Offices

New Delhi

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Nagpur

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Bengaluru

No. 1611 (Old 12/1), 1st Floor, Next to Hotel Highlands, Madhava Nagar, Race Course Road, Bengaluru - 560 001. Phone: 22281541, 22385461, Telefax: 080-22286611

Hyderabad

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Chennai

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Pune

First Floor, "Laksha" Apartment, No. 527, Mehunpura, Shaniwarpeth (Near Prabhat Theatre), Pune - 411 030. Phone: 020-24496323/24496333

Lucknow

Jai Baba Bhavan, Near Dr. Sanjiv Awasthi, Church Road, Kurshi Road, Aliganj, Lucknow - 226 024. Mobile: 9305302158, 9415349385, 9389593752

Ahmedabad

114, "SHAlL", 1st Floor, Opp. Madhu Sudan House, C.G.Road, Navrang Pura, Ahmedabad- 380 009. Phone: 079-26560126, Mobile: 09327324149,09314679413

Ernakulam

39/104 A, Lakshmi Apartment, Karikkamuri Cross Rd., Ermikulam, Cochin - 622011, Kerala. Phone: 0484-2378012, 2378016, Mob.: 09344199799

Bhubaneswar

5 Station Square, Bhubaneswar (Orissa) - 751 001. Mobile: ,9861046007

Indore

Kesardeep Avenue Extension, 73, Narayan Bagh, Flat No. 302, Ilird Floor, Near Humpty Dumpty School, Narayan Bagh, Indore 452 007(M.P.) Mobile: 09301386468

Kolkata

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Typeset by

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Printed by

Heramb Printers, Mumbai.

CONTENTS

Section I: Management 1.

Management

2.

Educational Management

3.

Systems Approach to Educational Management

3-66 67-91 92 -113

Section II: Organizational Management 4.

Organizational Management

117 -

150

5.

Role of Leader in Effective Performance

151-188

6.

Effective Classroom Management

189 -

7.

Institutional Discipline

205 - 217

8.

Behaviour and Discipline

218 - 242

9.

Staff Meeting

243 - 259

204

Section III: Institutional Management 10. Institutional Planning

263 - 288

1I. Timetable

289 - 299

12. Event Management

300 - 325

13. Institutional Quality

326 - 362

14. Institutional Network

363 - 377

Section IV: Resource Management: Human and Materials 15. Resource Management: Human and Materials

381- 417

16. Performance Appraisal

418 -

449

17. Parent Teacher Association

450 - 458

18. Essential Institutional Records

459 - 475

Section V: Administrative Authorities 19.

Educational Administration Authorities of India

479 - 492

20.

Secondary School Code

493 - 506

21.

Characteristics of National and International Systems of Education in India

507 - 577

Section VI: Modern Trends in Management Thoughts 22.

Modern Trends in Educational Management

581- 599

Glossary

600 - 608

SECTION I

MANAGEMENT

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Chapter

MANAGEMENT

~

,~~

'M

""

Learning Objectives >~

~,,~

y,

...>i

After studying this chapter, you will be able to understand: The concept, objectives and importance of management; The concept of management as on activity, process, discipline and group; The nature of management as a science, an art and profession; Different views on management and administration; The various management functions; ~ '

The nature and importance of coordination in management.

Structure ,>,

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

'

,

Introduction Concept of Management Nature and Features of Management Levels of Management Objectives of Management Evolution of The Theory and Practice of Management Definitions of Management with reference to Functions of Management Importance of Management Management and Administration

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Educational Management

---------This chapter is very important for any student to understand the "concept of management" in brief, as it will help to develop and understanding of the fundamental concept of educational management well. Hence, the author has made an attempt to first talk about the aspects of management.

1; 1 INTRODUCTION What is Management? Management is an universal phenomenon. Management is a very popular term in present time. All organisations - business, political, cultural or social are involved in management because it is the management, which helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose, It is used in various fields as it has an important role in all types of work. It has developed as an independent discipline of its own. But in educational field, management has new role to play and hence it has to be 'understood very well. Thus, educational management is very important in today's time for any educational institution. The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle - especially a horse), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later menagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th Centuries. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.

1.2 CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT Management can be defined in detail in the following categories: 1. 2.

Management as a Discipline and Science Management as a Group

3. 4.

Management as a Process and Activity Management as an Art

5.

Management a~ a Profession

Management as a Discipline Management as a Discipline refers to that branch of knowledge, which is connected to study of principles and practices of basic administration. It specifies certain code of conduct to be followed by the manager and also various methods for managing resources efficiently. Management as a discipline specifies cert~in code of conduct for managers and indicates various methods of managing an enterPrise. Management is a course of study, which is now formally being taught in the institutes and universities after completing a prescribed course or by obtaining degree or diploma in management, a person can get employment as a manager.

Management

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One has to understand that management as a discipline can be established from the following characteristics and the capabilities of this subject. The nature of management is characterized by their instrumentality (as a tool to work), contingency (as and when required) and processuality (as in process of work). These three attributes suggest three basic questions indicating management is three-dimensional. They are:•

What do managers do?

•

What affects what they do?

•

How do they do it?

Management as a branch of knowledge fulfils the following two requirements as discipline: 1. There are scholars and thinkers who have communicated relevant knowledge through research and publications in the area of management. Besides this, management knowledge is verifiable and tested. Various management research studies have been duplicated and tested by corporate sectors and companies for development. The scope of management is wide spreads and its peripheral boundaries merge with other disciplines. 2.

This management knowledge has been formally imparted by education and training programmes as a regular subject for certification.

Management as a discipline draws its knowledge from philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics and finance. Since management satisfies both these requirements, therefore it qualifies to be a discipline. Though it is comparatively a new discipline but it is growing at a faster pace.

Management an Academic Discipline It is substantive knowledge of concepts, theories, laws and applications in practice. Management is an art when the body of knowledge is used judiciously for human welfare, free from bias, discrimination and exploitation. Any individual who is a scholar and develops insight into this subject of management and practices it is exercising as a profession. Management as a discipline refers to that branch of knowledge, which is connected to study of principles and practices of basic administration. It specifies certain code of conduct to be followed by the manager and also various methods for managing resources efficiently. Management as a discipline specifies certain code of conduct for managers and indicates various methods of managing an enterprise. Management is a course of study that is now formally being taught in the institutes and universities after completing a prescribed course or by obtaining degree or diploma in management, a person can get employment as a manager. Any branch of knowledge that fulfils the following two requirements is known as discipline: 1.

There must be scholars and thinkers who communicate relevant knowledge through research and publications.

2.

The knowledge should be formally imparted by education and training programmes.

Since management satisfies both these problems, therefore it qualifies to be a discipline. Though it is comparatively a new discipline but it is growing at a faster pace.

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Educational Management

--------Management Is a Science Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to a specific field of study that contains general facts, which explains a phenomenon. It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more variables and underlines the principles governing their relationship. These principles are developed through scientific method of observation and verification through testing. Science is characterized by the followirm main features:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Universal acceptance of principles: Scientific principles represents basic truth about a particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time and at all places. E.g.,law of gravitation, which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. Management also contains some fundamental principles which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of Command, i.e., one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organisations - business or non-business. Experimentation and Observation: Scientific prinCiples are derived through scientific investigation and researching, i.e., they are based on logic. E.g., the principle that earth goes, round the sun has been scientifically proved. Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry and observation and not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments and practical experiences of large numbers of managers. E.g., it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a satisfied work force. Cause and Effect of Relationship: Principles of science lay down cause and effect of relationship between various variables. E.g., when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating and result is expansion. The same is true for management; therefore it also establishes cause and effect relationship. E.g., lack of parity (balance) between authority and responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If you know the cause, Le., lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily, Le., in effectiveness. Similarly, if workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not treated in fair and just manner, reduces productivity of the organisation. Test of Validity and Predictability: Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any number of times, i.e., they stand the test of time. Each time these tests will give same result. Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. E.g., chemical reaction between (H2 ) element hydrogen and (°2 ) element oxygen will always give (H20) a molecule of water. Principles of management can also be tested for validity. E.g., the principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons, - one having single head for commands and the other one having two heads to take commands from. The performance of the person with a single command line will be better than the one with line of commands because of interference of one with the other leading to confusion. It cannot be denied that management has a systematic body of knowledge but it is not as exact as that of other physical sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry, etc. The main reason for the inexactness of science of management is that it deals with human beings

Management

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and it is very difficult to predict their behaviour accurately. Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. It is a flexible science and that is why its theories and principles may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a behaviour science. Ernest Dale has called it as a Soft Science. The following example of Hawthorne effect shows that management is a science because of verifiability and theorizing. The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity whereby subjects improve an aspect of their behaviour being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they are being studied, not in response to any particular experimental manipulation. The Hawthorne Works, in Cicero, Illinois, was a large factory complex built by Western Electric started in 1905 and operating until 1983. It had 45,000 employees at the height of its operations. Hawthorne Works had commissioned a study to see if its workers would become more productive in higher or lower levels of light. The workers' productivity seemed to improve when changes were made and slumped when the study was concluded. It was suggested that the productivity gain was due to the motivational effect of the interest being shown in them. For decades, the Hawthorne studies provided the rationale for human relations within the organisation. This experiment shows that management is a science and shows properties of replication and verifiability.

Management as an art Art implies application of knowledge and skill for trying about desired results. An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. Art has the following characters:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of theory is not sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g., to become a good painter, the person may not only know different colours and brushes but different designs, dimensions, situations, etc., to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by obtaining a degree or a diploma in management; he must have also known how to apply various principles in real situations by functioning in capacity of manager. Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same for every artist, but each one has his own style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. E.g., there are several qualified painters but M.E Hussain is recognized for his style. Similarly, management as an art is also personalized. Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality, that is why some managers,are know as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj), whereas others as ba d. Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he aims at producing something that has ne"er existed before which requires combination of intelligence and imagination. Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human resources in useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by combining chords in an efficient manner. Perfection Through Practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more proficient through constant practice. Similarly, 'managers learn through an art

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Educational Management

--------~-

of trial and error initially, but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing.

5.

Goal-oriented: Every art is result-oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same manner, management is also directed towards accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Managers use various resources like men, money, material, machinery and methods to promote growth of an organisation.

Thus, we can say that Management is an art therefore it requires application of certain principles rather than it is an art of highest order because it deals with moulding the attitude and behaviour of people at work towards desired goals. Management involves creating an internal environment, at the same being influenced by the external environment. It is the management, which puts into use the various factors of production. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the management to create such conditions, which are conducive to maximum efforts so that people are able to perform their task efficiently and effectively. It includes ensuring availability of raw materials, determination of wages and salaries, formulation of rules and regulations, etc. In the context of maximum output, the management has to bank on its human resources other than material resources. Therefore, we can say that good management includes both being effective and efficient. Being effective means doing the appropriate task and also by the right person at right place, i.e., fitting the square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. In business houses its understood that being efficient means doing the task correctly at least possible cost with minimum wastage of resources.

Management as a Noun Those individuals who exercise leadership in an educational institution, i.e., managers, principaV HM, directors, Head of Department, etc., form the management of the Institute.

Management as a Group Management as a (noun) group refers to all those persons who perform the task of managing an enterprise. When we say that management of ABC and Co. is good, we are referring to a group of people those who are managing. Thus, as a group technically speaking, management will include all managers from chief executive to the first-line managers (lower-level managers). But in common practice management includes only top management, i.e., Chief Executive, Chairman, General Manager, Board of Directors, etc. In other words, those who are concerned with making important decisions, these persons enjoy the authorities to use resources to accomplish organisational objectives and also responsibility to for their efficient utilization. Management as a group may be looked upon in 2 different ways: 1.

All managers taken together

2.

Only

~e

top management

The interpretation depends upon the context in which these terms are used. Broadly speaking, there are three types of managers

Management

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---------1.

2. 3.

Patrimonial/Family Manager: Those who have become managers by virtue of being owners or relatives of the owners of the company. Professional Managers: Those who have been appointed on acco1)nt of their specialized knowledge and degree. Political Managers/Civil Servants: '[hose who manage public sector undertakings.

Managers have become a part of elite group of society as they enjoy higher standard of living in the society.

Management as a Process The elements of management as process consists of planning, organizing, controlling, staffing, directing and evaluating. As a process, management refers to a series of inter related functions. According to George R. Terry, it is the process by which management creates, operates and directs purposive organisation through systematic, coordinated and cooperated human efforts, "Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources" . As a process, management consists of three aspects: (a) Management is a social process: Since human factor is most important among the other factors, therefore management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the duty of management to make interaction between people - productive and useful for obtaining organisational goals. (b) Management is an integrating process: Management undertakes the job of bringing together human, physical and financial resources so as to achieve organisational purpose. Therefore, it is an important function to bring harmony between the various above factors. (c) Management is a continuous process: It is a never ending process. It is concerned with constantly identifying the problem and solving them by taking adequate steps. It is an ongoing process.

Management is an Activity Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group efforts towards the attainment of certain predetermined goals. It is the process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the goals of the organisation, by efficiently using limited resources in the everchanging world. These goals may vary from one enterprise to another. Uke various other activities performed by human beings such as writing, playing, eating, cooking etc., management is also an activity because a manager is one who accomplishes the objectives of the organisation by directing the efforts of others. According to Koontz, "Management is what a manager does". Management as an activity includes: (a)

Informational activities - In the functioning of business enterprise, the manager constantly has to receive and give information orally or in written. A communication link has to be maintained with subordinates as well as superiors for effective functioning of an enterprise.

(b)

Decisional activities - Practically all types of managerial activities are based on one or the other types of decisions. Therefore, managers are continuously involved in decisions of

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Educational Management

---------different kinds since the decision made by one manager becomes the basis of action to be taken by other managers. (E.g., Sales manager is deciding the media and content of advertising) . (c)

Inter-personal activities - Management involves achieving goals through people. Therefore, managers have to interact with superiors as well as the subordinates. They must maintain good relations with them. The inter-personal activities include with the subordinates and taking care of the problem. (E.g., Bonuses to be given to the subordinates).

Management as Profession Over a large few decades, factors such as growing size of business unit, separation of ownership from management, growing competition, needs and specialization, etc., have led to an increased demand for professionally qualified managers. The task of a manager has been quite specialized. As a result of these developments the management has reached a stage where everything is to be managed professionally. The School Head and the college Principal is thus an educational institute of professional manager. A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires specialized knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which entry is regulated by a representative body. The essentials of a profession are:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Specialized Knowledge: A professiol"l must have a systematic body of knowledge that can be used for development of professionals. Every professional must make deliberate efforts to acquire expertise in the principles and techniques. Similarly, a manager must have devotion and involvement to acquire expertise in the science of management. Formal Education and Training: There are number of institutes and universities to impart education and training for a profession. No one can practice a profession without going through a prescribed course. Many institutes of management have been set up for imparting education and training. For example, a CA cannot audit the NC's unless he has acquired a degree or a diploma for the same but no minimum qualifications and a course of study has been prescribed for managers by law. For example, MBA may be preferred but not necessary. Social Obligations: Profession is a source of livelihood but professionals are primarily motivated by the desire to serve the society. Their actions are influenced by social norms and values. Similarly, a manager is responsible not only to its owners but also to the society and therefore he is expected to provide quality goods at reasonable prices to the society. Code of Conduct: Members of a profession have to abide by a code of conduct which contains certain rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and special ethics. A code of conduct is enforced by a representative association to ensure self-discipline among its members. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished and his membership can be withdrawn. The teachers' organisations, school boards as well as the universities have prescribed a code of conduct for educational heads and managers and it has right to take legal action against any manager who violates it. Representative Association: For the regulation of profession, existence of a representative body is a must. For example, an institute of Chartered Accountant of India

Management

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establishes and administers standards of competence for the auditors but the organisation of accountants however does not have any statotury powers to regulate the activities of managers. From above discussion, it is quite clear that management fulfills several essentials of a profession, even then it is not a full-fledged profession because: 1.

It does not restrict the entry in managerial jobs for account of one standard or other.

2. No minimum qualifications have been prescribed for managers. 3.

No management association has the authority to grant a certificate of practice to various managers.

4.

All managers are supposed to abide by the code formulated by their organisation or associations or guilds.

5.

Competent education and training facilities do not exist.

6.

Managers are responsible to many groups such as shareholders, employees and society. A regulatory code may curtail their freedom.

7.

Managers are known by their performance and not mere degrees.

8.

The ultimate goal of business is to maximize profit and not social welfare. That is why it is rightly remarked, "The slogan for management is becoming - 'He who serves best, also profits most'. "

1.3 NATURE AND FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT Management is an activity concerned with'-'guiding human and physical resources such that organisational goals can be achieved. Nature of management can be highlighted as:

1.

Management is Goal-Oriented: The success of any management activity is accessed by its achievement of the predetermined goals or objectives. Management is a purposeful activity. It is a tool, which helps use of human and physical resources to fulfill the predetermined goals. For example, the goal of an enterprise is maximum consumer satisfaction by producing quality goods and at reasonable prices. This can be achieved by employing efficient persons and making better use of scarce resources.

2.

Management integrates Human, Physical and Financial Resources: In an organisation, human beings work with non-human resources like machines. materials, financial assets, buildings, etc. Management integrates human efforts to those resources. It brings harmony among the human, physical and financial resources.

3.

Management is Continuous: Management is an ongoing process. It involves continuous handling of problems and issues. It is conce rned with identifying the problems and taking appropriate steps to solve them. E.g. , the target of a company is maximum production, for achieving this target various policies have to be framed but this is not the end. Marketing and advertising is also to be done. For this policies have to be again framed . Hence, this is an ongoing process.

4.

Management is all Pervasive: Management is required in all types of organisations Whether it is political, social, cultural or business because it helps and directs various efforts towards

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Educational Management

---------1.4 LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT The term "Levels of Management' refers to a line of demarcation between various managerial positions in an organisation. The number of levels in management increases when the size of the business and workforce increases and vice versa. The level of management determines a chain of command, the amount of authority and status enjoyed by any managerial position. The levels of management can be classified in three broad categories:

1.

Top leveVAdministrative level

2.

Middle leveVExecutive level

3.

Low leveVSupervisory/Operative/First-line managers

Managers at all these levels perform different functions. The role of managers at all the three levels is discussed below: President, executive vice president, Management, Trust, Board of Directors

Executive coaching, change management, leadership

. Problem solving, team building, talent

Teaching & NonTeaching Staff

Emotional intelligence and coaching for performance, etc.

Fig. 1.1: Levels afManagement

The above pyramid figure no 1.1 indicates the levels of managemE}Jlt with respect to their hierarchy and the kind of work that they are associated with. The three levels form the human resource of the organisation and the governing bodies of authority or the topmost level represent the "management" as noun. The administration and the management a1\.yays have conflict between the top-level and the middle-level of the organisation or institution. The principal or the governing bodies are involved in decision-making, and policy-making while the middle-level personnel are more involved with management. The levels of management are: •

Top-level management (president, executive vice-president)

•

Middle managers (chief engineer, division head, etc., )

•

First-line managers (foreman, supervisor, section chief)

Aianagement

_

---------1. Top-Level of Management

It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions.

The role of the top management can be summarized as follows: 1.

Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise.

2.

It issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules, etc.

3.

It prepares strategic plans and policies for the enterprise.

4.

It appoints the executive for middle-level, i.e., departmental managers.

5.

It controls and coordinates the activities of all the departments.

6. 7.

It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world.

8.

The top management is also responsible towards the shareholders for the performance of the enterprise.

It provides guidance and direction.

2. Middle-Level of Management The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle-level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organisational and directional functions. In small organisation, there is only one layer of middlelevel of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and junior middle-level management. Their role can be emphasized as 1.

They execute the plans of the organisation in accordance with the policies and directives of the top management.

2.

They make plans for the sub-units of the organisation.

3.

They participate in employment and training of lower level management.

4.

They interpret and explain policies from top-level management to lower-level.

5. 6.

They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or department. It also sends important reports and other important data to top-level management.

7.

They evaluate performance of junior managers.

8. They are also responsible for inspiring lower-level managers towards better performance. 3. Lower-Level of Management Lower-level is also known as supervisory/operative level of management. It consists of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent, etc., According to R.c. Davis, "Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely with personal oversight and direction of operative employees". In other words, they are concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities includes:

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Educational Management

1.

Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers.

2.

They guide and instruct workers for day-to-day activities.

3. 4.

They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation with the organisation.

5.

They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc to the higher level and higher-level goals and objectives to the workers.

6.

They help to solve the grievances of the workers.

7. 8. 9.

They supervise and guide the subordinates. They are responsible for providing training to the workers. They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools, etc., for getting the things done.

10.

They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers.

11.

They ensure discipline in the enterprise.

12.

They motivate workers.

13.

They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct contact with the workers.

MANAGERIAL SKILLS

A skill is an individual's ability to translate knowledge into action. Hence, it is manifested in an individual's performance. Since skill is not inborn, it can be developed through practice and through relating learning to one's own personal experience and background. A core set of seven fundamental skills has been found important for managers: technical, interpersonal, conceptual, diagnostic, communication, decision-making, and time-management skills. Of course, the mix of skills and the relative importance of those skills vary from one organisation to another, from one organisational level to another, and from one time period to another. Managers with these skills set are well prepared to confront and capitalize on emerging workforce, marketplace, and competitive forces. These forces include globalization, information technology, workforce diversity, and myriad other elements. Without a core set of management skills from which to draw, executives can easily lose their way. In order to be able to successfully discharge his roles, a manager (of all 3 levels) should at least possess three major skills. These skills are:1.

Conceptual skill-deals with ideas

2. 3.

Technical skill----deals with things and materials Human skill-deals with people

Conceptual skill: The conceptual skill refers to the ability of a manager to take a broad and farsighted view of the organisation and its future, his ability to think in abstract, his ability to analyze the environment and the changes taking place in it. In short it is the ability to conceptualize the environment, the organisation and his own job so that he can set appropriate goals for his own

Management

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organisation, for himself and for his team. This skill seems to increase in importance as manager moves to a higher position of responsibility in the organisation.

Technical skill: The skill is the manager's understanding of the nature of job that people under him have to perform. It refers to a person's knowledge and proficiency in any type of process or technique. Human skill: Human relations skill is the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels. This skill develops in the manager sufficient ability (a)

to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others,

(b)

to judge the possible reactions to, and outcomes of various courses of action he may undertake, and

(c)

to examine his own concepts and values which may enable him to develop more useful attitudes about himself. This type of skill remains consistently important for managers at all levels.

The two other skills that are more important for managers are the diagnostic skill which is referred by Ricky Griffin (2008), and the political skill is given by Pavett and Lau (1983) .

Diagnostic skills: Diagnostic skills include the ability to determine, by analysis and examination, the nature of a particular condition. A manager can diagnose a problem in the organisation by studying its symptoms. These skills are also useful in favourable situations. Political skills: Political skill is the ability to acquire the power necessary to reach objectives and to prevent others from taking power. Political skill can be used for the good of the organisation and for self-interest. It is the ability to enhance one's position, build a power base and establish right connections (Pavett and Lau 1983) . The extent to which managers need different kinds of skills moves from lower management to upper management. Most low-level managers use technical skills extensively. At higher-levels technical skills become less important while the need for conceptual skills grows. However, human skills are very important to all managers. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS-ability to conceptualize to deci de goals

HUMAN SKILLSsignifi cant peopl es responsibilities HUMAN SKILLScommunication, negotiation, human & material resources

TECHNICAL SKILLSspecialized & new technology

Fig. 1.2: Skill-Mix At Different Management Levels

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Educational Management

---------Figure 1.2 gives an idea about the required change in the skill-mix of a manager with the change in his level. At the top level, technical skill becomes least important. That is why, people at the top shift with great ease from one industry to another without an apparent fall in their efficiency. Their human and conceptual skills seem to make-up for their unfamiliarity with the new job's technical aspects.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT The main objectives of management are:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Getting Maximum Results with Minimum Efforts: The main objective of management is to secure maximum outputs with minimum efforts and resources. Management is basically concerned with thinking and utilizing human, material and financial resources in such a manner that would result in best combination. This combination results in reduction of various costs. Increasing the Factors of Efficiency in Production: Through proper utilization of various factors of production, their efficiency can be increased to a great extent which can be obtained by reducing spoilage, wastages and breakage of all kinds, this in tum leads to saving of time, effort and money which is essential for the growth and prosperity of enterprise. Maximum Prosperity for Employer and Employees: Management ensures smooth and coordinated functioning of the enterprise. This in tum helps in providing maximum benefits to the employee in the shape of good working condition, suitable wage system, incentive plans on the one hand and higher profits to the employer on the other hand. Human Betterment and Social Justice: Management serves as a tool for the upliftment as well as betterment of the society. Through increased productivity and employment, management ensures better standards of living for the society. It provides justice through its uniform policies.

1.6 EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MANAGEMENT Management as a thought has evolved for the last few centuries but the modem thoughts of management hold more relevance because of the researches and studies by the western managers due to industrial development and the two world wars that characterize the mod~rn times. According to Harold Koontz, "Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and individuals and can cooperate towards attainment of group goals" . According to EW. Taylor, "Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way" . According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909-2005), the basic task of a management is two-fold: marketing and innovation. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds

A1anagemen t

_

- - - - - - - - - or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy, which is implemented by the chief executive officer.

Fig. 1.3: What is Management?

1. 7

DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT WITH REFERENCE TO FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

There have been several definitions of the term management, most of which are related to the process of management. Some of which are listed below: Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933), who wrote on the topic in the early 20th Century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people" . She also described management as philosophy. One can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place . From this perspective , Frenchman Henri Fayol considers management to consist of seven functions : 1.

Planning

2.

Organizing

3.

Leading

4.

Coordinating

5.

Controlling

6.

Staffing

7.

Motivating

1. Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) widely known as F W. Taylor, was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants. Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era.

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Educational Management - - - - - - - - - -

Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles: (a)

Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.

(b)

Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.

(c)

Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task:'

(d)

Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

2. McFarland defines Management as, "Management is defined for conceptual, theoretical and analytical purposes as the process by which managers create, direct, maintain and operate purposive organisations through systematic, coordinated cooperative human efforts". Thus, management is the sum total of activities which lay down plans, policies, purposes and secure men, machine, money and materials required for completion of these purposes, put all of them into operation, supervise and check their performance and provide incentives and satisfaction to men for the execution of these desired operations. Hence, management is a function as well as a process. 3.

Newman and Summer have recognized only 4 functions of management: • Planning • Organizing • Leading

4.

• Controlling Henr Fayol, identifies 5 functions of _management: • Planning • Organizing • Commanding • Coordinating

• Controlling 5 . Luther Gulick states 7 functions of management: (POSDCORB) • Planning • Organizing • Staffing • Directing • Coordinating • Reporting • Budgeting

Afanagement

_

---------6.

Koontz and O'Donnell summarized functions of management as:• Planning • Organizing • Staffing • Directing • Controlling

Hence, there are different models of management process. Thus, MANAGEMENT, in a nutshell is: • Getting work done (the right thing) • With the help of other people (the most appropriate) • Within the given budget • Within the given deadlines • So as to accomplish individual an.d institutional goals with minimum negative consequences In short, management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organisation's human, financial, material, and other resources to increase its effectiveness. The general basic functions of management: Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, leading/motivating, and controlling. •

Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action .

•

Organizing: (implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.

•

Staffing: Job analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.

•

Leading: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

•

Controlling: Monitoring, checking progress against plans, which may need modification based on feedback.

•

Motivating: The process of stimulating an individual to take action that will accomplish a desired goal.

•

Evaluating: All the above process whether they have being carried out as per the plan and process in achieving the goals or there were some pitfalls/other problems, etc., based on which feedback is taken and evaluated.

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Fig. 1.4: The General Management Functions in a Cycle

1.8. IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT ~ It helps in Achieving Group Goals: It arranges the factors of production, assembles and organizes the resources, integrates the resources in effective manner to achieve goals. It directs group efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals. By defining objective of organisation clearly there would be no wastage of time, money and effort. Management converts disorganized resources of men, machines, money, etc., into useful enterprise. These resources are coordinated, directed and controlled in such a manner that enterprise work towards attainment of goals. ~

Optimum Utilization of Resources: Management utilizes all the physical and human resources productively. This leads to efficacy in management. Management provides maximum utilization of scarce resources by selecting its best possible alternate use in industry from out of various uses. It makes use of experts, professional and these services leads to use of their skills, knowledge, and proper utilization and avoids wastage. If employees and machines are producing its maximum there is no underemployment of any resources. ~ Reduces Costs: It gets maximum results through minimum input by proper planning and by using minimum input and getting maximum output. Management uses physical, human and financial resources in such a manner which results in best combination. This helps in cost reduction.

~ Establishes Sound Organisation: No overlapping of efforts (smooth and coordinated functions) . To establish sound organisational stn,\cture is one of the objective of management which is in tune with objective of organisation and for fulfillment of this, it establishes effective authority and responsibility relationship, i.e. , who is accountable to whom, who can give instructions to whom, who are superiors and who are subordinates. Management fills up various positions with . right persons, having right skills, training and qualification. All jobs should be cleared to everyone.

Management ~

Establishes Equilibrium: It enables the organisation to survive in changing environment. It keeps in touch with the changing environment. With the change is external environment, the initial co-ordination of organisation must be changed. So, it adapts organisation to changing demand of market/changing needs of societies. It is responsible for growth and survival of the organisation. ~ Essentials for Prosperity of Society: Efficient management leads to better economical production which helps in turn to increase the welfare of people. Good management makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastage of scarce resource. It improves standard of living. It increases the profit which is beneficial to business and society will get maximum output at minimum cost by creating employment opportunities which generate income in hands. Organisation comes with new products and researches beneficial for society.

1.9 MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION According to Theo Haimann, "Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down broad programmes and projects" as grown in fig. 1.5. It refers to the activities of higher level. It lays down basic principles of the enterprise . According to Newman, ''Administration means guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals". BOARD OF DIRECTORS

I Determining the policy and object or determining the function

ADMINISTRATION

PRESIDENT

GENERAL MANAGER

WORKS MANAGER

I

/ /r /

/

MANAGEMENT

/

I

Accomplishment of predetermined objects or Executive functions

FOREMA! Fig. 1.5: Time Spent in Administrative and Ma,?agerial at Different Levels

According to Sheldon, Spriegal and Milward, Administration involves "thinking" which is a top-level function and centres around the determination of plans, polices and objectives of a business enterprise. On the other hand, management involves "doing" which is a lower level function concerned with the execution and direction of polices and operations. No two separate

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---------managers perform both activities and spend part of his time administering and part of time managing. As shown in the figure 1.5 at the top- level more time is spent in administrative activity and as one move down in the organisation more time 'is spent in management activity. Whereas, management involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating, actuating, integrating the diverse organisational components while sustaining the viability of the organisation towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, it is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. The difference between management and administration can be summarized under two categories: 1.

Functions

2.

Usage!Applicability

Table. 1.1: Difference between Management and Administration On the Basis of Functions: Basis

Meaning

Nature Process

Management

Administration

Management is an .art of getting things done through others by directing their efforts towards achievement of pre-determined goals. Management is an executing function .

Function

Management decides who should as it and how should he dot it. Management is a doing function because managers get work done under their supervision.

Skills Level

Technical and Human skills Middle and lower level function

It is concerned with formulation of

broad objectives, plans and policies. Administration is a decision-making function . Administration decides what is to be done and when it is to be done. Administration is a thinking function because plans and policies are determined under it. Conceptual and Human skills Top-level function

On the Basis of Usage: Basis

Applicability

Management

profit-making organization.

It is applicable to non-business concerns i.e. , clubs, schools, hospitals, etc.

~. Influence

The management decisions are influenced by the values , opinions, beliefs and decisions of the managers.

The administration is influenced by publicopinion, govt. policies, religious organizations, customs, etc.

\:\ .. Status

Management constitutes the employees of the organization who are paid remuneration (in the form of salaries and wages) .

Administration represents owners of the enterprise who eam return on their capital invested and profits in the form of dividend.

\

It is applicable to business concems, i.e.,

Administration

Management

Practically, there is no difference between management and administration. Every manager is concerned with both - administrative management function and operative management function as shown in the figure 4. However, the managers who are higher up in the hierarchy denote more time on administrative function and the lower-level denote more time on directing and controlling worker's performance, i.e., management.

Top-Level

c o

......

ic E "a

Middle-Level

c(

.... CP

at C

::

Lower-Level

Fig. 1.6: Relation between Administration and Management

The figure above clearly shows the degree of administration and management performed by the different levels of management.

2. FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the functions of management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature, i.e., they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other and each affects the performance of others

Planning

Controlling

Organizing

Fig. 1.7: General Functions of Management

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Educational Management

1.

Planning

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action and deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to Koontz, "Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do and how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are and where we want to be". A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving and decision-making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways and means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human and non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages, etc. ,

2.

Organizing

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organisational goals. According to Henry Fayol, "To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning, i.e., raw material, tools, capital and personnels" . To organize a business involves determining and providing human and non-human resources to the organisational structure. Organizing as a process involves: • Identification of activities • Classification of grouping of activities • Assignment of duties • Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility

3.

• Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships Staffing

It is the function of manning the organisational structure and keeping it mann ed . Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behaviour, etc. The main purpose of staffing is to put right man on right job, i.e. , square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organisational structure through proper and effective selection; appraisal and development of personnel to fill the roles designed under the structure".

Staffing involves • Manpower Planning (estimating manpower in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place) • Recruitment, selection and placement • Training and development • Remuneration • Performance appraisal • Promotions and transfer

Management

_

--------4.

Directing

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organisational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organisational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating subordinate for the achievement of organisational goals. Direction has the following elements: • Supervision • Motivation • Leadership • Communication

Supervision: implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching and directing work and workers. Motivation: means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the subordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Leadership: may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction. Communications: is the process of passing information, experience, opinion, etc., from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding. 5. Controlling It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organisational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, "Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation". According to Koontz and O'Donell, "Controlling is the measurement and correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished". Therefore controlling has the following steps: • Establishment of standard performance • Measurement of actual performance • Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any • Corrective action The individual functions of management are given in details in the following parts.

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Educational Management

--------~

A. Planning Function of Management Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future course of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action. It is rightly said "Well plan is half done". Therefore, planning takes into consideration available and prospective human and physical resources of the organisation so as to get effective coordination, contribution and perfect adjustment. It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources. According to Urwick, "Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses". Planning is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve predetermined goals. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things to occur which would not otherwise occur".

STEPS IN PLANNING FUNCTION Planning function of management involves the following steps:-

1. Establishment of objectives 1.

Planning requires a systematic approach.

2.

Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved.

3.

Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as indicate direction of efforts.

4.

Moreover, objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be achieved.

As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore, objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language. Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective. 6. As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example, number of men working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control manager, effectiveness of personnel manager. 7. Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms. 8. Hence, objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable. 2. Establishment of Planning Premises 1. Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future. 2. They serve as a basis of planning. 3. Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations. 5.

Management

_

---------4. 5. 6.

7.

It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course of operations. Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take those steps that avoid obstacles to a great extent. Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital investment policy, management of staff relations, philosophy of management, etc. Whereas, external includes socio-economic, political and economical changes. Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non-controllable.

3. Choice of alternative course of action 1. When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of alternative course of actions have to be considered. 2. For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the organisation. 3. The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be examined before the choice is being made. 4. After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen. 5. The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the stability of an alternative. 4. Formulation of derivative plans 1. Derivative plans are the subplans or secondary plans which help in the achievement of main plan. 2. Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and expedite the achievement of basic plans. 3. These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets, schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the enterprise, derivative plans will include sales maximization, production maximization, and cost minimization. 4. Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various tasks. 5. Securing Cooperation 1. After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence. 2. The purposes behind taking them into confidence are: 1. Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision-making process. 2. The organisation may be able to get valuable suggestions and improvement informulation as well as implementation of plans. 3. Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans. 6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans 1. After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action. 2. After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its effectiveness.

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Educational Management

3.

This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments or persons concerned.

4.

This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.

5.

This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.

6.

The follow-up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of observations made, future plans can be made more realistic.

B. Planning and Controlling Functions of Management • Planning and controlling are two separate functions of management, yet they are closely related. The scopes of activities if both are overlapping to each other. Without the basis of planning, controlling activities becomes baseless and without controlling, planning becomes a meaningless exercise. In absences of controlling, no purpose can be served by. Therefore, planning and controlling reinforce each other. According to Billy Goetz, "Relationship between the two can be summarized in the following points: • Planning precedes controlling and controlling succeeds planning. • Planning and controlling are inseparable functions of management. Activities are put on rails by planning and they are kept at right place through controlling. • The process of planning and controlling works on Systems Approach which is as follows: Planning· +-+ Results +-+ Corrective Action • Planning and controlling are integral parts of an organisation as both are important for smooth running of an enterprise. • Planning and controlling reinforce each other. Each drives the other function of management. • In the present dynamic environment which affects the organisation, the strong relationship between the two is very critical and important. • In the present day environment, it is quite likely that planning fails due to some unforeseen events. There controlling comes to the rescue. Once controlling is done effectively, it gives us stimulus to make better plans. Therefore, planning and controlling are two non-separable functions of a business enterprise. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANNING 1.

Planning is goal-oriented.

2.

Planning is made to achieve desired objective of business. The goals established should general acceptance otherwise individual efforts and energies will go misguided and misdirected.

3.

Planning identifies the action that would lead to desired goals quickly and economically. It provides sense of direction to various activities. E.g., maruti Udhyog is trying to capture once again Indian car market by launching diesel models. Planning is looking ahead. Planning is done for future. It requires peeping in future, analyzing it and predicting it. Thus, planning is based on forecasting. A plan is a synthesis of forecast. It is a mental predisposition for things to happen in future.

4.

A1anagement

_

---------5.

Planning lays foundation for other functions of management.

6.

It serves as a guide for organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.

7.

All the functions of management are performed within the framework of plans laid out. Therefore, planning is the basic or fundamental function of management.

8.

Planning is a continuous process.

9.

Planning is a never-ending function due to the dynamic business environment. Plans are also prepared for specific period of time and at the end of that period, plans are subjected to revaluation and review in the light of new requirements and changing conditions.

10.

Planning never comes into end till the enterprise exists issues, problems may keep cropping up and they have to be tackled by planning effectively.

11.

Planning is all pervasive. It is required at all levels of management and in all departments of enterprise. Of course, the scope of planning may differ from one level to another. The top level may be more concerned about planning the organisation as a whole, whereas the middle-level may be more specific in departmental plans and the lower-level plans implementation of the same.

12.

Planning is designed for efficiency.

13.

Planning leads to accomplishment of objectives at the minimum possible cost.

14.

It avoids wastage of resources and ensures adequate and optimum utilization of resources. A plan is worthless or useless if it does not value the cost incurred on it. Therefore planning must lead to saving of time, effort and money. Planning leads to proper utilization of men, money, materials, methods and machines.

15. 16.

17.

Planning is flexible. Planning is done for the future. Since future is unpredictable, planning must provide enough room to cope with the changes in customer's demand, competition, government, policies etc. Under changed circumstances, the original plan of action must be revised and updated to made it more practical Advantages of planning

18. 19. 20.

Planning facilitates management by objectives. Planning begins with determination of objectives. It highlights the purposes for which various activities are to be undertaken.

21.

In fact, it makes objectives more clear and specific.

22.

Planning helps in focusing the attention of employees on the objectives or goals of enterprise.

23.

Without planning an organisation has no guide.

24.

Planning compels manager to prepare a blueprint of the courses of action to be followed for accomplishment of objectives.

25. 26. 27.

Therefore, planning brings order and rationality into the organisation. As business is full of uncertainties, planning minimizes uncertainties. There are risks of various types due to uncertainties. Planning helps in reducing uncertainties of future as it involves anticipation of future events.

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Educational Management

28.

Although future cannot be predicted with cent per cent accuracy but planning helps management to anticipate future and prepare for risks by necessary provisions to meet unexpected turn of events. Therefore, with the help of planning, uncertainties can be forecasted which helps in preparing standbys as a result, uncertainties are minimized to a great extent.

29. 30.

Planning facilitates coordination. Planning revolves around organisational goals. All activities are directed towards common goals. There is an integrated effort throughout the 'enterprise in various departments and groups.

31. 32.

It avoids duplication of efforts. In other words, it leads to better It helps in finding out problems of work performance and aims at rectifying the same.

33.

Planning improves employee's moral.

34.

Planning creates an atmosphere of order and discipline in organisation. Employees know in advance what is expected of them and therefore conformity can be achieved easily. This encourages employees to show their best and also earn reward for the same. Planning creates a healthy attitude towards work environment that helps in boosting employees moral and efficiency. Planning helps in achieving economies. Effective planning secures economy since it leads to orderly allocation of resources to various operations.

35. 36. 37.

It also facilitates optimum utilization of resources that brings economy in operations.

38.

It also avoids wastage of resources by selecting most appropriate use that will contribute to the objective of enterprise. For example, raw materials can be purchased in bulk and transportation cost can be minimized. At the same time it ensures regular supply for the production department, that is, overall efficiency. Planning facilitates controlling. Planning facilitates existence of certain planned goals and standard of performance.

39. 40. 41.

It provides basis of controlling. We cannot think of an effective system of controlling without existence of well thought. out plans.

42. 43.

Planning provides pre-determined goals against which actual performance is compared. Infact, planning and controlling are the two sides of a same coin. If planning is root, controlling is the fruit.

44.

Planning provides competitive edge to the enterprise over the others which do not have effective planning. This is because of the fact that planning may involve changing in work methods, quality, quantity designs, extension of work, redefining of goals, etc. With the help of forecasting not only the enterprise secures its future but at the same time it is able to estimate the future motives of its competitors which helps in facing future challenges.

45.

46.

Therefore, planning leads to best utilization of possible resources, improves quality of production and thus the competitive strength of the enterprise is improved.

Management

47.

Planning encourages innovations. In the process of planning, managers have the opportunities of suggesting ways and means of improving performance.

48.

Planning ,S basically a decision-making function which involves creative thinking and imagination that ultimately leads to innovation of methods and operations for growth and prosperity of the enterprise.

LIMITATIONS OF PLANNING

Internal Limitations There are several limitations of planning. Some of them are inherit in the process of planning like rigidity and other arise due to shortcoming of the techniques of planning and in the planners themselves.

Rigidity: Planning has the tendency to make administration inflexible. Planning implies prior determination of policies, procedures and programmes and a strict adherence to them in all circumstances. There is no scope for individual freedom. The development of employees is highly doubted because of which management might have faced lot of difficulties in future. Planning, therefore, introduces inelasticity and discourages individual initiative and experimentation.

Misdirected Planning: Planning may be used to serve individual interests rather than the interest of the enterprise. attempts can be made to influence setting of objectives, formulation of plans and programmes to suit own requirement rather than that of whole organisation. Machinery of planning can never be freed of bias. Every planner has his own likes, dislikes, preferences, attitudes and interests which are reflected in planning. Time consuming: Planning is a time consuming process because it involves collection of information, its analysis and interpretation thereof. This entire process takes a lot of time specially where there are a number of alternatives available. Therefore planning is not suitable during emergency or crisis when quick decisions are required.

Probability in Planning: Planning is based on forecasts that are mere estimates about future. These estimates may prove to be inexact due to the uncertainty of future. Any change in the anticipated situation may render plans ineffective. Plans do not always reflect real situations in spite of the sophisticated techniques of forecasting because future is unpredictable. Thus, excessive reliance on plans may prove to be fatal. False Sense of Security: Elaborate planning may create a false sense of security to the effect that everything is taken for granted. Managers assume that as long as they work as per plans, it is satisfactory. Therefore, they fail to take up timely actions and an opportunity is lost. Employees are more concerned about fulfilment of plan performance rather than any kind of change. Expensive: Collection, analysis and evaluation of different information, facts and alternatives involve a lot of expense in terms of time, effort and money. According to Koontz and 0' Donnell, 'Expenses on planning should never exceed the estimated benefits from planning.'

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Educational Management

---------EXTERNAL LIMITATIONS OF PLANNING

Many a times planning fails and needs to accomodate new plans due to the following situations.

Political Climate: Change of government from Congress to some other political party, etc. Labour Union: Strikes, lockouts, agitations. Technological Changes: Modern techniques and equipments, computerization. Policies of Competitors: E.g. Policies of Coca-Cola and Pepsi. Natural Calamities: Earthquakes and floods. Changes in Demand and Prices: Change in fashion, change in tastes, change in income level, demand falls, pricing fluctuations. B. Organizing Function of Management Organizing is the function of management, which follows planning. It is a function in which the synchronization and combination of human, physical and financial resources takes place. All the three resources are important to get results. Therefore, organisational function helps in achievement of results, which in fact is important for the functioning of a concern. According to Chester Barnard, "Organizing is a function by which the concern is able to define the role positions, the jobs related and the co- ordination between authority and responsibility. Hence, a manager always has to organize in order to get results. A manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps:-

Identification of activities: All the activities that have to be performed in a concern have to be identified first. For example, preparation of accounts, making sales, record keeping, quality control, inventory control, etc. All these activities have to be grouped and classified into units. Departmentally organizing the activities: In this step, the manager tries to combine and group similar and related activities into units or departments. This organisation of dividing the whole concern into independent units and departments is called departmentation. Classifying the authority: Once the departments are made, the manager likes to classify the powers and its extent to the managers. This activity of giving a rank in order to the managerial positions is called hierarchy. The top management is into formulation of policies, the middle-level management into departmental supervision and lower-level management into supervision of foremen. The clarification of authority helps in bringing efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in achieving efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in avoiding wastage of time, money, effort, in avoidance of duplication or overlapping of efforts and this helps in bringing smoothness in a concern's working. Coordination between authority and responsibility: Relationships are established among various groups to enable smooth interaction toward the achievement of the organisational goal. Individuals are made aware of his authority and he/she knows whom they have to take orders from and to whom they are accountable and to whom they have to report. A clear organisational structure is drawn and all the employees are made aware of it.

Management

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZING FUNCTION

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Specialization: Organisational structure is a network of relationships in which the work is divided into units and departments. This division of work is helping in bringing specialization in various activities of concern. Well-defined jobs: Organisational structure helps in putting right men on right job which can be done by selecting people for various departments according to their qualifications, skill and experience. This is helping in defining the jobs properly which clarifies the role of every person. Clarifies authority: Organisational structure helps in clarifying the role positions to every manager (status quo). This can be done by clarifying the powers to every manager and the way he has to exercise those powers should be clarified so that misuses of powers do not take place. Well-defined jobs and responsibilities attached helps in bringing efficiency into managers working. This helps in increasing productivity. Coordination: Organisation is a means of creating coordination among different departments of the enterprise. It creates clear cut relationships among positions and ensures mutual co-operation among individuals. Harmony of work is established by higher level managers exercising their authority over interconnected activities of lower-level manager. Authority responsibility relationships can be fruitful only when there is a formal relationship between the two. For smooth running of an organisation, the co-ordination between authority-responsibilities is very important. There should be co-ordination between different relationships. Clarity should be made for having an ultimate responsibility attached to every authority. There is a saying, '~uthority without responsibility leads to ineffective behaviour and responsibility without authority makes person ineffective." Therefore, coordination of authority-responsibility is very important. Effective administration: The organisation structure is helpful in defining the jobs positions. The roles to be performed by different managers are clarified. Specialization is achieved through division of work. This all leads to efficient and effective administration. Growth and diversification: A company's growth is totally dependent on how efficiently and smoothly a concern works. Clarifying the role positions to the managers, co-ordination between authority and responsibility and concentrating on specialization can bring about efficiency. In addition to this, a company can diversify if its potential grows. This is possible only when the organisation structure is well defined. This is possible through a set of formal structure. Sense of security: Organisational structure clarifies the job positions. The role assigned to every manager is clear. Co-ordination is possible. Therefore, clarity of powers helps automatically in increasing mental satisfaction and thereby a sense of security in a concern. This is very important for jobsatisfaction. Scope for new changes: Where the roles and activities to be performed are clear and every person gets independence in his working, this provides enough space to a manager to develop his talents and flourish his knowledge. A manager gets ready for taking independent decisions which can be a road or path to adoption of new techniques of production. This scope for bringing new changes into the running of an enterprise is possible only through a set of organisational structure.

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Educational Management

---------• Principles of organizing: The organizing process can be done efficiently if the managers have certain guidelines so that they can take decisions and can act. In order to organize in an effective manner, a manager can use the following principles of organisation:-

• Principle of specialization: According to the principle, the whole work of a concern should be divided amongst the subordinates on the basis of qualifications, abilities and skills. It is through division of work specialization can be achieved which results in effective organisation. • Principle of functional definition: According to this principle, all the functions in a concern should be completely and clearly defined to the managers and subordinates. This can be done by clearly defining the duties, responsibilities, authority and relationships of people towards each other. Clarifications in authority-responsibility relationships help in achieving coordination and thereby organisation can take place effectively. For example, the primary functions of production, marketing and finance and the authority responsibility relationships in these departments should be clearly defined to every person attached to that dE;!partment. Clarification in the authorityresponsibility relationship helps in efficient organisation. • Principles of span of control/supervision: According to this principle, span of control is a span of supervision which depicts the number of employees that can be handled and controlled effectively by a single manager. According to this principle, a manager should be able to handle what number of employees under him should be decided. This decision can be taken by choosing either from a wide or narrow span. There are two types of span of control:-

1.

Wide span of control - It is one in which a manager can supervise and control effectively a large group of persons at one time.

The features of this span are:(a) Less overhead cost of supervision (b) Prompt response from the employees (c) Better communication (d) Better supervision (e) Better coordination (f) Suitable for repetitive jobs According to this span, one manager can effectively and efficiently handle a large number of subordinates at one time.

2.

Narrow span of control - According to this span, the work and authority is divided amongst many subordinates and a manager doesn't supervises and control a very big group of people under him. The manager according to a narrow span supervises a selected number of employees at one time.

The features of this span are:(a) Work which requires tight control and supervision, for example, handicrafts, ivory work, etc., which requires craftsmanship, there narrow span is more helpful.

Management

(b)

Coordination is difficult to be achieved.

(c)

Communication gaps can come.

(d)

Messages can be distorted.

(e)

Specialization work can be achieved.

Factors influencing span of control: Managerial abilities: In the concerns where managers are capable qualified and experienced, wide span of control is always helpful. Competence of subordinates: Where the subordinates are capable and competent and their understanding levels are proper, the subordinates tend to very frequently visit the superiors for solving their problems. In such cases, the manager can handle a large number of employees. Hence, wide span is suitable. Nature of work: If the work is of repetitive nature, wide span of supervision is more helpful. On the other hand, if work requires mental skill or craftsmanship, tight control and supervision is required in which narrow span is more helpful. Delegation of authority: When the work is delegated to lower-levels in an efficient and proper way, confusions are less and congeniality of the environment can be maintained. In such cases, wide span of control is suitable and the supervisors can manage and control a large number of sub ordinates at one time. Degree of decentralization: Decentralization is done in order to achieve specialization in which authority is shared by many people and managers at different levels. In such cases, a tall structure is helpful. There are certain concerns where decentralization is done in very effective way, which results in direct and personal communication between superiors and sub-ordinates and there the superiors can manage large number of subordinates very easily. In such cases, wide span again helps.

Principle of scalar chain: Scalar chain is a chain of command or authority, which flows from top to bottom. With a chain of authority available, wastages of resources are minimized, communication is affected, overlapping of work is avoided and easy organisation takes place. A Scalar chain of command facilitates workflow in an organisation, which helps in achievement of effective results. As the authority flows from top to bottom, it clarifies the authority positions to managers at all levels and that facilitates effective organisation. Principle of unity of command: It implies one subordinate-one superior relationship. Every subordinate is answerable and accountable to one boss at one time. This helps in avoiding communication gaps and feedback and response is prompt. Unity of command also helps in effective combination of resources, that is, physical, financial resources which helps in easy coordination and, therefore, effective organisation. Authority Flows from Top to Bottom Managing Director-Managementffrust/Educational Director/Dean Marketing Manager-PrincipallHM Sales/ Media Manager-Head of the Department/s or Supervisor/Coordinator Salesmen-Teachers + Non-teaching staff

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Educational Management

---------According to the above hierarchy, the managing director has got the highest level of authority. This authority is shared by the Marketing Manager who shares his authority with the sales sanager. From this chain of hierarchy, the official chain of communication becomes clear which is helpful in achievement of results and which provides stability to a concern. This scalar chain of command always flows from top to bottom and it defines the authority positions of different managers at different levels.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISATIONS Organisations are basically classified on the basis of relationships. There are two types of organisations formed on the basis of relationships in an organisation:-

1.

Formal organlsatlon:-This is one which refers to a structure of well defined jobs each bearing a measure of authority and responsibility. It is a conscious determination by which people accomplish goals by adhering to the norms laid down by the structure. This kind of organisation is an arbitrary set up in which each person is responsible for his performance. Formal organisation has a formal set up to achieve pre-determined goals.

2.

Informal organisation:-It refers to a network of personal and social relationships which spontaneously originates within the formal set up. Informal organisations develop relationships which are built on likes, dislikes, feelings and emotions. Therefore, the network of social groups based on friendships can be called as informal organisations. There is no conscious effort made to have informal organisation. It emerges from the formal organisation and it is not based on any rules and regulations as in case of formal organisation.

Relationship between Formal and Informal Organisations For a concerns working both formal and informal organisation are important. Formal organisation originates from the self organisational structure and informal organisation originates from formal organisation. For an efficient organisation, both formal and informal organisations are required. They are the two phase of a same concern. Formal organisation can work independently. But informal organisation depends totally upon the formal organisation. Formal and informal organisation helps in bringing efficient working organisation and smoothness in a concern. Within the formal organisation, the members undertake the assigned duties in cooperation with each other. They interact and communicate amongst themselves. Therefore, both formal and informal organisations are important. When several people work together for achievement of organisational goals, social tie-ups tend to build and therefore informal organisation helps to secure cooperation by which goals can be achieved smooth. Therefore, we can say that informal organisation emerges from formal organisation.

Line and Staff Organisation (Structure) Une and staff organisation is a modification of line organisation and it is more complex than line organisation. According to this administrative organisation, specialized and supportive activities are attached to the line of command by appointing staff supervisors and staff specialists who are attached to the line authority. The power of command always remains with the line executives and staff supervisors guide, advice and council the line executives. Personal secretary to the managing director is a staff official.

Management

MANAGING DIRECTOR

Production Manager

+ Plant Supervisor + Foreman

Marketing Manager

+ Market Supervisor + Salesman

Finance Manager

+

Chief Assistant

+

Accountant

Fig. 1.8: Line and Staff Organisation FEATURES OF LINE AND STAFF ORGANISATION There are two types of staff:

Staff Assistants: P.A. to managing director, secretary to marketing manager. Staff Supervisor: Operation control manager, quality controller, PRO Une and staff organisation is a compromise of line organisation. It is more complex than line concern. Division of work and specialization takes place in line and staff organisation. The whole organisation is divided into different functional areas to which staff specialists are attached. Efficiency • can be achieved through the features of specialization. There are two lines of authority which flow at one time in a concern:

Line Authority: Power of command remains with the line executive Staff Authority: Staff serves only as counsellors. MERITS OF LINE AND STAFF ORGANISATION

Relief to line of executives: In a line and staff organisatioi'l, the advice and counselling which is provided to the line executives divides the work between the two. The line executive can concentrate on the execution of plans and they get relieved of dividing their attention to many areas. Expert advice: The line and staff organisation facilitates expert advice to the line executive at the time of need. The planning and investigation, which is related to different matters, can be done by the staff specialist and line officers can concentrate on execution of plans. Benefit of specialization: Une and staff through division of whole concern into two types of authority divides the enterprise into parts and functional areas. This way every officer or official can concentrate in one's own area. Better coordination: Une and staff organisation through specialization is able to provide better decision-making and concentration remains in few hands. This feature helps in bringing coordination in work, as every official is concentrating in their own area.

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Educational Management

---------

Benefits of research and development: Through the advice of specialized staff, the line executives, and the line executives get time to execute plans by taking productive decisions which are helpful for a concern. This gives a wide scope to the line executive to bring innovations and go for research work in those areas. This is possible due to the presence of staff specialists. Training: Due to the presence of staff specialists and their expert advice serves as ground for training to line officials. Line executives can give due concentration to their decision-making. This in itself is a training ground for them. Balanced decisions: They are the factors of specialization which is achieved by line staff, helps in bringing co-ordination. This relationship automatically ends up the line official to take better and balanced decision.

Unity of action: Unity of action is a result of unified control. Control and its effective take place when coordination is present in the concern. In the line and staff authority, all the officials have got independence to make decisions. This serves as effective control in the whole enterprise. DEMERITS OF LINE AND STAFF ORGANISATION

Lack of understanding: In a line and staff organisation, there are two authorities flowing at one time. This results in the confusion between the two. As a result, the workers are not able to understand as to who is their commanding authority. Hence, the problem of understanding can be a hurdle in effective running. Lack of sound advice: The line official get used to the expertise advice of the staff. At times the staff specialist also provides wrong decisions which the line executives have to consider. This can affect the efficient running of the enterprise. Line and staff conflicts: Line and staff are two authorities which are flowing at the same time. The factors of designations, status influence sentiments that are related to their relation, can pose a distress on ti}e minds of the employees. This leads to minimizing of coordination that hampers a concern's working. Costly: In line and staff concern, the concerns have to maintain the high remuneration of staff specialist. This proves to be costly for a concern with limited finance. Assumption of authority: The power of concern is with the line official but the staff dislikes it as they are the one more in mental work. Stqff steals the show: In a line and staff concern, the higher returns are considered to be a product of staff advice and counselling. The line officials feel dissatisfied and a feeling of distress enters a concern. The satisfaction of line officials is very important for effective results. Functional organisation Functional organisation has been divided to put the specialists in the top position throughout the enterprise. This is an organisation in which we can define as a system in which functional department are created to deal with the problems of business at various levels. Functional authority remains confined to functional guidance to different departments. This helps in maintaining quality and uniformity of performance of different functions throughout the enterprise.

Management

The concept of functional organisation was suggested by EW. Taylor who recommended the appointment of specialists at important positions. For example, the functional head and marketing director directs the subordinates throughout the organisation in his particular area. This means that subordinates receives orders from several specialists, managers working above them. FEATURES OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION The entire organisational activities are divided into specific functions such as: • Operations, • Finance, • Marketing, and • Personal Relations. Complex form of administrative organisation compared to the other two. Three authorities who exist are: • Line, • Staff, and • Function. Each functional area is put under the charge of functional specialists and he has got the authority to give all decisions regarding the function whenever the function is performed throughout the enterprise. Principle of unity of command does not apply to such organisation as it is present in line organisation. MERITS OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION

Specialization: Better division of labour takes place which results in specialization of function and its consequent benefit. Effective Control: Management control is simplified as the mental functions are separated from manual functions. Checks and balances keep the authority within certain limits. Specialists may be asked to judge the performance of various sections. Efftciency: Greater efficiency is achieved because of every function performing a limited number of functions. Economy: Specialization compiled with standardization facilitates maximum production and economical costs. Expansion: Expert knowledge of functional manager facilitates better control and supervision. DEMERITS OF FUNCTIONAL ORGDANIZATION

Confusion: The functional system is quite complicated to put into operation, especially when it is carried out at low levels. Therefore, coordination becomes difficult.

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Educational Management --------~-

Lack of coordination: Disciplinary control becomes weak as a worker is commanded not by one person but a large number of people. Thus, there is no unity of command. Difficulty in JlXing responsibility: Because of multiple authorities, it is diffi "bottom-up" as well as "top-down': Planning at each level takes into account the goals, objectives & activities that are included in the plans at each level. Six strategic elements of planning are common to educational programmes: 1. Preliminary research 2. Promotion 3. Recruitment & training 4. Curriculum development 5. Materials development & production 6. Evaluation Educational planning at -macro level includes its goals principles, approaches and procedures. Educational planning at -micro level, constitutes institutional planning and educational administration.

2.13 FORMATION OF THE INSTITUTIONAL POLICY The mission of the institution is its most obvious purpose ~ which may be, for example, to start a school or college or an institution. The vision of the institution reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination.

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Educational Management - - - - - - - - - -

The objectives of the institution refer to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed. The institution's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the educational managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees. The institution's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the educational managers decide on what type of institution they want to form.

2.14 THE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, AND ACCOUNTABILITY By the tum of the millennium almost every economically developed country understood the importance of measuring the performance of education with comparable indicators, collected at reasonable costs. These indicators have to be linked to the activities of individuals making up the institutions and used to develop incentive systems that provide motivation for teachers, school heads or principals and education providers to improve their performance. The efficient operation of education institutions is .contingent on having access to appropriate performance indicators and on linking this body of information to a well functioning evaluation and incentive system. This Assessment and Accountability is organised as follows: First, issues arising in connection with planning school accountability, assessment and evaluation systems Next, the current school evaluation system is described and the problems inherent in the system are identified. Finally, a plan is proposed for improving the system. The education "industry" can be described as a mix of several types of inputs and outputs. In the most general sense, the output of education is the students' knowledge and skills in the broadest sense of the word, which they need in order to become successful members of society and to contribute to the development of the country. The traditional view contends that the effectiveness of education can be adequately assessed in terms of the resources used in education: the number of teachers, the number of hours worked, the amount of grants per student, the buildings, classrooms, textbooks and computers used by education services, the number of teachers completing in-service training, the available curricula, etc. This view, however, relies on a false assumption, namely that "if a country spends a lot (or more than in the past) on education, the system is guaranteed to function successfully (or more successfully than in the past)." Educational inputs are not the right measure of educational effectiveness. It is not only the quantity of resources that matters but also their composition and the way they are used. Educational resources can also be wasted. The efficiency approach is different: one needs to understand the

Educational Management

relationship between educational inputs and outputs. The education system functions well if it functions effectively. Efforts should be made in order to provide feedback for every stakeholderparents and students, education providers, teachers and heads /principals, as well as taxpayers. Also ways have to be found out in order to help the stakeholders in identifying problems in the functioning of the educational system and improving performance. Some pertinent questions have been raised to understand the related problems of assessment and accountability. What do one need to take into account if one wants to design a well performing school assessment programme?

What kind of indicators must be used? The use of standardised tests that are designed to assess the basic components of individual competencies. This appears to be the most promising method. The most appropriate tests are those suitable for assessing general skills that underlie overall learning abilities (Le., the ability to acquire new knowledge of any kind). Examples include tests assessing reading literacy (the ability to understand texts, which is the most basic prerequisite for all types of learning), mathematical literacy and logical reasoning. A standardised testing programme has several advantages: (a) it allows inter-institutional comparison; (b) (c)

the tests can be linked to universal benchmarks (e.g., at age x or in grade y students are expected to attain at least level z), the standardised test results can provide information which constitutes meaningful feedback for all stakeholders of the education system (schools, parents and school providers), i.e., information that helps them decide what is to be done if more than a pre-specified proportion of students fail to attain level z by the age of x or in grade y in a given institution. The information directly evaluates the institution, the proper locus of feedback and correction.

The use of standards based tests is also not without problems. There is enormous variation across individuals, which has a large impact on test results. The result of the assessment is therebre not interpretable unless individual variation is controlled for. Individual level assessment is subject to a very large error term (the results are influenced by random factors). How to measure the school's contribution to student achievement? Above all, the most important is a theoretical framework. A general theoretical framework that appears to be appropriate for the purpose is the human capital model, which takes into account the factors that have contributed to the attainment of students' skills (measured by the test scores). What kind of bias do we face when the school's contribution to the student's achievement is measured within this framework? What can be done about the problems typically characterising accountability systems? Four characteristic dilemmas are listed. (a)

The complex nature of pedagogical objectives is at odds with the narrow focus inherent in assessment and evaluation systems relying on a few performance indicators (test results). The assessment system encourages schools to focus their activities on the chosen

_

Educational Management

---------performance indicators while neglecting other educational objectives (tunnel vision). A further negative consequence may be a practice of teaching to the test - a skewed teaching practice where students are mechanically trained to solve specific test problems at the expense of general skills development. (b)

In genuinely problematic cases - such as small schools - the results are unreliable because of the statistical problem of sample size.

(c)

Schools may manipulate test results to their advantage.

(d)

As a result of the sensitivity of the method to sample size, institutions of different sizes have widely differing statistical odds of showing improvement or decline relative to a given performance baseline. That is, if educational institutions are evaluated in terms of a standardised set of benchmarks, small schools are more likely than large schools to be subject to rewards or sanctions, which is clearly inconsistent with equitability.

What can be done about these problems? (a)

The problem of complex pedagogical objectives versus performance indicator centred education (tunnel vision, teaching to the test). the following counter measures. are-. The questions assessing students' achievements should focus on basic skills - such as meaningful reading - or higher order skills rather than on procedural skills relying on rote learning.

(b)

Test results may be manipulated by the school

(c)

It is unfair to expect equal improvement of small and large institutions (or to impose equal penalties for a similar decline in their performance).

What should happen with low-performing schools? This is one of the core problems of school accountability systems. The first question to be settled is what we can expect from the disclosure of the assessment results of low-performing schools. The primary aim is to encourage a local analysis of the problem in search of the causes. Being able to localise poor performance is not at all equivalent to knowing how to handle it. Failure may be the result of several different causes. By making the assessment results known to those involved is to encourage them to investigate the causes behind their failure and find the appropriate solution. An effective assessment and evaluation system is intended to offer an opportunity in this sense for the renewal of schools. To quote the aphorism by Thomas C. Schelling, "The problem with most incentive structures is not getting people to do the right thing. It's getting people to figure out what the right thing is to do." (Cited by ELMORE, 2004 p. 236) The core objective of an education assessment and evaluation system is to transform schools! colleges into a problem-solving organisation continuously reflecting on the outcomes of its own activities. To achieve this aim, schools must adopt a culture of evaluating assessment results and they may need outside expert assistance with this task. There are several prerequisites to the task of identifying the causes of underperformance. (a)

It is essential that the school have a teacher who is equipped to organise the work of analysing the results, that is, a teacher who possesses the knowledge and skills needed for the appropriate analysis and evaluation of the data and enjoys the authority needed to co-ordinate the activities of the teaching staff in this endeavour.

Educational Management

(b)

The entire teaching staff must be involved in the task of identifying the causes. This is important for two reasons. First, it clearly conveys the message to the local community that the school as a whole takes responsibility for its students' results and second, it creates an opportunity to build a common approach, which in itself constitutes a first step towards a solution. Schools may need external assistance with the task of identifying the causes. Central and local school governing institutions should undertake to ensure that schools have access to independent and competent professional help as needed. The investigation into the causes may lead the school or the external expert advisor to conclude that the school's poor performance cannot be explained by deficiencies in the school's or its teaching staff's activities but appears to be the result of external factors, such as insufficient resources, the education policies of the local government or the spontaneous selection processes induced by the school choice system.

(c)

(d)

When faced with similar problems one must be aware of the fact that in present day one does not have an institution - vested with higher level powers in education matters than the local governments - which could offer an effective and binding institutional solution to such failures of the schooVcollege system. The delivery of an efficient accountability programme is therefore contingent on the institutional restructuring of the national educational system with the aim of establishing such an institution.

2.15 INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF AN EDUCATION SYSTEM INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE SYSTEM LEVEL MANAGEMENT

(Top level): •

.Textbooks are produced in sufficient numbers and distributed to schools on time

•

Instructional supplies are delivered to schools on time

•

Supply of qualified teachers meets demand

•

Teachers are appropriately assigned/deployed to schools

•

Teachers' salaries are paid on time

• •

Schools have copies of syllabuses The ministry knows the location of schools throughout country

•

Schools are appropriately located across the country

•

A national plan is available which provides vision and focus for education activities

INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL MANAGEMENT

(Middle levels): •

Teachers are appropriately assigned/deployed to schools

•

School inspection occurs on an appropriate and regular basis

-

_

Educational Management

• • • • •

Teachers receive instructional supervision Questions from head teachers and teachers receive timely responses Ministry information flows to schools in a timely way School information is conveyed to the ministry in a timely way Staff development activities for school personnel are well designed and implemented

INDICATORS OF EFFECTIVE SCHOOL LEVEL MANAGEMENT

• • • • • • • •

Instructional supplies are ordered on time Teachers come to school on time Teacher absenteeism is low School facilities are in good repair Teachers have copies of syllabuses Teachers receive instructional supervision Each School has a functioning parent-teacher association Parents know how their children are progressing in their studies

2.16 STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Strategies that have most often been employed in the region include: • • • • • • • • • • •

Curriculum revision; Textbook revision; National testing; Teacher training; Teacher incentives; Resource allocation to schools; Multi grade classes; Improved management information systems; Increased community participation; Decentralization of decision-making; and Decentralization of information system to provincial, district, or local levels.

Questions 1.

Explain the meaning of educational management

2.

Explain the needs, of educational management.

3.

Explain the objectives of educational management

4. 5.

Explain the importance needs of educational management Explain the functions of educational management.

6.

Explain the functions of planning to educational management.

Educational Management

_

--------------------------------7.

Write a short note on educational management.

8.

Explain the Scope of Educational Management.

9.

"Leadership of Management go hand in hand." Explain.

10.

State the Principals of Democratic Management.

11.

Explain the Characteristics of Democratic Educational Management.

12.

Explain the Fundamentals of Educational Management.

13.

Explain how Assessment, Evaluation and Account ability is important to any Educational Institution.

14.

Explain the Indicators of Effective management of an Education System.

15.

Enmurate the strategies of Effective Management.

. References 1.

Tony Bush, The Principles and Practice of Educational Management, Sage Publications Ltd., 2002.

2.

Tony. Bush, and John West-Burnham" Principles of Educational Management (MBA Series), (Paperback), 1994.

3.

Aggarwal J.C, Educational Administration, Management and Supervision.

4.

Tony Bush, Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, Sage Publications Ltd., Third Edition, 2004.

5.

National Policy on Education 1986, Review Committee Report - Comments of Department of Education.

6.

Lewin, Kurt; Lippitt, Ronald; White, Ralph (1939) ., "Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created Social Climates"., Journal of Social Psychology: pp. 271-30l.

7.

Miner, J. B. (2005)., Organisational Behaviour: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership., Armonk: M.E. Sharpe., pp. 39-40.

8.

Burns, J. M. (1978)., Leadership., New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc.

9.

Thomas C. Schelling, (Cited by ELMORE, 2004, p. 236).

10.

http://education.nic.in/secedu/sec_overview.asp.

11.

http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/academic/schools.html.

Chapter

.).,.,.,.>K:;;":;:"'~"""",=,,,,-,,,,, ...~,,,,,,~~

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

"~'};,*""","'",,,,-,,~,,,,,,~"V>,,"w.

Learning Objectives ~'::'~= ':"~,,",_~,>>>>:-:.W'M

,;.x",...,.;..;.;~*. .

:

"---,,.-. -._., =_»'_'_'~ l~ii:~~~~f01 > " ~ If;jml.~lIfl

Tertiary Fig. 3.6: Academic Discipline in Systems Approach

3.8 SUBSYSTEM OF AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION 1.

TECHNICAL SUBSYSTEM: Includes tasks activities, skills, techniques, strategies methodologies, knowledge, etc., required to perform jobs. It regulates the work behaviour of teachers. Is necessary for effective and efficient teaching-learning and student evaluation. 2. ,SOCIAL SUBSYSTEM: Is informal part of an institution consists of individual and their mutual social interaction-includes status, group norms and values greatly influences the behaviour of members of an institution. 3. STRUCTURAL SUBSYSTEM: Implies the interrelationships among people designed formally to accomplish coordination among them.It also includes I?hysical setting or the environment in which work has to be done. 4. MANAGERIAL SUBSYSTEM: Function is to create and maintain coordination among other subsystems to achieve goals of the total system. Use processes like review, control, direct and evaluation. Takes corrective actions on the basis of the feedback received.

3.9 STEPS INVOLVED IN USING SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT Input: Analysis of inputs and constituents of the system in context with the stipulated objectives: • • • • •

Formulation of objectives and specifications of the topic are formulated . Pre-assessment of the pupil's entry behaviour: Here attempt is made to assess the entry behaviour of initial performance of the pupils by suitable criterion test. Desirable attitude and aptitude of pupils is to be considered. Content to be 'taught and instructional material to be used is planned Cost factor: Inputs have to be considered in accordance with their benefits and cost.

Educational Management

PROCESS: Designing and development of the system in light of institutional objectives and pupils entry behaviour, i.e., what is considered appropriate in terms of input is planned and designed in the development of an institutional system. It may involve the following aspects: 1. Deciding suitable teaching strategies/methods 2. Selection of appropriate media and material. 3. Selection of appropriate evaluation procedures 4. Formulating a scheme of comprehensive programme/timetable for the working of the system in relation to its parameters and stipulated objectives. (b) System operation/Implementation This phase is concerned with the actual operation or implementation of the individual system The roles and function of the elements, i.e., teaching, pupils and material,. resources are appropriately integrated or systemized for achieving the desired instructional objectives. (c) Evaluation of learning outcomes/objectives The pupil attainment is evaluated in terms of stipulated instructional objectives on basis of post-test scores. Evaluation is done in order to provide feedback for the betterment of the system.

Output: It refers to attainment of objectives improvement of the system. It concerns with the ?ystem on the basis of the feedback from evaluation results to improve effectiveness in terms of specified objectives. If the objectives are achieved as per desired the system is allowed to continue. If the objectives are not achieved certain modification need to be made in the system. The system in this case can be restructured, recognized and its function may be replanned for better results. School Input

School Process

School Output

J

Fig. 3.7: The Depth of Input, Process and Output in an Educational System

Systems Approach to Educational Management

3.10 APPLICATIONS OF SYSTEM THEORIES Organizational theory The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. The application of systems to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy (less disorder) through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is transdisciplinary (across disciplines) and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines, integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more exactly, on the basis of the formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic interrelationships that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems thinking have been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways. In this more recent tradition the systems theory in organizational studies, is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the natural sciences. Systems thinking is a framework that is based on the belief that the component parts of a system can best be understood in the context of relationships with each other and with other systems, rather than in isolation. The only way to fully understand why a problem or element In the most general sense, occurs and persists is to understand the part in relation to the whole. system means a configuration of parts connected and joined together by a web of relationships. The Primer group defines system as a family of relationships among the members acting as a whole. Von Bertalanffy defined system as "elements in standing relationship." Bertalanffy (1950:

142) 3.11 THE TENTS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH The systems thinking approach incorporates several tenets:· Interdependence of objects and their attributes - independent elements can never constitute a system Holism - emergent properties not possible to detect by analysis should be possible to define by a holistic approach Goal seeking - systemic interaction must result in some goal or final state Inputs and Outputs - in a closed system inputs are determined once and constant; in an open system additional inputs are admitted from the environment Transformation of inputs into outputs - this is the process by which the goals are obtained Entropy - the amount of disorder or randomness present in any system Regulation - a method of feedback is necessary for the system to operate predictably Hierarchy - complex wholes are made up of smaller subsystems Differentiation - specialized units perform specialized functions

Educational Management

Equiftnality - alternative ways of attaining the same objectives (convergence) MultlJinality - attaining alternative objectives from the same inputs (divergence)

3.12 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT IS ITERATIVE In every cycle of completion of the major functions, management is progressive and at the same time very function has to follow the five management functions within that individual function.

Iteration means the act of repeating a process usually with the aim of approaching a desired goal or target or result. Each repetition of the process is also called"iteration", and the results of one iteration cycle are used as the starting point for the next iteration. To clarify the iterative concept - when planning is done as a management function then it needs to plan, organize, direct, control and evaluate the plan before the entire function of planning is completed. Since systems are made of components and their functions are carried out sequentially in hierarchy, one cannot proceed to the function of organizing unless planning is completed. Similarly, for the function of organization the five functions of planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating are imperative for organizing. Thus, the unit cycle of any management function cannot exist without the five functions of management. The hierarchy and the sequencing makes the system workable and also predictable, directional at the same time gives entity to each component of the system. Many such subsystems make a whole system. To give an analogy of living systems, we know that all living forms perform life processes like respiration, circulation, excretion, and reproduction, etc. All these processes occur at the organ levels (component of system) and also at the cellular level. Thus, the cell is the functional and structural unit of living things. So also each component of the educational system is a unit by itself and also the part of the whole simultaneously. In developmental management where education institutes do not stagnate and it is a learning organization, the iteration is an important aspect of management functions. To understand the process of iteration the following diagram shows how the whole is made up of the components and in tum each component is a reflection of the whole. Thus, each component shows features of the whole system highlighting the interdependence of components along with the existence of each component individually as well as a representative of the whole. In the following figures we see the iterative nature of management in education because unlike a product manufactuer, education is progressive, dynamic, and ever changing. The process of education is always developmental, feeding on the evaluation of previous cycle of academic event.

Systems Approach to Educational Management ReqUire?

Planning Initial Planning

I

Analysis & Design

~Plementatlon Development

Evalua~ .dg

Fig. 3.8: The Iteration In Development Management Process (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lterative_and_incremental_development)

About the above image The above constructions are always self-similar they can be of any number of dimensions, but are commonly computed and drawn in 2D. The design is made up of the union of several copies of itself, each copy being transformed by a function (hence "function system") . Hence, the shape of an iterative design is made up of several possibly overlapping smaller copies of itself, each of which is also made up of copies of itself, ad infinitum . (This is the source of its self-similar iterative nature.)

3.13 IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEMS APPROACH • • • • •

It implies the application of systems concept to the process of management. It provides a framework for planning, decision-making, control and problem-solving. It throws light on the dynamic nature of management. Through systems approach institution (adaptive system) and its environment are seen as interdependent. Thus, it helps the institution to adjust as per the changes in the environment. It provides a unified focus to institutional efforts.

Educational Management

• • • • • • • • • •

It helps to look at the institution as a whole not as parts. It helps in improving the institution . It helps in bringing efficiency in institutional administration and management. It helps in systematic educational planning. It helps in maximum utilization of r~sources. It helps in improving examination and evaluation system. It helps in improving quality of education. It helps in improving the teacher training programmes. viz.; in-service as well as pre-service. It helps in designing, controlling and improving non-formal and adult education system. It helps the educational manager to identify the critical subsystems and their interaction with each other. The practising educational manager learns to see the phenomenon and elements because of constant interactions.

3.14 LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH THE THEORETICAL LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH • •

Systems of organizations are big and complex. Provides more information about dynamics between parts than it does about the parts . themselves.

• •

May ignore social systems. Can be misinterpreted as not offering a definite body of knowledge since not one mainstream approach is applied. It lacks reliable methods of "total" conception of the whole. It requires a certain amount of subjectivity. There is always risk of losing scientific depth in favour of breadth. It places great demands on the field in terms of theory building. It requires knowledge and skill that are not readily available in academia.

• • • • •

PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH •

Can be viewed as a constraint to managers and others because it is time-consuming and costly

•

Raises the risk of forgetting the individual component's existence by becoming obsessed with the system.

• •

Responsibilities of the systems as a whole have to be yet developed and articulated. Sometimes, the system may necessarily need opinion of people outside of the system like the government or state level authorities. Authoritative or coercive structures in organizations have to be confronted as they undermine the pluralist spirit of systems approach. Since the concept of systems approach is new or complex to education, it can be resisted initially if implemented.

• •

Systems Approach to Educational Management

•

•

It requires training, lot of skills and competence in the use of systems approach on the part of an administrators and teachers. System approach fails in single teacher schools as in Indian rural schools where too much departmentalization and staffing is not possible .

3.15 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM •

Every system is part of a larger system called SUPRA SYSTEM, e.g., Classroom is a system; SchooVCollege is supra system. Thus, educational system is a supra system for any Institution .

•

Every system has a SUB-SYSTEM which are inter-related & inter-dependent. E.g. (people and technology).

•

Every system transforms outsiders (students and teachers} into its members and viceversa).e., system absorbs humans from external environment ~nd converts them into an outsider.

•

Members of an institution (large system) possess multiple memberships. E.g., Student's . members of schooVcollege/family/peer-group/society ... etc.

•

There is a resource exchange between an institution (input, process and output) and external environment.

INPUT

I--+Utilize~ .

--+1 PROCESS 1--+ Facilitating To assIst· . Production Function

1

External Environment

•

OUTPlIT

j

Supplied to the Society (Environment)

Fig. 3.9: Characteristics of a System External Environment (social, cultural, economic, and political) of an institution is dynamic in nature. E.g., Nano Car.

•

There are two types of relationship between the members of an intuition and external environment (large society) .

•

The whole system is greater then its parts.

•

A system operates in accordance with a special plan aimed at achieving specific objective.

•

Every system has a boundary.

Educational Management

3.16 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SYSTEM . Any good system is always effective and efficient, which have to be developed through careful and thought analysis and design, for that six characteristics are:• Effectiveness:-A system must be able to get the job done, produce desirable results within given - (a) Constraints and (b) Umitations • Efficiency:- A sy~tem must achieve more than ( » cost incurred. Result attained more than (» cost of all resources (Human, Material, and Finance). Benefits should be more than the costs. i.e. Benefits> Costs (output/input> 1) • Dependabllity:- A system should be free from Breakdown (problems, lockouts, strikes) & produce good results - over a long period of time.

•

Flexibllity:- A system should accom~odate external environmental changes. It must cater to all individuals with different abilities, needs, capacities, interest, aspirations ..... etc.

•

Acceptability:- It must be acceptable to all, i.e., parents, teachers, students and large society. Simplicity:- A system should be easy to (a) Understand and (b) Operate. It should enhance: (a) Acceptability and (b) Dependability.

•

Questions 1.

What is meant by systems approach? Explain System Approach with diagram and examples in relation to education.

2.

State the importance of systems approach to educational management.

3.

Write a short note on systems approach .

4.

Explain the difference between open system and close system.

5.

Explain the academic disciplines in systems approach.

6.

State the characteristics of a system.

7.

State the characteristics of a good system.

8.

Explain the significance of systems approach to education

9.

State the limitations of systems approach.

10.

Why is management iterative with reference to systems approach?

References •

Bertalanffy, Ludwig Von (1974), Perspectives on General System Theory Edited by Edgar Taschdjian, George Braziller, New York.

•

Heinz Weihrich and Harold Koontz Doneily, Management - A Global Perspective, Tenth Edition, McGrawHill International.

•

Banathy, B. (1991), Systems Design of Education, Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications.

•

Banathy, B. (1992), A Systems View of Education ., Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications. ISBN 0-87778-245-8.

•

Whitehead 1925, Von BertaIanffy (1968) .

Systems Approach to Educational Management •

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory'' \1 "cite_note-3

•

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory'' \1 "cite _ note-9

•

S . R. Pandya, Administration and Management of Education , Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House , Third Edition, 2006.

"Believe me, fellows, everyone from the Pharaoh on down is an equally valued member of the team. "

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SECTION II

ORGANISATIONAL MANAGEMENT

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18.1 18.2 18.3

Introduction Objectives of Educational Institute Records Types of Educational Institute Records

18.4 18.5

Important Educational Insitute Records How to maintain Educational Institute Records?

18.6

A Word of Caution for HM for Educational Institute Records

18.7

Use of Digital Technology for Inventory Control or Keeping Records

18.8

Educational Institution Information dissemination: Advertising and Promotion, Admissions and Educational Services

Educational

IVJanalrem:en~

Records: Importance of essential records and its maintenance using technology. General register, attendance register for staff and students, log book for teachers, service book and cumulative record card.

18.1 INTRODUCTION OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT In educatiqn the management of the scheduling, institutional planning, inventory control, networking and communications are all aspects of operations management. Operations management focuses on carefully managing the processes to excellent students and communicates and contributes their development as individuals and citizens and services to the society. But for the institution the operation management deals with preparing students to complete their courses, and disseminate or advertise to the students from appropriate destination and provide them with services that are needed. Usually, small educational setups don't talk about "operations management" , but they carry out the activities that management schools typically associate with the phrase "operations management. " Major, overall activities often include product creation, development, production and distribution. These activities are also associated with student as the product and service management refers to continual development of the students. However, student development management is usually in regard to one or more closely the same product ~ that is, a products line. Operations management is in regard to all operations within the organization. Related activities include managing purchases, inventory control, quality control, storage, logistics and evaluations. A great deal of focus is on efficiency and effectiveness of processes. Therefore , operations management often includes substantial measurement and analysis of internal processes. Ultimately, the nature of how operations management is carried out in an organization depends very much on the nature of products or services in the organization. The various aspects of operations management will include the management of the following: • •

Purchasing Control and Coordinating Function of Management

•

Product and Service Management

•

Quality Management

•

Inventory Management

•

Logistics and Transportation Management

• •

Facilities Management Configuration Management

•

Distribution Channels

•

General Resources

Essential Institutional Records

Inventory Basics The absolute basics of setting up an inventory system, by use of technology can help the current system that can be improved if following considerations are made: • How to name your inventory locations • How to label your inventory locations • How to describe your inventory items • How to create item numbers to your inventory items • Tips for creating units of measure (uom, or u/m) names • Glossary of inventory terms

A. Types of Educational Institute's Records • •

General Register Attendance Register - staff and students

•

Logbook for Teachers

• •

Service Book Cumulative Record Card

B. Need and Importance of Institutional Records Records are needed for the follOWing purposes:

• • •

Legal Requirements: for state education department and examination board. financial Requirements: to justify financial needs to educational department, local bodies, management committee, ..... etc. Grants-In-Aid: to supply certain facts and statistics to department, government for aid.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE RECORDS

The importance of maintaining educational records spans from historic importance to reforms management. It is an area of study which data with information management where every development is looked upon a data, which needs interpretation. The records cover student data, teaching-learning process data and the output data of examination results, and revenue generation.

• Educational reform: to provide comprehensive data to shoulder the responsibility. • AI/round growth of the child: day-to-day growth of the students. • Relationship with home and communlljJ: for the allround development of students. • Assessment ofan Institution: for progress and achievements of grants from authorities. • Cooperation of parents: to nurture the child and help Educational Institute in their functioning. • examination and evaluation: for promotion in next class, for Educational department, cumulative record card, CRC, confidential reports. • Guidance and counseling: records of performance of students on psychological tests and measurements for GC.

Educational

•

Future Reference: for the history of the educational Institue, to improve the tone of the educational instttue and its performance also.

C. Advantages of Education Institue Records

According to Horace Mann, the general advantages of education Institue records are: • It prevents irregularity in attendance. • It allows more accurate statistical reports • It enables the teacher to note the mental and moral progress of each pupil. • It contains the entire educational institute history of the child. • It furnishes record of each child with a means of self-comparison. • It becomes a powerful incentive to good and dissuasion (caution) from evil. • It fastens the delinquency of absence upon the partiCular offenders. • In a nutshell, education institute records are useful to the education institute, classroom teacher and pupil.

18.2 OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE RECORDS Advantages of educational institute records can also be studied as objedives of education institute record.

I.

To help the educational Institute • To locate each pupil quickly. • To have available the facts significant about each pupil. • To explain and remove undesirable conditions. • To find if all legal requirements are met.

Objectives of educational Institute records • To determine if any administrative or other changes are desirable. • To make important investigation and case studies possible. • To find if educational institute funds are adequate and wisely expended. • To reduce retardation and failure to the minimum. II. To help the class-teacher • To known pupils when the educational institute year begins. • To determine what work a pupil is capable of doing. • To provide learning activities suitable to each pupil. • To formulate a basis for the intelligent guidance of pupils. • To explain the behaviour characteristic or unhappy conditions of any pupil.

Essential Institutional Records

III.

To help the class teacher • To make possible the development of unusual capacities or exceptional talents. • To identify and made proper provisions for mentally slow. • To make assignments to committee work and monitorial positions. • To make periodic reports correctly and in time. • To be properly informed when conferring with parents and others about pupils.

Iv.

To help the pupil • To receive fair consideration in his classification. • To do his best in making a good record. • To make a progress in accordance with his ability. • To secure development of his natural capabilities. • To secure transfer of correct information to other educational Institutes when desired. • To receive proper adjustment and guidance.

18.3 TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE RECORDS I.

GENERAL RECORDS

The educational institute calendar • Logbook • Visitors book • Service books of employees • Staff duty register • Staff address register • Teachers personal files II.

• General order book. FINANCIAL • Salary register of acquittance-roll • Register for receipt and disbursement of scholarship • Ledger showing receipt and expenditure • Fees collection register • Government grant file • Cashbook • Bill register • Donation register • Student fund register

Educational Management

• Contingency register

III.

• Contingency order file EQUIPMENTS • Stock book of furniture and appliances • Furniture issue register • Stationery stock register • Stationery issue register • Sport register • Ubrary accession registers • Ubrary issue register • Journals and newspaper register • Ubrary catalogue

IV.

• Crafts stock register CORRESPONENCE • Receipt and dispatch register • Departmental orders, circular file • Education institute/College/University circular file • Leave register

V. (a)

• Memo book • Inward and outward registers. EDUCATIONAL Dealing with curriculum and daily work: • Class time table. • Teachers' time table. • General time table. • Monthly and term-wise programme of work. • Teachers' diaries. • Home work register • Teachers free periods time table

(b)

• Activities allotment registers. Dealing with admission and attendance: • Admission registers. • Pupil's attendance registers. • Teacher's attendance regist~rs. • Withdrawal' and transfer certificate register.

Essential Institutional Records

(c)

Dealing with examinations: • Monthly progress registers. • Annual examination result registers. • University and departmental examinations result register.

(d)

• Cumulative record register. Dealing with supervision and daily inspection: • Headmaster's supervision registers. • Punishment registers. • Private tuition registers. • Honours roll registers. • Headmaster's order book • Headmaster's instruction book • Pupil's health and physical record. • Guidance record. • Hobbies record.

18.4 IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL INSITUTE RECORDS I.

General Register: • It is to be preserved permanently. • It is record of all the pupils who are admitted to a educational institute. • GR must be kept department-wise, e.g., pre-primary, primary, middle education institute, high school and higher secondary.

General register contains the: • Serial number. • Name of the pupil. • Father's name. • Occupation. • Address. • Date of birth. • Date of admission • Class to which the pupil admitted. • Date of pupil's withdrawal or migration from the school.

II, Teachers attendance records: • Like the pupil's attendance register, the teacher's attendance register is also maintained in every educational Institute. It shows:-

Educational

• the time arrival and departure, • leaves taken by them during the month, • holidays, and • other off-days. • This register is generally placed outside the headmaster's room and as soon as the school bell rings, it is removed and placed before the headmaster for checking up cases of late arrivals if any.

III. •

• • •

,,1. • •

Students attendance records: Each class or section has its own attendance register showing:- the names of a pupils - The rolls of the class or section, during a particular month. In this register,attendance of each pupil is marked both in the beginning of the school day and it's ending for all the working days of the educational institute. All entries are made in ink and no blank spaces are left in-between. Pupils are marked as "leave" or "sick" only when their leave applications are sanctioned by the headmaster; otherwise they are marked as "absent". - Holidays are indicated in red ink. - The fees, funds and fines realized from each pupil, are also shown against the names of the pupils concerned. - On the last working day of each month, a summary of average daily attendance and other necessary information, to be submitted to the department, is prepared by the teacher in-charge, got checked by another teacher, deputed for this duly and then got countersigned by the headmaster. Service books: Service books of all the employees of the educational institute are kept in the custody of the headmaster (primary, secondary and higher secondary schools). Service Books are kept with the block or district educational officer (primary and middle schools) run by the government, Le., BMC-Schools.

The • • • • •

service records contain: Introduction about the employees date of appointment and transfers, His/Her date of birth, Qualifications, Identification marks, permanent home address, Study of extraordinary leave taken with or without pay, new grades, got efficiency bar crossed over, • Increments received, suspension, degradation, or • Reinstatement,if any.

Essential Institutional Records

• Entries in service books should always tally with entries in other records elsewhere.

• Services in other institutions and departments should be got duly verified and entered in these books by the competent authority. V. Logbook • Logbook is a register, meant exclusively for the remarks of the inspector or some other officer of the educational department paying an official visit to the educational institute. • The first portion of the Logbook is meant for recording the facts and figures, relating to the educational Institute at the time of inspection or visit • While the second portion contains the remarks and observations made by the inspecting officer with regard to the progress and achievement or deterioration shown by the educational Institute in various fields both academic and non-academic. VI. Cumulative Record Cards (eRC) • A cumulative record card is a card, maintained by the educational institute for every pupil, indicating the work done by him in various field of activity, from day-to-day, term-to-terminal, year-to-year. • It contains information about the various aspects of the child's life and his attainments in different pursuits, throughout the successive stages of his education. • CRC follows the pupil from class to class and from educational institute to educational institute. • Thus, it gives a comprehensive picture of the allround development of the pupil's personality. • Keeping in view the growing importance of cumulative records, the secondary education commission recommended that "these should be common feature of all Education institutes over the country."

(a)

Pupil Records: "Pupil records" means all records relating to individual pupils maintained by an elementary or secondary school, but does not include notes or records maintained for personal use by a teacher or other person who is required by the department of education.

(b)

Progress Records: "Progress records" are those pupil's records which include the pupil's grades, a statement of the courses, the pupil has taken, the pupil's attendance records, and records of the pupil's school extracurricular activities. Examples of these records include: • cumulative folder • principal's office record • admission, discharge and promotional card • emergency contact card • admissions record • elementary attendance and scholarship record • secondary scholarship record card

Educational Management·

• primary reading record • intermediate reading record • language-skills checklist • records of group test data • others as they are identified as official school records.

Behavioural Records: "Behavioural records" are those pupil's records which include psychological tests, personality evaluations, records of conversations, any written statementrelating specifically to an individual pupil's behaviour, tests relating specifically to achievement or measurement of ability, the pupil's physical health records, and any other pupil records which are not progress records.

(c)

Examples of behavioural records include: • school social work reports and letters • psychological evaluation report • speech pathologist's evaluation report • programming aid for middle school • student's department record • suspension notice and where applicable, • multidisciplinary team report • diagnostic teacher report or other records of this nature • IEP (Individual Educational Programme) (d)

(e)

Directory Data: "Directory data" means are those pupil records which include the pupil's name, participation in officially recognised activities and sports, weight and height of athletic teams, degrees and awards received, and the names of the school most recently previously attended by the pupil. It does not include address, telephone listing, date/place of birth, dates of attendance, or photograph. Disclosure: "Disclosure" are permitting access or the release, transfer, or other communication of education or records of directory information of the student that was given orally, in writing, by electronic means, or by any other means to any party.

Student Database: The student database is a computerised system of recording directory information of the students of the schools. Information contained in the database includes: 1.

Student data information file. Name, address, sex, date of birth, number of schools attended, ethnic code, current assignment, grade and room number (for elementary students), school choices for current year, previous schools attended, dates of entry and withdrawal, attendance-area schools, and an indication if there has been any exceptional educational involvement. , ,,.

2.

Exceptional education file. Name, address, date of birth, sex, race, state code number, dates of doctor's/counsellor's referrals, activities, recommendations, diagnostic teacher requests, dates of parental consent for evaluation and placement, diagnostic placements, and exceptional education programme placement information.

Essential Institutional Records

(i) Cumulative Folder. A cumulative folder is kept in the school of attendance for every

child enrolled at the school. For security purposes, cumulative folders must be kept either in a locked room with restricted access or in a file cabinet and locked when not in use. The cumulative folder includes the elementary attendance and scholarship record, secondary scholarship record card, copies of final report cards, results of standardised group tests, reading records, school social work referrals any educational information received from an outside agency, admission, discharge and promotion card, and any other education-related information regarding that student. Copies of behavioural records must be kept in the cumulative folder. The sample copy of the cumulative record card is explained in parts, such that has three parts - the front, the middle and the back side.

How to Complete the Cumulative Record Card for Teachers .: The front of a cumulative record card has three sections that need to be updated. 1.

Information regarding siblings of the students is entered here. The teacher need to mark the current school year. The teacher also must mark the number of brothers and sisters, older and the younger. The teacher needs to interview the students or interview the parents in oIder to ascertain this information.

2.

This sections should show the student's current address and telephone number. The teacher could ask e'ach student for this information or the teacher could request the information from the parents. If a parent informs the teacher of a change in address or telephone number, the teacher must note this change on all documentation for the student, (Le., cumulative record card and emergency contact card).

3.

Current class information is listed in this section. The teacher should insert the the school number and code. Then list the current class and the date the student entered that class (Le., 9/6/09). Then the teacher should list his own last name. These items should be completed as soon as the teacher receives the cumulative record card. The portion marked '1\ttendance" should be completed at the end of the school year or in the event a student is discharged from your class. If the teacher does not have own system of recording attendance, then the teacher can request a student's "Attendance History" from your attendance teacher or secretary. The number of 'Days Present' and 'Days Absent' should equal the total number of days the student was enrolled in your class.

The next area refers to transfers or discharges. If a student is promoted from your grade to the next, the teacher should write in the new class designation, the date of the promotion, (Le. 4/ 28/08) and the word 'promoted' as the reason. If a student is transferred to another class or another school during the school year, then the teacher should write in the new class or school and the date of the official discharge from your class. This record card must follow the student to his or her new class or school in a timely fashion. If the transfer is within your own school then you should complete this section and pass the record on to the new teacher. If the student is transferring to another school, then you should complete this section and give the entire folder to your Pupil Accounting Officer in the administrative office.

Educational

The back of a cumulative record card has four sections that need to be updated. 4.

5.

VERY IMPORTANT: Any time the teacher meets with a parent for a significant meeting the teacher must note it in this section. If a parent meets with the teacher for the ParentTeacher Conference the teacher needs to write "PTC - mother and father" "Your name teacher". If the teacher has a telephone conference with a parent it should also be noted here. If the teacher has arranged a meeting with a parent and the parent did not attend or try to contact the teacher to arrange another meeting, then the teacher should list the date of the meeting and the words "Did Not Attend". Any special needs or abilities displayed by the student should be itemized in this section. This is the area that would reflect if a student receives musical instruction at school (a member of a school orchestra) or displays exceptional artistic ability. If a student receives special counselling (Le., Project Liberty after some trauma) or guidance or speech therapy, it should be noted.

6.

This section is for kindergarten teachers only. It is very straightforward. The teacher need to list the current school year. The rating key is along side the areas to be assessed.

7.

The grades for students from the first grade onward appear in this section. The rating key is at the bottom (Excellent, Good, Satisfactory, Not satisfacory, Unsatisfactory). These grades must coincide with the grades on the student's report card. As with everything else, the teacher must be prepared to support your grading so keep records and samples of work.

The following table indicates the frequency with which the data of students are to be maintained.

•

• • •

.' •

•

Item the student's name as registered under The Vital Statistics Act, 1995 or, if the student was born in another jurisdiction, the student's name as registered in that jurisdiction other names by which the student is known the dateof birth and gender of the student the student's provincial General register Identification Number (GID) the name{s), address{es) and telephone number{s) of the student's custodial parent{s) or guardian{s) the names of other parents/guardians who may have custody orders that permit or restrict access to the student or the student's personal information a summary or report of the student's achievement and, if appropriate, a record of adaptation at the end of each grade

Update as required

Review/Retention retained permanently in attendance register

annually as required at registration (if not already registered in Saskatchewan) annually

annually

annually

annually

annually

annually

Essential Institutional Records

or semester; term progress reports also may be included

•

the student's results of diagnostic tests or other assessments pertinent to programme planning, including but not limited to psychological reports, speech pathologists' reports, occupational therapists' reports, etc., including related parental consent forms

ongoing

every three years

•

medical information about the student pertinent to programme planning that the parent or student provides

annually

annually

•

an annual summary of the student's attendance

added annually

retained permanently

•

for a student that has a Personal Programme Plan (PPP), as described in the Children's Services Policy Framework, a copy of the current and previous plan

annually

annually

The school principal is responsible for ensuring that the contents of a cumulative record are updated and culled annually. The cumulative record shall contain at minimum the following: •

the student's name as registered under The Vital Statistics Ad, 1995 or, if the student was born in another jurisdiction, the student's name as registered in that jurisdiction;

•

other names by which the student is known;

• •

the date of birth and gender of the student; the student's General register Identification Number (GID);

•

the name(s), address(es) and telephone number(s) of the student's custodial parent(s) or guardian(s);

•

the names of other parents/guardians who may have custody orders that restrict access to their child or the child's personal information;

•

a summary or report of achievement at the end of each grade or semester; term progress reports may also be included;

•

the student's results of diagnostic tests or other assessments pertinent to programme planning, including but not limited to psychological reports, speech pathologists' reports, occupational therapists' reports, etc., including related parental consent forms;

•

medical information about the student pertinent to programme planning that the parent or student provides;

• •

an annual summary of the student's attendance; and, for a student that has a Personal Programme Plan (PPP), as described in the Children's Services Policy Framework, a copy of the current and previous plan.

Educational

Mana~rement

18.5 HOW TO MAINTAIN OF INSTITUTIONAL EDUCATION RECORDS? It is very difficult to lay down hard and fast rules for the maintenance and use of educational institute records. However, some useful suggestions are: •

A stock list of all the records and registers be prepared and maintained in each educational institute.

•

On the outer cover of each register or file, containing the records must have: The name of the educational institute, The serial number of register or record, The name of the register or file, The number of the volume, The number of pages of the volume, and The dates of opening and closing the volume, should be clearly mentioned.

•

Whenever a new register or file .is opened, its page should be numbered consecutively, either in red ink or with a numbering machine.

•

All the files and registers should be kept quite neat and tidy.

•

There should be as few cuttings and over-writings as possible. Wherever corrections are to be made a line should be drawn through the wrong-figure or entry.

•

Under no circumstances it is to be scratched.

•

Each correction should be initialed by the head of the office or institution.

•

A new volume of a register or file should not be opened every year if the older one still contains some blank pages.

• • •

No blank space should be left. All entries should be made in ink, and All registers and files should be checked periodically.

18.6 A WORD OF CAUTION FOR HM FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE RECORDS The ultimate responsibilities of maintaining and preserving educational institute records and registers lie upon the HM. •

Since HM is very busy with other multifarious duties, he is to be provides with a separate full-time clerk for the educational institute office.

Maintenance of educatlonallnstltute records using technology • Today, we are in the age of technology, hence all the educational institute records and register can be very well maintained with the help of COMPUfER using readymade or tailored program.

Essential Institutional Records

• Softwares are available in the market by different IT-companies. • Even the old and past records can be filled and stored for life-long/permanently. • Readymade program/soft-wares are for • Admissions • Fees details • GR • Accounts -Tally • Examinations and Tests • Results

.

• Students and teachers profiles,. . .. etc.

18.7 USE OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY FOR INVENTORY CONTROL OR KEEPING RECORDS The computer softwares like spreadsheet - excel, SQL, Access, Tally, Libsuite for library books, etc., are the known softwares that are used for inventory management.

Automatic IdentUication and Data Capture (AIDC) refers to the methods of automatically identifying objects, collecting data about them, and entering that data directly into computer systems, (Le., without human involvement). 1'echnologies typically considered as part of AIDC include bar codes, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), biometrics, magnetic stripes, and Optical Character Recognition (OCR), smart cards, and voice recognition. AIDC is also commonly referred to as "Automatic Identification," '~uto-ID," and '~utomatic Data Capture." AIDC is the process or means of obtaining external data, particularly through analysis of images, sounds or videos. To capture data, a transducer is employed which converts the ,actual image or a sound into a digital file. The file is then stored and at a later time it can be analyzed by a computer, or compared with other files in a database to verify identity or to provide authorization to enter a secured system. Capturing of data can be done in various ways; the best method depends on application. AIDC also refers to the methods of recognizing objects, getting information about them and entering that data or feeding it directly into computer systems without any human involvement. Automatic identification and data capture technologies include barcodes, Radio-frequency Identification (RFID) is the use of an object (typically referred to as an RFID tag) applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several metres away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.), bokodes (bokode is a type of data tag which holds thousands of times more information than a barcode.), OCR, magnetic stripes, smart cards and biometrics (like iris and facial recognition system). Today's institutions should seriously consider the use of spreadsheets for creating and marinating student cumulative record card. This helps not only to update information from timeto-time, also monitor the progress of student. The institution can also scientifically with evidence,

Educational Management

objectively communicate the progress or development of students in the institute. These digital technologies contribute in maintenance aspect of operations from the point of view of data storage, updation, retrieval and security of institution. Every institution has a record of its alumni who are an asset to the institute. The success stories of the alumni sometimes directly relate to the contribution of the institute and maintaining their record for institute's publicity is another dimension of operations management.

18.8 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTI()N JNFORMATION DISSEMINATION: ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION, ADMISSION~ AND EDUCATIONAL SERVICES The premier educational institutes reach out to the society through educational fairs, various educational events in curricular ands co curricular areas. They also host website for international and national linkages as well as awareness. There are several major methods one can use to get information about the educational institute and their services to the society and the student community. The following is the most appropriate method:

Distribution: Advertising and promotion of quality education of particular institute and services are often some of the most under-rated activities by new educational institutes. Many people strongly believe that if they build it well, students will come. In this increasingly expanding and competitive marketplace, one must ensure the institute's excellence and services are prominently in the minds of the society and student community or clients. This requires on-going advertising and promotion. Advertising and Promotion: Even if the institute's excellence and services are prominently in the minds of the society and student community or clients, the institute needs to facilitate the process of their enrolling (or, sometimes in the case of non-profits, using) excellence and the knowledge that the institute offers. This often requires cultivating an on-going relationship with customers and clients to understand their needs, explain how institute and services can meet those needs, and facilitate the "closing" of the admission, that is, where they enroll with a competitive edge. Student communities are increasingly knowledgeable and intelligent in their admission and educational habits. Depending on the nature of the student or educational service, a promise of on-going development/improvement and/or support for some period of time can greatly reassure students when considering the enrolling or admissions to the institute ..

Warranties: Warranties are given for object but in education it is branding with honesty and integrity. Not only can high-quality educational service earn a strong reputation for the organization and the students, it can also support continued quality admissions and revenues (and even new ideas for new products and services) from current enrolled student community. Customer service: All of the product management activities so far come down to achieving one, on-going major outcome: Customer satisfaction.

Essential Institutional Records

Questions 1.

Explain the term "Operation Management".

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What is the need and importance of educational institute records? State the advantages of educational institute records. State 5 ways to maintain the educational institute records. Enumerate the kinds of educational institute records. Write a short note on:- Logbook, Service Book, CRC, Teacher's Attendance Register and Student's Attendance Register and General Register. State the objectives of educational institute records. How to maintain important Educational Records?

7. 8. 9. 10.

Explain how one can we the digital technology for inventory control or keeping records. How can an educational Institution disseminate the information of its institution?

References 1. 2. 3.

Safaya and Shaida, Modern School Administration and Organization. Aggarwal, J.C., Organization and Practice of Modern Education. Carter, McNamara, MBA, Ph.D., Operations Management, on internet website- http:// managementhelp.org/ops_mgnVops_mgnt.htm#anchor1899576.

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SECTION V

ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITIES

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EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AUTHORITIES OF INDIA

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