Education of Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups From Marginalisation to Inclusion [1 ed.] 1032315008, 9781032315003, 9781000842869

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Foreword
References
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Introduction
Introduction
Current Status
Policies and Schemes
Innovative Practices
Issues
Recommendation and Conclusion
References
Part I: Gender Identity
Chapter 1: Educating Girls: A Key to International Sustainable Development
Introduction with Historical Background
Policy and Programmes – Policies and Legislations (International and National) for the Education of Girls
Government Schemes to Encourage Women’s Education
Various Organizations (International, National, Local) Working for the Education and Rehabilitation of Girls with Research Evidence
Current Status – Statistical Data about Girls’ Educational Status with Research Evidence
Challenges
Different Expected Prospects in the Education of Girls and Provisions Available for the Development of Their Education at All Levels with Research Evidence
Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Transgender’s Education: Steps towards Transforming Society
Introduction
Transgender Rights Movements
Constitutional Provisions, Policies, and Programmes
A Ray of Hope (National Legal Service Authority (NALSA) v/s Union of India)
The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019
National Portal for Transgender Persons
Status of Transgender Population and Education in India
International and National Organizations Working for the Transgender
International Organizations
Challenges Faced by the Transgender Community
Breaking the Stereotypes and Prejudices
Recommendations for the Inclusion of Transgender in Education
Conclusion
References
Part II: Socio-Cultural Identity
Chapter 3: Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education: A Sociological Analysis of Indian Society
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status of Education of SCs
Organizations Working for Promotion of Education among SEDGs
Challenges in the Education of SCs
Innovative Practices in the Education of SCs
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status of Education of STs
Challenges in the Education of STs
Innovative Practices in the Education of STs
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Removing Backwardness through Education
Introduction
Acts and Policies
Current Status of Education of OBCs
Organizations Working for the Education of OBC
Challenges in the Education of OBCs
The Problem of Women
Innovative Practices for Education of OBC
“Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for the Welfare of OBCs”
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Education of Muslim Minorities in India: Balancing the Social Fabric/Making a Just Society
Minorities in India
Minority Education in India
Educational Status of the Muslim Minority
Current Status of Muslim Education in India
Constitutional Provisions for the Education of Minorities
Government Programmes, Policies, and Schemes for the Education of Muslims and Other Minorities in India
Organizations Working for the Education of the Muslim Minority
Innovative Practices for the Education of the Muslim Minority
Challenges in Muslim Education
Prospects and Recommendations for the Education of Muslims
Conclusion
References
Part III: Disability Identity
Chapter 7: Educational Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India
Introduction
Policies and Programs
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practices
Prospects
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Education of Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: From Extermination to Right-Based Society
Introduction
Historical Perspectives
Phases of Services for Persons with Developmental Disabilities – Philosophical Changes
Policies and Programmes
International Scenario
National Scenario
Special Schools
Integrated School
Inclusive School
Challenges
Challenges Faced by the Students
Challenges Faced by Regular Teachers
Challenges Faced by the Administration
Challenges Faced by the Parents
Other Challenges Include
Innovative Practices
Role of Teachers in Effectively Using Assistive Technology
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Development of E-Learning
Punarjjani
Prospects of Education in Specific Groups
Inclusive Society with Inclusive Schools
Recommendations
Creating Awareness in Rural and Sub-urban Areas
Organizing Sensitization Programmes against Bullying of Children with Disability
Monitoring at the Execution Level
Revise/Upgrade the Commonly Used Assessment Tools
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities
Introduction
Brief History
International Policies and Legislations
National Policies and Legislations
Current Status of Specific Learning Disability
Organizations Working for the Education and Rehabilitation of Persons with SLDs
Challenges
Innovative Practices in the Education of Children with LDs
Prospects in the Education of Children with LDs
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Ensuring Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities
Introduction
Policies and Programs
Current Status
Organizations
Challenges Faced by Persons with Multiple Disabilities
Innovative Practices
Providing the Best Support to Students with Multiple Disabilities
Prospects in Education in Specific Groups
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Educational Stimulations of Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practices in the Education of Children with NDD
Prospects in the Education of Children with NDD
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Socio-Economic Identity
Chapter 12: De-addiction of the Addicted through Education
Introduction
From Drugs/Substance Use to Abuse
Models of Substance Use Behaviour
Present Status of Drug/Substance Abuse
Classification of Drugs/Substances
Current Demographic Status of Drug Addiction
Initiatives for the Prevention of Drug Abuse
Policy and Programmes for Drug Prevention and Rehabilitation
Ministries and Organizations for Drug Prevention
Challenges to the Education of Drug-Addicted Children
Prospects in the Education of Drug-Addicted Children
Schools as the Most Promising Prospects
Support Groups and Individuals from Civil Society
Family and Peer Group Support
Recommendations for the Education of Drug-Addicted Children
Scaling Up Treatment Centres and Programmes
Partnership between Schools, Drug Rehabilitation Centres, and Medical Homes
Hierarchy of Intervention Programmes
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practices in Their Education
Prospects in the Education of Migrant Children
Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Empowerment of Street Children
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practice in Their Education
Recommendation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations
Introduction
Policies and Programmes
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practices
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children
Introduction
Policy and Programmes
Current Status
Government and Non-governmental Organizations Working against Human Trafficking in India
Some Commendable NGOs
Challenges
Innovative Practices in Education
Prospects in the Education to Curbing Child Trafficking
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports
Introduction
Policies and Programs
Current Status
Challenges
Innovative Practices for Orphans
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Access to Education for Children of Refugees
Introduction
Policy and Programs for Refugees
Educational Status of Refugees
Status of Refugees in India
Organizations Working for the Education of Refugees
Challenges in the Education of Children of Refugees
Innovative Practices in the Education of Children of Refugees
Integration of Refugee Children into the Educational System through a Holistic Model
Prospects in the Education of Children of Refugees
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: Making Privileged the Underprivileged
Introduction with Historical Perspective
Policy and Programmes Related to Child Labour
National
Legislation to Prohibit Child Labour
National Policies and Programmes
Current Status of Education of Child Labourers
Challenges
Lack of Access to Schools
Affordability
Quality of Education
Relevance
Innovative Practices in the Education of Child Labourers
Prospects in the Education of Specific Groups
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Index

Citation preview

Education of Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups

This book explores policy measures and social programmes designed to make quality education accessible to socio-economic disadvantaged groups (SEDGs) in India. It discusses the status of education of disadvantaged or marginalized groups, the discourse around education and equity in India, and innovative practices undertaken by both government and non-government institutions to increase accessibility to education. The book highlights the disparity in the quality of education available to disadvantaged groups, including religious, ethnic, and caste minorities, women and girls, transgender people, people with disabilities, and migrant or displaced children. It examines the effectiveness of initiatives and policies which have been implemented to bring quality education to the SEDG in India. It also offers suggestions and policy recommendations to bridge the disparity in education which will consequently lead to greater economic and social mobility, inclusion, and socio-economic development. The book will be of interest to teachers, students, and researchers of education, sociology, development studies, social work, and disability studies. It will also be useful for policymakers, academicians, and professionals working in the fields of education, social work, and rehabilitation. Mrutyunjaya Mishra is Associate Professor in the Department of Hearing Impairment at the Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow, India. His area of interest are capacity building for inclusive education, neurological aspects of deafness, and technological intervention for students with special needs. Pettala Ramakrishna is Assistant Professor of Special Education (Hearing Impairment) in the Department of Teacher Training and Non-formal Education (IASE) at Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New  Delhi, India.

Education of Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups

From Marginalisation to Inclusion

Edited by Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

First published 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-31500-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-44060-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-37022-2 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222 Typeset in Sabon by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)

Contents

List of Tables Foreword Acknowledgements Abbreviations List of Contributors Introduction

viii ix xii xiii xviii 1

MRUTYUNJAYA MISHRA AND PETTALA RAMAKRISHNA

PART I

Gender Identity

13

1 Educating Girls: A Key to International Sustainable Development

15

ANAMIKA CHOUDHARY

2 Transgender’s Education: Steps towards Transforming Society

29

ANJALI SHARMA AND MEGHA AGGARWAL

PART II

Socio-Cultural Identity

45

3 Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education: A Sociological Analysis of Indian Society

47

SIPRA SAGARIKA AND SONU KAHALI

4 Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education SAROJ KUMAR DHAL

58

vi Contents

5

Removing Backwardness through Education

70

VISHI MAHRSHI

6

Education of Muslim Minorities in India: Balancing the Social Fabric/Making a Just Society

81

FAIZA ALTAF

PART III

Disability Identity 7

Educational Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India

99 101

DIPAK KUMAR AICH

8

Education of Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: From Extermination to Right-Based Society

113

P. ARUNA AND SAUMYA CHANDRA

9

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities

127

ADYA SHAKTI RAI

10 Ensuring Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities

141

MRUTYUNJAYA MISHRA AND PETTALA RAMAKRISHNA

11 Educational Stimulations of Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities

155

G. SHANKAR GANESH

PART IV

Socio-Economic Identity

169

12 De-addiction of the Addicted through Education

171

NEHA RAWAT AND ANJALI SHARMA

13 Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children SOMALI MUKHERJEE

186

Contents vii

14 Empowerment of Street Children

198

RANJANA SHARMA AND SAMINA

15 Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations

211

SANJAY KUMAR YADAV

16 Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children

224

SUKANYA SINGH AND ANJALI SHARMA

17 Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports

240

MOHD ZUBER AND PETTALA RAMAKRISHNA

18 Access to Education for Children of Refugees

252

PETTALA RAMAKRISHNA AND K. RAJESWARI

19 Making Privileged the Underprivileged

266

SWETA DVIVEDI

Index

280

Tables

2.1 State and UT-Wise Status of Transgender Population and Literacy Rate in India 37 3.1 Scheduled Caste Literacy Rate Gender-Wise from the Census of India 2001 and 2011 51 4.1 Literacy Rates of Schedule Tribes vs General Population (in Percent) in India 62 6.1 Percentage of the Population of Different Minority Communities 82 6.2 Literacy Rate of Minority Communities in Percentage (Census Report, 2011) 82 6.3 Status of Minority Education at Different Stages of Education 83 6.4 Ratio of Muslim Girls to Muslim Boys in ManagementType Schools 84 6.5 Percentage Share of Muslim Minority Enrolment to the Total Enrolment by Stage of School Education, All India 85 6.6 Enrolment Ratio of Muslim and Other Disadvantaged Groups 86 6.7 Non-Government Organizations 92 7.1 Total Hearing and Speech Disabled Persons in India (Census of India, 2011) 104 8.1 Current Educational Status 116 8.2 Major Institutes for CwIDD across India 117 10.1 Persons with Multiple Disability Literacy Rate 145 12.1 Types of Drug-Addicted Children from the Educational Perspective 178 16.1 Elements of Human Trafficking 225 16.2 States and Union Territories (UT)-Wise Children Victims of Trafficking in 2019 229 16.3 States and UT-Wise Children Victims Rescued during 2017–19 231 16.4 NGOs Working in India against Human Trafficking 233

Foreword

The pace of change across the world which affects life is happening at such swiftness that it has become tremendously difficult to stay updated with educational practice innovations and research. Over the few decades, radical changes are attributable at the international and national levels in the context of education to make provisions for education for all in ongoing circumstances. Results from some of those changes have been implemented in education to avoid disparity in education. In the ever-changing educational landscape of India, there were many vulnerable groups, which have not addressed their needs to get an appropriate education. Marginalized people existing in Indian society are the people who have been treated as a group unimportant, insignificant, and considered as of lower status. It exists in multiple forms and against many groups of people. Amartya Sen’s approach considers the equality of capabilities in and through education. What this requires is an acknowledgment of the heterogeneity and pluralism of human beings and the connection between individual experience and social arrangements by studying equality in the capability to convert resources into functioning. Therefore, instead of being satisfied with equal levels of input and resources in education, one needs to question if all individuals are free to participate, equally, in education in different settings. (Rajapakse, 2016) The right to education is universal and does not allow for any form of exclusion or discrimination. However, all countries, including India, face challenges guaranteeing equal opportunities for all in accessing education and within the education system. Equity in education means that personal or social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin or family background are not obstacles to achieving educational potential (fairness) and that all individuals reach at least a basic minimum level of skills (inclusion). In these education systems, the vast majority of students have the opportunity to attain high-level skills, regardless of their own personal and socio-­ economic circumstances (OECD, 2012). Marginalized groups are often left

x Foreword

behind by national education policies, denying many people their right to education. In spite of having various schemes for these groups and certain NGOs working for the benefit of education and rehabilitation, we could comprehend from the statistics by the Indian government and other associated organizations that still many of these marginalized sections need comprehensive provisions for their education. A major challenge for us as a nation, and particularly for us as service providers, is to value the social and cultural differences that each of the groups who live here adds to the great Indian mosaic and to understand the economic, political and social forces of our society that either inhibit or enhance the opportunity structure of all those who inhabit this nation. A careful read of this book will help the practitioner meet this challenge. This book represents a good jump start for professional educational workers and other human service providers who wish to practice in a more culturally sensitive and appropriate manner. Hopefully, as a jump start, the book will provide the impetus for professional educational practitioners to explore each problem area and each group highlighted in the succeeding chapters in more depth than can be achieved in any single book chapter. I am sure that it will be a very useful reference book for graduates and postgraduates of various disciplines like social work, education, special education, etc., to understand various issues and concerns of these marginalized groups in India. It will be also helpful to the researchers in the aforementioned fields in conducting in-depth research on these specific groups. It will be also supportive for policymakers to understand and plan better schemes and strategies for marginalized groups. The book is arranged in a manner so that each section provides a brief outline of the concerned marginalized group. This edition expands the scope of practice and research that is examined to include practice with multicultural families where health and disabilities are central to their concerns, the practice of socio-cultural and socio-economic groups and practice with gender issues and transgender individuals and their families. Through­ out the book, the important concerns and alarming numbers help the reader appreciate the complexity of working within and across fields of practice with specific problems and conditions. The book begins with a section on disabilities and their concerns in education; the second section is on gender issues; the third section is on socio-cultural groups, and the last section is on socio-economic groups to recognize their concerns and existing provisions for education and to take future directions that should be taken by professionals and policymakers of education in achieving better life chances. This text reveals a range of social and educational problems of diverse cultural and ethnic groups across the life course. The problems of substance abuse, various disabilities, Schedule Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Classes, minorities, and the impact of refugees, migrant children, vulnerable children, street children, orphans, and trafficking children.

Foreword xi

I wish Dr. Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Dr. Pettala Ramakrishna all the very best and am confident that this book will be a runaway success. Amitav Mishra Professor, School of Education, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi

References OECD. (2012). Equity and Quality in Education: Supporting Disadvantaged Students and Schools. OECD Publishing. DOI: 10.1787/9789264130852-en Rajapakse, N. (2016). “Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Education: Enhancing Social Justice”, Revue LISA/LISA e-journal [Online], vol. XIV-n°1  | 2016, Online since 31May 2016, connection on 13July 2022. URL: http:// journals.openedition.org/lisa/8913; DOI: 10.4000/lisa.8913

Acknowledgements

Every work is possible through a team effort. The book titled Education of Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups: From Marginalisation to Inclusion is a combined effort of a team of the publication house and authors whose efforts have made possible this huge task. We acknowledge the publishing house for accepting and actualizing the idea of bringing this book in view of the New Education Policy 2020. The education disadvantaged section has been grouped in section 6 of the policy. We also acknowledge the team of authors who had done continuous research in their academic disciplines. Identifying the authors and assigning them chapters relating to their respective interest areas was a tough task. However, we have succeeded in identifying and preparing them for writing their respective chapters. They have continuously worked on the chapters as per the comments received from the reviewers from time to time. We also acknowledge the contribution of reviewers whose comments helped all the contributors in shaping the final version of the manuscript as per the guidelines of the publishing house. The entire period and volume of work could not have been achieved without the efforts of all. We acknowledge all who have directly or indirectly helped us in bringing the first edition of this book. In case of errors and omissions, we seek responses from all the stakeholders, readers and researchers in order to enrich the future endeavours of this book.

Abbreviations

AAC AAR ACEI ADIP

Alternative and Augmentative Communication Age-Specific Attendance Ratio Association for Childhood Education International Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase or Fitting of Aids or Appliances ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder AGD Age, Gender, and Diversity AIIMS All-India Institute of Medical Sciences AIISH All-India Institute of Speech and Hearing AISHE All-India Survey on Higher Education Reports ALDI Association for Learning Disabilities India ALS Alternative Learning System ASER Annual Status of Education Report ATSEC Action against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children AWP and B Annual Work Plan and Budget AYJNISHD Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Speech and Hearing Disabilities (Divyangjan) BRCs Block Resource Centers CABE Central Advisory Board of Education CARA Central Adoption Resource Authority CADE Convention against Discrimination in Education CCTNS Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women CEDC Children Especially in Difficult Circumstances CHETNA Childhood Enhancement through Training and Action CLPRA Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act COVID-19 Coronavirus disease of 2019 CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CRCA Children’s Human Rights Centre of Albania CRCs Cluster Resource Centers CSA Catalysts for Social Action

xiv Abbreviations

CSE CWC CwD CwHI CwIDD CwSNs DCI DISE DoE DMS DPED DPEP DTHE ECCE EME GAR GDP GER GoI GPE ICCPR ICDS ICPS IDD IDEA IDMC IDMI IEDC IEDSS IEPs ILO IPC IRC JSS JIPMER JJB LGBTQIA LIRS MANF MDGs MHRD MLE

Commercial Sexual Exploitation Child Welfare Committees Children with Disabilities Children with Hearing Impairment Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Children with Special Needs Defence for Children International District Information System for Education Department of Education Disaster Management Skills Declaration on Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearances Districts Primary Education Programme Department of Technical and Higher Education Early Childhood Care and Education English Medium Education Gross Attendance Ratio Gross Domestic Product Gross Enrolment Ratio Government of India Global Partnership for Education International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Integrated Child Development Services Integrated Child Protection Scheme Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Individuals with Disabilities Education Act The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Infrastructure Development of Minority Institutes Integrated Education for the Disabled Children Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage Individual Education Plans International Labour Organization Indian Penal Code International Rescue Committee Jan Shikshan Sansthan Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research Juvenile Justice Board Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service Maulana Azad National Fellowship Millennium Development Goals Ministry of Human Resource and Development Multi-lingual Education

Abbreviations xv

MLL Minimum Level of Learning MES Modular Employment Scheme MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development MLE Ministry of Labour and Employment MLS Mobile Learning System MoMA Ministry of Minority Affairs MSJE Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment NCBC National Commission for Backward Classes Act NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training NCF National Curriculum Framework NCLP National Child Labour Project NCMEI National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions NCPCR National Commission for Protection of Child Rights NDDs Neurodevelopmental Disorders NDDTC National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre NEP National Education Policy NER Net Enrolment Ratio NFE Non-formal Education NFHS National Family Health Survey NGO Non-governmental Organization NHFDC National Handicapped Finance and Development Corpora­tion NIEPID National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities NIMHANS National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling NISH National Institute of Speech and Hearing NMCME National Monitoring Committee on Minorities’ Education NPA National Programmes of Action NSSO National Sample Survey Office NYKS Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan OBCs Other Backward Classes OBE Open Basic Education OoSC Out of School Children PAB Project Approval Board PGIMER Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research PMIS Project Management Information System POCSO Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act PwD Act Persons with Disabilities Act PWID People Who Inject Drugs RPwD Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act RTE Right to Education

xvi Abbreviations

SALVE SBT SC SDG SDP SEDGs SEDP SEN SHGs SLDs SMC SMILE SMSA SNAC SOFOSH SOP SPEMM SPSCs SSA STs STEP SUD SwHI SwMDs TWEET UDHR UDL UNCAT UNCRC UNCRPD UNCTOC UNDESA U-DISE UK UN UNDP UNESCAP UNESCO UNFPA

Support and Learn via Education Salam Balak Trust Scheduled Caste Sustainable Development Goals School Development Plan Socio-Economic Disadvantage Groups Special Educational Development Programme Special Educational Needs Self-Help Groups Specific Learning disabilities The School Management Committee Support for Marginalized Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan State Nodal Agency Centres Society of Friends of the Sassoon Hospitals Standard Operating Procedures Scheme for Providing Education to Madarsas/Minorities State Public Service Commissions Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Scheduled Tribes Street Education and Protection program Substance Use Disorders Students with Hearing Impairment Students with Multiple Disabilities Transgender Welfare Equity and Empowerment Trust Foundation The Universal Declaration of Human Rights Universal Design for Learning UN Convention against Torture United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child United National Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities United Nations Convention on Transnational Organized Crime United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Unified District Information System for Education United Kingdom United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Social Council for the Asia and Pacific United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Population Fund

Abbreviations xvii

UNHCR UNICEF UNODC UPSC WHO

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Union Public Service Commission World Health Organization

Contributors

Miss Megha Aggarwal, Research Scholar, School of Education, Central University of Rajasthan, India. She is University Grant Commission (UGC) NET JRF qualified and pursuing her PhD under the supervision of Dr. Anjali Sharma. Her research topic is to explore the psychosocial and educational issues of the transgender and sensitizing teachers toward the transgender. She has presented one paper at the national conference and one paper at an international conference and one paper at a research conclave in 2022. Dipak Kumar Aich (PhD) is a teacher educator working for CwSNs in AYJNISHD (D), RC, Kolkata, India, for the last decade. He was awarded a PhD from Jadavpur University, Kolkata. His doctoral research work emphasized inclusive and special education. He is a gold medallist in MEd (hearing impairment) programme of AYJNISHD (D) Mumbai affiliated with the University of Mumbai. Faiza Altaf (PhD), MSc (chemistry), MA (psychology), BEd, MEd, PhD (education), and NET qualified in education. She has more than seven years of teaching experience. She has published 12 research papers and articles. She has attended/organize 25 seminar, conferences, and workshops. Currently, she is serving as Assistant Professor in the College of Teacher Education Asansol, Maulana Azad National University Hyderabad. Ms. P. Aruna is a Special Educator. Her major areas of interest are sensitizing all the stakeholders of inclusive schools about the needs and limitations of children with disabilities to provide a safe and meaningful educational environment for all children, irrespective of their abilities and disabilities. She has published research papers on “Digital Social Stories for Children with Autism” during the COVID-19 pandemic and strategies to teach children with learning disabilities. She has volunteered in helping school-going shelter kids with their academics as part of a non-governmental organization.

Contributors xix

Saumya Chandra (PhD) is a special educator to the core with a passion for innovating strategies to promote inclusive education in its true sense that is still a dream for children with disabilities, their parents, and educators. She has more than 15 years of experience in working with some of the sensitive aspects of special education, i.e., brain-behaviour relationship, nature-nurture coordination, sensory integration, and designing curricula to handle adolescent issues among teenage girls with intellectual disabilities. Her major interest areas are Therapeutic interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, and other developmental delays, assessment of the performance level of children with intellectual disabilities and children with sensory issues, programme planning and evaluation, transition from school to work and so on. Anamika Choudhary (PhD) Associate Professor and Head of the Depart­ ment of Economics at Dr. Shakuntala Mishra National Rehabi­litation University, Lucknow. With about 19 years of teaching experience in undergraduate and postgraduate classes, her contribution to various units writing for different open universities like Uttarakhand Open University and Rajarshi Tandon Open University has been widely acknowledged. She has to her credit about 40 research papers presented in various national and international seminars and conferences. She has published 28 papers in various refereed journals. Saroj Kumar Dhal (PhD) is teaching Sociology at the University of Lucknow. He earned his MA in sociology from Jawaharlal Nehru University, MPhil in anthropology from the University of Delhi and PhD in sociology from Delhi School of Economics. He has visited California State University, USA; National University of Singapore; Kyoto University; and Doshisha University of Japan to present his research papers. He has published many research papers in various journals and edited books. His research interests include migration, diaspora, gender, labour, development, tribes and civil society. Sweta Dvivedi (PhD) Assistant Professor in the Department of Education, Mizoram University. Prior to joining this position, she was UGC PostDoctoral Fellow at Banaras Hindu University. She has more than ten years of teaching experience in teacher education. Her research and writing are rooted within special needs children and their educational needs, inclusive education and Indian philosophy. G. Shankar Ganesh is working as a Lecturer in Physiotherapy in the Composite Regional Centre for Skill Development, Rehabilitation, and Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (CRC), Lucknow. He has more than 20 years of clinical and academic experience. He has published more than 40 papers in high-impact, peer-reviewed journals and has a Google h-index score of 17. He has written chapters in books and has delivered papers at national and international conferences. He is also

xx Contributors

a reviewer for many indexed journals. Apart from his clinical, academic, and research interests in the rehabilitation of orthopaedic and adult neurological impaired patients, he has a special interest in teaching practices of special populations and enhancing the role played by online teaching in disseminating research findings and knowledge translation. Miss Sonu Kahali is a scholar of sociology who completed her graduation and postgraduation at Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, with distinction and MPhil from Fakir Mohan University under the supervision of Dr. Sipra Sagarika. She has actively participated in several National and International seminars. She has got several publications in reputed journals and edited book chapters. Her areas of interest include sociology of Dalit studies, sociology of minority rights, sociology of culture, sociology of fashion, and sociology of performative arts. Vishi Mahrshi (PhD) is working at the Department of Teacher Education, Mahatma Jyoti Rao Phule Teacher’s Training School, Jaipur as a Principal. She has more than 20 years of teaching experience at the school, undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She has published research and conceptual papers and book chapters nationally and internationally. She has given presentations and delivered lectures in various national webinars. Her areas of specialization are educational psychology, scientific creativity test development, teacher education, and education technology. Dr. Mrutyunjaya Mishra (PhD) has teaching and research experience of more than 19 years. He is working as Associate Professor in the Department of Hearing Impairment at Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow. He has published two books – namely, Creating an Inclusive School and Trends in ICT Enabled Education. He has also published 17 research papers in reputed journals. He is an expert member in developing sign language content for children with hearing impairment. Somali Mukherjee (PhD) has done her graduation from the Jadavpur University, Kolkata, and her master’s from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU; New Delhi). She completed her doctoral thesis in March 2018 from Jadavpur University. Her research was on Pakistan’s India Policy. She has been working as Assistant Professor at Gurudas College, affiliated with the University of Calcutta since 2010. Her research interests are varied, like international relations, Indian politics, political theory, etc. She has attended a number of National and International seminars and has quite a few publications to her credit. Adya Shakti Rai (PhD), Associate Professor and Head, Department of Visual Impairment, at Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow. She has more than 13 years of experience working with students with special needs. She is an expert in the field of visual impairment and contributed to the draft of the state rehabilitation policy. She has

Contributors xxi

published 22 research papers. She has presented 40 papers in national and international seminars. Subject expert of many universities. She is credited with 45 chapters and self-learning material (SLM) in edited books and delivered more than 80 lectures in different organizations. Mrs. K. Rajeswari is an independent consultant. Her services include the field of Indian Sign Language, special education, and guidance and counselling. She is a registered professional in Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI). She has done Diploma in Indian Sign Language (DISLI) from Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute (RKMVERI), Coimbatore. MSc (psychology) from Tamil Nadu Open University (TNOU) and postgraduate diploma in guidance and counselling (PGDGC) from Annamalai University. She worked as a Sign Language Interpreter in the Sing Language Unit of RKMVERI, Coimbatore, and she also has experience as a special educator. Pettala Ramakrishna (PhD) Assistant Professor of Special Education (Hearing Impairment) in the Department of Teacher Training & Nonformal Education (TT & NFE) (Institute of Advanced Studies in Education (IASE)), Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University), New Delhi. He is a registered professional in RCI. He is a versatile teacher, having 20 years of experience in the field of special education (hearing impaired (HI)). Thirteen research articles, 4 Books, 5 SLMs are in his credit. He was the Project Coordinator for the Indian Sign Language English-Hindi Bi-Lingual Dictionary and Mobile Application ISL Dictionaries in 11 Indian languages. He is serving as RCI visiting expert and Member of RCI-ZCC Southern Zone-III. His areas of interests are assistive technology, inclusive education, sign language, and curriculum adaptation. Neha Rawat (PhD) is working as Assistant Professor at the Department of Teacher Education, School of Humanities and Education, Nagaland University, Kohima, Nagaland. She has 15 years of teaching experience at the school, undergraduate, and postgraduate levels. She has also completed research projects funded by the state government and the Ministry of Education, Government of India (GoI). She has published many research, conceptual papers, and book chapters nationally and internationally. She has given presentations and delivered lectures in various national and international webinars and faculty development programmes. Her areas of specialization are educational psychology, e-content development, pedagogy of English, teacher education, inclusive education, and curriculum studies. Sipra Sagarika (PhD) Assistant Professor (Stage–II) in Sociology, Post­ graduate Department of Social Sciences, Fakir Mohan University, Balasore, Odisha. She completed her doctoral work at the Center for Study of Social Systems, School of Social Sciences, JNU. She keeps wide

xxii Contributors

interests in sociology of culture, social anthropology, sociology of minority studies, and political sociology. She is visiting faculty at the Indian Institute of Management, Indore, where she engaged with IPM students in a course titled Culture and Society in Contemporary India. She has visited the University of Ottawa, Canada; University of Adam Mizwick, Poznan, Poland; and University of Guelph Humber, Toronto, Canada, in several capacities from 2017 to 2019. She has wide publications in different international and national journals and has wide publication of chapters in edited books. Samina (PhD), Associate Professor, Department of Education, Maulana Azad University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, served since 2007 as Lecturer in Geeta Bajaj Women Teachers Training College, Jaipur, University of Rajasthan and since 2009 as Lecturer in Maulana Azad Muslim Teachers Training College. She taught pedagogy of English, pedagogy of Urdu, and educational psychology at the undergraduate level. Her field of research specialization is educational psychology of the Holy Quran. She has participated in various national seminars. Anjali Sharma (PhD) Associate Professor at the School of Education, Central University of Rajasthan. She has 22 years of teaching and research experience. She has published 24 research papers in the UGC care list, Web of Science, and Scopus journals and 7 chapters in edited books. She has presented around 50 papers at national and international conferences and seminars. She has completed two sponsored research projects under the Ministry of Education, GoI, and a few research projects on state government and published two books. Six PhD degrees have been awarded under her supervision, and four research scholars are pursuing their research with her. She designed an educational game and took part in Toycathon 2021. She has contributed a question bank of 200 multiple-choice questions on Arunachal Pradesh under the “Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat” programme. She is nominated Master Trainer for the Community-Based Participatory Research Program under Unnat Bharat Abhiyan 2.0, GoI. She is a UGC-nominated member of the committee constituted for establishing guidelines for the Department of Education to implement National Education Policy 2020. Ranjana Sharma (PhD) Principal and Head, Department of Chemistry at Nathdwara Institute of Biotechnology and Management, Upali Oden, Dist. Rajsamand, State: Rajasthan. She has 14 years of teaching experience at the under graduation and postgraduation levels. She has published many research papers in peer-reviewed journals. She has attended various workshops and Faculty Development Program. She has presented research papers at national and international conferences. Her field of research specialization is heterocyclic derivatives of hydroxyl amine.

Contributors xxiii

Miss Sukanya Singh is a PhD student in the Department of Education, Central University of Rajasthan. She was awarded UGC senior research fellowship. She presented many papers at the national seminar and international conferences and published three papers in her research area. Her research interests include teacher education and science pedagogy. Sanjay Kumar Yadav (PhD) is working as Assistant Professor and Coordi­ nator, Department of Disability Studies, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata, India. He is the Editor of the Indian Journal of Special Education. He has published several research papers and chapters in national and international journals and books. Mr. Mohd Zuber Assistant Professor of Special Education (SLD) at the Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University). He is a global keynote speaker, educationist, motivational speaker. A versatile, dedicated, and professionally competent academician and certified practitioner. He has vast experience in the identification of students with special needs, assessment, and evolving appropriate remedial measures. He has published papers, books, and chapters in the field of education. He has won many national and international prizes from different organizations. He also won many prizes in sports and co-curricular activities.

Introduction Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

Introduction An individual or a group of people is marginalized when they cannot access opportunities, essential services, or both. Widespread popular cultural, societal, civic, and financial activities were forbidden to many groups. Marginalization is a process and condition that inhibits communities from participating fully in some elements of life. It can limit people’s ability to participate as a condition actively. The marginalization of a group or society has several dimensions, with societal, financial, and political hurdles playing a significant role. Geography, race, religious affiliation, sexual identity, dislocation, crisis, or disability, are a few examples of the many reasons that might cause someone to be marginalized. Being marginalized has varying degrees in each culture, and poverty is both a symptom and a root cause of marginalization. Certain racial groups, immigrants, or geographical areas of the nation may be marginalized as a result of unfair political treatment (Daniels, 2017). Diverse groups can be affected by social marginalization and discrimination based on factors such as age, sexual identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and disability. Access to essential services, possibilities for employment, and revenue can all be hindered by economic marginalization. There are notable differences in every area of their existence for marginalized persons, including shelter, access to resources, work, constitutional protections, and medical services. They frequently endure prejudice, brutality, social humiliation, and assault as the voiceless and hidden offenders. Often, they are humiliated and victimized by neighbours, relatives, caretakers, professionals, friends, and companions. In some other instances, they are also assaulted by thugs and criminals. Ancient history shows a radical attitude toward these groups of people by the society in terms of extermination, segregation, or exclusion. The attitude changes in society towards these people occurred due to improvements in medical sciences and the field of sociology. Various methods, materials, and human resources have been developed to cater to these groups’ needs. Thus, it paved the way for their integration in the 18th century worldwide. After the United Nations’ (UN) establishment, the DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-1

2  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

proclamation and implementation of various legislative measures focused on inclusion gained momentum. Efforts are being made at various levels to provide need-based services to these groups of people to bring them into the mainstream (Caviness, 2014). The Salamanca Declaration 1994 laid the foundation for inclusive education through various earlier efforts to ensure accessibility. The Jomtien Declaration 1990 and the Dakar Framework 2000 are essential milestones for making education available for all. The United National Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability (UNCRPD) 2006 made mandatory provisions for the member nations to implement laws in line with the convention and adopt an inclusive policy for persons with disabilities. The regional constituents of the UN have also begun their focus and helping member countries develop innovative measures with international cooperation. The Incheon Strategy of the United Nations Economic Social Council for the Asia & Pacific (UNESCAP) has set 10 goals, 27 targets, and 62 indicators to be achieved by 2022. Various social security measures and infrastructure improvements are being highlighted to ensure the accessibility and participation of people in education and society. A global initiative called “Education for All” aims to give all children, youths, and adults access to quality foundational education. In 1990, the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) initiated the movement at the “World Conference on Education for All”. An effort to provide ‘Education to All’ has been a long debate since the UN proclaimed various declarations and conventions. International and National Policies aim to provide benefits to the marginalized sections of society. Denial of rights has an impact on the life and dignity of the person. Deprivation of people from enjoying human rights makes them disadvantaged. In every country, some groups confront barriers that prevent their participation in every sphere of life. Social exclusion leads to the inability to participate effectively in the mainstream (Duffy, 1995). It is the process where individuals or groups wholly or partly get excluded from participating. This kind of exclusion limits the participation of disadvantaged groups. The concept of the disadvantaged is as old as civilization (Thorat, 2003). During the British Period, they were termed a depressed class. Disadvantaged like physical, mental, social, cultural, educational, and emotional, etc., are common in society. They belong to the group who were denied the opportunity to participate fully in activities with other sections of society. They have been prejudiced on racial or ethnic grounds. It prevents their essential and natural potential to excel (Thorat et al., 2007). Non-availability of reliable data on various aspects is also being highlighted, making it challenging for policymakers to frame new programmes for specific groups. Besides, legislation for girls, transgender, orphans, refugees, drug addicts, and other vulnerable groups also impeded the inclusion of

Introduction 3

disadvantaged groups. UNICEF, UNESCO, WHO, UNDP, International Labor Organization (ILO), and other agencies are continuously working with underdeveloped and developing countries with innovative programmes to uplift disadvantaged sections regarding health, education, and livelihood. In 2019, UNESCO launched the Futures of Education: learning to become an initiative to reshape the scope of education. Goal 4 (SDG14) of the 2030 global Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by India in 2015 – seeks to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” by 2030. The National Policy on Edu­ca­tion (NPE), published in 1986, was the first to deal with education for equality of women, education for Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes and other backward sectors, minority education, and education for the disabled as various sections with specific provisions, even though the previous policies had spoken about access and equitable. With an emphasis on traditionally disadvantaged, underprivileged, and oppressed communities, the new natio­ nal education policy offers access to an excellent educational system for all children, regardless of where they live. Significant discrepancies also remain unfulfilled, especially for socio-economic disadvantage groups (SEDGs) that have historically been neglected in education, although the education system and government policies have made significant progress towards closing gender and social category disparities in all levels of school education. India, a welfare nation, focuses on the development of all, especially the disadvantaged sections of society. The constitution of India has ensured every right of its citizens. Diversity in gender, socio-economic status, disabilities, culture, and other aspects are unique in Indian society. Social inclusion in India is an inclusive concept where no people are left out. Ensuring access for all is a challenging task for each nation. The world’s countries are evolving various welfare measures to uplift the disadvantaged sections. Implementation of the specific schemes for each section through ameliorating measures is helpful for the development. The education system of the country is dependent on the political system. In India, the education policies were declared in 1986 by the Congress government and now in 2020 by the Bharatiya Janata Party government. Through this policy, the government wants to restructure the education system based on the committee’s recommendation. Shri K. Kasturirangan’s directed the committee which drafted the New Education Policy. The committee submitted its report in 2019, and the cabinet approved it in 2020.

Current Status There are some alarming figures about SEDGs in society. As estimated, overall, 129 million girls at various levels are in primary and upperprimary education, about 30 million girls are in each level and at the higher secondary level, and 69 million girls are not attending school elsewhere. According to the 2013–14 report of the Ministry of Women and Child

4  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

Development, 50% of adolescents in the country do not complete secondary education. Only 46% of transgender people are literate. The Scheduled Caste, otherwise known as Dalits, comprises (16.23%), Scheduled Tribe (8.2%), Other Backward Classes (41%), and minorities such as Muslims, Buddhists, Sikh, Christian, Jain, and Parsis (19.3%) out of the total population. (NITI Aayog, 2017). The literacy rate of the Scheduled Caste is 66.1% and Scheduled Tribes is 30%. Among all minorities, the status of Muslim minorities in education is meagre at various levels of education. There are 240 million children with disabilities (CwD) in the world. One in 10 CWDs are deprived of several indicators of well-being. Twenty-four percent are not receiving early stimulations, and 42% don’t have foundational reading and numeracy skills. Forty-nine percent never attended school. Forty-seven percent dropped out of primary schools, 33% at elementary, and 27% at the upper secondary level (UNICEF, 2021). As per the 2011 Census of India, out of 71% of children, only 61% of CwDs aged 5–19 were enrolled in an academic institution. Twenty-seven percent of CwDs never attended any kind of school (Census, 2011; UDISE, 2015). The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) enrols a high number of CwDs instead of conventional schools; the proportion of children with multiple disabilities who attend this school is the lowest (NIOS, n.d., p.81). In India, CwDs enrolment was reported at all levels of schooling in 2018 as follows: 13.5 lakh primary, 7.45 lakh upper-primary, 2.18 lakh secondary, and 0.62 lakh higher secondary-aged students (NIEPA Flash Statistics, 2018). According to studies on out-of-school children, 0.60 million CwDs between 6 and 13 do not attend school. Compared to the national figures of 2.97% who are not in school, this represents more than 28% of CwDs. Nearly 44.13% of children with multiple disabilities do not attend school (SRI and EdCIL, 2014). The age-specific attendance ratio for migrant children is very poor in the 15–19 age group. The number of homeless and children working on the street is 150 million worldwide. Most street children are found in India’s metropolitan and urban cities. About 2.9 million children aged 12 and older are addicted to prescription drugs like painkillers, sedatives, or tranquilizers (Kumar et al., 2019). A consistent relationship was evident between dropping out of school and substance use; only 14.7% of street children in the sample had attained education beyond primary school. Although literacy is a crude indicator of educational development, even after 75 years of independence, tribal women are most disadvantaged. Children account for 27% of all human trafficking victims globally, and on sale, two out of every three child victims are girls (UNGRTP, 2020).

Policies and Schemes Sustainable Development Goals 2030 by the UN has highlighted the education of girls to be ensured by undertaking specific policies at the national

Introduction 5

level. In India, Beti Padhao Beti Bachao, Kasturba Balika Vidyalaya, and Dhanlakshmi Yojana are a few implemented at various levels to ensure girls’ participation in education. The legislative mechanism established the recognition of transgender as the third gender at the international and especially national level in India. Transgender persons (protection of rights) Act, 2019 has improved their social status. A national portal is operational for enrolment, registration, and other facilities for transgender people. The protection of rights of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, and Other Backward Classes is also ensured by separate ministries and commissions. Various measures are being taken to improve the situation by establishing institutions and provisions of financial and other related assistance for their education. Jayprakash Narayan Sarvodaya Yojana in Uttar Pradesh was one initiative to bring the Scheduled Caste population for inclusive development into the mainstream society. Establishing the Integrated Tribal Development Authority in United Andhra Pradesh was one of the leading opportunities for the Scheduled Tribes to survive in the inclusive society. The India National Commission for Backward Classes Act (NCBC) was passed to protect the interests and needs of the Backward Classes more effectively. The Ministry of Minority Affairs in India has also introduced various schemes like assistance to madrasas, maktabs, scholarships, and Padho Pardesh to alleviate the status of minorities. In continuation with the UN Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, was enacted by the Indian government. The Act has defined and included 21 disabilities in the major category of sensory disabilities, neurodevelopmental, intellectual and developmental disabilities, specific learning disabilities, and various blood-related disorders. The Act also details their education, skill training, employment, social security, special courts, and others. Apart from it, the National Register of  Citizens (NRC) 2003 and Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA) 2019, Foreigners Act of 1946, and the critical regulation which helps refugees and migrants with the Refugee and Asylum (Protection) Bill of 2009. Under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme and the Integrated Program for Juvenile Justice, the Ministry of Women and Child Development is implementing a few schemes and programmes for vulnerable children. National Child Labour Project is a centrally sponsored scheme to eradicate child labour and the mainstream of young labourers. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act 2015 deals with properly protecting children by keeping them free from any exploitation. The proposed Orphan Child (Provision for Social Security) Bill, with many provisions, was formulated to secure the welfare of orphan children. Protection of children from sexual offences (POCSO) Act 2012 is a special law that protects against sexual abuse. The National Policy for Children 2013 protects the rights of every child out of school, including child labour, migrant children, trafficked kids, homeless children, and CwD. Separate legislation and schemes are being implemented for drug-addicted, street children, and

6  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

other vulnerable groups by government and non-government organizations across the country. Specific organizations are being established in different geographical locations to provide need-based education.

Innovative Practices The initiatives taken up by the government to provide education for all have resulted in significant improvement in enrolment and accessibility. There is still a need to work on the quality of instruction and academic achievement, which is still a concern for the government. In India, through various five-year plans, the government made attempts to improve the situations of diverse, disadvantaged sections. Free and compulsory education, free mid-day meals, free uniforms, free study materials, scholarships, transportation, and others schemes are being implemented by government and non-government agencies. Significant progress is visible in the access to education. The rate of enrolment in schools has increased through these schemes. Still, we lag in many indicators set by international organizations even with the implementation of such need-based schemes. Bringing the SEDGs to the mainstream is the main aim of each policy. Many are unaware of the schemes due to their poor literacy. Oppression, aggression, and flaws in programmes limit their educational growth (Journal of Indian Education, NCERT, 2011). The Ministry of Education is implementing various schemes like incentives to institutions for ensuring access, enrolment, and providing quality education through financial assistance. Various schemes for girls, transgender, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and minorities are operational through the Ministry of Women and Child Development, Social Justice and Empowerment, and Tribal and Minority Affairs at the central and state levels. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is also taking care of persons with disabilities with a separate department. The department comprises various national institutes like AYJNISHD, NIEPID, NIEPMD, NIEPVD, and their Regional Centres, Composite Regional Centres, and District Rehabilitation Centres for providing rehabilitation services to 21 types of disabled mentioned in RPwD Act, 2016. Approxima­ tely 7,000 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in India are working for the education, rehabilitation, and required services of CwD in various parts of the country. Government and NGOs are also working on educating and rehabilitating drug addicts, child labour, juvenile, migrant children, refugees, orphans, street children, and other vulnerable groups with innovative practices in different parts of the country. Pre-matric, post-matric, and overseas scholarships are being provided for socio-cultural and persons with disabilities by the Government of India to promote their education and skill development to become successful earning members of society. Persons with disabilities receive free equipment and assistive devices for those who fall under the lower income groups through

Introduction 7

agencies like Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India and schemes like National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation, Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids and Appliances, etc. Assistance to NGOs is being provided for running shelter homes, residential schools, rehabilitation centres, and skill training. For the weaker sections of society, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya is a residential secondary school for girls. The Indian government launched the National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level initiative to help illiterate females (Ramchandran et al. 2007). The most well-known of all the girl’s child welfare programmes in India is Beti Bachao Beti Padhao. Under various forms, this plan is supported by several colleges and universities. Some colleges offer cost reductions for the admission and enrolment of female students to encourage education in higher studies. This scheme celebrates girl children, translating to “Save the Girl Child, Educate the Girl Child”. It believes in women’s empowerment and creating an inclusive ecosystem. SWEEKRUTI (A Scheme for Promotion of Transgender Equality & Justice) by the Government of Odisha is a good initiative to provide equal opportunities and effective access to different social development services to transgender persons. The activities conducted by various NGOs for various vulnerable groups like drug addicts, street children, orphans, juveniles, trafficked children, and others are insufficient to keep in view the population of that particular group. They are geographically scattered, and it is difficult for the NGOs to cover the whole population. Prominent NGOs working in girls’ education are PRATHAM, SERVE, Milaan, and Ektara. Amnesty International, Sahodari Foundation, Hum­ safar Trust, and Yaarana are prominent organizations working for the upliftment of the education of transgenders. For the education of sociocultural communities, Model schools, special cells for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and special universities like Aligarh Muslim University, Maulana Azad National Urdu University is being established for minorities, and Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, the Central Tribal University of Andhra Pradesh for Scheduled Tribes. Private-sector organizations like Ramakrishna Mission in Ranchi, Jharkhand, and Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences, Delhi, are also catering to the needs of the highest number of tribal students with education and accommodation, food, and health care. On 29 May 2021, the honourable prime minister of India introduced the PM CARES for Children Scheme. Its purpose is to aid children who have suffered from the COVID-19 epidemic and lost their biological parents, guardians, adoptive parents, or surviving parents. The Initiative for Infrastructure Development in Minority Institutes (IDMI) was launched to upgrade the infrastructure in unaided and aided minority schools in an effort to raise educational standards. The key components of this plan include increasing the number of institutions that will support minority children’s education. This programme applies to the whole nation. However, a minority of inhabitants, at least 20%, are given priority. The scheme also encourages

8  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

educational facilities for children with special needs, girls, and others who are mostly held back in society. National scholarships like Nai Udaan Scheme provide financial assistance to minorities to prepare for civil service examinations. SUPPORT, CRY, Rainbow Homes, Deepalaya, Butterflies, Vatsalya, Aide et action, Diya Ghar, and SOS Children’s Village are a few organizations working to educate vulnerable sections of society. National Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme for Secondary Education. A leading initiative for children to receive Universal Elementary Education is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). Children between the ages of 6 and 14 are the main beneficiaries of this nationwide initiative, which collaborates with local and state governments. Through a time-bound strategic plan and situation planning, the initiative strives to make education accessible to all (i.e., various societal groups of children) along with raising the standard of instruction. The National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Education was established in 1995 to promote students enrolled in primary school by offering mid-day meals. Improving students’ attendance and enrolment rates by supporting them with appropriate lunch facilities was the major goal of this programme. Additionally, this programme strives to foster better relationships amongst kids from various religious and caste backgrounds. Children can benefit from this scheme in their emotional and social development. In 2009, the Right to Education (RTE) Act was passed, establishing education as a fundamental right for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. Moreover, it established the fundamental standards each elementary school must adhere to. Children now have the right to free primary education. The completion of education up to the primary level is free of charge for all children. Private schools are required by the RTE Act to set aside 25% of their enrolment for students from economically disadvantaged families.

Issues The coverage of all type of SEDGs through educational and rehabilitation measures are significant, but still, the figures shown by the agencies is alarming. Though efforts are being undertaken at all levels, they are insufficient for various reasons. Complete rehabilitation and service centres are operating in urban areas, thus limiting the inclusion of SEDGs in rural areas. The predominance of traditional occupation forces individuals to stay in rural areas. The infrastructural development and availability of services is the main obstacle. The illiteracy of parents is the main cause that limits their awareness of specific schemes and programmes run for them. The girls from these SEDGs are the most affected, as they face double discrimination in access. The rate of literacy and education is inferior in rural areas. The geographical situation of some areas is so challenging that it is difficult for the government to provide need-based services. Most people migrate to urban areas for education and employment, creating an influx in urban

Introduction 9

areas – the rise in slums due to migration. Providing education and rehabilitation services in those slums is challenging for the government. The poor financial conditions force them to send their children to work as economic independence is the top priority. They don’t give importance to education. In rural areas, such a situation happens as they employ them in agricultural activities. The backwardness in the education of these SEDGs has many contributing factors such as less importance to education in rural India, negligence of people in educating their children, lack of awareness about the government schemes, poor implementation mechanism of the government, lack of human resources as per the requirements, and privatization of services (costly), making the unaffordable for the commoner. The policies made at the central and state levels lack grass-roots information. Thus, there remain many flaws in implementing those. The schemes are generally implemented through the government and NGOs. They also receive funds in delay. The monitoring mechanism is also very poor. Administrative and implementation time also matters. NEP 2020 has mentioned the aspirational districts. It means the institutions will be set up in keeping in view the particular population of disadvantaged groups. But the statistics collected through census and NSSO are contradictory. So, it is difficult to design policies and schemes for the specific sections of the disadvantaged (SEDGs). Indian educational systems face serious problems with equity and marginalization despite great progress in several essential issues. However, many rural households and the most disadvantaged and marginalized groups still have only a dream of access to quality education. In the field of higher education, this is much more serious. There are various challenges faced by transgender children in schools like school bullying and bathroom facility problems in the schools. Gender disparity is another big challenge for the education of Muslims. One of the main causes of ignorance and illiteracy in the Muslim community is the disproportionately low female literacy rate (Hossain and Saha, 2013). The gross enrolment ratio has been declining over recent years amidst intense measures to enhance access to education for more refugee children and youth. The education, conduct, and social-emotional development of refugee children can all suffer severely from persistent exposure to traumatic events, anxiety, and insecurity. Limited access to quality education is another important concern for the education of children of refugees. It may be difficult for refugees living beyond refugee camps in remote areas to get to schools. The first problem is a unified definition defining the category of migrant children. There is also a lack of proper data providing us with the exact number of children who are out of school or the total number of children who need to be enrolled in the various grades. Another problem faced by migrant children is the medium of instruction. Street children can’t enrol in formal education due to issues regarding legal identity and the unavailability of permanent addresses. Psychologically

10  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

vulnerable street children are often the victims of physical and sexual abuse when teachers and peers neglect them within the classroom, which affects their psychological development and health (Embleton et al., 2016). The majority of child labourers in the world are found in India. Children getting employed as domestic helpers in cities is an increasing trend. The children’s working circumstances are entirely illegal, and they frequently have to do something for very little pay while being expected to work in slave-like conditions without access to food. There are more instances of child domestic workers being physically, sexually, and emotionally abused. Orphans worldwide frequently experience issues such as a relatively high risk of significant malnutrition, lower life expectancy, reduced school engagement and participation, and subsequent risk of child labour. In addition to the depression of grieving for their parents, these children tend to experience maltreatment, negligence, and extortion. Children who live in poverty or are orphans are not allowed to enter school. Even when young, they frequently quit school to support their families or themselves. Apart from the aforementioned attitudinal barrier is the most important invisible barrier hindering SEDG children’s well-being. In the context of CwD, the most challenging part of education and rehabilitation is their time of identification and intervention. Language comprehension, expressive language abilities, and attention difficulties are potential barriers to providing education to disabled children (Jeffrey and Singhal 2008).

Recommendation and Conclusion The focus of education is to bring the disadvantaged sections into the mainstream. Most countries of the world are facing challenges in fulfilling their basic needs. Education is an essential aspect of life through which society’s challenges can be tackled. India’s policies are good and being appraised at the international level, but if we see the implementation, it is poor compared to the developed countries. The major cause is a lack of coordination among ministries, lack of manpower, especially at grass-root levels to cater to the disadvantaged population, and poor awareness about the schemes. The government does not properly ensure family and community involvement in education. Most of the children are enrolled in schools to get a mid-day meal. They are less concerned about learning. When the government is spending 6% of the gross domestic product (GDP) on education, the financial limits will be met. But we should be prepared for a transparent mechanism when it comes to implantation and accountability. The government has done a lot of work in making the Unified District Information System for Education (U-DISE) data in which we can access information about school education. Still, the portal needs a continuous update for the general public. Sometimes the data mismatch with actual and portal information creates challenges – similar efforts are needed at other education

Introduction 11

levels. The  facilitation of inter-agency information will be helpful for the government to act inclusively. Though India has progressed a lot in many aspects, the education of the disadvantaged sections needs to be looked at with specific and time-bound actions. The policymakers, administrators, teachers, grass-roots level workers, and students need to know the concepts, challenges, and issues of different SEDGs. The efforts done at different levels need to be compiled. The innovative practices being implemented at any geographical location need to be replicated in other areas wherever possible. The institutions should be established as per the population of particular SEDGs. Research must be undertaken at each level to improve the education of these disadvantaged sections. Instead of depending upon everything from government funds, local arrangements by voluntary organizations and civil society for providing need-based services should be initiated. Cultural exchange programmes may be arranged at various levels to know the best practices undertaken at different places. Published works, if made available free of cost on digital platforms, will be helpful for people to employ similar kinds of activities in their locality. Public awareness and sensitization programmes on various schemes and benefits must be telecasted through mass media at different intervals and be published in daily newspapers, magazines, and other related literature. These programmes also need to arrange for stakeholders like CwD and their parents, police, doctors, nurses, teachers, advocates, peer groups, etc., by organizing at various public places like parks, bus stands, railway stations, etc.

References Caviness, C. (2014). Historically Marginalized Groups in Psychological Science. Open Access Dissertations. Paper 235. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_ diss/235 Census (2011). Primary Census Abstracts, Registrar General of India. https:// censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables Daniels, M. (2017). Defining Marginalised; DFID’s Leave No One Behind Agenda. UK Aid Direct. https://www.ukaiddirect.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ Defining-marginalised.pdf Duffy, K. (1995). Social Exclusion and Human Dignity in Europe. Council of Europe. Embleton, L., Lee, H., Gunn, J., Ayuku, D., and Braitstein, P. (2016). Causes of Child and Youth Homelessness in Developed and Developing Countries. JAMA Pediatrics. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.0156. Empowerment of the Socially Disadvantaged Group, 9th Five-Year Plan (Vol 2) (n.d.). Retrieved from http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/9th/ vol2/v2c3-9.htm Hossain, A. and Saha, B. (2013). Muslim Women Empowerment through Education. Golden Research Thoughts, 2(7), 1–5. Jeffrey, R. and Singhal, N. (2008). Measuring Disability in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 43(12/13), 22–24.

12  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna Kumar, A., Dangi, I., and Pawar, R.S. (2019). Drug Addiction: A Big Challenge for Youth and Children. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4(1), 35–40. NIEPA (2018). National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration 2018 Flash Statistics. http://niepa.ac.in/new/download/Research/Statistics_on_ Secondary_Education_in_India_2017-18.pdf NIOS (n.d.). Annual Report of National Institute of Open Schooling 2014–15. https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/admprofile201415.pdf NITI Aayog (2017). India the Three Year Action Agenda (2017–18 to 2019–20), a NITI Aayog Document, Government of India, New Delhi. Pajankar, D.V. and Pranali, P. (2011). School Education of Scheduled Castes Population in India. NCERT Journal of Indian Education, XXXVI(4), 33–44. Ramchandran, V., Rishi, M., and Kamaeshwari, J. (2007). Incentives in Elementary Education. Do They Make a Difference? Journal of Education Planning and Administration, XXI(2), 141–153. SRI and EdCIL (2014). National Sample Survey Estimation of Out-of-School Children in the Age 5–13 in India. Draft report https://www.education.gov.in/ en/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/National-Survey-EstimationSchool-Children-Draft-Report.pdf Thorat, S. (2003). Caste, Exclusion/Discrimination, and Deprivation: The Situation of Dalits in India, Concept Paper for DFID, Delhi. Thorat, S., Mahamallik, M., and Venkatesan, S. (2007). Human Poverty and Socially Disadvantaged Groups in India. Human Development Resource Centre. Retrieved 6 February 2022, from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/ human_poverty_socially_disadvantaged_groups_india.pdf U-DISE (2015). School Education in India – Flash Statistics: UDISE – 2014–15. National University of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi. UNGRTP (2020). Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2020 – UNODC. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_ 15jan_web.pdf UNICEF (2021). A New Report from UNICEF on Deprivation of Children with  Disabilities. https://www.unicef.org/rosa/press-releases/nearly-240-millionchildren-disabilities-around-world-unicefs-most-comprehensive; https://www. disabled-world.com/calculators-charts/wpc.php

Part I

Gender Identity

Chapter 1

Educating Girls A Key to International Sustainable Development Anamika Choudhary

Introduction with Historical Background According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Two-thirds of the world’s illiterate adults are women (Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 13, para. 34). Only when quality education is promoted to girls and women, the gaps of gender inequality can be eliminated in every sector. For sustainable development to be meaningful, education to girls thus holds a major significance. Gender inequality is considered to be history’s most pervasive and universal form of injustice. This injustice is not only unhealthy for the growth of any economy but also poses a hurdle to the achievement of sustainable development. Literature survey reflects that in ancient India, women too enjoyed equal status and rights as their male counterparts (Altekar, 2014; Bader, 2013; Salawade, 2012). History reveals that the position of girls was not vulnerable during this period. They held a unique place and enjoyed high status. Rather than being dependent, they were free to even choose their life partners. Neither infant marriage nor widowhood was prevalent in the early Vedic period. On the contrary, women actively participated in Vedic sacrifices and used to chant mantras too. In ancient India, a patriarchal system was prevalent, but women were given both respect and reverence (Jayapalan, 2001; Mishra, 2006). Equal access to education was given to both men and women. Women studied Vedic literature like men. There are ample references highlighting that highly learned women such as Lilabati, Lopamudra, Maitreyi, Saswati, Visvavara, Apala, Urvasi, Gargi, and others had composed various hymns of Rig Veda. Maitreyi in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Gargi had even held discussions on complex philosophical questions of philosophy with Yajnavalka who was regarded as the most learned philosopher of the Vedic period. Women gained high proficiencies DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-3

16  Anamika Choudhary

in learning; e.g., Lilabati was regarded as a great mathematician of ancient India. Such brahmavidushi women are known in the Upanishad era. Purdah custom was not prevalent in Hindu society even till the 12th century, which promoted women to take to the teaching profession. As proof of this, we got upadhyayani and upadhyaya terms as feminine in upadhyaya position who took care of teaching (Trivedi, 2011). In this Rig Vedic age, women were engaged in activities like studying and discussing scriptures, teaching, politics, warfare, musicology, choreography, and other works of art (Abhishek, 2018) Panini referred that there were boarding houses for female students, and chhatrisalas and all of these were taken care of by female teachers themselves. Thus, the position of women was considered to be a privileged one with a high standard of morality. Till about 300 BC, well-to-do families gave a good amount of education to the girls. Co-education was also prevalent even while receiving higher education without any discrimination. Bhavabhuti in Malatimadhava in the 8th century wrote that Kamandaki, the nun, was educated together with Bhurivasu and in Uttar Rama Charita; it is mentioned that Atreyu received education along with Lava and Kusa. It reflects that a large number of women in the early Vedic period used to receive literary and cultural education, and they even contributed in a positive manner, which is hard to imagine and also seems idealistic in these modern times. The female education and the position of women which gained high morality and proficiency received a great setback by the end of the early Vedic period (Mallik, 2019). Society became more complex and the attitude of society began to change toward women. The status of women worsened in the later Vedic period in both religious and educational aspects. The hegemony of the Brahmanical community increased the complexity of religious matters coupled with the combination of non-Aryan culture, all set to worsen the status of women. Gradually, they were denied the right to education. Upanayana was discontinued for them, and the women were regarded as inept to chant any mantras of Vedas or being a part in performing Vedic sacrifices. The later Vedic period saw a loss of freedom for women which the pandits during that period gave the name of defence. The situation was such that they were confined within the four walls of home and were denied the right to study. In Manusmriti (200 AD), her dependent position has been established giving the reflection that she must not do anything independently. According to Manu, “[B]y a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently”. Early marriages became prevalent, and the high esteem that they enjoyed in the early Vedic period was turned down. This early marriage and the discontinuance of Upanayana gave a serious blow to female education. Education was given only to women of royal families, but that was simply good literary education, not Vedic literature, while the women of ordinary families were taught only household and domestic duties.

Educating Girls  17

For centuries, women have been deprived of the privilege to attain education. Certain exceptions did exist. Indian literature has evidence that educated women took an active part in public dealings, fine art, or military art. Chandragupta Maurya had bodyguards who were women. Some female ascetics and mendicants were well-versed in Sanskrit and religious poems. The Arthashastra of Kautilya refers to the education of prostitutes; these were the ones who worked sometimes as spies. But when referring to Buddhism, the education of women was badly affected here. Nuns were not allowed in the monastic order. Buddha did not readily consent to let the bhikshunis enter the monastic order. This also gave a reflection of that period when women were denied independence and the right to education. Mahaprajapati Gotami could join the order after being denied thrice and that too only after the appeal of Ananda, his first disciple. Buddha himself believed that women if admitted would ruin his work. Nuns were admitted only after the permission of monks. Nunneries lost their existence by the 4th century AD. No evidence can reveal that the nunneries were the centres of education and the monasteries of the 5th and 7th centuries AD do not refer to anything about them. Buddhism did not favour the education of women. Its contribution has been meagre, though the nuns who could join the order did undergo some reading and writing and some even went further to attain higher levels of learning and became proficient.

Policy and Programmes – Policies and Legislations (International and National) for the Education of Girls In the words of the “Director-General of UNESCO”, Irina Bokova, Gender equality in education is a basic human right – it is also essential to achieving sustainable development. In our increasingly globalized world, the societies that succeed best will be those which guarantee women and girls equal access to education, thereby giving them the skills and the opportunities to develop their talents and interests, so they can contribute to building stronger and more resilient communities. (In the UNESCO General Conference in its 37th Session, on the Theme “Promoting Girls’ and Women’s Education for Gender Equality”, November 2013, reported by the “Member States Monitoring of the Implementation of the Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in Education (8th Consultation) UNESCO, 2014”) Even World Bank states that all girls and women must enjoy a human right to receive a quality education; it is not only a priority at the global developmental level but also a strategic priority for all nations (Bokova, Irina). The twin goals of the World Bank viz. ending poverty and boosting shared prosperity are possible when gender equality is achieved. It states that with

18  Anamika Choudhary

the required knowledge and skills, educated women gain socio-emotional and life skills and thus can compete in the formal labour market, make decisions, earn higher incomes, and contribute to the communities and the world. Being more informed about health care and nutrition, the women choose to become better mothers too. A recent World Bank study estimates that the “limited educational opportunities for girls, and barriers to completing 12 years of education, cost countries between US$15 trillion and $30 trillion in lost lifetime productivity and earnings”. UNESCO developed an Interactive Atlas to examine the status of girls and women in their right to education across the globe and has recognized 12 indicators to gauge the factors that act as a blockade to women’s education. UNESCO’s CADE (“Convention against Discrimination in Education”, CADE Art.1 and 6.) is the first lawfully binding instrument covering the right to education and has been recognized as a keystone of education 2030. It prohibits all forms of discrimination that hinders the accessibility and value of education. The CADE Convention is a party to the United Nations (UN) “Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women” (CEDAW,1979, General Comment No. 36, para. 24.). The Constitution preserves the right to education without any discrimination for girls and women across the globe. The 1995 “Beijing Conference” is the foremost of the “UN World Conferences on Women” that focuses specifically on the girlchild. The “Beijing Platform for Action on the Girl Child” calls for all governments to address all types of discrimination against women, which also includes the removal of discrimination against girls in education, skills development, and training. While the 2000 “Dakar Education for All Framework for Action” was related to doing away with all types of gender disparities in primary and secondary education at least by 2005, and realizing gender equality in education by 2015, the 2000 Millennium Goals aimed to remove the gender disparity in secondary education by 2015. In 2005, UN General Assembly committed to undertake legal reforms to safeguard the rights of girls and to provide equal access to elementary social services which included education when it adopted a resolution on the girlchild. Later in 2015, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals were formed by the UN General Assembly which linked each target with that of girls’ education. The right to education of all girls and women is also taken care of by international standard-setting instruments. The first one is the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, which provides that “everyone has the right to education”. Other international instruments related to right to education related to girls and women are as follows: • UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, 1960 (Articles 1, 2, 3, and 4)

Educating Girls  19

•

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966 (Articles 2 and 13; General Comments 13 and 16) • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 (Articles 2, 3, 24, 25, and 26; General Comment 28) • European Social Charter (revised), 1996 (Articles E, 7, 10, and 17) • Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979 (Article 10; General Recommendations 25, 28, and 36) • African Charter on Human and People’s Rights, 1981 (Articles 2 and 17) • Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 (Articles 2, 28, and 29; General Comment 1) • “African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child”, 1990 (Article 11) • “Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights”, “Protocol of San Salvador”, 1998 (Articles 13 and 16) • “European Charter on Fundamental Freedoms”, 2000 (Article 14 et 23) • “Inter-American Democratic Charter”, 2001 (Article 16) • “Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women” in Africa, 2003 (Article 12) • “Arab Charter on Human Rights”, 2004 (Article 41) • “African Youth Charter”, 2006 (Article 13) • “Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities” 2007 • “ASEAN Human Rights Declaration”, 2011 (Article 31)

Government Schemes to Encourage Women’s Education When India declared education a fundamental right, the constitutional provisions for providing free and compulsory education to all children between 6 to 14 years of age were also ensured. The Government of India has also launched several significant programmes for the upliftment of female literacy. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mahila Samakhya – being implemented in ten states, 1988 National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level, 2001–02 Kasturba Balika Vidyalaya, 2004 Dhanlakshmi Scheme, 2008 Sakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy – 2008 by setting up of Lok Shiksha Kendras 6. Right to Education, 2009 7. Rashtriya Madhyamika Shiksha Abhiyaan – for Secondary Education, 2009 8. Beti Bachao – Beti Padhao Scheme, 2015

20  Anamika Choudhary

To ensure that girls receive full-fledged education, the GoI came up with a myriad of policies and programmes so that no girl loses any opportunity to study and get an education. The “National Committee on Women’s Education” in 1958 suggested that female education must hold parity with male education. In 1964, “The Education Commission” also emphasized girl child education. With the introduction of a new education policy in 1968, the government focused on overall education not only in urban areas but also covering rural areas too. Despite the initiation of such policies and programmes by the government, it has been observed that the nation is still not at par with girl child education (DFID, 2005). Though the programmes have been implemented with full vigour, the commitment of people seems to make them ineffective. We need to create awareness among the masses about the merits of women’s education so that these programmes can become effective. Both girls and boys are the two sides of the same coin, and so the capabilities of girls cannot be undermined.

Various Organizations (International, National, Local) Working for the Education and Rehabilitation of Girls with Research Evidence “International Day of Education” and “National Girl Child Day”, both are celebrated every year on the 24th of January. There are several organizations in the nation and worldwide that emphasize the quality of education for girls. Among the international organizations, UNESCO, UNICEF, ACEI (“The Association for Childhood Education International”), “Educational International”, “The Global Partnership for Education”, “Plan International”, “Save the Children”, World Bank are some of the major ones which have a mission to promote and support optimal education and work from health to well-being. ACEI (“Association for Childhood Education International”) is a worldwide community of educators which promotes educational reform, and “Education International” is a coalition of 400 organizations working in 170 countries and territories that stands against various kinds of discrimination and exclusion based on gender, etc., that did not allow children, especially girls, to receive a quality education. Similar to such a coalition is “The Global Partnership for Education” (GPE), which is operating in nearly 60 developing countries and hopes to put in a global endeavour to transmit good and quality education to all girls and boys with priority to the most vulnerable ones. Created in 2002, the building efforts of GPE succeeded in sending 22 million more children to school, which led the literacy rates to increase to 81 percent worldwide in 2010, and by 2011, it brought primary school completion to about 75 percent. Around 75 years ago, “Plan International” one of the oldest development organizations, considered to be one of the largest too, also began working

Educating Girls  21

to bring long-lasting development of the children, quality-wise, by providing aid to the deprived children. They endeavour to work for the rights of the children of the world and make them realize their full potential. Another organization that aims to recommend global education and to save the rights of children around the globe is Save the Children. In 2012, this organization reached about nine million children and encouraged them to learn even outside the classroom. UNESCO and UNICEF are two such organizations that are dedicated to an all-inclusive and humanistic vision of quality education globally. Aiming for the accomplishment of every child’s right to education, both of these organizations believe that it is education that plays a crucial role in human, social, and economic development. UNICEF, since its establishment in 1946, has been striving to reduce inequities and discrimination and aims to achieve both gender equality and equity in education, conforming that every child, may it be a boy or a girl, has the prospects to learn and continue education. When it is ensured that girl children are sent to school, the traditional stereotypes and exclusion barriers are broken effectively. The participation of better-educated women in jobs who though belong to economically poor backgrounds is relatively more thus adding to the national income. With a multiplier effect, they ensure that their children are not denied education and gradually the family gets uplifted. Being better informed about nutrition and health care, they marry at a later age and choose to become better mothers. Though in the Indian Constitution, under the “Right to Education Act” (RTE), the provision of free and compulsory education is there for all children up to the age of 14, the figure of 12.7 percent reveals that all Indian schools do not fulfil the norms mentioned in the Act. The government schools being underfunded are not able to keep up the quality of education nor are they able to maintain proper hygiene and other sanitation facilities. This is also another reason for the low percentage of girls in the lower and upper secondary schools. Oxfam India, a non-profit organization, stood up to fight for the proper implementation of the RTE Act and stand to change the orthodox and regressive social norms to end discrimination. There are other non-governmental organizations too that have been helping girl children in rural and urban areas with low family income and lack of access to education. K.C. Mahindra Education Trust, Educate Girls, Aarti Girls, Milaan Foundation, Ibtaba, Ek Tara, Sukarya, etc., have been taking initiatives to support girls’ education. The project Nanhi Kali is one of such extensive programmes run by K.C. Mahindra Trust that enables underprivileged girls to complete ten years of schooling by giving them academic support and other basic supplies of school kits. It allows the girls to attend school with dignity. More than 4.5 lakh girls have been supported since the launch of this project in 1996. With the support of UNICEF, Pratham Rajasthan, SERVE, and Dream Catchers Foundation Educate Girls Foundation have come up with the

22  Anamika Choudhary

most effective and sustainable models for girls’ education in the nation. Through community ownership and by empowering rural communities, this foundation mobilizes the youth volunteers’ ambassadors for education. While Aarti for Girls orphanage in Andhra Pradesh fosters and supports abandoned girls, providing them with shelter, education, and other opportunities, Milaan Foundation works for an inclusive and equal world for girls. Milaan has set its goal to empower ten million girls across India and start a movement of girl leaders through education, knowledge, and skills. Ibtada in the Alwar district of Rajasthan has worked with government schools to promote girls’ education and empower them I last two decades. It also provides free computer education to girls from rural households. EkTara in Kolkata began its journey in 2011 with an aim to provide high-quality holistic education to children and women from poor families to bring in community transformation and later on send them to get admission to various schools through assessment. Girls’ education has been the main focus area of the Sukarya foundation, as well as the Dream Girl Foundation. Its “Education on Wheels” Program facilitated teaching aid to the children living in slums through buses. Following the RTE, the Vishvodaya Trust set up in 2001 also focuses on improving the poor condition of girls through quality education thus supporting girls’ education in its true spirit.

Current Status – Statistical Data about Girls’ Educational Status with Research Evidence A look at the statistics is essential to estimate the education of girls. From the world’s perspective, gender parity in primary school enrolment has been achieved in only two-thirds of the countries across the world and just a third in lower secondary enrolment. While 100 percent enrolment of girls is evident in primary schools, by the time they reach higher education, the percentage diminishes to 25.4 percent. NCPCR (“The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights”) reports states the blunt fact that in India, almost 40 percent of adolescent girls do not have access to education instead they are forced to stay behind at home. About 8.4 crore children in the country do not attend school at all (TOI, Sept 2016). The Census data had shown that just 19 percent of them were forced to work. The First Post Staff report (2018) stated that in some Indian states, more than 8 percent of girls in the age group 11–14 remained out of school. These included Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Worldwide, the situation is almost the same. In South Sudan, the government spends just 2.6 percent of its total budget on education and 3 percent of girls do not go to primary school. The literate girls and women in Niger (ages 15–24) are just 17 percent. Chad is considered to be one of the worst performing countries in respect of the education of girls, in the “Global Gender Gap Report” published by the “World Economic Forum”.

Educating Girls  23

This indicates that girls face too many barriers may be legal, social, or economic (Clea Guy-Allen, 2017). In Burkina Faso, not more than 1 percent of girls finish their secondary schooling. Educating the girls is quite significant or else even the nation may face dire consequences; for example, they become child brides and then more vulnerable to HIV, resulting in early deaths. It is quite alarming that if such a current trend continues, by 2050, low-income countries may lose about $1.8 trillion, and the deaths due to HIV, AIDS, Malaria, and other deadly diseases would be on the increase. World leaders must focus their attention on this global crisis. the 11th Annual Status of Education Report (ASER, 2016) presented by “Pratham Education” revealed that no positive results are seen in increasing the enrolment rate of girls. It is quite disheartening to find that around 129 million girls are out of school, which includes 30 million at the primary school level, 30 million at the lower secondary school level, and more than double, i.e., about 67 million, of upper secondary school age. In contrast to the non-affected countries, the conflict-affected countries have a worsened situation in this case. Gender parity in primary education is achieved by only 49 percent of the countries. The gap widens as we move to the lower secondary (42 ­percent) and upper secondary levels (24 percent). Only when it is seriously realized that education is a powerful tool through which any girl or a woman is enabled to get herself and her family empowered, the gap will gradually shrink and the nation will be uplifted. The education will enable the girls to acquire the self-confidence, the required skills to initiate any entrepreneurship, and the intellect to become better daughters, sisters, or a mother to build a progressive family.

Challenges Though the government has declared education as a fundamental right, a girl child faces innumerable problems and challenges in getting an education smoothly. Prejudice is in the common mindset of people that the learning process of girls is slow, and even though their rationality is questionable, they are made to stay behind in the four walls of the household and are not given the privilege to get an education. Girls are often taken as a burden and instead of spending money on their education, the family prefers to save money for their dowry and as a result, they are deprived of getting an education. It is very much evident that girls have been facing immense challenges in getting a quality education. There are numerous issues in societies and communities that act as a barrier to her right to an education. Ranging from her gender being a woman to her pitiable economic condition and the prevalent cultural beliefs. Gender inequality is bound to result. In the report published by the Department of International Development in January 2005 (Girls’ Education: towards a Better Future for All), five major challenges

24  Anamika Choudhary

have been highlighted which stand as a hurdle for girls to get access to education. This includes the burden of the cost of education which the parents or the guardians or the community is not able to afford, an unsafe school environment, devaluing the education of girls owing to the weak status given to the women in society, the rise of conflicts which excludes them from access to schooling, and the dominance of casteism, religion, ethnicity and disability element that makes them the most disadvantaged group to get into schools. What is more heinous is the alternative to education that ranges from sex trafficking and child marriage to forced prostitution. The nation can never progress in a real sense till these situations are no longer prevalent. These challenges are not comprehensive, but they are recurring in many countries. They constitute an added burden for the girls who have to overcome them if they wish to be benefitted from a quality education. This gender inequality is the most widespread injustice in history which has been persisting to date despite so many policies and programmes. It would be history’s biggest movement to eliminate such inequality because women and girls have been suffering discrimination and violence in every section of the world because of this gap in gender equality. Just because they are girls, they are deprived of so many opportunities and rights and thus are limited in every field. The importance of education to girls cannot be undermined, and their wish to go to school should not remain simply a wish. The old traditional belief of preferring a son to a daughter has led to brutal ways of female infanticide and sex-selective abortions. Right from birth, sons are treated with all favourable treatment, while the treatment of girls has reflected signs of gender inequality in food, nutrition, and other health-care facilities. Not only in India, but this unequal treatment is also quite prevalent in Asian countries, the Middle East, and many parts of Africa too. This poses a major challenge to reducing the gender gap and increasing the school enrolment of girls, especially in the higher levels of education. Gender-based barriers like domestic responsibilities and caring for siblings have been so prominent and widespread that they affect the attendance of girls in schools. Moreover, in schools, cases of sexual abuse and violence restrict girls from school. Their safety and security on the way to school and in school are an alarming challenge too. Though the government has increased the age limit for the marriage of girls, in many regions, early child marriage is still prevalent. Global estimates state that 36 percent of women are married off before attaining 18 years of age. The adverse effect of child marriages is seen in premature pregnancy, sexually transmitted disease, and getting prone to HIV. A report by the UN that presents a precise review of why girls are at risk needs to be mentioned here. The report mentions that because of poverty, lack of education, no economic independence, or the power to negotiate, the girls become victims of sexual exploitation, rape, and HIV. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) became hard to achieve because of the prevalence of child marriage. It’s one of the goals to end child

Educating Girls  25

marriage: a guide for action which was published by United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) emphasizes the significance of the problem that child marriage brings and thus impedes the achievement of international development goals. Those girls who reside in rural areas are the most vulnerable ones, and they face strong barriers to education. Their families are not in a position to afford their educational expenses, so they prefer sons to be sent to school. They do not understand the fact that this is creating an educational gap that seriously undermines the economic independence of girls in their later life. The wish of the girls to go to school must be turned into reality so that gender equality can hold its meaning, and its significance is not underestimated. To realize this, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been targeted to be achieved by 2030. All the SDGs are interconnected, and for each SDG to be achieved, educating girls is the key and gender equality is at its essence.

Different Expected Prospects in the Education of Girls and Provisions Available for the Development of Their Education at All Levels with Research Evidence A mother is considered to be the first teacher of her child. In Rig Veda, a line defines the place of a wife: “[T]he home has verily its foundation in the wife”. It is a woman who is the pivot of the home, and so if the woman is educated, she is in a better position to take care of her home and her children and can inculcate a good value system in them. Children are an asset to the nation and the society. Being nurtured with good hygiene and sanitation inputs and guided under the able guidance of their educated mother will bring positive results in the future. UNICEF has clearly stated that one additional school year can increase the earnings of a woman by 10 percent to 20 percent. The prospects of educating girl children are so deep and widespread that the government has ensured constitutional provisions of providing free and compulsory education for all children who are under 14 years of age. Such is the determination of the government to educate all the children, especially the girl child. When UNICEF states that an extra year of secondary schooling can increase a woman’s income by 15 percent in the future, it means that there is a virtuous cycle through which this is accomplished. This extra year is very hard for a girl to get, as her household responsibility increases, and she would be having less time to study. But with a continued education process, she would be able to make good decisions in the future and take care of the next generation in a better way. This will enhance the nation’s income too. A progress shift from MDGs to SDGs can create a milestone: Of the 17 SDGs, the SDG 4 is the education goal which aims to ensure exclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. It holds a perspective with a strong gender aspect as it links girls’

26  Anamika Choudhary

education with social and economic development and poverty reduction. It has been estimated that one additional school year can bring an increase in a woman’s earnings by 10 percent to 20 percent and likewise each year of secondary education would reduce the possibility of marrying as a child by 5 percent or even more. SDGs aspire that by giving equal access to both the male and female gender to quality technical and vocational education, both primary and secondary education is ensured without any gender inequality. Economic opportunities for women can be ensured when they receive quality education both technically and vocationally. It has been estimated that the gender pay gap costs around $160 trillion to the global economy. The participation of women in the nation’s parliament is just 23.7 percent, not even one-third of the total. The participation of half of the world’s population, i.e., women, holds significance. A woman should have equal access to education, decent work status, and adequate representation in political and economic decision-making processes. When women are empowered, goal 5 of SDG (gender equality) will become more effective, and SDG 1 related to poverty alleviation will show progress, and thus sustainable economic growth will get its fuel. Humanity will be benefitted at large. If the nation wants to improve the health and well-being of its people (SDG 3), it must emphasize the education of women. Whether it is SDG goals 5,8,9,10, or 11 which deal with “gender equality, work and economic growth, sustainable cities, industry and innovation, and reduced inequalities”, respectively, the key to achieving all these goals lies in the education of girls. Such is the prospect of girls’ education that ultimately leads to the long-term development of the nation and society. The achievement of other SDGs goals (SDGs 13, 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, etc.) which specifically relate to “climate Action, Clean Water and Sanitation, Clean and Affordable Energy, Responsible Consumption and Production, Improving Life below Water and Improving Life on Land” is possible only through the quality education of girls and women. There is a clear linkage between the SDG goals and the education of girls. The awareness of the girls towards the major issues and the understanding to put their concerted efforts into the progress of the SDGs is indicated by their access to quality education. In a nutshell, it can be concluded that all the SDG goals, including SDGs 16 and 17 (Strong Institutions, Peace and Justice, and partnerships for sustainable development, respectively), can be attained with the possible inputs to girls’ education. Research indicates that with every additional year of education, a woman obtains results somewhere between 2 to 15 percent in agricultural output, and it is noticed that educated women are more likely to adopt novel technologies.

Recommendations and Conclusion Policy interventions are required to improve the accessibility and the quality of education and also to address the major barriers that include gender

Educating Girls  27

inequalities, food insecurity, and armed conflict. Girls are often overburdened with domestic chores, and this mindset can only be changed when girls’ education does not throw a burden on their parents. The issues of continuing drop-outs and completion rates of girls in schools need to be resolved by taking sincere efforts. The enrolments must increase so that the disparity between the genders in education is set right. Adequate curricula need to be developed so as to establish and inculcate a sense of respect for girls and for equal rights of women and men. It is highly recommended that the resources should be increased adequately, along with better infrastructures and quality-based teachers who can effectively cope with the students in schools and retain them with a decreasing number of drop-outs. When the teachers are quality based and properly equipped with technology and information, learning outcomes will not be adversely affected. Primary and secondary education may be completely free, equitable, and quality enhanced so that girls’ education can get an uplift. Technical and vocational skills may be ensured so that employability is enhanced and decent jobs or entrepreneurship are promoted to women as well. It must be ensured that education facilities are aptly built and upgraded concerning gender sensitivity and that they also provide protected, non-violent, inclusive learning environments with more efficacy for all. To facilitate girl’s education, different organizations need to work extensively to promote it and government should bring in such laws to make girls’ education compulsory and a necessity for the nation to traverse a path to sustainable development, wherein the gross national product (GDP) growth increases, wherein the quality of human life improves, wherein the malnourishment of children is done away with, wherein the pregnant women take good care of themselves and the coming generation, wherein the safety of girls is ensured in schools and colleges, wherein an environment is built that promotes the increased enrolment of girls in schools and reduce the number of drop-outs in higher stages of learning. Society will then find a transformation and the target of SDGs would surely be achieved.

References Abhishek, Gayathri J. (2018). A Critical Analysis of Status of Women in India. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 12(5), 4853–74. Altekar, A. S. (2014). The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. ASER. (2016). National Press Release.docx. https://img.asercentre.org/ Bader, C. (2013). Women in Ancient India. Trubner’s Oriental Series. London: Routledge. Bokova, I.G. (2012). Director-General of UNESCO 2009–2017, Foreword to From Access to Equality, Empowering Girls and Women through Literacy and Secondary Education [5526]. CADE. (n.d.). Art.1 and 6. CEDAW. (n.d.). General Comment No. 36, para. 24.

28  Anamika Choudhary Clea Guy-Allen the 10 Toughest Places for a Girl to Get an Education. (2017, October 10). https://www.one.org/us/blog/girls-education-toughest/ Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 13, para. 34. DFID. (2005). Girls’ Education towards a Better Future for All. https://www2.ohchr. org/english/issues/development/docs/girlseducation.pdf Girl Education Programs. (2016, March 1). Indian Women and Child Welfare Trust. https://www.iwcwtministry.org/girl-education-programs/ Girls’ Education: Towards a Better Future for All, Department for Interna­ tional Development. (2005, January). https://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/ development/docs/girlseducation.pdf Jayapalan, N. (2001). Indian Society and Social Institutions. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. Mallik, P. S. (2019, May). Socio-Cultural Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ Mishra, R. C. (2006). Towards Gender Equality. New Delhi: Authors Press. NCPCR Report. (2018). Nearly 40 Adolescent Girls in India Lack Access to Education Majority Forced to Stay at Home. https://www.firstpost.com/india/-ncpcr-report Salawade, S. N. (2012). Status of Women in Ancient India: The Vedic Period. Indian Streams Research Journal, 2(8), 1–3. Trivedi, R. G. (2011). Rigveda Samhita. Varanasi: Chaukhamba Surabharti Prakashan. Verma, S. (2016, September 23). 8.4 Crore Indian Children Don’t Attend School: Census Data Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/8-4crindian-children-dont-attend-school-census-data/articleshow/54473779.cms

Chapter 2

Transgender’s Education Steps towards Transforming Society Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

Introduction ‘Transgender’, the marginalized community, is part of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual (LGBTQIA) community and has existed for centuries. They face innumerable challenges and battles in their day-to-day life. India has made significant progress in key human development indicators such as literacy, health, and education. “Transgender community, one of the country’s most marginalized and vulnerable groups, lags far apart on human development indicators like education” (Rajesh and Naved, 2013). “Transgender people are individuals of any age or sex whose appearance, personal characteristics, or behaviours differ from stereotypes about how men and women are ‘supposed’ to be” (Sathashivam, 2012). The literal meaning of transgender is ‘beyond gender’ as Laxmi Narayan Tripathi said in one of her interviews that “[a] Hijra/ Transgender is someone feminine but not a woman, masculine but not a man, a person beyond the boxes of man and woman” (transgender rights activists Laxmi Narayan Tripathi, 2017). A transgender person is a person whose gender does not match with the gender assigned to that person at birth and includes trans-man or trans-woman (whether or not such person has undergone Sex Reassignment Surgery or hormone therapy or laser therapy or such other therapy), person with intersex variations, genderqueer and person had such socio-cultural identities as Kinnar, Hijra, Aravani and Jogta. (The Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India, 2019) Let’s start with the historical naming of the androgyne, used in France around the 14th century with the literal meaning, “Male and Female in one”. The other word that evolved was also ‘androgynous’ around the mid17th century. That defined a transgender person as “Uniting the physical characteristics of both the sexes at once male and female” (Wankhede, 2012). Transgender is an umbrella term used to describe Hijras and the third gender in our society. Transgender is not a new concept; it has existed DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-4

30  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

for centuries. Transgender is called Eunuch, and from the 9th century BC, Eunuchs have inhabited. “The word eunuch is derived from the Greek word ‘Euneukhos’, which means the bed-chamber attendant or keeper of the bed. They were the castrated men required to guard women’s quarters of royal households” (Sharma, 2012; Michelraj, 2015; Das, 2018; Sawant, 2017). Indeed, the presence of the third sexual orientation is found in the writings of India’s three antiquated profound conventions, Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, and it very well may be gathered that Vedic culture perceived three sexes. The Vedas (1500 BC–500 BC) depict that people have a place with one of the three separate classifications, per one’s tendency or Prakriti. These are pums-prakriti (male nature), stri-prakriti (female nature) and tritiya-prakriti (third nature). The “Tritiya Prakriti” alluded to the third sexual orientation and is known as napunsak. (Sharma, 2012) This idea had an essential part in different Hindu folklore writings, Vedic and puranic works of writing. The term “napunsak” indicates the nonattendance of procreative capacity. That introduced by implying contrast from manly and female markers. (Sharma, 2012) Hindu law, languages, healthcare, and astrology all discuss transgender persons. The Manu Smriti, known as Dharmasastra, the primary work of Hindu law, clarifies the organic starting points of the three genders. In Vedic soothsaying, the nine planets are each doled out to one of the three sexual orientations; the third sex, Tritiya-Prakriti, is related to Mercury, Saturn, and Ketu. In the Puranas, there are likewise references to the three sorts of devas of music and dance: Apsaras (female), Gandharvas (male), and Kinnars known as neuter. (Sharma, 2012; Michelraj, 2015) In Indian society, transgender people are known by names like Eunuch, Hijra, Kinnar, Aravani, Kothi, Shiv-Shakti, Jogappa, or Jogtas differ because of the difference in regions in our country. The historical evolution of the transgender community in India can be traced to different times, such as during the Mughal period and the British period; they were treated differently, and in colonial times and in present times, they have a questionable status in our country (Sharma, 2012; Michelraj, 2015). The roots of transgender can be explored through their existence in Hindu mythology. “In Hindu epics, ‘Shiva’, he is often represented as ‘Aradhanarishwar’ with male and female nature” (Conner and Spark, 1998).

Transgender’s Education  31

Famous Hindu epics like Bhagwat Purana, Mahabharata, and Ramayana proves the existence of the transgender community in ancient India. (Pandeyer, 2019). Pandavas used Shikhandi to avenge the Bhishma pita maha in the Mahabharata (Pattnaik, 2014, p. 189; Pandeyer, 2019). Even Arjuna in the Mahabharata went to Swarga to gain knowledge related to Astra vidya there a woman named Urvashi cursed Arjuna as he refused her sexual desires and said that he would become a ‘Kliba’, a member of the third gender, once in this lifetime. However, this curse is a blessing to the Arjuna, as he took up the role of ‘Brihanlla’ during Agyatvasa, dressed up in women’s clothes, and taught the art of music, singing, and dancing to the princess Uttara in the city ruled by king Virat (Conner and Sparks, 1998). There are other instances of Mahabharata, like the story of Aravan, which proves the existence of transgender. Aravan was the son of Arjuna and Nagkanya, and he offered himself to be sacrificed to Goddess Kali so that it would ensure the victory of Pandavas in the battle of Kurukshetra. He wished to spend his last night in his marriage. Still, since he was about to die, no girl wanted to marry him, so Lord Krishna took up the form of a beautiful woman named Mohini and married him, and because of the influence of this story, the Hijras of Tamil Nadu considered Aravan their progenitor and call themselves Aravanis. (Conner and Sparks, 1998) In the Ramayana, when Lord Rama was leaving the Ayodhya and Laxman and Sitaji in exile for 14 years, and all the kingdom’s people started following him, he turned to them. He asked males and females to return to their homes. Hijras were also there and were not bound to this direction, so they stayed. Lord Rama was pleased to witness their determination and conferred upon them the power to shower bounties on individuals at joyful events such as marriage and childbirth. “In Hindu mythology, Bahuchara Mata, a Hindu Goddess, is considered the patronage of the Hijra community in India” (Pandeyer, 2019). During the Mughal period, Hijras were not considered a separate tribe or different from other people. They captured high ranks like political counsellors, admirals, and generals and took care of the harems. Hijras also occupied more outstanding designations in the religious institutions of Islam, providing security to holy places like Mecca and Medina (Sharma, 2012; Michelraj, 2015). But later on, in the 19th century, the position of transgender changed substantially. The British colonial administration suddenly started criminalizing the Hijra community, denying them their fundamental civil rights and considering them separate tribes or castes in various parts of India. The Criminal Tribes Act, 1875, classified all Hijras as a tribe involved in the abduction and decapitating of infants and wearing dresses as women

32  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

to perform in public places. It stipulated a penalty of up to two years in jail, a fine, or both (Michelraj, 2015). In contemporary times, transgender-related data like employment, literacy, and caste were collected in the category of others in the census 2011. In 1994, transgender got voting rights, but several transgender people did not get the voting cards because of no column as the third gender, and they got up in the question of male or female. In 2009, for the first time, Indian Election Commission allowed transgender persons to choose their gender as ‘others’ on the ballot forms (Rajkumar, 2016).

Transgender Rights Movements Transgender movements tackle various challenges for those who identify as gender nonconforming throughout the world. They are subjected to widespread discrimination in all social institutions, including the family, the labour market, education, health and hygiene, profession, housing, public accommodation, etc. (Lal, 2019). Transvestia: The Journal of the American Society for Equality in Dress was founded in 1952 by Virginia Prince, a male crossdresser, and other members and is widely regarded as the commencement of the transgender rights movement in the United States. In the 1960s, trans-social activism gained a foothold. In the Tenderloin section of San Francisco, one of the earliest reported trans people riots occurred in 1966. Trans people were also involved in the Stonewall Riots in 1969, which marked the onset of the contemporary LGBT movements. Trans dissident Sylvia Rivera kept being a promoter for Trans rights, and consideration of insurance for trans individuals in all LGBT rights enactment, until she passed on in 2002. (Jauk, 2016) Leslie Feinberg published and distributed a leaflet titled “Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come” in 1992 to persuade the transgender community to make their interpretation and make language a solid weapon to bring people together who are separated by oppression. “Adela Vazquez, a Latina transgender woman from San Francisco, protested in 1993 because the government had forced the transgender community out of employment since they were branded as handicapped” (Adela, 2015; Jauk, 2016). After publishing the essay “Transgender Warriors” in 1996, Leslie Feinberg officially proposed the word ‘transgender’. Other challenges transgender persons faced included nationality, government IDs, citizenship, restroom rights, voting rights, etc. In 2011, the United Nations (UN) Human Rights Council adopted the first-ever UN resolution on the human rights of the LGBT community. According to the 2007 Yogyakarta Principles, the LGBTQ community is protected by current human rights legislation; as a result, member nations

Transgender’s Education  33

are obligated to protect LGBTQ individuals from racist, sexist, and homosexual violence and ban all types of discrimination. “In 2009, India’s political race bonus ventured out, permitting transgender to pick their sexual orientation as ‘others’ on voting form structures. In 2014, the Supreme Court of India recognized transgender as the third gender in a landmark ruling”. “Recognition of transgender as a third gender is not a social or medical issue but a human right issue” Transgender Rights Movements were not just part of one country. Somewhat it was expanded globally and became the inspiration for many transgender people to fight for their rights and stand against exploitation and discrimination (Athreye, 2015; Jauk, 2016; Ghosh, 2017).

Constitutional Provisions, Policies, and Programmes There are several policies and programmes for transgender people to avail themselves of a respectable position in society and be included in all the spheres of life. Based on the constitutional provisions and fundamental rights, transgender people recognized their identity as ‘third gender’ (Rajkumar, 2016; Das, 2019). A Ray of Hope (National Legal Service Authority (NALSA) v/s Union of India) The Supreme Court passed the landmark judgment on recognizing transgender as “Third Gender” on April 15, 2014, in the National Legal Service Authority (NALSA) v/s Union of India case stating that one’s sexual orientation is the integral part of one’s personality, dignity, and freedom. (Rajkumar, 2016; Sukey, 2018) The judgement provides legal identity to transgender people, stating the various fundamental rights granted to every person in the country. By acknowledging one’s gender identification within Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, the Supreme Court emphasized the value of the right to dignity. “The Right to Equality before the law under Article 14 applies to all persons, thereby entitled to equal protection of the law in all spheres, including employment, health care, education, and civil rights” (Sukey, 2018). The Constitution of India under Article 15 provides equal rights to all citizens and prohibits discrimination based on race, caste colour, and gender identity. Under Article 19(1)(a), the judicial system protected individuals’ gender expressions. It stated that “no restriction can be placed on one’s appearance or choice of dressing subject to the restrictions contained in article 19(2) of the Constitution” (Sukey, 2018, p.17). The right to choose one’s gender

34  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

identity falls in the ambit of Article 21, which is essential to lead a life with dignity. The court stated all these constitutional provisions favouring transgender persons while granting them recognition as the third gender (Sukey, 2018; Das, 2019). Kerala was the first Indian state to pass comprehensive transgender legislation. The policy aimed to eliminate transgender people’s societal shame and prejudice (Social Justice Department, Government of Kerala, G.O.(Ms) no. 61/2105/SJD). The policy aspires to create a fair society where transgender persons have equal access to effective prospects, funds, privileges, and freedom of speech and expression. The policy also suggests that a justice board for transgender will be established to ensure that no government officials discriminate against transgender people. The Right to Education Act, 2009 (Article 21 A), known as Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009, was enacted by the Parliament of India to provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years. (The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education, 2009 ACT NO. 35 OF 2009, dated 26 August 2009) Under this Act, education becomes the fundamental right of every individual in our country, and transgender children shall be admitted to schools and universities with all facilities, as stated by the Right to Education (RTE)Act 2009, under the category of ‘disadvantaged group’. “Under the economically weaker section (EWS) and disadvantaged students’ categories for admission, transgender people are entitled to a 25% reservation” (Rajkumar, 2016; Sukey, 2018; Balu, 2020). The Incheon Declaration was accepted on 21 May 2015, during the World Education Forum (WEF, 2015) in Incheon, Republic of Korea. The  Incheon Declaration represents the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, acknowledging education’s critical role as a crucial driver of development. The new vision focuses on the various aspects and Sustainable Development Goal4: “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. It further talks about access and retention of the students in the schools and providing quality education. It majorly gives critical attention to gender equality, which is crucial in achieving education for all. Every student, irrespective of any differences, should be there in the school. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 in Chapter 6 discussed quality education for all and focused on Inclusive and Equitable Education: Learning for All. The motive is that “no child will be left behind and lose any opportunity to get an education and excel in their field because of their birth or background”. Under NEP 2020, transgender got specific attention for the very first time. The policy further added that the Indian government

Transgender’s Education  35

would formulate a ‘Gender Inclusion Fund’ for all girls and transgender students to build the nation’s capacity to provide equitable education. The fund will also be available to the state governments to assist females and transgender children in accessing education and other provisions like sanitation and toilets, bicycles, and cash transfer. “This fund will enable states to take effective measures and community-based interventions to address the barriers to transgender and female children’s access to and participation in education” (NEP 2020, Part1, School Education, section 6.8, p. 26).

The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 The Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India, passed the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 (notification no. 40 of 2019, Part II, dated 5 December 2109) to protect the rights and welfare of transgender people. The Act stated various guidelines for transgender people as it highlighted prohibition on any discrimination against transgender persons, as they cannot be denied access in any educational institutions, in any official or employment premises, to access any health services facility, unequal treatments and opportunities to move (Chapter II, Prohibition against discrimination). The Act protects the educational rights of transgender people, as it states, “Every educational institution funded or recognized by the appropriate Government shall provide inclusive education and opportunities for sports, recreation, and leisure activities to transgender persons without discrimination on an equal basis with others” (Chapter VI, Obligation of educational institutions to provide inclusive education to transgender persons). It also recommended that the central government constitute a National Council for Transgender persons, which shall guide the government to formulate policies and programmes for the welfare of the “transgender persons monitor and evaluate the impact of policies and programs designed for achieving equality and full participation of transgender persons and also address the problems and grievances of the transgender persons” (Chapter VII, National Council for Transgender Persons).

National Portal for Transgender Persons The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has launched the National Portal for Transgender Persons under the national level umbrella scheme SMILE Support for Marginalized Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise, which includes two sub-schemes – “Comprehensive Rehabilitation for Welfare of Transgender Persons” and “Comprehensive Rehabilitation of persons engaged in the act of Begging”. It was created by the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules, which came into effect in 2020.

36  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

Certificate and Identity Cards – Transgender persons can use this portal/site to register for a document/certificate and identification card from everywhere and anywhere in the nation. 1) Scholarships – This programme offers scholarships for students enrolled in secondary school (grades 9 and 10), senior secondary (grades 11 and 12), undergraduate/diploma programmes, and postgraduate studies. 2) Skill Development and Training – Provide market-oriented hands-on training to transgender persons to get employment opportunities in respected areas. 3) Garima Grih – Shelter Homes for Transgender – Provides shelter, home care, and development. Currently, there are 12 Garima Grih in the country. 4) Recognition and Appreciation – Aspirants who have completed courses through the Swayam portal are acknowledged and given incentives by the portal. It is a practical step by providing them rehabilitation, letting them live a life away from harassment and atrocities, and making them self-reliant and independent.

Status of Transgender Population and Education in India The 2011 census data shows the overall number of transgender persons in the Indian states. Also, it shows the transgender children population aged from 0–6 years in different states of India along with their literacy rate. The data represents the transgender population in SC (Schedule Caste) and ST (Schedule Tribe) categories (Census 2011). The census also revealed the literacy rate of the transgender population in different states. The transgender population is high in the states like Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu (see Table 2.1). Additionally, census data uncovers that this community has low literacy rates; only 46% of transgender people are literate, compared to 74% of the general population. (Times of India, 30 May 2014; Das, 2018; Biswas and Soora, 2021) Comprehensive data on transgender education at different levels is absent in the Indian education system. Unified District Information System for Education (U-DISE) data, All India School Education Survey, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) by Pratham network, etc., don’t have any data regarding the enrolment of transgender children. That shows the greater

Transgender’s Education  37 Table 2.1  S tate and UT-Wise Status of Transgender Population and Literacy Rate in India States

Transgender

Child (0–6yrs)

Literacy (%)

Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Bihar West Bengal Madhya Pradesh Tamil Nadu Orissa Karnataka Rajasthan Jharkhand Gujarat Assam Punjab Haryana Chhattisgarh Uttarakhand Delhi Jammu and Kashmir Kerala Himachal Pradesh Manipur Tripura Meghalaya Arunachal Pradesh Goa Nagaland Puducherry Mizoram Chandigarh Sikkim Daman and Diu Andaman and Nicobar Islands Dadra and Nagar Haveli Lakshadweep TOTAL

137,465 43,769 40,891 40,827 30,349 29,597 22,364 20,332 20,266 16,517 13,463 11,544 11,374 10,243 8,422 6,591 4,555 4,213 4,137 3,902 2,051 1,343 833 627 495 398 398 252 166 142 126 59 47 43 2 487,803

54,854 18,734 4,082 4,101 5,971 2,376 3,409 1,289 2,125 1,771 2,012 1,593 1,028 1,348 813 1,107 706 512 311 487 295 154 177 66 134 64 34 63 16 26 16 14 10 5 0 54,854

55.80 53.33 67.57 44.35 58.83 53.01 57.78 54.35 58.82 48.34 47.58 62.82 53.69 59.75 62.11 51.35 62.65 62.99 49.29 84.61 62.10 67.50 71.19 57.40 52.20 73.90 70.75 60.59 87.14 72.22 65.18 75.51 73.81 73.68 50.00 56.07

Source: From the census, 2011 (https://www.census2011.co.in/transgender.php retrieved on 25-02-2022).

marginalization of transgender people from the education system. That is a matter of great concern. The fewer literacy rate of transgender people is greatly influenced by the issues they face in schools and colleges. The school environment is not welcoming towards transgender children, and they face harassment, violence, abuse, exclusion, and whatnot (Athreye, 2015; Rajkumar, 2016).

38  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

International and National Organizations Working for the Transgender There are numerous international, national, and local governmental and non-governmental organizations working for transgender people as people are starting to respect this community. Also, they raise awareness, promote sex education, educate people about their rights, and encourage them to raise their voices against atrocities and exclusion (Yadav, 2021). Sahodari Foundation, the centre for transgender and women empowerment, founded and directed by Kalki Subramaniam, is a pioneer organization in India established in 2008. The multi-talented Kalki is an award-winning activist, an artist, a writer, a famous inspirational speaker, and a transgender woman herself. This foundation runs various programmes and projects to empower and educate the transgender community, like the Red Wall Project, the Thoorakari Project, and the Transgender Youth Mentorship Program. Renowned journalist Ashok Row Kavi created the Humsafar Trust in 1994. The charity holds seminars for LGBTQ persons to educate them about HIV/AIDS and other medical issues. Yaarana conducts free Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) check-ups and HIV testing and runs several programmes, such as Project Aarambh and Dostana. Yaariyan, a support group for young LGBTQ people, UMANG, a support group for LBT people, and SANJEEVANI, a support group for HIV-positive people, are all supported by the trust. Aarohan was established in 2005 and is governed by the Society Registration Act of 1860. Its purpose is to integrate transgender people into mainstream society (National Human Rights Commission). It offers economic education as well as skill training in various fields. This also promoted comprehensive sex education and access to contraception. Transgender Welfare Equity and Empowerment Trust Foundation (TWEET) is a Mumbai Charity Commissioner–registered foundation led by seven trans activists. This nonprofit aims to improve their educational opportunities, medical care, legal status, and holistic development. It organizes workshops to make them aware of their legal and civil rights and essential life skills.

International Organizations Amnesty International is a global non-profitable organization, headquartered in the United Kingdom and established in 1961. “The goal of Amnesty International is of a world in which everyone has access to all of the human rights guaranteed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights standards”. Equality Forum is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization with an educational focus founded in 2006. It worked towards advancing the civil rights of

Transgender’s Education  39

LGBTQI and other sexual and gender minorities, nationally and internationally. Equality forum runs innovative programmes for gender variants to create sensitivity and awareness. Marriage Recognition– Recognition of same-sex marriages. Project 1138 – A public awareness campaign in 2004 to raise general knowledge about the 1,138 federal marriage rights and benefits denied to same-sex spouses. Fortune 500 Project contacted the top executives of every non-compliant company to offer a compelling financial case for implementing non-discrimination policies. Identifying the LGBT Vote  – The Equality Forum devised a method for measuring the gay vote. The initiative proves that gay voters can be identified and counted as a voting bloc. The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA-World) is a worldwide organization of over 1,700 groups from over 160 countries and territories dedicated to advancing lesbian and gay bisexual, transgender and intersex human rights. Pan Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, and Oceania are the six regions associated with IGLA. It works towards establishing an egalitarian society where human rights, equity, and global justice are assured and granted to every person irrespective of their sexual orientation, gender identities, gender expressions, and sex characteristics. NCTE (National Center for Transgender Equality) was founded in Washington, DC, in 2003 by transgender activists. The NCTE envisions a world where transgender individuals not only endure but prosper, with understanding communities and families, complete sovereignty over their orientations and bodies, and liberation from harassment and bigotry. The Racial and Economic Justice Initiative, Trans Legal Services Network, Voices for Trans Equality, and Families for Trans Equality are just a few of the programmes done by NCTE to assist transgender persons with their challenges.

Challenges Faced by the Transgender Community Transgender people face numerous issues and challenges in every sphere of life. Significant challenges faced by transgender communities are as follows: Legal Challenges – The Indian Constitution grants every member of society fundamental rights and civil rights. Still, the third gender continues to be shunned by society. They affirm equality, but the question is whether it is being applied at the ground level to all people (Sathashivam, 2011). In 2009, Indian Election Commission allowed transgender persons to choose their gender as ‘others’ on the ballot forms (Sharma, 2012; Rajkumar, 2016). Neither the Hindu Marriage Act nor the Special Marriage Act mentions the third gender. The degree of Prohibited relationship refers to any relationship between a man and woman mentioned in Part I and II of

40  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

the First Schedule of the Act. The focus is on the male and the female sexes. The “third sex” has conveniently been ignored. (Sharma, 2012) This depicts the exclusion of transgender from the Constitution of India. Challenges to Transgender Education – There are various challenges faced by transgender children in schools: •

•

•

•

•

•

School Bullying – They faced hatred, were called disrespectful names and pronouns, and faced their peers’ verbal abuse. School bullying severely impacts their mental health and leads to low self-esteem and ultimately dropping out of the school system (Mittra, 2017; Chatterjee, 2018; Das, 2019). Bathroom Facility Problems – The environment of the schools is not supportive, as they don’t have the facility of gender-neutral bathrooms in the schools. They are forced to use the restrooms against their sexual orientation (Beemyn, 2015). Lack of Sensitivity among Teachers and Other Students – Lack of sensitive attitude of teachers and other students is another primary concern for dropping out of school (Leelavathy, 2014; Mishra and Singh, 2018; Sawant, 2017). Lack of Visibility and Recognition –Heteronormativity is seen in textbooks, curricula, and policies. Transgender people lack visibility in the books and curricula and are alienated from transgender children, which became the reason for their marginalization (Raj, 2017). Discrimination and Negligence –The primary negligence and discrimination come from their families only. They are shunned by their families and have to leave their natal homes (Hotchandani, 2017; Sawant, 2017; Mishra and Singh, 2018). “They are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse and derogatory comments at the workplace” (Kumar, 2015; Balu, 2020). Forced Illiteracy – The lack of empathy, sensitivity, and zero acceptance of transgender people leads to low enrolment and early drop-out from school. Rigidity in the school is another reason for their low literacy rate. (Asmy and Reddy, 2015; Kumar, 2015; Mittra, 2017)

Breaking the Stereotypes and Prejudices There are innumerable challenges in the life of transgender people, yet, there are several transgender persons who made it big despite all odds and criticism that they face. They proved that no barrier could stop them from achieving their goals. Matha B. Manjamma Jogathi – She is the first and only transgender woman who won the Padma Shri Award in 2021. She is a chairperson of Karnataka Janapada Academy. She was born in Karnataka’s Bellary district,

Transgender’s Education  41

and she identified herself as a woman at the age of 15 and was only educated to the 10th class. She wanted to end her life but entered a troupe and mastered the Jogathi Nrithya dance genre. The folk dancer began performing with her company in numerous regions and quickly rose to become the group’s head. Her journey is full of struggles, yet she gets up every time and achieves this milestone in her life. K. Prithika Yashini – She became the first transgender sub-inspector in India’s Tamil Nadu state police and made history. Prithika, born Pradeep, had a sex change operation shortly after finishing her undergraduate degree and opted to pursue her ambition of becoming a police officer. After being disqualified and denied due to a contradiction, Prithika went to court and obtained an administrative investigation until she achieved her goal of joining the police force. Manabi Bandopadhyay – She became the first transgender person who held the position of principal at Women’s College situated in Krishnagar on 7 June 2015. She is also the first transgender person who completed a doctorate of philosophy (PhD) degree. As a lecturer, she did her MA in Bengali and got placed at Vivekananda Centenary College in the Jhargram subdivision. She was not welcomed at the college and was threatened by colleagues to change her gender to male rather than female and face other issues. She then underwent sex reassignment surgery and became a woman. “It is not the post that I sought after. It’s the achievement and honour that’s most important”, she said to the Hindustan Times in 2015. Sathyasri Sharmila – She smashed all the barriers and became the first transgender lawyer as she registered herself with the Bar Council of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry. She had to leave her house at 18 because she was tortured and abused. She faced hurdles in her journey at almost every step of her life, yet she achieved this milestone. Some transgender persons made it in their lives despite all the odds and achieved significant milestones. They challenged the sick mindset of society and the associated stigma and prejudices against the transgender community. But this number is significantly low; for inclusion, transgender persons must be welcomed into the education system.

Recommendations for the Inclusion of Transgender in Education Acceptance and attitude change among the people of the society and the relevant stakeholders in the educational system is an urgent requirement to wipe out the associated stigma. Affirmative action must be taken to make them part of mainstream education and society. Several recommendations may help them in being brought into the mainstream: • Awareness and sensitizing programmes should be organized in the school about transgender communities to develop a sensitive attitude towards them.

42  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal

• • • •

•

• •

•

Make transgender people aware of their rights, and train them on how they can avail themselves. A Gender Champion Club should be there in schools and colleges to organize workshops about transgender people. Sensitize teachers towards the transgender children enrolled. Pre-service and in-service teacher education should include the topic of gender sensitization. Art and skill-based curriculum should be introduced in the schools. “Teachers should provide them with skills training and career development to help them become independent and self-reliant” (Biswas and Soora, 2021). Transgender should be included in the textbooks to feel connected with the syllabus and so the other students can become aware of this community. They should also think they are associated with transgender students. An anti-discrimination cell for transgender students in schools and universities should be established to report their cases for justice. The transgender community needs to be researched more, especially in the educational field. No single government report gives any information on the literacy, enrolment, and drop-out rates of transgender children in schools or higher institutions. Economic security should be ensured for transgender students by the government.

Conclusion Each human being on earth is unique and an essential element of ecology. Every person has the right to live with utmost respect and dignity. Hence, it is unfair to judge and discriminate against people who do not fit into the stereotypes made only. India must acknowledge that everyone in the nation has the same rights and benefits and adopt a ‘live and let live approach’. Transgender people are significant members of our society, and even they possess all the rights and constitutional provisions. Yet, they are subjected to exclusion, harassment, discrimination, humiliation, and abuse. Education is the most powerful tool to bring change in any society and the mindset of the people. The rigidity in the Indian education system needs to be changed. The system should change itself so that every child can become part of the education system irrespective of differences. Various steps have been taken to include transgender people in mainstream society. Multiple organizations and state governments are trying to make them self-reliant and independent so that they can live their lives with full zeal and dignity. Yet, the real problem lies in the mindset of society and the stigmas associated with this community. Educating every section of the country and bringing them on the same page should be the aim because everyone is equal and essential,

Transgender’s Education  43

and we all are part of this country. Still, there is a long way to go before every trans person will be able to set an example for society.

References Adela, V. (2015). Finding a Home in Transgender Activism in San Francisco, in Queer Brown Voices: Personal Narratives of Latina/o LGBT Activism, edited by U. Quesada, L. Gomez, and S. Vidal-Ortiz (pp. 212–20). Austin: University of Texas Press. Asmy, S. and Reddy, N. (2015). Preliminary Problems Faced in Educating the Third Gender Community. Asia Pacific Journal of Research, 1(27), 73–80. Athreye, V. (2015). The Life of Transgenders in India. https://www.mapsofindia.com/ my-india/government/the-life-of-transgenders. Retrieved on 22 February 2022. Balu, A. (2020). Confront Issues on Education of Transgender in India. Global Journal for Research Analysis, 9, 12–14. Beemyn, G. B. (2015). Transgender Issues in Education. GLBTQ. Encyclopedia, Inc. http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/transgender_issues_education_S.pdf Biswas, A. and Soora, N. (2021). Education of Transgenders in India: Status and Challenges. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, 4(5), 415–30. Chandra, S. (2017). Transgender Children’s Education and Their Re-engagement in Society. International Journal of Educational Research Studies, 2(XIII), 875–90. Chatterjee, S. (2018). Problems Faced by Transgender Community in India: Some Recommendations. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, 6(1), 65–79. Conner, P., Sparks, D., and Sparks, M. (1998). Cassell’s Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit: Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Lore (Cassell Sexual Politics Series). London: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. Das, P. (2019). Higher Education of Transgender in India: Opportunities and Challenges. International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management, 2(2), 371–75. https://www.ijresm.com/Vol.2_2019/Vol2_Iss2_ February19/IJRESM_V2_I2_95.pdf Ghosh, B. (2017). Representation of the Hijra: Need for Social Work Intervention. Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 8(1&2), 1–12. Hotchandani, R. K. (2017). Problems of Transgender in India: A Study from Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion. International Research Journal of Human Researches and Social Sciences, 4, 73–80. Jauk, D. (2016). Transgender Movements in International Perspective. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Gender and Sexual and Studies. https://doi. org/10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss751 Kumar, R. (2015). Education of Transgender in India: Status and Challenges. International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Science, 6, 15–24. Lal, Z. (2019). Trans Self-Identification and the Language of Neoliberal Selfhood: Agency, Power, and the Limits of Monologic Discourse. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 256(29), 147–75. http://lalzimman.org/PDFs/ Zimman2019IJSL.pdf Leelavathy, K. (2014). Socio-Economic Problems of Transgender in Workplace. International Journal of Scientific Research, 3(4),1–2.

44  Anjali Sharma and Megha Aggarwal Michelraj, M. (2015). Historical Evolution of Transgender Community in India. Asian Review ofSocial Sciences, 4(1), 17–19. Ministry of Law and Justice, Govt. of India. (2019). The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019. New Delhi. Mishra, S. and Singh, P. (2018). Transgender, a Marginalized Community and Their Exclusion: A Study. SSRG-IJSHH, 5, 15–20. Mittra, A. (2017). Educational Inequality in India: A Review Paper for Transgender Population. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 2, 1578–84. Pandeyer, A. (2019). When Sanskrit Grammar Uses More Than 2 Genders, Why Can’t Indian Society Accept Trans People? Youth ki Awaaz. https://www. youthkiawaaz.com/2019/07/the-third-gender-of-ancient-india/ Pattnaik, D. (2014). Shikhandi: And Other Queer Tales They Don’t Tell You. London: Penguin Books Limited. Raj, S. (2017). Absence in Transgender in Curriculum. International Journal of Research Culture Society, 1, 221–27. Rajkumar, D., (2016). Education of Transgenders in India: Status and Challenges. International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences, 6(11), 15– 24. https://euroasiapub.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2ESSNov-4296.pdf Rajesh, D. and Naved, A. (2013). Approach Paper on Education and Employment Opportunities & Challenges for Transgender. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment Government of India. Sathashivam, P. (2011). Rights of Transgender People: Sensitizing Officers to Provide Access to Justice. http://tnsja.tn.gov.in/article/Rights%20of%20Transgender%20 PSJ.pdf Sawant, N. (2017). Transgender: Status in India. Annals of Indian Psychiatry, 1, 59–61. Sharma, P. (2012). Historical Background and Legal Status of Third Gender in Indian Society. International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences, 2(12), 64–71. Sukey, A. (2018). Role of Supreme Court in Recognizing the Rights of Transgender in India. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 23(5), 16–19. Wankhede, A. (2012). Transgender Communities in India: A Study of Historical, Legal and Social Perspective, in Gender Issues in India: Sensitization, Reflection, and Solutions, (pp. 90–6). Yadav, M. (2021). Transgender community in India: NGO’s working for them. Yeh Hai India. https://yehaindia.com/transgender-community-in-india-ngos-workingfor-them/ Zimman, L. (2019). Trans Self-Identification and the Language of Neoliberal Selfhood: Agency, Power, and the Limits of Monologic Discourse. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2019(256), 147–75. https://doi.org/10. 1515/ijsl-2018-2016

Part II

Socio-Cultural Identity

Chapter 3

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education A Sociological Analysis of Indian Society Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali Introduction In India, educational backwardness is identified by certain category which includes Scheduled Caste (SC), Other Backward Class, Scheduled Tribes (ST), and women, etc. Further, when it comes to SC women, they are discriminated against because of their gender and caste in a double manner. To be more specific, in the sphere of educational discrimination, it is found in the pattern of seating arrangements in the schools, availability of teachers, assessment system, lack of equal opportunity in classroom participation, and in the content of the textbooks, etc. However, another very important aspect of such a disadvantageous position is backwardness in educational qualifications. Since they do not have any academic support from their family or in the community, therefore, this makes them more vulnerable to social as well as educational exclusion. Thus, it is extremely important to focus on their educational enhancement so as to address their socioeconomic disadvantageous positions in society. Equality of educational opportunities started only with the initiation of public education in the 19th century. This public education was collectively funded for learning, practice, and extension of education. Prior to this period, education was only the prerogative right of elites and upper-class families. Further, in the next phase of the Vedic period, education was linked to caste and gender. The original format of learning was availed by male Brahmins. All Sanskrit Vedas and Puranas were learned by this particular category, as they were considered ‘ritually pure’. Further, the lower castes, along with women, were considered to be ‘impure’ and were debarred from getting an education. From this particular juncture, the entire process of marginalization in education popped up systematically. The process of marginalization refers to the strategic location of Socio-Economic Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs) at the peripheral or outside locations so that they are not in an advantageous position to access any resources of education (Ramachandran 2003). Further, it also includes the process of socially excluding SEDGs from mainstream processes and avoiding their full participation in the economic, social, and civic life of material and non-material life. Thus, as a result of DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-6

48  Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali

this, while the East India Company operated in Indian society, a small group of formally educated upper-caste elite male members was found in education and formal occupation, whereas the majority of the population was excluded from the education system. With the advent of colonial modernity, Britishers during the period of 1813–1921 introduced the theory of “downward filtration”, as a result of which educated masses were trying to distribute foundational pillars of knowledge to the common mass. The earlier phase of education’s inclusion with lower-caste people was taken up by a common man’s leader, i.e., Jotiba Phule (1879–1990). In the middle of the 19th century, Phule initiated primary education for girls and untouchables. Phule was himself from a well-to-do background but was completely against the Brahminical domination in society. His unique contribution to the education of the depressed classes and SEDGs was through “Satyasodhak Society”. Further, his initiation through the opening of schools for girls and untouchables brought revolutionary changes in society (Keer 1962). This not only sensitized girls and untouchables students to acquire knowledge but also made SEDGs more aware of the power and effects of education. In the later part of the 19th century, efforts of Mahars were marked in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Specifically, in a town named Akola, where the majority of SCs were landholders, labourers, and shopkeepers, leaders such as G. A. Gawai and Sri Janoji, started free boarding schools for boys coming from villages, so as to educate them. Further, night schools for adult education were also initiated. There were instances of opening up of institutions such as ‘Shri Janoji Free Boarding’ (1895) (Kshirsagar 1992). The next major educator was a high-caste Maharashtrian, i.e., Vithal Ramji Shinde (1837–1944). He tried to bring education to depressed classes and launched the Depressed Class Mission in the year 1906 (Zelliot 2001). While addressing one of the events of Somvasha Hitachintak Samaj (Society for Somvansh i.e., sub-caste of Mahars), he emphasized that education is the only alternative to the development of the depressed classes or SEDGs. These events were further followed up by Nagpur activists such as Shivram Janab Kamble, Kisan Phagoji Bansode, L. N. Hardas, and G. M. Thaware (Gore 1990, p. 145). In the later part of the development of education, Indian educators such as J. P. Naik tried to break the monopoly of upper castes in educational institutes and spread the message of egalitarianism. Later on, Gandhi proposed a nationwide programme on vocational training, and this along with the independence movement sped like a wildfire. Thus, the marginalization process in the educational system decreased slowly and integration of the general mass with the education system started.

Policies and Programmes In an independent India, the Constitution of India plays an important role in determining the face of education. It tries to impart free education to all groups through several articles. Article 15 forms the foundation of the quest

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education  49

for an egalitarian social order by announcing the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or/and place of birth. Further, Article 45 includes universal elementary education as a directive principle, making it explicit that the state shall put its full effort to provide compulsory education within a period of ten years from the commencement of the education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years (Sagarika 2022). Further, Article 46 of the Constitution assures that “the state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people i.e., SCs”. Thus, the entire historical trajectory of SC participation in education took major turns during the modern period through Indian constitutional provisions (Ramachandran 2004). There are many initiatives taken by the government for the educational development of Scheduled Caste children which includes free uniforms for Scheduled Caste and ST, and mid-day meals. In 1961–1962, there is a scheme launched for the SC and SC boys’ and girls’ hostels for post-primary and secondary level students; for SC females, those who belong to the Lower Literacy District are under the Special Educational Development Program (SEDP), and these children are given priority by programmes like Adult Literacy, Non-formal Education (NFE), Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA), Lok Jumbish and Districts Primary Education Programme (DPEP). Relaxations on all exams qualifying cut-off marks for SCs and STs, and Various Scholarships or fellowships for the SCs (Sagarika and Kahali 2021). The DPEP was initiated in 1991 as one of the programmes by the World Bank to India. The DPEP guidelines of 1994 explain that holistic planning and execution of primary education is the fundamental base for universal primary education. Further, it caters to the demands of SEDGs in general and girls’ education specifically. It recognizes the importance of educating SC girl students and makes them an integral part of the DPEP programme. Certain important elements of DPEP include the Project Management Information System (PMIS) to capture inputs of teachers deployed for teaching SEDGs students. It also includes monitoring of expenditures and reimbursements made in the field of primary education meant for SEDGs. Further, it also includes the District Information System for Education (DISE) to understand teacher deployment, classroom performances, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), Net Enrolment Ratio (NER), repetition rates, student-classroom ratio, and teacher-pupil ratio. It suggests that special training for first-generation SEDGs is essential. Secondly, emphasis needs to be focused on Block Resource Centres (BRCs) and Cluster Resource Centres (CRCs) so as to cater to the special needs of students and teachers associated with SEDGs. Further, in order to facilitate a Minimum Level of Learning (MLL) within the SEDGs emphasis on ‘MotherTongue Education’ is very much essential. Thus, it emphasizes that intensive training and capacity building of teachers associated with SEDGs is fundamental in this outreach programme (Aggarwal 2000). For example, the Ministry of Human Resource Development established an autonomous institution, the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) in the year 1989.

50  Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali

It  has taken the initiative of launching the Open Basic Education (OBE) Program, which aims at providing basic education to neo-literates and outof-school adolescents. This also aims to integrate and facilitate students of SEDGs community, i.e., SC and all other communities into its benefits (Chatterjee 2006). Jayprakash Narayan Sarvodaya Yojana emphasizes social revolution through which they can make inclusive development of the SC population in the mainstream society. This organization emphasizes class-less and caste-less socialism for the development of society. Based on the aforementioned ideology, Jay Prakash Narayan Sarvodaya Vidyalaya was established in the year 1987 in Uttar Pradesh, Chouraha (Ramachandran 2004). In Madhya Pradesh, certain learning packages were introduced to attract children of SEDGs towards primary education. These packages included (i) Seekhn–Sikhana (SS), (ii) Digantar (AS), (iii) Eklavya, which were operational across the schools in the state. The SS package was focused on the integrative learning of students from the SEDG community in a participatory manner. The main purpose behind this was to impart the learned aspects in front of new learners. Similarly, the ‘Digantar’ package is based on the concept of creation of a flexible non-graded primary school curriculum, which is divided into shrankhlas, i.e., semester stage from 1-8/10, which corresponds to class I-IV/V of primary schooling. The shifting of grades will be on the basis and pace of learning of the children from SEDG communities. Therefore, it is a unique initiative. The ‘Eklavya’ package was oriented towards the area of integrating fun fulfilled learning within the classroom. This package provides activities and books which are linked with the day-to-day local culture and occupation of SEDGs, i.e., specifically SC children. Thus, children of this community can relate further to the learning process and participation in primary education.

Current Status of Education of SCs Education is a basic necessity of every human being which gives skills for living, and better economic and social conditions in society. However, there are some socially marginalized people deprived of it because of their caste. SC is at the bottom of the social ladder. According to the Census Report of India in 2011, the SC literacy level was only 66.1% from the all-India level of 73%. G. K. Karantha a sociologist in Karnataka said, “[H]igher dropout rate among SCs creates poverty and employment migration in Karnataka”. Further, 2011 data shows the bottom states in the SCs literacy rate are Bihar (48.5), Jharkhand (55.9), Rajasthan (59.7), Uttar Pradesh (60.9), and Andhra Pradesh (62.3) (Ramachandran 2004). After having an idea regarding the statistical groundings of the literacy rate of the SC population, it is very essential to analyze the caste-based literacy rate from another variable of rural and urban components. This is essential so as to capture the varying differences between urban and rural settings. Further, a longitudinal time scale analysis from the 2001 to 2011 censuses can make the situation more reflective (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1  S cheduled caste literacy rate gender-wise from the census of India 2001 and 2011 Census:2011

Male

Male

Female

Female

Indicators

SCs

Overall population

SCs

Overall population

Urban Rural Total

77.9 63.7 66.6

86.3 70.7 75.3

57.5 37.8 41.9

72.9 46.1 53.7

Source: Web link: https://censusindia.gov.in/census. Website/2001/2011

Male

Male

Female

Female

Indicators

SCs

Overall population

SCs

Overall population

Urban Rural Total

83.8 72.6 75.2

88.8 77.2 80.9

68.6 52.6 56.5

79.1 57.9 64.6

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education  51

Census:2001

52  Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali

According to the 2011 census of India, female literacy is very low as compared to men, which is 56.6% against all of India’s 64.6% of female literacy level. From the census report of 2001 where the urban SC female literacy rate is 57.5% of the overall population which is also lower than the SC male urban literacy, which is 77.9%. From the rural female literacy, 37.8% of SC women are lower than the overall population, which is 46.1%, and SC males 63.7%, which is higher than the female. And in the total literacy report in the 2001 census, SC women’s literacy is 41.9%, which is lower than the overall population of 53.7%, and the male literacy rate is 66.6%. In the census, the 2011 SC rural female literacy rate is 52.6%, which is lower than the overall population, which is 57.9% compared to the rural SC male literacy, which is 72.6%, higher than the female. In urban females, the SC literacy rate is 68.6%, which is lower than SC urban males at 83.8%, and from the overall SC, the female population is 79.1%; lastly, the total literacy rate of SC females is 56.5%, which is lower than the overall population 64.6% and also lower than the SC male literacy rate, which is 75.2%, more than the overall female literacy rate also. All the aforementioned data indicate that the SC female literacy rate is lower than the overall population. Further, the SC male population is also having a higher representation as compared to SC females. Thus, SC females are mostly backward in the sphere of education. Organizations Working for Promotion of Education among SEDGs Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) is an autonomous organization of the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports with offices in 500 districts of the country. It has become one of the grassroots youth organizations working for the development of SEDGs. It has established several youth clubs which work in the interior areas of rural Indian and promotes education, awareness, skill training, self-employment, vocational training, and entrepreneur development. Many SC youth get associated with NYKS and get motivated to become self-employed and start serving society in a substantial manner. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment deals with the social issues related to adolescents and also supports the education of adolescent girls from SEDGs such as SCs and STs. This gets operated through a scheme for providing scholarships and hostel facilities (Chatterjee 2006). Further, Odisha Adarsh Vidyalaya Sangathan was established in the year 2015 and was the brainchild of the Department of Schools and Mass Education, Government of Odisha. Honourable Chief Minister of Odisha Sri Naveen Pattnaik played a major role in establishing this movement so as to provide several educational facilities to the children belonging to SEDGs. Children from SC communities are getting English medium free education through this initiation in all rural interior areas of Odisha. Further, to add to these organizations, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University is a premium university, which stands distinctive in the field of

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education  53

providing educational facilities to the SC and ST students. It provides 50% reservation in admission, scholarship, and recruitment for the members of SEDGs. It also works to provide post-matric scholarships and fee reimbursement for SC, ST, General, OBC, and minorities associated with the institution.

Challenges in the Education of SCs In India, the education of female students has greater importance in the development of the country. This also plays a significant role in improving the standard of living in the country. When women are educated, it leads to an improvement in quality of life not only as an individual but also as a whole family. It further includes society as a whole under its benefits. It is found that girls are deprived of education due to several factors, and their gender inequality and their caste are the serious hurdles to the access of SC females to education. This situation is further worsened due to several other elements such as discriminatory sitting arrangements of female SC students, mental and sexual abuse, teachers’ discriminatory perceptions, stereotypes, and unavailability of proper toilet facilities for female SC students. Multiculturalism in education recognizes that every learner belongs to a culture, which produces a distinctive pattern of behaviour, lifestyle, identity, feeling, and thinking. It tries to create an equal environment for all kinds of cultures. These elements of culture are shared by many members of educational institutions in a balanced manner (Bennett 1990). However, in the case of Indian society, this fails to function in a positive manner. Diversities in Indian society rather regenerate and reproduce several challenges. The diversification of caste, class, gender, etc., adds to this problem. Thus, it is the beginning point for all kinds of social exclusion. SCs are also suffering from such kinds of social exclusions. Silently, it is marked that the cultural heterogeneity of Hindus upper caste, Buddhists, Sikhs, etc., plough the plot for cultural hegemony of these communities. This in return makes the confidence of SC students fragile and they fail to stand up to the minimum standards of performance in their respective classes. Thus, cultural heterogeneity’s adverse effect on education stands as a major challenge in front of SEDGs (Kumar 2011). The SC students in the sphere of education find themselves handicapped because of their challenging socio-economic and cultural situations. Generally, the cultural transmission of values, ideas, skills, and behaviour is marked to flow from the family background, but since the majority of the students are first-generation learners, therefore, it’s a challenge (Durkheim 1956). Thus, they are not historically derived from the tradition of learning, reading, and writing. When they get enrolled in schools, they do not get any support and do not have that atmosphere of home support to supplement any learning in schools. Therefore, major school drop-outs of SC students are marked (Ramachandran 2004). The social distances between non-SC

54  Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali

and SC are one of the major reasons for the high rate of drop-out and a lower rate of enrolment in the schools. The attitude of the distance between the two groups is significant, which has been perpetuated for a long time and still the practice between two groups or categories continues. Further, not only students are discriminated against on the basis of caste but also teachers are discriminated against by non-SC students and teachers. These discriminations also stand as a hurdle to accessing education for SC students (Rao 2014). SC are a group of people who are involved in their traditional work or caste-based occupation, which is taken from their future generation who are also involved in this work. So, they did not require any education or schooling as a basic prerequisite for their children. Therefore, they are majorly involved in semi- and unskilled work where education is meagrely required. Thus, lack of family and environmental support leads them to illiteracy, and education for SC children stands as a challenge. Further, when it comes to SC females, they face more difficulties because they are confined to household work, labour, and service and are not in a position to access education (Kumar 2014). Caste affiliations within SC communities are always attached to occupational continuities. It is generally marked that caste occupations, such as kumbhara, fisher communities, barbers, metal workers, sweepers, and wavers, prefer to get satisfaction with their own caste occupational continuities. Thus, this stands as a major challenge behind the accessibility of education and equality for the SC community people. For example, in a coastal village of Kendrapara District of Odisha, i.e., Keredagarh Village, it is marked that around 80% of village members are associated with fishing activities, as they belong to the Kaibarta caste in the Eastern part of Odisha (Tarai 2021).

Innovative Practices in the Education of SCs Education of SC can be encouraged and made further accessible through a few stages such as i.e., (a) social development, (b) SC youths and life skill education, and (c) curriculum and culture. Education of SC is dependent on ‘social development’, which is contingent upon the inclusion of all sections of society into the process of education. It aims at the upliftment of the weaker and underprivileged sections of society, along with improving their quality of life. Thus, social development is a normative and integrative upgrading of the social order leading to the enrichment of the socio-cultural life of people (Madhu 2007). The next part of the innovative imparting of education refers to the section of SC youth, as they are the flag bearers of social change and social development. Thus, education is the only means through which the differential gap between this inequality in society and the Constitution can be bridged. The ‘Dalit youth’ are to be the torchbearers of such a massive change. Nambissan (2006) mentions that these communities are largely

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education  55

portrayed as subservient communities which play an auxiliary role in the socio-political and cultural development of the society. Thus, it brings a feeling of discouragement and demotivation to the SC students. At the same time, the General caste students or learners germinate the feeling of superiority as compared to other sections of the classroom and curriculum. Thus, a sensitized common curriculum for learning is always a choice for addressing these issues and challenges.

Recommendations Some of the recommendations can be put forward for utilizing education to eliminate caste hierarchy and encouragement of SC education – for example, increase in enrolment of female SC students through campaigning and encouragement of outreach programmes. This would further encourage the inclusion of female SC students. Further, schools with specially designed curricula for adolescent SC girls must be introduced so as to bring awareness about the value of education in their lives. Further, full-time schools for children of remote and unserved habitation followed by incentives, textbooks, uniforms, mid-day meals, scholarships, and free residential schools, especially in SC areas must be provided to ensure sustained participation by addressing the ‘cost of schooling’. Further, seminars, discussions, and formal consultation in caste-affected areas must be encouraged. Further, there should be a call for the proposal of SC developmental programmes by the educationist. In addition to this, several long- and short-duration camps must be introduced to provide bridge courses to SC students. These courses should also include remedial lessons for the improvement of slow-performing SC students. Further, there should be vocational training and awareness regarding diversified employment opportunities for the Dalit youth. This would help the SC youths to be empowered and to access education to bring occupational diversities in their future. There should be frequent programmes made for the SC’s rights awareness and cultural strengthening needs to be promoted so as to address the issue of upper-caste cultural hegemony. Further, to eliminate caste hierarchies, several techniques of teacher-student exchange programmes and awareness of communities for a supportive role in the development of these communities are required both nationally and internationally (Ghosh 2004).

Conclusion Education is a way to enlighten and it is a way to know the world around us. Further, it gives the direction towards liberty and makes behavioural changes within an individual. It is a kind of wealth that cannot be stolen or abducted. On the other side, the caste system is a mental structure of people that shapes society in a polluted way. It segregates people based on the ascriptive elements of society; it shapes the lifestyle of people, occupations,

56  Sipra Sagarika and Sonu Kahali

relations, individual status, social acceptance, and so on. However, both are very different from each other, when education gives a scientific outlook for modern living based on equality and liberty, caste is an orthodox and complex structure that believes in segregation, division, and inequality. When both of these aspects come into the same place, they need to be studied carefully for the all-around development of society (Ramachandran 2004). Further, other categories of the SEDGs also need to be properly analyzed so as to capture the challenges faced by these groups for further development. However, caste shapes the individual, society, and its institutions. Therefore, education as an institution is also shaped by caste’s functioning. Thus, to pacify such influences, the government has undertaken several welfare measures to safeguard and encourage the SC population. However, despite all measures that the government provides for the SC, there still exists a sense of inferiority and superiority, respectively, among SC students and General students in accessing education. The number of crimes against SC is high, and the rate of literacy among SC adults and children is also low. According to the UNICEF report, caste-based discrimination directly affects the drop-out rate of children. Around 51% of drop-outs among the SC are occurring because of caste-based discrimination in elementary education. Thus, the caste system still exists and creates differential people’s perceptions of SC. Therefore, the community members of SEDGs, i.e., SC, need to be more aware of their rights and achieve new heights in society through availing of higher education.

References Aggarwal, Y. (2000). An Assessment of Trends in Access and Retention. New Delhi: National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA). Bennett, C. (1990). Comprehensive Multicultural Education: Theory and Practice. New York: Allyn and Bacon Publications. Chatterjee, B. (2006). Education for All: The Indian Saga. New Delhi: Lotus Press. Ghosh, A. (2004). Alternative Schools and Education Guarantee Scheme, in Gender and Social Equity in Primary Education: Hierarchies of Access, (ed). V. Ramachandran (pp. 120–42). New Delhi: Sage Publication. Gore, M.S. (1990). Vitthal Ramji Shinde: An Assessment of His Contribution. Bombay: Tata Institute of Social Sciences. Keer, D. (1962). Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission, rev. ed. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Kshirsagar, R. (1992). Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders. New Delhi: M.D. Publications. Kumar, N. (2011). Constitutional Law of India. Allahabad Law Agency, Allahabad. Kumar, V. (2014). Caste and Democracy in India: A Perspective from Below. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. Madhu, S.P. (2007). Uneven Distribution of Education in Maharashtra: RuralUrban, Gender and Caste Inequalities, Economic and Political Weekly, 42(3), 213–16.

Marginalization of Scheduled Caste in Education  57 Nambissan, G. B. (2006). Terms of Inclusion: Dalits and Right to Education in The Crisis of Elementary Education in India, (ed). R. Kumar (pp. 225–65). New Delhi: Sage Publication. Ramachandran, V. (ed). (2003). Getting Children Back to School: Case Studies in Primary Education. New Delhi: Sage Publication. Ramachandran, V. (ed). (2004). Gender and Social Equity in Primary Education: Hierarchies of Access. New Delhi: Sage Publication. Rao, P. V. (2014). New Perspectives in the History of Indian Education. Telangana: Orient Blackswan Publications. Sagarika, S. (2022). Dalit Dynamics in India: Reflections on Pre- and Post-Colonial Era in Sociology of Marginalized Communities, (eds). N. Saini and S. Singh (pp. 56–69). New Delhi: New Era Publications. Sagarika, S. and Kahali, S. (2021). Education and Caste Based Discrimination: A Sociological Understanding in Social Issues and Problems, National Journal on Social Issues & Problems, 10(2), 4–7. Tarai, S. (2021). Livelihood Pattern of Fishing Community: A Sociological Study of Keredagad Village in Kendrapara District. M.Phil. Dissertation of Fakir Mohan University, Balasore. Zelliot, E. (2001). Experiment in Dalit Education, Maharashtra 1850–1947 in Education and the Disprivileged: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (eds). S. Bhattacharyya and O. Longman (pp. 35–49). Telangana: Orient Blackswan Publications.

Chapter 4

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education Saroj Kumar Dhal

Introduction India is home to a diverse variety of indigenous peoples, including the tribes or ‘Adivasis.’ India’s tribal community has a long and colourful history. There are over 500 distinct tribes in India, accounting for around 8.6% of the population (Census, 2011). Bodo, Gond, Hmar, Oran, Gaddi, Khasis, Dimasa, Banjara, Koya, Chenchu, and Bhil are the most numerous. The tribals adhere to religious beliefs and social norms that differ significantly from those of mainstream Indians. Even while some tribes have caste groupings based on arts and skills, caste-based discrimination is rare. In fact, a lot of the societal ills connected to the caste system don’t exist among tribes. All tribal religions are based on animistic principles. The earth is inhabited by spirits, and some things, like specific trees or peculiarly shaped rocks, have special significance. Most often, the land belonged to the bloodline, although the owner might provide access to others, according to tribal custom. There were no official records proving ownership. Indian tribes are challenging to categorize in terms of race, religion, ethnicity, or language alone. One approach to categorize tribes is by their traditional works or principal source of sustenance. The Gonds, Santhals, Khasis, Kharia, Lodhas, Bhils, Bhutias, and Birhors are among India’s largest tribal communities. These tribes have different cultures, customs, languages, and lifestyles, as well as differing levels of social and economic development. Hunters, fishermen, and gatherers: The original inhabitants of the Andaman Islands were almost entirely dependent on hunting, fighting, and gathering. Shifting cultivators: Numerous tribes used slash-and-burn agriculture in the mountainous regions of the north-east, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha. In Assam and other north-eastern regions, the practice is known as jhum and Podu and Penda, respectively, in Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. Farmers and artisans: Numerous tribes in north India engage in similar occupations to their counterparts in the plains. Nomadic Groups: They are typically composed of nomads who live off of hunting in the forests and artists who stay in a hamlet for a short time before moving on to another location. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-7

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  59

In many parts of India, tribes were exploited by the plain’s people, especially during colonial rule. The forest contractors, traders, middlemen, revenue officials, police personnel, etc., entered the tribal territories on a large scale and often indulged in extortion, harassment, or sexual exploitation of tribal women. Christian missionaries spread some education and awareness among the south-central and north-eastern tribes by the end of the 19th century. The British government passed a few laws to protect them from harassment by outsiders. In free India, the Constitution has granted a special status to them like Scheduled Castes (SCs). Adivasis all over India suffer from economic deprivation, social discrimination, illiteracy, exploitation, and rampant alcoholism. There is a graphic description of the plight of Gadchiroli women in the backward tribal districts of Madhya Pradesh. The study points out that 92% of women in the region had no access to treatment for reproductive health problems (Bang et al., 2011). The problems of money lending, bondage, payment of low wages, landlessness, low literacy rate, non-functioning of primary schools over and above lack of political will, and local leadership are the main factors attributed to such a socio-economic scenario of the tribal of the region. Food scarcity has been considered to be an additional factor in the underdevelopment of the tribal area. Low land, which is considered to be the prime land of this area, belongs to the non-tribal landlords, mostly from mainland regions, who settled there and took advantage of the backwardness, simplicity, and the aforementioned socio-economic conditions of various indigenous communities. Most of the tribal-populated areas lack basic infrastructural facilities like roads, transportation, communication, electricity, and medical facilities (Sahoo and Das, 2006).

Policies and Programmes As prevailing school curricula are systematically forced on schools for tribal communities, the delicate language of the professed tribal policy of “integration” with permitting the tribals in the direction of “grow according to their own genius” is completely lost. There are essentially no such schools for tribes where instruction is provided in tribal languages, and that is in stark contrast to the proclaimed national policy that encourages children to study in their mother tongue at the elementary level (Mukherjee, 1944). Nevertheless, indigenous tribes still strongly feel the need for education despite all of these obstacles. Education and health have seen the most noticeable change in tribal goals; this is surprising since many of these tribes live far from the nearest urban centre and in remote tribal hinterlands. Part of the appeal is being able to work, particularly in government. The main driving force, nevertheless, is to learn how to navigate the complicated, predatory outside world. Meeting these goals while preventing tribal communities from losing touch with the roots that support them remains a problem.

60  Saroj Kumar Dhal

Social justice in tribal society is expected to contribute to social stability and cordial relationships. The states of ‘Jharkhand’, ‘Odisha’, and ‘Madhya Pradesh’ which have significant populations of Scheduled Tribes (STs) have established the Ministry of Tribal Welfare as per article 164 of the Indian Constitution. The welfare of the STs in each state is the responsibility of these ministries. According to Article 244, the Constitution’s Fifth Schedule contains measures for the administrative control of areas designated for ST in the states having sizeable tribal populations (Assam being an exception). Tribes’ Advisory Councils have already been established in the tribalpopulated states of ‘Andhra Pradesh’, ‘Bihar’, ‘Madhya Pradesh’, ‘Odisha’, ‘Punjab’, ‘Rajasthan’, and ‘West Bengal’ in accordance with the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution, which calls for their establishment in each state with Scheduled Areas. These Councils have the duty of providing the government with an opinion on issues pertaining to the well-being of STs, along with the progress of Scheduled Areas. In order to provide a recommendation to the state governments, consultative bodies in the interest of  STs have been established within ‘Assam’, ‘Kerela’, and ‘Mysore’. Additionally, Tribal Advisory Committees are now active in ‘Tripura’, ‘Himachal Pradesh’, ‘Manipur’, and ‘Andaman and Nicobar Islands’. According to Article 275, the Union government can release special grants to state governments in order to advance the welfare of STs and improve their administrative capabilities. Seats in the Lok Sabha and Vidhan-Sabhas of the states have been allocated for STs under Articles 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution of India. A commissioner is designated by the Indian president honouring Article 338 of the Indian Constitution. The commissioner’s primary responsibility is to look into any cases concerning the safeguarding of rights and protections enshrined in the Constitution for STs and to report to the president on the effectiveness of such protections. Article 164(i) of the Constitution of India provides a department of welfare in the Indian Union’s state government. Welfare departments have been formed in ‘Bihar’, ‘Jharkhand’, ‘Madhya Pradesh’, and ‘Odisha’, each under the leadership of a Minister. Welfare departments have also been formed in ‘Andhra Pradesh’, ‘Assam’, ‘Kerala’, ‘Tamil Nadu’, ‘Karnataka’, ‘Punjab’, ‘Rajasthan’, ‘Uttar Pradesh’, ‘West Bengal’, ‘Himachal Pradesh’, ‘Manipur’, and ‘Tripura’. Improving financial conditions through increasing production targets in agriculture, dairy, animal husbandry, cottage, forestry, informal small-scale businesses, and so on. Rehabilitating bonded labourers, education and training programmes, and several development programmes focused on women and children are the principal aims of the Five-Year Plan programmes for the welfare of STs. As soon as the nation began planning for its development in 1951, STs were given priority. According to the “First Five-Year Plan (1951–56)”, “the general development programs should be such that they cater properly to the Backward Classes and specific measures should be utilized for achieving greater and more intense development”.

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  61

“The Second Five-Year Plan (1956–61)” anticipated that the intention of financial growth would result in more benefits. Welfare programmes for the STs must respect and comprehend their culture and traditions, as well as recognize the social, psychological, and economic challenges they encounter. The Five Principles of Tribal Development, or “PANCHSHEEL”, were in line with this. The establishment of 43 “Special Multi-purpose Tribal Blocks (SMPTBs)”, afterward referred to as Tribal Development Blocks was a significant event during the Second Plan. “The Third Five-year Plan (1961–66)” promoted the idea of establishing more equality of opportunity, reducing earnings and assets inequalities, and achieving further equitable allocation of financial authority. According to the “Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969–74)”, the “principal objective was to attain rapid development in the people’s standard of life through means which also promote equality and social justice”. The establishment of six pilot projects as part of the Central Sector Scheme in the states of ‘Andhra Pradesh’, ‘Bihar’, ‘Madhya Pradesh’, and ‘Odisha’ from 1971–72 was a significant milestone. Each project was assigned to a different Tribal Development Agency. The formation of the Tribal Sub-plan (TSP) to directly advance tribal development during the “Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974–78)” signalled a change in strategy. A TSP was implemented as part of the Fifth Plan. In order to make sure that at least 50% of tribal households received aid to escape poverty, a higher level of financial devolution was expected to be realized under the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–85). The focus was on family-based employment activities. For areas where tribes were concentrated, the “Modified Area Development Approach” (MADA) was developed, and 245 MADA pockets were identified. The drift of funding for the improvement of STs was significantly increased in the Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985–90), which resulted in the growth of infrastructure amenities with a rise in coverage. The development of STs’ educational systems was emphasized. There were two national institutions established for the monetary progress of STs, as well as SCs – namely, (i) Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation as a top organization for State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations and (ii) National Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation. “The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992–97)” strengthened attempts to close the development gap amongst the STs. In addition to prioritizing the abolition of exploitation, the plan also focused on the unique matters of rights repression, property hostility, failure to pay minimum wages, and limitations on the ability to gather small amounts of forest produce, among other things. The socio-economic advancement of STs continued to get primary attention. “The Ninth Five-Year Plan’s” primary goal was to step up attempts to build bridges between STs and the general population. Employment prospects mainly depend on the level of edification, and the level of literacy is one of the important pointers to socio-economic growth. For this reason, infrastructure facilities need to be strengthened, including school buildings,

62  Saroj Kumar Dhal

supplementary classrooms, lab buildings, lab equipment, computers, fixtures, play equipment, upgrades to all levels of schools, the opening of residential schools, and the construction of vocational instruction amenities. The “Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–07)” identifies the exploitation and dissolution of tribal communities as its top priority, and as a result, the majority of enduring issues, including ‘poverty’, ‘debt’, ‘property alienation’, ‘dislocation’, ‘degradation of afforest rural community/as well as the tribes residing therein’, ‘modification in cultivation’, etc., are also prioritized. The greatest way to address this issue is to essentially end the exploitation and suffering of tribes. When it comes to the total empowerment of the indigenous people, the “Eleventh Plan” has undergone a paradigm shift, maintaining the problems with governance at its core. While making this transformation, it is crucial to keep in mind the operational requirements of the “Fifth Schedule”, “Tribal Sub Plan 1976”, “Panchayat ESA 1996”, and “RFRA 2006”, along with the need to consciously move away from reliance on an official delivery system that is generally ineffective.

Current Status of Education of STs STs are economically disadvantaged and socially and geographically isolated, as is well-known. However, education may help these people overcome their marginalization and isolation, thus this is an important demand. Unfortunately, their level of education and literacy provide their biggest obstacles. They are unable to search for any social services because of the extremely low literacy rates. The tribal population’s overall literacy rate in India is 30% or a little over half the national average. It is understandable why indigenous members are underrepresented in the services despite having a 7.5% reservation. Sincere and coordinated efforts were undertaken in the post-Independence era to advance tribal economies and educational systems. Despite these efforts, tribes score significantly worse in literacy than SCs (Table 4.1). Studies on tribal education indicate that policymakers gave culturally connected education little thought in their approaches. Drop-outs have resulted from this, which has negatively damaged their general educational position (Bosu Babu and Brahmanandam, 2016).

Table 4.1  L iteracy Rates of Schedule Tribes vs General Population (in Percent) in India Category

(1971)

(1981)

(1991)

(2001)

(2011)

Total Population STs Gap

29.45 11.30 18.15

36.23 16.35 19.88

52.21 29.60 22.61

65.38 47.1 18.28

74.04 59.0 15.04

(Census of India 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2011).

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  63

Even though the majority of officially financed programmes for tribal development are focused on one area of education, the literacy gap between tribal men and women is widening. On the grounds that the academic requirements of the indigenous population are quite different from those of the general population, the education of the tribes is directly overseen by the ‘department of tribal welfare’ and also kept distinct by the ‘department of education’ in states like ‘Madhya Pradesh’. Because tribal people typically live in very tiny, dispersed communities in challenging and inaccessible places, the approach of separate tribal hostels and residential schools makes perfect sense. As a result, it would be logistically impossible to serve each of these villages with day schools. Although quality and basic amenities continue to be challenging, the solution offered is banking on the establishment of residential schools for tribal’s with dormitories, including in the profound recess of forests. Even if there is evidence that some families divert some of the money for non-educational uses, the sums granted as stipends and scholarships to tribal learners allowed funds-constrained families of the tribes in engaging education. According to a recent assessment of the program by the Ministry, certain State governments’ performance in offering corresponding grants, maintaining assistance, also managing hostels are not supportive. Additionally, the speed of hostel construction was extremely laggard, and the essential facilities offered there be of poor quality. When the “Ashram School program” was examined, it became clear that several of the institutions lacked even the most basic amenities and were poorly maintained. Additionally, the hostels do not have elementary school students’ own sections, which is a need. Hostels for the tribes and residential schools in isolated areas are famously undermanaged, with poor building maintenance, leaks, and backlogs in student fees and purchase orders. When they do educate, teachers are frequently uninspired and even show bias against pupils from tribal groups. The education system in indigenous schools has been the area that has failed the most. As mainstream school curricula are implemented, the delicate language of proclaimed tribal policy of “integration” and allowing the diverse tribal groups to “grow according to their own genius” is completely disregarded. There are essentially no schools for tribes where instruction is provided in the tribes and in their languages and dialects, which is counter to the proclaimed national policy that encourages children to study in their mother tongue at the elementary level. There are almost no tribal schools that give teaching in tribal languages, which contrasts with the declared national policy that encourages children to study in their mother tongue at the basic level. The cultural prejudice in school curricula, which frequently have urban, upper-caste Hindu material, is much more problematic. Studies have also

64  Saroj Kumar Dhal

shown communal and patriarchal patterns. Even the devoted ‘Ramakrishna Mission schools’ in the far-flung areas of ‘Bastar’ and ‘Arunachal Pradesh’, which have been dynamically supported by the government of India, offer high-quality education, but it is of a kind that is exclusively and unapologetically ‘Sankritized Hindu’ in terms of its safeguarding culture, ethics, and values. The goal of the ‘Christian missionary schools’ in tribal areas around the nation has been absorption, although within a distinct cultural ethos (Mukherjee, 1944). Even after 75 years of independence, indigenous women remain the most disadvantaged group, despite the fact that literacy is a very basic measure of educational growth. As a result, even a sizeable portion of tribal women lack formal education. However, both educated and illiterate tribal women contribute to the advancement of education by sending their kids to school and colleges, receiving education at various levels, and teaching other members of the community. As a result, their contribution gained importance.

Challenges in the Education of STs To impart education to the tribes and to make successful the different programmes for the development of education, which are, running out by the government, there are so many impediments, which stand in the way such as, first and foremost, the factor of extreme poverty operates as a check on educational development in tribes. Due to this, they prefer to send their children to earn some wages rather than send them to school. Therefore, there is a positive correlation between poverty and illiteracy. Girls in tribal households assist their moms with household chores in various ways. They help their parents in the field during the agricultural season. Even indigenous moms want to educate their daughters, but other family members are not as interested. They believe that if girls have an education, they would just be indolent and trendy while they are required to work hard at their fatherin-law’s home. The great distances the indigenous children must go without access to transportation deters them from attending school. The language barrier is the main hurdle. As a result, the tribal student is alienated from the school by the teacher-student communication gap. The tribal students are not attracted to the curriculum, as it is not life-oriented. Therefore, they have no interest in getting a formal education. After getting an education, today only a part of the educated tribes gets good employment and the rest are unemployed or under-employed. Therefore, the unavailability of employment restricts other tribal persons from educating other members of their society. No guarantee of service after education generates a disinterest in education among tribes. Lack of awareness, skills, vocational training, motivation towards education, and new techniques limits the achievements of tribal women.

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  65

Innovative Practices in the Education of STs The social and economic standing of disadvantaged populations in society can be improved via education. For underdeveloped communities like SCs and STs, it is really necessary. The government has to take significant action to raise its educational position, according to the debate in the article. Only 88.46% of STs homes in a 1 km radius are covered by elementary schools, even after the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan was put into place. There has been a fall in the ratio of school drop-outs and unenrolled students among the tribes, but more progress has to be made through developing curricula in their native tongue. There may be lunchtime meals, nighttime classes, adult education facilities, etc. Additionally, certain tribe members must be appointed by the government as instructors in areas where possible. This will bolster their self-esteem and inspire them to enrol in school and continue their studies. Along with this, additional Ashram schools ought to be established in their localities, and government regulations ought to be loosened to allow for the enrolment of an increasing number of kids in the educational system. If indigenous members don’t show up, prestigious institutes like the Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Institute of Management (IIMs) are supposed to contact them. Even if they joined, there shouldn’t be any discriminatory treatment at these institutions. The sector-wise strategies and their execution for the welfare of the tribal children must be prioritized in light of all these circumstances. Another obstacle in accomplishing that goal of education in tribal communities is the lack of appropriate schools and qualified instructors to carry out the objectives of the Right to Education Act, 2009. Notable attention must be given to the training of the teachers so that a greater number of competent instructors may enter the educational system in order to overcome the existing shortage of competent teachers in tribal regions. Most educational initiatives/missions don’t truly help people improve themselves and haven’t had much of an influence. This scenario is primarily the result of the state’s educational system. To mobilize tribal people for basic education and skill development, the state education department needs to be held properly accountable. It is important to highlight that skill development is quite important in addition to elementary education. Self-Help Groups (SHGs) based on the microcredit scheme are rather common. several indigenous members participate in it and have first-hand knowledge of selfdetermination. Since dance and music are vital components of their everyday cultural life, including local customs and traditions, with history, the programme of study helps boost the assurance of tribal children. This strategy might also support increasing their enrolment and retention in school. Therefore, it is important to encourage storytelling, theatre, art, music, and dance performances in schools. Similar to this, activities like football, archery, and other well-liked regional sports are excellent treatments for

66  Saroj Kumar Dhal

drop-outs and have to be pushed. Indigenous knowledge is greatly enriched by tribal literature and ethnology. It ought to be researched, encouraged, and documented. There needs to be a sufficient quantity of academic learning centres and cultural research in tribal areas for improving our understanding of tribal traditions and promoting them. Educating tribal and non-tribal learners about tribal history and culture is an essential step. The lack of instructors in indigenous regions will be indirectly addressed. To improve tribal schools, include more students, and reduce drop-out rates, institutions of ‘Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDAs)’, ‘Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs)’, and micro-projects should provide help (‘Ministry of Tribal Welfare, High Powered Committee, Government of India Report 2014’). It is necessary to establish residential schools expressly for nomadic tribes. The fundamental standards must be: (a) The schools ought to be located in areas where the climatic condition is not irregular. (b) The security of the students must be a priority, and caretakers for the girl students must be female wardens. (c) The parents or caretakers must be knowledgeable and engaged in the development and implementation of their wards’ curricula and activities. (d) The tribals affairs officers must be proactive in their duties and proactive in approaching and assisting every family regarding their children’s schooling. (e) The students studying in far-off schools should be encouraged to spend their holidays back with their parents and communities and learn more about their culture. (f) The children should be allowed to go to their local social events with their parents and be able to experience the socio-cultural events and understand their significance in people’s lives on their own. In tribal communities, there is a glaring lack of quality education. Closer to their homes, governments should create comprehensive residential educational facilities like Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya up to the 12th level (within a radius of ten kilometres). To improve the impoverished children, these institutions must offer a complete, high-quality education that includes healthcare and prepare them for competitive tests. This will eventually result in significant and desirable improvements. Along with this, various organizations/non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are working for tribal education in India like ‘Miranda Education and Welfare Society’ (Madhya Pradesh), ‘Nilgiris Wayanad Tribal Welfare Society’ (Tamil Nadu), ‘Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences’ (Odisha), ‘Parivaar Education Society’ (Madhya Pradesh), and ‘Rajasthan Bal Kalyaan Samiti’ (Rajasthan).

Recommendations Hence there is a need to change the way of thinking of tribes to motivate them toward education and it can be done by following these suggestions When all educated tribal persons make their hearty efforts to motivate the people of their society towards education, as it is a necessary condition for the development of their society. Capable persons should be recruited from

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  67

both the urban as well as tribal areas, they should be posted in tribal areas, and it should be made compulsory for such persons to live in non-tribal areas for a certain long period to provide their service regularly. Priority should be given to young persons, and the salary of such persons should be very attractive so that they can refuse it. Those tribal persons who participate in the development of their area, in the economic upliftment of women in their society, and in encouraging female education in them should be honoured. Special attention should be given and measures have to be taken to increase women’s literacy among tribes.

Conclusion The policy of the Indian government towards tribal development could be described as ‘lop-sided’. Deforestation in the tribal belts has resulted in a shortage of fuel, fodder, food, and foliage, which form the very vitals of the tribal economy (Awais et al., 2009). For the development of the indigenous population, there are several unique programmes. Integrated Tribal Development Projects, plans for prehistoric tribal groups, Ashram schools, dormitories, career training, Tribal Cooperative Marketing Federation, village grain banks, and scholarships for higher education are some of them. However, the integration of the indigenous people into society would remain a distant dream without economic independence and education. “The legislators protecting tribal rights in India are equally ambiguous and have many loopholes in them. While the states prohibit the purchase of indigenous land by non-tribal outsiders, there is no legislation in place prohibiting the acquisition of tribal lands by the state in the public interest” (Kurup, 2008). In recent years, the interaction between the government and voluntary organizations has increased greatly. The government as well as other funding organizations have been collaborating with the NGOs in planning and implementing the development projects and programmes. However, in some places, this relationship has come under stress. Their goal is frequently to revolutionize society and help millions of poor people. These groups aim to act as pressure groups and development catalysts in order to closely examine the state’s political system (Dhal, 2021). This effort attempts to explore how NGOs act as catalysts for new social movements, mobilizing people and elevating their consciousness to conduct demonstrations against systemic consequences, the state’s hegemonic power exercise, and discriminatory practices of decision-making state/corporate authorities. This also tries to focus especially on tribal issues and how the NGOs are successfully given a lot of space for their development and empowerment. It is interesting to understand how anthropologists locate the problems and sociologists theorize the problems, politicians politicize the issues, the bureaucrats are making files of those problems, and of course, to some extent, civil societies and NGOs are taking a vital role in solving

68  Saroj Kumar Dhal

their problems. But the process of development and empowerment of tribal communities is yet to be realized. Social justice for them is really a matter of concern and introspection that needs to be pondered over by all active agencies of our society. Our period is marked by the state’s contraction or collapse. The state is deteriorating, and civil society institutions are receiving more and more attention. Although civil society has a broad scope, in this context, it is limited to nonprofit organizations and institutions that are free associations of individuals with the mission of leading socio-economic change, especially for the members of marginalized groups like STs. They don’t have a political or profit-making agenda. In the last ten years, the scope and depth of civil society’s involvement as change agents to address a variety of social and economic problems caused by market or government failures has increased. The emergence of civil society held out hope for a remedy to tribal people’s persistent issues. On tribal territory, many types of dams, mines, factories, and highways were imposed by post-independence planned development needs. As indigenous institutes and exercises were mandatory to coexist uncomfortably with or make way for the modern ‘free market’ or ‘formalized state institutions’, they also brought with them the concomitant processes of displacement, in both terms, literally and metaphorically. As a result of the inflow of better-equipped outsiders into tribal regions, tribal people realized themselves at a significant disadvantage. The consequences were devastating for the tribes’ already poor socio-economic livelihood base, including loss of livelihood, massive land alienation, and hereditary enslavement. The small number of bureaucratic programmes in India have done nothing whatsoever to halt the fast pauperization, exploitation, and break-up of tribal communities, while tribal people grapple nervously, and sometimes helplessly, with the catastrophic consequences. Tribal people may react by aggression and contention, but they too frequently do so with anomie and sorrow. But despite its socio-economic components, the issue is also dismissed as a standard “law and order” issue (Gupta et al., 1998).

References Awais, Mohammad, Tosb, A., and Mohd, A. (2009). Socio-Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women: An Indian Perspective. International Journal of Rural Studies, 16(1), 1–16. Bang, Rani, Sunanda, K., and Rupa, C. (2011). Putting Women First: Women and Health in a Rural Community. Kolkata: Stree-Samya Publications. Brahmanandam, T. and Babu, T. Bosu (2016). Educational Status among the Scheduled Tribes: Issues and Challenges. The NEHU Journal, 14(2), 69–85. Census of India. (2011). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. https://censusindia.gov.in/ Dhal, S. K. (2021). Understanding Civil Society and NGO: A Critical Analysis in Indian Context. Society and Culture Development in India, 1(1), 81–96.

Mainstreaming Scheduled Tribes through Education  69 Gupta, S. K., Sharma, V. P., and Sharda, N. K. (Ed). (1998). Tribal Development: Appraisal and Alternatives. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company. Kurup, A. (2008). Tribal Law in India: How Decentralized Administration Is Extinguishing Tribal Rights and Why Autonomous Tribal Governments are Better? Indigenous Law Journal, 7(1), pp. 89–126. Mukherjee, K. K. (1944). Societal Changes and Voluntary Organizations. Gandhi Marg, 15, 389–414. Sahoo, P. K. and Das, B. C. (2006). ‘Primary Education in the Tribal Belt of Odisha’ in Govinda Rath (ed.) Tribal Development in India: The Contemporary Debate (pp. 258–278). New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Chapter 5

Removing Backwardness through Education Vishi Mahrshi

Introduction Historically, the name backward was coined in Southern India. The name originated in Mysore Province in 1895. Mysore County started a booking program in 1874. The provision of reservation was made by the Government of India (GoI) in 1909, after which in 1918, Madras Presidency started the facility of reservation for certain castes. Madras Presidency in 1921, made Brahmins 16%, non-Brahmins 44%, Muslims 16%, 16% for Anglo Christians, and 8% for Scheduled Caste (SC) Reservation given based on caste. In 1922, the Mysore State made a provision for reservation for the deprived classes. In 1931, the Mumbai Presidency was also implemented. In 1937, Travancore began to recognize post-social and economic classes, which is why it emerged as such a movement in South India. The government of Bombay in 1928, under the leadership of Mr. O.H.B., set up a committee to look after Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and recommended a special provision for their development. The committee in its report divided the retreating classes into three categories– namely, oppressed classes’, ‘indigenous peoples and mountain tribes’, and ‘other retrospective classes’. It also suggested that special benefits be provided to members of the aforementioned classes of backgrounds in education and employment in public service (Govt. of India, 1980). In 1919, the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were introduced as the first attempt throughout India on the welfare of the ‘oppressed classes’, in which the people of these classes were given separate representations in many public functions. Organized Nations, Organized Classes, and Other Back Classes are listed as the term ‘oppressed classes’ as the official language. The term ‘oppressed classes’ was coined as ‘external classes’, which included only the ‘unaffected classes’ during the Census of India 1931. Aboriginal and Hill Tribes were listed under ‘Primitive Tribes’. “Under the Government of India Act 1935”, a separate list of SCs was prepared in the different shire, and in 1936, the SCs substituted the Depressed Classes. Similarly, the ‘First Nations’ were replaced by the ‘Back Nations’ and the provinces were informed which had the most representation of these nations. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-8

Removing Backwardness through Education  71

A few important backward class movements in India were Satya Sho­ dhak Samaj, Shri Narayana Dharma humiliation. In the Indian National Movement, Dr B.R. Ambedkar took up the mantle of fighting for the cause of the 20th century’s depressed castes. His efforts come to a climax in the form of validation of the reservation system for socially needy sections in the Constitution of India (Manjunatha and Narasimhamurthy, 2019). Before independence, in the former princely state of Masur, there were movements for non-Brahmins for the provisions of backward classes (Dushkin, 1979). After Independence, many states of India made provisions for backward classes, and in 1953, under the chairmanship of Kaka Kalelkar, and in 1979, the Mandal Commission was constituted which used three indicators, social, economic, and educational to determine Primitive Tribes. After this, on the report of the suggestions of the Mandal Commission, Prime Minister V. P. Singh announced a reservation for OBCs in 1989. The government has provided 27% reservations for OBCs in higher education and employment in the public sector. OBCs accredited by the federal government are divided into a creamy layer and a non-creamy. The creamy layer refers to the annual limit of 8 Lakh in 2017. When implemented in 1993, the creamy layer was 1 Lakh and then increased in 2004 to 2.5 Lakh, in 2008 to 4.5 Lakh, and again in 2008, it was increased to 6 Lakh (Dubey, 2022).

Acts and Policies Constitutional Provisions – “Clause (4) of Section 15 of the Constitution of India” allows the State exclusive arrangements for the development of “any categories of citizens who are socially and academically disadvantaged” including admission to educational institutions. Section 16 (4) allows the State to make booking provisions for the nomination of “any class of citizens who are still retiring”. Section 340 of the Indian Constitution imparts “that the President may appoint a Commission to investigate the social and educational disadvantages of the sections”. “Clause (1) of Article 38 of the Constitution” obliges the state to “strive to promote the welfare of the people by defending and defending it as effectively as possible in the order of social order, in which justice, social, economic and political, inform all health institutions”. The reason (10) of Article 338 states that for the aim of that article, the reference to SC “shall be construed as including a reference to other backward classes as the President may, upon receipt of the Commission report appointed under subsection (1) of Article 340 by order specify and also to the Anglo-Indian community”. In January 2006, paragraph 15 of the Constitution was amended [None of this article or subsection (g) of subsection (1) of section 19 shall prohibit the State from making any specific rules, legally, for development of any categories of citizens who are being delayed in terms of social and

72  Vishi Mahrshi

educational status or Organized Nations or Organized Nations until special arrangements related to their admission to educational institutions including private educational institutions, whether or not aided by the State, other than small educational institutions. referred to in subsection (1) of article 30] and the higher education institutions (Booking Admission) Act was enacted in January 2007, under which the inventory of Other Backward Casts is essential for admission to higher education institutions as well. Under the Act, OBC students are privileged to 27% reservation at central education institutions. The Constitution of India says nothing about the meaning of the retrospective clause, what is written in the Constitution is related to its specialty. It is being distributed over various articles of the Constitution. Section 15 (4) deals with the social and educational decline due to social and educational backlogs. Section 16 (4) deals with their adequate representation in the services of the backlogs. Section 23 deals with compulsory labor. Section 46 deals with weak sections of the population. Along with such indications of recession, the Constitution was also drafted, and there are special provisions and legal provisions for its promotion. Certain provisions are enshrined in the Constitution under Section 46, which states that the state will increase the academic and fiscal development of the disadvantaged classes with special care. The Classes Commission was established, chaired by Kaka Kalelkar, and later on 30 March 1955, 2,399 retreating classes across the country were introduced to the public. The 837 groups were categorized as the most lagging behind in the list. The commission failed to achieve its goal, as the previous view was that retrospective testing should be based on class-based community intelligence, but the government did not approve it, as it could be a major obstacle to community development, and a caste-based program could promote social inequality. If class distinctions are made higher than all the people of a certain class, they may not be lagging academically and economically, yet they may be more educated and financially stable, yet they will still be part of the lower class. These situations can vary from region to region, a person of one category doesn’t need to be behind another region but not another. Therefore, in the absence of formal separation, each state was empowered under Articles 15 and 16 to record all the retrospective divisions within their respective territories. This led to many problems regarding this: Balaji to define backwardness, caste cannot be an important factor. It should be determined based on one’s economic status, “P. Rajendran vs. State of Madras (AIR 1968 SC 1012)”. The Court has authorized an assortment into categories. As social and educational decline relies on their parenting work, the Court denied the class-based division as it was widely used to determine retrospectives. “The Second Backward Class Commission was appointed by the President in 1979”. In the “K. S. Jayasree v. State of Kerala (AIR 1976 SC 2381)” case, the judgement was “poverty or the situation of the economy should be used as a key to defining the

Removing Backwardness through Education  73

backwardness”. “The Second Backward Class Commission was appointed by the President in 1979”. The chairperson of the commission is “B. P. Mandal”. The commission had the following objectives: (1) Find a standard for defining post-academic and social classes. (2) Suggest actions to improve post-social and educational classes. (3) Suggest whether there should be a booking for vacancies in the central and provincial governments for the benefit of retrospective categories. The Mandal Commission, created beneath Section 340, presented its report in 1980. According to this report, the GoI, through office memorandum dated 13 August 1990 of the Department of Labor and Training, provide a directive giving 27% reservations for inter-governmental and postgraduate classes in social and economic classes, also called “Other Backward Classes” or OBCs. In 1993, the “Parliament passed the National Commission for Backward Classes Act” and formed the “NCBC”. To protect the benefits of the underprivileged much more efficiently, the 123rd Constitutional Amendment Bill was introduced in the Parliament in the year 2017, and in August 2018, this bill got the assent of the president, and thus the constitutional status was given to NCBC. It works for the societal and fiscal sustainability of the societal and academic backward classes, advises them, and evaluates the advancement of their growth under the union and any state, NCBC looks into and monitors all matters relating to the evaluation of the implementation of protection measures provided to “socially and educationally backward classes under the Constitution or any other law”. This commission submits its annual report to the president on the work done on security measures, and whenever it thinks fit, the commission can submit its report to the president. This report is presented by the president to each House of Parliament. The NCBC also discharges the related functions of protection, welfare, “development and advancement of socially and educationally backward classes” as specifically specified by the president, subject to the provisions of a law made by the Parliament. Thus, NCBC is empowered to inquire into grievance and welfare measures regarding “socially and educationally backward classes” (Govt. of India, n.d.). An “amendment bill” was passed in the Indian Parliament in the year 2008 to give reservations at the time of admission in central educational institutions, in which the implementation of the Act 2006 was recommended, and it was said that reservation in admission in central educational institutions should be implemented from 2008 (Basant and Sen, 2016). Twenty percent reservation was also said in the Act, and it was also said that in the higher education institutions of the country which are publicly funded, the seat will be implemented in a phased manner all over India for OBC students. Guidelines were given to complete this task by the year 2014, and the bill for the year 2012 was also amended in addition (Basant and Sen, 2016). Some state governments continued their reservation policies and private educational institutions, minority institutions, and some institutions of

74  Vishi Mahrshi

national importance were still outside the scope of this nationwide castebased reservation policy Welfare Department of the States. Under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments and union areas, there are various departments of the “Scheduled Castes and Tribes and Other Back Classes”, whose administrative structure is different in different regions.

Current Status of Education of OBCs It is very difficult to know how many castes and their sub-castes are in our country because there are many castes and sub-castes in India, and the census of all these has also not been done purely. The central government also told the High Court that the caste-based census of backward classes is administratively difficult and vicious, and the exclusion of caste information from the purview of the census is a cautious policy decision. During the tenure of the state under British rule in India, a nationwide census was conducted for the first time. The purest caste-based census so far was done in 1901; according to this census, there are a total of 2,378 castes in India, after which questions related to religion and caste were asked in each census. Because after attaining independence, the government believed that India was a modern democracy and caste and casteism would end due to the non-counting of caste. According to the Mandal Commission, the total population of OBC people in India is 52% of the population of India. The enumeration data is not received for OBCs in the country, Whereas the Mandal Commission estimated 52% and the National Sample Survey Organization in its 61st survey (2004–05), 41% of the population based on the survey. Among the class census applications, it was found that 44.4 percent of the 17.24 crores rural households in the country come from other Class Backward (OBCs) and OBC house is located in most rural areas in seven provinces –Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Chhattisgarh. On studying the drop-out rate of backward classes, it was found that the students who dropped out of the government schools of the state were 33% of the students of SC, Scheduled Tribe (ST), and OBC in class 10 (U-DISE+ 2019–20). The drop-out rate for OBC category boys at the primary level was 1.58%, and for girls, it was 1.01; the drop-out rate at the upper primary level was 2.19% and 3.49%; the drop-out rate of OBC category students at the secondary level was 17.46% and 15.43% (according to the U-DISE+ data). In private schools not aided by the government, the dropout rate for SC, ST, and OBC categories was more than 2.5%. Although, inter-caste/tribe inequality is the most important reason. In 2004–05, the gross enrollment ratio (GER) was about 11% at whole levels. GER was very low in all categories SCs (6.30%), STs (6.33%), and OBCs (8.50%) as compared to others (16.60%).

Removing Backwardness through Education  75

There is still no awareness of education among the lower castes and some religious groups; these women especially face more difficulties than other women in getting higher education. For example, in 2004–05, the overall GER was 9.11% as against that for SC, ST, OBC, and other women, for whom it was 4.76%, 4.43%, 6.60%, and 19%, respectively. So, it can be said that GER was five times lower in SC-ST women and almost three times less in OBC women as compared to upper-caste women (Chauhan, 2008). The situation in the field of education is also not good. “Data presented by Education Minister Ramesh Pokhriyal Nishank in Rajya Sabha” according to which 2.1%ST, SC 9%, and 8% OBC categories candidates were under PhD programs (2016–20) in Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Out of the total PhD candidates in 17 Indian institutes of information technology, 1.7% were ST, 9% were from SC, and 27.4% belonged to the OBC category. Even after admission, it is challenging for them to complete the course because most of the drop-outs in these educational institutions are from ST, SC, and OBC categories (The Print Rahul Kumar, 24 March 2021). In the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan”, the problem of inequality of many types and the enrollment rate has been recognized, and many measures and efforts have been made to increase their access to “higher education”. Emphasized “inclusiveness in higher education” and worked to bring it to the center of “higher education policy”. This SC, ST, OBC class prepares policies and plans for girls and the poor, etc.

Organizations Working for the Education of OBC “The ministry of social justice and empowerment” works under the GoI for the welfare of backward classes, it also deals with the national backward class commission which was set up in 1993. The ministry looks after planning, implementation, and policymaking programs related to the social and economic empowerment of “other backward classes under the backward classes” division. The central government provides scholarships to these backward classes which are listed under the “ministry of social justice and empowerment” and are primarily given for pre-matric and post-matric. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a significant role in improving education, health, and infrastructure in the back communities. It is helpful and supportive to know the rights of people who are left behind and to create public awareness. The following NGOs are working for backward classes: 1. India Rural Livelihood Foundation – The National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) is the second largest program in the NRLM Department in terms of allocation and oversight and aims to provide eight to ten million poor rural families by 2021–22 through Self-Help Groups and Associations of villages. Adequate provision for poor and

76  Vishi Mahrshi

2.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

vulnerable sections of society is ensured through participation processes in the NRLM and as determined with the approval of Gram Sabha. Groups of people who were disadvantaged in society were given a place in the integrated system many times, but they were postponed due to discrimination, neglect, poverty, and class support. Today, it has been a long time since attention was given to these children. ST and SC are listed in the Constitution based on illiteracy, lack of education, exploitation of labor, poverty, and untouchability, but OBC is unlisted, and there is no clear definition, so in the absence of a clear definition, its problem is very complex, and it is also difficult to deal with. Smile Foundation – It was founded in 2002. It works to promote the education of poor children. There are many programs established by the organization where people can come forward and help in the fields of education, health, women’s empowerment, and livelihoods. Make A Difference (MAD) – The organization views English as a major language and works through a program called The English Project to provide education for children in backyards and orphanages through. Pratham – It is a government organization founded in 1994, intending to promote backward classes by improving education (Sony, n.d.). All Background Assistance and Development Work – This is an NGO founded in 1999. The organization operates in West Bengal in India. The NGO has always worked to promote development, as well as to help and develop back-to-class classes. Vidya and Baby – An NGO founded in 1998 to transform the lives of children from disadvantaged social and economic sectors. eVidyaloak – The NGO is based in Bengaluru. It aims to help needy children in India improve the quality of education through technology (Sony, n.d.).

The NGO continues to work for the betterment of the people behind the scenes, and these organizations continue to assist and make efforts to grow the nation quickly by assisting and raising awareness of education, health, women’s empowerment, and law and order.

Challenges in the Education of OBCs In almost every society, we find information about these children or a group. Children in these classes do not have the opportunity to develop physically, socially, economically, and politically. Groups of people who were disadvantaged in society were given a place in the integrated system many times, but they were postponed due to discrimination, neglect, poverty, and class support. Today, it has been long days since the attention was given to these children. ST and SC are listed in the Constitution based on illiteracy, lack of education, exploitation of labor, poverty, and untouchability, but OBC is unlisted, and there is no clear definition, so in the absence of a clear definition, its problem is very complex, and it is also difficult to deal with.

Removing Backwardness through Education  77

The Lowest in Hierarchy: OBC’s status is considered one of the lowest casts in the hierarchy. They have been deprived of the basic amenities in society. Economic Disabilities: OBCs have been an economically backward class and has been suffering from various economic facilities. They have major dependencies on the higher classes for economic help and education. Lack of Interaction: In villages, OBCs live in separate hamlets. There is no interaction between the children and women of higher castes and OBC. There has been a conflict between forwarding and backward castes due to the advancement in economic and educational backgrounds. Poor Health and Nutrition: The majority of OBCs live under unhygienic conditions due to the lack of a proper house; they defecate on open grounds and live with cows under the same roof. They are also deprived of clean drinking water and clean utensils to cook food, which adversely affects their health conditions. Due to this, they are not able to get proper nutrition and live in poor health conditions (Rizvi and Pandey, 2017).

The Problem of Women Gender Discrimination: Due to different values associated with both sexes, gender discrimination is prevalent in our society. The most unfortunate scene is the involvement of women in discriminatory behavior against women. Domestic Violence: Domestic violence takes place in the form of torture, beating, poisoning, burning, drowning, and rape. In recent years there has been a tremendous increase in domestic violence due to temptation toward consumer goods. Exploitation: Women belonging to OBC families majorly work in agriculture and unrecognized sectors; they are discriminated against in the mode of payment. The wages differ widely for the same type and hours of work as their male counterparts.

Innovative Practices for Education of OBC India started the “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan”, a centrally run scheme in 2001, to improve the education system, later it was further strengthened in 2009 under the Right to Education Act. This scheme made progress in the center as well as in the states. To increase the capacity of existing schools, construct new schools, increase enrollment rate and reduce drop-out, and start door-to-door campaigns, and to increase human resources. The budget allocation which was Rs.12,931 crores in 2005–06 was increased to Rs.59,835 crores in 2011–12 (MHRD, Govt. of India, Bailwal and Paul, 2018). “The University Grants Commission (UGC 2013) emphasized increasing the

78  Vishi Mahrshi

participation of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Minorities, Persons with Disabilities (as defined in the PWD Act, 1995), and Women in higher education”. To bring social equality for different categories of beneficiaries, OBC minorities, etc., some schemes were run by the UGC, including “Indira Gandhi Post Graduate Scholarship for a girl child, residential coaching academy for minorities, Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship, etc.” “Post-Matric Scholarship to OBC studies in India, Construction of OBC Boys and Girls hostels”, borrowing schemes, Swarnima’s new women’s program, Education Loan Program, Saksham Scheme, and National Overseas Scholarship Scheme for OBC students are being provided for improving their educational status. Integrated Child Protection Scheme: A comprehensive program of the “Ministry of Women and Children Development, Government of India” to contribute to the well-being of vulnerable children in the country and reduce insecurity, conditions, and practices leading to child neglect, exploitation, and segregation leading to birth. “The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) 2006”, which provides at least 100 days of unskilled labor in the financial year for all households according to rural need. Objective – To improve the lives of the poor. Actively ensure community inclusion and strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions. Matric Scholarship in OBCs Study Courses in India: The purpose of this program is to encourage OBC children to study at pre-matric levels. Under this, a scholarship is given to all those students whose total income from all sources of parents or guardians does not exceed Rs. 44,500 per year. Program under the National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation (NBCFDC). NBCFDC was started in 1992, as a Company, “not for profit” under Section 25 of the Companies Act 1956 under the auspices of the Department of Public Justice and Empowerment, Government of India. The main purpose of the Association is to impart licensed bursary to Back Class categories for socio-economic development and to develop the technical and business skills of lone or groups of backgrounds through “State Channelizing Agencies (SCAs) appointed by the State/UT Government”.

“Assistance to Voluntary Organizations for the Welfare of OBCs” The major aim of this voluntary grant program is to comprise human society, and NGOs better the economic and social condition status of OBCs, through skills development in many handicrafts so that they can start self-employed and profitable employment. Under this program, “financial assistance is provided to Non-Governmental Organizations” to provide

Removing Backwardness through Education  79

professional training in many fields such as art, handicrafts, carpentry, drawers, electrical, car folding and placing/plumbing, printing/compiling/ assembling books, spinning and weaving, repairing – television, videotape recorder, and radio, etc. “The government of India bears 90% of the approved cost of the training program”.

Recommendations Practicing a co-adhesive environment for SCs, STs, OBCs, and minorities to practice their rights freely while enjoying all their privileges and having a life full of dignity and confidence. These disadvantaged groups should be protected against suppression, exploitation, and disparities that are caused by them; this can be done by implementing a three-stage strategy of social justice, social empowerment, and economic empowerment. Planning and formation of these projects/programs are not enough, but their involvement in strategic planning, implementation, surveillance, and management is compulsory. There should be active participation from these socially disadvantaged groups for these programs and policies to become effective. Last but not the least, the ongoing process has to be improved in terms of the implementation of policies and programs and should be accelerated so that it can reach these groups and they can become one with society. • The neediest sections of the reserved area are not aware of how to get the benefits of the scheme, “so there is a need to create awareness”. • Education has been considered an important tool in improving the condition of the backward classes in society, especially the programs and policies related to the education of women should be specially designed so that they can reach the disadvantaged groups and their conditions can be improved. • Colleges should be opened in rural areas for the backward classes. • The educational progress of the backward classes is substantial. Many programs and schemes have been started for the upliftment of education of educational backwardness, but their implementation has not been done properly, so proper implementation is necessary for the right benefits.

Conclusion The condition of the OBCs in India has not improved as much as it should have. People who are socially and economically deprived are facing difficulties. They should also be treated and respected like the upper castes in society. The OBCs are still striving to improve their condition; keeping these problems in mind, the difficulties faced in the development of the OBCs and the contribution of the program run by the government have

80  Vishi Mahrshi

been evaluated. Therefore, if the aim is to bridge the social gaps, increasing the number of public schools in areas that are easily accessible to students from marginalized castes should be the main push of educational policy. We agree that just having schools is not a sufficient condition for improving educational outcomes, but it is certainly a necessary condition. The first and foremost step to ensuring equal educational outcomes is to make sure that public schools are available to every student irrespective of their social identity.

References Bailwal, N. and Paul, B.S. (2018). Educational Inequalities across Castes: The Supply Side Challenges. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi. https:// repository.vnu.edu.vn/bitstream/VNU_123/70876/1/Paper_SA11_Bailwal.pdf Basant, R. and Sen, G. (2016). Impact of Affirmative Action in Higher Education for the Other Backward Classes in India, July 2016. Indian Institute of Manage­ ment Ahmedabad. https://web.iima.ac.in/assets/snippets/workingpaperpdf/ 9897092682016-07-01.pdf Chauhan, C. (2008). Education and Caste in India. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28 (3), 217–34. DOI: 10.1080/02188790802267332 Dubey, A. (2022). A Study of Reservation. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, 5 (1), 815–25. Dushkin, L. (1979). Backward Class Benefits and Social Class in India, 1920– 1970. Economic and Political Weekly, 14(14), 661–67. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/4367478 Govt. of India. (1980). Report of the Backward Classes Commission. First Part Volume  I & II. http://www.ncbc.nic.in/Writereaddata/Mandal%20Commission %20Report%20of%20the%201st%20Part%20English635228715105764974. pdf Govt. of India. (n.d.). National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC). http:// www.ncbc.nic.in/home.aspx Kumar, N. (2011). Constitutional Law of India (8th ed). Allahabad Law Agency, Haryana. https://kscbc.kerala.gov.in/acts-rules/criteria-for-identifying-backwardclasses/ Manjunatha, M. and Narasimhamurthy, M. (2019). An Analysis of Backward Classes Movement in India. International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities, 6(3), 60–5. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2550021 Rizvi, A. and Pandey, A. (2017). Empowerment of Other Backward Class Women. International Journal of Research and Development in Applied Science and Engineering, 12(1), 1–4. http://ijrdase.com/ijrdase/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ Empowerment-of-Other-Backward-Class-Women-Afshan-Rizvi.pdf Sony, A. (n.d.). Role of Non-governmental Organizations in the Development and Upliftment of Backward Classes of India. (IBM) Mangalyatan University. https:// www.academia.edu/19748692/Role_of_Non-Governmental-organizations-inthe_development_and_upliftment_of_backward_classes_of_India

Chapter 6

Education of Muslim Minorities in India Balancing the Social Fabric/Making a Just Society Faiza Altaf

India is a democratic country in which different types of people live in a different ratio based on religions and languages. Those whose numbers are higher were given the status of majority and those whose numbers are less were given the status of minority in the ratio to the total population. The Oxford Dictionary defines a minority as “a small group of people within a community or country, differing from the main population in race, religion, language, or political persuasion”. It is the dream of India that all the people belonging to it must be socially, economically, technologically, and educationally developed, and spend a prosperous life with happiness. The diversities, whether it is religion, language, or region based, should be treated with justice, and practices should be designed and implemented in such a way as to make a just society. It is trusted anonymously that education can play a vital role in the fulfilment of these aspirations. For this, it becomes necessary that every citizen should be educated, and everyone should be given equal opportunities for education. “It is believed that expansion of educational opportunities is the key factor to accelerate socio-economic development of society” (NazrulIslam, 2017).

Minorities in India National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 section 2(c) notified Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jain, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) communities as minorities in India. As per the Census of 2001, Muslims were the major religious minority community and constituted 13.4% of the population (Census, 2001). Further, it was also notified in the Census of 2011 that the percentage of minorities in the country is about 19.3% of the total population of the country, and Muslims constitute the largest minority (Census, 2011). The percentage of the population of different minority communities is given in Table 6.1.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-9

82  Faiza Altaf Table 6.1  Percentage of the Population of Different Minority Communities Minority Community

% of Total Population

Muslim Christians Sikh Buddhist Jain

14.2 2.3 1.7 0.7 0.4

Source: Census Report of India (2011) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01. html

Table 6.2  L iteracy Rate of Minority Communities in Percentage (Census Report, 2011) Minority Community

Literacy Rate in %

Muslim Christians Sikh Buddhist Jain Parsis

68.5 84.5 75.4 81.3 94.9 —

Source: Census Report of India (2011) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01. html

Minority Education in India Education is an important means for social economic and political transformations. Educated societies can uplift the growth of a nation. The flash statistics for the literacy rate of different minority communities based on the Census Report 2001showed that the literacy rate was for Muslims 59.1%, Christians 80.3%, Sikhs 69.4%, Buddhists 72.7%, and Jains 94.1% against the 65.38% national literacy rate of India (Census Report, 2001). As per the Census Report 2011, the overall literacy rate of India is 74.04%, and for the minorities, it is given in Table 6.2. The flash statistics showed that the literacy rate of Muslims was underneath in 2001 and also in 2011 against the literacy rate of other notified minority communities.

Educational Status of the Muslim Minority As per the Census Reports of 2011, the status of minority education at different levels of education is given in Table 6.3

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  83 Table 6.3  Status of Minority Education at Different Stages of Education S. No.

Level of School

Status Minority Education in Percentage (%) Muslim

Christian

Sikhs

Buddhists

Jains

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Primary Middle Secondary Sr. Secondary Graduate

26.7 22.14 24.39 19.37  6.74

34.82 31.65 39.30 37.73 16.26

29.49 26.13 37.16 33.10 12.82

32.25 28.90 38.14 31.98 10.70

43.38 43.85 65.16 70.19 43.45

National Average 32.78 29.06 35.11 29.15 11.81

Source: Census Report of India (2011) http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01. html

Take a look at Table 6.3, which depicts the status of minority education at different stages of school education. On average, the literacy rate of Jains, Christians, and Buddhists is more than the national average literacy rate of India at all levels of education. In the case of Sikhs, they are lagging behind the national average only at primary and secondary levels, but in the case of secondary, senior secondary, and higher levels of education, the literacy rate of Sikhs is also higher than the national average. Muslims are the only minority community that has a lower literacy rate at all levels of education than India’s average national literacy rate. Muslims have one of the lowest rates of literacy (−4.44) as compared to the national average (Census Report, 2011). “Despite being the largest religious minority, the Muslim literacy rate is lowest among all the religious minorities” (Narula, 2014). “One-fourth of Muslim children in the age group of 6–14 years has either never attended school or are drop-outs” (Sachar Committee, 2006). In the Sachar Committee study, it was also noted that Muslims have a higher drop-out rate at the primary, middle, and high school levels, and that by the time they are 17 years old or older, their educational attainment at matriculation is just 17%, as opposed to the national average of 26%. It is distressing that just 50% of Muslim middle school graduates are likely to continue their education through the eighth grade, compared to 62% nationwide. Furthermore, just one Muslim undergraduate and one Muslim graduate student out of every 25 students attend respectable universities. The Sachar Committee also brought to our attention Muslim women’s poor educational levels, particularly in rural regions and in technical and higher education. The enrolment rate of Muslims is the poorest in professional streams and is of special concern. As per the Sachar Committee Report the enrolment of Muslims in Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya in rural areas is very low. The total literacy rate of the Muslim minority community is below the required level in various areas of education (Sachar Committee Report, 2006).

84  Faiza Altaf Table 6.4  Ratio of Muslim Girls to Muslim Boys in Management-Type Schools Management

Primary

Upper Primary

Elementary

Total Children

Government Local Bodies Private Aided Private Unaided Others

1.02 1.03 1.01 0.78 0.97

1.15 1.09 1.03 0.78 1.28

1.05 1.04 1.02 0.78 1.04

1.02 1.00 0.94 0.76 —

Source: Government of India (GoI)/MHRD, 2013, and cited in Narula (2014).

The data in Table 6.4 reveals that females outnumber boys in government, municipal government, and private aided schools, and this ratio is very low in the case of private unaided schools at primary and upper primary levels. This data illustrates the discrimination of parents by enrolling their girls in affordable public, local government, and private aided institutions, and on the other side sending sons to expensive private unaided schools as a courtesy. Muslim parents do not see envisioned high-cost girls’ education (Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), GoI, 2013 as cited in Narula, 2014).

Current Status of Muslim Education in India The Department of School Education (GoI) in its database, U-DISE, presented the enrolment statistics of Muslim boys/girls separately at different levels of school education. Table 6.5 shows the enrolment status of Muslim students from 2014 to 2017 at different stages of school education. The data shows the enrolment status of Muslim students from 2014 to 2017; it seems that at the primary level, the enrolment rate is almost the same, but from the upper primary to higher secondary level, a little increase is seen in the enrolment rate of Muslim students. The Gross Attendance Ratio (GAR in percentage) of Muslims at the primary level is lower (i.e., 100) than Scheduled Castes (SCs) (101), Scheduled Tribes (STs) (102), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), and other minorities, and at the upper primary level; their GAR is (89), which is lower than other communities, according to the National Sample Survey Report of the 75th Round (2018). The percentage of Muslims in secondary education is (72), which is lower than the percentages of STs (79.8), SCs (85.8), and OBCs. Similar to the lower secondary level, Muslims have the lowest grade point average (GAR, 48.3), which is lower than that of STs (60), SCs (52.8), and other communities combined. In contrast, their GAR at the level above higher secondary was (14.5) just above the STs (14.4) but below the SCs (17.8) and other communities. This shows that among all communities, Muslims have the greatest percentage of people who have never attended

Table 6.5  Percentage Share of Muslim Minority Enrolment to the Total Enrolment by Stage of School Education, All India Stage

2015–16

2016–17

2017–18

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

14.14 11.90 13.39  9.20  7.74 12.24

14.62 13.34 14.19 10.92  9.01 13.25

14.37 12.60 13.77 10.02  8.34 12.73

14.19 11.93 13.42  9.34  7.40 12.22

14.68 13.30 14.20 11.23  8.77 13.25

14.43 12.60 13.80 10.24  8.05 12.72

14.73 12.30 13.89  9.91  7.28 12.62

15.26 13.75 14.73 11.83  8.65 13.71

14.99 13.01 14.30 10.82  7.93 13.14

14.45 12.46 13.76 10.37  8.33 12.70

14.96 13.80 14.55 12.18  9.84 13.73

14.70 13.11 14.14 11.23  9.05 13.20

Source: U-DISE Data (2017–18).

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  85

Primary Upper Primary Elementary Secondary Higher Secondary Total(I–XII)

2014–15

86  Faiza Altaf Table 6.6  Enrolment Ratio of Muslim and Other Disadvantaged Groups Years

Muslim (%)

2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19

4.5 4.7 4.9 5.0 5.2

Source: AISHE Reports (From 2014 to 2019).

formal educational institutions or programmes in the age range of 3 to 35. Muslims enrol in higher education at the lowest rate among all socially disadvantaged groups, including SC, ST, and OBC, according to the All India Survey on Higher Education Reports (AISHE) (from 2010 to 2019) (conducted by MHRD, GOI). Table 6.6, shows year-wise survey data of AISHE. The data reveals that Muslims are underrepresented in higher education when compared to other disadvantaged groups, with a growth rate of 26.92% from 2010 to 2011 to 2018 to 2019, compared to 20% for STs, 25.50% for SCs, and 23.96% for OBCs. Despite the low enrolment rate, there is considerable promise because Muslims have the fastest growth rate in higher education among all disadvantaged groups.

Constitutional Provisions for the Education of Minorities India is a democratic nation, and its constitution ensures that all its residents have equal rights. The following given provision of the constitution sustains and protects the educational interests of minorities in India: Article 15 (1) & (2) –Promised that “the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them”. Article 16(1) & (2) –Gives right to citizens in equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State, and no citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect or, any employment or office under the State. Article 26 – It gives “[f]reedom to manage religious affairs Subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right (a)to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes”.

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  87

Article 28 –This article ensures that “peoples have freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational institutions wholly maintained, recognized, or aided by the State”. Article 29(2) –It ensures that “no citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them”. Article 30(1) –It gives the right to “all minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice”. Article 30(1A) – This article guaranteed “compulsory acquisition of any property of an educational institution established and administered by a minority”. Article 30(2) –It states that “the government should not discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language, while giving aid”.

Government Programmes, Policies, and Schemes for the Education of Muslims and Other Minorities in India Since Independence, our successive governments have continuously progressed towards the development of minorities through the upliftment of their education. Several initiatives are also taken by the government for the enhancement of the status of education in minorities. After Independence, the central advisory board of education (1949) recommended for the education of linguistic minorities, The medium of instruction in the Junior Basic stage must be the mother tongue. If the regional language is different from the mother tongue it should not be introduced prior to the secondary stage and students must give the opportunity to write their answer scripts in their mother tongue for at least up to two starting years of secondary education. However, the number of pupils speaking a language other than the Regional or State languages, then it is sufficient to justify a separate school in any area, the medium of instruction in such a school may be the language of the pupils. In 1964–66, the National Education Commission recommended that strenuous efforts should be made for providing equal educational opportunities for all people without harming the rights of minorities as per Article 30. This commission also recommended that minorities should become able to open and administer their educational institutions, and the state is responsible for providing grants in aid to minority-run institutions. National Education Policy (1968) also stated, “Every effort should be made not only

88  Faiza Altaf

to protect the rights of minorities but to promote their educational interests”. Further, National Education Policy (1986) also paid great attention to the “education of minorities is necessary for the promotion of social justice and equality in our country. Minorities should be helped to establish and administer their educational institutions, and protection of their languages and cultures should be ensured”. At present times, New Education Policy 2020 is stressing the possible measures for the promotion of education of all minority communities, particularly educationally backward communities. The goal of this policy is to close the socio-cultural disparities that minorities experience in terms of educational access, participation, and learning results. One more ambitious modernization of the madrasa education scheme was started in 1986. It offers fundamental educational infrastructural resources, where minorities with low levels of education are concentrated as well as for the upgrading of madrasa education. Minorities have better educational prospects thanks to the prime minister’s new 15-point plan, which also assures that they receive a fair share of economic possibilities and jobs. The majority and minority groups are served by several programmes under this umbrella, including the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), which provides services like supplemental nutrition, immunization, health check-ups, referral services, preschool, and informal education through Aanganwadi centres in villages and towns. The central recruiting, resource, and placement of Urdu language instructors in primary and upper primary schools where at least one-fourth of the student body speaks that language is also covered under this programme. One more Scheme for Providing Education to Madrasas/Minorities (SPEMM) is also functional. It aims to raise the quality of Madrasas and give Muslim students the chance to meet the requirements of the official education system, particularly at the secondary and senior secondary levels. This scheme also gives Madrasas and Maktabs financial support and encourages them to include science, math, social studies, English, and Hindi in their curricula so that students at these institutions can succeed academically in grades I through XII. This scheme strengthens State Madrasa Boards by aiding through Madrasas modernization programme and promoting educational awareness among the Muslim community through remedial instruction, assessment, and improvement of learning outcomes, as well as Rashtriya Avishkar Abhiyan and other initiatives aim to improve the quality elements in Madrasas. This scheme offers in-service training for teachers and helps them to teach contemporary subjects, including science, math, social studies, Hindi, and English while also enhancing their pedagogical abilities. This programme also focuses on the enhancement of the quality of education for minority communities by improving the infrastructure of minority institutions. This is operationalized through Infrastructure Development of Minority Institutes (IDMI) in private aided, unaided minority schools or institutions whether primary, secondary, or senior secondary schools.

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  89

This 15-point programme makes educational facilities available to girls, children with special needs, and minorities who are most underserved in terms of educational opportunities through Samagra Shiksha, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme, Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan, Mid-day Meal Scheme, and other comparable government initiatives. Under this programme, the Naya Savera programme gives minority-community students more agency and helps them prepare for competitive exams, increasing their likelihood of landing jobs in both the public and commercial sectors. Through this initiative, financially backward minority students can obtain free instruction for a variety of competitive exams at predetermined coaching facilities. In addition, this programme offers the Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme, which lessens parents’ financial obligations for their children’s education and supports their efforts to help them to finish high school. After the pre-matric level, the Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme is awarded to the meritorious students of economically weaker sections of the minority community. This scheme empowers minority students in the continuation of their higher education. They have better options to pursue further education as a result. This programme raises minority community students’ rates of higher education attainment and improves their employability. Poor but deserving minority students are given financial support under the Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme so they can enrol in professional and technical programmes. Furthermore, Maulana Azad National Fellowship (MANF) is a five-year fellowship scheme for the financial assistance of meritorious students of minority communities. MANF provides financial assistance to students from six notified minority communities to pursue their MPhils and PhDs within India. It covers all universities/institutions recognized by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Through UGC, the Ministry of Minority Affairs is implementing this fellowship. The fellowship holders under this fellowship are recognized as Ministry of Minority Affairs scholars. By offering a subsidy on educational loans for overseas studies for students from the economically underprivileged minority community at the master’s, MPhil, and PhD levels, the Ministry of Minority Affairs’ Padho Pardesh programme supports the academic advancement of students from minority communities. The Nai Udaan Scheme offers minority civil servants’ aspirants direct financial assistance to increase their participation in passing preliminary exams given by the Staff Selection Commission (Combined Graduate Level) for Groups A and B (Gazetted and NonGazetted Posts), State Public Service Commissions (SPSCs), and Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) (Non-Gazetted posts). Begum Hazrat Mahal National Scholarship Scheme is given by Maulana Azad Education Foundation, under the Ministry of Minority Affairs. This scholarship scheme recognizes, promotes, and assists meritorious girl students of poor families studying in classes from 9to 12belonging to notified minorities. This scholarship can be used to pay for expenses like school or

90  Faiza Altaf

college fees, textbooks for the required courses, stationery, and equipment purchases, as well as board and lodging costs. The Grant-in-Aid Program is also run by the Maulana Azad Education Foundation, which reports to the Ministry of Minority Affairs. This programme provides elementary, secondary, and senior secondary schools, colleges, and professional and vocational training institutes with fundamental educational infrastructure and amenities in institutions governed and administered by educationally underprivileged minorities. This programme offers funding for school building and expansion and the acquisition of scientific and computer lab furniture and equipment, among other things. Additionally, this programme offers funding for the development and extension of polytechnics, Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), and vocational training centres, as well as for the purchase of science and training lab equipment. This programme also provides funding for the construction of dormitory buildings, the development and extension of DEd and BEd institutions serving educationally underserved minorities, as well as the building of restrooms in MANF-managed schools.

Organizations Working for the Education of the Muslim Minority It is commendable that the government and non-governmental groups are working to improve the educational standing of the Muslim minority. Several governmental and non-governmental organizations work to promote Muslim education. The Ministry of Minority Affairs is a government organization that ensures more targeted attention to problems, challenges, and developmental initiatives connected to the designated minority populations, including Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Parsis. This ministry strives to advance minority communities’ social mobility and access to educational opportunities. This ministry helps minorities receive fair representation in the educational system. This is constantly motivated by a desire to strengthen our country’s multiracial, multiethnic, multicultural, multilingual, and multi-religious identity, as well as the empowerment of minority communities. Additionally, the MHRD has accelerated schemes, scholarship/fellowship schemes, and multi-sector development programmes, and many are a part of its 11thfive-year plan. In 2004, the National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) began investigating specific complaints about the denial of or infringement of minorities’ rights to create and run educational institutions of their own. The panel is qualified to offer recommendations to the federal government or a state government on any issue involving minority education. The commission has the authority to challenge both the federal government and state governments on any issue that directly or indirectly deprives members of the minority population of their constitutionally protected access to an education under Article 30. The commission is empowered to give minority educational institutions the much-needed platform to

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  91

voice their complaints and quickly receive remedies. Furthermore, National Monitoring Committee on Minorities’ Education (NMCME) works for the operationalization of schemes of the promotion of minorities. NMCME surveillances the implementation of schemes aimed at minorities. It outlines the educational needs of minorities (by region and district), as well as their needs for vocational training and skill development. It also kept an eye on the promotion of girls’ education in minority communities. This committee suggests using Urdu to promote education and improve racial harmony among minorities. The Maulana Azad Education Foundation is a voluntary, apolitical, nonprofit social service organization that answers to India’s Ministry of Minority Affairs. It was established as a society on 6 July 1989 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. It is fully funded by the Ministry of Minority Affairs, GoI. This organization’s main objectives are to develop and implement educational programmes and schemes for the benefit of minorities who are academically disadvantaged and to end minorities’ academic disadvantaged. It supports research initiatives and other initiatives aimed at developing state-level educational policies that benefit educationally underserved minorities. In order to give modern education to girls from minority communities with low levels of educational achievement, it also develops residential schools, preferably in or near urban, semi-urban, and rural locations. This foundation is constantly working to help, support, and occasionally review the proper implementation of the National Policies on Education, with particular attention to its provisions relating to educationally underprivileged minorities. Additionally, it offers institutions and organizations working to promote education among educationally underprivileged minorities by providing financial and other aid as well as consulting services. Along with these, Muslim minority educational institutions, such as Aligarh Muslim University and Jamia Millia Islamia, are continuously imparting education to Muslim minorities from pre-primary to a higher level of education. The prime objective of these institutions is the upliftment of the literacy rate among Muslim minorities in different streams of education. In addition, a number of other Muslim minority institutions which are not getting any type of grant-in-aid from the government are providing education to Muslim minorities from pre-primary to higher education. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya is also a dream project of the government for the education of girls from SCs, STs, OBC, and minorities living in underdeveloped areas where female literacy rates are below the national average and there is a significant gender gap. The Community and Progress (CAP) Foundation works as an Indian non-governmental organization (NGO), it works for the upliftment of disadvantaged communities. It works in India, as well as in Egypt and Sri Lanka. Another non-profit organization, Muslim Education Trust (MET), works tirelessly to improve the lives of minorities while placing a high focus on education in all its goals. The MET has been actively trying to enhance

92  Faiza Altaf

the social and educational climate in the neighbourhood since its founding by awarding scholarships to deserving students so they can continue their studies in a subject of their choice. The Center for Education and Guidance Trust is dedicated to the government’s goal of enhancing Muslim children’s access to elementary education, particularly for young girls. Currently, this group runs successfully in more than a dozen villages in Magura, Malda, West Bengal, India. This trust seeks to locate, enrol, and keep out-of-school children while also enhancing the fundamental literacy and numeracy abilities of all children (both girls and boys). Al-Ameen Educational Society Bangalore, Karnataka, offers educational services to minorities, particularly Muslims. A group of professionals run the Shikhar organization for social development, a development agency that supports community development initiatives aimed at empowering the most vulnerable members of society by strengthening their capacities through education, job training, and skillbased development. Table 6.7 provides a list of NGOs which are working for the education of Muslim minorities.

Table 6.7  Non-Government Organizations S. No.

Non-Government Organizations

State

1.

Maharashtra

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Maharashtra Center of Entrepreneurial Development Muslim Association for Advancement of Science Students Islamic Trust Millat Educational Trust MESCO Markaz e Adab o Science Alif Academy Lions Charitable Trust Citizen Welfare Education Society Rural Muslim Welfare Organization The Women’s Welfare Society Muslim Yuva Manch Falah-E-Aam Trust

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Parbhani Education Society Bangalore Islamic Foundation Trust Assam Falah Society Development Excellence Foundation Rahat Welfare Trust Ideal Education Movement Muslim Educational and Welfare Society IQRA Education Society New Maulana Azad Education Society Azad Khan Muslim Educational and Welfare Society Muslim Educational Social and Cultural Society Indian Muslim Educational and Welfare Foundation

— New Delhi West Bengal Maharashtra Jharkhand Maharashtra West Bengal Maharashtra Maharashtra Karnataka — Jammu and Kashmir Maharashtra Karnataka Assam — Maharashtra — Bihar Maharashtra Maharashtra Bihar Madhya Pradesh New Delhi

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  93

Innovative Practices for the Education of the Muslim Minority ➢ Urdu Universities are providing technical and vocational education to madrasa and Urdu medium students, e.g., Maulana Azad National Urdu University and Maulana Abdul Haque Urdu University. Other universities such as Jamia Millia Islamia and Osmania University are also imparting education in the Urdu medium; such universities are bringing madrasa students into mainstream education by offering bridge courses. ➢ Islamic Development Bank, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, introduced its scholarship programme in many countries including India in the year of 1983 to support professional education within the Muslim community. This scholarship is an innovative scheme which provides interest-free loans to the meritorious students. In this scheme, students return the principal amount to the organization when they get a job. Such schemes are running through MET, All India Graduates Association. ➢ Mattancherry Muslim Orphanage –One of the rare institutions of its kind in India is located in Kochi, Kerala, and is operated by Najatbul Muslimeen Trust Reo by the Board of Control for Orphanages and Other Charitable Homes. They look after the Muslim community’s orphans and help scores of orphan boys find sponsors so they can receive care. They are exposed to several languages, including English and Arabic, as many of the children there are being prepared for adoption in India and abroad. In addition to caring for orphans, the majority of the orphanages in Ernakulam are progressively taking in children whose parents are still alive and working as migrant workers in the area. There are homes for the children of migrant labourers from Manipur, West Bengal, and Bihar (Pareek, 2015). ➢ Promoting Formal Education and Employment Training for Muslim Youth – Community and Development in Musheerabad, close to Hyderabad, the CAP Foundation conducted surveys from 1997 to 2003 and discovered that a significant percentage of Muslim youngsters were working or not attending school, with a disproportionately large number of girls. Twenty-four hundred kids receive bridge school services through CAP, which helps them get readmitted or reenrolled in public schools. Additionally, it built centres for vocational and employability training in the localities to give late adolescents and young adults who weren’t particularly well suited to academic courses real-world, marketable job skills.

Challenges in Muslim Education The educational status of Muslims is unsatisfactory, even with Muslims being the largest minority. Even in today’s time, a number of issues are

94  Faiza Altaf

associated with Muslim education that have yet to be resolved. There is a lack of Muslim educational institutions. The Hindu, the Christian and the Sikh communities had set up a network of good educational institutions which provides general and professional education. The Muslim community has failed to set up such institutions in large numbers to provide its youth with modern education. (Choudhary, 2003; Halan, 2007) It also seems a challenge that a great number of Muslim people work in low-paying jobs, which is based on personal experiences, for they do not get any specialized education or training. About 80%–85% of Muslims in India work as artisans, skilled labourers, tailors, shopkeepers, or in other occupations that don’t require a degree in literacy (Saxena, 1983; Islam, 2017). Imtiaz (2003 as cited in Narula, 2014) asserts that substantial numbers of Muslims engage in self-employment in low-paying jobs or work in tiny businesses where education is not appreciated. Ali (2007) also points out that “the Muslims from low castes follow caste-based professions like weaver, dyers, bangle making, grave diggers, carders, and dhobis and so on and are mostly self-employed. They learn these occupations through experience without any formal training or education”. Udin (2012) claims that compared to 28% of Dalits and 40% of Hindus, 25%–45% of Muslims often work for themselves. In many cases, the low-economic status of students becomes a hindrance to the educational upliftment of Muslims. Poverty and the economic crisis of parents compelled Muslims to be deprived of education (Islam, 2017). The Sachar Committee also analyzed that the most inflicting barrier to the education of Muslim children is parental illiteracy and other socio-economic constraints. One of the main causes of ignorance and illiteracy in the Muslim community is the disproportionately low rate of female literacy (Hossain, 2012). Gender disparity is a big challenge for the education of Muslims. Among Muslims, girls can take education up to a certain level. After that, girls do not get permission from their families to continue their education. Gender discrimination against Muslim boys and girls in government, local government, and private-aided schools is compared at the primary and higher primary levels. (Narula, 2014). Most people in the Muslim community prefer to get married at an early age. After marriage, girls do household chores, and boys start to earn money. This is a challenge in the education of Muslims. In the Muslim community, the Parda system is an important religious practice. There are many institutions in India which do not allow Parda in educational institutions, thus the Parda system is a hindrance to the education of Muslim girls (Islam, 2017). There is also a lack of awareness among the Muslim community about education. The Muslim community seldom appears motivated towards

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  95

education (Islam, 2017). Socio-cultural ethos remain in Muslim society that the education of the world will take humans away from humanity; sociocultural traditions and prejudices hinder the Muslim community from entering into education (Islam, 2017). Psychological fear of losing Islamic identity, characters, traditions, and values is a challenge in the education of the Muslim minority (Islam, 2017). Muslim parents are also less ambitious for the education of their children and feel it is absurd to allow their children to enter into education (Islam, 2017). Their negative mindsets are a big challenge for the education of Muslim students. Low achievement is a further obstacle for Muslim membership. Due to their notably low accomplishment level in higher secondary attainment rates, Muslims are underrepresented in higher education (Sachar Committee, 2006).

Prospects and Recommendations for the Education of Muslims To overcome these challenges, some endeavours are needed in the future for the upliftment of the Muslim community. There is an immense need for the opening of more educational institutions in Muslim-populated areas for the upliftment of the educational status of Muslims. As well as some attractive schemes and strategies should be initiated in which poor students may earn through learning. The status of Muslim education is unsatisfactory, thus there should be counselling campaigns for the education of Muslim women. They should be organized on the local level through community leaders. Programmes for the promotion of education should be organized in the Muslim community through religious leaders and influential persons of the community. There is an immense need for the recognition of the degrees of the Madrasas: “There are a number of Madrasas opened due to lack of government school. There prevails strong desire among the stakeholders of the madrasas that the government should recognize the degrees of the madrasas for the entry into higher education” (Ansari, 2017). Sachar Committee (2006) also recommended that for the upliftment of the educational status of the Muslim minority, it is necessary to recognize the degrees of Madrasas. This step will increase the participation of Muslim minorities in defence, civil and banking examinations. The Sachar Committee also advised that an equal opportunity commission should be set up to look into the grievances of Muslim minorities, and there should be an increment in the participation of Muslim minorities in public bodies, for the creation of a proper nomination procedure is necessary. Legal empowerment should be provided to Muslim minorities if they face any type of discrimination in education, admission, etc. The economic status of Muslim minorities is low. The Sachar Committee recommended that the hostel facility should be provided to the children of the Muslim minority at a reasonable cost and on a priority basis; it may reduce the economic barriers to Muslim education. In the prospect of

96  Faiza Altaf

teacher education, teachers should be trained in such a way that they may understand the needs and aspirations of Muslim students. A number of Muslim students are pursuing education in the Urdu medium. The Sachar Committee highly recommended the opening of high-quality Urdu medium schools and colleges or institutions. The committee also recommended the availability of high-quality textbooks in the Urdu language. Last but not least, research should be promoted on Muslim education, and intervention should be developed for the education of the Muslim minority. In the future, programmes and schemes should be designed in such a way as to bridge the socio-cultural gaps in the availability and participation of education among Muslims (National Education Policy, 2020).

Conclusion It is the vision and mission of India to treat all its citizens with equality, justice and eliminate all differences and create a just society. Despite the formulation of many commissions, committees, policies and programmes, and promotional scholarship schemes, the status of minority education is not satisfactory. Various research has been conducted on the education of Muslims, but the actual picture of the status of Muslim education came into light after the Census Report of 2001, in which the status of Muslim education was pathetic, which became an eye-opener for all stakeholders for Muslim education. After that, a special committee, the Sachar Committee, was constituted by the government for the educational status of Muslims. The results of this report revealed that the educational status of Muslims is pathetic and below a satisfactory level. Thereafter, many initiatives were taken in favour of the education of the Muslim minority. In this aspect, various programmes and schemes were started for the educational promotion of minorities. Several scholarship schemes are also run by the government and NGOs. Innovative practices are also in progress. Despite all of these government initiatives and provisions, the education system has not made the necessary advancements, particularly about the Muslim minority (Narula, 2014). Thus, there is an immense need for research work and implementation programmes on Muslim education for their upliftment. Despite many means and measures, several barriers persist in the upliftment of the educational status of the Muslim minority; still, hope is there that if challenges will be addressed effectively and the efforts are done in the right way, the day will come soon when our society will be a balanced society.

References Ali, A. (2007). Center for the Study of Society and Secularism. Retrieved from http:// www.csssisla.com/arch%2058.htm Ansari, M.A. (2017). Modern Education In Madrasas: A Perspective Study of Different Schools of Thought, unpublished PhD Thesis, JMI.

Education of Muslim Minorities in India  97 Choudhary, K. (2003). Dilemma of Secularism: State Policy towards the Education of Muslims in India after Independence. In J. B. G. Tilak (Ed.), Education, Society and Development: National and International Perspectives (pp. 173–81). New Delhi: NIEPA. Govt. of India. (2001). Census of India. GOI. https://www.census2001.co.in/literacy. php Halan, Y. C. (2007). Economic Problems of the Muslim Minority in India. In M. A. Jawaid, K. N. Jehangir, and S. Bose (Eds.), Minorities of India: Problems and Prospects (pp. 161–69). New Delhi: Manak Publications. Hossain, N. (2012). Muslims in West Bengal: Trend of Population Growth and Educational Status. Islam and Muslim Societies, 5(1), 45–50. Islam, B. N. (2017). Problems and Prospects of Muslim Women in Higher Education, Ph.D. Thesis, Guwahati University. https://doi.org/10603/224382 Narula, M. (2017). Educational Development of Muslim Minority: With Special Reference to the Muslim Concentrated States of India. Journal of Education and Research, March 2014, 4(1), 93–108. DOI: 10.3126/jer.v4i1.10729 NazrulIslam, B. N. (2017). Problems and Prospects of Muslim Women in Higher Education, PhD Thesis, Guwahati University. DOI: 10603/224382 National Education Policy. (2020). Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/ NEP_Final_English_0.pdf Pareek, B. P. (2015). Muslim Education in India, Dialogo Conferences & Journal. The 2nd Virtual International Conference on the Dialogue between Science and Theology, (5–11), 94–99. Sachar Committee Report. (2006). Prime Minister’s High-Level Committee. Cabinet Secretariat. Government of India, New Delhi. Saxena, N. C. (1983). Public Employment and Educational Backwardness among Muslims in India. Political Science Review, 22(2&3), 130–33. Udin, N. (2012). Muslim Minority Exclusion and Development Issues: Need for Inclusive Policy. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2(1), 395–402.

Part III

Disability Identity

Chapter 7

Educational Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India Dipak Kumar Aich

Introduction Hearing loss in human beings is a silent, hidden, and serious sensory problem. If it is not detected and untreated, it can direct to serious issues like delayed speech and language development, learning difficulties, and social and emotional problems. It leads to loneliness, social isolation, frustration, poor academic achievement, job performance, and maintaining body balance. A typical child acquires his basic language and communication skills at his/her early stage of life in a natural process. Hearing is the only sense that remains active for 24 hours of the day. A competent authority certifies a person following the standard procedure, as deaf means a person having 70 decibels (dB), and hard of hearing refers to a person who has 60–70 dB hearing loss in speech frequencies (i.e., air conduction pure tone average threshold level of 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, and 4000 Hz) in his/her both ears (RPwD Act, 2016). However, it is also classified based on several dimensions such as the basis of age of onset of hearing loss; it may be genetic, heredity, pre-lingual, or postlingual. It can be observed as conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss. A hearing problem that occurs in the outer or middle ear is known as conductive hearing loss; in the case of sensorineural hearing loss, the problem is basically noticed in the inner part of the human ear, and when both the outer/middle and inner ear are affected to listen acoustic sound, then it is audiologically termed as mixed hearing loss. It can be sudden or gradual in nature. It is also categorized on the basis of degree of hearing loss, viz., minimal, mild moderate, moderately severe, severe, and profound degree. It occurs before the chronological age of 3 years and is known as pre-lingual, and after, it is known as post-lingual hearing loss. It becomes very challenging for the professionals, especially for the special education teacher of the deaf and hard of hearing and the parents to suitably intervene and develop auditory skills, communication skills, speech and language skills, cognitive areas, emergent literacy skills, social domain as part of holistic development when the child is diagnosed as having prelingual bilateral profound and sensorineural hearing loss. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-11

102  Dipak Kumar Aich

A report entitled Status of Disability in India (2000) has published that the first school for children with hearing impairment was ‘Bombay Institute for the Deaf and Mute’ established at Mazegaon (West) in the then Bombay in 1884 followed by the second oldest school named Calcutta Deaf and Dumb School in the then Calcutta in 1893. And the third institution for the deaf came into existence in 1896 in Palayamkottai in the then Madras state in India. By 1966, only 70 special schools were available for students with hearing impairment in the country (Aggarwal, 1994). Later, from 1970 to 1980 in this period, sign language entered back into deaf schools. In the 1990s, a bi-bi education movement was started almost all over the world including India. Since 21 March 2005, the education system has focused on promoting inclusive education. Here, the educational program for students with hearing impairment is scattered through segregated, integrated, and inclusive setups.

Policies and Programs Since independence, many legislative policies and measures have been taken for the education of persons with disabilities, including hearing impairment. The first Education Commission (1964–66) recommended establishing at least one special school for children with special needs in each of the districts in India, side by side, it was also suggested to promote integrated education for those who can cope with the existing regular education system. The National Policy on Education (1986) was followed by a plan of action (1992), for the first time in India, since Independence, focusing on the needs of children with disabilities was implemented. The objective was to bring physically and mentally challenged children into the mainstream community as their equal partners. The PIED (1987) was launched by the NCERT under MHRD (now known as the Ministry of Education) and UNICEF in India. This project achieved a significant level of increase in enrollment and retention of children with special needs including hearing impairment in comparison to their normal hearing peer group in the areas where it was implemented. In the 1990s, the framing of inclusive education was started after the first world-level conference on “Education for All”, which was held in Jomtien, Thailand 1990, organized by UNESCO and the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (1994). In both, India was a signatory member. In 1994, a central government-sponsored scheme named District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched. Its objective was to achieve primary education for all children, including children with hearing impairment. The Persons with Disabilities (Equal opportunities, protection of rights, and full participation) Act 1995 establishes equal opportunities and protects their rights and their full participation in societal activities.

Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India  103

After the recommendation from the CABE of the GoI world’s largest educational program, viz., Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan (since 2018–19 known as Samagra Siksha Mission) was implemented in the year 2002 throughout the country to achieve the objective of the Education for All (EFA) in particular to bridge gender gaps along with social and regional gaps. It was also important to ensure the effective participation of the community in managing schools and supporting preschool-leaving children from Anganwadi/ Balwadi centers of the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) or non-ICDS areas to supplement the activities of the Ministry of Woman and Child Development, GoI. A remarkable result of this program was found, especially in the rapid expansion of primary school facilities, a huge increase in enrollment, reduction in out-of-school children, narrowing of gender gaps, and better transition rates. In independent India, major educational programs in relation to children with hearing impairment were implemented, viz., Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) scheme, 1974; ICDS, 2 October 1975; Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) (2009–10), which is a replaced scheme of IEDC to provide assistance to the children with special needs in classes IX–XII; Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) 2009. The objective of RMSA was to increase universal accessibility and retention to secondary education by 2017 and 2020 respectively. It also ensured improving the quality of education by removing different barriers with respect to gender, socio-economic and children with special needs. RUSA (Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan), another government of India-sponsored scheme, aims at funding Indian higher educational institutions for holistic development launched in 2013 by the then MHRD, GoI. In relation to this, the Indian Sign Language Research and Training Centre was established in 2011 by the MSJE, GoI as an autonomous center of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. Through this center, sign language and training of deaf teachers and sign language interpreters will be promoted to meet immediate needs.

Current Status According to a report published by the Registrar, National University of Educational Planning and Administration, entitled Education for All towards Quality with Equity INDIA (2014), the number of CwSNs was identified as 2.72 million; the enrollment of CwSNs was 2.35 million, which equals to 86.45% of total CwSNs identified. Thirty-three thousand nine hundred CwSNs were enrolled in school readiness programs, and homebased education was provided to 206,000 children. Barrier-free access was provided to about 771,000 schools by 2012–13. Apart from this, from 2013 to 2014, corrective surgeries were provided to 52,733 CwSNs, transport and escort support services have been given to 156,000 CwSNs, and also therapeutic assistance has been provided to 259,000 CwSNs. Approximately 80.6% of children with special needs have received assistive devices.

104  Dipak Kumar Aich

In addition, resource teachers were engaged to provide their support to regular school teachers 21,646. And also, about 764 NGOs/special schools were involved during the year 2013–14 in providing support related to the plan of early identification, assessment, inclusive education, creating awareness, etc., of CwSNs and also to prepare individualized education programs, training materials development, in-service teachers and key resource persons’ training, parental counseling, computer literacy, provision of assistive devices, etc., for strengthening inclusive education. India has ratified UNCRPD on 1 October 2007. It has also implemented the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009) and its Amendment (2012). There was no formal or official definition of inclusive education until 2016. According to the Census (2011) in India, there were 50.72 Lakh SwHI out of which only 5% received basic school education and 1% of the total Deaf accessed quality education. It also reported that 2.21% i.e., 26,810,557 of the total population were Divyangjan in the country. Table 7.1 shows the disabled population by the type of disability in percentage and total hearing and speech disabled persons in India. So many government and non-government organizations are involved to re/habilitate the PwDs in India. The re/habilitation process is monitored by the Department of Disability Affairs under the MSJE, GoI. Being a nodal department, it acts for overall policy, planning, and coordination of programs for persons differently abled. National Institutes, viz., Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Speech and Hearing Disabilities (Divyangjan) (AYJNISHD), Mumbai an autonomous body under the MSJE of GoI since 1983, and its regional centers are located in Kolkata (since 1983), Noida, Odisha, and Secunderabad and are strongly active to re/habilitate the children with hearing impairment by providing all kind of required services. Apart from this, the AllIndia Institute of Speech and Hearing, commonly known as AIISH, located in Mansagangothri, Mysore, India, an autonomous institute under the

Table 7.1  Total hearing and speech disabled persons in India (Census of India, 2011) Age (in years)

Total 0–4 5–9 10–19 20–29

Total hearing and speech disabled persons in India Hearing

Speech

Persons

Male

Female

Persons

Male

Female

50,71,007 3,15,485 4,06,281 8,72,483 7,43,651

26,77,544 1,62,989 2,12,979 4,66,809 3,99,164

23,93,463 1,52,496 1,93,302 4,05,674 3,44,487

19,98,535 32,461 2,12,818 4,38,423 3,62,438

11,22,896 18,058 1,20,826 2,48,515 2,00,451

8,75,639 14,403 91,992 1,89,908 1,61,987

(Source: https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42520)

Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India  105

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, has also been working since 1966 for persons with hearing impairment. On the other hand, the Rehabilitation Council of India under the MSJ&E of GoI is committed to maintaining the smooth supply of well-qualified, trained, dedicated registered professionals and personnel in 16 categories (such as audiologists, speech-language pathologists, special education teachers, hearing aid technicians, rehabilitation psychologists, etc.) in all over the country to serve all the members of this diverse community. At present, 139,419 rehabilitation professionals and personnel are registered in the Central Rehabilitation Register of the Rehabilitation Council of India to impart their services to children with special needs in India. It is regulated in preparation for efficient special education teachers for all setups, viz., inclusive schools, special schools, home or hospital-based. It is ensuring the quality services of these recorded human resources such as classroom teachers, resource or itinerant teachers, or cross-disability facilitators (UNESCO, 2021). Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India is a government India undertaking organization working for the empowerment of Divyan­ gjan through the provision of appropriate technology and rehabilitation services. National Handicapped Finance and Development Corpora­ tion (NHFDC) since January 1997 as a not-for-profit organization under MSJ&E of GoI is also working to provide financial support to them for generating activities for earning bread and butter. National Council for Teacher Education has also included a course on the issue of education of children with differently abled as part of its bachelor and master of education programs. As per the list published on the official website of AYJNISHD (D), Mumbai has a total of 387 special schools available for children with hearing impairment in India. The status of many of these schools is government aided, sponsored, or recognized only from appropriate authority. These schools are imparting mostly primary level and a few upper primary levels of education to the SwHI. Its motive was behind integrating the learners into mainstream schools for further education. Like in West Bengal with a population size of more than 10 crores and one of the 28 states and 8 Union Territories of India, it has only urban based only 3 schools with the status of secondary level with non-availability of a senior secondary level special school to impart education to the SwHI in the formal model in the state. A few highly reputed higher educational institutions are available for them in the country. These are St. Louis College for the Deaf, Chennai; M.G.R. College of Arts and Science, Hosur, Chennai; National Institute of Speech and Hearing (NISH), Kerala working since 1997 have bachelor’s  degree programs. Apart from this, Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Handicapped University, Chitrakoot, a private university, and Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, a state university in Uttar Pradesh is also imparting under and post-graduate levels of education.

106  Dipak Kumar Aich

Some other organizations, viz., the Little Flower Convent Higher Secon­ dary school for Deaf, Chennai; Helen Keller Institute for Deaf and DeafBlind, Mumbai; Bajaj Institute of Learning, Dehradun; the Clarke School for the Deaf, Chennai; Training Centre for the Adult Deaf, Hyderabad; Haryana Welfare Society for Hearing Impaired have many valuable services including education for them.

Challenges Hearing loss is a hidden sensory problem. It prevents the child from acquiring and utilizing the language for the entire education along with other purposes (Northern and Downs, 1984). But existing programs are not enough to catch them very young. The educational successes of these students are dependent on the support of parents and professionals. Teachers spend very little time with the students for their education. Parents face serious difficulties when finding that their child is not behaving like a typical child. Hearing loss as it is a hidden sensory problem and verbal skill is dependent on hearing ability, in many cases, they do not understand their relation. The parent-infant program is conducted for these children in the age group of 0–years on a regular basis in all the regional centers of AYJNISHD (D) but needs to reach more as many are unreached. As per section 26 of the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights, parents have the actual right to take decisions about the kind of education they want to make available for their children and also as per RPwD Act (2016), special school service facilities must be available for the children with disabilities including hearing impairment in India. Special schools are mostly located in urban areas, are also treated from the social justice point of view, and do not come under the mainstream education departments. The availability of special education teachers is very low. It has been noticed in many schools, the vacant posts are not filled up by the authority in time. A strong language foundation is required for these students to pursue any program. Due to late identification and intervention, the acquisition of age-appropriate language and communication skills is delayed among learners with hearing loss. The poor quality of intervention further impedes their growth. Very often, students enroll in courses with poor reading and writing abilities, which do not often match the course requirements. However, acquiring writing skills is the most complex and difficult task among others for them. The prescribed curriculum for each program is rigid in terms of its’ content, activity, time, language, and evaluation techniques (Mathew and Mishra, 2010). The syllabus, content of subjects, teaching methods, and evaluations practiced are developed on the basis of their typical hearing peers. In school education, the ideal teacher-student ratio in group teaching must be followed as 1:10 at primary and 1:15 from upper primary to higher secondary level in the country as per the very recent verdict of the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India. Though it was proposed in the Plan or Program of

Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India  107

Action (1992)as 1:8. On the other hand, in the so-called schools and colleges offering education, this ratio is very high. Only a few institutions are equipped to provide such a learning environment. In many situations, it is seen that schools are located on the main road or in a crowdie zone. Peer support is dependent on the relationship between the abled and disabled groups of students in the classrooms. Very often, students with hearing impairment face challenges in gaining adequate peer support due to attitudinal and communication barriers from either side. Most of the institutions do not have adequate classroom assistive devices land services of sign language interpreters. SwHI finds difficulty in following Educational Bilingualism where non-­ verbal communication skill is focused on using visual-manual or sign language mode only. Sign language is acquired as a first language and later they learn a second language for academic achievement. It has been noticed, that due to the non-availability of a sign system, professionals or personnel working for the SwHI are compelled to use sign language for them. Courses and subjects offered by their hearing peers are other challenges in higher education. Many of the administrators are not well aware of the procedure of concessions and facilities or show no interest in offering these to needy special students. As the students with hearing impairment have language and communication problems, they face difficulties at the time of interacting with the hearing administrative staff also. The major challenges faced by the SwHI are related to accessibility, retention, participation, equity vs. equality, quality, relevance, and management.

Innovative Practices The Scheme of Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase or Fitting of Aids or Appliances (ADIP) which actually came into existence in 1981 to assist the needy PwDs later was revised (2022) by MSJE, GoI. A digital programmable behind-the-ear hearing aid is provided and also committed to doing 500 cochlear implants per year for Indian children with hearing impairment. Preschool years are the foundation years for skill building. This program is systematically planned and executed for children with hearing impairment between 3 years to 6 years of age. Teachers do make necessary adaptations in the curriculum wherever necessary in educational programs. After completing elementary education, they can opt open schooling option through NIOS for further school education. The SSA focuses to mainstream the differently abled in general schools and enhancing their participation in the mainstream education program. For this, it covers (i) identification, functional and formal assessment, individualized education program along with suitable educational placement, aids, and appliances distribution, teacher’s training, engaging of resource or itinerant teachers, speech therapists, occupational therapists, physiotherapists, clinical psychologist, etc. (ii) establishing resource rooms based on the requirement to ensure specialized support to them, making ramps with handrails, disabled friendly toilets,

108  Dipak Kumar Aich

monitoring and evaluation and a special focus on the girl child with special education needs, (iii) planning and arranging special training for CwSN with a view to prepare them for effective inclusive elementary education; (iv) imparting home-based education for them who can’t attend school for their special needs. The objective is to prepare them for school and life by developing their basic life skills or related to daily living skills; (v) it also ensures financial support for integration of CwSN. NCERT has developed innovative material to promote Inclusive Edu­ cation in the foundational years of the learners with special needs including hearing impairment named Barkha: A Reading Series for ‘All’. It is exemplary, inclusive teaching learning material designed following the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL). It is available in print and digital formats both. Through a single device, all the learners can access all of its 40-story booklets. It is also available for sign language users who use it as a mode of communication at an early age. Its digital version is available on the website of NCERT and the e-Paathsala portal.

Prospects As per the Census (2011), 61% of CwSNs aged 5–19 years are enrolled in educational setups. Besides school education, vocational education is also needed to empower them economically. In India, as a continuation of the universalization of elementary education through SSA (2002), the government is on the move to the top remote to the same at its higher level. It’s already been achieved by a huge number of economically developed and a few developing nations. A comparison of the hearing-impaired population with the available special schools currently available in the country is not able to impart need-based education to them. Children with mild or moderate hearing loss can pursue their education with less support in general school along with their typical peer group. Some of the state governments have made provisions for resource teachers and resource rooms for supporting the integrated children in general classrooms. Many of these programs are getting merged with inclusive education programs these days. Based on the Hon’ble Bombay High Court order of creating the least restrictive environment for students with disabilities, in March 2015, the University Grants Commission initiated to melt the fund-related issues in the universities across the country. The Department of Disability Studies has been established in many central universities. And also, the same is available at least at one state university in each state in India to address their issues, especially those related to their rehabilitation and education.

Recommendations With the recent shift in the philosophy of educating the SwHI, it is believed that the success of any educational program for children with hearing

Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India  109

impairment is dependent on the early identification of their problem and the start of early intervention services. Hence, emphasis has to be given to identifying and intervening with them very early. Hearing loss has a strong impact on the life of persons with it in relation to their speech, language, communication, literacy, higher education, job placement, identity (deaf ­culture), health, marital life, judicial matter, etc. Research findings have established that early detection and early intervention of children with hearing loss are highly beneficial in terms of their overall development and ability to be contributing members to the nation (Ruben, 1991; WHO, 2013). Teachers may develop more child-centric, participatory teaching approaches. They can apply new innovative ideas in their teaching. For that, they can acquire specific technical skills also. It improves the competency of a teacher to act in inclusive education to improve the quality of education. Language exemption provision has been ensured earlier by the PwD Act (1995) and later the RPwD Act (2016). Effective transition planning is necessary for them from one setting to another based on their interest, aptitude, and ability. The environment can be adapted to overcome barriers and implement support prior to their arrival. Their parents have a significant role and responsibility in the holistic development of their children. In connection with this, they have to take support from various professionals involved in the rehabilitation process of the CwHI. Researchers have revealed that parents are informed about their child’s hearing loss and the cochlear implant from the perspective of the medical model instead of a cultural and social perspective. They are influenced by professionals and also find it difficult to get the current, authentic, and effective information they need (Johnson, 2006; Li, Bain, and Steinberg, 2003). Also, parents have an important role to play, especially visiting the school, observing during classroom teaching or therapy sessions, and participating in meetings. The physical presence of the parents in the school will accelerate the communication, social, and academic skills of the child. More evidence-based research work is needed to be conducted. It is needed to improve the quality of life of children with special needs, early childhood education methodologies, effective practice inclusive and special education, sign system, development of user-friendly aids and appliances, socio-cultural aspects, causes of different types and levels of disabilities, statistics about the employment, teachers efficiency to handle the children with special needs including hearing impairment, their attitude, skills, job satisfaction, encouraging more action research related to classroom practice of the teachers and regarding user-friendly technologies for successful inclusive education. It should not be limited to the part of course fulfillment of the candidates pursuing a post-graduate level program only. Rather experienced, well-qualified, trained professionals who are working in the field must be encouraged to do more research work, to publish in a great volume in reputed journals for sharing knowledge. For this, support systems and funding mechanisms may be increased. More qualified and

110  Dipak Kumar Aich

eligible teachers are needed to be appointed in the higher educational institutes for quality research work and academic growth of the students with hearing impairment. It is also very much essential to achieve the objectives of the very recent National Education Policy (2020)which has already been implemented throughout India, including academic achievement of learners with diversity following the core principles of universal design of learning in the classroom, increasing accessibility for them, addressing enrollment, retention and ensuring the quality issue in education by establishing more educational set-up at all level of education from pre-primary to university in the country. There is a need to create more training avenues for more qualified, well-trained rehabilitation professionals or personnel to ensure ethical practices and maintain a smooth flow of providing support services to them. The very popular and effective slogan of the Incheon Strategy and the time frame set 2013–22 is “make the right real” related to persons with disabilities. Hence, it will only be possible when the country has such reliable and comparable data about persons with disabilities including hearing impairment.

Conclusion In the present globalization context, the country is moving towards a knowledge- and technology-based society. Hence, it is hoped that every individual will contribute to their fullest ability. Most children with hearing loss enroll in special or regular schools with a weak language foundation. As years pass by, linguistic demands for learning increase, and this leaves a maximum difference between the actual requirement and achievement (Mathew and Mishra, 2010). The cumulative effect of these results in poor academic performance of children with hearing impairment in primary schools (Catts and Kamhi, 1986). Intensive quality intervention can reduce the impact on the students’ performance to some extent. As their reading achievement is poor among them as compared to their hearing peers, they face difficulties in written language expressions too. They make numerous errors at the sentence level and above while writing. They lag behind and make significantly slower progress than hearing children in emergent literacy skills (Yoshinaga-Itano, Snyder, and Mayberry, 1996). Many students try to cope with the existing difficulties, whereas others take up language enrichment programs along with the regular course to compensate for the lost skills. Nowadays, the promotion of these educational programs is going on in India as a continuation of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2002). They face several challenges in schools and colleges as a part of their education like want of efficient well-trained teachers, language barriers, or mode of communication; social barriers; inappropriate curriculum; lack of collaboration; inadequate knowledge and awareness; instructional methods, materials, and

Challenges of Students with Hearing Impairment in India  111

support services; infrastructure; teaching strategies; lack of resources; services of interpreters; etc. Several measures have been initiated to improve the educational conditions of these students. Some measures are also in pipeline to overcome the difficulties faced by this group of learners in schools and colleges. However, the country is also facing several challenges in education from the different stakeholders in extending the same to all. In the education of students with hearing impairment, the success rate is not so remarkable in achieving higher education internationally (Komesaroff, 2000). The scenario is also not so different in India. However, difficulties encountered by them are not addressed fully to date.

References Aggarwal, R. (1994). India. In K. Mazurck and M. A. Winzer (Eds.), Comparative Studies in Special Education (179–203). Gallaudet University Press. Washington, DC. In K. Mandke and P. Chandekar, P. (2019). Deaf Education in India: Deaf Education Beyond the Western World, 261–84. DOI: 10.1093/oso/ 9780190880514.003.0014. Catts, H. and Kamhi, A. (1986). The Linguistic Basic of Reading Disorder: Implica­ tions of the Speech and Language Pathologist. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 17, 318–28. Census of India. (2011). C-20 City: Disabled Population by Type of Disability, Age and Sex (Million Plus UA’s/Cities) – 2011. Retrieved from https://censusindia.gov. in/nada/index.php/catalog/42520 on March 9, 2022. Education for All towards Quality with Equity INDIA. (2014). Published by the Registrar, National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Retrieved http://udise.in/Downloads/education-foe-all-in-india-2014-review.pdf on 9 March 2022. Hearing Impairment. Status of Disability in India (2000). Retrieved from http:// www.rehabcouncil.nic.in/writereaddata/HI-2-2000.pdf on 3 January 2022. Johnson, R. E. (2006). Cultural Constructs That Impeded Discussions about Variability in Speech-Based Educational Models for Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants. Perspectiva Florianopolis, 24, 29–80. Komesaroff, L. (2000). Diversity and Justice: Being Different in Universities and Schools. A paper presented at AARE conference, Sydney. Li, Y., Bain, L., and Steinberg, A. (2003). Parental Decision Making and the Choice of Communication Modality for the Child Who Is Deaf. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157(2), 162–68. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.157.2.162 Mathew, S. M. and Mishra, A. (2010). Knowledge Based Evaluation of Students with Hearing Impairment. Journal of National Convention of Educators of the Deaf, 2(1), 26–33. Northern, J. L. and Downs, M. P. (1984). Hearing in Children. Baltimore, MD: William & Wilkins. In Aich, D. K., and Mathew, S. M. (2010). Educational Concerns of Students with Hearing Impairment in Secondary and Higher Secondary Classes. M.Ed. (HI) Dissertation submitted to University of Mumbai. Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) in India – A Statistical Profile. (2021). Retrieved from http://www.nhfdc.nic.in/upload/nhfdc/Persons_Disabilities_31mar21.pdf on 9 March 2022.

112  Dipak Kumar Aich Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.education.nic.in/elementary/free%20and%20compulsory.pdf on 16 October 2021. RubenR. J. (1991). Effectiveness and Efficacy of Early Detection of Hearing Impairment in Children. Acta Otolaryngology, 482, 127–31. Samagra Siksha Department of School Education and Literacy Ministry of Education Government of India. (2022). Inclusive Education for Children with Special Needs. Retrieved from https://samagra.education.gov.in/inclusive.html on 9 March 2022. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act. (2016). Retrieved from http://www. upfcindia.com/documents/rpwd_101017.pdf on 3 July 2022. UNESCO. (2021). No Teacher, No Class State of the Education Report for India 2021. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379115 and file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/379115eng.pdf on 9 March 2022. World Health Organization. (2013). Millions of People Living in the World Have Hearing. In Jian, C. K. (2020). Early Detection and Prevention of Hearing Impairment in School Going Children. School of Advanced Education Research and Accreditation. Retrieved from http://www.saera.eu/en/2020/07/09earlydetection-and-prevention-of-hearing-impairment-in-school-going-children/ on 11 March 2022. Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Snyder, L. S., and Mayberry, R.(1996). How Deaf and Nor­ mally Hearing Students Convey Meaning within and between Written Sentences. The Volta Review, 98, 9–38.

Chapter 8

Education of Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities From Extermination to Right-Based Society P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra Introduction Disability is a word used for people who have substantial difficulties performing simple yet compulsory day-to-day activities for leading a regular life. Intellectual disability is a serious condition wherein restrictions are seen both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour and are manifested before the age of 18. Whereas developmental disability is a challenging condition with both mental and physical complications. Usually, it becomes obvious before the age of 22 and, more importantly, it results in noticeable functional limitations in three or more major activities of daily living, eventually demanding lifelong support of varying ranges (DD Act, Sec. 102. (8)). So, the term ‘intellectual and developmental disabilities’ encompasses a joint ground of intellectual disability and developmental disabilities. Educating Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (CwIDD) is not a cakewalk for educational institutions, as it requires a lot of adaptations, accommodations, and modifications in the curriculum, methods of teaching, educational environment, infrastructure, and faculties. However, the constitution of India has made the right to education a fundamental right that is common for all children irrespective of their backgrounds, abilities/disabilities. We need to know how history has treated CwIDD, what was their situation of livelihood and education during various time periods, the policies and programmes introduced by the Govern­ ment of India (GoI), what are their current status of education, the challenges faced by CwIDD, and other stakeholders especially when it comes to inclusive education. Here the authors discuss several innovative practices to be implemented and recommendations to be followed for successful inclusion. This chapter will be an eye-opener about the education of CwIDD and how important it is to educate them irrespective of their disabilities.

Historical Perspectives The world is witnessing now the era of inclusion and a right-based society where everybody has equal rights to live a dignified life. However, it is very DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-12

114  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

important as readers to understand that these transformations did not happen as easily as we read here. There were enormous efforts, great sacrifices, and massive advocacy to find the right path and proceed further. In the age of exclusion, CwIDD were exterminated either by killing, burning, or mutilating. As the Greeks had a firm belief in ‘survival of the fittest’, they considered persons with intellectual disabilities as useless and a burden to society and killed them (Mangal, 2010). It was a gradual process when these ‘odd’ looking humans started getting jobs as jokers in the king’s court. Going through the pages of history, we see that a number of initiatives were taken worldwide under the leadership of United Nations (UN) World Bank, etc., that fuelled the drive towards inclusion. UNESCO, upon the guidelines of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), claimed that inclusive education within the mainstream is a basic human right. As per the UN standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities (1992), it was impressed that equal opportunity should be given to students with disabilities, and it should be ensured that they also can afford the same portion of educational resources. A clear-cut framework detailing the action points on special needs education was adopted in The World Conference on Special Needs Education (1994) held in Salamanca. Now if we look at the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act (2016) and National Policy on Education (NPE) (2020), it is understood that the education of CwIDD has surpassed many significant phases in its journey to be a part of the mainstream world by providing opportunities and access to all levels of intellectual and developmental disabilities irrespective of their hardships.

Phases of Services for Persons with Developmental Disabilities – Philosophical Changes Greek and Spartan times could be considered as phase I when the PwD were killed, mutilated, and exterminated based on the ‘Survival of the Fittest’. They were considered ‘sinners’, and disability was understood as the result of their sins and witchcraft. So their right to life was denied during those times (Annie, 2018). Phase II began from 1600 AD onwards; this was the time of the French Revolution. As a result of the French Revolution, PwD were allowed to live and were provided with basic ‘food and shelter’, although they were kept completely excluded from society. During phase III (1775–1875), many reformations took place in the living conditions of PwD; their special needs were acknowledged, and many segregated settings were established to take care of these unique needs. Gradually, the need to educate them also was accepted, and special education came into existence. The PwD were provided with food and shelter, along with flimsy educational services. Phase IV began from 1875 to 1945, and this was an era of social awareness. Awareness was getting created about the needs, conditions, and limitations of PwD through awareness programmes and camps. Though they were termed as ‘abnormal’ and ‘unfortunate’, specialized

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  115

services were provided within the segregated special education settings. Phase V marked post-World War II (1945–70). It was an important milestone, as the PwD began to come out of their homes and were considered a part of society. They were admitted into schools at a larger level, and many schools opened their gates for them. During this phase, they were termed ‘Subnormal’ and ‘Handicapped’ (Tremblay, 2007). The time period between 1970 to 1990 consisted of Phase VI. In this phase, special education services, i.e., early intervention and community-based rehabilitation attracted the attention of the masses. They were termed as ‘Special Needs Children’ ‘Challenged People’ and ‘Differently Abled’. The educational settings also shifted from segregated set-ups to more integrated set-ups. Even though they were educated alongside typically developed children, still stigma and taboo existed in the integrated settings. Finally, the world witnessed phase VII (1990 onwards), the era of inclusion and a right-based society where everybody has equal rights to live a dignified life. It was understood that the person comes before their disability and was termed as ‘Persons with Disability’. The advocacy of UN standard rules, the Salamanca Statement, Biwako Millennium Framework brought many inclusive educational practices to enhance the full and active participation of PwD in society.

Policies and Programmes International Scenario The Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971) was the first step towards promoting the integration of PwD in general life at the international level. It was followed by Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illnesses and the Improvement of Mental Health Care (1991). With the passing of the IDEA Act, 13 disability categories were presented, including intellectual disability. Another important fact has been the Salamanca Statement (1994). It asserted, “Reaffirming the right to education of every individual, as enshrined in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in addition to that, the Biwako Millennium Framework focused towards an inclusive, barrier-free and rights-based society for PwD in Asia and the Pacific”. Lastly, an international treaty called the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was proclaimed, which aimed to protect the rights and dignity of PwD. The recent development initiated by the UN as Sustainable Development Goals (2030) has identified 17 sustainable goals to be achieved by 2030, and the fourth one is education that seeks to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” by 2030.

National Scenario National Policy on Education (1986) is considered to be a major milestone that included a subsection on the education of CwDs. The content

116  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

of the subsection indicated: (1) children with mild disabilities would attend regular schools, (2) children with severe disabilities would attend special schools, (3) teacher education would be reoriented, (4) vocationalization of education, and (5) support for regular schools that integrate children with special needs. The programme of action (1992) following this policy gave significant visibility and importance to the education of CwDs (NPE, 1986, modified in 1992). The Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) focused on three main aspects – equal opportunities, protection of rights, and full participation. In addition to that, this act narrated the protective and positive aspects of disability like how to enable them with education, career for future security and equipping them with necessary vocational skills, research and manpower development, the environment that is disabled friendly, and establishing shelters for persons with severe disabilities. The National Trust came into existence in 1999 and emphasized the provision of the guardianship of PwIDD. And, it was the revolutionary RPwD Act (2016) that included 21 disabilities, which was an updated version of the 1995 Act which included only 7 disabilities. The National Education Policy (2020)focused on three educational avenues – namely, inclusive education, special school education, and home-based instruction. It gives importance to the following: the ‘foundational capacities’ of literacy and numeracy and ‘higher-order’ cognitive capacities, such as critical thinking and problem-solving – but also “social, ethical, and emotional capacities and dispositions”. The RPwD Act emphasizes inclusive education where all students are to be provided education under one roof. The educational statistics for the CwIDD are given in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1  Current Educational Status Specification

Male

Female

Total Population

Age group: 5–19 years Attending Educational institutions Drop-outs Never attended Educational institution Literate Population of PwIDD

3,18,520 1,53,889

2,27,327 1,03,866

5,45,847 2,57,755

36,277 1,28,354

26,986 96,475

63,263 2,24,829

62,481

34,653

83,368

71,466

97,134 Rural – 71,745 Urban – 25,389 1,54,834 Rural– 1,21,258 Urban–33,576

Illiterate Population of PwIDD

Source: https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html Following is the data from the Census (2011) of the educational status of CwIDD available under various heads

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  117

Special Schools Known for providing tailor-made education ✓ ✓ Always in demand socially Special schools are separate schools for the blind, for the deaf, and for those with intellectual disabilities. Gradually, special schools for children with cerebral palsy and for those with autism spectrum disorders were established by NGOs and predominantly parents. Later, government grants were made available to some of the schools from the Ministry of Welfare (now renamed as Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment). Institutes for CwIDD working across India are many, and a few of them are mentioned in Table 8.2. Integrated School Aims to facilitate social integration ✓ ✓ Many co-curricular and a few curricular activities are performed together

Table 8.2  Major Institutes for CwIDD across India S. No.

Institutes

States

1.

Helen Keller School for the Deaf and Rehabilitation Centre Karunaya Manovikas Seva Sadan Srijana Institute for Human Development and Rehabilitation Institution for the Mentally Retarded Children Prayas Special School for Mentally Handicapped Children Vathsalya School for Special Education Prakash School for Children in Need of Special Care Digdarshika Institute of Rehabilitation and Research Dilkush Special School Tamanna Special School and Muskan Vocational Training Chetana Institute for the Mentally Handicapped Disha (A Resource Centre for the Disabled) Madhuram Narayan Centre for Exceptional Children V-Excel Educational Trust Special School Sweekar Rehabilitation Institute for Handicapped Chetna – A Society for the Welfare of Handicapped Prabratak Institute for the MR Children

Andhra Pradesh

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Source: https://www.niepid.nic.in/

Bihar Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra New Delhi Odisha Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Telangana Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

118  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

In 1974, the Ministry of Welfare initiated Integrated Education of the Disabled Children (IEDC) by providing financial support for procuring books, uniforms, and special equipment. (https://enabled.in/wp/integratededucation-for-disabled-children/). Later in 1984, the Ministry of Human Resource Development widened the scope of the scheme of IEDC on a project mode, and it was implemented in many states in the country. This was the first step towards a formal admission of CwIDD also into regular schools, which brought the education of CwDs into the mainstream to some extent from the segregated settings. Inclusive School ✓ Irrespective of the condition/status education under one roof for all children without any discrimination ✓ Based on excellent philosophy, challenges in execution There is no clear consensus about the modes and meaning of inclusion to be practiced actually in one or the other learning or educational situations (Kauffman and Hallahan, 1995). The following is a brief description of the models of inclusion suitable to the varied needs of CwIDD: a) One teaching, one observing: One teacher provides instruction and the other teacher observes the students’ performances and classroom activities. b) Station teaching: Students are broken into smaller groups and the teachers provide instruction separately to each group. c) Parallel teaching: Students are divided into two homogeneous groups, and two co-teachers provide instruction to each group separately. d) Alternative teaching: The students are assessed, and at-risk students are identified. One teacher teaches the at-risk students and the other teacher provides instruction to the rest of the class. e) Teaming: In this type, both teachers discuss the topic together with the class by taking turns and roles. f) One teaching, one assisting: As one teacher takes forward with the instruction, the other teacher provides assistance to students by supporting and answering questions. CwIDD can successfully be included and educated following any of the aforementioned three settings of education. Depending on the needs and severity of the disability and the willingness of the environment and

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  119

institutions, CwIDD can be put in any of the settings and can get educated to their highest possible potential.

Challenges The challenges of providing education for CwIDD in an inclusive set-up can be approached from fourfold perspectives. Challenges Faced by the Students Attitudinal barrier is the most important invisible barrier that hinders the well-being of CwIDD in an inclusive set-up. Due to the negative attitude and underestimation by the stakeholders towards CwIDD, the biggest risk of bullying generates a lack of sense of belongingness in the educational environment in CwIDD. And the rigid curriculum framework is one of the major reasons why inclusive education seems to go a long way to fulfilling their learning needs. Challenges Faced by Regular Teachers Providing appropriate and sufficient hands-on training during teacher education programmes could be made intensive and arduous for regular teachers as they do face difficulties in handling children with diverse needs in an inclusive set-up. Challenges Faced by the Administration The administration must maintain a standard student-teacher ratio while educating CwIDD in an inclusive set-up, as with a large population, it is difficult to practice the same and provide equitable outcomes for all. Moreover, sensitization about their needs and limitations also poses a big challenge to them. Challenges Faced by the Parents Due to informational barriers faced by parents of CwIDD, they undergo a lot of stress and anxiety worrying about their child’s future. Not often do they get first-hand information about the legal policies and concessions that can help in the better education of their children. And majorly the parents of CwIDD constantly hold a sense of fear of stigma regarding their children. They feel that in an inclusive educational set-up, there are higher risks of ignorance and bullying by non-disabled peers, alienating CwIDD, labelling, and discrimination which might adversely affect their child’s future.

120  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

Other Challenges Include The lack of counselling for parents of CwIDD about inclusive education, the lack of knowledge about various teaching methods and strategies among the general educators to cater to the needs of CwIDD, and teachers’ unwillingness towards continued rehabilitative education, the other major challenges for implementing inclusive education.

Innovative Practices Students with disabilities often experience a lack of support and equal participation. This can be overcome by providing assistive technology which will help them to access the general education curriculum. Assistive technology includes any item or equipment which improves the functional capacities of the individual and helps to lead an independent life (Reed and Bowser, 2005). It also includes information and communication technologies, which is an emerging field in today’s scenario. The assistive device can be used by the child on their own or with help from someone (Ahmad, 2015). Assistive technology connects the cognitive abilities of CwIDD to educational opportunities that may not be accessible due to disability, and it expands their access and participation in the classroom.

Role of Teachers in Effectively Using Assistive Technology Special educators must be given good exposure to assistive technology and devices that may bring ease so that students could learn without stress and perform well in academics (Mull and Sitlington, 2003). They should be equipped with the required skills and provide appropriate assistive technology tools that can help the students in achieving independence based on their specific needs. Special educators play a vital role in assessing the needs and demands of CwIDD in order to select a suitable assistive device. So, it is mandatory for them to be exposed and to have knowledge about all the available options. Technology studies must be made one of the core areas of teacher preparatory programmes.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) UDL is a learning outline that is grounded on the assumption that diversity is constant in all contexts and all individuals (Frolli, 2020). UDL originates from the field of architecture and is mainly based on providing flexibility in curriculum and learning goals, and focuses on catering to the diverse needs of students. It transforms the learners into experts who become motivated, resourceful, knowledgeable, strategic, and goal-directed towards performing

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  121

any task or work (Rose and Meyer, 2002). Therefore, UDL emphasizes using multiple needs of expression, representation, and engagement in teaching any concept (King-Sears, 2009). UDL is based on three key principles: 1) Multiple Means of Engagement: The teacher must provide different strategies and methodologies to keep the CwIDD motivated and interested in the class. 2) Multiple Means of Representation: The teacher must provide information in various formats and methods to make it accessible to CwIDD. Not all children can acquire information from one form (videos, texts, images, audio, etc.) So, varied formats help in covering diverse learner needs. 3) Multiple Means of Expression: The teacher allows the CwIDD to demonstrate their knowledge in a variety of ways (oral, written, pictorial, etc.).

Development of E-Learning COVID-19 has pushed every aspect of education to be digitalized and to be made available through online platforms due to the closure of schools. It is very vital that all the available resources are digitalized and available to all educators and students. There are very good initiatives taken by various organizations to make this happen. a) e-Saadhya: e-Saadhya is an adaptable, accessible e-learning framework initiated by the Department of Electronics and Information technology, GoI, and is implemented by C-DAC and the National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (NIEPID). Basically, it gives a combination of standard tools to be used for diagnosis, also special educational assessment checklists, various methods to be used for teaching, and curriculum-based measurement support to students with mild intellectual disabilities and autism. b) Kids Play: NIEPID (2005) has come up with a book titles Kids Play where the authors have emphasized the importance of play in a child’s development. It can be used by all parents and caregivers as a handbook for teaching important life skills to children through age-appropriate play. Punarjjani It is a user-friendly browser tool that empowers teachers to carry on easy, well-organized, swift appraisals of CwIDD. It was developed by Digital

122  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

India Corporation under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. Under the National Trust Act (1999), ten innovative schemes for the welfare of persons with autism, intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, and multiple disabilities were established by the GoI. These schemes are explained briefly: 1) Disha: This is an early intervention and school readiness scheme for children under the age group of 0–10 years providing therapies, training, and support to family members and day-care facilities to PwD for at least four hours a day. 2) Vikaas: This is a day-care scheme that primarily enhances interpersonal and vocational skills. It provides day-care facilities for six hours a day along with age-specific activities. 3) Samarth: It offers temporary shelter for the destitute and gives relief to the victims of natural or man-made disasters and PwD. It provides group home facilities with quality care services and basic medical care. 4) Gharaunda: It has the provision of providing home care with acceptable living standards throughout life. It also assures to provide vocational and pre-vocational training to PwD. 5) Nirmaya: This scheme aims to provide affordable health insurance to PwD up to Rs. 1 lakh, including medicines, diagnostic tests, regular medical check-ups, hospitalization, corrective surgery, transportation cost, and therapies to reduce the impact of disabilities and for surgery to prevent its aggravation in future. 6) Sahyogi: Sahyogi aims at creating a skilled workforce of caregivers by providing training. It also seeks an opportunity for the families and parents to get trained in caregiving. 7) Gyan Prabha: Gyan Prabha encourages PwD to pursue educational and vocational courses like graduation, professional courses, and vocational training which can help in employment. 8) Prerna: Prerna aims to provide advertising for products to be sold and to create executable platforms for the sale of products made by PwD. It provides funds to participate in exhibitions and fairs to sell the products. 9) Sambhav: This scheme is to set up additional resource centres for providing the latest information and easy entry for any type of assistive tool or equipment to PwD for substantial growth and development. 10) Badhte Kadam: It aims at public awareness, sensitization, social integration, and mainstreaming of PwD. It also aims at raising awareness in public regarding PwD and disseminates information on preventive strategies for disabilities, spreads awareness about myths/misconceptions about disability, and increases representation in rural areas.

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  123

Prospects of Education in Specific Groups Inclusive Society with Inclusive Schools The new millennium has been welcomed by the masses. And certain words have already knocked at the doors. It seems to be a commencement of extending arms for putting the foundation of an inclusive society irrespective of ability, disability, differences, and diversity. So what is an inclusive society? A society that welcomes diversity and believes in the fundamental equality of all individuals regardless of age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, ability, or religion provides a decent socioeconomic status and full participation in an inclusive society. Full participation includes, but is not limited to, the following dimensions: (a) cultural, (b) economic, (c) social, (d) environmental, (e) legal, (f) physical, (g) political, (h) relational, and (i) spatial (Laidlaw Foundation, 2002). To answer the question – Inclusion why? UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2009) mentions that an inclusive society is multifaceted and includes both social and economic advantages. Broadly defined, the social benefits of an inclusive society include the creation of a just and equitable world, and the economic benefits include opportunities for shared prosperity. Inclusive education believes in a school environment that is morally sound and practically accommodates all CwDs. It stresses the fact that, in inclusion, students must receive equal access to learning materials, and they should be engaged in meaningful activities (Porter and Towell, 2013). While these guiding principles are largely agreed upon in government and international organizations’ policies, and appear in the mission statements of many social programmes, their practical implementation remains challenging (Abbott, Wallace, and Sapsford, 2016; UNDESA, 2009). History says that inclusive education should be fruitful in inculcating the concept of sharing the commonwealth of the society and its culture. The result of this education gives rise to a diverse population where people have the quality of sensitiveness towards humans and society.

Recommendations Creating Awareness in Rural and Sub-urban Areas The predominant condition in the sub-urban area is different from that of the rural area, which needs to be considered while planning and organizing inclusive services for CwIDD at both ends. The sub-urban areas are slightly populated with modern facilities too. Facilities in terms of education, materials transportation, specialized services, and so on are more in urban areas. Accessibility to available services is also high as compared to the rural areas due to differences in socioeconomic status and transportation facilities. So, unquestionably, there is a huge difference in the exposure

124  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

and availability of services among the people in rural and urban areas, and this difference leads to a lot of attitudinal and opportunity imbalances. In rural areas, the biggest impediment for the parents of CwIDD is inadequate information about the available services and policies. Creating awareness by organizing camps about current policies and legislations for CwDs, door-to-door surveys, picture galleries displaying the achievements and abilities of CwIDD in various fields across the world, and workshops on improving access to public places and transport should be conducted in rural and sub-rural areas to make people understand that with proper education and necessary help, CwIDD also can have a dignified life. These campaigns should emphasize ensuring the rights of CwIDD to food and nutrition, education, employment, and healthcare. Conducting such awareness-raising activities in rural areas would help in avoiding regional and geographical differences when it comes to opportunities for educational services. Organizing Sensitization Programmes against Bullying of Children with Disability One of the major concerns for parents of CwDs while admitting their child into an inclusive set-up is acceptance of their child in the educational environment. Due to the dearth of sensitivity among peers, general educators, parents of typical children, and non-teaching staffs who constitute as the stakeholders of the inclusive set-up, there is a huge stigma and negative attitude prevailing. This hinders the CwIDD from getting a positive and safe educational environment. To sensitize the stakeholders and make them more aware of the abilities, needs, and limitations of CwIDD, a sensitization programme must be conducted in inclusive schools, as this improves their readiness for inclusion and make them more welcoming and non-judgemental. Sensitization is a long-term process that brings the necessary attitudinal changes among all the stakeholders so that CwIDD can enjoy the right to be included with respect and dignity on the school premises and in society. Sensitization includes diversity training (being sensitive to how we see ourselves and others) and behaviour-based training (learning appropriate actions and ways to communicate). The process happens at three levels: 1) Exposure: This is the first level of the process where people get to know about various disabilities and PwDs. 2) Experience: In this second level, they are made to experience disability for a short period of time through simulation activities (being blindfolded, using a wheelchair, etc.) 3) Ownership: With the help of the first and second levels, they undergo a change in their thought process and the way they look at PwD.

Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities  125

When this level is achieved, both persons with and without disability become advocates for the rights of PwD (Loucks and Townsend, 2016).

Monitoring at the Execution Level As we discussed earlier in this chapter, there are various policies that have been introduced for the welfare and education of CwIDD. Though the GoI has put in a lot of effort to frame laws and policies, i.e., RPwD Act (2016), Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) Act (1992), etc., not all the policies are successfully implemented. This discrepancy between framing the laws and implementing them adversely affects the success of such laws that are framed for the welfare of CwIDD, so this gap is to be bridged by mutual coordination among all the stakeholders (NEP, 2020). To make this happen, a monitoring committee constituting experts in the field under the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) has to be set up and inspections are to be conducted at regular intervals to keep track of whether the spirit and intent of the policies are achieved. It is recommended that this committee intervenes in each step of the execution to make sure that all policies are holistically implemented in a full fledge.

Revise/Upgrade the Commonly Used Assessment Tools Assessment checklists that are being used in schools and institutions are outdated and do not go with the current needs of CwDs. Checklists should be made contemporary in nature and should be upgraded at regular intervals to make them functional and more useful.

Conclusion Above all, the stakeholders of educating CwIDD must come forward to create a more equitable society and share their experiences and expertise. Educating CwIDD is to be taken as a human rights issue. The rights of those who have been denied need-based and appropriate access to education are to be addressed now. This could be achieved through a coordinated approach across services that involves service users and providers working in partnership. Inclusion is the key paradigm for educating CwIDD and involves a detailed study and research in operationalizing it. Education is important for the personal well-being of the individual. It enhances the full participation of society and plays an important role in social development and human capital formation. Therefore, educating CwIDD should not be taken as an issue to debate but rather to reflect on the principles of inclusion, practices, and constant improvement using UDL and incorporating technological advancements. As challenges exist always and differ from time to time, society has to prepare itself to meet the challenges in some way or another.

126  P. Aruna and Saumya Chandra

References Abbott, P., Wallace, C., and Sapsford, R. (2016) Socially Inclusive Development: The Foundations for Decent Societies in East and Southern Africa. Applied Research Quality Life, 12, 813–839 DOI: 10.1007/s11482-016-9491-6 https:// link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11482-016-9491-6.pdf Ahmad, F. K. (2015). Use of assistive technology in inclusive education: Making room for diverse learning needs. Transcience, 6(2), 62–77. https://www2. huberlin.de/transcience/Vol6_No2_62_77.pdf Annie, A. (2018). Malformation, Infirmity and Disability among Children in Rome and the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Retrieved from https://journals. openedition.org/pallas/5691 Frolli, A. (2020). Universal Design for Learning and Intellectual Disabilities. Global Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 6(5). https://doi. org/10.19080/gjidd.2020.06.555696 Kauffman, J. M., and Hallahan, D. P. (1995). The Illusion of Full Inclusion. https:// journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/019874299602100304 King-Sears, M. (2009). Universal Design for Learning: Technology and Pedagogy. Learning Disability Quarterly, 32(4), 199–201. https://doi.org/10.2307/27740372 accessed on 25.02.22. Mangal, S. K. (2010). Educating Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. Mull, C. A., and Sitlington, P. L. (2003). The Role of Technology in the Transition to Postsecondary Education of Students with Learning Disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669030370010301 accessed on 5 February 2022. Porter, G. and Towell, D. (2013). Advancing Inclusive Education: Keys to Trans­ formational Change in Public Education Systems. Fredericton, NB: Inclusive Education Canada. Reed, P., and Bowser, G. (2005). “Assistive Technologies and the IEP”, in Edyburn (Ed.), Research and Practice. Whitefish Bay: Knowledge by Design Inc. Rose, D., and Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/ideas/tes/; https://www.researchgate.net/figure/demonstrates-the-Laidlaw-Foundation2002-understanding-of-the-features-of-social_tbl1_236236347; https://www. education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf Tremblay, P. (2007). Special Needs Education Basis: Historical and Conceptual Approach. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/History_ Inclusive_Education.pdf accessed on 12 February 2022. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2009). Creating an Inclusive Society: Practical Strategies to Promote Social Integration. UNDESA.

Chapter 9

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities Adya Shakti Rai

Introduction A specific learning disability, previously known as a learning disorder, is a broad and diverse category of disorders marked by significant challenges in learning and using reading, writing, or mathematical skills (dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia), despite intact senses, average intelligence, appropriate motivation, and sufficient socio-cultural opportunities. It refers to disorders, deviations, and performance differences in core academic disciplines such as mathematics, reading, writing, spelling, and speaking that are not caused by mental retardation, sensory deficits, or emotional disorders. For more than a century, learning disabilities (LDs) have drawn researchers’ curiosity. Over time, this field has passed through drastic changes in many ways. Historically, children who did not perform as expected academically were evaluated and often identified as having a learning disability (Kavale and Forness, 2006). During the period (1930–60), Brain Research created the cornerstone of the study of learning disorders and a more comprehensive view of LDs has evolved. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act 2016, which was accepted into NEP 2020, provides the most acceptable definition of a specific learning disability in India. It is as follows. Specific learning disabilities (SLDs) are a heterogeneous group of conditions wherein there is a deficit in processing language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself as a difficulty to comprehend, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations and includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, and developmental aphasia. This definition is in consonance with the definition of SLD given by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). SLD is a form of Neurodevelopmental Disorder that “inhibits the ability to learn or apply specific academic abilities (e.g., reading, writing, or arithmetic), which are the foundations for all other academic learning”. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-13

128  Adya Shakti Rai

Difficulties in learning are “unexpected”, although the rest of the child’s development appears to be normal. According to Sunil and Kulkarni (2005), Specific Learning Disabilities incorporate a variety of issues that make it difficult for people to learn. It refers to those who have a range of learning difficulties that affect their ability to store, process, or produce information. Depending on a specific disability, people may have problems in reading, speaking, writing, working with numbers or organizing thoughts. A person’s ability to learn new things throughout their life is impacted by a learning disability. They have normal or above-average intelligence, but their performance in one area falls below their IQ. There is no relation between IQ, emotional disturbance, or cultural factors associated with the inability to perform learning activities (Lyon, 1996). In essence, SLD is an umbrella term covering unexplained difficulties a person of average intelligence has learning fundamental academic skills. These skills are essential for both professional and academic achievement, as well as for surviving life in general. The ability of a kid with SLD to comprehend what they see and hear as well as link information from various parts of the brain is impacted. LDs have been classified in several ways. They are rarely thought of as a particular impairment in any categorization; rather, they are viewed as a wide category that encompasses academic challenges in one or a combination of fields. Generally, several domains: Hearing, speaking, basic reading (word recognition and decoding), reading comprehension, arithmetic computation, mathematical reasoning, and writing expression are listed in many documents. According to Cortiella and Horowitz (2014), the most common types of SLDs are those that impact the areas of reading, math, and written expression. These impairments may co-occur with others that affect attention, language, or behaviour, but they have diverse implications on learning. LDs have many facets and go beyond the stereotypes of the disorder as being limited to letter or reading difficulty. It can be categorized in the following ways: (a) Dyslexia: refers to describing reading difficulties. (b) Dyscalculia: difficulty in mathematics. (c) Dysgraphia: associated with difficulty in writing. In addition to these three, there are further conditions known as Associated Deficits and Disorders, which pertain to difficulties with the acquisition, processing, association, memory, and expression of knowledge. (a) Auditory Processing: It refers to issues related to comprehending and using auditory information.

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  129

(b) Non-verbal LDs: Difficulties with “visual-spatial tasks and motor coordination, comprehending body language and social cues, and quantitative computation and problem-solving”. (c) Executive Functioning Deficits: A lack of ability to efficiently manage time and space, plan, organize, strategize, and recall information. (d) Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): It is a brain-based disorder, characterized by excessive inattentiveness, hyperactivity, distractibility, or a combination of these symptoms.

Brief History The field of LD originated in the 1800s, but it was not as famous as before the 1960s when Samuel Kirk coined the term “learning disability”. The history of the field of LD has been classified in several ways. Hallahan and Mock (2006) and Hallahan and Mercer (2001) have divided the history of the field of LD into five periods: European Foundation Period (1800–1920), U.S. Foundation Period (1920–60), Emergent Period (1960– 75), Solidification Period (1975–85), Turbulent Period (1985–2000). Understanding of the components of various forms of LD has significantly changed over the last 200 years. In the year 1802, German-French anatomist and biologist Franz Joseph Gall documented a number of instances in which specific loss of mental function occurred in adults as a result of brain trauma. In order to characterize the incapacity to read, a German doctor named Adolph Kussmaul coined the phrase “word blindness” in 1877. In 1895, ophthalmologist James Hinshelwood continued to research word blindness in youngsters, and he understood the need for schools to recognize these children early on. The word “dyslexia” wasn’t first used until 1887 by German psychologist Berlin. From there, other European researchers such as Hinshelwood in 1917, Geschwind, Levitsky, Galaburda, and Orton in the 1930s provided more extensive research on the neurological and physical aspects (i.e., brain) of dyslexia and how brain function affects verbal and non-verbal communication (Richardson, 1992). French neuroanatomist Broca, German neurologists Wernicke, and Jackson provided the first major contributions to the field of LD through their research on aphasia in the early to mid-19th century (Richardson, 1992). Early in the emergent period (1961–74), the term “learning disabilities” was adopted and later defined by the National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children led by the American researcher, Kirk (Hallahan and Mercer, 2001). In the year 2005, Dr. Jeffrey Gruen and his Yale University study team discovered a gene that had patterns and mutations that were highly linked to dyslexia. According to a GfK Roper survey in 2010, 80% of Americans agree that “children with learning difficulties are just as brilliant as you and I.” The 2013 DSM-5 expands the meaning of “specific learning disorder”. Some major milestones in the field of LDs are as follows:

130  Adya Shakti Rai Duration

Description

Late 1800s

Morgan uses the term “word blindness”. Bastian uses the term “agraphia”. Berlin uses the term “dyslexia”. Hoffmann writes fidgety Philipp. Oppenheim reports ADHD-like symptoms. Brain damage is to blame for learning. Strauss and Werner claim that brain damage causes difficulty in learning. Orton speculates that incorrect brain connections may be the root of reading difficulties. Orton suspects reading problems might be caused by improper connections in the brain. Hyperactive children are first treated with stimulants. Loffer and Bradley document benefits and effects of stimulants. Children are called perceptually handicapped. The term “minimal brain” dysfunction is used. Kirk proposes the term “learning disability”. Association for Children with Learning Disabilities was founded. The federal government provides funds for the education of children with disabilities. Legislation mandates a free and appropriate education for students with LDs. ADHD is recognized as a specific disorder. Special technologies and accommodations for college students are mandated. Research continues in areas of heredity and brain activity.

Early 1900s 1920s–1930s

1930s 1950s–1960s

1970s 1980s 1990s Today

Source: Learning Disabilities: The Ultimate Teen Guide, by Penny Hutchins Paquette, Hutchins Paquette, and Cheryl Gerson Tuttle, 2003. SCARECROW PRESS, INC.

Policies and Programmes for Persons with LDs: Various international and national policies and legislations are as follows:

International Policies and Legislations The Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act, which is contained in the Education of the Handicapped Act of 1970, is passed by Congress in 1969 (PL 91-230). This is the first time that federal legislation requires pup­ ils with learning difficulties to get support services. Students with dyslexia and other particular learning difficulties have rights under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). These people are legally entitled to specific services to assist them in overcoming and adjusting to their learning difficulties. Education programmes tailored to the needs of the students. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) was passed in 1975, requiring all pupils to receive a free and suitable public education. In 1990, the law was called IDEA.

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  131

In 1987, the Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities issued a report calling for the creation of Centers for the Study of Learning and Attention, whose main aim is to further study and understand this topic. IDEA is revised in the year 2004–05. It expands parental rights and clarifies schools’ obligations. Response to intervention is a strategy used to attempt and assist struggling children. In 2007, the US Department of Education for Civil Rights issued a “Dear Colleague” letter. It claims that denying disabled children access to accelerated academic programmes is a civil violation. In the year 2015, the No Child Left Behind Act was abolished. Congress replaces it with the Every Student Succeeds Act. Within a broad federal framework, the new law allows each state to define its own student accomplishment goals.

National Policies and Legislations The LD movement in India is relatively recent. Inclusion of persons with LDs in the category of special needs is of recent origin in India. Before the existence of the RPwD Act 2016, this group did not even have legal rights in India. It was officially recognized in the year 2016 when the RPwD Act 2016 replaced the Persons with Disabilities (PwD) Act of 1995. Although several NGOs and other organizations have already been working for children with LDs for the past four to five decades in India, prior to 2016, evaluation processes and assistance measures for a child suspected of having SLD were largely left to the discretion of individual education boards. With the implementation of the RPwD Act 2016, there is a legal obligation to meet the RPwD Act’s specific evaluation and certification guidelines. In the year 2020, New Education Policy came into the existence in India which strongly endorsed the participation of children with disabilities, including individuals with LDs in the regular schooling process from the Foundational Stage to Higher Education. It is a significant attempt in line with the RPwD Act 2016: “which defines inclusive education as a system of education wherein students with and without disabilities learn together and the system of teaching and learning is suitably adapted to meet the learning needs of different types of students with disabilities”. This is in complete consonance with the provisions of the RPwD Act 2016 and endorses all of its recommendations with regard to school education (Para 6.10). In para 6.13, it has discussed strongly the measures regarding continuous support to LD for their proper education. It noted that LD is the most commonly found in classrooms and endorsed that the earlier the support, the better the chances of progress. In section 6.14 of NEP 2020, “it strongly recommended that awareness and knowledge on how to teach children with specific disabilities (including learning disabilities) to be an integral part of all teacher education programs”.

132  Adya Shakti Rai

It also ensures the following: •

Assistance for teachers in identifying and planning for the mitigation of LDs in children. • Allowing kids to work at their own pace (via adaptable tactics, curricula, and assessments). • Alternative educational institutions will be urged to maintain their traditions or use unconventional instructional techniques. • Promoting the use of appropriate technology for the smooth teaching-learning process. • Establishing guidelines and suggesting suitable instruments for conducting assessments at all educational levels by assessment and certification organizations (including the proposed new National Assessment Centre, PARAKH). • This new school culture will be introduced, which will sensitize kids, along with related changes to adopt an inclusive school curriculum, by teachers, qualified social workers, and counsellors.

Current Status of Specific Learning Disability Much research on SLD has been conducted and various prevalence ratios have been reported. The estimated prevalence of SLD ranges from 5% to 15%. Over 2.8 million students are receiving special education services, according to a report from the US Department of Education. Approximately 47.4% of all children getting special education services are represented by this group of students. It’s estimated that one in five students has a language-based LD (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2011). Dyslexia is probably the most common of the language-based LDs, affecting an estimated 10%–15% of the population (Allen, 2010). According to the American Psychiatric Association (2013)’s DSM-5, 5%–15% of children from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds have SLD, compared to 4%–9% who have reading disorders and 3%–7% who have mathematics disorders. Furthermore, “SLD is two to three times more common in boys than in girls”, according to DSM-5. According to the DSM-5, “the prevalence of specific learning disorder across the academic domains of reading, writing, and mathematics is 5–15% among school-age children across different languages and cultures”. Johnson (2017) reported, “The lifetime prevalence of learning disability is about 10%. Learning disabilities are more frequently seen in boys compared to girls”. “From India, there are very few prevalence studies on SLD that are methodologically sound and that have tried to find the determinants of SLD; our study is one among them. The study revealed the prevalence of SLD as 16.49%”(Gowda et al., 2019). “Learning disorders are among the most frequently diagnosed developmental disorders in childhood. Epidemiological studies report comparable prevalence rates of 4–9% for deficits in reading and 3–7% for deficits

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  133

in mathematics”(Moll et al., 2014). According to an estimate, LD affects 5%–15% of school-age children; 80% of people with LDs have difficulties with reading in particular (commonly referred to as dyslexia). Twenty percent of people in the population have dyslexia, making it a very common condition. Males and females are equally affected by dyslexia. Specific learning difficulties frequently co-occur with anxiety and other neurodevelopmental disorders (like ADHD).

Organizations Working for the Education and Rehabilitation of Persons with SLDs Center for Disability and Development (Department. of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University), Division for Learning Disabilities, the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). CEC, National Center for Learning Disabilities was established in 1977. The International Dyslexia Association, LD Online, the Learning Disabilities Association of America, and Mencap are some of the organizations working for education and research in the area of SLD. At the national level, the Association for Learning Disabilities India Nellankara, Trissur, Mimaansa, Latika Roy Foundation, Dehradun, Dr. Anjali Morris Education, and Health Foundation, LD explained (Online) are some of the organizations working in different parts of the country. Various courses related to teacher training are also being offered through universities like Jamia Millia Islamia, SNDT University, and Amity University among a few offering bachelor’s and master’s level courses.

Challenges The most challenging part of their education and rehabilitation is their identification. Early detection of LD is a very complicated task by the fact that it is a “hidden disability”, with no physical signs or sensory clues. Determining what constitutes an LD is also difficult. SLDs are caused by individual variations in neuronal structure and function that limit a person’s capacity to receive, process, store, and/or convey information. The early years of school are when SLDs are most obvious, but some kids may display serious learning difficulties later in life, making a diagnosis possible at any time once formal education begins, including adolescence and adulthood. One of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders, SLD, affects between 3% and 10% of children. Although many definitions have been proposed, there is no common consensus on the diagnostic criteria and definition of SLD (Shah, Sagar, Somaiya, and Nagpal, 2019). SLD identification and eligibility procedures are currently undergoing dramatic changes, leading to a period that will perhaps become a pivotal point in the history of school psychology and in the future of determining eligibility for special education services (Hain, 2009). Children with LDs are a

134  Adya Shakti Rai

heterogeneous group. The Nalanda Institute report (2002) has highlighted that in India during the last two-decade or so, there has been an increasing awareness and identification of children with LD. India continues to lack a good understanding of the incidence and prevalence of LD despite this increased interest. Sadly, there are many challenges in epidemiological investigations of LD, from the very description of the condition to its identification, assessment, and socio-cultural peculiarities in India. The implications of these terms for the identification of children with LD in a pluralistic society such as ours are immense and cannot be easily handled (Karanth, 2002). Most children with severe SLD, misdiagnosed as intellectual disability, have to follow and attend special schools. Unfortunately, those who attend mainstream schools face many difficulties with LD due to academic failures (Shukla and Agrawal, 2015). These children are a diverse group of individuals, exhibiting potential difficulties in many different areas (Hassan, 2015). The problem of identification is due to the lack of clarity in the definition of LD. Defining LDs is the most challenging and critical issue in this area. The persistent lack of definitional clarity has impeded the accurate identification of children and adults in need of services in special education and other services for people with disabilities (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, and Barnes, 2018). It’s not unexpected that this causes confusion because instructors and parents fail to notice the signals in such youngsters and are unable to manage the internal battles that the child has to go through as he or she tries to learn, adapt, and socialize. The identification and screening procedure gets more complicated because of the fact that there is a lack of understanding, a fear of being called “disabled”, and insufficiency in equally dispersed assistance and resources. Lack of awareness among parents and school teachers continues to pose a significant issue (Muthusamy and Sahu, 2020). The inherent complexities of the notion of LD, are further complicated by an acute lack of awareness among teachers about the clearcut assessment procedures or indigenous tools for assessment of processing deficits, intelligence testing, and testing for proficiency in reading and writing (Karanth, 2002). Also, as problems with social perception, social cognition, and communicative competence (Bryan, Burstein, and ErguL, 2004). Children who have LD will have emotional problems like less activity, lack of interaction, lack of a sense of self-confidence, which reduces the value of self, sadness, emotional confusion, and emotional distractions (Hassan, 2015). Delay in identifying LD could cause academic problems and affect a child’s quality of life, impact their self-image, relationships with family and peers, and social interactions (Karande, Bhosrekar, Kulkarni, and Thakker, 2009). The fundamental issue with existing intervention and service delivery techniques seems to be that they are not being used with enough intensity, and those delivering them may not have the necessary and sufficient skills and training. One of the great challenges for our field in the next decade will be to learn the conditions that need to be in place and

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  135

then to accomplish the political work to put them in place for all children with LDs to acquire a full range of useful academic skills (Torgesen, 2004). Acceptance from the parent and coordination with parents is challenging for teachers. Most parents do not cooperate with teachers to work with these children since some of them are unwilling to acknowledge that their children need more care and attention because of their difficulties. How can we provide all children with learning difficulties, with high-quality, efficient instruction? This is the most pressing problem for service delivery and has been in the area since its inception. A child with LD struggles academically because they have trouble picking up the academic abilities of reading, writing, math, and spelling. It should signify a particular and limited form of cognitive processing impairment. Academic failures will have a detrimental effect on the lives of children and adolescents with SLD if treatment strategies are not put into place at an early age. Nearly 40% of these youngsters leave school early. Academic failure, low self-esteem, and social and behavioural problems can also cause  emotional problems. Long-term effects may include anxiety disorders, depressive symptoms, physical ailments, problems adapting, and difficulties sustaining permanent work. Children with LD are usually labelled as lethargic and irresponsible which further damages their morale and self-­ esteem. Low self-esteem, frustration, and other issues may plague a youngster with a specific learning condition. Because of these challenges, children with LDs continue to be among the most excluded from education, a problem exacerbated by poverty, inaccessible locations, social isolation, conflict, and catastrophe.

Innovative Practices in the Education of Children with LDs SLDs have no known cure; however, they can be successfully managed and regulated for the rest of one’s life. Early detection of issues and appropriate intervention is key for their education and training. Children with learning challenges might benefit from special education services, which help them to improve their reading, writing, and math skills. Effective therapies include systematic, rigorous, and tailored education that may help the individual to overcome learning challenges and/or develop compensatory mechanisms for their disorder. Ten percent suffered from LDs and could have benefited from individualized instruction and assistive technologies (Allen, 2010). Multimodal teaching using several senses is frequently used in education for people with learning difficulties. The most successful treatments for reading difficulties have been shown to involve structured and focused interventions that target phonological awareness, decoding skills, comprehension, and fluency. Treatment for writing issues can be divided into two categories: the writing process and the process of constructing

136  Adya Shakti Rai

written expression. Multisensory instruction is frequently used in the treatment of dyscalculia to assist children to learn arithmetic topics. Students with LDs require repetitive multisensory instruction to help them learn to adapt to their disorders (Allen, 2010). Students with dyscalculia can benefit from accommodations such as manipulatives and assistive technologies. For individuals with SLDs, accommodations include extended time for exams and written assignments, typing on computers rather than paper, and smaller class sizes are frequently helpful. According to Anderson and Neri (2012), innovative teaching and learning can involve virtual labs, learning activities based on real-life problems; learning environments with equipment, furnishings, materials, and audio-visual resources; and learning guides for students and the teacher. Some educational strategies like the Use of Universal Design for Learning, differentiated instruction, changes to the classroom, and active use of technology (Hecker and Engstrom, 2011) are being used successfully in the education of these children. Teachers are employing the following innovative techniques to include these children in the mainstream classroom. • Extra time complete assignments who need it and also provide taped assessments so that the child can hear the questions rather than read them. • Break down learning into little chunks, use probes, and provide consistent, high-quality feedback. • To supplement what they express in words, they can employ diagrams, graphics, and photographs. • Give a sufficient amount of independent, well-planned intensive practice. • Replicate the educational techniques they want their students to emulate. • Present strategies to utilize as prompts. • Scaffolding appears to make a significant difference as well. Begin with heavily mediated instruction from the teacher, known as explicit instruction, and then gradually allow pupils to acquire the skill, advancing towards the objective of student-mediated instruction.

Prospects in the Education of Children with LDs According to the preamble of the 2006 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), disability is caused by the interaction between people who have impairments and environmental and behavioural impediments. It hinders their ability to participate fully and effectively in society on an equal footing. The World Health Organization (2014) referred to disability as a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  137

which he or she lives. Almost seven decades ago, many determined efforts were made towards the empowerment of persons with special needs. In the Indian context, the year 2016 was important for persons with LDs. The RPwD Act, 2016, which superseded the PwD Act of 1995, increased the list from 7 to 21 conditions in order to be in compliance with the UNCRPD and grant legal rights to persons with an LD. India adopted a new education policy in the year 2020. The NEP 2020 has a transformative vision and promises to bring revolutionary changes to the lives of persons with special needs by aiming for inclusive, equitable, and universal access to equitable, high-quality education and opportunities for lifelong learning by 2030, the NEP 2020 has the potential to bring about revolutionary improvements in the lives of people with special needs. If this policy is implemented in a true sense, it will surely bring a response to the diversity of India and can cater to the needs of the diverse population. The RPwD Act, 2016, which was recognized in the NEP and has a strong commitment to being enforced, is the biggest win for disability rights. The Act provides free education to children between 6 to 18 years with benchmark disabilities. It will help in their empowerment. RPwD Act, 2016, and NEP 2020 maintain that disability is socially constructed and shifts the focus away from physiological impairment. This represents a transition from thinking of disability as a personal problem to seeing it as a social issue where PwD face prejudice, segregation, and denial of full citizenship. Recent developments in brain and learning sciences, learning technologies, data gathering, and analysis, and our understanding of how sociocultural variables influence learning have paved the way for better educational approaches for all students. It encourages experimentation to enhance strategies for the early detection of learning disparities and to develop innovative supports to assist all students to reach their full potential and fully engage in society. It is critical that countries adjust their responses to their unique circumstances. When nations are resource constrained, some of the top priorities, especially those requiring technical assistance and capacity building, might be accommodated within the framework of international cooperation. To achieve it, adjustments to laws, policies, institutions, and environments might be required. The needs of the general public are met as well as the human rights of people with disabilities through mainstreaming.

Recommendations While many governments have begun to take steps to enhance the lives of disabled people, still much needs to be done in this regard. The following are suggestions for action. They must be implemented in collaboration with several sectors, including health, education, and community. There must be significant efforts made by governments, organizations, professionals,

138  Adya Shakti Rai

the private sector, people with disabilities and their families, the general public, the private sector, and the media. Increasing Understanding of and Awareness of SLD: Lack of knowledge is the main cause of subpar assistance for students with learning difficulties. It obstructs acceptance, mutual respect, and comprehension of the genuine picture of the LD situation, as well as the creation of an inclusive society. Proper Mechanism of Identification and Assessment: As we discussed previously that the major challenge in their education is their identification and assessment. All subsequent evaluations of their accomplishment are contingent on their identification and appraisal. As a result, this is a high-priority area for stakeholders. Multidisciplinary Approach in Practice: A multidisciplinary approach by a team of professionals such as a pediatric neurologist, counsellor, clinical psychologist, special educator, and child psychiatrist is required for a proper diagnosis of SLD (Sunil and Kulkarni, 2005). Each child’s intervention must be tailored to his or her specific needs, and co-morbidities must be addressed appropriately. It is necessary to use a multidisciplinary strategy that integrates, among other disciplines, developmental pediatrics, child psychology, psychiatry, pediatric neurology, occupational therapy, and social work. There is no denying that parents and teachers play a role in the care of children (Muthusamy and Sahu, 2020). Adopting Universal Design and Implementing Reasonable Accommo­ dations: Inclusion of children with LDs also necessitates effective planning and adequate human resources to ensure that the diverse needs of people with disabilities are adequately met. Better, more flexible, integrated, and well-coordinated interdisciplinary services are also required. Involving Persons with LDs: They should be included at all levels of decision-making for them. They almost always have unique perspectives on their need and situation. To empower people with disabilities and advocate for their needs, disabled people’s organizations may require capacity building and support. Improve Human Resource Capacity: Effective education, training, and recruitment can all help boost human resource capacity. An assessment of employee knowledge and competencies in key areas might serve as a springboard for establishing appropriate improvement initiatives. Research on LDs Should Be Strengthened and Supported: Research on LDs should be strengthened and supported. In order to effectively guide disability policies and programmes, raise public awareness of disability issues, and allocate resources, research is essential. It is necessary to establish a critical mass of qualified disability researchers. Prospective studies, multicenter collaborations, and longitudinal

Journey from Learning Disabilities to Learning Abilities  139

research are the need of the hour to understand better and make children achieve their maximum potential (Muthusamy and Sahu, 2020).

Conclusion SLD is a complex disorder with a genetic predisposition that refers to a wide range of learning issues. Learning impairments aren’t caused by a lack of intelligence or motivation and other sensory issues. Their brains are just wired differently, which affects the way they receive and process information. Its symptoms are more severe when it is co-morbid with other mental conditions. One of the main causes of low academic performance, lack of interest in studies, school drop-outs, and poor adaptability is LD. An educational strategy and early intervention will lessen the challenges that this disorder may cause to the individual. Several initiatives at the international and national levels have been taken, but still much more needs to be done to fully include them in mainstream society.

References Allen, H. E. (2010). Understanding Dyslexia: Defining, Identifying, and Teaching. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 38(2), 20–26. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC. Anderson, R. T. and Neri, L. (2012). Reliability-Centered Maintenance: Management and Engineering Methods. Cham: Springer Science & Business Media. Bryan, T., Burstein, K., and Ergul, C. (2004). The Social-Emotional Side of Learning Disabilities: A Science-Based Presentation of the State of the Art. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 45–51. Cortiella, C., and Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The State of Learning Disabilities: Facts, Trends and Emerging Issues. New York: National Center for Learning Disabilities. Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., and Barnes, M. A. (2018). Learning Disabilities: From Identification to Intervention, 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford. Gowda, G. S., Komal, S., Sanjay, T. N., Mishra, S., Kumar, C. N., and Math, S. B. (2019). Sociodemographic, Legal, and Clinical Profiles of Female Forensic Inpatients in Karnataka: A Retrospective Study. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 41(2), 138–143. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM Hain, L. (2009). Exploration of Specific Learning Disability Subtypes Differentiated across Cognitive, Achievement, and Emotional/behavioral Variables. PCOM Psychology Dissertations. Paper 58. Hallahan, D. P., and Mercer, C. D. (2001). Learning Disabilities: Historical Perspectives. Executive Summary. US Department of Education: Washington, DC. Retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED458756.pdf. Hallahan, D. P., and Mock, D. R. (2006). A Brief History of the Field of Learning Disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, and S. Graham, (Eds.), Handbook of Learning Disabilities. New York: The Guilford Press.

140  Adya Shakti Rai Hassan, A. E. H. (2015). Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Children with Learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research, 2(10), 66–74. Hecker, L., and Engstrom, E. U. (2011). Technology That Supports Literacy Instruction and Learning. In J. R. Birsh (Ed.), Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills (3rd ed., pp. 657–683). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing. Johnson, B. (2017). Learning Disabilities in Children: Epidemiology, Risk Factors and Importance of Early Intervention. BMH Medical Journal, 4(1), 31–37. Karande, S., Bhosrekar, K., Kulkarni, M., and Thakker, A. (2009). Health-Related Quality of Life of Children with Newly Diagnosed Specific Learning Disability. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 55, 160–169. Karanth, P. (2002). Learning Disabilities in the Indian Context. Retrieved from: http://www.nalandainstitute.org/aspfiles/learning.asp Kavale, K. A., and Forness, S. R. (2006). Learning Disability as a Discipline. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, and S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of Learning Disabilities (pp. 76–93), New York: Guilford Press. Lyon, G. (1996). Learning Disabilities. Future Child, 6(1), 54–76. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Notification. (2018). Gazette of India (Extra-Ordinary) Department of Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) from: https://groups.google.com/d/topic/wethepwd/ XuRiT0VdWsg Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., and Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific Learning Disorder: Prevalence and Gender Differences. PLoS ONE, 9(7). https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103537 Muthusamy, K., and Sahu, J. K. (2020). Specific Learning Disability in India: Challenges and Opportunities. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 87(2), 91–92. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12098-019-03159-0 National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2011). NICHCY Disability Fact Sheet. http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/fs7.pdf Richardson, S. O. (1992). Historical Perspectives on Dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 40–47. Shah, H. R., Sagar, J. K., Somaiya, M. P., and Nagpal, J. K. (2019). Clinical Practice Guidelines on Assessment and Management of Specific Learning Disorders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 61, 211–225. Shukla, P., and Agrawal, G. (2015). Awareness of Learning Disabilities among Teachers of Primary Schools. Online Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(1), 33–38. Sunil, K., and Kulkarni, M. (2005). Specific Learning Disability: The Invisible Handicap. Indian Pediatrics, 42(4), 315–319. The Nalanda Institute. (2002). The Nalanda Institute. [Online]. [cited 2006 Apr]. Available from http://www.nalandainstitute.org/aspfiles/aboutus.asp Torgesen, J. K. (2004). Learning Disabilities: An Historical and Conceptual Overview. In Bernice Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning about Learning Disabilities (3rd ed.). Saint Louis: Elsevier Academic Press. World Health Organization. (2014). Disabilities. http://www.who.int/topics/ disabilities/en/

Chapter 10

Ensuring Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

Introduction “Multiple disabilities” is a term used for an individual with a combination of disabilities on the sensory, neurological, and physical levels. These impairments could include motor and sensory components. It could also be two distinct physical disabilities, two distinct intellectual disabilities, or a mix of both physical and intellectual impairments. Some of its kinds are Deaf-blindness (visual and hearing impairment), hearing, visual impairment, and intellectual disability, cerebral palsy with intellectual disability, intellectual disability with visual impairment, hearing impairment with cerebral palsy, speech impairment with cerebral palsy, and visual problems with cerebral palsy, etc. (Martha, 2021). Deaf-Blindness is a disability that results in a person having both hearing loss and vision loss, which poses serious communication, behavioral, and academic challenges (RPwD Act, 2016). Numerous factors can lead to multiple disabilities, including brain trauma, genetic problems, chromosomal anomaly, preterm delivery, developmental problems, etc. “Multiple disabilities” does not indicate whether any of the numerous potential disabilities a person has or how chronic they are. The combination of skills and limitations among people with multiple disabilities is enormous (Cabag, 2010). They require intensive intervention and support for activities of daily living to take part in their neighborhood scenario and to have a productive quality of life like any other citizen of the country. Children with multiple disabilities (CwMDs) may comprise learning issues, along with visual and hearing problems, also in motor organizational difficulties. A child who is having multiple disabilities must be provided with appropriate facilities at a young age (NCERT, 2014). To maximize the child’s potential, detection of the disability in the early stage and consequent intervention are compulsory (Loveless, 2022). We sometimes are unable to predict to what extent a CwMD is comprehending because the effort in communication may be unusual and go ignored. These factors make it possible for us to incorrectly categorize a child as having an intellectual disability. Very often, CwMDs have significant precincts in walking, talking, and having serious intellectual challenges. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-14

142  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

Helen Keller was affected by a disease that the physicians were unable to diagnose when she was just 19 months old. She was visually and hearing impaired as a result of this condition. She was the first individual with these issues to earn a bachelor’s degree in the arts, despite her impairments. Such was her resolute that she said, “Life is either a daring adventure or nothing”. Anne Sullivan, Helen’s instructor, and lifelong friend enabled her in learning various aspects. It was the first noticed case of Deaf-blindness under multiple disabilities in the world. Known as an ‘Indian Anne Sullivan’ to several individuals with Deaf-blindness, Ms. Beroz Vacha pioneered educational services for children with Deaf-blindness throughout India starting in 1977. She combined her knowledge and expertise with a deep passion for children and families and went about her work in an unassuming, easygoing manner that never failed to put people at ease. Ms. Beroz had a deep understanding of the possibilities of individuals with Deaf-blindness and multiple disabilities, and she pushed for the recognition of ‘total communication’ as a mode of communication for those with Deaf-blindness and hearing impairment. Her teaching stretched far beyond Indian borders, as she also trained teachers in Indonesia and Malaysia in teaching and communication approaches for the Deaf-blind (Rettner, 2018). To guarantee that students with disabilities receive an adequate education, the United States passed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the 1970s. If two or more different types of disabilities are present at the same time, a person is considered to have multiple disabilities under IDEA (IDEA Act, 2004). There were children and adults about 5 lakh reported with multi-sensory disabilities in India in 1997, but only one school in Mumbai had been established to serve the requirements of people with multiple disabilities and vision impairment, along with Deaf-blindness at the Helen Keller Institute for Deaf & Deafblind. In southeast Asia and India, they have been leaders in the teaching and relevant services of Deafblind children. The first national non-governmental organization (NGO) to provide comprehensive Deaf-blind services and training in India, Sense India (Sense International India) was founded in 1997 (Kundu, 2000).

Policies and Programs Various countries have passed legislation for people with disabilities. Among them, the Disabilities and Equal Opportunities Bill, 2017 by Antigua and Barbuda; Albanian national strategy on people with disabilities, 2006; Federal Disability Council (Law 24657), 1996; Australia Disability Services Act, 1986, amended in 2011; Bangladesh Persons with Disability Welfare Act 2001, amended in 2011; Belgium Anti-Discrimination Law, 2007; National Policy for the Integration of Persons with Disabilities, Consolidates Protection Standards, and Other Measures, 1999, by Brazil, Rights of Pers­ ons with Disabilities; Protection and Promotion Law, 2009 by Cambodia are addressing the needs of the multiple disabilities (DREDF, 2021).

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  143

In 1999, the National Trust Act for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, and Multiple Disabilities was conceded by the Indian legislature, which granted the provision of a national body by the constitution in the interest of the aforementioned disabilities including multiple disabilities, and it focused necessities for the stated disabilities together with multiple disabilities within. Some of them are as follows: Social Security: The cost of strengthening everyday tasks, medical treatment, commuting, accessibility aids, etc., is significantly increased for individuals with multiple disabilities, including families and caregivers. As a result, the appropriate governments offer welfare measures through a variety of channels to them. Individuals with disabilities and their caretakers are eligible for tax exemption according to the central government. Unemployment benefits or disability pensions are offered by the respective state and Union Territory governments. A comprehensive social protection plan for individuals with disabilities will be fostered at the state level. Guardianship: Autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and multiple disabilities are among the severe disabilities that leave parents feeling insecure about the welfare of their children after death. By local governance bodies, the National Trust Act has provided legal guardians. They are also putting the supported guardianship program into practice to give those with the severe disabilities listed earlier who are homeless and abandoned financial security by covering the guardianship’s expenses. A person who is unable to represent their cause due to mental infirmity or unsoundness of mind may appoint a guardian in litigation according to the Order XXXII of Rule 15 of the Code of Civil Procedure. The act has been amended in 2000, 2010, 2015, and 2018 (NT Act, 1999). A provision of the RPwD Act, 2016 states that PwDs are entitled to equality in terms of life, pride, and reverence for their honor and shall be guaranteed by the respective governments. This act was in the direction and execution of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) and other related issues. Skill development and employment: The relevant government shall develop policies and programs, along with the granting of funds at preferential rates, to support sustainable employment of people with disabilities, particularly for their self-employment and vocational training. Along with this, special skill-training programs are available for those with developmental disabilities, autism, and intellectual and multiple disabilities. Not below 4% of the whole jobs in the cadre composition in every set of employment designated to be recruited by individuals with benchmark disabilities, including multiple disabilities, and 1% of those jobs, shall be appointed in every public entity by the competent government.

144  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

There are certain schemes under this scheme for the education, rehabilitation, and employment of individuals with multiple disabilities. The Twelfth Plan of India: The goal of the twelfth plan is to create programs specifically for persons with disabilities. The Twelfth Plan must give special and heightened attention to the needs and priorities of the most vulnerable categories of individuals with disabilities, such as women, the homeless, and those with severe and or multiple disabilities. Anganwadi Workers, vocational training and assured employment for women with different capabilities, and special rehabilitation services along with care are among the priorities of the steering committee on women’s agency and child rights. Light work and a distinct wage calculation were suggested by the committee for rural women with disabilities who get into employment through the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Health-related care is also necessary for women with various capacities. To facilitate frequent medical tests, such women should receive special medical coverage under Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana. As part of the Total Sanitation Campaign the steering committee also proposed 100% funding to build toilets in houses for women with disabilities (Country Report India, 2013). National Scholarships for PwD: A total of 500 new scholarships are given out annually under this program by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment for post-matriculation, professional, and technical courses lasting more than a year. Scholarships are given to students to continue their education, starting in the ninth standard, who have intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, profound or severe hearing impairment, and multiple disabilities. Niramaya Scheme: According to the National Trust Act, this health insurance program is exclusively devoted to the benefit of people with multiple disabilities, including intellectual disability, autism, and cerebral palsy. Up to USD$1,650 are covered by the insurance policy. A nominal premium of $4 per year is charged to families with incomes higher than $250 a year (NT Act, 1999). Gharunda Scheme: In 2008, the National Trust for Disabled Adults initiated group homes and rehabilitation activities along with impaneled service providers, to offer “[l]ifelong shelter and care facilities” and to assist persons with autism, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, and cerebral palsy (NT Act, 1999).

Current Status Comparatively to other disability categories, the percentage of the US population who exhibits multiple disabilities is quite low. According to data collected since the year 2000, just 2% to 3% of all disabled people in the

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  145

United States have multiple disabilities. In the United States, IDEA covers about 0.18% of the learners with severe and multiple disabilities. The states informed the US Education Department that they were offering operations to 140,209 pupils with multiple disabilities during the 2002–03 academic year (US Department of Education, 2006). In India, some seven types of disabilities along with multiple disabilities were also itemized for the population count in the Census, 2011. Approximately 2.68 crores people in India have disabilities, which represents 2.1% of the entire population; 21.16 lakhs are classified as having multiple disabilities among them which proportionate around 7.9% of it. The literacy level among these populations is very low, as is evident from Table 10.1. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) enrolls a high number of children with disabilities (CwDs) instead of conventional schools; the proportion of CwMDs who attend this school is the lowest (NIOS, n.d, p.81). According to studies on out-of-school children, 0.60 million CwDs between the ages of 6 and 13 do not attend school. Compared to the national figures of 2.97% who are not in school, this represents more than 28% of CwDs. Nearly 44.13% of CwMDs do not attend school (SRI & EdCIL, 2014). To endorse the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the years 2015–30, delegates from all around the world gathered in New York on 25–27 September 2015. The lives of disabled people around the world have now decisively changed as a result of this. After years of exclusion, they will now be considered in development policies. The awareness-raising and advocacy efforts of Handicap International have significantly contributed to this remarkable improvement. The UN announced a 15-year plan for global development in the year 2000. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) program has significantly decreased global poverty and hunger. Since 1990, the death rate for children under the age of 5 has decreased by more than half; between 1999 and 2015, the amount of extremely poor people decreased from 1.8 billion to 800 million, and the rate of infant mortality decreased by 45% since 1990 (WHO, 2011). However, the MDGs

Table 10.1  Persons with Multiple Disability Literacy Rate Persons with Total multiple disabilities 0.7 million

Below primary

Primary to middle

Middle to secondary

Metric to graduate

Graduate and above

0.19 million

0.19 million

0.10 million

0.12 million

0.03 million

Source: Census of India, 2011. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/meetings/ 2016/bangkok--disability-measurement-and-statistics/Session-6/India.pdf

146  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

had one major oversight. They excluded 15% of the world’s population by completely ignoring the needs of the individual with disabilities. Given that 80% of persons with disabilities live in poverty, this was egregiously discriminatory. All school construction plans must have accessible services to all, including individuals with disabilities. States also pledge to create educational initiatives geared toward students with disabilities. The SDGs will put an end to urbanization strategies that disregard the accessibility requirements of the individual with disabilities and employment policies that exclude them from employment opportunities (MDG, 2015).

Organizations MOVE International at Albany in New York works to enhance the general well-being of persons with disabilities, especially those who have multiple disabilities, as well as the people who provide care for them. MOVE International’s Center for Disability Services is a nonprofit organization. To inspire self-esteem and optimism, MOVE encourages involvement in households, educational organizations, workplaces, social programs, and community living. The MOVE Program’s cutting-edge methods and training are beneficial to children, adults, and caregivers who care for and educate individuals with multiple disabilities. The chances for inclusion in families, organizations, schools, institutions, and communities are now available to many people who had no faith before. Only one national-level organization called Sense International India, Ahmedabad, provides services based on individual requirements to help people with Deaf-blindness confront their limitations. By creating awareness and advocating for rights, possibilities, and facilities across the country, Sense India is dedicated to supporting individuals with Deaf-blindness and multiple disabilities, as well as their caretakers and families. This is done through the dissemination of information, direction, assistance, and training. Deaf-blind communication, rehabilitation, accessible information, movement, and assistive technology are some areas in which the core team of Sense India has needed expertise. Sense India adopts a multi-pronged strategy that includes personal capacity building of its team, as well as technical and or monetary help to its associate NGOs, drawing on its specialized technical expertise and real-world experience of multiple disabilities including Deaf-blindness since 1997. Individuals who experience multiple disabilities with vision impairment, Deaf and Deaf-blindness, are provided top-class services in training, education, and rehabilitative services by Helen Keller Institute for Deaf & Deafblind, Mumbai. The institute was the forerunner across India and South East Asia in the training and upliftment of individuals with Deaf-blindness, even though it only began with a few teachers and learners. It has grown to over 200 cheerful learners due to the commitment of its teachers and supported staff. As a prominent institute in the comprehensive development of

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  147

children with Deaf-blindness, the organization is acknowledged by the Central and State government, as well as several global organizations. To act as a countrywide resource center for the promotion of individuals with multiple disabilities, under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, the Government of India founded the National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities in Chennai city of Tamil Nadu, in the year 2005. Apart from the aforementioned, at present, different organizations are working for the benefit of individuals with multiple disabilities across the country, including in the north, like Muskan Foundation at Goregaon, Mumbai; Disha – A Resource Center for Multiple Disabilities at Jaipur, Rajasthan, and WARDS in Bengaluru. Apart from the aforementioned, there are some other organizations in India working towards education and other rehabilitation services for persons with multiple disabilities, including Bachpan Day Care Centers of the Government of Uttar Pradesh, Muskaan Foundation, Perkins India, Shishu Sarothi, Deepshikha Society, Manovikas Society, Digdarshika, Madhuram Narayan Center for exceptional children, and (cross-disability intervention centers).

Challenges Faced by Persons with Multiple Disabilities Persons with multiple disabilities encounter many issues and challenges at different levels like personal, educational, economic, and social. Physical immobility, poor penmanship, weak clerical speed, a propensity to forget skills via inactivity, and difficulties generalizing skills from one scenario to another are personal-level issues. Weak high-level thinking and cognitive abilities, strained problem-solving abilities, negligible ability to engage in abstract reasoning, and poor test taking are due to the disability’s limiting characteristics. Having trouble determining the source of the sound, speaking with substitutions and omissions, having trouble learning about items and material connections, and lacking proficiency in setting professional goals. They frequently struggle with peer socialization, in addition to many physical issues, including convulsions, loss of sensation, hydrocephalus, and deformities. In some circumstances, an effort is required to guarantee their house safety during seizures or other events. The cost of medical care and transportation may be a strain on many families, and caring for a person who has multiple disabilities requires a great deal of patience on the part of family members who must take turns keeping them safe (Narayan Seva Sansthan, 2020). The challenges at the educational level vary depending on the educational setup, especially in general guardianship/caretaker issues: Even though NT Act, 1999 recommends guardianship and RPwD Act, 2016 recommends persons with disabilities have the legal capacity concerning financial matters, inheritance, etc. There are issues concerned with genuine responsibility

148  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

guardianship and legal issues in different viewpoints like the future of persons with multiple disabilities if the guardian expires even before them. Educational challenges like the provision of a school in the nearby location, assistive devices, properly trained teachers and other related human resources, the attitude of the school personnel, and admission criteria. The role of a multidisciplinary team composed of the parents of the students, academic professionals, and health-care practitioners in the areas in which the person exhibits difficulties should collaborate to create and organize essential services is another key concern (Orelove et al., 1996). participation of the right professionals, such as occupational therapists and speech-language pathologists. Residences and schools must be conveniently located and a buddy system established to make sure their requirements are met and therefore they receive assistance as required. Give clear, concise, and systematic directions on what you need the person to perform. Utilize visual tools when speaking with the child. Regularly involve the children in spoken language activities (Best, 2001). Accessibility issues include the fact that not many people have many types of disabilities, which could restrict how they engage with the Internet. For instance, captions for audio may be useful for those that are Deaf and have vision problems, but only if the captions can be changed in terms of size and color. Due to their location or other environmental factors, some persons may be encountering difficulties. For instance, individuals might not be able to receive sounds because of background noise, unable to see a display because of the glaring light of the sun, or cannot afford certain technology because of cost. There might be some functional restrictions for certain individuals who struggle continuously or periodically that may have an inconsistent effect on how they use the Internet. According to the condition of the individuals, few could require specific accessibility features someday while others don’t, or vice versa.

Innovative Practices There are some innovative projects for the benefit of persons with multiple disabilities that are being planned and one is the creation of novel technology development. Numerous cutting-edge initiatives for the creation of technology to enhance the lives of individuals with developmental disabilities are funded by the National Trust. The Voice & Vision, located in Mumbai, and the Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia, located in New Delhi, jointly created a multimedia training package for families of individuals with multiple disabilities, including Deaf-blindness. Information about the constitutional rights of PwDs was also positioned in that package. Through job fairs, along with ability melas organized by the National Trust, it is facilitating a linkage between employers and PwDs that results in placements. Individuals with four types of disabilities including multiple

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  149

disabilities that the National Trust prioritizes are invited to the job expo. A day-care scheme called Vikaas aims to establish its centers for the welfare of PwDs, particularly children who have multiple disabilities. Under the GHARAUNDA (Group Home for Adults) scheme, the Gharaunda centers are intended to provide permanent housing and care for PwDs who are protected by the National Trust Act. NIRAMAYA (Health Insurance Scheme) scheme envisages delivering comprehensive coverage of health insurance and the PRERNA scheme for marketing assistance intends to provide financial support to PwDs so that they can participate in scenarios like fairs, exhibits, etc., to market the goods they make. For inclusion in MGNREGA, individuals with disabilities as defined by the National Trust Act of 1999 are also to be taken into consideration. In MGNREGA works, individuals with disabilities must be appointed as a helper. In 1995, a special provision called the National Social Assistance Programme was launched to give pensions to individuals with disabilities. Most children who have severe and multiple disabilities gain things very poorly, do not recall easily, and also have more trouble applying lessons in diverse contexts than their classmates. When instructors use tried-and-true methods, these characteristics can be addressed most effectively. First, these pupils must get a public education that begins at a young age and is maintained throughout their lives. Second, most students require speech and language therapy, while others require occupational and physical therapy. While some students with medical requirements may need nursing assistance or monitoring, students with sensory impairments sometimes need interpretation services and mobility instructors. Third, as student educational teams are frequently big, strong cooperation between team members is necessary for their knowledge to translate into better student functioning. The advantages of integrated therapy over conventional separated therapy or supplement therapy are generally acknowledged. Fourth, the curricula for such learners frequently reflect the abilities needed in daily living across the household, recreational, academic, social, and professional domains. Learners are taught how to make decisions, communicate effectively using Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) techniques like signing, using images, etc., and develop practical expertise which lessens their relying on anybody. As part of their social skills training, they are also taught age-appropriate skills. Fifth, generalization issues are reduced when techniques are explained in a variety of realistic circumstances. Hence, experiences among conventional counterparts are the most effective framework for teaching social and communication skills (Best, 2001).

Providing the Best Support to Students with Multiple Disabilities The majority of students with multiple disabilities must require some kind of support and assistance during their entire lifetime. The severity of the

150  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

child’s disability will determine how much support they require (NIMH, 2003). A youngster with minor multiple impairments might only occasionally require sporadic support. Consistent attention is essential for children with multiple, especially severe disabilities. The need for ongoing support is more likely to be present for children with more severe and multiple disabilities. Pupils who have profound multiple disabilities frequently require assistance both in and outside of the classroom. These difficulties usually have academic as well as medical repercussions. First of all, it’s critical to thoroughly understand the importance of the child’s difficulties to customize interventions. For example, a child having autism and hydrocephalus will require a unique set of therapies than a child with deafness and cerebral palsy. The need for early intervention cannot be overstated, and most localities offer services for children. Preschool early childhood development resources are widely available in schools to assist pupils with impairments. Such support services assist children with mobility issues, adaptive learning techniques, and other things. Better results are achieved when intervention occurs earlier. In most cases, a group of experts is required to adequately meet the needs of the student (Shukla and Kamal, 2005). Occupational, physical, and speech-language pathologists, art and music therapists, and others will be on this team. Collaborate with this group to analyze the students’ development and plan efficient teaching strategies. Communication is critical between the child’s family, school, and other caregivers. The socio-cognitive development of all students benefits greatly from inclusion within general education settings. The majority of learners must be put inside a special education classroom even with minimal integration in general education classrooms, while many students can learn in a regular classroom with some assistance. Both the impaired student and the other students benefit from inclusion in the general education classes (Reynolds and Fletches-Janzen, 2000). The inclusion of impaired children in regular classes teaches important lessons about diversification and empathy. It is their duty as a teacher to make sure that every student treats the impaired student with dignity. Multiple disability students, especially those with health conditions that impair movement, may require considerable classroom supplies. wheelchairs, standers and mobility simulators, etc., are a few examples of these materials (Hemann, 2007). Individual Education Plans (IEPs) for students with multiple disabilities must be created by special education teachers in collaboration with the group of experts described earlier. IEPs outline a set of objectives to be achieved all across the academic year while taking into account the student’s abilities. These objectives may pertain to academic success, practical life skills, etc. Teachers of special education might have to assist the learner with eating, moving, and using the restroom. The use of adaptive technologies, like tablets or digital talkers, is very easy for learners who have multiple

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  151

disabilities. The use of choice boards is another effective form of communication in which students select from the set of images on a board. Safety is an important issue for these children, particularly those who have health complications or mobility issues. These children tend to trip and harm themselves, have unprovoked epileptic fits, or require some other kind of immediate care. The instructor should continuously be on alert for any danger signs and be prepared to call emergency services if necessary. These difficulties should be properly detailed in the student’s IEP. Assess students’ skills realistically when providing academic teaching, and change the standards as necessary. These students are prone to issues since they can easily become highly frustrated.

Prospects in Education in Specific Groups There must be special education facilities, specialized classrooms in general education institutions, and the development of particular special education facilities for particular multiple disabilities (Maanum, 2009). The technology as well as related resources being used for AAC are the most powerful and effective instruments used to teach and involve learners with multiple disabilities. There are many solutions available for a youngster who cannot talk and whose body movement is exceedingly challenging. These consist of simple pictorial flashcards, keyboards featuring personalized controls to help people with fine-motor issues, iPads, and other comparable tools with applications for text-to-voice, pictorial choice, or other types of communication. A wide range of teaching tools, like educational mobile applications, speech-to-text, and text-to-speech technology, that support the writing mechanisms, and curriculum content that offers differentiated possibilities for diverse learning styles or abilities, may also be beneficial for students with significant multiple disabilities. Given the right tools and opportunities, a learner with multiple disabilities could be able to study and perform effectively. It is crucial for parents of children who have multiple disabilities to enthusiastically take part in the creation, improvement, and evaluation of a design in supporting their child’s academic and social demands. During the children’s special education life, parents will learn and discuss a large portion of what they can do to assist their children. Life may be extremely demanding. These parents are under more time and patience pressure than parents of typically developed children.

Recommendations The lives of these learners have improved, and several significant trends, some of which are controversial since they encourage their inclusion in mainstream education with the required support. First, these people now live longer and have better alternatives for movement, communication,

152  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna

sensory stimulation, and other aspects because of advancements in health and innovation. Second, since the 1960s, views in society toward those who have severe disabilities have improved dramatically. Constitutional safeguards, special school provisions, community living options, supported jobs, and a rise in pertinent services have all resulted as a result of this. Third, upholding the principle of “free and appropriate education for all” mandated that schools stay up to date on the most effective methods in educating students with severe and multiple disabilities, with the outlawed practice of determining the eligibility to learn. It has been particularly contentious to follow the current trend of including people with significant or multiple disabilities in schools and or in other public settings through companions without disabilities. The progress of disabled pupils enrolled in general education settings is gradual, according to special education placement data, but it is lesser for those with significant and multiple disabilities. The inability of schools to integrate these pupils or to offer the required resources and support to ensure that everyone involved receives a meaningful education has been a source of the complaint. Even with help, certain general education teachers showed a clear desire to avoid teaching these students in the classroom, and some of them might not have the appropriate qualifications to do so. The advantage of inclusion is not only for children with severe significant disabilities but also for their typical counterparts. However, it is supported by a number of instances of schools actively incorporating these students in methods that encourage academic and social involvement. It is necessary to conduct more research, disseminate inclusion-related knowledge, and enhance teacher preparation (Hemann, 2007).

Conclusion When it comes to teaching pupils who have multiple disabilities, no one method fits all. The optimal support plan must be carefully chosen because of the diverse variety of their demands. It is our responsibility as their teachers to objectively evaluate their situation and choose the best strategy. Along with that, the provisions made by the various governments for the benefit of persons with multiple disabilities in terms of education, rehabilitation, employment, skill development, etc., also need to ensure CwMDs lead better, more successful, and productive lives.

References Best, S. (2001). Definitions, Supports, Issues, and Services in Schools and Communities. In Teaching Individuals with Physical, Health, or Multiple Disabilities, eds. J. L. Bigge, S. J. Best, and K. W. Heller. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Cabag, V. G. (2010). Multiple Disabilities. Available at www.slideshare.net/ vanessacabag/multiple-diabilities

Multifarious Development of Students with Multiple Disabilities  153 Census. (2011). Census of India, 2011, Data on Disabled Population. New Delhi, India: Government of India, Office of the Register General. Country Report India. (2013). First Country Report on the Status of Disability in India, 2013 https://disabilityaffairs.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/First%20 Country%20Report%20(1)_compressed.pdf DREDF. (2021). Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund, International Disa­ bility Rights and International Laws. Available at https://dredf.org/legal-advocacy/ international-disability-rights/international-laws/; https://www.education.gov.in/ en/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/National-Survey-EstimationSchool-Children-Draft-Report.pdf Hemann, J. S. (2007). Inclusion of Special Needs Students into the Regular Education Classroom. Graduate Research Papers, 827. IDEA Act. (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004) [Amending 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq.]. Kundu, C. L. (2000). Status of Disability, 2000. Rehabilitation Council of India. Loveless, B. (2022). Multiple Disabilities. Available at https://www.educationcorner. com/multiple-disabilities.html Maanum, J. L. (2009). Federal Special Education Disability Category. The General Educator’s Guide to Special Education (3rd ed.). Corwin-A Sage Company, California. Martha, E. S. (2021). Severe and Education of individuals with Multiple Disabilities. Available at https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2415/Severe-MultipleDisabilities-Education-iindividuals-With.html#ixzz7QPMK9Nue MDG. (2015). Sustainable Development Goals, Millennium Development Goals. Available at https://www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/post-2015/ mdgoverview.html Narayan Seva Sansthan. (2020). 10 Problems Faced by People with Disabilities. Narayan Seva Sansthan, Rajasthan. NCERT. (2014). Including Children with Special Needs (Primary Stage). National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2014. Available at https://ncert. nic.in/pdf/publication/otherpublications/SpecialNeeds.pdf NIMH. (2003). Education of Children with Deaf-Blindness and Additional Disabilities: Source Book for Master Trainers. Secunderabad: NIMH. NT Act. (1999). The National Trust Act, 1999 by the Government of India. https:// thenationaltrust.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/National%20Trust%20Act% 20-%20Englsih.pdf Orelove, F. P. and Sobsey, D. (1996). Educating Children with Multiple Disabilities: A Trans-Disciplinary Approach (3rd ed.). London: Paul H. Brookes. Rettner, R. (2018). What Caused Helen Keller to Be Deaf and Blind? An Expert Has This Theory. https://www.livescience.com/62711-helen-keller-deaf-blind-illnesscause.html Reynolds, C.R. and Fletches-Janzen, E. (2000). Encyclopedia of Special Education 2nd Edition (Vol. 2). NY: John Wiley and Sons. RPwD Act. (2016). Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016. Available at http:// www.disabilityaffairs.gov.in/uploaad/uploadfiles/files/RPWD/ACT/2016.pdf Shukla, N. and Kamal Mishra, S. (2005). Researches in the Field of Education and Welfare of Children with Multiple Disabilities in India. Journal of Special Education in the Asia Pacific, 1, 3–13.

154  Mrutyunjaya Mishra and Pettala Ramakrishna SRI and EdCIL. (2014). National Sample Survey Estimation of Out-of-School Children in the Age 5–13 in India. Draft report. US Department of Education. (2006). The Condition of Education 2006 in Brief. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/2006072.pdf WHO. (2011). World Health Organization, 2011, World Report on Disability 2011. World Health Organization.

Chapter 11

Educational Stimulations of Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities G. Shankar Ganesh

Introduction Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a category of abnormalities that manifest during the period of child development and result in impairments and deficiencies in functioning. NDDs include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, learning disabilities, intellectual disability, conduct disorders, cerebral palsy, and vision and hearing impairments, but are not restricted to these conditions. The importance can be envisaged by the fact that NDDs have become an integral part of the title “Mental, Behavioural or Neurodevelopmental Disorders” published in the International Classification of Disease (ICD-11). All NDDs include the specifiers “associated with a known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor”. Literature has shown that the prevalence of NDDs varies between geographies. For example, a study reported a prevalence of 3% and 48% in Uzbekistan and the Central African Republic respectively in children aged 2–9 years (Gottlieb et al., 2009). According to data from the 2011 Census of India, 1.1% of children aged 0–4 years and 1.5% of children aged 5–9 years had some sort of disability. However, another study that examined the prevalence of NDDs reported disability to be ranging from 2.9% to 18.7%. The authors attributed the variance in prevalence rates to heterogeneous risk and biological factors (Arora et al., 2018). Among the various disorders represented by NDDs, ADHD and learning disabilities have the greatest prevalence (Pastor and Reuben, 2008). There are indications that autism and ADHD are becoming more prevalent (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Behavioural and learning disorders observed in class and examination rooms suggest the prevalence of NDDs is increasing (Grupp-Phelan et al., 2007). More male children are diagnosed as having NDDs compared to female children (Morris-Rosendahl and Crocq, 2020). The term “mental retardation” was first introduced in the Therapeutic Papyrus of Thebes in 1552 BCE. The Age of Antiquity prescribed infanticide as a solution for children born with congenital disabilities. In the military city of Sparta, only those children who can fight were allowed to live DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-15

156  G. Shankar Ganesh

(Arthur, 2020). Children who had panic attacks or could not speak were considered to be possessed by demons and/or a punishment committed by a person. In most cases, the families or church were the custodians for such children. Early attempts at the education of children with special needs (CwSNs) were initiated by Christian missionaries. The concept of NDDs was first introduced in 1820 by Étienne Jean Georget (1795–1828). The birth of the 18th century put an end to the inhumane treatment of persons with disabilities (PwDs) and promoted compassionate care (Brown and Radford, 2015). Philippe Pinel removed the non-humanitarian management of ‘mentally ill’ patients and proposed that disability is a result of social stress, hereditary conditions, and physiological dysfunctions (Pinel, 2001, pp. 501–02). Pinel introduced his classification of NDDs in 1801 when he placed idiocy, mania, melancholia, and dementia as psychiatric disorders. Georget, meanwhile, argued that a developmental defect should not be considered a disease and introduced a sub-type of ‘imbecile’ population with higher cognitive abilities. Esquirol adopted Georget’s developmental view on NDDs and defined NDDs as a condition where intellectual faculties failed to achieve satisfactory development. During the same period, educating these children was considered a possibility (Brown and Radford, 2015), and Itard was credited as the first person who attempted special education for children with ‘intellectual disability’ (ID) (Ferguson, 2006). In 1839, Edouard Séguin founded the first school for children with severe ID and introduced sensory training as an intervention for children with IDs. Their works propelled the concept of learning for children suffering from NDDs. The 19th century saw the waning of humanitarianism and the rise of industrialization. PwDs were considered ‘inefficient’ to the demands of urban life and were pushed to the asylums (Brown and Radford, 2015). The concept of ‘education’ was slowly withdrawn and the ‘medical model of disability’ postulated disability as a result of intellectual and physical impairments. The social management of PwDs worsened with the introduction of ‘eugenics’ (Gillham, 2001). The eugenics movement gained wide popularity (Brown and Radford, 2015; Grodin et al., 2018) and aimed at preventing the breeding of the ‘feeble-minded’ (Grossberg, 2011) and ‘euthanasia’ (‘mercy killing’) was introduced. The first ‘euthanasia’ was attempted on children with disabilities (Hudson, 2011). The growth of ‘human rights’ post-World War II resulted in better management of children with NDDs. Various disorders represented by the umbrella concept of NDDs were classified based on the symptoms in the mid-20th century. Newer methods attempted to classify NDDs based on molecular biology, genetics, and genomics with limited success. One of the main shortcomings of using genetics for arriving at heterogeneous classification in NDDs is the fact that a diagnosis is not possible in many of the disorders; multiple genetic events and environmental factors combine to cause such disorders. This phase was followed by the “genotype-first” approach of genetic studies that attempted to define the subtypes of this complex disease. The recent

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  157

classification based on the genetic neurodevelopmental continuum attempts to grade NDDs according to the severity of impairment conceptualized on an etiological and neurodevelopmental continuum (Owen and O’Donovan, 2017). ‘Behavioural genetics’ emphasizes the influence of genes on behaviour, dispositions, and mental qualities, and is seen by many as the ‘new eugenics’. By robust application of this method, Iceland has moved into a Down syndrome-free society (Reinders et al., 2019). Behavioural genetics has led to “designer babies” – selection of a child’s genetic make-up and eradication of certain traits (Grodin et al., 2018). This despite the results of a study that reported individuals with Down syndrome are happy with their lives (Reinders et al., 2019).

Policies and Programmes International mandates by the United Nations, such as the declaration of the  International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981, the proclamation of 1983–92 as the Decade of the Disabled, the UNESCAP Decade of the Disabled from 1993 to 2002, and the World Conference on Special Needs Education in Salamanca in June 1994, have all emphasized the significance of PwDs and their needs. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Jomtien World Declaration on Education for All affirm every child’s right to education (1990). With the establishment of workshops, model schools, central Braille presses, and employment exchanges, the “segregation” policy of India prior to the 1970s began to shift. This was followed by the establishment of the Integrated Education of Disabled Children (IEDC) in the 1970s; efforts to teach CwSNs in ordinary schools were launched by the shift in disability’s emphasis from charity to human rights. Despite these efforts, the education needs of CwSN were not met, and “inclusive education” became the industry standard. This meant that all children, with or without disabilities, would attend regular schools and receive support services. The standard rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, 1993, had significant implications for enhancing the educational conditions of PwDs in India. According to article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) act, PwDs shall not be excluded from the general education system due to their disability. The positive outcome of the UNCRPD was inclusive education, which allowed students to be ‘taught’ by both general and special education teachers. The Incheon Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for PwDs in Asia and the Pacific aims to improve the quality of life and the realization of the rights of PwDs by focusing on development goals. The national policy for PwDs (2006) reaffirmed that every child with a disability must have access to preschool, elementary, and secondary education. The legislative acts passed by the Indian government have bolstered the education initiatives for CwSNs. The PwDs (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act (1995) emphasized the need

158  G. Shankar Ganesh

for a comprehensive education plan to address the educational concerns of individuals with disabilities. The 86th Constitutional Amendment (2002) mandates free and mandatory education for all children younger than 14 years of age. The National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999, has schemes such as DISHA, which is an early intervention and school readiness scheme for children aged 0–10, and GYANPRABHA, which provides educational support for children with disabilities to pursue educational/ vocational courses. The National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2006, acknowledges that PwDs are a significant human resource for the nation and if provided with equal chances and adequate access to rehabilitative methods, the majority of these people will experience a higher quality of life. The revised 2016 PwDs act (RPwD) sections 16 and 31 address the education of CwSNs. Section 16 of the Act mandates that all state-funded educational institutions provide inclusive education to the CwSNs and direct schools to identify specific learning disabilities in children and implement pedagogical corrections. Section 31 of the Act stipulates that every child with a benchmark disability between the ages of 6 and 18 is eligible for free education at the institution of their choice. This act provides a 5% reservation in government and government-aided higher education institutions for individuals with certain disabilities. The goal of the new education policy for 2020 is to enable CwSNs (including those with learning challenges) to fully engage in the regular schooling process. The act allows for the establishment of resource centres, “Bal Bhavans”, and “Samajik Chetna Kendras”, as well as the recruitment of special educators. These centres aim to educate children in art-related, career-related, and play-related activities, utilizing underutilized school infrastructure.

Current Status The number of children with disabilities (CwDs) identified by census data, district information system for education records, and Project Approval Board (PAB) survey aggregates vary significantly. According to the estimates of the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA), approximately 1.5% of children aged 6–14 have a disability, compared to 2.2% according to the 2001 Census. According to 2005–06 PAB state-specific data, 0.31% and 0.70% of children in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh have special needs, respectively, while 2.45% and 2.30% of CwDs have been identified in Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh, respectively. 21.11% of India’s total 1,299,905 schools provide inclusive education, according to the results of a nationwide survey of school education as of 30 September 2009. This includes 165,966 primary schools, 77,757 upper primary schools, 18,082 middle schools, and 12,638 high schools (NCERT, 2016). In addition, 42.69% of schools have never been visited by a resource teacher or special educator. Of the 58,76,273 total teachers, 1.32% have received at least two weeks

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  159

of inclusive education training. The percentages of children with different abilities enrolled in schools are as follows: visual impairment (29.16%), hearing impairment (14.47%), orthopedic (locomotor) disability (25.05%), intellectual impairment (22.35%), multiple impairments (4.20%), and others (4.77%), with 52.27%, 28.78%, 15.51%, and 3.45% of students enrolled at the primary, upper primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels, respectively. The National Trust is the leading agency working to improve the lives of children with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and multiple disabilities and belongs to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment of the Indian government. The National Trust’s mission is to foster an inclusive society that enables disabled individuals to live independently with dignity, equal rights, and equal opportunities. State Nodal Agency Centres (SNAC) have been established with a focus on convergence, documentation, mentoring, and activating local-level committees in order to broaden the scope of work in every state and union territory. Currently, 28 SNACs and 562 organizations are registered under this law. Child guidance centres, district disability rehabilitation centres, district rehabilitation centres, and human resource development centres are also involved in the welfare of children with NDDs. In addition to these, there are approximately 48 numbers of integrated schools, 36 numbers of National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation channelizing agencies/counselling centres, parent organizations, spastic societies, special schools, state social welfare departments, vocational training centres, autism organizations in India, SSA’s, and exclusive universities for students with disabilities such as Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Divyang University, Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, and others. Action for Autism, Swabo­ dhini Charitable Trust, Centre for Autism and Other Disabilities Rehabi­ litation Research and Education, Arvind Foundation, Ummeed Child Development Center, Amar Jyoti Research and Rehabilitation Centre, Delhi and Gwalior, Keystone institute, and Vasantham School and Home for People with Special Needs are notable non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in the field of NDDs.

Challenges According to a study, the majority of teachers have not received specific training about a child’s medical condition, have limited knowledge about the diagnosis, and do not believe that a diagnosis of NDD is distinct from other diagnoses. This could have a significant impact on a child’s educational planning, as cognitive and behavioural profiles vary across the NDD spectrum (Reilly et al., 2015). Teachers experience anxiety and stress when interacting with students with special needs because they believe they have not received the necessary training to instruct students with greater support requirements (Engelbrecht et al., 2013). Challenges identified by teachers

160  G. Shankar Ganesh

include large class sizes, maintaining discipline within the classroom, completing the syllabus, and the fact that the special child is one of many students enrolled (Singhal and Rouse, 2003). Language comprehension, expressive language skills, and attention difficulties have been identified as potential barriers to providing these children with an education. Furthermore, research has shown that some educators have a negative attitude towards inclusive education (Nel et al., 2011). Teachers who have received training in special/inclusive education, on the other hand, demonstrate a positive attitude and support strategies for students with NDDs (Eloff and Kgwete, 2007). There is also criticism that the curriculum adopted for these children is not relevant, with an excessive syllabus and repetition in the sciences, social sciences, and general knowledge, and a less-than-optimal distribution of extracurricular activities (Singh, 2001). Another barrier is the fact that special needs pupils do not see themselves as an “integral component” of the classroom (Walton, 2013). This may be attributable to the teacher’s lack of ability/training/knowledge/skills to enable students’ full participation in the educational process. Many students with disabilities are unable to succeed in the mainstream due to a lack of accessible resources, adequate facilities, improper methodology, and curriculum, and teachers’ incapacity to modify their lessons to meet the needs of CwSNs. In some instances, students withdrew from special schools due to the high cost of tuition. The World Bank reported in 2007 that not all CwDs enrolled in SSA receive free aid and appliances (World Bank, 2007). Currently, it is up to the child to adapt to the curriculum, rather than classrooms and the curriculum being modified to meet the needs of students. The SSA (2007) report confirms that teachers’ classroom practices and instructional strategies are insufficient to meet the requirements of CwSNs. Although the majority of educators support and believe in inclusive education, professionals are of the opinion that the availability of a support framework for establishing an inclusive environment and the severity of the NDDs may determine the final results (Avramidis and Norwich, 2002).

Innovative Practices in the Education of Children with NDD Numerous professionals, including classroom teachers, special education teachers, rehabilitation professionals, and others, contribute to meeting the educational needs of children with non-developmental disabilities. In England, teachers, parents, and children with NDDs collaborate to choose the level of assistance a child is given (Castro and Palikara, 2016). This strategy involves the participation of rehabilitation professionals in the planning of the education plan, taking into account the challenges and strengths of each child with NDDs. The following support strategies have proven effective: Cooperative learning is a method of education based on group work and peer instruction. It has been discovered that cooperative

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  161

learning fosters innovative thought and facilitates curriculum completion (Johnson and Johnson, 2005). When introducing new concepts in the classroom, visual aids are utilized to facilitate comprehension. This enables students to form mental images of the various concepts taught (Van Staden, 2011). Differentiation of the curriculum is utilized when students struggle to learn the curriculum at their natural pace. This strategy aims to offer students individualized attention and additional time. The classrooms are modified; the curriculum is simplified and taught at a slower pace. In peer learning, participants learn from their peers as opposed to a teacher, as students may feel more at ease interacting with their peers. Peering weak and strong students is hailed as an effective strategy for fostering active engagement and participation in education. The distinction between cooperative and peer learning lies in the fact that in the former, students learn together, whereas, in the latter, they learn from one another. Children with NDDs benefit from both approaches for developing oral communication, teamwork, leadership skills, self-esteem, responsibility, employment, and social engagement (Dillenbourg, 2002). This method benefits CwSNs who lag behind their peers in reading and writing. The level of comprehension of children is determined by their responses to oral questions. Oral assessments facilitate the implementation of inclusivity and the development of confidence in language arts (Mccormack-Colbert et al., 2017). Children are grouped as per their academic achievement in ability grouping (Richards and Schmidt, 2002), which is useful for determining the level of attention required for each pupil. This strategy is criticized for causing teachers additional stress and students to feel inferior (Luo and Tsai, 2002). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a paradigm that provides lesson objectives, curriculum resources, instructional practices, and assessments that are adaptable to the needs of all students. UDL-based instruction can increase student engagement and enhance their academic and social outcomes (OK et al., 2017). Apart from the aforementioned, other strategies like developing competencies in teachers to teach in an inclusive classroom, developing simplified lessons from concrete to abstract concepts that ensure attention in the learning process, providing repeated instruction and adequate practice of concepts taught, opportunities for self-learning, generalization of the concepts taught, ensuring that the multi-sensory approach adopted do not result in confusion and distraction of students, introduction of appropriate technology, providing education materials orally on an audio tape, printing with a large font and limiting the number of characters per page, providing a designated scriber, allowing tape recorder for verbal responses, providing frequent breaks, providing special seats with special lighting/ acoustics that minimize distractions, administering tests in small groups or private room, scheduling exams/tests over several sessions at a specific time of day, scheduling day’s programmes and activities beforehand, providing kinaesthetic opportunities, and recognizing the achievements of child may be tried to enhance learning.

162  G. Shankar Ganesh

Prospects in the Education of Children with NDD The cognitive abilities of the child with NDDs are affected. This is not the case with students having sensory or motor impairment who will perform better if compensated for the loss. Attempts to retain students with NDDs and provide meaningful education should take centre stage before any attempts are made at increasing their enrolment percentage. Recent trends have shown that children with NDDs can be included in mainstream schools. However, in order to attain the goals, it is imperative that the emphasis on the issue has to be shifted from ‘within’ the child to social structures and institutions. Educating children with NDDs in integrated/ inclusive schools varies according to their history, social factors, and culture (Ainscow and Miles, 2008). Research has shown that inclusive classrooms assist CwDs in learning basic communication and motor skills (Hunt et al., 1994), and engages the students better (Mirenda and Katz, 2002) without affecting the academic potential of normally developing children (Salend and Garrick Duhaney, 1999). Education of students with NDDs (mild to moderate severity) has shifted from special schools to regular schools. Both regular and special teachers are instrumental in educating these children. Task analysis is considered an effective strategy for children with severe impairments; a task is divided into easier sub-tasks in the natural order, thereby enabling effective learning. The curriculum for severely impaired children has to focus on function, communication, and self-help skills. Repeated practicing of these tasks and positive reinforcement are the keys to success. The Project for Integrated Education for the Disabled was established in 1987 as the initial step in educating the CwSNs. In the 1990s, “inclusive education” and the SSA, which promotes the education of CwDs through a “multi-optional delivery system”, gained momentum. The Social Security Administration adopts a “zero rejection policy” and ensures that every CwSNs is educated in an appropriate setting (SSA, 2007). SSA’s educational options range from special and mainstream/‘regular’ schools to Education Guarantee Scheme/Alternative and Innovative Education as well as HomeBased Education. Any disparity between expectations, existing policies, and available resources must be resolved. It is important to periodically assess whether the educational goals set for children and their actual delivery are aligned. It is possible to provide training to ensure that educational institutions develop curricula based on inclusive practices and that teachers develop the ability to recognize the various needs of children and devise strategies to address them. Teachers should develop the ability to solve students’ formal and informal needs, motivate students to achieve their interests and skills, provide appropriate referrals while recognizing and enrich­ing the existing skills of children with NDDs, adapt to the needs, implement different learning styles, and eliminate learning barriers.

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  163

Recommendations Students with NDDs require assistance until they develop learning independence (Robinson-Shelton and Malow, 2016). All students are capable of learning, and inclusive education requires teachers to identify, accommodate, and support students’ educational needs. It must be ensured that students requiring assistance are an integral part of inclusive education. All barriers to curriculum access must be eliminated, and learning facilitators must be emphasized. Efforts to encourage students’ active engagement in learning must be supported by fostering greater interaction with peers and teachers (Mittler, 2012). In addition to curriculum and infrastructure changes, adaptations and modifications are required to achieve the desired results. While accommodations pertain to the adjustment of incoming and outgoing processes in education, modification involves the adaptation of content or standards. This may necessitate rethinking the infrastructure and environment of the school and classroom, as well as the learning styles, teaching strategies, and pedagogies. Material, instructional delivery, product and assignments, homework, classroom instruction, and grading may be modified for children with non-verbal learning disabilities. The curriculum should be relevant to the roles expected of children with NDDs, provide opportunities for active learning, promote skill transfer, and be meaningful to the students. The curriculum should emphasize the development of cognitively appropriate functional, language, and social skills. Behavioural therapies emphasizing homemaking, communal life, vocation, leisure, and travel should all be taken into consideration. The “teaching objectives” for these children may include verbal, cognitive, physical, self-­ awareness, and social competence abilities, as well as the exploration of mathematics, science, computer, sensory-motor, and the arts. Adaptations for the classroom must include the following: applied behaviour analysis, reinforcement, teacher training, rehabilitation interventions, individualized education plan, individualized family support, identification of meaningful skills, incorporation of a functional approach including social telling, alternative and augmentative communication system, and material adaptation as part of the creation of a structured learning environment. Various support strategies, such as adapting learning styles to the learning abilities of children with NDDs, must be implemented (Landsberg et al., 2005). This requires incorporating CwSNs into traditional educational environments through teamwork, group projects, and training. Even severely affected children are to spend a portion of their special school schedule in regular classrooms. The functional curriculum objectives for these students must include lessons on work, play, and community service. The role of technology in achieving the desired outcomes may be considered and should be tailored to the needs of children and be user-friendly. The focus must be placed on teacher training, the availability of resource

164  G. Shankar Ganesh

instructors, and the customization of education materials. The development of technology should facilitate learning during the gaining of new abilities, the enhancement of proficiency, preservation of skills and knowledge, and the dissemination of learning. In order to avoid fragmented and duplicative efforts, various government ministries should work towards a unified and coordinated objective for achieving the desired results. To achieve the goals of inclusive education, there is an immediate need for collaboration between government agencies such as the IEDC and the District Primary Education Program and NGOs towards convergence of services ranging from community mobilization, early detection, and service delivery (SSA, 2005). It must be emphasized that regular classroom attendance alone will not result in positive outcomes. Students are more likely to receive assistance if their families have been educated on NDDs and coping skills. Inclusion of CwSNs in mainstream classrooms requires support from parents, friends, social support services, and technical support services in the form of assistive technology, as well as personal factors. Every effort must be made to expand the inclusive school environment into the community.

Conclusion Any effort to incorporate CwSNs into educational facilities will enhance the quality of education for students with and without disabilities. Rather than simply attempting to enrol students with NDDs in a school system, the focus should be on determining the children’s life objectives. Before addressing these issues, all aspects of education and the social context must be considered. This necessitates modifications to the curriculum, infrastructure, prof­ essional development, attitudes and beliefs of teachers and the school system, innovative teaching strategies, reorganization of society’s conceptions of inclusive education, and re-evaluation of the goals of education for people with disabilities. The professional development of teachers and educators should be prioritized so that they can teach in an inclusive environment. It must be remembered that “one size does not fit all” and that each child’s educational needs must be evaluated separately. Inclusionary practices, including the strategies mentioned, will aid in classroom management. All stakeholders must be brought onto a common platform through collaborative efforts between parents, NGOs, special schools, and the community to provide inputs on training, curriculum delivery, and assessment, among other things.

References Ainscow, M. and Miles, S. (2008). Making Education for All Inclusive: Where Next? Prospects, 38(1), 15–34. Arora, N. K., Nair, M., Gulati, S., Deshmukh, V., Mohapatra, A., Mishra, D., Patel, V., Pandey, R. M., Das, B. C., Divan, G., Murthy, G., Sharma, T. D., Sapra, S., Aneja, S., Juneja, M., Reddy, S. K., Suman, P., Mukherjee, S. B., Dasgupta, R.,

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  165 Tudu, P., … Vajaratkar, V. (2018). Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children Aged 2–9 Years: Population-Based Burden Estimates across Five Regions in India. PLoS Medicine, 15(7), e1002615. Arthur, J. (2020). Classical Foundations. In The Formation of Character in Educa­ tion: From Aristotle to the 21st Century (1st ed., pp. 39–54). London: Routledge. Avramidis, E. and Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers’Attitudes towards Integration/ Inclusion: A Review of the Literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17(2), 129–47. Brown, I. and Radford, J. (2015). The Growth and Decline of Institutions for People with Developmental Disabilities in Ontario: 1876–2009. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 21(2), 7–27. Castro, S. and Palikara, O. (2016). Mind the Gap: The New Special Educational Needs and Disability Legislation in England. In Frontiers in Education, 1, 1–9. Census of India. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2011. Available from: www. censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Disability_Data/India/C_20-India.xls Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Increasing prevalence of parent-reported attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children – United States, 2003 and 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 59(44), 1439–43. Dillenbourg, P. (2002). Over-Scripting CSCL: The Risks of Blending Collaborative Learning with Instructional Design. In P. A. Kirschner (Ed.), Three Worlds of CSCL (pp. 61–91). Heerlen: Open Universities Nederland. Eloff, I. and Kgwete, L. K. (2007). South African Teachers’ Voices on Support in Inclusive Education. Childhood Education, 83(6), 351–55. Engelbrecht, P., Savolainen, H., Nel, M., and Malinen, O. P. (2013). How Cultural Histories Shape South African and Finnish Teachers’ Attitudes towards Inclusive Education: A Comparative Analysis. European Journal of Special Needs Educa­ tion, 28(3), 305–18. Ferguson, P. (2006). Victor of Aveyron (ca. 1790–1828). In G. L. Albrecht (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Disability (Vol. 1, p. 1603). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Gillham, N. (2001). Sir Francis Galton and the Birth of Eugenics. Annual Review of Genetics, 35(1), 83–101. Gottlieb, C. A., Maenner, M. J., Cappa, C., and Durkin, M. S. (2009). Child Disability Screening, Nutrition, and Early Learning in 18 Countries with Low and Middle Incomes: Data from the Third Round of UNICEF’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (2005–06). Lancet, 374, 1831–39. Grodin, M., Miller, E., and Kelly, J. (2018). The Nazi Physicians as Leaders in Eugenics and “Euthanasia”: Lessons for Today. American Journal of Public Health, 108(1), 53–7. Grossberg, M. (2011). From Feeble-Minded to Mentally Retarded: Child Protection and the Changing Place of Disabled Children in the Mid-Twentieth Century United States. Paedagogica Historica, 47(6), 729–47. Grupp-Phelan, J., Harman, J. S., and Kelleher, K. J. (2007). Trends in Mental Health and Chronic Condition Visits by Children Presenting for Care at U.S. Emergency Departments. Public Health Reports, 122(1), 55–61. Hudson, L. (2011). From Small Beginnings: The Euthanasia of Children with Disabilities in Nazi Germany. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 47(8), 508–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2010.01977.x

166  G. Shankar Ganesh Hunt, P., Farron-Davis, F., Beckstead, S., Curtis, D., and Goetz, L. (1994). Evaluating the Effects of Placement of Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education versus Special Classes. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19(3), 200–14. Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D.W. (2005). Cooperative Learning, Values, and CulturallyPlural Classrooms. In L. Leicester and S. Modgil (Eds.), Classroom Issues: Practice, Pedagogy and Curriculum (pp. 29–47). London: Routledge. Landsberg, E., Krüger, D., and Nel, N. (Eds.) (2005). Addressing Barriers to Learning: A South African Perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Luo, B. and Tsai, M. (2002). ‘Understanding EFL Learners in Leveled and Mixed Classes’. Paper presented at the Eleventh International Symposium on English Teaching/Fourth Pan-Asian Conference, Chien Tan Overseas Youth Activity Center, Taipei, November 08–10, 2002. Mccormack-Colbert, A., Wyn Jones, S., &Ware, J. (2017). Perceptions of Support for Secondary School Learners with Dyslexia in France and in Wales: Case Study Analyses. Support for Learning, 32(1), 20–40. Mirenda, P. and Katz, J. (2002). Including Students with Developmental Disabilities in General Education Classrooms: Social Benefits. International Journal of Special Education, 17(2), 25–35. Mittler, P. (2012). Working towards Inclusive Education: Social Contexts. New York: David Fulton Publishers. Morris-Rosendahl, D. J., and Crocq, M. A. (2020). Neurodevelopmental Disorders – The History and Future of a Diagnostic Concept. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(1), 65–72. National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). (2016). Available from: https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/programmes/AISES/8th_AISES_Concise_Report.pdf Nel, N., Müller, H., Hugo, A., Helldin, R., Bäckmann, Ö., … Dwyer, H. (2011). A Comparative Perspective on Teacher Attitude-Constructs That Impact on Inclusive Education in South Africa and Sweden. South African Journal of Education, 31(1), 74–90. Ok, M. W., Rao, K., Bryant, B. R., and McDougall, D. (2017). Universal Design for Learning in Pre-K to Grade 12 Classrooms: A Systematic Review of Research. Exceptionality, 25, 116–38. Owen, M. J., and O’Donovan, M. C. (2017). Schizophrenia and the Neurodevelopmental Continuum: Evidence from Genomics. World Psychiatry, 16(3), 227–35. Pastor, P.N., and Reuben, C. A. (2008). Diagnosed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disability: United States, 2004–2006. Vital and Health Statistics, Data from the National Survey, 10(237), 1–14. Pinel, P. (2001). The Gale Encyclopaedia of Psychology (B. Strickland (Ed.), 2nd ed.). Detroit, MI: Gale. Reilly, C., Senior, J., & Murtagh, L. (2015). A Comparative Study of Educational Provision for Children with Neurogenetic Syndromes: Parent and Teacher Survey. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59(12), 1094–1107. Reinders, J., Stainton, T., & Parmenter, T. (2019). The Quiet Progress of the New Eugenics. Ending the Lives of Persons with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities for Reasons of Presumed Poor Quality of Life. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 16(2), 99–112.

Students with Neurodevelopmental Disabilities  167 Richards, J.C., and Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robinson-Shelton, A. and Malow, B. A. (2016). Sleep Disturbances in Neuro­ developmental Disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(1), 6. Salend, S. J. and Garrick Duhaney, L. M. (1999). The Impact of Inclusion on Students with and without Disabilities and Their Educators. Remedial and Special Education, 20(2), 114–26. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2005). NGO Initiative in Inclusion: SSA Experience. Delhi: Department of EE&L (MHRD). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. (2007). Inclusive Education in SSA. Singh, S. (2001). Educational Needs, Relevant Curriculum and Rehabilitation Expectations of Handicapped Children. Indian Educational Review, 37(1), 84–96. Singhal, N., and Rouse, M. (2003). We Do Inclusion: Practitioner Perspectives in Some Inclusive Schools in India. Perspectives in Education, 21(3), 85–98. Van Staden, S. (2011). Put Reading First: Positive Effects of Direct Instruction and Scaffolding for ESL Learners Struggling with Reading. Perspectives in Education, 29(4), 10–21. Walton, E. (2013). Inclusion in a South African High School? Reporting and Reflecting on What Learners Say. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 17(11), 1171–85. World Bank. (2007). People with disabilities in India: From Commitments to Outcomes. New Delhi: Human Development Unit, South Asia Region.

Part IV

Socio-Economic Identity

Chapter 12

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

Introduction Drugs have been an indispensable part of our daily life, used widely across the countries of the world, either for medicinal or recreational purposes. As per the general tendency of human beings, anything created for their benefit gets wrongly exploited in due course of time. Drug use also became drugs/ substance abuse and then disordered in the same manner. In the present scenario, drugs/substance abuse has already become a global threat, crippling the most productive members of the world population as adolescents and young children. Drug or substance abuse is not just a physiological or physical malfunction of an individual but has severe social and economic implications. Effects of drug abuse may range from drop-outs from educational courses to severe juvenile crimes. It shakes and breaks an individual’s physical, mental, emotional, economic, and social well-being. Myriad secondary problems arise from drug abuse: diseases, poverty, poor academic performance, unemployment, social seclusion, suicidal tendencies, and depression to serious criminal activities like human trafficking, theft, pickpocketing, sex work, etc. (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research, 1996). Various studies highlight that the gloomiest aspect of drug abuse is that young children and adolescents are the most affected (Thangadurai and Rangasami, 2017). Thus, it indirectly affects the nation’s productivity by increasing the load on governments’ policymaking, law enforcement, health-care services, and developing programmes and schemes for drug prevention (Farrell and Marshall, 2006; United Nations, 2014). One of the most critical concerns of drug abuse is the education of drug-addicted children. Adequate and equal educational opportunities are a potential solution to the problem of drug abuse and its allied problems. The prevention and rehabilitation programmes for drug/substance addiction are being constantly developed, but none explicitly addresses the education issues for drug-addicted children. There cannot be just a single or simple reason for this. Drug abuse has been a complex phenomenon from antiquities evolving out of strong religious, cultural, social, political, economic, and DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-17

172  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

psycho-personal reasons. Therefore, to fulfil the educational needs of drug-addicted children, there is a need to adopt multiple approaches and, at times, employ a combination of them.

From Drugs/Substance Use to Abuse Drugs or substances altering mood and impacting the central nervous system have existed ever since the beginning of human civilizations. The earliest use of any medication or substance dates back to the Neolithic period, i.e., 8000 BC. One of the most primitive psychotropic substances used then was a mushroom, fly agaric, or Amanita muscaria. Indian Rig Veda’s references to the mysterious soma (the divine juice of immortality) brought to India by Aryan invaders were probably the fly agaric. Predominantly, drugs/substances played a chief role in the survival of tribes, farmers, and others by making them a close community bounded by the need for medical care, recreation, and religious and cultural practices (Vetulani, 2001; Crocq, 2007). Various historical records explicitly document alcohol as the first-ever psychoactive substance exploited by humans, followed by opium. Today, alcohol is usually related to celebrations and pleasure activities, but there are shreds of evidence in history indicating functional usage of alcohol from the times of antiquities (Robinson and Adinoff, 2016). Egyptian pictographs from around 4000 BC depict the use of beer, wine, and substances for medicinal and nutritional needs and cultural and holy practices. Most prominent civilizations like China, Greece, and Rome imposed a religious obligation on citizens to consume alcohol in moderation. However, excessive consumption and intoxication were condemned universally. With the rise of the Christian religion, beliefs about drinking and drunkenness moved further (Robinson and Adinoff, 2016). As civilizations emerged and organized worldwide, various drugs have become essential means of survival for humans who identified and recognized their medicinal uses. Homer’s The Odyssey bears one such reference to a drug that alleviates pain and anger (Robinson and Adinoff, 2016). Another popular drug, cannabis (marijuana or hemp), originated in Afghanistan in the 17th and 18th centuries. Cannabis was consumed in China to assuage the pain experienced during surgeries. Interestingly, in various parts of Japan, cannabis was believed to exorcise evil spirits, which caused multiple types of illnesses according to local beliefs. In ancient India, cannabis was used to treat dysentery, headaches, and venereal diseases. It was also used for recreational purposes (such as ganja, bhang, and charas, i.e., hashish), ceremonies, and enjoyment (Robinson and Adinoff, 2016). With the advancement of recent times, during the 19th century, testing with morphine for mood change by Europeans became popular. Nicotine and cocaine have gained the most prominent place among all-new world drugs, being universally used all over the planet (Farrell and Marshall, 2006; Robinson and Adinoff, 2016; Shmulewitz et al., 2015). Other  synthetic

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  173

drugs with the advent of chemistry in the 19th century were also seen. Apart from this, a whole class of drugs evolved as stimulants, depressants/ downers, sedatives, hallucinogens, inhalants, and prescribed drugs as new millennium drugs (Robinson and Adinoff, 2016). As the variety of drugs multiplied, so have our reasons to abuse them. Various studies confirm that alcohol and tobacco were the first substances in the history of human civilization that unleashed the unrestricted human desire to discover and create more types of recreational drugs (Vetulani, 2001; Farrell and Marshall, 2006; Crocq, 2007; Murthy et al., 2010). In this regard, Crocq (2007) aptly suggests that drug addiction is a complicated mixture of personal choices and societal circumstances. We seek drug addiction knowingly or unknowingly under cultural, societal, religious, or personal influences. After the First World War, with the dawn of industrialization, many Europeans became addicted to alcohol, and hence addiction to medicines gained attention worldwide. Drug abuse as a medical problem has only been recognized and addressed since the late 18th century in America. Benjamin Rush was the first who refuted the widespread belief that alcoholism is a moral failure and a matter of one’s willpower. Rush changed this view by spreading the concept of addiction as a disease. The first-ever hospital meant solely for treating alcoholism as a mental health condition was initiated in New York in 1864 (American Addiction Centers Editorial Staff, 2022). As public concern began to raise about alcoholism and related substance abuse, more support groups emerged for prevention and rehabilitation. To understand more about the drug prevention approaches that emerged, a brief account of prominent models of drugs/substances is as follows:

Models of Substance Use Behaviour As suggested by Finch and Welch (2006), the problem of substance abuse intensified with time, and so is our understanding of it with the evolution of various models of drugs/substance abuse behaviour. They are (1) Disease model, (2) Behavioural model, and (3) Socioeconomic model in chronological order. The Disease model of drug abuse behaviour considers alcohol addiction a disease and proposes a 12-step approach to diagnose and treat drugs/substance abuse disorder with medicines (Bell, 1994; ICD-10, 2010). The Behavioural model of drug/substance abuse behaviour shifts from individual to society, emphasizing that an individual learns about substance abuse through cultural and societal influences. This led to a multidimensional approach employing cognitive-behavioural techniques along with medical treatment. Finally, the Socioeconomic model of drug/substance abuse behaviour emphasized the economic status of individuals as a critical reason for drug/substance abuse behaviour. This necessitated a crucial need to develop programmes based on reintegration, capacity-building, and vocational training for the economically marginalized stratum of society for drug abuse rehabilitation. Here, education became the critical factor

174  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

for these programmes (Finch and Welch, 2006). In light of this discussion, let us explore further the concept of drugs/substances and their status in the following section:

Present Status of Drug/Substance Abuse There are different terms of common use for drugs/substances of multiple types and classifications. The following section attempts to present a concise brief of it: Classification of Drugs/Substances The various drugs/substances can be classified based on their source of origin, physiological effects, or legal status. They can be classified as illegal and legal drugs/substances. There are drugs/substances which are natural, derived from natural products like opium or cannabis, semi-synthetic like heroin or cocaine, and synthetically produced through chemicals like prescription drugs (Barerah, 2018). The most useful classification of drugs/ substances can be according to their physiological effects and ways of use. In this regard, the Meghalaya Drug Abuse Prevention Policy 2020 of the Government of Meghalaya (Kumar, 2020) and the report of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2012) US Department of Health and Human Services can be referred to develop various categories of types of drugs/ substance as follows: • • • • • • • •

Stimulants: They speed up activity in the central nervous system. Depressants/club drugs: They are also called “downers”, giving a feeling of relaxation. Inhalants: They are sniffed or huffed and give immediate results. Hallucinogens: They create the illusion of an unreal world. Opioids: They calm you down and cause a feeling of euphoria or confusion. Cannabinoids: They cause euphoria, confusion, and memory problems. Anabolic steroids: They are used to increase performance beyond normal levels. Prescription medications: They include a wide variety of over-thecounter prescribed drugs readily available in the market, which are taken to relieve pain or cure other ailments.

Apart from this, there are various products in the market used by experimental drug/substance users or those searching for affordable means of addiction. Some examples are thinners, glue, cough syrups, anxiety or sleeping pills, painkillers, etc. (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018). To comprehend the problem of drug/substance addiction further, let us know the expanse of it in the Indian and global context:

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  175

Current Demographic Status of Drug Addiction United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2021) published a comprehensive report about drug abuse disorders with special reference to its demographic characteristics. The report titled ‘Global overview: Drug demand and drug supply’ noted that 5.5 per cent of the world population between the age of 15 to 64 years, around 275 million people worldwide, had consumed drugs at least once between the years 2018 to 2019. The estimated increase in the number of drug users has been from 226 to 274 million from the year 2010 to 2019. Sadly, 10 per cent of this increase in drug users ranged between 15 to 64 years of age. Of this, around 36 million people suffered from serious Substance Use Disorders (SUDs). “The 2021 World Drug Report (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021) also provides a global overview of the New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and their impact on health”. An estimated 11 million people in the world in 2019 consumed drugs through injections termed People Who Inject Drugs (PWID). These PWIDs were diagnosed with HIV, or hepatitis C. India’s story is no different as the National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre & All India Institute of Medical Sciences (2019) reports, “There are around 8.5 Lakh People Who Inject Drugs (PWID) in India who follow risky drugs injecting practices”. The principal load for the dispersion of diseases due to drug abuse has been credited to opioids (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021). This hazardous drug abuse pattern surges deteriorating educational outcomes such as poor academic performance and high drop-outs (O’Connor et al., 2020). From drug supply to demand and, finally, to consequences, the situation is disheartening. Drug addiction has become a grave problem in Indian states: Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Western Rajasthan, and Haryana. The gravity of this problem can be understood by the data supplied by the National Crime Records Bureau, which informs that narcotics are the most profound concern among young children in India. About 2.9 million children of age 12 and above are abusing prescription drugs like sedatives, painkillers, or tranquilizers, which are being misused or acquired illegally (Kumar et al., 2019). Drug abuse in teenagers brings even a complex problem of low achievement in school subjects, depression, teenage pregnancy, delinquency, and unemployment (Kumawat and Kumar, 2017). The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (2013) showed concern about the epidemiological scale of drug and substance addiction in children in India. The study throws light on the educational aspects of drug-addicted children. It notifies that only 28% of drug-addicted children of the sample were studying in formal schools. The rest of the children from the sample were either enrolled in the open schooling system or were not studying at all. Though the research work mainly comprised children living

176  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

in proper homes, it also comprised a significant percentage of the out-ofschool children. Amongst the sample living at home, more than two-thirds (65%) were out-of-school children. A constant association was evident between dropping out of school and substance use disorder; only 14.7% of street children in the sample had attained education beyond primary school. The coming section of the chapter focuses on the solutions for drug abuse prevention.

Initiatives for the Prevention of Drug Abuse Almost every country in the world has comprehensive policies and programmes for drug prevention, which are revised from time to time. Let us briefly study them: Policy and Programmes for Drug Prevention and Rehabilitation United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) laid down drug use prevention directives (2015), incorporating policies and programmes developed by various countries across the globe (European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2011). The document emphasizes the nature of drug prevention programmes and policies, regulatory framework, and planning and research. To resolve this mammoth problem of drug abuse, the Indian legislature is also endlessly striving to make policies. The following are the policies in collaboration with international bodies (Kumawatand Kumar, 2017): (1) (2) (3)

Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 Transnational Crime Convention, 2000

The two central-level acts implemented by the Indian parliament for drug prevention (Kumawat and Kumar, 2017) are as follows: (1) (2)

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 The Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988

The aforementioned policies, standards, and programmes for drug prevention primarily aim at drug awareness, prevention, or drug rehabilitation. Human rights for “inclusive education” and “Education for All” are initiatives for making provisions for the educational needs of drug-addicted children. As there is a growing global threat of substance abuse, various governmental and non-governmental organizations are coming up with multiple ministries to find solutions for a drug-free society. Let us briefly overview them:

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  177

Ministries and Organizations for Drug Prevention The United Nations International Drug Control Program (1999) has published a directory of the non-governmental organization implementing drug demand reduction programmes recognizing best practices of drug prevention. Following are the list of prominent Indian institutions and organization from the directory (United Nations International Drug Control Program, 1999): 1. Indian Organization for Drug Prevention 2. All India Women’s Conference, New Delhi 3. Calcutta Samaritans, Calcutta 4. Drug Abuse Information, Rehabilitation & Research Centre, Bombay 5. Indian Council on Education, New Delhi 6. Indian Institute of Youth & Development, Orissa 7. KRIPA Foundation, Mumbai 8. National Addiction Centre, Bombay 9. Navchetan Drug De-Addiction-cum-Counseling Centre, Uttar Pradesh 10. Opium Dr-addiction treatment, Training and Research Trust, Rajasthan 11. Total Response to Alcohol and Drug Abuse, Kerala 12. Vivekanand Education Society, Calcutta The organizations are involved in the treatment, prevention, training, rehabilitation, counselling, education and research, and community awareness. Some of the Indian ministries working for the cause are also worth mentioning here (Sanyal et al., 2016). Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment –It empowers addicts of alcohol and substance by ensuring their education and social and economic development. It has run a scheme since 1985 for the prevention of alcoholism and drugs/substance abuse, partly funding suitable organizations for opening the Integrated Rehabilitation Center for Addicts, drug awareness and counselling centres, de-addiction camps, prevention, and awareness programmes. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare – It is responsible for the treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. It runs de-addiction programmes such as National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre (NDDTC), AIIMS, de-addiction centres in Pondicherry (JIPMER), Bangalore (NIMHANS), and Chandigarh (PGIMER). Ministry of Women and Child Development – It offers protection shelters for rehabilitating drug-addicted children. It funds and maintains Child Welfare Committees (CWC) and Juvenile Justice Board (JJB). Along with these ministries, the “Ministry of Education” and the “Ministry of Finance” play a significant role in drug abuse prevention and rehabilitation.

178  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

Challenges to the Education of Drug-Addicted Children Let us now look at the significant challenges for educational initiatives for drug prevention programmes: Specific educational needs of different types of drug-addicted children – The alarming data from the World Drug Report shows that the riskiest period for the beginning of substance abuse in adolescents is from early adolescence age marked by 12–14 years to late adolescence age marked by 15–17 years (United Nations, 2018). Adolescent drug abuse poses the most significant risk to their education in the form of absenteeism from school/ college and other social activities, deteriorating grades, and tendencies to drop out of school/college (Vanrozama and Gopalakrishnan, 2020). NCPCR (2013) emphasized the persistent necessity to initiate drug prevention and treatment programmes for drug-addicted children from multiple settings, mostly disadvantaged children such as street children, children of substance users, child labour, trafficked children, and children of sex workers. The rehabilitation, vocational training, and skill-building programmes for such children are the need of the hour (Iqbal, 2020). In this regard, the following types of children with different drug prevention needs can be identified under two broad categories of education level (Table 12.1). As is evident from Table 12.1, the biggest challenge is to identify the educational needs of each specific type of drug-addicted child from two broad categories and develop a suitable treatment and rehabilitation programme accordingly. Reoccurrence prevention plans – Various research studies recognize a pathway of stages of drug addiction. Substance use disorders (SUDs) characteristically transition through a series of stages of drug use to abuse.

Table 12.1  Types of Drug-Addicted Children from the Educational Perspective School-going or education-seeking drug-addicted children (Children at different levels of education through formal or informal mode)

Out-of-school or without education children drug-addicted children (Children with basic education or without any education)

1. Children of drug users 2. Causal users doing experimentations with drugs use 3. Children with different psychological needs 4. Children requiring medical care with health issues 1. Drop-outs 2. Street children 3. Child labourers 4. Trafficked children 5. Children involved in criminal activities 6. Girl children 7. Sex workers

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  179

Generally, there are stages of initiation of drug use followed by escalation and finally maintenance of the addiction. This pathway may vary from person to person. Some drug users may continue moderate use for a long time or a lifetime without escalation. Some may show intermittent periods of cessation, abstinence, and rapid escalation. In a nutshell, substance abuse itself is a complicated process, and its reoccurrence rates are high. Therefore, prevention programmes for drug abuse must have provisions for follow-ups and extended support for long-term rehabilitation and social acceptance. In such a scenario, a typical structure of formal education, school-based subjects, and grade-based promotions become a complicated task. Structure of life skills education and livelihood training –Life skills education and livelihood skills-based training are indispensable parts of any drug rehabilitation programme, but designing a programme catering to the personal need of each child is difficult. As discussed earlier, there are varied types of children under the drug abuse category, and many have different levels of education, ranging from no education to being highly qualified. Developing a suitable programme for an individual child is a challenging job. Upholding mental well-being – Apart from physical health, many children experience emotional problems due to substance abuse like sadness, anxiety, etc. Low self-esteem is also adversely affected by their psychological health, especially in young children. Many drug-addicted children have disturbed habits and prefer to live unruly lives. They hardly comply with acceptable social norms and act like total rebels. Thus, it is challenging to boost the physiological and mental well-being of children with SUD to prevent long-term relapse of drugs/substance use (National Commission for Protection of Child Rights, 2013). Innovative practices in their education – There has been scarcely any evidence of studies showing specific education programmes for a specific group of drug-addicted children. Educational efforts are in the form of either prevention programmes or rehabilitation programmes. The most innovative practice of drug prevention can be developed in the form of comprehensive and universal school-based drug prevention programmes. These programmes should have direct and indirect content for the health curriculum/life skills training, emphasize a healthy school atmosphere, appropriate support services, and constant engagement of the local communities along with the families for planning and implementation of the programmes (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2004). Further, counselling services can be provided; problem children can be identified at early stages, and, finally, identified students can be promptly referred to medical experts for diagnosis of the problem and intervention initiation (Cuijpers, 2002; Council on School Health and Committee on Substance Abuse, 2007). Various studies also emphasize employing spiritual therapy and value-based approaches for the long-term positive benefits of drug rehabilitation programmes.

180  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

Prospects in the Education of Drug-Addicted Children Schools as the Most Promising Prospects Various research, reports, and recommendations qualify schools as the most promising prospects for drug prevention and education programmes. Schools should collaborate with local communities and higher education institutions for drug demand reduction and prevention. In this regard, it is relevant to quote from the report of the US Department of Education titled Toward a Drug-Free Generation: A Nation’s Responsibility (National Commission on Drug-Free Schools, 1990), Many school buildings are not considered community resources. The schools close their doors at the end of the day and do not reopen them until the next school day begins. In many communities, schools are empty more than they are full. The report recommends that schools be open to the community after school, at night, on weekends, and during vacations. For many students, especially in communities where traditional social support networks have disintegrated and families are in crisis, the school becomes a source of social stability. Schools should extend their hours to provide students and their families with various activities, e.g., tutoring, computer skills, recreational activities, and fine arts (National Commission on Drug-Free Schools, 1990). Also, similar collaboration can be modelled between colleges and universities and local communities. Support Groups and Individuals from Civil Society Similar prospects for drug prevention can be sought with the voluntary support groups formed by the members of civil society. Various such groups exist as non-governmental organizations, which are already partnering with the government in drug rehabilitation programmes. Individual support can also be equally contributive. Family and Peer Group Support Finally, the ultimate prospects can be seen in families where the right environment needs to be maintained for drug prevention and rehabilitation. The influence of peer group support should also be targeted as part of drug prevention and rehabilitation programmes.

Recommendations for the Education of Drug-Addicted Children In light of the discussion in this chapter, the following recommendations can be made for the education of drug-addicted children:

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  181

Scaling Up Treatment Centres and Programmes Studies and reports strongly advocate an urgent need to scale up the treatment centres and programmes for drug-addicted children. Only a few de-addiction centres and treatment-cum-rehabilitation and counselling centres provide drug treatment services in India, and they are also not sufficiently efficient in many regions. National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre & All India Institute of Medical Sciences (2019) recommends that many people who need treatment for drug abuse do not get it due to the poor accessibility to treatment services. Further, the National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre & All India Institute of Medical Sciences (2019) highlights, India needs massive investments in enhancing the avenues for the treatment of drug abuse disorders. A system of monitoring and mentoring is urgently required to enhance treatment services in outpatient clinics, which have all the necessary components such as trained human resources, infrastructure, medicines, and supplies. Even more concerning is that even if services are offered, treatment is not sought for drug-addicted children due to various reasons, e.g., perceived stigma, absence of inner willingness, or minimum information about the variety of SUDs. Therefore, treatment-seeking attitudes must be developed in young children and their families (Council on School Health and Committee on Substance Abuse, 2007).

Partnership between Schools, Drug Rehabilitation Centres, and Medical Homes Schools should collaborate actively with rehabilitation centres to understand or adapt their programmes and help students reintegrate into schools, classrooms, peer groups, and society. Planning for educational needs post-­ recovery is a mandatory part of drug de-addiction programmes where school staff, pediatricians, family members, and mental health professionals may have to come together. Schools have to play a leading role in this collaboration by recognizing the specific learning needs of drug-addicted children. Schools can make necessary accommodations, arrange remedial teaching, motivate children to come to school, and follow recommendations of health-care or rehabilitation professionals by constant support and monitoring of such children (Council on School Health and Committee on Substance Abuse, 2007). Another significant step for helping students who have been into drug addiction is to attach at least one reliable adult in the school whom s/he can talk to in case of need (Drabble, 2007). Finally, to cope with this issue, general practitioners and pediatricians should also be sensitized, and treatment services should reach the families and communities of the addicted (Iqbal, 2020).

182  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma

Hierarchy of Intervention Programmes As proposed in the National Commission on Drug-Free Schools report (1990), the intervention programmes developed for drug prevention and rehabilitation should have different aims and designs. There can be the following types of programmes: • Programmes focusing on building awareness and conveying knowledge • Programmes focusing on attitude modification and formation • Programmes focusing on values clarification, social growth, and emotional management • Programmes emphasizing life skills training like resistance, positive peer influence communication, and decision-making • Programmes providing opportunities for recreation and physical adventure • Programmes providing one-on-one relationships and special remedial tutoring • Programmes providing vocational training and job skills Most importantly, there is a need to understand that the concept of designing interventions for drug prevention should move from drug awareness to drug reintegration involving various partners at each stage. In this regard, the 4R model of Sarangi (2016), a member of the Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights, can be used as a guideline for developing intervention strategies for drug prevention: “(1) Reduction of demand, (2) Reduction of supply, (3) Reduction of harm and (4) Reintegration”. Based on this, drug prevention intervention can be envisaged as the hierarchy of the following types of programmes: 1. Stage one – Awareness and prevention programmes 2. Stage two – Rehabilitation programmes 3. Stage three – Integration programmes All the stages should involve schools and their collaboration with families, communities, and colleges. Also, there can be a combination of the aforementioned two stages while developing an intervention for drug prevention.

Conclusion To complete the discussion, there is clearly a need to establish plans and programmes to cater to the individual educational needs of drug-addicted children. Education is felt to be the first priority after drug rehabilitation for making them independent and respectable beings in society. School-based interventions are the most important means to achieve this. There is a whole range of intervention programmes for children. There is a need to provide

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  183

in-service training to teachers for conducting drug prevention programmes, school-based screening, counselling, and guidance. Apart from this, at the governmental level, drug trafficking laws must be enforced stringently, funding must be channelized sensibly to the support groups, and individual efforts must be duly recognized. At the individual level, families and communities must also take the onus of changing the drug use disorder scenario and securing the future of generations to come.

References American Addiction Centers Editorial Staff. (2022). History of Drug Abuse. Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://drugabuse.com/addiction/history-drug-abuse/ Barerah, S. (2018). Forms of Drug Abuse and Their Effects. Alcoholism & Drug Abuse Weekly, 1, 13–19. Bell, C.C. (1994). DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. JAMA, 272(10), 828–29. doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03520100096046. Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articleabstract/379036 Council on School Health and Committee on Substance Abuse. (2007). The Role of Schools in Combating Illicit Substance Abuse. Pediatrics, 120(6), 1379–84. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2905 Crocq, M.A. (2007). Historical and Cultural Aspects of Man’s Relationship with Addictive Drugs. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9(4), 355–61. doi:10. 31887/DCNS.2007.9.4/macrocq. PMID: 18286796; PMCID: PMC3202501. Cuijpers, P. (2002). Effective Ingredients of School-Based Drug Prevention Programs: A Systematic Review. Addictive Behaviors, 27(6), 1009–23. doi:10.1016/s03064603(02)00295-2 Drabble, L. (2007). Pathways to Collaboration: Exploring Values and Collaborative Practice between Child Welfare and Substance Abuse Treatment Fields. Child Maltreatment, 12(1), 31–42. doi:10.1177/1077559506296721 European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2011). European Drug Prevention Quality Standard. Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://www.emcdda. europa.eu/publications/manuals/prevention-standards_en Farrell, M., and Marshall, E. J. (2006). Epidemiology of Tobacco, Alcohol and Drug Use. Psychiatry, 5(12), 427–30. doi:10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.09.003 Finch, E., and Welch, S. (2006). Classification of Alcohol and Drug Problems. Psychiatry, 5(12), 423–26. doi:10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.10.001 ICD-10. (2010). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. WHO (World Health Organization). 2010 Edition. 2(10). Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/ICD10 Volume2_en_2010.pdf Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research. (1996). Pathways of Addiction: Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232975/ Iqbal, S. (2020). Children’s Drug Abuse: A Growing Challenge in India. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, 8(2). Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https:// www.ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2002256.pdf

184  Neha Rawat and Anjali Sharma Kumar, A., Dangi, I., and Pawar, R. S. (2019). Drug Addiction: A Big Challenge for Youth and Children. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 4(1), 35–40. Kumar, S. (2020). Government of Meghalaya. The Gazette of Meghalaya. Meghalaya Drug Abuse Prevention Policy 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2022, from https://megpns. gov.in/gazette/2020/06/25-06-20-IIA.pdf Kumawat, D.K. and Kumar, D. (2017). Challenging Dimension of the Problem of the Drug Abuse in India: A Socio-Legal Analysis. Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science and English, 7(23). Retrieved 4 July 2022, from http://oaji.net/ articles/2017/1201-1509102311.pdf. Murthy, P., Manjunatha, N., Subodh, B.N., Chand, P.K., and Benegal, V. (2010). Substance Use and Addiction Research in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 189–99. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.69232s National Commission on Drug-Free Schools. (1990). Toward a Drug-Free Genera­ tion: A Nation’s Responsibility. Washington, DC: US Department of Educa­ tion. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/ 129098NCJRS.pdf National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre & All India Institute of Medical Sciences. (2019). Magnitude of Substance Abuse in India. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Government of India. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/userfiles/Exec-Sum_For%20Media.pdf National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2012). Commonly Abused Drugs. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https:// nida.nih.gov/sites/default/files/cadchart.pdf National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2018). Media Guide. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https://archives.drugabuse.gov/publications/media-guide/science-drug-useaddiction-basics NCPCR (National Commission for Protection of Child Rights). (2013). Assess­ ment of Pattern, Profile and Correlates of Substance Use among Children in India. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https://movendi.ngo/wp-content/uploads/ 2019/05/68106596.pdf O’Connor, E., Thomas, R., Senger, C. A., Perdue, L., Robalino, S., and Patnode, C. (2020). Interventions to Prevent Illicit and Nonmedical Drug Use in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA, 323(20), 2067–79. doi:10.1001/ jama.2020.1432 Robinson, S. and Adinoff, B. (2016). The Classification of Substance Use Disorders: Historical, Contextual, and Conceptual Considerations. Behavioral Sciences, 6(3), 18. MDPIAG. doi:10.3390/bs6030018 Sanyal, K., Singhal, N, and Sakshi. (2016). Drug Abuse among Street Children in Delhi. Policy Brief Based on Field Study. Retrieved 2 July 2022, from https:// vidhilegalpolicy.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/DrugAbuseAmongChildrenin Delhi.pdf Sarangi, S. (2016). Substance Abuse by Children in Delhi: A Status Paper on Rehabilitation Strategies. Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi. Retrieved 4, July 2022, from https://dcpcr.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/substance-abuseww-part-1.pdf

De-addiction of the Addicted through Education  185 Shmulewitz, D., Greene, E. R., and Hasin, D. (2015). Commonalities and Differ­ ences across Substance Use Disorders: Phenomenological and Epidemiological Aspects. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 39(10), 1878–1900. Doi:10.1111/acer.12838 Thangadurai, P. and Rangasami, P. (2017). Dimensions Enhancing the Vulnerability of Children in Slum Pockets for Substance Abuse. Educere—The BCM Journal of Social Work Social Work, 13(1), 13–22. Retrieved 29 October 2022 from https:// bcmcollege.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Dimensions-Enhancing-theVulnerability-of-Children-in-Slum-Pockets-for-Substance-Abuse-Thangadurai.-Pand-Rangasami.-P.pdf United Nations. (2014). Chapter 1 Economic Consequences of Drug Abuse. The Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.incb.org/documents/Publications/AnnualReports/ AR2013/English/AR_2013_E_Chapter_I.pdf United Nations. (2018). World Drug Report 2018. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.unodc. org/wdr2018/prelaunch/WDR18_Booklet_4_YOUTH.pdf United Nations International Drug Control Program. (1999). Directory of Nongovernmental Organizations Working in Drug Demand Reduction. Retrieved 2 July 2022, from https://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_1999-06-30_1.pdf United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2004). School-based Education for Drug Abuse Prevention. United Nations. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https:// www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/handbook_school_english.pdf United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2015). International Standards on Drug Use Prevention. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/ en/prevention/prevention-standards.html United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2021). UNODC World Drug Report 2021. Global Overview: Drug demand and drug supply. Retrieved 3 July 2022, from https://www.unodc.org/res/wdr2021/field/WDR21_Booklet_1.pdf Vanrozama, P. L. and Gopalakrishnan, C. (2020). Youth Drugs Addiction and Social Intervention—An Investigative Study of Mizoram. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 9(3). Retrieved 5 July 2022 from http://www. ijstr.org/final-print/mar2020/Youth-Drugs-Addiction-And-Social-InterventionAn-Investigative-Study-Of-Mizoram.pdf Vetulani, J. (2001). Drug Addiction. Part I. Psychoactive Substances in the Past and Presence. Polish Journal of Psychology, Pol. J. Pharmacol, 53, 201–14. Retrieved 5 July 2022, from http://if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2001/3_201.pdf

Chapter 13

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children Somali Mukherjee

Introduction Migrants may be described as a group of people who move away from the place they were born to earn their livelihood. Migration is a global phenomenon, with complex socio-political and economic roots. Sometimes issues like environment, health, and opportunities for better education also compel people to migrate. In India, many variations of migration are observed between rural and urban areas of which rural-rural migration is most predominant. In India, most migration takes place within the same district. Migration can result in the permanent relocation of an individual or family, or it may be of a short-term or seasonal nature. Migrants can be classified by the period of their stay in the destination (it might be permanent or semi-permanent) or short term (seasonal or circular) in nature. Migrants may also be classified due to the cause of their migration, i.e., it might be due to reasons of work, education, family, marriage, etc. (India Migration Now and Omidyar Network India, 2021, p. 3). According to the Census of India, marriage seems to be the most compelling reason for migration. However, thorough research points out that it tends to hide women who are actually labourers in the destination (India Migration Now and Omidyar Network India, 2021, p. 5). Though migration for work had been the domain of men, recent years have witnessed large-scale female participation. Most migrant labourers were found to have come from the states of Bihar, UP, Odisha, MP, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh which have high population density, and small land holdings, and the farmers are dependent on rainfed crops (India Migration Now and Omidyar Network India, 2021, p.6). Most migration takes place within a state, between the various villages. If we consider the migrants between 15 and 32, there is no discernible variation in the gender ratio. Out of 11 crores of migrants from the said age group, the ratio of migration for marriage, work, and education would be 140:20:7 (Chandrasekhar and Sharma, 2014). According to Prof. Rajan from Centre for Development Studies, Kerala, India had about 60 crore migrants in 2020. The majority of migration in India is internal, with the majority of movement occurring inside a single district. An estimated DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-18

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  187

40 crore Indians relocate within their own district. Subsequently, 14 crores migrate to different districts of the same state, while interstate migration is undertaken by nearly 6 crore people, i.e., 10% of the total migrants (Misra, 2021). The educational department describes migrant children as those who mostly drop out of school and are most difficult to locate, best described as “hardest to reach” and the “most vulnerable category”. According to the Census of 2011, in India, every fifth migrant is a child, totalling about 92.95 million. Migrant children between 6 and 18 years are the most vulnerable category, as they easily fall prey to child labour, and child trafficking, and are often compelled to discontinue their education. To date, 22.1% of migrant children are not enrolled in any educational institutions (Pandey, 2021). Migrant children shuffle the year between their home district and workplace. A study by Majumdar and Rajarshi of 60 brick kilns in West Bengal in 2011, found that 1,700 migrant children were not attending any formal school in comparison to 10% of the local children. Eighty-five percent of these children had never attended any formal school, while the rest had dropped out. Aide et Action reported a similar pattern while researching migrant children in Delhi, Bhopal, Chennai, Hyderabad, Guwahati, Jaipur, and Patna in 2011. They observed that only 17.18% of children had access to education, while 40.19% had never attended formal schools (Shah, 2021, p.4). The Right to Education (RTE) is perhaps the most revolutionary Act which champions the cause of education of migrant children. The Act ensures that children of disadvantaged and weaker sections of the society shall not be denied admission to schools (section 9). The onus of ensuring it is bestowed on the local authorities. These children are often found to be studying in grades lower than their age; they face language difficulties, face problems coping with the academic curriculum, lack peer support, and, coupled with economic hardships, have trouble enrolling in new schools.

Policies and Programmes The Government of India focused in a systematic manner on the education of migrant children from the 8th five-year plan (1992–97). It started encouraging non-governmental organizations, factories, and cooperatives to set up basic primary schools, with flexible school days and teaching times. The ninth plan (1997–2002), tried to identify the Indian states that were lagging behind in terms of providing education to all children. It focused on the need to expand the scope of national and state open schools to bring all children, including the most vulnerable within its net, and encouraged voluntary organizations to achieve the end. In 2002, the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act was passed, which made the RTE a fundamental right in India for children aged between 6 to 14 years. The tenth plan (2002–07)

188  Somali Mukherjee

tried to devise strategies to reach the “hardest to reach” children. It used strategies such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) to identify clearly children at risk and emphasized the need to design effective strategies accordingly. In 2011, the decision was taken by the central government to extend RTE from the preschool level to class X. The Central Advisory Board of committee was entrusted with the duty to look into the modalities. Further RTE entrusts the duty to enrol all children in school to the states (Right to Education, 2013). The School Management Committees (SMCs) are to play a critical role in the governance of the schools, delivering elementary education. RTE makes it obligatory for all schools to constitute the SMC. The Act has made the local government bodies responsible for the education of migrant children including setting up seasonal hostels or other appropriate arrangements. The committees have been entrusted to supervise the schools and to prepare their developmental plans (Oxfam India, 2018). The 11th five-year plan (2007–12) proposed the plan of walk-in integrated child Development Service Centres in the railway stations and bus stands, where migrant children were most likely to arrive. On arrival, they were to be given ID cards that ensured tracking of the children as they moved and could help them get placed in nearby schools. The 12th fiveyear plan discussed comprehensively permanent as well as seasonal migration. It proposed the opening of seasonal schools in the destination areas for the migrant child. It mandated that eventually government schools should be turned into Residential School Complexes, and special seasonal hostels should be opened for migrating tribal children. It talked about improving cooperative federalism and local governance (Bhattacharya and Chandrasekhar, 2020). The SSA launched in 2001, talked about involving the local community in the universalization of elementary education. It had special provisions for the children of migrant families. It stressed that initially the high outmigration districts or blocks had to be identified. It proposed that the children could either be kept back in the source villages in seasonal hostels, or schools could be arranged around the worksites. It suggested that the teaching volunteers could move with the families even if they migrated to distant places. The RTE Act also talks about setting up special training centres for drop-outs, and a special fund has been allocated for the same. It also wanted greater interstate collaboration, making the curriculum more child-friendly. It recommended the setting up of multilingual schools with multi-grade textbooks. In 2011, the SSA framework was revived and the states were given the freedom to adopt strategies outlined in the framework to suit their own context (Bhattacharya and Chandrasekhar, 2020). In April 2018, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan was launched which was a complete programme for the preschool range to class 12, and it aimed to increase school effectiveness to be measured in terms of equal opportunities and equitable learning outcomes. It gave greater flexibility to states to prioritize their interventions (Samagra Shiksha, 2020).

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  189

The Panchayati Raj Institutions were entrusted with the duty of identifying the out-of-school children (OOSC) mostly hailing from disadvantaged groups. They were to be given special training and were to be enrolled in age-appropriate classes. They were also to organize programmes for motivating parents to send their children to school instead of pushing them to earn their livelihood. The Panchayati Raj Institutions were also to supervise the attendance of the teachers and students. The state government proposal was to be approved by the National Project Approval Board (PAB) in its annual meeting. Analysis of the 2016–17 minutes of the meeting showed that a beginning had been made towards ensuring that migrant children had the opportunity of availing of uninterrupted schooling (Bhattacharya and Chandrasekhar, 2020).

Current Status Census statistics from 2001 and 2011 demonstrate a clear distinction between migrant and non-migrant children, which helps to understand the current situation of migrant children: •

The literacy rate among migrant children aged 0–14 is greater, but it is much lower for those aged 15–19 when compared to non-migrants. • Surprisingly, migrant children complete secondary education at a rate of 22.5%, compared to 15% of non-migrant children. • Marriage among migrant children aged 10–19 years decreased by 5% in 2011 compared to the previous Census (2001), while it declined by 0.3% among non-migrant children. The number of married migrant females has decreased by around 9% compared to 0.8% of nonmigrant girls. • This highlights the serious issue of underage marriage among migrant girls (which affects more than half of them), which interferes with their education and development (UNICEF India, 2020). Comparison based on National Sample Survey Office’s (NSSO) 64th round data demonstrates that migrant children aged 6–14 years and 15–18 years were more likely to be engaged in paid labour (UNICEF India, 2020, p. 5). A study by Smita (2008) on the Migration of Bhil Adivasi from Western India to urban construction sites is an eye-opener. The employers allowed the migrant children to perform child labour as a favour to the families. As schools refused to admit students in the middle of the year, it ended up inflating the drop-out rates. Srivastava and Sutradhar (2016) reported an equivocal influence of migration on child schooling in their research on seasonal migrants working in the construction sector in the National Capital Region. They found pieces of evidence of limited access to schooling facilities in the destination area. However, they opined those remittances sent by the migrants may have a positive effect on their educational outcome.

190  Somali Mukherjee

UNICEF’s Research Brief on Child Migration in India is also an eye-opener. The report categorically states that in India, every fifth migrant happens to be a child. Most of the child migrants are girls (50.6%). About 6.39 million girl-child migrants were found to be married in the age bracket of 10–19 years, as per the census data of 2011. It also found migration between various rural destinations was the most preferred mode of migration, while movement between the urban areas emerged as the second preferred movement of child migrants. It further noted that vast differences existed among the migrant households (Srivastava and Sutradhar, 2016, p.3). In the last two census reports (i.e., 2001 and 2011), literacy rates among both migrant boys and girls in the 0–19 years age group are higher in comparison with non-migrant children. A similar pattern can be observed in the age groups of 0–14 years in the 2011 Census. But literacy rate among 15–19 years migrant children was marginally lower than the non-migrant children of that age group. Moreover, the Census 2011 found that more migrant children (22.5%) are completing secondary education in comparison to non-migrant children (15%). However, there is a dearth of data about the status of education of migrant children in the arena of higher education. One can safely conclude from the data, that hardly a few of them progress to the arena of higher education, and this warrants further systematic research (Srivastava and Sutradhar, 2016). UNICEF is aware that migrant children are among the most vulnerable and are exposed to child labour, early marriage, smuggling, and human trafficking. They are often deprived of basic education, and medical facilities and are misfitted in the new cultures they arrive in. UNICEF works tirelessly worldwide to protect the rights of migrant children. It provides safe places where these children can play while their mothers work. It also helps the national and state government to frame laws and policies to better protect the rights of these children. Some organizations working for migrant children are Aide et Action India, which is a non-profit organization established in 1988 that works for minority, migrant, child and youth development, gender, education, etc. The Aide et Action focuses on providing education to the children both at source and destination. They try to send children within 6–14 years to the neighbourhood schools, and if they are closed, they try to provide volunteers who would teach at the worksite (Aide et Action, 2021). In 1969, the Mobile Crèches were set up across the Delhi NCR, especially on the construction sites. It runs day-care programmes for child migrant workers and aims to improve their health, nutrition, and education. In Bangalore, Diya Ghar has been operating for the past three years, aiming to provide preschool education along with two nutritious meals. It also arranges for transport to and from their settlements. Around four hundred children have benefitted in Bangalore and its villages nearby. The SOS Children’s village is another autonomous non-profit organization that works for the upliftment of children from vulnerable sections of society, including migrant children.

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  191

They focus on providing food, shelter, and education. The Don Bosco Navjeevan runs a unique programme called “Street Presence” by which educators try to be “present” at various strategic locations to aid migrant children. They also possess child rescue booths to protect the runaways from any form of abuse (Hafeez, 2020). Setu Charitable Trust, Gujrat, has interventions on the principle of preventing the migration of children located in Gujrat. It feels salt pans, brick kilns, charcoal, and roof tile worksites are not feasible for schooling, and it wants to prevent children from migrating by setting up seasonal hostels in villages so that children can stay back in their home communities while their parents migrate for work (Smita, 2008, p. 29). Vikalpa and Lok Drishti in Orissa, are also mentionable, in 2000–05, they retained 400 children in 16 hostels in 8 villages, each in Bolangir and Nuapada districts. From 2005–06, it covered 60 villages and 1,700 children (Smita, 2008, p. 30).

Challenges There are many unique challenges facing migrant children which can be listed as follows: Lack of a unified definition defining the category of migrant children – The first problem is of a unified definition defining the category of migrant children. The NSSO National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and Census all define them differently. We need to realize that migrants are not a homogenous category and in fact, consist of many groups and subcategories. Lack of proper data – There is also a lack of proper data, providing us with the exact number of children who are out of school or the total number of children who need to be enrolled in the various grades. This fact is also highlighted by the various government documents and various international agencies including those of the United Nations organization. It acts as an obstacle to the efficient design of services and their delivery. The government has to take cognizance of the fact that migrant children do not belong to a homogenous group. There are various categories within it, with children of the seasonal migrants, like those working in the construction sector, the domestic workers, and mine and agricultural labourers suffering the most. Even the National Education Policy 2020 talks about the ‘migrant communities’ under the broader category of SEDGS and emphasizes the need to curtail drop-outs and ensure universal access to education (Pandey, 2021). Another problem faced by migrant children is the medium of instruction. The different languages taught at their native place and their destination often compound problems for them. The pandemic has forced the government to redesign its strategies. India Today in its report of 11 December 2018, highlighted seven problems faced by these migrant children. Most of them, especially the girl child, continue to act as caregivers for younger siblings and have to perform household chores. Most of these children are vulnerable to sexual exploitation, they often fail to develop intellectually and remain trapped in poverty;

192  Somali Mukherjee

further, they have insecure social and emotional abilities and often face adjustment problems. This hampers their bonding with their peers and institutions. Their parents often become indifferent to their education and are not aware of their rights and entitlements (Rajput and Verma, 2018). The migrant children are also suffering as classes have shifted to online mode with the simultaneous closing of seasonal hostels. Umi Daniel, director, Migration and Education, Aide et Action International told India Today that the pandemic had affected not only the migrants but also the children who were earlier not very visible. As an example, she cited the seasonal hostels of western Orissa, which housed around 8,000 children. Its closing compelled the parents to take the children with them. For two successive years, these children were unable to access education, as most lacked smartphones and were not aware of the happenings of the school (Suffian, 2021).

Innovative Practices in Their Education On 13 April 2021, the Supreme Court of India directed all the states to inform it about the number and condition of migrant children within their territory and further mandated that all their Fundamental Rights including the Right to Education, be protected. The Education Ministry’s guidelines are expected to help to identify and educate migrant children who are out of school. It aims to curtail the drop-out rate and prevent the loss of learning, along with recent gains made in the education sector with the introduction of universal access to quality education. It wanted the continuation of education for the drop-outs or the OOSC with the help of volunteers, local teachers, and community participation. It wants OOSC in states and Union Territories to be identified – by carrying out a door-to-door survey for the 6–18 years age groups. Enrolment and awareness drives were to be taken at the commencement of every academic session, for example, the Pravesh Utsav, School Chalo Abhiyan. It also talks about providing student support while the schools are closed like counselling, large-scale awareness, and targeted home visits. It wants extensive use of web portals like Manodarpan to provide psychosocial support. The government also wants the schools to design bridge courses so that the migrant children can easily catch up with the rest. It aims to strengthen the teacher capacity by introducing them to various online training modules like NISHTHA and the various other training programmes scheduled to be launched on the DIKSHA portal shortly (India Today Web Desk, New Delhi, 2021). The Ministry of Education issued two guidelines, one in July 2020 and then another in January 2021, to aid the education of migrant children. It has directed all state education departments to monitor these children, to ensure nobody is denied admission, and the schools have been asked not to ask for any documents barring identity cards. Kerala’s Roshni Project, which ensures migrant children’s Right to Education in government and aided schools, deserves special note. Under

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  193

this programme, migrant children learn Malayalam in a different language, including their mother tongue. The programme was so successful that the parents decided to stay back in Ernakulam district, as they did not want their children to miss school. Usha Manatt, district project coordinator, SSA, Kerala, noted that teachers of various schools and volunteers visited the homes of migrant workers to teach their children physically, as most lacked access to the internet and smartphones (Krishnakumar, 2020). The medium of instruction must be multilingual for the education of migrant children to be successful. The National Education Policy, 2020, acknowledges that children learn best when taught in their native mother tongue. Odisha is the only state that has in place the Multilingual Education model of education, but it too is restricted to its tribal areas. According to Parismita Singh, a teacher of the Pratham after-school programme in Assam, if all the schools teach children in their mother tongue, then the families too can help with the children’s education, increasing the chances of its success (Khaitan, 2020).

Prospects in the Education of Migrant Children The Migrants of India face uncertainties like joblessness and poor health, and often do not get basic entitlements. Their children are no doubt most vulnerable and “hardest to reach”, often remaining invisible. With the commencement of the RTE Act in 2009, while the school enrolment rates of the general children population have reached the 90% mark, the school enrolment rates of migrant children are still deplorably low. The Census of 2011 highlights those states with the highest outmigration; Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal account for two-thirds of children who drop out. The migrant children face challenges of learning new languages in new locations and have to cope with missed syllabi. They are twin victims of poverty and informal masked labour and hardly have any scope of coming out of it (Khurana, 2021). Very few states like Orissa, and Karnataka run a seasonal hostel for these children that have saved them from dropping out of school. A UNESCO report published in 2013 found that most migrant children were compelled to drop out as the academic session coincided with the seasonal migration cycle, mentionable between November to June. A 2018 study pointed out that even when the seasonal migrants left behind their children in their hometowns, their education suffered. In 2013, nearly 11 million children within the age bracket of 6–14 years were found to be living in rural households of seasonal migrants. The study further reported that the majority of the youth aged 15 to 19 years, living in their households were mostly illiterate or had not completed their primary education (Navya, 2019). To redress these shortcomings, the RTE 2009 harped on the importance of flexible admission procedures, setting up more and more

194  Somali Mukherjee

seasonal hostels, and the need for greater coordination among the states. The Samagra Siksha Abhiyan, National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) also provided guidelines to make education accessible to migrant children at their destination. Integrated Child Development Services is meant to cover migrant children in urban areas. However, in reality, very few states have constructively worked for the attainment of the education of migrant children. The GEM (UNESCO’S Global Education Monitoring Report 2019) succinctly summarizes that most of the state’s interventions aim to retain children in their hometowns rather than helping migrant children in their workplace (Navya, 2019). The world of urban children in India, a joint report by PWC and the non-governmental organization (NGO) Save the Children, pertinently points out that most of India’s education programmes disproportionally focus on the rural areas. For example, DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA were based on the decentralization of village structures and community participation. The report also says that between Census 2001 and 2011, the child population grew by 13%, but the school admission rates and the number of educational institutions did not proportionately increase (Navya, 2019). The pandemic with acute job loss, financial uncertainties, and unaccounted deaths has complicated the matter manifold. As evident, there is a lack of proper research on the actual educational attainment of migrant children at various levels. Government policies and NGOs are working with the best of intentions, but there is little actual fruition. Child marriage, child labour, child trafficking, and child exploitation remain the stark reality, while a safe environment and Right to Education remain a dream among many. Among the migrant children, particularly those coming from ST and minority categories and the girl child continues to suffer the most. Primary educational attainment remains out of reach for most; therefore, the question of higher education hardly remains relevant. So, to conclude, the educational prospect of migrant children to date remains most under-researched and bleak.

Recommendations and Conclusion An overall study of the education of migrant children bears ample evidence to the fact as a category it is very under-researched. One has to acknowledge the various subgroups within it and carefully track the most vulnerable and hardest-to-reach sections within it – the children of the seasonal migrants, especially those belonging to the tribal and minority sections. Scrupulous data must be maintained by both the central and the state governments on the approximate number of migrant children. Following the central government’s initiative, they must all be given identity cards, bearing unique numbers through which they can be tracked. These identity cards may also be used to provide them with health and nutritional schemes devised by the government. Stress must be given to establishing residential hostels.

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  195

Adding food components to education is a great idea. If these hostels can provide both the food and accommodation option, along with a secure environment, it would go a long way in helping the migrant children to be educated and curtail drop-out rates. The National Educational Policy, 2020, talked about establishing multilingual schools; however, it did not spell out in detail the way to achieve it or the source of its funding. Multilingual classrooms can greatly help migrant children, as proved by Kerala’s Roshni Project, for children truly learn best when taught initially in their mother tongue. Going digital is the need of the hour. However, the government must organize training programmes for both the teachers and the students which would help them to seamlessly move to the digital world. Schools must be provided with good and secure internet connections, and teachers and students must be provided gadgets and data packs to make the best use of the digital platforms created by the government. Teachers have silently worked during the pandemic to create good human beings and citizens; their salaries must be given on time, and they must be provided incentives for their extra efforts. The government should focus on designing a flexible curriculum, childfriendly ways of evaluation, and bridge courses that would help the migrant children greatly. Both the rural and urban local authorities can play a crucial part in identifying migrant children and in their education. The government, through the active participation of the community and NGOs, must organize continuous awareness drives about the importance of education. Completing certain basic levels of education can be linked with direct cash transfers to the students which might reduce marriage rates among the girl child. After completing basic elementary education, various vocational training must be offered which might help the children to gain the needed skill to earn a good living. There must be harmonious coordination at the various levels of government to ensure that the benefits reach the target population. Cooperative federalism is the need of the hour. The states also need to coordinate with each other to share data and work jointly for uplifting these invisible and hardest-to-reach sections of children. While doing so, they must seek active assistance from the various civil society organizations working in the field. The way forward may be perilous and uncertain, but if all the stakeholders, i.e., the government, parents, civil society organizations, community, teachers, and students, cooperate and work harmoniously the desired result is sure to be achieved.

References Aide et Action. (2021, June 12). India: COVID-19 Subjecting Children of Seasonal Migrants to Child Labour. Aide et Action Southeast Asia. https://seac.aide-etaction.org/india-covid-19-subjecting-children-of-seasonal-migrants-to-childlabour/

196  Somali Mukherjee Bhattacharya, L. and Chandrasekhar, S. (2020). India’s Search for Link Language and Progress towards Bilingualism. In Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research. http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2020-015.pdf Chandrasekhar, S. and Sharma, A. (2014). Internal Migration for Education and Employment among Youth in India. In Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research. http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2014-004.pdf Hafeez, S. (2020, December 18). Migrants and 5 NGOs labouring for their cause in India. Give India’s Blog. https://www.giveindia.org/blog/migrants-and-5-ngoslabouring-for-their-cause-in-india/ India Migration Now and Omidyar Network India. (2021). Internal Migration in India: A Scoping Paper. In https://www.omidyarnetwork.in/. Omidyar Network India. https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/61b9a0d531bc5e31aa66a38d/6245a681 8d40974279b567f2_Internal-Migration-in-India.pdf India Today Web Desk, New Delhi. (2021, January 10). Education Ministry Releases Guidelines to Identify and Educate Migrant Children. India Today. https://www-indiatoday-in.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.indiatoday.in/amp/ education-today/news/story/education-ministry-releases-guidelines-to-identifyand-educate-migrant-children-1757685-2021-01-10?amp_js_v=a6&_gsa= 1&usqp=mq331AQHKAFQArABIA%3D%3D#aoh=16103401163961& referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&_tf=From%20%251% 24s&share=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Feducation-today %2Fnews%2Fstory%2Feducation-ministry-releases-guidelines-to-identifyand-educate-migrant-children-1757685-2021-01-10 Khaitan, S. (2020, August 12). NEP 2020: Why Learning in Mother Tongue Is Effective but Hard to Implement. Business Standard India. https://www. business-standard.com/article/education/nep-2020-why-learning-in-mothertongue-is-effective-but-hard-to-implement-120081200399_1.html Khurana, M. (2021, July 18). Ensuring Education for the Children of Migrant Labour in India – PCI India. Policy Change Initiative; The Change Foundation. https:// pciindia.in/ensuring-education-for-the-children-of-migrant-labour-in-india/ Krishnakumar, G. (2020, July 2). Poor Access to Online Classes for Section of Migrant Children. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/pooraccess-to-online-classes-for-section-of-migrant-children/article31974695.ece Misra, U. (2021, February 18). Explain Speaking: What 2020 Taught Us about India’s Internal Migration. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/ explained/what-2020-taught-us-about-indias-internal-migration-explainspeaking7189053/ Navya, K. P. (2019, January 17). For Almost 15 Million Migrant Children, Education Remains a luxury. Citizen Matters. https://citizenmatters.in/school-educationchildren-migrant-labour-rte-9811 Oxfam India. (2018, December 4). 10 Things You Need to Know about the RTE Act #HaqBantaHai. www.oxfamindia.org; https://www.oxfamindia.org/blog/ 10-things-rte Pandey, P. (2021, April 19). Always on the Move: The Troubling Landscape of the Right to Education for Migrant Children in India. India Times. https://timesofindia. indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/always-on-the-move-the-troubling-landscape-of-theright-to-education-for-migrant-children-in-india/

Addressing Educational Needs of Migrant’s Children  197 Rajput, S. and Verma, G. (2018, December 11). How Seasonal Migration of Indians Is Destroying Educational Opportunities for Children. India Today. https://www. indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/how-seasonal-migration-ofindians-is-destroying-educational-opportunities-for-children-1406369-201812-11 Right to Education. (2013). Righttoeducation.in; Right to Education Platform 2013, Centre for Civil Society (CCS). https://righttoeducation.in/know-your-rte/about Samagra Shiksha. (2020). Samagra.education.gov.in; Ministry of Education Govern­ ment of India. https://samagra.education.gov.in/about.html Shah, R. (2021). Seasonal Migration and Children’s Education in India. SPRF India. https://sprf.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/SPRF-2021_Comm_SeasonalMigration_Final.pdf Smita. (2008). Distress Seasonal Migration and Its Impact on Children’s Education: Vol. No 28 (CREATE PATHWAYS TO ACCESS Research Monograph). Consor­ tium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity. http://files.eric. ed.gov/fulltext/ED508805.pdf Srivastava, R. and Sutradhar, R. (2016). Labour Migration to the Construction Sector in India and Its Impact on Rural Poverty. Indian Journal of Human Development, 10(1), 27–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973703016648028 Suffian, M. (2021, July 26). Closure of Seasonal Hostels Forces Migrant Children to Work as Daily Wage Laborers, Education Takes Backstage. India Today. https:// www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/closure-of-seasonal-hostelsmigrant-children-work-as-daily-wage-laborers-1832875-2021-07-26 UNICEF India. (2020). Understanding Child Migration in India – Research Report. In UNICEF India. Young Lives India, UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/india/ media/3421/file/Child-migration-India2020.pdf

Chapter 14

Empowerment of Street Children Ranjana Sharma and Samina

Introduction In general, street children can be defined as children who live on the streets instead of living in a house, and who do not have any home because either the family has left them or there is no one left alive in their family. Children on the street come only to sleep in their homes, but some children spend day and night on the road, and they live on sidewalks or city squares due to poverty, physical abuse, and overcrowding, and some of them regularly visit their families. Children are part of the street due to natural calamities or wars; it becomes a compulsion for the displaced family to live on the sidewalks and in the streets; they work on the streets with their parents for livelihood. So, we can say that the term ‘street children’ exposes a certain set of their living as well as working conditions instead of their characteristics. Very often these children are victimized by stereotypes like ‘juvenile delinquents’ (Maria, 2019). As per the Defence for Children International (DCI), a street child or street youth can be any minor for whom a street or vacant place has become their residence and who has no occupation. Street children are those who don’t have families. They are high-risk children or survivors who are abandoned by their families and need care and protection. These children have been called children in difficult situations. According to UNICEF, these are categorized into three categories: on the street, children at risk, and children on the road. The United Nations has defined street children as children who are not supervised by an adult. According to the World Health Organization street children, who live on the street, on the road, in shelters, or orphanages, are likely to be homeless, and whose families are vulnerable or infirm (World Health Organization, 2000). Reports from different countries mention different cases of street children, children from single-parent families, and children of divorced parents with health or alcohol problems. Children who are abandoned and orphans. The reason for providing the means of subsistence for their families compels them to take to the streets. Most of these children are victims of trafficking, physical and sexual abuse, and crimes (Worldwide News, 2011). DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-19

Empowerment of Street Children  199

Policies and Programmes United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), Article 24 is on children’s quality of health, and Article 28 is on the right of the individual to education is protected. Article 39 is on physical and psychological help and rehabilitation for vulnerable children. India has also pledged to the UNCRC, and it has also to follow International Law (1990) directives. ILO Convention No. 182 (1999) emphasizes that quick and effective measures should be taken to stop child labour, including street children. According to the Indian Constitution’s Directive Principles of State Policy, children should not be treated immorally, and they should not be pressurized to do tasks to meet economic needs, as their age and physique are very delicate. Every child has the right to grow healthily, and they should be given proper occasions and means. Children should be protected from ill and unfair treatment (Article 39 e & f). As mentioned in Article 45, Article 21(a), the Constitution requires the state to provide protection and education to all children below the age of 6 years. Article 46 is related to education and financial support to the weaker section and special attention towards scheduled castes and tribes. The state must also provide nutrition to its citizens, especially children, under Article 47. According to Article 51A, the parents must look after the education of their children who are below 14 years of age. The first five-year plan (1951–56) gave special consideration to the health and education of the children. In 1974, National Policy in India was launched for the rights and necessities of children under the fourth five-year plan (1969–74). It provides equality for every child to get an education. Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) was launched in 2009. Policy and legal changes regarding the domestic use of the CRC include the Indian Constitutional Amendments 83 and 93 in 1997 and 2001, to make compulsory and quality education a fundamental right of the child and to ensure child protection in India. The national charter for children was formed under the ninth five-year plan (1997–2002), to look after literacy, proper food, and medical assistance for the children. The midday meal programme was launched during the ninth five-year plan to provide a proper diet to primary-level students. National Commission for Child Rights protection in 2006 and the Act on Juvenile Justice was enacted in 2000 and amended in 2006. It asserts that it is the state’s responsibility to care for delinquent, neglected, socially maladjusted, orphaned, having no home and families, and youngsters who live on the streets. According to the Charter of Children 2001, the state must develop a children’s social security policy to ensure that every child has access to this right and help youngsters abandoned by their parents or who live on the streets (Bhakhry, 2006). In 2001–02, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan came into being to provide education to all. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan for the inclusion of out-of-school children under the age of 6–18 as part of the Children’s Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. The essential suggestions of the National

200  Ranjana Sharma and Samina

Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 are based on the ideas supplied for free learning, confirming quality education for all children, to generate an inclusive environment for all learners. Right to Education (RTE) Act (2009) recommends that primary education is the fundamental right of children and it also made provision for 25% reservation for the children of neglected and disadvantaged groups. It also recommended special training for dropout children. But still, the street children are neglected by this Act. The National Policy for Children 2013, mentioned in para no 4.5 that the state will take all necessary steps to protect the rights of every child with special needs. Ensure that each out-of-school child, including child labour, migrant children, trafficked kids, homeless children, children with disability, etc., is  observed, saved, rehabilitated, and has to get the right to entry to proper education. The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are doing work on child labour problems to formulate a complete policy to deal with the issue of street children, which includes steps toward rehabilitation and measures to make sure such children’s education. The National Institute of Open Schooling aims to provide vocational, life enrichment, and communityorientated courses in addition to general and academic studies in the secondary and senior secondary stages by NIOS and elementary level courses in an open basic education programme. (Save the Children, 2020).

Current Status According to the United Nations, the number of children in street conditions in the world is up to 150 million, and it keeps on increasing; children aged 3–18 years are in street conditions. Sixty percent of children work in the street for livelihood for their families while 40% are homeless (Vashishtha and Parveen, 2016). It is estimated that there are 314,700 homeless children in towns like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Kanpur, Bangalore, and Hyderabad, and around 100,000 street children in Delhi (Save the Children India and PwC India, 2015). Street children’s statistics have always varied due to the unclear concept of who can be called ‘street children’. Sankunni (2021) mentioned in his article that 202,765 children were found in street situations; in Delhi (81,235), Maharashtra (52,535), and Uttar Pradesh (30,407), and Kolkata (20,068). The survey was conducted on 0.2 million street children. Data revealed that 58.1% of children in the age group between 3–5, did not have a formal education; in contrast, the percentage of children who had attended preschool or education at the primary level is only 40% of the same age group. Children between the age group of 11–14 years who said that they attended upper primary school are around 33%. But children in the age group 15–18 said that they were attending higher education or technical training was one out of four. A census study in Mumbai city was done on 37,059 street children of which 30% were girls, whereas 70% were boys. The data revealed that the percentage of

Empowerment of Street Children  201

illiterate children were almost 24%, which is higher among girls. Thirty-one percent of children aged 4–6 years went to Balwadi; 65.2% of street children have enrolled in government and municipal-run schools and informal centres. The total number of children enrolled in class III and class VIII is 22% and 20%, respectively, whereas hardly 5% of the total population, which is 1,870 children, were enrolled in class X (Action Aid Association, 2018). A census of street children in Delhi city found 50,923 children in total below the age of 18. One thousand nine street children were taken as a sample which was selected randomly. The study revealed that the percentage of illiterate street children was 50.5%, whereas some form of nonformal education was received by 23% of street children. Formal education is received by 20% of street children, of which 13% received preprimary, 4% primary, and 2.4% up to middle school. Around 19% of children enrolled were attending school up to class V. Skill training was demanded by 64.2% of street children; around 43.7% of children wanted to pursue school education; in contrast, both schools, as well as skill training, were preferred by 55% of street children (Save the Children, 2011a). As per the census survey of street children of Pune City, 50% (5,207) of street children were taken for a study of age group 6–14 years. Fifty-five percent of boys and 51% of girls in the age group 7–18 were literate, whereas 38% of boys and 44% of the girls were literate in the age group 7–9 years; this percentage increased: 58% of boys and 54% of girls were literate in higher age groups. The study indicated the slow growth from illiteracy to literacy and late school enrolment among street children. Fiftysix percent to 58% of street children in the age group 10–12 attended school, the highest percentage of children. It is also reported that the percentage of children attending school decreased with increasing age. Thirtyseven percent of boys and girls aged 16–18 continued their education, which shows an excellent indication to complete secondary education and higher secondary education. It was also noted that 88% of street children did not go to school. The survey also stated that there are 10,771 street children in Lucknow, 1,399 in Mugalsarai, 21,907 in Kolkata-Howrah, 21,926 in Patna, and 28,560 in Hyderabad (Rainbow Homes, 2016). Sharmila and Kaur (2014) did their study on 160 street children aged 9–12 years old in Ludhiana City. Data revealed that the percentage of children attending school is 33.75%. They enrolled in a government school: 72.72% of boys and 59.38% of girls were studying in the school where the education was free for all, while 18.18% of boys and 37.50% of girls were enrolled after paying fees, while 9.10% of boys and 3.12% girls were exempted from school fees. Vashishtha and Parveen (2016) studied the educational status of street children of Rajasthan (Jaipur, Kota, Ajmer, Jodhpur); a sample of 200 students was taken for study. The percentage of street children who never went to school was 52%, whereas 48% dropped out. The highest percentage of students who never went to school is 62% in Jodhpur, and the second-highest is 44% in Kota. Twenty-one percent left school during

202  Ranjana Sharma and Samina

primary education, 27% during upper primary, and 2% during secondary classes. Various organizations working for street children are Rainbow Homes, an NGO that has reached out to poor urban children in ten cities across India. Save the Children is one such independent child rights NGO of India which works in 18 states of the country and NGO has helped in educating 406,200 children. Deepalaya works as a big NGO in Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Telangana to educate the underprivileged girl child. Child Rights and You is an Indian NGO working to address the basic needs of children in partnership with parents, teachers, Anganwadi staff, communities, districts, and state-level governments. Smile Foundation benefits education, health care, livelihood, and women empowerment through over 350 live welfare projects to more than 750,000 children and their families every year from distant villages and slums in 25 states of India. Pratham is the country’s largest NGO. The main objective of this organization is to focus on high-quality, low-cost, and exemplary interventions to bridge the gaps in the education system. The Akshaya Patra Foundation is a non-profit organization founded with the intention that no child in India will be underprivileged of education because of hunger. The KC Mahindra Education Trust (Nanhi Kali) project provides 360-degree support to empower girls who are 1–10 years old and are unable to complete schooling. Child Help Foundation is a national non-profit organization that focuses on the support of children’s emergency services, excellence education, access to clean water, etc. Butter­ flies is a registered voluntary organization that endeavours to educate and provide life skills to the most vulnerable groups of children, especially street children, with a non-institutional approach so that they can become self-reliant and out of illiteracy and poverty. The Vatsalya is a leading agency working with street children in Mumbai through its multi-pronged process of outreach, child-to-child contact, contact centres, and shelter homes. CHETNA works with street children and their parents. It gives counselling and encourages them to participate in education and supports them in sending their child to school. SUPPORT is a charitable trust working for street children and youth using drugs. It conducts many rehabilitation programmes for them.

Challenges Street children face challenges in access to education. These social, psychological, and physical challenges obstruct their education. Due to this, they cannot attend mainstream schools like other children and have to drop out of formal education. These children are also deprived of access to healthcare, nutrition, housing, and education due to a lack of basic individuality and state recognition. The exploitation of these children makes it difficult to avail their right to education. To provide proper primary education and

Empowerment of Street Children  203

skill  training to street children, it is necessary to understand their educational level. Hence, specific approaches and solutions will help them to learn (Mgr. Beata Pietkiewicz-Pareek, 2012). Ahmed (2018) stated that the street is the most dangerous place for physical and sexual abuse where these children live. These children are vulnerable to exploitation by abusers who may force them into criminal activity and child trafficking, use them in the streets to beg and steal, and also sexually assault them. Family circumstances are also the reason for the drop-out of street children because of abusive family relationships, their primary and learning needs not being met, and lack of motivation and awareness. School environment also affects the discontinuity of street children; the reasons include discriminatory behaviour by teachers, learning pressure, teaching facilities and lack of motivation, fear of teachers, etc. Street children cannot enrol in formal education due to issues regarding legal identity and the unavailability of permanent addresses. At the same time, children who have spent years on the streets struggle with returning and with younger students and their age. Apart from this, children who can register but are stigmatized and discriminated against by teachers and peers have an impact on their achievement in the classroom. Vulnerable street children who are frequently the victims of physical and sexual exploitation, when ignored by teachers and peers in the classroom or within the school, affect their mental and physical development. (Embleton et al., 2016). A research report on the Act and social services for street children said that street children face challenges after enrolling in schools such as discrimination shown by other children, their parents, and teachers; they are ignored, not permitted to take part in any activities, are not paying attention, and showed no interest in ethical activities by teachers. They are provided with psychological service, but it is simply formal and does not offer any real service. In a few cases, these children are promoted to the next class at the end of the session, although they are not attending school. This casualness harms the children. In most cases, preschool classes are conducted but don’t reach these children. Attendance in school by these children depends mostly on them (Save the Children, 2011b). According to Das (2012), the main reasons for dropping out of school are the unwillingness of the parents to send their children to school due to poverty. The families are not able to afford the school fees and work is more remunerative for them than education. Education is a difficult task for them as the family is dependent on the income of the child, along with the lack of awareness and information associated with education. Another factor affecting the education of street children is migration. Poverty, family breakdown, death or inability to earn, natural disasters, and emotional closeness for economic and non-economic reasons, children are pushed and dragged to move from one place to another, etc. (Roy et al., 2015). The reasons for discontinuing school are economic conditions, leaving home to earn money, searching for Jobs, household work, parents’ interest in not sending them to

204  Ranjana Sharma and Samina

school, leaving the place with family, loss of interest in studying, and bad behaviour by teachers and peer group. The overall need-based curriculum is to be devised for street children to make better and responsible citizens (Save the Children, 2016).

Innovative Practice in Their Education New and innovative programmes have been developed in collaboration with various NGOs and professional groups to educate street children in India. LADLI is one of the programmes providing vocational training to girls and boys. Jewellery-making, tailoring, and stitchwork skills are learned. Other than this, English, drawing, dance, and other subjects are taught, whereas another programme is School on Wheels, which provides non-formal schooling to children who can’t attend school regularly. School on Wheels Centres are fun and kid-friendly. Children gain self-confidence, social skills, and self-esteem through education and employment. Several interventions have been made worldwide to reach the growing urban poor and street children. For the empowerment of street children, many government policies and programmes were created from time to time, in which many provisions were kept. Many NGOs have come forward, understanding the problems and needs of street children, and are working to provide education through innovative practice. Child in Need Institute – provide supplementary education before or after school hours through learning centres run within the school premises or community to prevent school dropouts and children who are deprived of a conducive home environment for continuous study. It promotes childfriendly schools where child-centred education methodologies are introduced and also discusses with families the benefits of education to increase awareness. Under this, an instructional manual has been developed for street educators. Residential school Rani Bhabani provides remedial support through accelerated learning methods with bridge courses to ensure the retention of enrolled children. Ek Kadam organizes educational skill development camps, gives remedial provisions to ensure the retention of children within the formal education system, and also trains adolescents and youth skill training to generate wage employment opportunities. Pathbhavan is run by the Srotoshwini Trust of Vadodara for underprivileged children by providing slum libraries and activity centres. Butterflies empower street children through its innovative non-institutional approach. Its educational programme is based on cooperative learning. An essential part of this programme is life skill education. Trained butterflies identify the contact points and contact vulnerable children to interact with them and their parents and handle emergencies. PRAYAS, a Delhi-based NGO with the help of UNESCO, is developing new educational materials to meet the requirements of street children to receive education in urban areas (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Indian National Commission for Co-operation, 2001). Prayas foundation is another NGO

Empowerment of Street Children  205

that conducts community outreach programmes and a home-based programme for disadvantaged children in Jaipur, Rajasthan. The Society for Door Step Schools has established Educational Activity Centres for migrant workers and street children, where they are taught through an innovative outreach programme. Children working at construction sites are taken to the Quest Science Labs where fundamentals of science using hands-on experiments are taught. Community Learning Centres are also set up with computer classes and science labs. Mobile Learning Centres were introduced by the State Government of Delhi, which has educators, bus drivers, and outreach workers. These centres are well equipped with creative learning materials and audio-visual equipment. These children are taught through various board games, cross puzzles, building blocks, etc. National Child Labour Project schools are teaching alphabetical elementary reading books for a year or two. Bal Adhikar Pariyojana, Nalanda with the help of UNICEF, Lucknow has prepared books for the pre-preparatory stage and also provide technical and academic support to Quality Girls’ Education Project, and SSA Project. The book covers Hindi language reading and writing material, maths, and primary social science subjects. Project Mala has been established for the children who do the work of making carpets, hence the work of providing three years of non-formal education for children in the age group of 10–14 years. Salam Balak Trust (SBT) Transforming Street children into capable and thoughtful individuals is done through the intense involvement of SBT. The main objectives are empowering access to education and empowering children in various vocational skills. It provides various skill development courses like web design and photography, multi-media animation, film editing, C++ software, caregiving, housekeeping, puppetry, karate, theatre, photography, and so on. Ashraya Initiative for Children is an NGO that concerns street children of Pune City. It gives computer education to street children in the summer; it works to empower them to be successful in life along with learning computer skills and mastery of the English language. The Hole in the Wall Project, the Power of Self-Organized Learning, was introduced for those children who live in slums and are struggling to survive. A computer was sunk in the opening wall in Kalkaji, New Delhi, and it was observed that children could learn to use computers and the internet on their own (Mitra, 2012). The Vatsalyatakes initiatives for the street children of Mumbai. In outreach, various activities are conducted in parks, platforms, markets, and nearby places of slums and railway stations and provide a platform for these children to participate in academic, educational, and recreational activities. Balkruti is an in-house skill development training programme in beadwork, embroidery, card making, candle making, fabric painting, etc. In the Nanhe Likhan initiative, street children are motivated to write their inner voices and thoughts and maintain a personal diary so that writing skills can be identified. Vocational training is also provided to these children. Under Darshan, street children learn to dance, music, and theatre and spread the social message.

206  Ranjana Sharma and Samina

Recommendation Scholars and agencies have recommended many strategies to help homeless children, with most focusing on using NGOs. The primary responsibility should be to NGOs by providing the government’s financial support. As per General Comment No. 21 (2017), the United Nations Committee on the rights of the child offers authoritative advice to states to develop a complete, long-term rational approach for children in street conditions using a holistic approach to deal with both response and prevention of children’s rights. Government and NGOs should evolve new strategies to generate income in rural areas so that the migration of poor and youth to the cities can be stopped (Das, 2012). As per the report on the Children in the street situation, the ECE programme for children aged 3–6 years is to be ensured community-specific through the kindergarten programme. There is a need to strengthen Aanganwadi to reach these children (Rainbow Homes, 2016). Non-formal education (NFE) and other education programmes should be additional support to the formal education system at an early stage. NGOs must perform as pressure groups to reform the quality of education in traditional schools. Those NGOs associated with the NFE programme need a proper orientation programme to guide the preparation of teaching modules and teaching-learning material, selection of books, and recruitment of teachers, as well as the techniques of the NFE programme (UNESCO and Indian National Commission for Co-operation, 2001). In a survey on the lives of street children, there is a requirement for a new model of making education interesting, attainable, desirable, and free in government schools. Ensure that suitable residential facilities are accessed by street children. The state government must establish special residential, and non-residential training and urban residential centres under the RTE Act. Instead of forcing street children to take education soon after they are released from the workplace, they should be given time to realize how essential education is to make life better. There is a need to design quality bridged courses with the help of educationists (Save the Children, 2016). Legal identity proof should also be provided to these children so they are not deprived of their right to education. Government and NGOs should increase the number of day shelters and pay more attention to girls and women on the road. These programmes ought to be mainstreamed with regular schools to ensure that the right to education is as accessible to street children as other children in the formal education system. Street children and their parents are not aware that the government and NGOs run the schemes and programmes, so there is a requirement to bring awareness about them (Save the Children, 2011a). It is also recommended that street children be motivated by excitingly providing education, doing fun activities with them, and providing food. Other teaching methods like role-plays and drama, games, play-way methods, brainstorming, field visits, problem-solving methods, etc., should be used. Role-plays should be according to the life of street children. There is

Empowerment of Street Children  207

a need for coordination between governmental organizations, NGOs, and voluntary organizations which are working for street children. All these organizations should conduct regular meetings and, in these meetings, the street children’s experiences and ideas should also be considered. There is a need to train the person to deal with street children and their family problems in both government and non-government organizations.

Conclusion Street children survive in an unsafe environment where they are underprivileged in regard to adequate protection, education, and health care. Hence these are one of the most vulnerable groups. Therefore, the problem is not the street child but their position in the street. That’s why they are called children in the street situation. Street children constantly struggle to meet their basic needs such as shelter, food, clothing, health, safety, and so on. These children stay out of school and often spend their time in an inhumane environment for their livelihood to meet these needs. According to a UNESCO document (2001) on Education for Street and Working Children in India, street children become addicted to drugs and alcohol; they are forced to beg, steal, and other criminal activities. As a result, they suffer many physical and mental problems (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Indian National Commission for Co-operation, 2001). The Government of India has launched many education policies, programmes, and schemes to educate street children at the state and central levels. Various articles have been said about the education of street children. In addition, India has signed several international covenants – namely, the UN Convention on Rights of the Child (1992), the Dakar Framework for action (2000), and SAARC SDG charter for children to make education a reality in all parts of the country and reflect nations’ commitment. There’s a crucial need for correct implementation of laws at the grass-roots stage, and transparent government policy to deal with the troubles of street children. Government and NGOs have a new perspective of a “holistic service structure” to protect all children (Save the Children and PwC India, 2015). Many NGOs come forward for street children’s education and innovative practices. Rainbow Homes, Save the Children, Deepalaya, Children Rights and You, Pratham, and Butterflies are some of them. Education additionally gives opportunities to support children in coping with the social difficulties and environmental problems they will necessarily face. Simply educating these children with simple instruction is not the solution, but providing qualitative and vocation-orientated education is very important for their development and growth. Regardless of various international and national provisions for the protection of underprivileged children, street children are pressured to stay in  pathetic conditions. No doubt the reports of the commissions

208  Ranjana Sharma and Samina

have influenced education policy. But it is true for a variety of reasons, such as social and political pressures and administrative delays, lack of funding, occasional lack of information, and so on. There have been gaps between recommendations and implementation. Most of the educational policies aren’t genuinely concentrated on children including street children’s education. There is a need for such education, awareness, and information for street children, through which they can learn how they can improve their health status, remove poverty, solve the problems which they face in their daily routine, and can also bring awareness against forced labour, drugs, and exploitation. There is a need to encourage parents and children to be literate and join the education system by explaining the importance of education so that their future can be safe and secure.

References Action Aid Association. (2018). A Census Study in Mumbai City: Making Street Children matter. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.actionaidindia.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/06/Mumbai-street-children-V3-Making-Street-ChildrenMatter1.pdf. Ahmed, S. (2018). Street Children and Its Impacts on Society. International Journal of Academic Pedagogical Research, 2(4), 12–22. https://philarchive.org/archive/ AHMSCA-2 Bhakhry, S. (2006). Children in India and Their Rights. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://nhrc.nic.in/sites/default/files/ChildrenRights.pdf Convention on the Rights of the Child. (1990). In Accordance with Article 49. Retrieved 31 October 2022, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/instrumentsmechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child Dakar Framework for Action. (2000). World Education Forum, Dakar. The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments (including six regional frameworks for action). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000121147 Das, K.T. (2012). Survival Strategy of the Street and Working Children in the Sylhet City of Bangladesh. Social Work Chronicle, 1(1), 30–54. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from http://www.publishingindia.com/GetBrochure.aspx?query= UERGQnJvY2h1cmVzfC85NDcucGRmfC85NDcucGRm Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Government of India, Indian National Commission for Co-operation with UNESCO (INCCU). (2001). Retrieved 31 October 2022, from https://www.education.gov.in Embleton, L., Lee, H., Gunn, J., Ayuku, D., and Braitstein, P. (2016), Causes of Child and Youth Homelessness in Developed and Developing Countries. JAMA Pediatrics. Published online 4 April 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https:// oscarcohort.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Embleton-2016-Jama-Peds_24.pdf General comment No. 21. (2017) On Children in Street Situations. Convention on the Rights of the Child. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://bureau-client-media. ams3.digitaloceanspaces.com/street-children-website-TJ5d7s/wp-content/ uploads/2017/07/15140332/General-Comment-No.-21-2017-on-children-instreet-situations.pdf

Empowerment of Street Children  209 ILO Convention No.182 (1999).On theWorst Forms of Child Labor.ILO – International Labour Organisation. Retrieved 31 October 2022, from https://www.ilo.org/dyn/ normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C182 International Law. (1990). Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990), in accordance with article 49. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/ instruments/convention-rights-child Maria, A. (2019). Understanding the Educational Frameworks for Street Children in India. International Journal of Research & Review, 6(11), 335–64. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from http://www.ijrrjournal.org/IJRR_Vol.6_Issue.11_Nov2019/ IJRR0043.pdf Mgr. Beata Pietkiewicz-Pareek. (2012). Common Social Problems among Street Children in India. Advanced Research in Scientific Areas, 981–85. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.academia.edu/42269559/Common_social_problems_ among_Street_Children_in_India Mitra, S. (2012, February 3). The Hole in the Wall Project and the Power of SelfOrganized Learning. George Lucas Educational Foundation. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/self-organized-learning-sugata-mitra Rainbow Homes. (2016). A Survey Report on Children in Street Situations – Life on Pune Streets. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.pmc.gov.in/sites/default/ files/project-glimpses/Pune-Street-Children-Survey-Report.pdf. Roy, K. A., Singh, P., and Roy, N.U. (2015). Impact of Rural-Urban Labour Migration on Education of Children: A Case Study of Left Behind and Accompanied Migrant Children in India. Space and Culture, India, 2(4), 17–34. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.academia.edu/12022057/Impact_ of_Rural_Urban_Labour_Migration_on_Education_of_Children_A_Case_ Study_of_Left_Behind_and_Accompanied_Migrant_Children_in_India_by_Dr_ Archana_K_Roy_Pappu_Singh_and_Prof_UN_Roy. Sankunni, K. (2021, April 12). Estimated 18 Million Children Live on Streets in India, Home to One of the Largest Child Populations on Earth. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/estimated-18million-children-live-on-streets-in-india-home-to-one-of-the-largest-childpopulations-on-earth/744047#:~:text=A%20census%20survey%20(Spotlight %20on,81%2C235)%2C%20followed%20by%20Maharashtra%20 Save the Children. (2011a). A Census of Street Children in Delhi. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/document/survivingstreets-census-street-children-delhi-institute-human-development-and-savechildren/ Save the Children. (2011b). Legislation and Public Services for Children in the Street Situation. Retrieved: 1 July 2022, from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/ pdf/06._study_report_legislation_and_service_provision_for_street_children_ e.pdf/ Save the Children. (2016). Life on the Street Children Survey in 5 Cities: Lucknow, Mugalsarai, Hyderabad, Patna, and Kolkata-Howrah. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/08c7e6ee-f8c0-4ef6-b9563c26f6601409.pdf/ Save the Children. (2020). Standard Operating Procedure (Sop) for Care and Protection of Children in Street Situations. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https:// www.savethechildren.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Standard-OperatingProcedure-for-CISS_Revised.pdf

210  Ranjana Sharma and Samina Save the Children India and PwC India. (2015a). Forgotten Voices: The World of Urban Children in India. New Delhi. Retrieved 31 October 2022, from https:// www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/urban-child/urban-child-india-report.pdf Save the Children India and PwC India. (2015b). Forgotten Voices: The World of Urban Children in India. New Delhi: Author. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https:// www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/urban-child/urban-child-india-report.pdf Sharmila, K. and Kaur, S. (2014). A Scenario of Street Children in Ludhiana City. Asian Journal of Home Science, 9(1), 122–27. UNESCO and Indian National Commission for Co-operation. (2001). Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Government of India, Indian National Commission for Co-operation with UNESCO (INCCU). https://www. education.gov.in. United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Indian National Commission for Co-operation. (2001). Education for Street and Working Children in India. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000126355/PDF/126355engo.pdf.multi Vashishtha, R. and Parveen, S. (2016). Street Children “Tale of Homelessness” Scenario, Status & Strategy (A Sociological Study of Four Major Cities of Rajasthan – Jaipur, Ajmer, Kota, & Jodhpur). Unpublished thesis, Sociology – Faculty of Social Science University of Kota. World Education Forum, Dakar. (2000). The Dakar Framework for Action: Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments (including Six Regional Frameworks for Action). Retrieved 31 October 2022, from https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121147 World Health Organization. (2000). Working with Street Children. Retrieved 1  July 2022, from https://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/who_street_children_ introduction.pdf Worldwide News. (2011, March 14). Numbers of Street Children Grows Worldwide. Retrieved 1 July 2022, from https://globalmarch.org/numbers-of-street-childrengrows-worldwide/

Chapter 15

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations Sanjay Kumar Yadav

Introduction An individual’s, as well as an environment’s influence on the vulnerability of a child, accumulates over time and compounds vigorously. With the change and evolution of these factors, the types, as well as the degrees of child vulnerability, vary. For instance, age forms the needs of children whilst simultaneously exhibiting them to the probable latest threats. A newborn is totally reliant and also required to be given responsive and effective caregiving; they are mainly responsive to the parents’ health and material deficiency. Small kids, below the age of 3 years, are majorly influenced by family tension and material deficit due to the quick rate of early intellectual growth. “Vulnerability”, in a literal sense, defines a state or condition of being weak or poorly defended. The notion of vulnerability with regard to young individuals entails the ones who are comparatively more exposed to the threats than their peers. In terms of deprivation of food, parental care, education, abuse, negligence, exploitation, violence, and disease such as HIV, they can be really vulnerable. It is a relative state that might range from resilience to total helplessness. As several distinct groups have vivid views on vulnerability, there exist multiple definitions and conceptual frameworks of vulnerability –for example, academic staff from different areas, development corporations, climatic change organizations, disaster management agencies. The common understanding derived from these definitions is that “vulnerability” is • dynamic (vulnerability keeps changing over time); • multi-faceted (e.g., environmental, corporal, emotional, communal, psychological, institutional, monetary, and human issues altogether describe vulnerability); • scale-based (several levels of vulnerability exist, ranging from human to household to community to country level); and • area-specific (different localities may demand their own diverse procedure). DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-20

212  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

Furthermore, flexibility involves distinct stages prior to and later if any troublesome incident, together with the groundwork previous to any sort of calamities, the impact of disasters, the recovery that follows the calamities, and the long-time effect of catastrophes that prevail. There is such a relationship between resilience and vulnerability conversed in the following paragraph “framework of vulnerability”. According to various categories of losses, vulnerability can be categorized as physical, social, financial, emotional, psychological, and ecological vulnerability (Birkmann, 2006, pp. 9–54). Vulnerability is a state of being weak or comparatively less defended. Thus, vulnerable people are the ones who are more exposed to threats or risks. There are several factors that make one vulnerable, for example, deprivation of a safe environment, healthcare, food, parental care, and education, whereas exploitation, violence, abuse, impaired immune system, neglect, etc. can also make people vulnerable. Children constitute 39% of India’s population. Children are one of the vulnerable groups that are potential victims of any immediate threat. In India, there are multiple factors, which are determinants of vulnerability: lack of education, inability to defend themselves; chronic illness; physical disabilities; identity crisis; orphanage; deprivation of food, shelter, healthcare, etc.; absence of supportive groups; absence of proper guidance; and existing risks in the environment, etc. In India, 85% of the total land is somewhat vulnerable to different types of hazards. Also, around 60 cities that have over half a million population are in the major earthquake regions. Among all the global metropolises that have been marked for being at the highest risk of atmosphere variation in the forthcoming decades, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi are ranked 7th, 8th, and 20th, respectively (Mihir and Bhatt, 2015). Natural disasters appear to be a certain death warrant for children belonging to Indian cities. In times of disaster, children turn out to be the most vulnerable and susceptible group, when it comes to injury and casualties. Additionally, more than 50% of the people who are affected by some sort of natural disaster worldwide are children. From the years 2000 to 2009, around 8.45 million kids below the age of 5 years, got influenced by some sort of disaster in India. An unexpected flood-hit Kashmir in 2014, September, in which around ten million people witnessed a large-scale effusion, including around 4.25 million kids. This flood impacted about 3.43 million kids and also at the same time severely affected approximately 0.82 million children (Kancharla, 2015). Moreover, vulnerable locations as well as the increasing population and concentrations of enterprises make the cities more dangerous. Additionally, the proximity of residential to industrial areas, impoverished drainage conditions, absence of adequate space for proper evacuation, the probability of the quick increase of any transmissible infection owing to the thick population density, etc., the entire reasons further enhance the risks associated with disaster (UNICEF, 2012).

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  213

Though all children are vulnerable when it comes to emergency situations, certain harsh realities push those living in poor urban areas to the position of severe risks. Disasters take an altogether different toll on the underprivileged residents of urban areas, as they are served inadequately and at the same time are ill-equipped to get prepared for any extreme situation and recover from it afterward. The unprivileged children of the urban populations have their residences where their parents locate a property or pay for the rent within access of employment, which frequently turns out to be mostly in congested slums or under the flyovers, or on top of different places near industrial squander or informal settlements on the floodplains or steep slopes. Therefore, children are automatically at a higher threat in such localities, e.g., storm drains, sewer systems, sea walls, or paved roads, because they have little to no access to knowledge or adequately defensive material, which can save them from withstanding severe occurrences. Moreover, most of the time flimsy materials are used to build homes, which fail to stand still against the high winds, rushing water, mudslides, and earthquakes. Lack of development contributes to the disasters in poor urban areas, and tragedies, in return, undo or demoralize developmental growth, intensifying neediness and additionally increasing the gaps in societal and healthiness issues that exist between the poor and rich. Already existing deprived physical conditions and nourishment lead to disaster, enhance the threat for kids, hinder healing, and make the children more vulnerable to future shocks if not addressed instantly. However, the greater part of the catastrophe danger-lessening plans in the metropolitan vicinity is not successful to particularize the hazards encountered by kids, especially the vulnerable group, such as newborns, homeless kids, younger kids, children with disabilities, and children who live in slums. In 2015, Chennai floods evidently bared the existing severe faults in the management of the city, which include the complete absence of appropriate figures about the vulnerable populace, e.g., kids, prospective mothers, and older people. This kind of data was vital for locating vulnerable households and expediting rescue and relief efforts (Krishnan, 2015).

Policies and Programmes Worldwide, children, as compared to adults, are more likely to live in poverty. They are also more prone to its after-effects. Social protection programmes, e.g., cash transfers, health insurance, and education subsidies, aid in giving equal opportunity to all children in living. They enhance children’s access to edification, good nutrition, and physical condition concern, and at the same time reduce the lifelong consequences of poverty. However, the global coverage is minimal, as, for three out of every four children, social protection continues to be inaccessible. Children are left behind for different reasons. In most cases, social services are underfunded, with available funds aiding services, which never reach disadvantaged families. Alongside,

214  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

local governments that are responsible for providing adequate health care and education may also lack in collecting data, consulting communities, and determining why and where children remain deprived of their needs. The challenges pile up for the children affected by humanitarian crises. Protracted conflicts, inequity, violence, and climate change compound poverty, pushing those with little means to bear huge burdens. The Child-Friendly Cities Initiative, led by UNICEF, aids municipal governments in ensuring children’s rights. The initiative drives together the governments and other stakeholders, like the children themselves, civil society organizations, academia, media, the private sector, etc., who wish to create more child-friendly communities. The Indian Constitution provides several protections for children, which comprise the following: According to Article 14, no person shall be denied equal treatment under the law or equal protection under the law in the Indian Territory. No one may impede the state in providing any special provisions for women and children, according to Article 15(3). According to Article 21, no one may be deprived of their life or personal freedom until a legal process has been followed. According to Article 21A, every child between the ages of 6 and 14 must receive “free and compulsory education” in the way that the state may specify by legislation. Both forced labour and human trafficking are forbidden by Article 23. Children under the age of 14 are not allowed to work in industries, quarries, or any other dangerous occupations, according to Article 24. According to Article 45, the state is required to make every effort to provide all children with early care and education up until the age of 6. Additionally, there are several laws pertaining to children, such as the following: The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles, and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply, and Distribution) Act, 1992 The Pre-Conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Technique (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994 The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 The Guardian and Wards Act, 1890 The Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1956 The Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  215

Furthermore, many schemes and programmes are being implemented by various ministries and departments of the Indian government in the interest of the children. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme, Integrated Programme for Juvenile Justice, etc., are being introduced by the Ministry of Women and Child Development towards vulnerable children.

Current Status According to the Census of India 2011, there are 8.2 million child labourers ages 5–14 years in India. For the age bracket of 5–18 years, this figure shoots up to a staggering 33 million children. As per the findings of the National Crime Record Bureau in 2016, around 150 children go missing in India every day, and crimes against children have increased fivefold in the last 10 years. (Save the Children, January 2019) These figures are evident enough to show the vulnerable condition of children in India. “The 2011 census estimated that the number of people with disabilities in India is close to 2.68 crores (or 2.2% of the population)” (The Indian Express, December 2020). The Census 2011 highlights that one in every 25 children with disabilities in the age group 0–14 years is working in India, whereas out of the total number of children with disabilities in the same age group, 1.8% and 2.3% are working as main and marginal workers, respectively. It is believed that disability substantially increases a child’s vulnerability to violence. In India, disability still becomes a barrier for children to survive as, in some parts, people still consider it as a curse and end up either abandoning the child or killing it. According to the “2011 census, India has 1.77 million homeless people out of which 0.27 million (15.3%) children come under the 0–6 years age group”. Of the homeless population, 52.9%, which stands for 0.94 million, live in a municipal vicinity in which 0.11 million are kids below the age of 6 years. It constitutes 41.7% of the entire destitute children inhabitants in India and 12.0% of the whole municipal residents who are homeless. Nevertheless, no official estimate is obtainable on the totality of destitute children belonging to the 0–18 age range residing in the municipal regions. A survey was conducted by Save the Children titled “Surviving the Streets”, in nine districts of Delhi that prevailed in 2010, from July to August; it further appraises that Delhi has a population of approximately 51,000 homeless children, and girls covered its 20%. The largest portion (61%) belonged to the 7–14 years age group, whereas, 23% belonged to the 8–15 years age group. It further publicized that 70% of kids were on the road, though they have a house in Delhi. Moreover, 50.5% of them were uneducated, and 87% of them earned a living by working as street sellers (15.8%), beggars

216  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

(15%), or rag pickers (20%). Furthermore, more than 50% of these children had suffered some sort of abuse, be it verbal, physical or sexual, at some point in their lives.

Challenges Education is as much about quality as it is about quantity. In India, one of the largest democracies of the world, a major portion of the population is rural, where the literacy rate varies vividly. According to an article, “Almost 70% of the Indian population is rural. The adult literacy rate stands at about 60% and this is significantly lower in women and minorities” (EduBrite: Top 4 Challenges for Education in India). In India, education comprises several organizations including government, non-profit, private, and government-aided institutions. However, with the continuous growth in population, it turns out to be a tough task to provide quality education to all. Thus, over the years, the improvement in the literacy rate could not be enormous. In rural areas, children are the worst victims of poor education. As the schools in rural regions are mostly government aided, the schools often fail to meet the quality education standard required for proper education due to lack of funding. Thus, even if children manage to make their way to school, they do not receive a quality education. The main reason children in rural areas remain deprived of education is financial stability or at times extreme poverty. In a developing country, this is quite a common scenario, as a majority of people find it hard to provide themselves with basic essentials; the education of children naturally cannot be their topmost priority. Thus, despite making education free till the age of 14, some families cannot afford to buy learning materials for their kids. Even if they manage to send off their children to school till the age of 14, in no way can they enrol them further for secondary or higher education, which automatically increases the drop-out rate. The location of the school often turns out to be a major drawback in the education of children. While private schools often have their own transport services to make school-going easy for children in the urban area, it is not the same in rural places. At times, the schools are way far from the locality that the children are expected to cover, a long way to come to school, which automatically negatively affects their interest in going to school. According to a study, More than 98% of rural as well as urban households reported having a school with primary classes within 2 km. Of the rural households, more than 21% did not have a school with middle-level classes within 2 km and 17% did not have a school with secondary level classes within 5 km. Discrimination is another major problem faced by children in an attempt to get their right to education. Gender discrimination being a dominant

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  217

issue still deprives girl children of their right to education as much as boys. However, some families still prioritize their boys over girls and confine their girl children within the four walls of their homes. “In India as per census, 2011 female literacy rates have increased from 18.33 percent in 1951 to 74.00 ­percent in 2011” (Smile Foundation, 2021). Infrastructure is another barrier to child education. Even if children manage to go to school, some schools do not have well-built toilets for students. Due to a lack of sanitation and hygiene issues, most of the students refrain from going to school. It is mostly the girls who drop out of school due to the taboos around menstruation. In India, discrimination based on caste, creed, language, and religion has been dominant since time immemorial. Children from minor communities not only face difficulties in getting an education, but they often face humiliation for being part of a certain community, and surprisingly, it starts from the primary level only. It is threatening for children, as communal hatred can be really disheartening and negatively influence one’s persona. Thus, many children display an unwillingness to attend school due to the attacks on their race, language, community, or religion. Furthermore, the sudden knock of the pandemic only added to the existing challenges that children faced in getting an education. The pandemic not only confined everyone within their homes but at the same time brought a drastic change in the whole education system. In a situation where lives were at stake, schools were closed, and normalcy was compromised, it was really challenging to continue the course of teaching from a distance. While private schools were advanced enough to carry on online classes, government schools couldn’t implement the same according to the demand of the ongoing pandemic situation. According to an article, Over 1.5 million schools across India closed down due to the pandemic. A switch to large-scale digital education is not possible now. Only 24 percent of households have access to the internet, according to a 2019 government survey. In rural India, the numbers are far lower, with only 4 percent of households having access. The education ministry’s budget for digital e-learning was slashed to Rs 469 crore in 2020-21—the year COVID struck—from Rs 604 crore the previous year. (India Today, January 2021) As Indian schools have students from diverse backgrounds and cultures, it is not possible to completely rely on digital media to impart education. Thus, some obvious issues have occurred with the sudden outbreak of a pandemic. Not all children have smartphones, laptops, or computers at home, so they cannot take part in online classes. As the government schools were yet to implement digital classrooms, not all the teaching staff are well trained to handle a class online using the advanced methodology. Even when the government came up with various schemes to provide students with smartphones, e.g., in West Bengal, the lack of internet still remained

218  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

an issue in attaining proper education. At times when people found it too difficult to get food for themselves, leave alone the thought of educating children. Thus, the financial crisis remained a dominating challenge in the way of education. The pandemic was harsh on children with disabilities on a greater level because not all can adapt to the online mode of learning. As these children require special methods and aids to develop concepts, the presence of the physical classroom still remains vital. Thus, eradicating the challenges in a vulnerable situation coupled with the existing ones can be a really tough task for the government solely, while economic stability is still at stake. However, to make education accessible for all, even in situations like pandemics, the government has taken drastic steps through innovative schemes and educational programmes. As the pandemic confined the children to their homes and the mode of learning was online, a huge responsibility came to parents as the teachers were not physically present to observe the students. While educated parents continue supporting child education by helping them out with day-to-day lessons, there are a huge number of people who are still illiterate, and as a result, could not provide much support to their children. Thus, these children were on their own. With these blooming issues came the economic crisis in families. As the classes were online, lower-income families could not provide the children with the appropriate gadgets to pursue their education. As a result, children were withdrawn from their ongoing courses and at times made to earn to run the family. Also, children with special needs faced vivid issues while taking online classes. A major portion of this group does not have access to updated technology; it was difficult to meet their educational needs. Thus, as an obvious result, the new mode of learning caused increased school drop-out rates during the pandemic situation. According to the United Nations, there are 250 million school-going children in India. The enrolment rates for progressive stages of schooling have been growing steadily over the decades. According to 2015–16 estimates of UNICEF, 8.5 percent of enrolled children drop out before finishing primary school and 19.1 percent before completing secondary school education in India. The number, however, rises alarmingly to 57 percent at the higher secondary level of education. (The Hindustan Business Online, November 2020) Moreover, the pandemic only worsens the situation as it pushes the school drop-out rates higher.

Innovative Practices As many children dropped out of school, the Ministry of Education has requested all the state governments to undertake a household survey to get

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  219

the data on school drop-outs in order to make an action plan for further enrolments. The Education Ministry has also issued a directive for schools to relax the detention norms so that school drop-outs can be prevented somehow increasing due to the pandemic. The surveys and action plans are not only to identify school drop-outs but also the migrant students to ensure universal access to quality education. Globally, the United Nations has estimated that almost 24 million school-age children are at risk to drop out of the educational system due to COVID-19. To determine the scope of the problem, the education Ministry directed States to identify out-of-school children in the 6 to 18 years age group through a comprehensive door-to-door survey. (The Hindu, 2021) In an impressive attempt to look after the orphans post the demise of their parents during the pandemic, the Supreme Court of India has ordered that the expense of private school fees for those children will be completely supported by the state governments. COVID-19 has brought catastrophe in many people’s lives– namely, the children who have lost their parents at an early age. The order from the Supreme Court has recorded that there are 2,600 children, identified and registered by state governments, who lost their parents and are eligible for the ‘PM CARES For Children Scheme’ to avail of the benefits. The court has also given liberty to the states to make requests to the central government to bear the expenses of the education of these children for the ongoing academic year (The Hindu, August 2021). The eligible students will be enrolled as ‘day-scholars’ either in Kendriya Vidyalaya or in some private school that is nearby to their residence. In the case of private schools, the fees will be given from the funds of PM CARES. To speed up the process, the court has further asked the District Magistrates to readily approve the children who are eligible for the benefits. This scheme has been so far very satisfactory in its goals for the welfare of children in distress. It is the fundamental goal of the schools to ensure student enrolment and attendance in school. Initiatives like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and the Right to Education (RTE) Act have been quite remarkable in attaining universal enrolment at the elementary level to a great extent. However, children still continued dropping out of school, especially during the pandemic situation. Thus, National Education Policy (NEP) stresses two initiatives to bring back children to school and prevent future drop-outs: Providing efficient as well as sufficient infrastructure to students for accessing safe and engaging education from primary to higher secondary level. To provide every child with equal opportunity, Alternative and innovative education centers will be put in place in  cooperation with civil society to ensure that children of migrant

220  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

labourers, and other children who are dropping out of school due to various circumstances are brought back into mainstream education. (National Education Policy, 2020) Achieving universal participation in the schools by tracking the students to ensure their enrolment and attendance in school, and that they have valid opportunities to get back to school in case they have dropped out earlier. Counsellors or well-trained social workers connected to schools/school complexes and teachers will continuously work with students and their parents and will travel through and engage with communities to ensure that all school-age children are attending and learning in school. Trained and qualified social workers from civil society organizations/ departments of Social Justice and Empowerment and government functionaries dealing with the empowerment of Persons with Disabilities at the State and district level, could be connected to schools, through various innovative mechanisms adopted by State/UT Governments, to help in carrying out this important work. (National Education Policy, 2020) Apart from preventing drop-outs, another highlighting part of the policy is the initiative to establish ‘Equitable and Inclusive Learning for All’. “This Policy reaffirms that bridging the social category gaps in access, participation, and learning outcomes in school education will continue to be one of the major goals of all education sector development programmes”. (National Education Policy, 2020).

Recommendations • Education should be imparted using a holistic approach to the vulnerable children and efforts should be made to make them self-sufficient economically, and they should not be dependent on others for their daily routine work. • Due to online classes, the unprivileged group remained deprived of the advantage due to a lack of resources. They failed to receive the additional support and services they are entitled to, and as a result, the gap between individuals kept increasing. Thus, the teacher needs to evaluate thoroughly to understand individual learning gaps in order to bridge them and make learning accessible to all. Special attention is to be given to the children who couldn’t attend online classes and might feel left out. The implementation of the curriculum should be done strategically so that no loopholes remain. • Children in rural areas remain deprived of education for financial stability or at times extreme poverty. Even in cities, many disadvantaged groups are deprived of basic amenities. Most of them survive only at

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  221

the mercy of others. Thus, many children, due to their socio-economic status, have missed out on a great level during the COVID situation, the first attempts should be made to catch up on what all they have missed learning. • The pandemic was harsh on children with disabilities on a greater level because not all can adapt to the online mode of learning. As these children require special methods and aids to develop concepts, the presence of the physical classroom still remains vital. Thus, to eradicate the challenges in a vulnerable situation, make education accessible for all, even in situations like pandemics. • COVID-19 had left a huge impact on children’s lives. Children are being affected by socio-economic impacts as well as increased child trafficking, violence, loneliness, educational deprivation, cyber abuse, etc. Children became one of the worst victims of the pandemic. Thus, according to their problems and requirements, plans should be chalked out and the future goals should be to ensure easy access to the learning materials for children of diverse classes. • The right education is when it is delivered from the right infrastructure. Thus, the government needs to facilitate smart learning in an advanced environment with funding from the corporate. • Utilizing the strengths-based and solution-focused components of an approach might be able to assist families and children in developing effective strategies to cope that will boost their resilience with selfreliance while decreasing their dependency on outside support. This is probably going to help them continue making progress even after the official supports have been removed, in addition to peer support. • It is necessary to conduct more research to determine the support techniques that are most successful for the various vulnerable child populations.

Conclusion Children are more vulnerable to abuse, especially children with disabilities. Children with disabilities are exposed earlier to a higher threat of exploitation, violence, and brutality compared to any other children as well as institutionalization and emotional dissection with their families. They are one of the most deprived groups in the vicinity, which make them more vulnerable to the effect of COVID-19. Children with disabilities are not integrated with the current education programmes, and there is carelessness for the accessible materials, and there is no extra support from educators to contribute to education. Education is the most affected system that COVID-19 affected, as every educational institute faced closure for an indefinite period. Although physical teaching is replaced by digital or online teaching, children with disabilities are finding it a burden, as many of the children as well as parents are not technology friendly, and they are facing

222  Sanjay Kumar Yadav

various challenges in attending digital classes. Most families are not able to access the internet. So, their social interaction and the way of inclusive education are disrupted. COVID-19 left a huge impact on children’s lives. Children are being affected by socio-economic impacts as well as increased child trafficking, violence, loneliness, educational deprivation, cyber abuse, etc. This is a universal crisis and for some children, these impacts will be for a lifetime. As countries worldwide are preparing to move towards normal, they are laying emphasis on developing quality education for all. India has gone through a huge blow in the last two years following the COVID-19 crisis. Not only were lives at risk, but it also increased the issues in the way of living, working, and acquiring education. Children became one of the worst victims of the pandemic. In a developing country like India, a major part of the population resided in rural areas, where there is no stable network or internet access, which has severely affected the children in getting the new online mode of education. As in the post-pandemic situation, the economy needs to be boosted, and education for all needs to be given the utmost priority. Because the population is educated, they can further actively participate in the economic as well as cultural development of their communities and also the nation as a whole. The right education is when it is delivered from the right infrastructure. Thus, the government needs to facilitate smart learning in an advanced environment with funding from the corporate. The improvised teaching-learning set-up will positively encourage students to attend school and thereby avail the children of their right to education. The kind of progress that India requires right now can be achieved in the near future with a holistic educational approach for children.

References Birkmann, J. (2006). Measuring Vulnerability to Promote Disaster-Resilient Societies: Conceptual Frameworks and Definitions. Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies. Tokyo: United Nations University Press. Deinstitutionalization for Children with Disabilities. Technical Guidance for UNICEF’s Engagement in National Reform. https://www.sharecare.com/health/ what-is-child-abuse/which-children-most-vulnerable-abuse87 Kancharla, R. (2015). Where Are the Children of Kashmir? Children, Disaster and Cities of India, p. 6. https://www.southasiadisater.net Krishnan, V. (2015). The Hindu. Retrieved March 2016, from http://www. thehindu.com/: http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/natural-disastersalmostspell-death-for-the-elderly-in-indias-mega-cities/article7988542.ece Mihir, R. and Bhatt, R. K. (2015). Urban Resilience and Rights of Children. Making Smart Cities Safe: Cities, Children and Risk. https://www.southasiadisater.net, pp. 2–3. National Education Policy. (2020). Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/ NEP_Final_English_0.pdf

Dynamics in the Education of Children in Vulnerable Situations  223 Smile Foundation. (2021, March 11). Equality and Education for Girl Child. The Hindu. (2021). Education Ministry Calls for Action Plan to Stop School Drop-Outs. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/education-ministry-drawsup-plans-to-support-students-hit-by-pandemic/article33543296.ece UNICEF. (2012). The State of World’s Children, Children in an Urban World. UNISDR. (2009). Living with Risk, UN. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/about_isdr/ bd-lwr-2009-eng.htm

Chapter 16

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

Introduction Trafficking is not a new problem that happens. It is a “process of people trade” that is illegal and global in scope, considered the criminal business world, generating billions of dollars by operating transnationally. Human trafficking primarily means the “trade of people” for several purposes like bonded/forced labour and profitable sexual exploitation (Barua, 2018; Jani and Felke, 2017; Vidushy, 2016; Voronova and Radjenovic, 2016). It views humans as objects to be bought and sold, used and exploited and then rejected. It is fertile because the bull’s eye is on the most vulnerable, helpless, and marginalized group struggling for livelihood on the lowest socioeconomic hierarchy (Bigio and Vogelstein, 2021a; Kaur, 2021; Mitra, 2021; Roy and Chaman, 2017). Consequently, many supply factors encourage the trafficking of a child; amongst the most prevalent are poverty, families’ dire need to earn a living, lack of education and training, social and political conflict, cultural attitude towards children and girls, and especially natural disasters that devastate local economies, and inadequate local laws and regulations may encourage children to work and to leave them vulnerable to exploit practice (Ezeibe et al., 2019; Boonpala and Kane, 2002). Another factor, such as unmet demand for cheap and malleable labour, demand for young girls and boys in under-age sex is attributed to small expenditure and high profit, and lower risk of punishment fuel the demand for trafficked children (Boonpala and Kane, 2002). Human trafficking, particularly among children and women, has spread its tentacles universally and has become figuratively omnipresent; no one country is entitled to be untouched by its impact (Barua, 2018; Ezeibe et al., 2021; Heissler, 2013). There is no fixed source country of victims or destination country for misuse and exploitation. It acts as a transit path for victims’ journeys driven by hope and hunger (Hamzah et al., 2020; Kaur, 2021; Voronova and Radjenovic, 2016). Numerous initiatives have been tossed out regionally, nationally, and internationally to fight that human rights mishandling. However, current  culminations paint a gloomy picture of these efforts and actions. DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-21

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  225 Table 16.1  Elements of Human Trafficking Process

Means

Purpose

Recruitment Transportation Transfer Harbouring, receipt of persons

Treat, coercion, fraud Deception, force, abduction Abuse of power, giving and receiving of payments, the position of vulnerability

Exploitation includes a. Forced labour and other services b. Prostitution and other sexual exploitation c. Slavery practices d. Removal of organs e. Involuntary servitude

Source: Retrieved on 22 March 2022, accessed from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/ human-trafficking/faqs.html

While merely a few individuals were rescued from the torrent of humanity being trafficked (US Department of State TIPR, 2021). The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), as the secretariat of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its protocols, defines three basic components of trafficking (i) Process, (ii) means, and (iii) purpose. (See Table 16.1) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) enlightens that the crime of trafficking is defined through a combination of the three constituent elements and not the individual components, though in some cases three individual elements will constitute criminal offenses independently. Furthermore, this protocol does not identify individual aspects such as forced labour, slavery, or sexual exploitation. Therefore, witnessed country countersigned to add an outline of these terms under their domestic legislation (UNODC GRTIP, 2009). In 2000, the UN protocol, also acknowledged as the Palermo Trafficking Proto­ col, signifies a broad international consensus on the definition in article 3 of human trafficking as follows; a. The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, the abuse of power or a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for exploitation. Exploitation should include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or

226  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

practices similar to slavery, servitude, or the removal of organs; b) The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) have been used; c) The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child for exploitation shall be considered ‘trafficking in persons’ even if this does not involve any of the means outlined in subparagraph (a) of this article. d. ‘Child’ shall mean any person under eighteen years of age. (United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000) Therefore, the trafficking of children comprehends that the allocation and transfer of the children disconnected them from their community, the speculation of bullying, fraud, dishonesty, exploitation, or abusive power on the authority of the trafficker. Human trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) are major societal bugs and core aspects of human security challenges. Children are usually bought and sold like commodities for the market (IPEC, 2003; UNODC, 2008, 2018b; UNODC GRTIP, 2009). It is the third foremost lucrative criminal bustle internationally, after arms and drug trafficking (Ezeibe et al., 2019; UNODC, 2018b). The last decade of the 20th century cliche an unrivalled level of transnational alarm over the trafficking of human beings with a wide-ranging network between trafficking and exp­ loitation of children (US Department of State TIPR, 2021; UNCTOC, 2000; UNODC, 2008; UNODC Global Programme Against Trafficking in Human Being, 2006). Currently, it is a growing problem and huge in scope, multi-faced and sensitive correspondingly, culturally and politically, comprising one of the worst forms of violation of children’s rights (Boyden and Howard, 2013; Boonpala and Kane, 2002). Child trafficking is not a distinct act; it is a series of events in different regions as potent precursors of increased child trafficking (Boonpala and Kane, 2002). Arising out of an abolitionist view of trafficking, dominated by sexual slavery and forced prostitution. Furthermore, as to sex trafficking, the overwhelming focus is on the trafficking of women and young girls (under 18 age) into pornography rings or prostitution, short of allusions to men and boys trafficking in the same situation (Fong and Berger Cardoso, 2010; Hopper and Gonzalez, 2018; Miller-Perrin and Wurtele, 2017; Sigmon, 2008). However, a reconceptualization of trafficking from the post facto end of the spectrum addressed the situation of men and boys.

Policy and Programmes The “Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and The

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  227

International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966), make up the International Bill of Human Rights”. Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1950) punishes any person who procures, entices, or leads away for the purpose of prostitution another person, even with the consent of that person. International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour (No.105,1957) forbids the use of forced or coercive labour in any form. The Convention on the Child’s Rights (1989) incorporates the full range of human rights. “ILO’s Concerning Forced Labour, Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (Convention No. 182) 1999 prohibits criminals from using children in labour (under 18 years of age) for all forms of forced or compulsory labour, slavery”. United Nations Conventions on Transnational organized Crime (UNCTOC), 2000, is a multinational treaty with an international instrument to prevent organized crime. “Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography (2000) prohibits the trafficking in children for any purpose”. “SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution of 2002 Prevents the use of women and children in international prostitution networks, particularly in SAARC region countries of origin”. The bilateral mechanism was signed between India and Bangladesh (MoU) to prevent trafficking, 2015 dealing with cross bordering on addressing and preventing trafficking. Article 23 (1) of India’s constitution prohibits human trafficking. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act of 1995 is a key piece of legislation in the fight against CSE. Some other laws and legislation that are direct and indirect connections to preventing child trafficking in India are the “Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 prohibited trafficking of women and girls mentioned in sections 370, 372, 373 & 374. It also recognizes cross-border trafficking into prostitution and whoever imports into India from any country outside India any girl”. Bonded labour system (Abolition) Act, 1976, is a milestone for safeguards and abolished the social menace of labourers who were forced to work on bonds. “The Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment Conditions) Act, 1979, Prohibits the employment of inter-State migrant workers without registration”. “Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986” eradicates any child abuse in employment and prohibits children’s engagement in any kind of hazardous employment below 14 years of age. “Transplantation of Human Organ Act, 1994, Section 372 and 373 prevent selling and bullying of girls for the purpose of prostitution”. “The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000. All persons under the age of 18 years are considered children who are a child in need of care and protection”.

228  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

“Women and Children Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 prohibits the solemnization of child marriage of boy who is less than 21 age and girls who are less than 18”. “Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses (POCSO) Act, 2012 is a special law that protects against sexual abuse”. “Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013, known as the Nirbhaya Act” sections 370 and 370A (IPC), counters children and human trafficking from any form of exploitation such as removal of organs, slavery, servitude, or sexual exploitation.

Current Status Child trafficking refers to “the abuse and exploitation of children, primarily for the purposes of forced/bondage labour and sexual aggravation. Children make up 27% of all human trafficking victims worldwide, particularly females representing approximately two out of every three victims”. There are no exact statistics on trafficked children, and data fluctuate (UNGRTP, 2020). This is owing to the insidious nature of human trafficking, as well as difficulty in identifying and reporting victims’ experiences to authorities due to fear of punishment (UNODC Global Programme Against Trafficking in Human Being, 2006). According to the United Nations, an estimated 1.2 million children are traded for sexual exploitation or labour around the world. However, the United States Department of State estimates that 800,000–900,000 children and women are trafficked for sexual and labour exploitation annually (IPEC, 2003). Reflecting on UNODC’s (2018b) analysis, findings have broadly shared those children continued at around 30 percent of spotted victims, with far more girls than boys. While 72 percent of the girls’ victims in 2016 were trafficked for sexual exploitation, 21 percent for forced labour, and 7 percent for trafficked for other purposes. In comparison, 27 percent of boys detected were trafficked for sexual exploitation, 50 percentage for forced labour, and 23 percent for other forms of exploitation such as forced criminal activities, exploitative begging, and child soldiering. (UNHROHC, 2014; UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 2009, UNODC, 2018b) According to ILO, [A]n estimated 40.3 million people are in modern slavery, counting 24.9 million in forced labour and 15.4 million in forced marriage. It displays that there are 5.4 victims of modern slavery for every 1,000 people worldwide. Out of 4, 1 victim of modern slavery is children. Out of the 24.9 million people trapped in forced labour, 16 million people are oppressed in the private sector such as construction or agriculture

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  229

and domestic work; 4.8 million persons in forced sexual exploitation, and 4 million persons in forced labour imposed by authorities. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by forced labour, accounting for 99% of victims in the commercial sex industry and 58% in other sectors. Conferring to the ILO, the most extensive occurrence of child trafficking between the age of 5 and 17 years spread in the African continent. Simultaneously, UNICEF estimates child labour affects more than 40% of the population in West Africa between the ages of 5 and 17. As per India’s “NCRB, State/UT-wise, number of children (below 18 yrs. Male, Female, and Total) trafficked and rescued during the year 2019”. The Ministry of Women & Child Development (MOW&CD) has developed a national tracking system for missing and vulnerable children, which has been implemented across the country. The MOW&CD also launched the “Khoya-Paya” platform on June 02, 2015, where citizens can report missing children as well as sightings of their whereabouts. The details of children, who have been found, can also be reported on this platform. The Portal has been integrated with Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) for efficient working. As per data published by the NCRB, a list of State/UT-wise total number of children (below 18 yrs.) missing in the country from 2017 to 2019.

Table 16.2   S tates and Union Territories (UT)-Wise Children Victims of Trafficking in 2019 Sl. No.

States and UTs

Children Victims of Trafficking in 2019 Male

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujrat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

0 1 24 261 56 0 0 3 0 0 34 12 22 47 34

Female 18 3 56 33 61 2 2 3 1 0 138 30 155 76 61

Total 18 4 80 294 113 2 2 6 1 0 172 42 171 123 95 (Continued)

230  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma Table 16.2  (Continued) Sl. No.

States and UTs

Children Victims of Trafficking in 2019 Male

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Odisha Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nād u Telangana Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadar and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Lakshadweep Puducherry Total (All India)

Female

Total

2 0 3 0 94 1 636 0 21 1 0 16 5 11 0

3 30 22 2 108 8 17 0 22 70 1 16 11 148 0

5 30 25 2 202 9 653 0 43 71 1 32 16 159 0

0 0 0 462 0 0 1,742

1 0 0 74 0 0 1,172

1 0 0 536 0 0 2,914

Source: (Parliamentary of India Rajya Sabha Report No. 230, 2020).

According to the statistics of the Indian Government Parliamentary of India Rajya Sabha Report No. 230, 2020, and NCRB, every eight minutes, a child goes missing in-country. The data shows that around 118,971, 115,656, and 119,617 children were reported missing in 2017, 2018, and 2019. The greatest number of missing cases, 51,725, were from West Bengal. Moreover, 46,494 cases were from Madhya Pradesh from 2017 to 2019. Child trafficking is rampant in West Bengal due to the key source transit route of brothels through Bangladesh and Nepal (Jani and Felke, 2017). Further, the data of children victims rescued from trafficking (see Table 16.3) shows that 3,294 children were rescued in 2017, 2,484 in 2018, and 2,837 were rescued in 2019 through various tracking cells. In 2013, “[t]he United Nations passed a resolution designating 30 July as World Day Against Trafficking in Persons to raise awareness about the growing issue of human trafficking and the protection of victims and their rights (UN Resolution, 2014)”.

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  231 Table 16.3  States and UT-Wise Children Victims Rescued during 2017–19 Sl. No.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

States/UTs

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Odisha Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nād u Telangana Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadar and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Lakshadweep Puducherry Total (All India)

Children Victims Rescued 2017

2018

2019

27 0 154 395 77 1 2 9 2 1 103 149 86 97 148 12 3 0 0 117 7 886 5 37 30 12 38 15 450 0 0 0 0 429 0 2 3,294

16 3 182 537 101 9 1 24 0 1 201 8 112 72 74 2 5 2 0 131 15 373 2 27 8 1 41 18 154 0 0 0 0 364 0 0 2,484

15 3 73 294 112 2 2 6 1 0 102 42 179 124 95 4 29 25 2 202 18 653 0 42 71 2 32 16 154 0 1 0 0 536 0 0 2,837

Source: (Parliamentary of India Rajya Sabha Report No. 230, 2020).

Government and Non-governmental Organizations Working against Human Trafficking in India The Government of India’s Ministry of Home Affairs has undertaken various steps to tackle the menace of human trafficking. Web Portal on AntiHuman Trafficking (2014): “A Website on Anti-Human Trafficking (stop

232  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

human trafficking-mha.nic.in) was launched in February 2014. It is a vital IT tool for sharing information among stakeholders, States/UTs, and civil society organizations for effective implementation of Anti-Human trafficking measures”. Ujjawala Scheme: The Ministry of Women and Child Development is implementing “Ujjawala” –a Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of Trafficking and Rescue, Rehabilitation, Re-integration, and Repatriation of Victims of Trafficking for Commercial Sexual Exploitation. The Schemes provide shelter, food and clothing, counseling, medical care, legal aid and other support, vocational training and income generation activities for the victims. Ujjawala Homes, Swadhar Grih, Emergency Response Support System (112), and Universalization of Women Helpline (WHL) are the supportive platforms for child trafficking. The Himmat Plus for women was re-launched on 06 February 06, 2018. The App has been made for emergency Safety. The Facebook page of Delhi Traffic Police and the Twitter handle of Delhi Police has also been linked to providing updates. A special feature for scanning the QR code of the drivers of the Taxis, Three-Seater Autorickshaws (TSRs), and e-Rickshaws has been built in the new App. Trafficking in Persons Bill (February 2018) includes methods and app­ roaches for rehabilitation of victims, paying attention to the physical and mental trauma of victims who have been trafficked, and promoting health, well-being, education, and skills development. “Indian Leadership Forum Against Trafficking (ILFAT) is a forum for trafficked survivors and acts as a catalyst and convener for sharing insights, expertise, and evidence that are relevant to human trafficking in India”. Much of the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) legal and administrative backing to help trafficked children in destination countries takes the form of outreach work with sex workers, practical assistance to children who have succeeded in escaping trafficking situations, and rescue by police and NGOs. They may support shelters for children and accommodate them in a safe place under police protection for survival (Tzvetkova, 2002), such as setting up a shelter for victims of trafficking.

Some Commendable NGOs Several NGOs are working to combat human trafficking, like ‘Shakti Vahini’ in Delhi and ‘Anyay Rahit Zindagi’ in Goa. A number of noteworthy “NGOs engaged in the prevention, rescue, and rehabilitation of human trafficking survivors” as highlighted (see Table 16.4).

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  233 Table 16.4  NGOs Working in India against Human Trafficking Rescue Foundation “founded in Mumbai in 2000, the organization conducts intelligence-based operations with the help of the police to rescue victims of human trafficking. It also makes it easier for rescued sex trafficking survivors to return home to Bangladesh, Nepal, and Thailand”. Guru Swayam Sevi Sansthan “was started in 1993 by Ajeet Singh when he adopted three children of a woman from a red-light area at the age of 17. The Varanasi-based NGO fights against prostitution, trafficking of women, and forced labour”. Prajwala, founded in 1996 by Sunitha Krishnan in Hyderabad, is actively working in rescue, rehabilitation, and advocacy to combat sex trafficking. Vipla Foundation is “bridging the gap between the woman and prostitution and providing selfemployment opportunities for rescued victims”. Development Focuses “address the root cause to poverty which falling the tribal girls in sex trafficking and empowers children through education and skill training in Jharkhand”. My Choice Foundation, since 2014, engaged in the operation Red Alert project to end sex trafficking by preventing girls from being prey. Vihaan (Waste Management Society) works at the grassroots level to fight traffic . “Prerana in Mumbai is working to rescue, protect, and rehabilitates human trafficking victims”. Oasis India began in 1993 in Mumbai against human trafficking. “Society for Help Entire Lower & Rural People – HELP operates in Guntur and Pakistan districts of Andhra Pradesh to rescue and rehabilitate”. i Partner India was founded in 2009, working as anti-trafficking of children and women. Source: Retrieved on 4 April 2022, accessed, from https://www.giveindia.org/blog/10-ngosworking-against-human-trafficking-in-india/.

Other organizations include ‘Apne Aap’, which was established in Delhi by supporting and organizing a self-empowerment group called Mandals to end trafficking in persons, especially women, children, and girls. ‘Bachpan Bachao Andolan’ to end child trafficking, campaigning for children’s rights. ‘SANLAAP’ in West Bengal, ‘Impulse’ in Meghalaya, “Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children (ATSEC) in Bihar and Jharkhand”. PLAN conducts international rescue operations in India and spreads awareness of HIV/AIDS (Kumari, 2014b). “Special Police Unit for Women and Children, 2002 (SPUWAC) imparting self-defense skills to girls/women under the Sashakti Scheme of Delhi Police”.

Challenges Child trafficking is a gruesome crime over the world that presents various challenges for analysis and intervention in the broad context of children’s exploitation. The bitter truth is that there are ample bills currently pending to address various facets of the problem commonly associated with the challenges for the betterment and protection of victims from violence. There is a complex set of significant challenges of child trafficking that needs to be addressed and resolved.

234  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

❖ Commercial demand for sex: The increased demand for sex among the people facilitated by pimps and traffickers to become distributors and supply chains of children. ❖ Gender-based discrimination: Cultural norms such as sons are pondered as authoritative, superior, and more useful in a family than daughters in a patriarchal society result from gender-based discrimination that perpetuated a societal structure driving the trafficking of illegal sale of girls. ❖ Migrate: Unemployment, lack of education, poverty migrate voluntarily through trafficking. At the global level, the open hand of the national borders for smooth exchange also pushed women and children to be vulnerable to the perpetuation of trafficking. Globalization has nurtured internet technology, which may amplify child trafficking. ❖ Urban policies and human right violation: The extent of human trafficking has drastically expanded as a result of government urban policies and violations of victims’ human rights. Governments need to exercise their civic responsibility to uphold citizens’ rights and shield them from any threats and risks. Violation of the human rights of the victims has enormously augmented the possibility of child trafficking across the country. ❖ Trafficking by family members: Key informants claim that the majority of the children were trafficked by families and relatives who agreed to be used as a primary weapon in order to get money. ❖ Refugee, migrant, and displaced children: Refugees, migrants, and the displaced are more vulnerable to trafficking due to an acute lack of guardianship and other care arrangements, such as being placed in inadequate shelters and educational provisions in relief camps, which leads to them to be at more risk of further traumatization and exploitation. ❖ Other challenges: Despite the attention on this engrossed group, significant challenges remain too successfully. A plethora of barriers to preventing child trafficking impedes the identification of children who have experienced coercion, rape, torture, and physical and drug abuse, such as a life-threatening paucity of reliable and comprehensive data on trafficking minors. To address the issue of abuse and exploitation, there is major action and a significant deal of effective national policies to be done. Tackling the failures of the variety of overlapping justice and social service systems, there is a need to pay attention to and protect the children who are already vulnerable. In contrast, awareness of the issue is still lacking to draw national attention. In addition, many girls and boys grapple with stigma and shame surrounding their experiences. Few social service programmes and treatment services are equipped to address the complex need of children. Foreign national children who are recognized as victims often experience challenges in regularizing their immigration status.

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  235

Innovative Practices in Education Education is crucial to preventing and safeguarding vulnerable children, as well as a key to eliminating human trafficking. Education raises people’s awareness about social ills, resulting in a variety of skills that help in the prevention of human and child trafficking. “The implementation of proper laws, a fair and just legislative system, accessibility of good and proper education, availability of employment and awareness regarding such gruesome crimes are just a few ways to slowly overcome this issue”. Due to the sheer value of education in preventing child trafficking, free basic education and the right to education have been enshrined in the law. The government also outfits poverty alleviation programmes in rural and urban areas, women’s empowerment, house-building initiatives to accommodate people, and media campaigns to supplement the free education Programme and infrastructure development to reduce and prevent child trafficking. “Despite the challenges of implementing the free and compulsory education program for children and their rights, emphasizing safe and conducive teaching and learning environment for children contributes to increasing the rate of school enrollment and preventing child trafficking”.

Prospects in the Education to Curbing Child Trafficking The growing focus on the perspectives of children trafficked has shed light on the cloudy nature of consensus and agency, which have been largely absent from the debate. “Education, knowledge, and awareness of trafficking in persons among all members of society are key to beating human traffickers” refer to this statement; the words of Nelson Mandela are very noteworthy for changing the scenario of child trafficking. Mandela said, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”. As a result, education is the prudent, fruitful, and respectful cultivation of knowledge through non-formal and informal means of socialization that has an impact on an individual’s life. Though, free education remains mysterious to many socio-economic groups, particularly the underprivileged classes who are struggling to earn for their family and their basic needs. There are numerous strategies to make education accessible and inclusive for everyone, including raising knowledge about government plans, schemes, and their value in life and making schools available in rural areas. As an inherent element of the curriculum, raise awareness about the importance of mental health and physical well-being. Provide counselling and guidance services in the school to help students break free from their shells of fear, guilt, and insecurity. Take parental dedication to ensure that every child has access to education as a necessity of the hour in order to empower them, and so on. As a result, these aid in the prevention of child trafficking and abuse by raising knowledge of children’s rights and opportunities.

236  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma

Recommendations “Governments and regional bodies must interpret and apply regional human rights strategies to trafficked people at the local and regional levels and engross them in regional support to find and prosecute traffickers”. All rights, including those of sex workers and migratory workers, must be recognized at the transnational level, and all international human rights rules must be applied to trafficking persons. The best strategy for addressing the problem of human trafficking is to sensitize police, border officials, immigration and judicial authorities, and prosecutors, as well as social and public health workers. Specialized and focused training in detecting trafficking situations, combatting trafficking, and protecting victims’ rights must be imparted. Within the directorate of the National Border Police Service, border controls should be strengthened, and collaboration between border control agencies and special trafficking units should be established. The first step in combating child trafficking is to raise awareness of free education. In order to join hands together and fight against this issue, men, women, and children must all have access to suitable educational and employment opportunities. Sensitization workshops and programmes for police officers, railway police officers, and prosecutors on the different laws related to human trafficking (mentioned earlier) should be conducted. Periodic meetings with state nodal officers to assess and monitor actions to prevent and combat human trafficking may be held. Putting the children at the centre and in child-friendly environments to recognize their rights and social actors to enable them to be active participants in claiming their rights. Child trafficking intervention must involve a holistic approach that inclu­ des a multi-sectoral response to children and their environments that add­ resses the social, political, and economic aspects that make them more vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. A participatory and empowering approach to child trafficking intervention should be used to create the strength and resilience of children and their communities, which is an important element of this process. To recognize and target those boys and girls who are in danger of being trafficked and discriminated against, child trafficking interventionists should design inclusive solutions and gender-­ sensitive interventions. Child trafficking intervention must address these issues at multiple levels, including in the countries of origin and destination, in order to protect children from trafficking and to build partnerships and alliances to raise the child’s rights through regional and international cooperation that addresses the root causes of trafficking. Micro-level needs should be addressed in order to achieve long-term legal policy and institutional reform, and a long-term aim should be articulated in international legal frameworks shared by governments, donors, and civil society.

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  237

For developing messages with children, a public sensitizes and raises awareness through mass media campaigns such as video, television, and radio, and interactive forums such as workshops, seminars, debates, and creative performances, all of which can be useful vehicles for disseminating information about child trafficking to a wider public.

Conclusion The evil of human trafficking has been plaguing human beings on the economic growth front. No doubt national and international governments are trying to stop human trafficking. Human trafficking, particularly of children, is a modern-day form of slavery that demands a holistic, multisectoral approach to reporting the multiple nature of the exploitations. Despite efforts to eradicate it, it violates the victims’ rights and dignity, and as a result, it involves a child rights perspective. In this context, civil society, social reformer groups, governmental organizations and NGOs, and international entities all must play a significant role in the battle against human trafficking and work together to address the issues. Law cannot be the only tool for dealing with serious societal issues. Additionally, as an important trafficking intervention, a free education programme plays a key role in stopping and reducing child trafficking and exploitation. Importantly, the free education initiative increased school enrolments and showed a weak and negative relationship with child trafficking by destroying a ready pool of vulnerable children. In spite of this, child trafficking continues to be a serious humanitarian issue, with poverty, intergenerational illiteracy, and inter-communal disputes serving as primary drivers. These obstacles make it difficult for parents to send their children to school, forcing them to either sell or traffic them to supplement their earnings. As a result, having access to high-quality, free education appears to be a potential strategy for stopping, diminishing, preventing, and rectifying child trafficking. Multi-level and multi-sectoral minds undoubtedly connect all stakeholders to play vital roles in anti-trafficking intervention strategies.

References Barua, S. (2018). Human Trafficking in India. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 2(3), 2453–55. https://doi.org/10.31142/ ijtsrd12794 Bigio, J. and Vogelstein, R. B. (2021a). Ending Human Trafficking in the Twenty-First Century. Council Special Report No. 91, New York: Council on Foreign Relations. https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/ending-human-trafficking-in-thetwenty-first-century_3.pdf Bigio, J. and Vogelstein, R. B. (2021b). Ending Human Trafficking in the TwentyFirst Century Ending Human Trafficking in the Twenty-First Century. Report No. 91, New York: Council on Foreign Relations. https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/ report_pdf/ending-human-trafficking-in-the-twenty-first-century_3.pdf

238  Sukanya Singh and Anjali Sharma Boonpala, P. and Kane, J. (2002). Unbearable to the Human Heart: Child Trafficking and Action to Eliminate It. International Labour Office. https://www.un.org/ ruleoflaw/files/childtrafficking.pdf Boyden, J. and Howard, N. (2013). Why Does the Child Trafficking Policy Need to Be Reformed? The Moral Economy of Children’s Movement in Benin and Ethio­ pia. Children’s Geographies, 11(3), 354–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285. 2013.817661 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act. (2013). https://www.mea.gov.in/human-trafficking Ezeibe, C., Oguonu, C., Ajaero, C. K., Osadebe, N., Agbo, H., and Uwaechia, O.(2019). From Vulnerability to Sustainability: Implementation of Free Education Programmes and Reversal of Child Trafficking in Nigeria. Journal of Human Trafficking, 7(1), 104–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2019.1647506 Ezeibe, C., Oguonu, C., Ajaero, C. K., Osadebe, N., Agbo, H., and Uwaechia, O. (2021). From Vulnerability to Sustainability: Implementation of Free Education Programmes and Reversal of Child Trafficking in Nigeria. Journal of Human Trafficking, 7(1), 104–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2019.1647506 Fong, R., and Berger Cardoso, J. (2010). Child Human Trafficking Victims: Challenges for the Child Welfare System. Evaluation and Program Planning, 33(3), 311–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2009.06.018 Hamzah, N. A., Othman, N., and Musa, W. A. (2020). Increasing and Reduction Factors in the Issue of Human Trafficking in Malaysia from the Perspective of Enforcement, 1(8), 843–61. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v10-i8/7641 Heissler, K. A. (2013). Rethinking “Trafficking” in Children’s Migratory Processes: The Role of Social Networks in Child Labour Migration in Bangladesh. Children’s Geographies, 11(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2013.743283 Hopper, E. K. and Gonzalez, L. D. (2018). A Comparison of Psychological Symptoms in Survivors of Sex and Labour Trafficking. Behavioral Medicine, 44(3), 177–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2018.1432551 IPEC. (2003). International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). In International Programme On The Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). https://acces.bibl.ulaval.ca/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=fgh&AN=MRB-CDAS0048372&%0Alang=fr& site=ehost-live Jani, N. and Felke, T. P. (2017). Gender Bias and Sex Trafficking in Indian Society. International Social Work, 60(4), 831–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0020872815580040 Kaur, N. (2021). Trafficking of Children for Child Labour in India. International Journal of Education, Modern Management, Applied Science & Social Science, 3(4), 24–28. Kumari, A. (2014a). Role of Non-government Organizations in Confronting Traf­ ficking in India. American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 5(2), 198–200. http://iasir.net/AIJRHASSpapers/AIJRHASS14185.pdf Kumari, A. (2014b). Role of Non-government Organizations in Confronting Traf­ ficking In. 198–200. Miller-Perrin, C., &Wurtele, S. K. (2017). Sex Trafficking and the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. Women and Therapy, 40(1–2), 123–51. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2016.1210963 Mitra, R. M. (2021). Human Trafficking Laws and Legal Trends. Combating Human Trafficking, 4(2), 284–305. https://doi.org/10.1201/b17709-21

Unblocking Educational Traffic of Trafficking Children  239 Parliamentary of India Rajya Sabha Report No. 230. (2020). Atrocities and Crimes against Women and Children (Vol. 16, Issue 103). https://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/ Committee_site/Committee_File/ReportFile/15/143/230_2021_3_14.pdf Roy, S. and Chaman, C. (2017). Human Rights and Trafficking in Women and Children in India. Journal of Historical Archaeology & Anthropological Sciences, 1(5), 162–70. https://doi.org/10.15406/jhaas.2017.01.00027 Sigmon, J. N. (2008). Combating Modern-Day Slavery: Issues in Identifying and Assisting Victims of Human Trafficking Worldwide. Victims and Offenders, 3(2–3), 245–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564880801938508 Tzvetkova, M. (2002). NGO Responses in Women Trafficking. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on Behalf of Oxfam GB, 10, 60–68. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030684 US Department of State TIPR. (2021). Trafficking Report in Persons Report. https:// www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf UN Global Report on Trafficking in Person. (2020). Chapter III Children; Easy to Target. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_ 2020_Chapter3.pdf United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. (2000). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Vol. 55/25. UN General Assembly. https://www. refworld.org/docid/4720706c0.html [accessed 31 March 2022] United Nations Resolution 18 December 2013. (2014). General Assembly. Improving the Coordination of Efforts against Trafficking in Persons, 2225(39574), 1–7. https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/68/192 UNODC. (2008). An Introduction to Human Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and Action. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1–128. https://www.unodc. org/documents/human-trafficking/An_Introduction_to_Human_Trafficking_-_ Background_Paper.pdf UNODC. (2018a). In Persons 2018. In Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/GLOTiP_ 2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf UNODC. (2018b). In Persons 2018. In Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2018. UNODC Global Programme Against Trafficking in Human Being. (2006). Toolkit to Combat Trafficking in Persons. https://www.unodc.org/documents/humantrafficking/HT-toolkit-en.pdf UNODC GRTIP. (2009). Human Trafficking: A Brief Overview. Social Development Notes Conflict, Crime and Violence, 122. https://documents.worldbank. org/curated/en/166101468315536553/pdf/546830BRI0SDN01C10Human0 Trafficking.pdf Vidushy, V. (2016). Human Trafficking in India: An Analysis. International Journal of Applied Research, 2(6), 168–71. Voronova, S. and Radjenovic, A. (2016). The Gender Dimension of Human Trafficking. February, 1–10. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/ document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2016)577950

Chapter 17

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

Introduction A child who has lost parents is considered an orphan. A kid is considered a “single orphan” if only one parent survives, and a “double orphan” if both parents do. Many times, an “orphan” continue to live with their immediate or extended family. A child who is a “paternal orphan” has a deceased biological father, whereas a child who is a “maternal orphan” has a deceased biological mother (UNAIDS, UNICEF, and USAID, 2004). A  youngster who is an orphan needs protection, care, and direction. Children lose their families due to natural disasters, including cyclones, earthquakes, floods, fires, and traffic accidents, as well as a variety of other reasons like ill health, AIDS, COVID, etc. An abandoned youngster is alone in the world of adults. Many of the rights of orphans are gravely violated. Orphans lack the resources to adequately feed themselves. Typically, these kids are street homeless. Education is typically sacrificed. Orphaning has historically been a consequence of deaths, and it is still prevalent in regions devastated by conflict or disease. There are a lot of orphaned children living in India, the second-most populous country in the world. Many children in India, who struggle with poverty, famine, and corruption, either lose their parents or even have their families desert them. Orphans have interests and rights that need to be protected just like any other youngster. They need greater consideration and care because they are more prone to be taken advantage of and abused. Just giving people access to food, shelter, clothing, and education is insufficient. They must also be cherished and taken care of because they are state assets. For kids to develop like other children in society, they must have a wholesome environment. These orphans are not “available” for legal adoption since there are so few of them who are really in care facilities. Natural catastrophes, starvation, and war are just a few of the unfavorable conditions that have led to a huge number of orphans. Since few kids are living in foster care, the majority of the orphaned are not “accessible” for adoption legally. Even after that, prospective parents are generally selective, preferring children without disabilities who are between DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-22

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  241

the ages of 0 and 2 years old. The number of viable orphans is significantly reduced as a result. Many unfavorable events, including natural catastrophes, starvation, and war, have contributed to the enormous number of orphans. Similar to this, W. Salter Price, the superintendent of the Saharanpur Orphanage and a missionary for the Church Missionary Society, Saharanpur, Nasik, stated in 1871 that the term “orphans” included those who were truly orphans, meaning they had no parents or other close relatives who were concerned for their welfare or support. He argued, however, that the term “orphan” also applied to groups of kids whose parents were still alive but had abandoned them to Christian missionaries because of superstitious religious beliefs or financial hardship (Soni, 2020). Similarly, according to the guidelines at the Dayanand Orphanage in Lucknow, youngsters who have no one to care for them, or when they do, they are still unable to or refuse to do so, should be considered orphans. Similarly, the lack of caregivers was not a need to be considered an orphan in the official letters. It was considered that the majority of the orphans held in the magistrate’s care had parents, but they were unable to care for them because of their plight of poverty. In all of the aforementioned situations, the condition of the orphanhood is defined by deprivation, poverty, and helplessness rather than by the actual absence of parents. The lack of parents, whether due to conditions of deprivation or death, had come to be widely recognized as the concept of an orphan by the end of the nineteenth century. In 1729, the first orphanage in Natchez, Mississippi, was founded to care for white orphans left orphaned by the struggle between Indians and whites. Growing orphanages led to the establishment of 56 children’s facilities across the country in the USA by private benevolent organizations between 1830 and 1850 (Bremner, 1970). The Arya Samaj had started to take a keen interest in the issue of orphans by the end of the nineteenth century. As a result, a network of Arya Samaj orphanages – mostly in north India – was founded. The first orphanage was established under Rai Mathura Das at Ferozepur in 1877 (Lajpat, 2021). The Hindu Orphanages in Lahore and Amritsar were formed in 1897, and the Dayanand Orphanage in Ajmer was founded in 1895. In the areas impacted by the famine, numerous temporary orphanages were also built as an expedient relief measure (Sharma, 1941). Both the Arya Anathalaya in Delhi and the Dayanand Orphanage in Lucknow were established in 1915.

Policies and Programs According to UNICEF, there were around 25 million orphans in India in 2007. Since the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, there has been substantial growth in the number of orphans in India. To protect orphans, India’s current legal system must be thoroughly examined. Orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) especially, as well as children generally, are covered by some international and Indian legal and policy frameworks (Witty, 2003).

242  Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

Participants in the Global Conference for Children in September 1990 agreed to the Global Statement upon Survival, Preservation, and Child Development. Participants agreed on a 10-point plan to defend children’s rights and enhance their quality of life. Some Global Goals were also established at the International Summit in September 2000, some of which are pertinent to the right of all youngsters, including OVC, especially those relating to education. The right of all children, including OVC, to education, is covered in the 26th Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Global Congress on Education for everyone goals, which were established in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990 and revised at the meeting in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000, has been endorsed by a large number of countries. At that meeting, 164 governments pledged to achieve education for everyone by 2015 or earlier. The Decision to grant Economic, Sociological, and Cultural Rights is the most important international agreement for defending socio-economic rights (1996). The underpinning for all youngsters programs, including those for OVC, is the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). The United Nations General Assembly Special Session Statement of Dedication on Aids set specific objectives for all signatory nations (2001). Some of the most significant legal and policy instruments worldwide acknowledge the need for specific assistance, including education, for orphans and children impacted by HIV/AIDS (Abebe and Aase, 2007). The Guardians and Wards Act of 1890, which is relevant to all children regardless of their faith, describes the requirements, appointments, and removals of caretakers of kids by the courts. The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Law codifies the legal framework for Hindu adoption and maintenance. The management and oversight of childcare centers and orphanages are governed by the Dwellings as Well as other Humanitarian Agencies (Supervision) Act of 1960. Underneath the Ministry of Women and Child Development, Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) is a separate body. Its mission is to place every orphan, impoverished, and relinquished kid in the nation in a devoted and benevolent home. In 1990, the Division of Welfare oversaw the establishment of CARA. The Shishu Grih Scheme, which is run by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, aims to achieve the country’s adoption promotion goals, ensure that children are cared for to minimum standards, and provide institutional support for the care and protection of infants and young children up to the age of 6 who are either abandoned or orphaned or destitute, as well as for their rehabilitation through domestic adoption. Every child, including orphans, has a fundamental right under the Right of Education for All Children Education Act of 2009 to access free education from the ages of 6 to 14. Orphans are shielded from all forms of labor under the Child Labor (POCSO) Act of 1986. To safeguard children from all types of sexual abuse, including orphans, the Safety of Victims from Sexually Offences (POCSO) Law, 2012 was passed. In 2016, the Lok Sabha

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  243

received the Orphaned Kid (Legislation for Social Security) Bill. The measure has not yet been passed, though. It has numerous clauses that were written to ensure the well-being of orphan children. The suggested rules are a national strategy for the protection of orphans that must be developed, and the central government is required to create a fund for the development of foster care institutions in addition to conducting studies on underprivileged children every ten years. The prime minister recently established a unique PM-CARES for Children program (2021). For children who have become orphans as a result of the epidemic, the plan contains a full financial relief package. In addition to the program, the government also set up a special kid hotline number, 1098, for messages regarding orphaned children and their relatives in an emergency. Although these actions are intended to help orphaned children, they are insufficient. India has tight adoption laws, which contribute to the incredibly low number of adoptions that occur. Only 3,351 kids were adopted between March 2019 and March 2020. Only 20,000 families are reportedly registered to adopt children in India, although the Indian Association of Assisted Reproduction estimates that there are nearly 28 million infertile spouses who are trying to procreate.

Current Status There are 153 million orphans around the globe, according to estimates (UNICEF, 2017). According to UNICEF, there are 61 million primary-age children who are not in school, and 32 million of them are girls. Many children in the developing world – about 23 million in Africa alone – have trouble getting enough to eat (World Food Programme, 2012). The statistic involves students who’ve only lost one parent, or even what UNICEF calls “single orphans”. According to the government’s ChildLine service, “UNICEF believes that there were 25 million orphaned kids in India in 2007”, and “Another study suggests that there were approximately 44  million poor children as well as more than 12 million orphans and neglected children in India”. Never before has either the Planning Commission or the government conducted a formal survey of these kids (UNICEF, 2014). The quantity of orphan children globally is astonishing. According to various definitions, over 140 million kids are usually regarded as orphans. Sadly, the data show that there are orphaned children who were abandoned. The children at the orphanage get food, care services, shelter, clothes, education, and the individualized attention required for every child’s physical, spiritual, and emotional well-being from a variety of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating at the local, national, and worldwide levels. They deal with a variety of obstacles and challenges, as well as rising poverty while caring for these orphan youngsters. The issue of the constantly rising prevalence of orphans and the severely constrained resources exist. Global Learning Movement in the United Kingdom works internationally to protect orphans and give them a secure environment.

244  Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

India’s Best Orphanages for the Defenseless – As has been observed in numerous instances, the absence of caregivers forces kids into orphanages. Notably, the majority of such orphanages are NGOs that shelter distressed children and treat their illnesses by providing love, education, care, and uplift. 1. Children’s Village of SOS – The SOS Children’s Village, which has locations throughout Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania, promises to give poor children the greatest medical treatment and educational opportunities possible. 2. One of the well-known orphanages in India is Indeed the Good Shephard Agricultural Mission. They realize that an institution will never be able to meet the needs of an orphan until it offers them love, warmth, and safety. A youngster needs a supportive community and a quality education in a thriving school, after all. 3. Angel House is the vision of Lindsay and Dominic Russo, who visited India in 2010 to perform humanitarian work. First of all, it gave 70 homeless kids a place to live and funded their basic necessities, including their schooling. 4. Children from severely poor backgrounds are housed at the Aditya Birla Center for the child’s welfare. The capacity is 250, thus a youngster must be between the ages of 14 and 17. The teenager is then given housing, Industrial Training Institute–sponsored vocational training, boarding, and transportation. 5. Asha Daan – This is a Mission of Charity project where 400 abandoned, disabled, and impoverished children reside. Even children with deadly diseases like HIV/AIDS are accepted, along with orphans, deformed children, and others. 6. The most well-known program for abandoned, homeless, and destitute children is run by Delhi Council for Child Welfare. By donating to this children’s NGO, you can help cover these kids’ medical costs. 7. Snehalaya is helping 15,000 people who have been impacted by HIV/ AIDS, trafficking, sexual violence, orphans, and poverty, including women, children, and LGBT communities. In addition, it manages a shelter for abandoned kids where they get an education, medical care, and food. 8. In India, Make A Difference assists kids in shelters and orphanages. Seventy-eight percent of the young people living in the partnership shelter houses attend college. 9. To meet the needs of abandoned and orphaned children, the Society of Friends of the Sassoon Hospitals was established. It offers a safe and contented home and actively searches for families to adopt these kids. 10. Children who are orphaned and whose guardians are unable to care for them can find sanctuary at Sahaara’s “Mahima Children’s Home”. Children are given access to a warm, homelike setting.

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  245

11. By granting the requests of more than 3,400 children in more than 60 childcare facilities across four states, Catalysts for Social Action (CSA) is bringing happiness to others. Additionally, it has assisted in more than 250 successful adoptions as of now. There is a severe shortage of qualified and skilled personnel in many institutions. We must encourage foster care and ease the adoption procedure due to the inadequate infrastructure at orphanages (Sachdeva, 2019). In India, there are more than 30 million orphaned and abandoned children, making up over 4% of the country’s youth. The exact number of children who have become orphans since the COVID-19 pandemic hit in 2020 is still unknown. The pandemic was believed to have left 1,000 children orphaned in Uttar Pradesh only, but the actual number may be far higher. India has tight adoption laws, which contribute to the incredibly low number of adoptions that actually occur. Only 3,351 kids were adopted between March 2019 and March 2020. Only 20,000 families are reportedly registered to adopt children in India, although the Indian Society of Assisted Reproduction reports that almost 28 million couples are actively trying to have children.

Challenges One of the most oppressed populations is orphaned children, who struggle to survive in society. The scope of orphan difficulties differs from one geographical region to another and is universal in nature. Orphans around the world experience many common issues, including a higher risk of serious malnutrition, high death rates, low school engagement attendance, and a higher possibility of child workers (paid and unpaid). In addition to the sadness of losing their parents, these kids are more likely to experience abuse, neglect, and exploitation. Due to poverty, conflict, HIV/AIDS, COVID-19, and other factors, about 20 million children are orphaned, and up to 100 million more are homeless and living on the streets. Orphans in India face several dangers, especially those living on the streets. Among the greatest dangers is exploitation. Although it’s estimated that approximately eight million kids between the ages of 5 and 14 are compelled to work as children, the actual number is probably far higher. Some kids are made to labor in factories or on farms against their will, while others are made to do housework. Although the nation has made an effort to combat exploitation and forced labor, child molestation is now a very real threat, and many children are trafficked every year. In India, 27% of girls under the age of 18 got married, and girls are frequently sold off in forced marriages. The situation isn’t much better for boys since many of them are sold to extremist organizations, made to beg, and engaged in antisocial behavior (Basumatary, 2012). Children who are poor or orphaned do not have the opportunity to learn. Even at a young age, they frequently leave school to support themselves or

246  Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

their families. Without schooling, the kids will live in abject poverty and occasionally be made to work as slaves (Martha and Deon, 2006). For orphans, obtaining a basic education has grown to be a big worry. Despite the fact that every child has the right to an education, many orphans and vulnerable individuals continue to be excluded from this opportunity. Children who are orphaned or in vulnerable situations frequently must do care and home duties on top of not having enough money for food, clothing (especially children’s clothes), and school supplies. Growth in the population of girls serving as surrogate mothers and as family nurses willing to care for critically ill family members with AIDS has coincided with a decline in the number of kids enrolled in school, especially in crop failure regions or when there was a food emergency. They suggested building more infrastructure, hiring more instructors, training all educators in psychosocial care of vulnerable individuals, and enhancing school-based child monitoring mechanisms to preserve quality (Sateesh Gouda and Sekhar, 2014). Children who are orphaned and at risk have a difficult time accessing basic medical care. Other fundamental human rights like access to clean water to drink, decent housing, education, and a safe work environment are also obviously linked to good health (Stover et al., 2007). Everyone should have the right to govern their health and physical well-being, including access to health-care information and services that are free from discrimination and violence. All of us have the right to our own space and to be treated with dignity and respect. Nobody should be required to undergo medical testing without their informed consent, be forced to undergo a physical examination, or get treatment. WHO backs the idea of “people-­ centered care” because it upholds civil dignity in the delivery of medical services. All kids need help to survive, including food and medical care, but especially orphans and vulnerable youngsters. Children who are orphaned or vulnerable are more likely to experience health issues for several different reasons. They struggle with poverty and have scant access to vital services that promote and preserve health. Compared to some other kids, they typically don’t have access to things like education, counseling, immunizations, and insecticide-treated nets, which promote health and prevent sickness. The childcare system in India, which mainly prioritizes prevention, basic, rehabilitative, and rehabilitation health care, should provide orphaned children and vulnerable people with access to health care. The most important field in which orphans of Kashmir are suffering is education. Due to the stoppage of regular income, orphans are not able to pay their meager amount of school fees, resulting in a high rate of dropouts. Among these dropouts, most of them were girls who left their schools due to regular harassment by the Indian Armed Forces (Dabla, 2010). The protracted conflict in Kashmir has a serious impact on the education of kids, especially orphans. The persistent closure of schools affects their education badly. Due to the shutdown of schools, education got affected, resulting in a violation of the universal right to education. About 891 schools have been

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  247

deliberately attacked and destroyed in military confrontations since 1989. About 318 children in the age group of 1–17 have been killed since 2003 resulting in the violation of every right given to them by the UNCRC. Schools are present within orphanages, which makes them stigmatized and separates them from society. Children feel bored because of the strictness in orphanages and are not allowed to go outside (Bose, 2000). Only 0.5% of homeless children are enrolled in orphanages in India, according to research. There are no orphanages in one out of every five districts inside the nation. As a result, many kids end up on the street and commit little crimes to survive. Orphans and vulnerable youngsters do not have their own laws in India. They are a component under the Juvenile Justice Act instead. Ironically, there are a growing number of infertile couples and millions of youngsters without parents. However, India’s adoption rate has not changed. Just 3,276 in-country adoptions occurred in 2017– 18, according to data from the CARA. When contrasted with the number of orphan children in India, this is a depressing number. Only recognized Child Care Institutes (CCI) may participate in adoption; there are a few CCIs. An infertile couple’s last option is adoption (ForumIAS, 2021). The tragic irony is that Other Backward Classes (OBC), Scheduled Castes (SC), or Scheduled Tribes (ST) make up 70% of our population, according to statistics. It continues to imply that these areas are undoubtedly home to 70% of our orphan children. Orphans from the SC/ST or OBC bloodline are doubly unfortunate since they would have received more government assistance and resources in a perfect world, but because they are unfortunate enough to be parentless, they are now left to fight for each other (Pavini, 2019).

Innovative Practices for Orphans The Orphaned and Vulnerable Children National Plan of Action aims to improve access to basic health-care services, provide support in secondary schools, and protect people from violence, exploitation, discrimination, trafficking, and loss of inheritance, among other objectives. Several interventions are already in place or are in the process of being launched. Supporting orphans must include key elements like food and nutrition. A school feeding program, per the World Bank, is a focused welfare safety net that offers benefits both educational and health-related ones to vulnerable children, resulting in an increase in their enrollment rates, a decrease in absenteeism cases, and an improvement in the food security at the household level. School feeding programs support children’s development and health, enhance student focus and academic achievement, support the parents and guardians of the children, support local farmers and merchants, and assist the community in overcoming poverty, among other things. Because food security issues are so complicated, other institutions and foreign partners can offer food aid at a significant comparative advantage.

248  Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

The Indian government spends Rs. 1,500 crores annually on child protection, which includes all aspects of children’s rights. Even if it has gone up since last year, it still only amounts to below Rs.2 for each child each day for necessities like food, clothes, education, and health care! As a result, the main Integrated Child Protection Scheme will cover 78,000 OVC across all institutions in the nation from 2018–19 (PIB release of January 2019). The PM-CARES fund offers certain educational resources to kids who became orphans as a result of COVID-19. Children younger than 10 years old will be admitted as day scholars to the closest Kendriya Vidyalaya or private school. If the child is admitted to a private school, PM-CARES will cover the cost of training in compliance with Right to Education (RTE) guidelines. Additionally, PM-CARES will pay for the cost of uniforms, textbooks, and notebooks. Any residential school run by the central government, including Sainik School, Navodaya Vidyalaya, etc., will admit students between the ages of 11 and 18.

Recommendations For orphan children, the rights to food, protection, socio-economic empowerment, and participation are of utmost importance. Due to poverty, school fees, caring for sick parents, a lack of professional substances, cultural and traditional practices, an absence of political devotion to OVC educational issues, and other factors, numerous orphaned children and vulnerable children are unable to access or effectively participate in education, despite the abundance of educational opportunities through the Universal Basic Education policy. Education level is a crucial determinant of children’s happiness and future chances. For orphan students encountering challenges and needing educational support at any stage in their academic careers, different aspects and levels of service must be offered. This will enable them to grow and advance following their ability. Teachers have a significant impact on pupils’ motivation and self-esteem development, particularly during their formative years. They give kids a network of support and inspire them to create and achieve goals. Teachers can help students realize that they must have the power to improve their own lives via their efforts as well as the life of those they came into contact with by encouraging them to dream higher. Social support is very important for orphans from guardians due to the death of parents and close relatives. All programs that assist vulnerable children and orphans in leading fulfilled lives are seen as offering psychosocial support, addressing the physiological, psychosocial, spiritual, mental, and spiritual requirements of children – all crucial components of meaningful and healthy human development – is a continuous process. In poor nations, many children and teenagers who have been left defenseless by their parents pass away. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that orphaned and other vulnerable children’s rights are legally protected. The National Standards and Guidelines

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  249

of Practice must be followed when developing and implementing intervention strategies to profit OVC. Civil society organizations (including NGOs) can also form partnerships with the government and other organizations to support OVC. The society (local authorities, historical, social, cultural, religious, and political leaders) organizes and construct social support networks in terms of protecting and promoting the welfare and development of orphaned and abandoned children and their families. It (the society) determines which families and children are most at risk for harm to their health, development, or safety, and for which they are willing to take a stand to help. Economic stabilization is frequently required for the family or caretakers to handle the growing demands of orphans. Additionally, growing kids and teenagers have to know how to take care of themselves and find sustainable sources of income. It was more common for orphaned children to be abused during the pandemic. The rise in child maltreatment among orphaned children is evidenced by the number of SOS calls that are made to most of the helpline numbers. Some kids witnessed the passing of their parents right in front of them. For them, sensitive counseling is urgently required. Otherwise, these traumatic experiences would recur in their minds and affect children’s psychological and mental health. Some youngsters whose parents both passed away were now being raised by their elderly grandparents. Such children’s circumstances are far worse. No NGOs or the government have complete information on these orphaned kids. Small policy adjustments, though, might herald a massive change in these kids’ lives. The government can see the figures at hand with something as easy as a survey or survey of orphans, make sure all districts in the country have the required number of orphanages, and ensure every child without reliable guardians reaches a government facility. To ensure that orphans, the weakest people on Earth, are also given adequate chances for bachelor’s and post-graduate research, coaching and hostel support, and, if feasible, reservation in academic institutions and jobs, “orphans” must be mentioned in programs that benefit other kids from weaker sections. These adjustments – ten simple words on paper – would be the difference between that child’s life and death. It is preferable for the youngster to be in parental care with a wider family rather than requiring institutional care from the government. The government can select and train instructors, physicians, mental health providers, and women and child development coordinators as counselors to better the physical well-being of children who were rendered orphans by the epidemic. The government must make sure that orphans are accurately counted or surveyed. The government must also update them frequently. This will help the government create policies and programs that are especially suited to the needs of orphaned children. Every district must have at least one CCI, according to the government. This will guarantee that any youngster who lacks reliable guardians enters a government facility. For orphaned children,

250  Mohd Zuber and Pettala Ramakrishna

the government must pass special legislation. A few crucial provisions must be included in the legislation, such as taking appropriate action to increase adoption. Despite widespread reports to the contrary, India’s adoption laws are famed for being onerous and designed to protect children from exploitation. The government should create provisions for social protection, child survival benefits, and other benefits, as well as give precedence to orphaned kids in work and educational settings if it is possible to do so.

Conclusion In India, orphaned children are among the most at risk. They also have rights and dignity that should be protected, just like every other child. They need greater consideration and care because they are more prone to be taken advantage of and abused. The provision of food, shelter, clothing, and education alone is not enough. Kids must be cherished and taken care of because they are national assets. For them to grow and flourish like other kids, you must give them a healthy atmosphere. India, the second-most populated nation in the world, is home to many orphaned kids. Most kids ultimately lost their fathers or mothers and are orphaned by their families in India as a result of the country’s challenges with poverty, starvation, and corruption. More than 25 million kids were orphaned in India in 2007, according to UNICEF. India has experienced a quick increase in the number of orphans after the coronavirus wave started in 2020. The security of orphaned children needs to be ensured in India for the simple, medium, and long terms. COVID-19’s next wave is a possibility. India must make sure to provide appropriate guidelines for handling the problem of orphaned children in light of this. Additionally, Indian culture must consider adoption from the viewpoint of the kid’s welfare as opposed to the viewpoint of the parent, who believes that the youngster must have heredity, blood, and ancestry; give direction for the creation and execution of initiatives for the worldwide care, assistance, and security of vulnerable children; ensure that almost all care, support, and protection actions for vulnerable children meet minimal criteria of excellence that are culturally and socially acceptable, in conformity with the various governments of the world; establish roles and duties for all stakeholders and provide clear knowledge of the guiding concepts; and improve referral and coordination amongst stakeholders to foster collaboration and strategic partnerships.

References Abebe, T. and Aase, A. (2007). The Extended Family Revisited: Children, AIDS, and the Politics of Orphaned Care in Ethiopia. Social Science & Medicine, 6, 2058–69. Basumatary, R. (2012). School Dropout across Indian States and UTs: An Econometric Study. International Research Journal of Social Science, 1(4), 28–35.

Rejuvenating Orphans through Educational Supports  251 Bose, A. (2000). Jammu and Kashmir Focus on Children and Women. A Statistical Profile. Briefing Report for UNICEF. New Delhi. Bremner, R. H. (1970). Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press. Dabla, B.A. (2010). A Sociological Study of Widows and Orphans in Kashmir. Srinagar: Jay Kay Publishers. ForumIAS. (2021). Orphaned Children in India–Explained, Pointwise. https://blog. forumias.com/orphaned-children-in-india/ Lajpat, R. L. (2021). The Arya Samaj: An Account of Its Origin Doctrines, and Activities, with a Biographical Sketch of the Founder. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. Martha, A. and Deon, F. (2006). Inequalities in Children’s Schooling: AIDS, Orphanhood, Poverty, and Gender. World Development, 34(6), 1099–1128. Pavini, P. (2019). Orphans of India. Voices, India, TOI. https://timesofindia. indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/orphans-of-india/ Sachdeva, R. (2019). NGOs for Children in India Giving a Better Life to Destitute Kids. Bangalore: Give India. Sateesh Gouda, M. and Sekhar, T.V. (2014). Factors Leading to School Dropouts in India: An Analysis of National Family Health Survey-3 Data. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education, 4(6), 75–83. Sharma, S. R. (1941). Mahatma Hansraj: Maker of the Modern Punjab. Arya Pradeshik Pratinidhi Sabha. Soni. (2020). Learning to Labour: “Native” Orphans in Colonial India, 1840s–1920s. International Review of Social History, 65(1), 15–42. Stover, J., Bollinger, L., Walker, N., and Monasch, R. (2007). There Is a Need for Resources to Help Vulnerable Children and Orphans in Sub-Saharan Africa. Health Policy and Planning, 22(1), 21–7. UNAIDS, UNICEF, USAID. (2004). Children on the Brink 2004: A Joint Report of New Orphans Estimates and a Framework for Action. New York: UNICEF. UNICEF. (2014). Measuring the Determinants of Childhood Vulnerability. New York: UNICEF. UNICEF. (2017). Available at https://www.unicef.org/media/media_45279.html Witty, R. (2003). A Framework for Advancing Orphan and Vulnerable Child Policies. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). World Food Programme. (2012). Two Minutes to Learn About: School Meals. Available at https://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ communications/wfp220221.pdf?_ga=2.263020492.1314642926.15286656311013504369.1528665631

Chapter 18

Access to Education for Children of Refugees Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

Introduction The word ‘refugee’ as mentioned in the 1951 Convention of Article 1(2) is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, an association of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country. (UNHCR, 1951 Refugee Convention) Usually, refugees stay in refugee camps, or self-settled camps, and the location of some refugees is unknown. There are different categories of refugees and displaced persons like expelling refugees, semi-refugees, foresee refugees, impelled refugees, former camp inmates’ refugees, and war refugees. Distancing themselves from their families and lacking communication with them are the main problems refugees face, as well as enduring mental health problems as a result of disturbance and lack of education of the children, including survivor guilt and financial difficulties. Asylum seekers have been in existence for many years. It was around 600 AD that a holy place or a church could be an acceptable place to seek refuge according to the code of King Ethelbert. During the World Wars, there were many refugee crises. During World War I, about one million refugees reached the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and other neighboring countries from Belgium. When Russia attacked Prussia, 0.8 million fled. After World War II, European countries accepted approximately 0.9 million refugees, the USA accepted 0.46 million, and other countries accepted 0.52 million refugees (Rai and Dwivedi, 2021). Global Trends Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2018 reveals that 6.7 million refugees were living in protracted situations. There were 16% of refugees from developed countries in the world and in underdeveloped countries one-third of the global refugee population was found. The world is experiencing a significant DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-23

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  253

refugee crisis because of various reasons. Presently, more than half of all refugees are fleeing Syria’s and Iraq’s conflict and Ukraine and Russia. Along with this, several unusual places also experienced the somber crisis of refugees such as during the Somali Civil War, Africa’s Great Lakes, the Korean War, the South Sudanese Civil War, the Darfur crisis, the Yugoslav Wars, the Indo-China Refugee Crisis, Colombia Crisis, the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, the Soviet-Afghan War, the Syrian Civil War, the Bangladesh War of Indepen­ dence, the Second World War, and Sri Lankan crisis (UNHCR Refugees Brief, 2022; Global Trends Report, 2018). As per the UNHCR Report 2022, the global forced displacement has surpassed 84 million people and (the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre) estimates that 55 million people are internally displaced people across the countries. The refugees across the countries are as follows: Myanmar (1.1 million), South Sudan (2.2 million), Afghanistan (2.6 million), and the Syrian Arab Republic (6.8 million). About 3.7 million refugees live in Turkey, 1.7 million in Colombia, 1.5 million in Uganda, 1.4 million in Pakistan, and 1.2 million in Germany. Between 2018 and 2020, about one million refugees were born across the world. As per the latest data (2020), 2.8 million girls and 3 million boys are school-aged children (UNHCR, 2020, 2022). India is home to many refugees. As an advanced democratic republic, India has done what any mature, democratic country would do in the face of a humanitarian crisis with refugees. Refugees in Pre-Independent India: Migration from different countries to India is a powerful indicator of Indian history. It has happened mainly in two modes like “Hindukush Mountains in the West and the Patkai range in the East”. Refugees in Post-Independent India: India accepted the responsibility of over 20 million refugees during its first 25 years after Independence, particularly because of the separation between India and Pakistan; therefore, it had to provide relief to West Pakistani refugees. There were thousands of people who migrated from Pakistan to India and vice versa. It took 160 relief camps to manage the initial relief operations. The Rehabilitation Financial Administration Act, 1948, was a crucial step from the Indian government toward the refugees. In 1959, the Dalai Lama and his cohorts moved to India as refugees, and they were accommodated in a political asylum. In 1971, several East Pakistani refugees moved to India. In 1983 and 1986, large numbers of Sri Lankan and Bangladeshi refugees crossed into the country. There were 20 million migrants and 2.37 million displaced people in India by 1992. India has constantly received refugees in some form or another throughout its history (Vardhini, 2017). In 2021, there were about 20,000 refugees taking shelter in India, among them mainly from Myanmar. In 2021, uncounted Afghan refugees sought refuge in India.

254  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

Policy and Programs for Refugees Education is cited as a critical element of international refugee response in the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants. Sustainable Development Goal 4 is aimed at ensuring “inclusive and quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning”. As part of its commitment to protecting refugee children and youth globally, the UNHCR coordinates with different governments and various international organizations at every level. In the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, it was enshrined that education should be a basic human right. There are other important human rights principles and crucial international laws focused on the safeguarding of refugees in all dimensions. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR),1966; UN Convention against Torture (UNCAT), 1985; the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC),1989; the UN Principles on Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, 1989; and the Declaration on Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances (DPED),1992, were the important major instruments also highlighted to provide additional protection in the education and other related aspects of refugee’s children. Refugees are interpreted by international humanitarian law in a broader sense that includes migration caused by disputes or conflicts. As such, refugees should not automatically receive refugee status under national laws, but they should be entitled to international protection and assistance so long as the conflict continues. These guarantees include assurances that individuals may not be considered enemies, even if their nationality is that of an adverse party to the conflict. A refugee has two fundamental rights under international law: a right to seek asylum abroad and a right not to be sent back to a country where they are in danger of death. In addition, state parties are required to provide them with entry and protection under the 1951 Refugee Convention and 1967 Protocol (Refugee Convention, 1951 and Protocol, 1967, 1979, 1992, 2019). There is remarkable evidence observed from time to time that the Indian judiciary has been upholding refugees from being deported, expelled, or forcibly returned. The articles in the Indian constitution like Article 14 protect people against discrimination and arbitrary action, and Article 21 guarantees the right to life and liberty. Due to the lack of sound domestic legislation, India has relied on its administrative policies and judicial interventions. However, there is a need to shift the approach from charitable to rights-based by ratifying a national refugee law in India. This streamlines the procedures for refugees for their status as refugees and also will safeguard their rights under international law. Despite being a member of the UNHCR, the Refugee Convention brought in 1951 was not ratified by India; it has some following acts, laws, and

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  255

policies that are helping indirectly to support and provide some sort of rehabilitation to the refuges like the Foreigners Act (1946), Citizenship Act (1955 and 2019 amendment), Extradition Act (1962), Passport (Entry to India) Act (1967) and the Illegal Migrant (Determination by Tribunals) Act (1983) are few laws applicable to both refugees and foreigners. Under Indian law, both foreigners and refugees are considered the same. Even refugees fleeing their countries of origin for fear of death can be detained and deported under the aforementioned laws. Due to the nonexistence of any legislative or administrative framework for the determination of a refugee’s status in India, the Indian government has taken measures to determine the status of refugees in different ways. Though in 2009, India has passed the Refugee and Asylum (Protection) Bill, the Foreigners Act of 1946 remains the key legislation that helps refugees and asylum seekers. Apart from the aforementioned, the Registration of Foreigners Act (1939), Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act (1950), Administration of Evacuee Property Act (1950), Protection of Human Rights Act (1993), National Register of Citizens-NRC (2003), and the Tibetan Rehabilitation Policy, 2014, Citizenship (Amendment) Act – (2019) are some other laws of refugees.

Educational Status of Refugees As per the UNHCR’s directive, there are about 26.6 million people identified as refugees globally as of date. About 50% of them are children, and close to half of all refugee children remain yet to knock on the door of the school and their access to schooling is limited. Among them, there are about six million children who are eligible for schooling by attaining the appropriate age. From March 2019 to March 2020, the average gross enrollment across various countries for primary schools was 68% and 34% for secondary schools. Globally, 70% of boys and 67% of girls of refugees enrolled in primary school, whereas in secondary school there were 35% of boys and 31% of girls enrolled (UNHCR Report, 2021).

Status of Refugees in India The gross enrollment in primary-level education was 68% and secondary­level education was 34% for refugees around the world in 2019–20 (UNHCR Report, 2021). Despite the disruption caused by the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, this report narrates the fairy tales of young refugees around the world about their learning experiences. As per the report, school enrollment patterns differ drastically across the world; enrollment in sub-Saharan Africa was lower than in Asia and the Americas. The economic devastation caused by the pandemic makes it even more difficult for refugee adolescents to complete school and assist their families economically, dropout issues have been raised due to this issue.

256  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

The estimation by UNHCR offices across the globe in 37 countries up to March 2021 shows that an average of 142 days of learning are lost by refugee learners due to the shutting down of schools, universities, and other related respective educational institutions. Access to education for girls lags behind that for boys. As the world’s second-largest densely inhabited country with more than 1,300 million people, India has become a habitat to thousands of refugees and displaced people from neighboring countries, including Myanmar, Afghanistan, Somalia, and Sri Lanka. There have been refugees in India for centuries. A large amount of the refugee population in India hail from Tibet, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan. Nevertheless, only a set of refugees such as Tibetans and refugees from Sri Lanka are acknowledged by the Indian government, and those refugees will be safeguarded and provided support directly from the government via a specific set of policies and rules. For children after their teenage years, educational opportunities are limited in the country. Even though many children under the age of 14 are attending school despite of legal citizenship status, discrimination and language barriers often limit their ability to attend school until that age. There is one highly victimized group called Chin refugees residing in Delhi, who was born in Myanmar and now live in informal arrangements with very limited access to education. As education costs increase into secondary school, many families resort to sending their children to work (UNHCR, 2021). More than 107 camps with approximately 62,000 Sri Lankan refugees residing throughout Tamil Nadu. Among them 18,714 are students. The children who live in the camps are mostly the newest generation, born in Tamil Nadu and raised there, but they lack the same citizenship rights including rights to education as Tamil Nadu residents. Student withdrawal from higher education has risen from 6% to 12% now and the main barriers to continuing education are lack of coaching facilities before public exams, poor English skills, the effect of the environment on the refugee camps, and improper systems to support and guide the refugee students. Moreover, they are not able to take all the courses in government colleges as any other students, which helps account for the dramatic rise in student withdrawal (Mayuran, 2017). In 1960, there were 50 Tibetan refugee children admitted as students in the first residential school opened in Mussoorie. The Council for Tibetan Education has been set up under the reorganized Tibetan Governmentin-Exile to take care of the education and welfare of the children. This Education Council later started two residential schools at Shimla and Darjeeling in 1961 and 1962, respectively. Separate Tibetan schools were set up in India to provide Tibetan students with modern education and preserve their culture and language too. For the education of children of Tibetan refugees in India, 60 schools were established; out of the 28 schools run by the Central School for Tibetans (CTSA), 2 schools by Tibetan Homes Foundation, 11 schools by Sambhota Tibetan, and 18 schools by Tibetan

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  257

Children’s Village. During the past few decades, Tibetan Children’s Village has fully developed into a vibrant, integrated educational community serving needy Tibetan brood in expelling, as well as the Tibetans who flee Tibet every year. Over 16,726 children are under the care of the organization across India, with branches in Ladakh and Bylakuppe. Under the Tibetan refugee settlement in a school at Tibet Children’s Village Day School in Majnu ka Tila, the students started studying English. Around 105 students attend this school where there are three kindergarten classes and classes 1 through 5 highlighting the Tibetan language and script at the center of the curriculum. The future of many children of the Hindu migrants from Pakistan staying at the refugee camp at Majnu Ka Tila, Delhi is at stake as they are being deprived of their right to education. Though several non-­ governmental organizations (NGOs) have attempted to enroll these children in schools, many of them have been unable to do so due to the absence of visas and other required documentary evidence. The government in Mizoram has agreed to let refugee children from Myanmar attend school in the region, in a stunning demonstration of kindness (Fair, 2018). In Myanmar, there are about 2,000 children who left the troubled nation with their near and there and sought safety in Mizoram to get free education in the government schools. There are 1,704 students in grades 1 through 8, at least 140 in grades 9 and 10, 6 in grades 11 and 12, and 122 in the pre-­ primary section. Mizoram is becoming a leader in the treatment of refugees with compassion and dignity. The state is leading by example and providing solutions to real-world problems by guaranteeing that children’s education is not affected. A state government official said that since August 2021, Myanmar national children have been enrolled in government schools (Agarwala, 2021). In the past few decades, many Afghan nationals who came to India have encountered educational gaps and a lack of resources that have made it hard to send their children to school. One school in New Delhi is attempting to overcome this education gap for them. Approximately 30,000 Afghan citizens are currently residing in south Delhi waiting to be resettled in the Western world by the UNHCR. Bridges Academy currently serves 85 students in classes 7–12 and follows the NIOS curriculum of India and the GED curricula of America, making it the learners easier to persist in their education whenever they move to Western countries. There are refugee camps for Rohingya in the various locales of Delhi, including Madanpur Khadar in Kalindi Kunj, Shaheen Bagh, Vikaspuri, and Khajuri Khas, as well as Faridabad and Mewat in Haryana. The Zakat Foundation assists 63 school-aged children. With the building of this organization in Kalindi Kunj camp, it also takes responsibility for the school expenses of Rohingya children who are getting an education in the nearby schools of this campsite such as Gyandeep Vidya Mandir and God’s Grace School. Nowadays, these schools have become an important component of the lives of these children.

258  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

Organizations Working for the Education of Refugees The educational needs and achievements of refugees’ children and youth are mostly imperceptible. Concerned governments failed to offer educational services for nearly six million school-aged refugee children, which is extremely detrimental to individual refugees along with their families and societies. Various organizations working for the education of refugee children across the globe including India were discussed, respectively, in the following sections. In 1933, the International Rescue Committee (IRC) was set up in order to offer humanitarian support to refugees leaving Nazi Germany and protecting refugees worldwide. In 1939, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service (LIRS) was started to help Lutheran refugees fleeing dispute regions in Europe by safeguarding immigrant and refugee children. Doctors without Borders were founded in 1971 to supply medical aid to at-risk communities influenced by natural calamities and fortified clashes. The alight organization was established in 1978 to support refugees who have been dislocated or were relocating. In 1979, Refugees International was initiated in Washington, DC, as a civilians’ association to shield citizens fleeing Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos, later extended to suit an internationally focused advocacy association, and a foremost voice for the rights of refugees and migrants worldwide. In 2005, Refuge Point was started to offer humanitarian support to every refugee in a humanitarian catastrophe. UNHCR recurrently plays a harmonizing responsibility to the efforts of the government and plays a significant part in the resettlement of refugees (Ananthachari, 2001). UNHCR has been working in India to safeguard asylum seekers and refugees. Since 1981. UNHCR has worked with ten NGO partners, donors, government entities, private sectors, civil society, the UN resident coordinator, and other UN agencies while ensuring that humanitarian response and development actions are supported in the persistent search for sustainable elucidations. Some non-profit organizations support refugees and their families in India. Children from migrants working on construction sites have been provided with day-care services and education by Mobile Creches in the Delhi-National Capital Region for the past five decades. Over the last few years, providing preschool education to children from Bangalore’s migrant community has become one of the core functions of Diya Ghar. As of date, there were 400 children who have received education by joining elementary schools in Bangalore near their camps. This independent nonprofit organization, SOS Children’s Village, mechanism toward the comprehensive development of vulnerable, migrant, and parentless children with the support of food, shelter, and education. For the last 15 years, Jan Sahas has been working in 48 districts across India with more than one million migrant communities to guarantee their social security and protected resettlement. A unique program called ‘Street Presence’ by Don Bosco Navajeevan

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  259

offers continuous support to children who live or work on the streets. Education professionals are on-site 24/7 at strategically located points wherever kids come into the city, live, or work, and child rescue booths have been placed to prevent runaways from being abused.

Challenges in the Education of Children of Refugees Refugees who have been forced to flee their homes for long periods find themselves in a situation of uncertainty. In fact, they are not in danger, except the fundamental human rights and critical monetary, societal, and psychosomatic requirements may be unmet. Ethiopia, Turkey, Pakistan, Lebanon, Chad, Kenya, and Congo are some of the countries in the world in which a large number of out-of-school refugee children were found compared to the world level. Although significant attempts have been made to provide education to many refugee children and adolescents, enrollment rates have been declining in recent years. Nevertheless, some lengthened refugee circumstances have lasted beyond two decades, refugee educational services are mainly sponsored by emergency funds, and some funds would be preserved for long-term planning. However, children and adolescents of refugees are deprived and their learning requirements and attainment are hardly ever tracked by national monitoring systems, leaving them largely invisible (UNHCR Report, 2018). When children are exposed to violence, fear, and uncertainty for many years, it can have a devastating effect on their learning, behavior, social development, and even their mental health for a long time (Anderson, 2020). Based on the most recent numbers by UNICEF, reveals that a minimum of 0.3 million alienated and single-handed kids were identified from around 80 nations. Generally, refugee children are more prone to violent behavior, abuse, and maltreatment, but if they’re unaccompanied, they’re even more vulnerable (UNICEF, 2017). Shifting family dynamics and responsibilities is another important issue with refugees. Overcrowded housing conditions create many other problems. The aftermath of traumatic events and different financial realities directs a significant change in the lives of the family when they get into refugee shelters. But it may also have a ripple effect across the family, putting youngsters in a particularly vulnerable situation. Afar, these obstacles, racism, and prejudice act as significant components in separating refugees. It’s difficult to recreate a life or re-establish a sense of normalcy in such desolate circumstances. In order to obtain quality edification, inadequate facilities are another important concern for the education of children of refugees. For any individual, edification is a necessary part of victory in life, but refugee situations can make it hard to acquire. According to UNICEF, compared to other children, on average, five more times refugee children are out of school, frequently owing to monetary concerns, obstacles to language along with school security. Dispute, distress, and asylum-seeking have left many refugee children

260  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

unprepared to penetrate regular schools and many more working selflessly for their families to survive. There are a variety of factors that cause modest enrollment and school dropouts as well. In rural areas, the refugees residing away from refugee camps find it very difficult to get into school. Since 2014, as per the report by the UN, there have been more than 385 molestations at education facilities, and the military has used over 50 schools for their operations. As some of the refugees are residing in interior locations, they often face the issue of schooling; as a result, these children are incapable of reaching school due to a lack of reliable local conveyance (Dryden-Peterson, 2015). Moreover, as and when children of refugees move to neighboring nations, it becomes mandatory for them to accommodate a new program of study. It is recurrently made in a foreign language, in which the refugee migrant should become a master prior to their edification. When they are enrolled in school, many children endure discrimination and harassment from their peers. There are frequently insufficient resources in host country cities. Some host nations already have capacity concerns when it comes to enrolling their local children, so integrating refugee children will overburden such schools. Many host country schools have laws requiring refugees to get government-issued paperwork or legal status before enrolling in studies (Fransen et al., 2018). Even if Syrian children possessed these identity cards, some Turkish public schools denied their enrollment or school adminis­ trators wanted further documentation. Access to meaningful education remains a barrier even within refugee camps. Due to the collapse of Syria’s educational system, many children are already at a disadvantage when they arrive in refugee camps. If their schooling has been disrupted, refugee children will also have to cope with their courses while adjusting to a whole new socio-cultural environment. Furthermore, due to the expedition, they are emotionally distressed, and many of them experienced violence, apart from this, their cognitive, emotional, and social progress are also affected, along with increasing academic struggles (Savun and Gineste, 2019).

Innovative Practices in the Education of Children of Refugees Education systems do not always meet the needs of refugees, which may hinder their integration into society. Students’ academic, social, and emotional well-being are all affected by this, which poses significant challenges. These children and youth can also benefit from successful integration in schools when it comes to their future jobs and social integration. While there is an increasing amount of research on immigrants’ integration, regulation studies on refugee children and young adults from an acade­ mic point of view are inadequate, incomplete, and situation dependent. It includes some studies dealing primarily with resettled refugees (Matthews, 2008; McBrien, 2005; Wilkinson, 2002) that discuss refugee integration

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  261

in school systems. The treatment of refugees as a homogenous group has prevented the comprehensive evaluation of the factors affecting their migration and integration (McBrien, 2005). In order to provide appropriate educational support for refugees, it is necessary to understand these special needs (Rutter, 2006). The educational experiences of refugees in countries of asylum can be diverse, depending on their nationality, cultural heritage, linguistic background, and ethnicity (Matthews, 2008; Sidhu and Taylor, 2009). People in different regions, even in the same host country, may have different educational needs.

Integration of Refugee Children into the Educational System through a Holistic Model Providing refugee children with a holistic model to deal with their academic, social, and emotional requirements is considered very important for their educational integration (Arnot and Pinson, 2005; Sidhu and Taylor, 2009). Educational integration is depicted by the holistic model by showing the relationship between factors, needs, and policies. Integration of refugee children into the educational system is merely possible by tackling the crucial concerns like academic, social, and emotional desires of these children. According to existing research, many schools are trying to provide this model in order to meet their students’ psychosocial and emotional requirements during life skills training programs and activities, welfare and spiritual support, admissions process support, comprehensive induction processes, and the facilities of midday meal and activities and practices after the school timing (Arnot and Pinson, 2005; Pugh, Every and Hattam, 2012). Usually, the mechanism of the holistic approach is a collaboration among other significant organizations to meet the manifold multifarious requirements. It comprises community associations, community work, health and well-being organizations, and other related necessary related services (McBride, 2018). Providing support to refugee learners and tackling social elimination concerns, physical and psychological health issues, and academic shortcomings are all features of schools that stabilize the lives of the unsettled youth of refugee origin (Downey, 2008; Jeffery, 2004; Matthews, 2008; Pastoor, 2016). It is possible to achieve success for children with long-term positive outcomes by removing barriers to their participation and achievement (Mujis et al., 2007). Educators who are well-prepared for teaching multilingual and multicultural classes must also receive support if they are to include students with psychosocial issues. As valuable as teachers are to refugee students, the role of other needy professionals is also essential for their success. Assisting with school registration, orientation, interviews, meetings between parents and teachers, home visits, and follow-ups are other ways in which professionals support successful school integration. As educators and support professionals, they provide information, direction,

262  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari

suggestion, and intercession throughout the calamities, and support for the basic rights and liabilities of all refugee learners and parents. These professionals work closely with school counselors and work with the community to provide practical, culturally appropriate advice, referrals, and interventions. In addition to the aforementioned learners, refugee parents, school officials, and the respective societies offer training on diverse cultural aspects to understand newcomer issues; they also match families with affordable community services and encourage newcomers to get involved in school activities and community activities. To provide education for the refugee children, respective governments in certain countries have indeed established a home learning techniques curriculum to encourage parents to take part in bustles at residences that promote the children’s growth and education, promoting a compassionate home learning atmosphere.

Prospects in the Education of Children of Refugees There is a significant difference in access to edification and other related educational opportunities between refugees and local individuals. Every child has the right to edification, but refugee children must attend school because it provides a feeling of security and confidence, both of which are often absent in refugee circumstances. A strategy for refugee inclusion as mentioned in the Refugee Education 2030 document outlines the vision of equitable, better-featured education for refugee children, youth are equipped to develop strength and courage, as well as function as integrated members of society. To facilitate the opportunity for refugees, asylum seekers, etc., and youth in their hosting communities, including internally displaced people, to learn, thrive, and develop their potential, this program aims to foster partnerships, collaborations, and approaches (Refugee Education Report, 2030). Child marriage, child labor, sexual exploitation, and forced recruitment into armed groups are all prevented by the education of refugee children and young adults. Through education, refugees gain the knowledge and skills they need to become productive, independent, and fulfilled members of society. As refugees strive to rebuild their lives and communities, education helps them learn about themselves and the world around them. National education systems of host countries needed supplementary monetary resour­ ces to provide education, and payment for educators was also required to transact proper instruction to every refugee child. Local institutions want greater assistance to offer relocated postsecondary students to continue and complete their education. Many older children are better off going to vocational training rather than returning to school. Refugees are already being assisted in obtaining trade certificates by various institutes like CARE through assistance from several Western nations. However, more such efforts are needed. Providing a chance for refugee teachers to teach can be a good effort. To appraise the knowledge and capacities of refugee students

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  263

exclusive of transcripts, partner institutions designed tests for them, which took a considerable amount of time. Providing facilities to travel for studies may be encouraged. In many countries, travel procedures could be simplified for talented academic refugees to choose high-quality programs for their education, and build their capacity in the long run to lead post-conflict reconstruction (UNESCO, 2019).

Recommendations Up until recently, the topic of education for refugees was mostly ignored. It now involves a wide range of data providers, dispersed technologies, and data sources, as well as non-standard techniques for measuring and presenting education indices for this extremely vulnerable community. ProGres v4 from UNHCR offers the chance to consolidate the whole documentation of refugee information at the point of arrival. Increased coverage and priorities of education data needs in the survey could include a strong foundation for developing refugee sampling structures, connections with the utilization of relief services, as well as for the identification and long-term tracking of refugees, especially in non-settings. Age, Gender, and Diversity (AGD) policy must be used, and proponents for disintegration must do so (UNHCR AGD Policy Core Action 1). It is crucial to have a thorough picture of educational access, and data gathering has to be improved. Concrete steps have to be taken to improve coordination on refugee education data.

Conclusion Refugee children are not allowed to attend school in their country of refuge. Some of the major obstacles to refugees obtaining an education are lack of documentation and financial support, limited access to schools, and xenophobia. As they struggle to rebuild their living environments, education enables refugees to become self-sufficient by allowing them to understand themselves and the environment around them. However, UNHCR does not get enough funding to ensure that children and teenagers who are refugees have the right to an education. Achieving the objectives of Education for All, finding permanent solutions, and promoting sustainable growth and restoration in both home and host countries are all hindered by the lack of good quality and supportive education for refugees. The 2018 Global Compact on Refugees and 2030 Agenda are advocating for access to inclusive, equitable, and quality education for all forcibly displaced children and youth, including refugees.

References Agarwala, T. (2021). Mizoram Extends Aid for Myanmar Refugees, to Help in School Admissions. The Indian Express, 3 September 2021.

264  Pettala Ramakrishna and K. Rajeswari Ananthachari, T. (2001). ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law. http://www.worldlii.org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/7.html Anderson, M. (2020). Refugee Children: The Challenges They Face and the Efforts to Overcome Them. http://djilp.org/refugee-children-the-challenges-they-face-andthe-efforts-to-overcome-them/ Arnot, M. and Pinson, H. (2005), The Education of Asylum-Seeker and Refugee Children: A Study of LEA and School Values, Policies and Practices. Cambridge: Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge. http://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/ download/AsylumReportFinal.pdf Downey, L. (2008). Calmer Classrooms: A Guide to Working with Traumatised Children. Journal of the Home Economics, 15(1), 33–42. https://search.informit. org/doi/10.3316/aeipt.169828 Dryden-Peterson, S. (2015). The Educational Experiences of Refugee Children in Countries of First Asylum (Rep.). Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Fair, C. C. (2018). Rohingya: Victims of a Great Game East. The Washington Quarterly, 41(3), 63–85. doi:10.1080/0163660X.2018.1519356 Fransen, S., Vargas-Silva, C., and M. Siegel (2018). The Impact of Refugee Exp­ eriences on Education: Evidence from Burundi. IZA Journal of Development and Migration. doi:10.1186/s40176-017-0112-4 Global Trends Report. (2018). UNHCR Global Trends Report 2018. https://www. unhcr.org/statistics/unhcrstats/5d08d7ee7/unhcr-global-trends-2018.html Jeffery, M. (2004). State of the Family. Melbourne: Anglicare. Matthews, M. (2008). Schooling and Settlement: Refugee Education in Australia. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 18(1), 31–45. Mayuran, A. T. (2017). The Power of Education in Refugees’ Lives: Sri Lankan Refugees in India. Forced Migration Review, 6, 55. McBride, M. (2018). Refugee Children’s Education: A Review of the Literature, What Works. Scotland. http://whatworksscotland.ac.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2018/06/ WWSEduRefugeesLitReview-1.pdf McBrien, J. (2005). Educational Needs and Barriers for Refugee Students in the United States: A Review of the Literature. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 329–64. Mujis, D., et al. (2007). Every Child Matters – Leading Schools to Promote Social Inclusion: A Study of Practice. National College for School Leadership. Pastoor, L. (2016). Rethinking Refugee Education: Principles, Policies and Practice from a European Perspective. Annual Review of Comparative and International Education, 30(1), 107–16. Pugh, K., Every, D., and Hattam, R. (2012). Inclusive Education for Students with Refugee Experience: Whole School Reform in a South Australian Primary School. The Australian Educational Researcher, 39(2), 125–41. Rai, H. and Dwivedi, V. (2021). Constitutional Provision Regarding Refugee Law in India. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, 4(3), 261–72. https://doi.org/10.10000/IJLMH.11446 Refugee Convention (1951) and Protocol (1967, 1979, 1992, 2019). Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (1979, 1992, & 2019). https://www.unhcr.org/publications/legal/5ddfcdc47/handbookprocedures-criteria-determining-refugee-status-under-1951-convention.html Rutter, J. (2006). Refugee Children in the UK. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Access to Education for Children of Refugees  265 Savun, B. and Gineste, C. (2019). From Protection to Persecution: Threat Environ­ ment and Refugee Scapegoating. Journal of Peace Research, 56(1), 88–102. doi:10.1177/0022343318811432 Sidhu, R. and S. Taylor (2009). The Trials and Tribulations of Partnerships in Refugee Settlement Services in Australia. Journal of Education Policy, 24(6), 655–72. UNESCO. (2019). Enforcing the Right to Education of Refugees. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366839 UNHCR. (2020). MUN Refugee Challenge. https://www.unhcr.org/5df9f1767.pdf UNHCR. (2021). Refugee Data Finder. https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/ UNHCR. (2022). UNHCR’s Global Trends Report 2022. https://www.unhcr.org/ globaltrends.html UNHCR Refugee Brief. (2022). The Refugee Brief (8 April 2022 to 24 June 2022). https://www.unhcr.org/refugeebrief/latest-issues/ UNICEF. (2017). UNICEF Annual Report 2017. https://www.unicef.org/media/ 47861/file/UNICEF_Annual_Report_2017-ENG.pdf Vardhini, H. (2017). Protection of Refugees in India: A Critical Analysis. International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education, 3(4), 123–27. Wilkinson, L. (2002). Factors Influencing the Academic Success of Refugee Youth in Canada. Journal of Youth Studies, 5(2), 173–93.

Chapter 19

Making Privileged the Underprivileged Sweta Dvivedi

Introduction with Historical Perspective Children’s involvement in work is not a new phenomenon. We can find a large number of children engaged in work around us. We often see small children working in houses, shops, dhabas, and restaurants. Usually, we consider it as a usual thing, whereas when we see partaking of these children in hazardous work, we understand the magnitude of this problem. The problem of the involvement of children in the labour force existed in different forms in every society of human history. The report of the Child Labour Committee (Government of India, 1979, p. 8) also states that it is not a new phenomenon in our era; it has been in existence in some form or the other in all historical times. Regarding the participation of children in labour, Mendelievich (1979) clearly states that “to a greater or lesser extent, children have always participated in every type of human society and still participate in those economic activities which are necessary”. A major cause of child labour is industrialization or urbanization. This monstrous crime related to snatching childhood from children has been there in every time and space. The thing is, in the olden period, it was not seen as an infringement of human rights or a crime but as a preparation for the future. The period of ‘Arthashastra’ written by Kautilya in the 3rd century BCE, has also mentioned the employment of children. At that time, children were involved in agricultural work, sculptural art, making liquor, etc., and most of the time it was entirely dependent on child labourers. Slavery was also there, and children were treated as commodities that could be bought and sold. And as a purchased commodity, they could be treated inhumanely by their owners or used for any purpose. Kautilya has discussed different types of labour force existing in that period as slaves, bonded labour, unpaid labour, casual labour working for wages, piece-rate workers, those working for a regular wage, and the self-employed. A heart-wrenching phenomenon which is mentioned by Kautilya is the selling or mortgaging of children of Mlechhas which clears the caste-based discrimination and exploitation (Kautilya, 1992). DOI: 10.4324/9781003370222-24

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  267

After that, Very detailed information about child labour is not available in the medieval period, but in that period, as were the rules and regulations, the level of education, and the structure of the society, it is clear that child labour was existing during that period. Growing families led to the fragmentation of property and to other means of subsistence for by farming. This was the time when a class of landless labourers arose. These labourers used to work at the big landlords, and the children of these labourers used to help them in those works. As before, children were still engaged in agricultural and craft-related work. Evidence has been found that children were also traded and trafficked by the rulers (Chandrasegaran, 1996; Singh, 2018). At present, child labour is mostly concentrated in Asian and Sub-Saharan countries. India is also one of the Asian countries. It is also worth noting here that Sub-Saharan and Asian countries mainly fall under the category of developed and developing countries. These are also known as third-world countries. The new definition sees these countries as countries with high mortality and poverty, limited resources, no economic stability due to a lack of a working-class system, and a high foreign debt burden. These characteristics of third-world countries push the children of these countries towards labour. Although in the recent era the problem of child labour is mostly in thirdworld countries, in the 19th century, European and North American countries were also not untouched by child labour (Rahikainen, 2004; Quattri and Watkins, 2016). As industrialization started in the latter half of the 18th century and as a result of industrialization, the demand for additional and cheaper labour increased in these countries, and, consequently, an army of child labour was formed in these countries. The same cause which increased the number of child labourers assisted in reducing the numbers in the 20th century. The advent of the Britishers in India in the 16th century also pushed the children into labour on a large scale and exploited them inhumanly. During the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, the condition of child labourers became even more pathetic, and at the same time, their number increased significantly. As a result of the repetition of these incidents, there was a demand to bring a law against child labour, and some efforts were also made by the British in this regard. However, it was not possible to eradicate child labour without removing poverty. Therefore, no concrete law came against child labour, and the problem remained the same. After Independence, efforts were made to redress this problem, and in the second half of the 20th century, some laws and policies related to child labour came into force, but despite all these efforts, this setback still remains.

Policy and Programmes Related to Child Labour Many efforts and initiatives have been taken at the national and international levels to stop the participation of children in labour and to give the

268  Sweta Dvivedi

right to education to each child. Internationally, these include the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1967), Minimum Age Convention (MAC, 1973), United Nations Convention on Rights of Child(UNCRC,1989), Worst form of Child Labour Convention (1999), Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (2000), International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (2002), the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention (specifically C138 and C182), the Education for All (EFA) Dakar Framework, and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These guidelines clearly spell out providing education and training to children and providing better opportunities for work to the families of such children so that children’s engagement in child labour can be prevented before it starts.

National The constitution of India also safeguards children’s rights through various provisions. Some of the articles that (Article 15) protect the rights of these children include non-discrimination against any citizen and (3) nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making special provisions for women and children, non-deprivation of life and liberty (Article 21), free and compulsory education for children of 6–14 years (Article 21A), prohibition of trafficking and beggar (Article 23), prevention of non-­employment of children below 14 years in hazardous works (Article 24, 39 (e & f)), Early Childhood Care & Education for children up to 6 years of age (Article 45), raising the level of nutrition and standard of living (Article 47). The Indian Penal Code (IPC) has some sections which play an important role in prohibiting child labour. Along with this, there is a provision of punishment for human slavery and trafficking in the IPC, and the practice of forced labour has also been prohibited.

Legislation to Prohibit Child Labour The Factories Act (1948) prohibits children below the age of 14 from working in factories but allows the employment of a juvenile who is between the ages of 15 and 18 but provides fixed working hours and talks about working conditions. Minimum Wages Act (1948) deals with fixing minimum wages for all employees. The Act also includes children and adolescents under the term ‘employee’ who have not attained the age of 14 years or who are in the age group of 14–18 years. The introduced act directs the children to adhere to the prescribed working hours, health, and safety which is linked to the interests of the children.

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  269

The Plantation Labour Act (1951) deals with the rights and working conditions of agricultural and plantation workers. The introduced act completely prohibits work on the plantation for children below the age of 12 years. It does not prohibit work by juveniles but specifies that juveniles may be employed to work in gardens only if they are of reasonable physical fitness to perform such work. The Mines Act (1952) prohibits children and adolescents below 18 years of age in any such employment. The Bidi and Cigar Workers Act (1966) prohibits the employment of children in any construction work which is related to the manufacture of articles such as bidis or cigars. The Child and Adolescent Labour Act (1986) completely outlaws employing children in any system, process, or any kind of labour, but as an exception, if the education of the children is not affected, it is permissible to work in the entertainment industry or any kind of work run by the family. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Rules (1986) suggest, for the prevention of child labour and rehabilitation of children and adolescents, maximum working hours and workplace conditions. It determines the roles and responsibilities of the agencies concerned. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act (2015) provides proper protection to children by keeping them free from any exploitation. Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Act (2016) completely prohibits the employment of children who are less than 14 years in any type of work and for juveniles who are in the age group of 14–18 years in any kind of hazardous work. Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Rules (2017) provide a comprehensive and explicit framework for the injunction, prevention, rescue, and rehabilitation of child and juvenile workers.

National Policies and Programmes National Policy on Education (1986) recommends quality education to all students without any discrimination on any basis. National Child Labour Policy (1987) is the most comprehensive of the policies relating to child labour. It deals with the rehabilitation of children who are engaged in hazardous occupations. In this sequence, this policy has also been embedded in itself, development plans and programmes for the welfare of the families of workers. National Child Labour Project(1988) is a centrally sponsored scheme to eradicate child labour and mainstream young labourers. This scheme was started in the year 1988 with 102 projects, and now 271 projects are running all over the country.

270  Sweta Dvivedi

National Authority for the Elimination of Child Labour (1994) is concerned with the release of children engaged in hazardous works from labour and their subsequent rehabilitation in education. National Commission for the Protection of Child Rights, which was established in the year 2007, reviews all policies, laws, provisions, and programmes related to the development, welfare, and action of children.

Current Status of Education of Child Labourers The condition of education and participation of children in it is alarming for us as a developing country which lacks enough resources in comparison to its population. In terms of area, the place of India is seventh in the world, whereas we are in second place in the world in terms of population, and very soon India is going to take over China and will be in the number one position. In one of his addresses, the union education minister Dharmendra Pradhan expressed his concern about out-of-school children. There are multiple causes for being out of school, but a major reason is the non-utility of existing education to get livelihood and involvement of children in the labour market. At present, 35 crore children are getting a school education, but still, 15 crore are out of school. As per the recent census (2011), 35.3% of the population (363,099,446) of India is under the age of 14 years, and 14% of the total population account for less than 18 years of age. Over the years, India has made great strides in increasing enrolment in primary schools, reducing the number of out-of-school children, and making quality education accessible to every child. According to recent data, enrolment rates in schools have increased, and drop-out and absenteeism rates have decreased. For these achievements, policies, laws, and programmes passed by the government such as Midday Meal, Scholarship, Free Books, School Uniform, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, Right of Education (RTE) Act (2009), the National Policy on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) (2013) prompt inclusive education. Progress can be seen in the field of education; however, challenges still remain. According to the 2013–14 report of the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD), 50% of adolescents in our country are not able to complete secondary education. Another report from 2015 shows that 29.9% of students do not get enrolled in the higher secondary classes. According to the Social and Rural Research Institute – India Market Research Bureau’s ( 2009 and 2014 surveys, around 6.1 million schoolaged children were out of school in 2014, up from 13.46 million in 2006. Although the decline in out-of-school children was more than double in the last eight years, the situation is still not satisfactory. According to this report, out of 100 students, 29% of girls and boys leave school before completion of their elementary education. These children mostly include children who

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  271

belong to the marginalized section. The National Council of Educational Research and Training’s (NCERT) National Achievement Survey, 2017, indicates that half (about 50 million) of primary school students are not achieving proper education levels. As per a report from the World Bank (2020), 6,545,825 primary-age children are out of school. The research was carried out by Dvivedi (2011) on the proficiency of child labourers of Varanasi, studying in the National Labour Project (NCLP) schools, and it was found that despite all the steps taken by the government in the mainstreaming of these children, the performance was not satisfactory. A large number of students studying in the class fifth were not able to read, write or do simple mathematical calculations. A similar finding was obtained in a study done by UNESCO (2001) on the education of street-working children in India.

Challenges Sadly, the world’s largest population of child labour is found in India. In urban areas, children are mainly used as domestic workers, blue-­collar workers, and workers in cottages and small-scale factories and shops (Odey and Sambe, 2018). A notification by the Labour Ministry has made the employment of children in dhabas, tea shops, and restaurants a “hazardous” occupation along with domestic work of children, but still, a large number of child labour can be found in these places. Often, the working condition of their workplace is pathetic. They are forced to work without food, and for their labour, a very low salary is paid. The condition of these children is just like slaves. These workers also face physical, verbal, mental, emotional, economic, and sexual maltreatment at their workplace (Gharaibeh and Hoeman, 2003; Guarcello et al., 2004; O’Donnell et al., 2005; Beegle et al., 2009; Kana et al., 2010; Yadav et al., 2016; Celik and Baybuga, n.d.). Victims of child labour usually suffer from various physical and mental health issues, such as malnutrition, anemia, anxiety, depression, and sometimes phobia also (Ibrahim et al., 2019; Jayawardana et al., 2022). The mental health issues push them towards negative habits such as smoking, alcohol, and other substance use. The initial environment of abuse also triggers a lifetime of low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. Psychological and emotional conditions such as anger, depression, dissociative disorder, nightmares, panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder have also been observed in children who grew up in abusive situations (Bendall et al., 2008; Norman et al., 2012; Teicher and Samson, 2013; Franke, 2014; Aransiola and Justus, 2018; Ibrahim et al., 2019; Muniz et al., 2019). We can imagine the maiming of the Indian economy when the generation of child labourers will join the formal force; a generation of contributors to the economy which is not literate/educated, not skilled, and has lost its potential talent. A generation that can do only manual and unskilled labour

272  Sweta Dvivedi

such as sweeping, cleaning, farming, carrying goods, and working with hazardous chemicals. A large population of the country should be in schools, but it is far from schools. There are many reasons for it. Some reasons are very visible and some reasons are invisible. Despite the amount of research conducted in this area and efforts taken for enrolment and retention of children, still today, the reasons have not been completely removed. Child labour is one of the reasons why children are away from school, or it also happens that children are not in school, and hence they are in child labour. There are multiple reasons for keeping away from education.

Lack of Access to Schools The foremost reason for non-enrolment is the non-availability of schools in the locality of children. Other reasons are social barriers that prevent girls from going to school, fear of violence, the distance from schools, and discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, race, gender, religion disability, socio-economic status, etc.

Affordability Direct costs like the inability to bear school fees and other fees of school, indirect costs such as school uniforms, textbooks, stationery, transportation, etc., and opportunity costs like loss of income when a child is enrolled in school are other reasons for not attending the school.

Quality of Education Insufficient and inadequate physical resources such as lack of drinking water and sanitation facilities; lack of material and support system; lack of teacher training, aids, and other learning materials, inadequate working conditions for teachers like short-term contracts, excessive workload, low salary; and lack of quality education, which in turn leads to unemployment.

Relevance School curriculum that is not according to local requirements and aspirations, and fails to prepare the children for their future are some of the challenges. The aforementioned problems are general problems that can be faced by any school-going child, but there are some specific issues related to the education of child labourers. Schools have a fixed time, and sometimes the working hours of child labourers are also almost the same, which can cause problems for children to go to school. It has also been seen that enrolled children don’t participate in school activities due to work. Children who are

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  273

engaged in agricultural activities are unable to attend school at the time of sowing and harvesting of crops, or if the child is busy with domestic work, s/he will not be able to participate in the activities of the school and also not able to complete the homework given by the school, which affects their performance and reduces their confidence. Compared to other children, poor academic performance, neglect by teachers, and punishment lead them to drop out of school (Rathod and Koli, 2015). Child labourers can be tired, hungry, and sick during class time, which can make it difficult for them to concentrate in the classroom. At times, children’s participation in labour such as bonded labour can completely prevent them from participating in education. Child labourers can also be victims of discrimination from their teachers as well as fellow students. There is a high apprehension that teachers and other students behave in a discriminatory manner. Some of the worst forms of child labour include children being involved in prostitution, crime, beggars, and children participating in these activities can be expelled from school as such work is not socially accepted. The status of women is lower in comparison to men in society, in such a situation, girl child labourers face more problems related to schooling than boys.

Innovative Practices in the Education of Child Labourers The government has taken several steps to eliminate child labour and link these children with education. As a result of the efforts of the government, there was a continuous drop in the number of child labour, but complete eradication could not be done despite all of the government’s efforts. The influx of COVID-19 damaged this effort, and as per recent data, a rapid jump is there in the number of child labourers after COVID-19. Some steps which have really brought some change in child labour are as follows: National Child Labour Project: The Government of India (GoI) started the National Child Labour Project Scheme in the year 1988 on the basis of the recommendations of the Gurupadaswamy Committee, 12 centres were opened in 12 districts of the country for the rehabilitation of working children. This scheme is the flagship scheme of the GoI which adopts a sequential approach for the rehabilitation of children who are involved in hazardous tasks and processes. The project surveys child labourers involved in hazardous works and processes. After this, efforts are made to mainstream the identified children by connecting them to formal schooling. These schemes are mainly run by the government with the help of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Under this project, special schools and rehabilitation centres, informal education/bridge courses, vocational training, midday meal, stipends (Rs.150/month), and a medical facility are included. Under this project, a total of 6,000 special schools are currently running in different parts of the country, and so far, around 10 lakh children

274  Sweta Dvivedi

have been mainstreamed into the formal education system under this scheme. Right to Education Act, 2009 (RTE): The right to education follows the principle that education is a human right, not a privilege. The right to education says that the educational right is legally guaranteed for all without any discrimination, and it is the obligation of the states to protect, respect, and fulfil the educational right of all children. The 86th Amendment Act (2002), inserted in Article 21A, directs to provide free and compulsory education to all children from the age of 6 to 14 years radically. The vision of this act is very holistic and tries to include and address every section of society and the economically weaker section to which child labour mainly belongs. The proper implementation of all the provisions of RTE can solve the maximum issue related to child labour. There are many NGOs working for the welfare and education of child labour globally, such as Global March Against Child Labour, Love 146, Stop Child Labour Coalition, Save the Children Ace, International Invitation to End Child Labour, Centre for Child Rights, the ECLT Foundation, and World Vision. There are many such NGOs in India too, whose role is playing an important role in freeing child labourers and connecting them with education such as Salaam Balak Trust, Child Rights and You (CRY), Uday Foundations, Kailash Satyarthi Children’s Foundation, SOS Children’s Village, World Vision India, Save the Children India, Delhi Council for Child Welfare, and Children India Foundation. Child labourers can be seen in every locality, and NGOs are defined as such organizations that work at the grass-root level. Here NGOs can play a pivotal role in solving this problem. Various research has also established the significant role of NGOs in eradicating child labour. NGOs can help in a big way in child welfare and child development. For example, child protection programmes can be run by NGOs as well as help in spreading awareness about child labour. RTE is an important step for the government to connect all children with education. There are some sections of RTE that directly address the disadvantaged group of society. In such a situation, these NGOs can cooperate in the complete implementation of RTE. Apart from this, these NGOs can help in implementing another important project of the GoI, such as the NCLP. The NCLP programme is implemented with the support of local NGOs, so the role of the NGOs becomes even more important.

Prospects in the Education of Specific Groups India has been trying to achieve a 100% enrolment rate for the last many years, but despite the universalization of education and inclusion of education under fundamental rights, a 100% enrolment rate could not be obtained. It has been found in various reports that the participation of

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  275

children in labour reduces the enrolment ratio. Even after children are enrolled in school, their participation in seasonal work affects their attendance. For example, children who are engaged in agricultural work, are absent from school at the time of sowing or harvesting. In some situations, parents or guardians enrol children for uniforms, books, and scholarships only. These children do not attend school. Statistics show that still, a large section is out of school. Some are out because of involvement in labour, whereas some are outside and consequently engaged in labour. Most of the child labourers belong to the economically and socially disadvantaged class. Almost all the studies have cited poverty as the main reason that snatches childhood from these children and pushes them towards forced labour. The families of child labourers are struggling with poverty, and earning a livelihood becomes more important than education. At this point, when the earnings of the children per day/month are more than the scholarship amount, these children leave school and return to labour. Therefore, by taking some far-reaching steps, the government should try to remove poverty from the country. Also, for immediate management, the available facilities in the schools should be increased for the child labourers who are being mainstreamed. Sometimes parents enrolled their children just out of greed for scholarships or other facilities, but these children mostly do not come to school. In such a situation, it is the responsibility of the teachers and school administration to intervene in this problem. As mentioned earlier, children’s involvement in seasonal activities like agriculture affects their reading and learning at a particular time. In such a situation, some special steps should be taken by the government and teachers. It has been observed that the lack of facilities in rural areas makes rural working children some of the most disadvantaged (ILO, 2011). The special step taken by the government for rural areas will solve the problems of children to an extent. Like children in rural areas, girls are comparatively more disadvantaged than boys. Girls have to bear the burden of work outside over and above inside the home, due to which they get very little time to study and school. For children who manage education with work, their academic performance is often affected. Therefore, the children involved in any type of work which is unavoidable should get some extra assistance to evade any kind of educational loss.

Recommendations Over the last few decades, there was a progressive decrease in the number of child labour, and there was speculation that child labour would be completely eradicated in the next few years. But the influx of COVID-19 raised the concern of international agencies and the government because after COVID-19 there was a sharp increase in child labour globally.

276  Sweta Dvivedi

There are many reasons for the increase; for instance, loss of jobs of elders of the household, migration, lack of means of livelihood, schools being closed for a long time, and online transfer of classes. Due to the total lockdown, many children had to enter child labour again, while many children were engaged in child labour for the first time due to family circumstances. Due to COVID-19, the economy of the whole world has been affected, and the situation in developing and underdeveloped countries has become even more deplorable. In this instance, international organizations and governments, all that work in the interest of the child, need to review the programmes launched in their past, as well as to expand some new policies, laws, and efforts. The minimum age for child labour has been fixed by the ILO and the GoI. But even then, the participation of children in work is not being controlled, and on top of this, children’s participation in risky activities continues. Thus, there is a need for governments to amend the laws related to child labour, over and above to amend the related policies. For example, NCLP is a successful programme to some extent in achieving its objectives, but it cannot be called completely successful. Due to corruption and lack of monitoring and inspection, it’s not succeeding in achieving all its objectives (Dvivedi, 2011). Therefore, proper monitoring and supervision are required for all such types of programmes which are being run by the government and other agencies. Aside from this, in such industries or businesses where children’s participation is high, a regular visit by officials is required. Article 12 (1)(C) related to the right to education is largely related to linking child labour with education, but the data shows that it is not being fully implemented. Insufficient government efforts and arbitrariness of private schools are responsible for this failure. The government should take initiative to implement this section in private schools properly and solve the ongoing problems faced by the school, management, teachers, students, and parents. NGOs can play a vital role by monitoring the programmes related to child labour, advocacy, imparting vocational and skill training, keeping a close watch on the participation of children and juveniles in labour, and conducting research and capacity building. NGOs can work as a support system for the government to solve the issue of child labour. An enormous number of children are engaged in household chores and working in their homes. Apart from this, maximum participation of child labour is seen in agricultural work, which is difficult to inspect; therefore, it is necessary to make people aware. Parents who hinder the development of their children for their quick gains need to be made aware and punished, if required. For the abolition of child labour, it is essential to know the real age of any person before appointing him/her to any work. Every person in society needs to know the definition of child labour, maximum working hours for children, hazardous tasks in which children cannot be engaged, and legal consequences in case of violation of the laws. Children of school-going age should never be posted anywhere, and in case of

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  277

occurrence, this should be reported immediately. The pencil scheme run by the government is related to the rehabilitation of child labourers, but the general public is not aware of it, and it needs to be made more comprehensive by improving it after COVID-19.

Conclusion There are many grounds for stratification in society. One of the mainstays is the availability of economic resources. The availability of economic resources has created two classes in society: the ones who have resources and the others who are devoid of these resources. The division on an economic basis has created two classes in society. First, the class which is economically prosperous keeps all the facilities within its reach, and secondly, the class which is deprived of living or other similar necessities due to economic poverty. Education is also one of these needs from which a large section is still deprived. Economic deprivation forces school-aged children to work in farms, factories, shops, or other homes. A huge population of India is away from school and education and engaged in those works which hinder development. Child labour is like a termite which not only affects the physical, mental, social, emotional, and economic development of the child but also hampers the social and national development. An educated and skilled person does not only work for his progress but also contributes to the development of the nation. We see those nationals where levels of literacy and education are high when they are also at a high level in terms of development. To ensure the progress of individuals, society, and nations, it is necessary to uproot this termite from the root. For the progress of the nation, it is necessary to eradicate this termite.

References Aransiola, T. J. and Justus, M. (2018). Child Labor Hazard on Mental Health: Evidence from Brazil. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 21(2), 49–58. Beegle, K., Dehejia, R., and Gatti, R. (2009). Why Should We Care about Child Labor? The Education, Labor Market, and Health Consequences of Child Labor. The Journal of Human Resources, 44(4), 871–89. Bendall, S., Jackson, H. J., Hulbert, C. A., and McGorry, P. D. (2008). Childhood Trauma and Psychotic Disorders: A Systematic, Critical Review of the Evidence. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(3), 568–79. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbm121. Celik, S.S. and Baybuga, M.S. (n.d.). Verbal, Physical, and Sexual Abuse among Children Working on the Street. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26(4), 14–22. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.600.361&rep=rep1&type=pdf Chandrasegaran, K. (1996). Child Labour in India. Doctoral dissertation, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin, India. Retrieved from https://dyuthi. cusat.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/purl/3144/Dyuthi-T1118.pdf?sequence=1

278  Sweta Dvivedi Dvivedi, S. (2011). An Evaluation of Educational Programs Run by NGOs for Special Needs Children. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Banaras Hindu University. Franke, H. A. (2014). Toxic Stress: Effects, Prevention and Treatment. Children, 1(3), 390–402. Gharaibeh, M. and Hoeman, S. (2003). Health Hazards and Risks for Abuse among Child Labor in Jordan. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 18(2), 140–47. https://doi.org/10.1053/jpdn.2003.31 Guarcello, L., Lyon, S., Rosati, F., et al. (2004). Cited in the Long Shadow of Child Labour on Adolescent Mental Health: A Quantile Approach. Empirical Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-022-02241-5 Ibrahim, A., Abdalla, S. M., Jafer, M., Abdelgadir, J., and Vries, N. (2019). Child Labor and Health: A Systematic Literature Review of the Impacts of Child Labor on Child’s Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Journal of Public Health(Oxf), 41(1), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116797 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. (1966). Retrieved from https:// www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/ccpr.pdf International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. (1967). Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/doc/treaties/1976/01/19760103%2009-57%20pm/ ch_iv_03.pdf International Labour Organization. (1999). C182 – Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182). Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/ en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C182 International Labour Organization. (2002). International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.ch/public/ english/standards/ipec/index.htm International Labour Organization (2011). Eliminating Child Labour in Rural Areas through Decent Work. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_165305.pdf Jayawardana, D., Baryshnikova, N.V., and Cheng, T.C. (2022). The Long Shadow of Child Labour on Adolescent Mental Health: A Quantile Approach. Empirical Economics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-022-02241-5 Kana, M., Phoumin, H., and Seiichi, F. (2010). Does Child Labour Have a Negative Impact on Child Education and Health? A Case Study in Rural Cambodia. Oxford Development Studies, 38(3), 357–82. Kautilya. (1992). The Arthashastra. (L. N. Rangarajan, Trans). New Delhi: Penguin Books. Mendelievich, E. (1979). Children at Work. International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva. Minimum Age Convention. (1973). (No. 138). Retrieved from https://www.ohchr. org/sites/default/files/ageconvention.pdf Ministry of Women and Child Development. (2013). National Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Curriculum Framework (2013). Retrieved from https:// wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/national_ecce_curr_framework_final_03022014 %20%282%29.pdf Muniz, C. N., Fox, B., Miley, L. N., Delisi, M., and Birnbaum, A. (2019). The Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Internalizing Versus Externalizing Outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(4), 568–89. Retrieved from https:// doi.org/10.1177/0093854819826213

Making Privileged the Underprivileged  279 Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R. Butchart, A., … Scott, J. (2012). The Long-Term Health Consequences of Child Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and NEGLECT: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11), e1001349. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349. O’Donnell, O., Van Rosati, F. C., and Doorslaer, E. (2005). Health Effects of Child Work: Evidence from Rural Vietnam. Journal of Population Economics, 18(3), 437–67. Odey, S. A. and Sambe, N. (2018). Analysis of Child Labour Practices in Urban and Rural communities in Cross River State, Nigeria. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 5(3), 107–21. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.53.4240 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography. (2000). Retrieved from https://www. ohchr.org/sites/default/files/crc-sale.pdf Quattri, M. and Watkins, K. (2016). Child Labour and Education: A Survey of Slum Settlements in Dhaka. World Development Perspectives, 13(C), 50–66. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2019.02.005 Rahikainen, M. (2004). Centuries of Child Labour. Aldershot: Ashgate. Rathod, G. R. and Koli, V. L. (2015). Child Labour and School Dropout. Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(17), 3199–207. Retrieved from http://www.srjis.com/pages/pdfFiles/146710341437.%20Dr.%20G.R.%20 Rathod_Mr.%20V.L.%20Koli.pdf Singh, S. K. (2018). Child Labour in India: A Historical Perspective. International Journal of Development Research, 8(1), 18456–58. Retrieved from https://www. journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/11890.pdf Teicher, M. H. and Samson, J. A. (2013). Childhood Maltreatment and Psycho­ pathology: A Case for Ecophenotypic Variants as Clinically and Neuro­biologically Distinct Subtypes. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(10), 1114–33. https:// doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12070957 The World Bank. (2020). Children out of School, Primary (Number). Retrieved from https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/se-prm-uner/?view=bar UNESCO, New Delhi. (2001). Education for Street and Working Children in India. New Delhi: UNESCO. United Nations Convention on Rights of Child. (1989). Retrieved from https:// www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/crc.pdf Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). Retrieved from https://www. un.org/en/udhrbook/pdf/udhr_booklet_en_web.pdf Yadav, S., Srivastava, M., Kumar, A., and Srivastava, M.(2016). A Study of Child Labourers and Their Knowledge Regarding Child Abuse. International Research Journal of Human Resources and Social Sciences, 3(5), 9–18. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307630848_A_STUDY_OF_CHILD_ LABOURERS_AND_THEIR_KNOWLEDGE_REGARDING_CHILD_ABUSE/ link/57cda3ec08ae83b37460df34/download

Index

Page numbers in bold refer to tables. Aarohan 38 Abolition of Forced Labour 227 Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children (ATSEC) 233 ADA see Americans with Disabilities Act Aditya Birla Center 244 Age, Gender, and Diversity (AGD) policy 263 Age of Antiquity 155 Aide et Action India 190 Akshaya Patra Foundation 202 Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Speech and Hearing Disabilities (AYJNISHD) 6, 102–104 All India Institute of Medical Sciences (2019) 181 All India Institute of Speech and Hearing (AIISH) 104 All India Survey on Higher Education Reports (AISHE) 86 Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) 149, 151 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 130 Amnesty International 7, 38 anabolic steroids 174 Angel House 244 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 23 Anyay Rahit Zindagi 232 Apne Aap 233 Aradhanarishwar 30 Aravani 30–31 Arthashastra 17, 266

Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India 105 Asha Daan 244 Ashram School program 63 Ashraya Initiative for Children 205 Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase or Fitting of Aids or Appliances (ADIP) 107 assistive technology 120 Associated Deficits and Disorders 128 Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) 20 Atreyu 16 attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 129–130, 133, 155 auditory processing disorder 128 autism 117, 121–122, 143–144, 150, 155, 158–159 Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University 52–53 Bachpan Bachao Andolan 233 Badhte Kadam scheme 122 Bandopadhyay, Manabi 41 Begum Hazrat Mahal National Scholarship Scheme 89–90 behavioural and learning disorders 155 behavioural genetics 157 behavioural model, of drug/substance abuse behaviour 173 Beijing Conference (1995) 18 Beti Bachao Beti Padhao 7 Bhavabhuti 16 Bhurivasu 16 Bidi and Cigar Workers Act (1966) 269 Block Resource Centres (BRCs) 49

Index 281 Bokova, Irina 17 Bombay Institute for the Deaf and Mute 102 Bonded labour system (Abolition) Act (1976) 227 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 15 CABE see Central Advisory Board of Education Calcutta Deaf and Dumb School 102 cannabinoids 174 Catalysts for Social Action (CSA) 245 Center for Education and Guidance Trust 92 Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) 242, 247 Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) 87, 103, 125, 188 cerebral palsy 117, 122, 141, 143–144, 150, 155, 158–159 Chandragupta Maurya 17 Charter of Children (2001) 199 CHETNA 202 Child and Adolescent Labour Act (1986) 269 Child Care Institutes (CCI) 247 Child-Friendly Cities Initiative 214 Child in Need Institute 204 child labour 10 Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act (1986) 227, 242 Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Amendment Act (2016) 269 Child Labour Committee 266 child migrant 190 children with disabilities (CwDs) 4, 145, 158, 162 Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (CwIDD) 113 children with multiple disabilities (CwMDs) 4, 141, 145 children with special needs (CwSNs) 103–104, 108, 156–158, 160–162 Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act 130 child trafficking 226–229; see also human trafficking Classes Commission 72–73 Cluster Resource Centres (CRCs) 49 commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) 226

Community and Progress (CAP) Foundation 91 Community Learning Centres 205 Composite Regional Centres 6 conductive hearing loss 101 Constitutional Amendment Bill 73 Constitutional Provisions 71–72 Constitution of India 3, 39, 48, 60, 72, 214, 268 Convention against Discrimination in Education (CADE) Convention 18 Convention on the Child’s Rights (1989) 227 Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) 18 cooperative learning 159–160 Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) 133 Council for Tibetan Education 256 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013) 228 Criminal Tribes Act (1875) 31–32 Dakar Framework for action (2000) 2, 18, 207, 242, 268 Deaf-blindness 141–142, 146–147 decibel (dB) 101 Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons (1971) 115 Defence for Children International (DCI) 198 Delhi Council for Child Welfare 244 Department of Disability Studies 108 depressants/club drugs 174 Development Focuses 233 Dhanlakshmi Scheme 19 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) 127, 129, 132 Disease model, of drug/substance abuse behaviour 173 Disha scheme 122, 158 District Information System for Education (DISE) 49 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) 49, 102, 194 District Rehabilitation Centres 6, 159 Diya Ghar 8, 190, 258 downward filtration theory 48 Dream Girl Foundation 22 drug-addicted children 171–172 drugs/substance abuse 171–173

282 Index dyscalculia 128 dysgraphia 128 dyslexia 128–129 educational integration 261 Education Commission (1964-66) 87, 102 Education for All (EFA) 2, 103 Education for All Handicapped Children Act 130 Education International 20 Education of the Handicapped Act of 1970 130 eighth five-year plan (1992-97) 61, 187 86th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002) 158, 187 Ektara 7, 22 eleventh five-year plan (2007-12) 62, 75, 188 Equality Forum 38–39 Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (1993) 157 ‘Equitable and Inclusive Learning for All’ 220 e-Saadhya 121 Eunuch 30 eVidyaloak 76 executive functioning deficits 129 Factories Act (1948) 268 fifth five-year plan (1974-78) 61 Fifth Schedule of the Constitution 60 first five-year plan (1951-56) 60, 199 First Post Staff report (2018) 22 Foreigners Act (1946) 255 Fortune 500 Project 39 fourth five-year plan (1969-74) 61, 199 Futures of Education 3 Gargi 15 Garima Grih 36 Gender Inclusion Fund 35 gender inequality 15, 23 genotype-first approach 156 Global Conference for Children 242 Global Congress on Education 242 Global Education Monitoring Report 2019 (GEM) 194 Global Gender Gap Report 22–23 Global Partnership for Education (GPE) 20 Global Trends Report 252

Good Shephard Agricultural Mission 244 Government of India (GoI) 19–20, 73, 75, 113, 122, 187, 231, 273 Grant-in-Aid Program 90 Gross Attendance Ratio (GAR), of Muslims 84 Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) 49 Group Home for Adults (Gharaunda) scheme 122, 144, 149 Guardians and Wards Act (1890) 242 guardianship program 143 Guru Swayam Sevi Sansthan 233 Gyan Prabha scheme 122, 158 hallucinogens 174 hard of hearing 101 health-related care 144 hearing loss 101, 106, 108–110, 141 Hijra 30–31 Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Law 242 Hole in the Wall Project 205 holistic model, refugee children with 261–262 Humsafar Trust (1994) 7, 38 ILO Convention No. 182 (1999) 199 Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (1995) 227 Impulse 233 Incheon Declaration 34 Inclusive and Equitable Education: Learning for All 34 Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) 103 Indian Association of Assisted Reproduction 243 Indian educational systems 9 Indian Leadership Forum Against Trafficking (ILFAT) 232 Indian Penal Code (IPC) 268 Individual Education Plans (IEPs) 150–151 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 115, 130–131, 142, 145 Infrastructure Development of Minority Institutes (IDMI) 7, 88 inhalants 174 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) 88, 194 Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS) 78, 199

Index 283 Integrated Education of Disabled Children (IEDC) 103, 118, 157 intellectual disability (ID) 156 Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities 131 International Classification of Disease (ICD-11) 155 “International Day of Education” 20 International Labor Organization (ILO) 3, 199, 227–229, 268, 275–276 International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 227–229 International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA-World) 39 International Rescue Committee (IRC) 258 Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment Conditions) Act (1979) 227 iPartner India 233 Islamic Development Bank 93 Jogappa 30 Jogtas 30 Jomtien Declaration (1990) 2 Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act 5, 199, 227, 269 Kasturba Balika Vidyalaya 5, 19 KC Mahindra Education Trust 202 Khoya-Paya 229 Kids Play 121 Kinnar 30 Kothi 30 K. Prithika Yashini 41 LADLI 204 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual (LGBTQIA) 29 LGBTQ community 32–33 LGBT Vote 39 Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service (LIRS) 258 Mahaprajapati Gotami 17 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) 78, 144, 149 Mahila Samakhya 19 Mahima Children’s Home 244 Maitreyi 15

Majnu Ka Tila 257 Make A Difference (MAD) 76, 244 Malatimadhava 16 Manabi Bandopadhyay 41 Mandal Commission 73–74 Manusmriti 16 marginalization 1–2, 36, 39, 47–48 Marriage Recognition 39 Matha B. Manjamma Jogathi 40 Matric Scholarship in OBCs Study Courses in India 78 Mattancherry Muslim Orphanage 93 Maulana Azad Education Foundation 91 Maulana Azad National Fellowship (MANF) 89 “Mental, Behavioural or Neurodevelopmental Disorders” 155 mental retardation 155 Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme 89 Migrants of India 193 migration, defined 186 Milaan Foundation 7, 22 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 18, 145–146 Mines Act (1952) 269 Minimum Level of Learning (MLL) 49 Minimum Wages Act (1948) 268 Ministry of Education 218–219 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 177 Ministry of Home Affairs 231 Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD) 77, 84, 86, 90, 102–103 Ministry of Minority Affairs 5, 90 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MSJE) 52, 75, 177 Ministry of Tribal Welfare 60 Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) 177, 229, 232, 242, 270 Mobile Crèches 190 Mobile Learning Centres 205 Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) 61 Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 70 MOVE International 146 multiculturalism 53 multi-optional delivery system 162 multiple disabilities 122, 141–152 multi-sensory approach 161 Muslim Education Trust (MET) 91–92

284 Index Muslim youth, formal education and employment training for 93 My Choice Foundation 233 Nai Udaan Scheme 89 Nalanda Institute report (2002) 134 napunsak 30 National Achievement Survey 271 National Authority for the Elimination of Child Labour (1994) 270 National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation (NBCFDC) 78 National Center for Transgender Equality (NCTE) 39 National Child Labour Project (NCLP) 5, 205, 269, 273–274, 276 National Commission for Backward Classes Act (NCBC) 5, 73 National Commission for Child Rights protection (2006) 199 National Commission for Minorities Act (1992) 81 National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) 90–91 National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) 22, 175, 178, 194, 200, 270 National Commission on Drug-Free Schools report (1990) 182 National Committee on Women’s Education (1958) 20 National Council for Teacher Education 105 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) 6, 36, 102, 108, 141, 158, 271 National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 199–200 National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre 181 National Education Commission 87 National Education Policy 87–88 National Education Policy (2020) 110, 116 National Education Policy (NEP) 219 National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020) 34–35, 191, 193, 195 “National Girl Child Day” 20 National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC) 105

National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (NIEPID) 6, 121 National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities (NIEPMD) 6 National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Visual Disabilities (NIEPVD) 6 National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) 4, 49, 145, 200 National Legal Service Authority (NALSA) 33–35 National Monitoring Committee on Minorities’ Education (NMCME) 91 National Policy for Children (2013) 5, 200 National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006) 158 National Policy on Education (NPE) 3, 102, 114–116, 269 National Portal for Transgender Persons 35–36 National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Education 8 National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) 75–76 National Social Assistance Programme 149 National Standards and Guidelines of Practice 248–249 National Trust Act 116, 122, 143–144, 149, 159 Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) 52 Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) 49 Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) 155 New Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020) 88, 131–132, 137 ninth five-year plan (1997-2002) 61–62, 187, 199 Niramaya (Health Insurance Scheme) scheme 122, 144, 149 Nirbhaya Act 228 NISHTHA 192 Nomadic Groups 58 non-formal education (NFE) 206 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 66–68, 75–76, 78–79, 91–92, 92, 142, 194, 200, 202, 206, 274, 276

Index 285 non-verbal LDs 129 NSSO National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 191 NT Act (1999) 147 Oasis India 233 Odisha Adarsh Vidyalaya Sangathan 52 Open Basic Education (OBE) Program 50 opioids 174 Orphan Child (Provision for Social Security) Bill 5 Orphaned and Vulnerable Children National Plan of Action 247 orphaned children 10 orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) 241–242, 248 Other Backward Classes (OBCs) 5, 69, 72, 74, 76, 83, 242 out-of-school children (OOSC) 189, 192 Padho Pardesh programme 89 Palermo Trafficking Protocol 225 Panchayati Raj Institutions 189 PARAKH 132 Pathbhavan 204 People Who Inject Drugs (PWID) 175 persons with disabilities (PwDs) 114–115, 156, 158 Persons with Disabilities Act 1995 (PwD Act) 102, 109, 116, 131, 144, 157–158 Phule, Jotiba 48 PIED (1987) 102 PLAN 233 Plan International 20–21 Plantation Labour Act (1951) 269 PM CARES For Children Scheme 219, 243, 248 POSCO 5, 222, 237 Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme 89 Prajwala 233 Pratham 7, 76 Prayas foundation 204–205 Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme 89 Prerana scheme 122, 149, 233 prescription medications, drugs 174 ProGres v4 263 Project 1138 39 Project for Integrated Education for the Disabled 162 Project Mala 205

Project Management Information System (PMIS) 49 Protection of children from sexual offences (POCSO) Act 2012 5, 228 Punarjjani browser tool 121–122 Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) 103 Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) 103 Refugee and Asylum (Protection) Bill 255 Refugee Convention 255 Refugee Education (2030) 262 Rehabilitation Act of 1973 130 Rescue Foundation 233 Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009) 104 Right of Education for All Children Education Act (2009) 242 Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016(RPwD Act) 106, 109, 114, 116, 127, 131, 137, 143, 147 Right to Education (RTE) Act 8, 21–22, 34, 65, 77, 187–188, 193, 200, 219, 274 Rig Veda 15, 25, 172 Sachar Committee 83, 95–96 Sahodari Foundation 7, 38 Sahyogi scheme 122 Salamanca Statement (1994) 2, 115 Salam Balak Trust (SBT) 205 Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan 194, 199 Samarth scheme 122 Sambhav scheme 122 SANLAAP 233 Sarangi, S. 182 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) 77, 107–108, 158, 160, 162, 188, 194, 199, 219 Sathyasri Sharmila 41 Satyasodhak Society 48 Save the Children 20–21, 194, 200– 204, 206–207, 215, 274 Scheduled Caste (SC) 3, 6–7, 59, 61, 74, 78, 84, 199 Scheduled Tribes (STs) 3–7, 58, 60–61, 78, 84, 247 Scheme for Providing Education to Madrasas/Minorities (SPEMM) 88

286 Index School Management Committees (SMCs) 188 second five-year plan (1956-61) 61 Self-Help Groups (SHGs) 65 Sense International India 146 sensitization programmes 124–125 SERVE 7 Setu Charitable Trust 191 seventh five-year plan (1985-90) 61 sex trafficking 226 Shakti Vahini 232 Shishu Grih Scheme 242 Shiv-Shakti 30 sixth five-year plan (1980-85) 61 Smile Foundation 76, 202 Snehalaya 244 social exclusion 2 social inclusion 3 social justice, in tribal society 60 social protection programmes 213 social security 143 Social Security Administration 162 Society for Door Step Schools 205 Society for Help Entire Lower & Rural People (HELP) 233 Society of Friends of the Sassoon Hospitals 244 socio-economic disadvantage groups (SEDGs) 3 socioeconomic model, of drug/ substance abuse behaviour 173 Somvasha Hitachintak Samaj 48 SOS Children’s village 190–191, 244 Special Educational Development Program (SEDP) 49 Special Multi-purpose Tribal Blocks (SMPTBs) 61 Special Police Unit for Women and Children, 2002 (SPUWAC) 233 specific learning disabilities (SLDs) State Nodal Agency Centres (SNAC) 159 Status of Disability in India (2000) 101 stimulants 174 street children 9–10 Students with Hearing Impairment (SwHI) 105, 107–108 Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) 175 Sukarya foundation 22 SUPPORT 202 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4–5, 18, 25–26, 34, 115, 145–146, 254 SWEEKRUTI 7

tenth five-year plan (2002-07) 62, 187–188 The Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) 20 The Council for Tibetan Education 256 third five-year plan (1961-66) 61 Tibetan refugee children 256–257 Toward a Drug-Free Generation: A Nation’s Responsibility 180 trafficking, defined 224 Trafficking in Persons Bill 232 transgender education 36, 40 “Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come” (Feinberg) 32 Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act (2019) 35 “Transgender Warriors” (Feinberg) 32 Transgender Welfare Equity and Empowerment Trust Foundation (TWEET) 38 Transplantation of Human Organ Act (1994) 227 Transvestia: The Journal of the American Society for Equality in Dress (Prince) 32 Tribal Sub-plan (TSP) 61 Tribes’ Advisory Councils 60 twelfth five-year plan 144, 188 Ujjawala Scheme 232 UNCRPD 2, 102, 134, 141 UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) 123 UNDP 2 UNFPA 2, 24 UN General Assembly (2005) 18 Unified District Information System for Education (U-DISE) 10 Union of India 33–35 United Nations Committee 206 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) 2, 115, 136, 143, 157 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) 198 United Nations Conventions on Transnational organized Crime (UNCTOC) 227 United Nations Declaration on Human Rights 106 United Nations Economic Social Council for the Asia & Pacific (UNESCAP) 2

Index 287 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 15, 18, 21, 114, 193 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 252, 254, 256, 258 United Nations Human Rights Council 33 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 21, 25, 190, 198, 241, 243, 259 United Nations International Drug Control Program (1999) 177 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 175–176, 225, 228 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) 25 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 18, 114, 226 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 108, 120–121, 125, 161 University Grants Commission (UGC) 77–78, 89 Urdu Universities 93

US Department of Education 180 US Department of Education for Civil Rights 131 Uttar Rama Charita 16 Vatsalya 8, 202, 205 Vihaan (Waste Management Society) 233 Vikaas scheme 122 Vipla Foundation 233 Web Portal on Anti-Human Trafficking (2014) 231–232 Women and Children Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006) 228 World Drug Report 178 World Education Forum (WEF) 34 World Health Organization (2014) 136–137 Yajnavalka 15 Yaarana 7, 38 zero rejection policy 162