Educating Religious Education Teachers: Perspectives of International Knowledge Transfer [1 ed.] 9783737015837, 9783847115830

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Wissenschaft und Lehrerbildung

Band 9

Herausgegeben von Peter Geiss und Roland Ißler

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Jenny Berglund / Bert Roebben / Peter Schreiner / Friedrich Schweitzer (eds.)

Educating Religious Education Teachers Perspectives of International Knowledge Transfer

With 4 figures

V&R unipress Bonn University Press

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Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über https://dnb.de abrufbar. Veröffentlichungen der Bonn University Press erscheinen bei V&R unipress. Gedruckt mit freundlicher Unterstützung des Bonn Global Collaboration Fund. © 2023 Brill | V&R unipress, Robert-Bosch-Breite 10, D-37079 Göttingen, ein Imprint der Brill-Gruppe (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, Niederlande; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Deutschland; Brill Österreich GmbH, Wien, Österreich) Koninklijke Brill NV umfasst die Imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau, V&R unipress und Wageningen Academic. Wo nicht anders angegeben, ist diese Publikation unter der Creative-Commons-Lizenz Namensnennung-Nicht kommerziell-Keine Bearbeitungen 4.0 lizenziert (siehe https://creative commons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) und unter dem DOI 10.14220/9783737015837 abzurufen. Jede Verwertung in anderen als den durch diese Lizenz zugelassenen Fällen bedarf der vorherigen schriftlichen Einwilligung des Verlages. Umschlagabbildung: Fotograf: Bert Roebben Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISSN 2511-5731 ISBN 978-3-7370-1583-7

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Contents

Jenny Berglund / Bert Roebben / Peter Schreiner / Friedrich Schweitzer Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part I – The meaning of international knowledge transfer and RE Peter Schreiner The beat goes on… International knowledge transfer in religious education on the move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Bert Roebben / Maike Maria Domsel / Barbara Niedermann / Sander Vloebergs Colliding worlds in the religious education classroom. Performative teacher education in times of transition . . . . . . . . . . .

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Friedrich Schweitzer The need for an international voice: The meaning of international knowledge transfer and agreed international standards for the future of religious education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part II – Processes of knowledge transfer in RE teacher education Jenny Berglund Moving between different types of RE. Knowledge to be transferred or not? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Athanasios Stogiannidis Interdisciplinary knowledge transfer in RE teacher training curricula: contributions from Dietrich Benner’s “Allgemeine Pädagogik” . . . . . .

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Jasmine Suhner / Thomas Schlag Mapping as a task for international knowledge transfer in religious education (research). An approach from a Swiss perspective . . . . . . . .

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Fredrik Jahnke Religious literacy: how do we recognize it when we see it, and then what…? Arguments for a reformed use of religious literacy in RE research, international knowledge transfer and teacher training programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Part III – International knowledge transfer and comparative perspectives. Teacher education in different countries and denominations Helena Junker / Martin Rothgangel Training religion teachers in Europe: insights from the “Rel-Edu” project and challenges for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Yauheniya Danilovich Ecumenism as the space for international knowledge transfer in religious education teacher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Part IV – Post-colonialism and discrimination – Challenges for teacher education Fahimah Ulfat Decolonizing religious education – a challenge for international knowledge transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Helena Stockinger Discrimination as an international challenge for teacher education in religious education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 List of contributors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

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Jenny Berglund / Bert Roebben / Peter Schreiner / Friedrich Schweitzer

Introduction

International knowledge transfer in religious education is still a fairly new topic. Many scholars in the field have indicated that they consider this discussion of prime importance for the future of both the academic discipline of religious education and the related school subject (RE). This book continues this discussion and specifies it in the direction of teacher education. It is the second volume on international knowledge transfer in religious education. A first book with essays on the topic was published in 2021 (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021). It is based on two international consultations held in Berlin in 2018 and 2019, which marked the beginning of an initiative to strengthen international knowledge transfer in religious education (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2020). Another consultation was held digitally at the University of Bonn on the 25th and 26th of February 2021 (organized by Bert Roebben), which also laid the ground for the present publication. This book brings together several different but interrelated perspectives. Its focus is on teacher education and on how this education could benefit from internationalization. At the same time, it refers to current challenges which especially RE has to face but which also affect the related academic discipline. All of the different contributions in this volume take up both perspectives, but they do so in different ways in correspondence with different national contexts and different backgrounds.

1.

Current situation of teacher education

There is a lack of trained teachers in Europe, at least in many countries. With few exceptions – most notably probably in Finland –, there are not enough young people who choose the teaching profession despite its importance for future generations and societies. We find teachers in all countries of the world and therefore also teacher education. This makes teaching a highly international and (almost) universal profession. At the same time, however, it seems that in many

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places teacher education has been slow to address and further develop the international dimension of teacher professionality. Despite the differences in educational systems, teachers face similar challenges in all the countries. This is not only obvious in Math and Physical Education, but also in RE and regardless of the type of RE in a particular country. International initiatives, for example from the European Union, aim at meeting these challenges. Teacher education in general is becoming more European, and both programs and policies are initiated to remove barriers between different countries. However, in the case of RE it is peculiar that despite similar challenges on the classroom level, international transfer of research about how to meet these challenges is still rather limited (Berglund 2015; Grelle 2006; Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021). The differences we find between RE teacher education in different countries do not only depend on the differences in the structure of the educational systems, in history, politics, etc., but also on the variety of church-state relations. Moreover, the respective country’s religious disposition is also of importance since the dominance of one particular religious tradition often impacts both church-state relations and the educational system itself, even in cases where religious freedom is guaranteed (Schreiner 2002, p. 87). On a supra-national level, we can see that policy documents such as the “Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching About Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools”,1 “Signposts. Policy and practice for teaching about religions and nonreligious world views in intercultural education”2 or the American “Guidelines for Teaching About Religion in K-12 Public Schools in the United States” (2010) include recommendations for teacher education programs. They emphasize the necessity of teachers with academic knowledge about religion and religions. However, there is no agreement on what type of knowledge or what level of knowledge about religion(s) is necessary, and it is obvious that, on an international level, teacher education for RE teachers varies immensely. In Sweden, for example, courses on different religions are included in training programs for teachers who will be teaching about religion from a non-confessional perspective. But in the United States and in France, where teaching about religion is embedded in subjects such as history and geography, teacher education programs generally contain no, or very few, courses on religion. In Germany, there are legal regulations that ensure high standards concerning RE for secondary schools but less so for primary schools. 1 http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154 (accessed February 01, 2023). 2 https://book.coe.int/eur/en/human-rights-education-intercultural-education/6101-signpost s-policy-and-practice-for-teaching-about-religions-and-non-religious-world-views-in-interc ultural-education.html (accessed February 01, 2023).

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Introduction

Schools are, as we all know, powerful socializing agents, representing and reproducing the dominant conceptions of the wider society. This means that RE teachers can become indirect mediators of state policies toward religion through a national curriculum (Skeie 2006). This, of course, does not mean that teachers exert no local and personal influence in the classroom; clearly, through their choice of content and mode of presentation, teachers can either indirectly uphold or indirectly question such policies. In the end, however, a teacher’s influence is highly dependent upon both her or his knowledge of religion and her or his didactical competence. In a situation where the discussion about religion is increasingly focusing on contradictions, conflicts, and contrasting value systems, the need for well-educated RE teachers is of utter concern. Since teachers meet similar challenges, international knowledge transfer in religious education could/should be of great value. In addition to this, international knowledge transfer must also be viewed in terms of the transitional situation of RE in many countries.

2.

RE in times of transition

The times we live in can be described as a period of crisis and transition. Crisis because certainty is replaced by uncertainty, safe spaces have become unsafe, and predictions of the future are vague and not very convincing. Consequently, RE must be in transition as well, due to the crises in different areas and on different levels. RE as the school subject and religious education as the related academic discipline – both are central to the present book – are greatly influenced by the dynamics and consequences of this situation. The crisis concerns the content of RE, e. g. by dealing with existential questions of life and death, of peaceful living together, of justice and of initiatives concerning environmental issues. The crisis situation also affects the place and recognition of RE as a school subject in the curriculum and in general at school. RE concerns children and young people. Like all school subjects, RE serves to open a specific content domain, which initially can simply be labelled ‘religion’ in connection with its scientific representation in theology and/or other religionrelated academic disciplines. There is broad consensus concerning this domain although there is a tendency in some countries to widen the subject’s scope by adding “worldviews” or by replacing RE by “worldview education” (cf. O’Grady 2022). A central perspective of RE is that it should relate to pupils’ life orientations and ways of believing. It supports them in developing their own self-understanding, be it in religious terms or not, and in gaining an orientation in the

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religious and worldview diversity of the present (cf. Schweitzer 2020, p. 15). From a pedagogical point of view, the social reference is also of particular importance today. In this respect, RE is expected to contribute to the ability of living and living together in an increasingly multi-religious society. It should also be mentioned that RE – at least in some countries – encompasses more than teaching religion in the classroom. In times of crisis, pastoral care in schools takes on a special significance, and RE teachers are often expected to act as counsellors as well. Before taking a closer look at some of the current crises and connecting them to the theme of the book, we want to introduce the concept of a polycrisis (Edgar Morin, cf. Janzwood & Homer-Dixon 2022). The concept includes the awareness that different types of crisis do not simply exist side by side but influence each other mutually. A polycrisis can be defined as “a nested set of globally interactive socio-economic, ecological and cultural-institutional crises that defy reduction to a single cause” (Mark Swilling, quoted in Janzwood & Homer-Dixon 2022, p. 2). Crises can reinforce each other. Concerning the current crises, their consequences for school life and for the different school subjects are in some cases more obvious than in others. Global health crisis, destruction of the natural environment and climate crisis, draught and hunger as a consequence of the climate crisis, ongoing migration, increasing racism and populism, war in the Ukraine followed by a global food and energy crisis: these are examples contributing to the global polycrisis we are facing at this time. Some of the crises are also mentioned in different articles of the book.3 How do these crises then influence RE and teacher education? The global COVID-19 pandemic since 2020 has led to a lockdown of schools and classroom teaching in many places around the world. In some of the countries, schools tended to limit their work to so-called core subjects at the expense e. g. of RE. Tools and methods of distance learning and hybrid teaching methods were quickly introduced, and so were protection concepts such as mobile air filters or a reduction of the size of the classes. Empirical data on the impact on teaching and learning identified challenges but also opportunities (UNESCO & IEA 2022).4 Distance learning in public schools in times of lockdown did not reach a significant part of the pupils who did not have the digital equipment and support 3 Also the academic community of ISREV (International Seminar on Religious Education and Values) is aware of this situation and has dedicated its conference in 2023 to the theme “Plagues and pandemics of our time: Challenges for religious, values and worldview education”, as well as the EFTRE (European Forum for Teachers of Religious Education) with its 2023 conference theme “Bridges over Troubled Waters – RE in changing times”. 4 The study aimed to provide a systemic, multi-perspective, and comparative picture of the situation at the secondary education level (grade eight) in 11 countries, spanning Africa, Asia, Arab region, Europe, and Latin America.

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from their social and cultural context. “Of note, a significant number of students reported they had, at least sometimes, no one at all available who could help them with their schoolwork. This applied to a quarter, up to half of the students in all participating countries.” (UNESCO & IEA 2022, p. 122) In many cases, the pandemic has had negative effects on academic religious education and on the practice of RE in school (cf. Schweitzer in this volume). At the same time, one could argue that the need for a subject like RE has become more obvious, because religious and ethical questions clearly gained in importance vis-à-vis the experience of the crisis. However, again in many places, RE did not seem to be sufficiently prepared for the new situation. For example, in Germany the need for digitalization in teaching and learning in RE and for digital competence as part of teacher education has not been anticipated sufficiently so far (cf. EKD 2022). Another element of the current situation that affects RE is the decrease of religious affiliation, especially concerning the Christian churches (Pollack & Rosta 2022). Moreover, some analysts have raised questions about a post-pandemic religion (Campbell & Shepherd 2021). A connection between these two tendencies is that the digital innovations from the time of national quarantine are expected to continue after the crisis, just in a different way, which leads to new questions. How to understand and treat interactions between digital media and religious communities? Religious groups and houses of worship have struggled with the reality of wearing masks, quarantine and social distancing. Even in 2023, the old normal is still a distant memory. An opportunity that has grown out of the pandemic situation is that churches, mosques, temples and museums have developed digital possibilities for study visits. This enables pupils in different parts of countries, not only those living in the large cities, to visit religiously diverse places. Faced with different types of crisis, religious education is undergoing a time of transition. The trend and necessity of transition concerning RE includes its aims and purposes, the shape and place in the specific national or regional school curricula, the image and support in society and also issues of how RE is organized. This includes increasing trends of marginalization of RE (cf. Schweitzer and Schreiner in this volume), a changing perception of religion (cf. Suhner & Schlag in this volume), and immediate consequences for teaching and learning in the classroom, where RE teachers find themselves between different worlds and are confronted with the need to move from collision to collaboration (cf. Roebben et al. in this volume). The mentioned developments include challenges for every approach to religious education aiming at the promotion of peace, justice, reconciliation and the preservation of the environment. In this situation, the need for an international voice and internationally agreed standards in religious education is presented (cf. Schweitzer in this volume). The

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overall purpose of the project on international knowledge transfer in RE is to develop academic religious education as an internationally oriented discipline in a more systematic and valuable way than it is the case now.

3.

Challenges to international knowledge transfer in teacher education

How do the papers of this volume deal with the challenges of international knowledge transfer, given the polycrisis and the resulting transitions in the lives of children and young people mentioned above? Responding to religious and worldview diversity in a peaceful and constructive way is one of the most mentioned and urgent concerns. For instance, countering religious illiteracy (Jahnke) and discrimination of minorities (Stockinger) on the one hand and creating safe and brave spaces for inter-worldview dialogue on the other hand (Suhner & Schlag, Danilovich and Ulfat) are two sides of a coin. More knowledge should be accumulated and exchanged through transnational research in order to improve the interaction of both perspectives in the classroom. Crossing national boundaries in order to investigate “how different insights concerning a certain task or problem […] fit together” (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021, p. 271) or do not fit together should therefore be intensified. Local mapping based on a commonly agreed “meaningful classification of questions, teaching models, and research projects” (Suhner & Schlag) is a prerequisite. Bringing maps together in a European comparison is a second step (see the cartography of the REL-EDU project, Junker & Rothgangel). Intensifying the research through further transnational initiatives is a third one. However, “outcomes need interpretation” (Schreiner, following Siebren Miedema). It is fair to say that in the process of actually sharing and interpreting knowledge as “communicative action” (Habermas), a common working language and even a deep “commensurability” (Schweitzer) can emerge and can be consolidated. The provisional and open character of the conversation on knowledge transfer has led to new definitions of knowledge in the different papers: “the other knowledge” (Berglund), spontaneous “moving knowledge” through migration (Danilovich), “professional knowledge” (Suhner & Schlag), “orientative knowledge” based on a more comprehensive understanding of human action (Stogiannidis), “experiential knowledge” of reflective practitioners (Schreiner), “performative knowledge” gathered in experimental teacher education designs (Roebben et. al.), and last but not least “knowledge about religion that has the chance to rise above colonial blind spots” (Ulfat). There is still a lot of work that needs to be done and considered.

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Introduction

Sometimes, however, the solution is just around the corner. We tend to forget the possibilities that are waiting nearby to be discovered. Teacher students in Sweden were asked for the first time to reflect “upon the relation between the different types of RE that they had experienced in light of their future teacher career” (Berglund). Crossing boundaries can be done by lowering thresholds, by inviting teacher students to be part of the transfer and by bringing them physically or digitally in contact with fellow-students and researchers in other countries, by making them co-researchers and co-inventors of new methodologies for research (cf. Schreiner et. al. 2018). The pace of a rapidly changing world is not unfamiliar to them. They can inspire us.

4.

The breakdown of the book and the different contributions

The papers of this volume are ordered in four sections: (1) The Meaning of International Knowledge Transfer and RE; (2) Processes of Knowledge Transfer in RE Teacher Education; (3) International Knowledge Transfer and Comparative Perspectives: Teacher Education in Different Countries and Denominations; (4) Post-Colonialism and Discrimination – Challenges for Teacher Education. In the first section on the meaning of international knowledge transfer for RE, Peter Schreiner in his chapter provides a bridging function between the project on international knowledge transfer in religious education so far and the initiative to zoom into the perspective of teacher education as a special focus of the project. Examples, case studies and international handbooks are presented and analyzed concerning supporting aspects and impulses for developing international knowledge transfer in religious education. Bert Roebben, Maike Domsel, Barbara Niedermann and Sander Vloebergs invoke the internationally widespread concept of “activity systems” as an interpretive key to describe the clash between the world of RE and the lifeworld of young people in the classroom. In the midst of the hermeneutic storm raging between these worlds, there stands the teacher as interpreter, mediator and knowledge provider. He or she acts as “wounded healer”, who not only perceives this friction, but can also embody it performatively, so that knowledge can be expanded from both sides. Making the marginalization of RE his starting point, Friedrich Schweitzer deplores that academic religious education has not been able to become a public international voice concerning such tendencies which have negative effects on its field of study and expertise as well as on the practice of RE. One important reason for this lack of influence is attributed to the failure of the discipline of religious education to focus more explicitly on what could be called agreed international

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standards for RE. In response to this situation, the author suggests a number of different possibilities which could be more promising in terms of international cooperation and agreement. The second section on processes of knowledge transfer in RE teacher education starts with the contribution of Jenny Berglund. She has interviewed RE teacher students who have experienced both mainstream Swedish RE and RE in another country – with the aim of understanding the relation between contextually bound knowledge production and potential international knowledge transfer. She shows that although there are clear signs of academic knowledge in the stories of the students, much knowledge is rather experiential. In terms of international knowledge transfer, it were those students having experienced another type of RE throughout their primary education or longer, who most obviously were able to engage with other types of RE knowledge, either as an additional knowledge component or as a complement. In his study, Athanasios Stogiannidis interprets basic elements of the educational theory developed by the German philosopher of education Dietrich Benner and highlights some of its aspects which may be relevant for RE teacher education nowadays. The concept of praxis, related to the school in the public sphere and to everyday experiences in the classroom, its theoretical reflection in teacher education and its impact on RE is discussed. The exchange on pedagogical theory turns out to be a helpful tool in international knowledge transfer. The article of Jasmine Suhner and Thomas Schlag relates challenges and tasks regarding (international) knowledge transfer in the local and supranational spheres to the diverse stakeholders regarding religion-related school subjects in Switzerland. The authors promote an approach which allows for a meaningful classification of questions, teaching models, and research projects. The central focus is the attempt for a first mapping of an (inter-)religious education model as an example for increased interdisciplinarity of religion-related and theological work in theory and in practice. In his article, Fredrik Jahnke discusses various meanings of religious literacy. He argues that this concept should be understood closer to its origin in New Literacy Studies and needs to be detached from other established concepts within RE-research. He also shows that this is highly relevant for international knowledge transfer in religious education and teacher education since it is important to know what is being transferred and under which conditions. The third section on comparative perspectives on international knowledge transfer opens with the chapter by Helena Junker and Martin Rothgangel, in which they link together the project of international knowledge transfer and the comparative REL-EDU-project (Religious Education at Schools in Europe) focusing on the education of RE-teachers. They show that in terms of content, the Bologna process, international exchange possibilities and international political

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Introduction

trends can have importance for international knowledge transfer. In terms of methodology, the historical perspective as well as state-church relations emerged as important. The contribution of Yauheniya Danilovich brings together perspectives on international knowledge transfer and on ecumenism in the field of RE teacher education. Her focus is on Orthodox Christianity as an example. She shows how Christian ecumenism and international knowledge transfer in RE teacher education can reinforce each other and how respective effects could be strengthened in the future. The fourth section deals with critical elements in knowledge transfer in RE teacher education. In her article, Fahimah Ulfat discusses from an international knowledge transfer perspective the contribution of postcolonial theory, in order to critically address unreflective colonial thinking and everyday racism in RE, its curricula and the training of RE teachers. Her focus is on the representation of religions in schools, using Islam as an example. Linking postcolonial theory and international knowledge transfer can result in making the unreflected and everyday continuation of colonialism and racism in schools and universities visible and can contribute to a decolonization of religious education in Europe. Helena Stockinger highlights the importance of international knowledge exchange with regard to the topic of discrimination in schools and more specifically in RE teacher education. She opts for a more reflexive and critical approach to the ways in which religious education possibly promotes discrimination, and for the development of discrimination-critical attitudes. One concept that can be applied in teacher education is the anti-bias approach, an internationally developed approach that can be adapted to different contexts. The goals of the anti-bias approach are to consciously confront one’s own prejudices, to become aware of social power relations, and to actively stand up against discrimination. Our thanks go first of all to the colleagues who wrote a contribution for this book, further developing the insights of international knowledge transfer. We thank the “Bonner Zentrum für Lehrerbildung”, in the person of Peter Geiss and Roland Ißler, for including this book in the series “Wissenschaft und Lehrerbildung”. We thank V&R unipress | Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht for good arrangements regarding planning and execution of the publication. The University of Bonn provided important financial support for this project through the Bonn Global Collaboration Fund, for which we are extremely grateful.

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References Berglund, J. (2015). Publicly Funded Islamic Education in Europe and the United States. Washington: The Brookings Institution. Campbell, H. & Shepherd, T. (2021). What Should Post-Pandemic Religion Look Like? – https://doi.org/10.21423/postpandemicreligion (accessed February 01, 2023). EKD (2022). Evangelischer Religionsunterricht in der digitalen Welt. Ein Orientierungsrahmen (Protestant RE in the digital world. A framework of orientation), Hannover: EKD – www.ekd.de/ru-digitalitaet (accessed February 01, 2023). Grelle, B. (2006). Teaching about Religions in US Public Schools: European and American contrasts. Panorama, International Journal of Comparative Religious Education, 18. Guidelines for Teaching About Religion in K-12 Public Schools in the United States (2010), s.l.: American Academy or Religion. Janzwood, S. & Homer-Dixon, T. (2022). ‘What Is a Global Polycrisis?’ Discussion Paper 2022–4. Cascade Institute – https://cascadeinstitute.org/technical-paper/what-is-a-glob al-polycrisis/ (accessed February 01, 2023). O’Grady, K. (2022). Conceptualising Religion and Worldviews for the School: Opportunities, Challenges, and Complexities of a Transition from Religious Education in England and Beyond. New York & London: Routledge. Pollack, D. & G. Rosta (2022). Religion in der Moderne. Ein internationaler Vergleich (Religion in the Modern Age. An international comparison). Frankfurt/New York: Campus. Schreiner, P. (2002). Religious Education in the European Context. In L. Broadbent & A. Brown (eds.). Issues on Religious Education. London: Routledge/Falmer, 86–98. Schreiner, P. et. al. (eds.) (2018). Are you READY? Diversity and Religious Education across Europe – the Story of the READY project. Münster/New York: Waxmann. Schweitzer, F. (2020). Religion noch besser unterrichten. Qualität und Qualitätsentwicklung im RU (Teaching Religion even better. Quality and Quality Development in RE). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Schweitzer, F. & P. Schreiner (2020). International knowledge transfer in religious education: universal validity or regional practices? Backgrounds, considerations and open questions concerning a new debate. British Journal of Religious Education, 42 (4), 381– 390. Schweitzer, F. & P. Schreiner (eds.) (2021). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster/New York: Waxmann. Skeie, G. (2006). Diversity and the political function of religious education. British Journal of Religious Education, 28 (1), 19–32. UNESCO & IEA (2022). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education: international evidence from the Responses to Educational Disruption Survey (REDS) – https://une sdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf 0000380398 (accessed February 01, 2023).

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Part I – The meaning of international knowledge transfer and RE

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Peter Schreiner

The beat goes on… International knowledge transfer in religious education on the move

Abstract This paper examines the challenges associated with connecting RE teacher education to international knowledge transfer by reintroducing the open questions given in the final chapter of the first book on international knowledge transfer in religious education. The primary aim of this text is to discuss and further investigate these international knowledge transfer questions and gain greater insights into the professional knowledge needed for effective RE teacher education. The key question driving this reflection is how RE teacher education can contribute to international cooperation, knowledge transfer, sharing and mutual agreement through examples and case studies on the impetus for including international knowledge transfer into RE teacher education. Contributions from selected international handbooks on teacher education research were also consulted to inform the development of international knowledge transfer in RE teacher education programs. This chapter provides the background to interrelate the international knowledge religious education project and the initiative of teacher education as a special focus of the project. Keywords: valorization, knowledge transfer, research, glocalization, partnership, transformation

1.

Starting points

RE teacher education is the main focus of the articles in this volume. The authors were encouraged to link RE teacher education with developments in international knowledge transfer in religious education. As highlighted in the introduction to this book, teacher education is a significant challenge. Therefore, how can these two perspectives be connected? Certain comparative elements within international knowledge transfer in religious education are obvious, such as the rationale for teacher education, the organization of teacher education (cf. Rothgangel in this volume), the development of curriculum elements (cf. Ulfat and Stockinger in this volume), didactic concepts and good teacher education practices. The February 2021 conference contributions paved the way for the more structured approach taken in this book. Although there has been little

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research into the varied teacher training contexts and few comparative studies, it was clear to the book’s editors that this field needed to be a central issue when examining the inclusion of international knowledge transfer in religious education. As a connection point, some of the first volume’s open questions on international knowledge transfers in religious education (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021) are referred to. In Berlin in 2018 and 2019, a joint initiative of the Comenius Institute and the Department of Religious Education at the University of Tübingen brought together scholars from seven countries for two consultations on the issues related to international knowledge transfer in religious education. During these consultations, plans for the drafting and publishing of a manifesto on international knowledge transfer in religious education were developed. The ensuing Manifesto (Manifesto 2019) was distributed and published in several leading journals in different countries. Based on presentations at the abovementioned consultations, the text was also included in a book that brought together different contributions to international knowledge transfer in religious education (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021; Manifesto: 267–271). The articles in the book elaborate aspects of four leading questions: – “How can the national and the international context be productively connected with each other? – Which concept or understanding of ‘international’ should be used when it comes to transfer of knowledge? – What exactly is meant by ‘knowledge’ in religious education? – What means ‘transfer’ in this context? “(p. 14) It was clear from the project’s beginning that the Manifesto was not a final product but the motivation for further discussion and discourse to identify common ground and the controversial issues surrounding international knowledge transfer in religious education. With a focus on the three main project elements, the book editors drew some conclusions from the fifteen articles. Some concerns and open questions were identified related to the terms “international”, “knowledge” and “transfer.” The following refers to “international”: – The lasting influence of the nation-state regarding education was one reason some volume authors insisted that national audiences also be addressed. – There needs to be a balance between the different audiences and cooperation contexts. “The closer religious education wants to be to the various forms of educational practice, the more it needs to be aware of national or even regional and local audiences. The more religious education wants to follow the lead of other academic disciplines and enjoy the benefits of worldwide cooperation,

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the more it needs to address international audiences.” (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, p. 260) – How can an adequate balance be achieved between English language publications and publications in other languages? – Is internationalization a promising future for religious education as an academic discipline and what should be the ‘added value’ for such a perspective? – How much effort should be invested in transforming religious education into a fully international endeavor? When seeking to understand the definition of “knowledge” the complexity of the knowledge that constitutes religious education was underlined. Of the many questions, the following two seemed of special importance: – What further research is needed to collect, delineate and integrate existing knowledge in religious education? What role, for example, should journal and textbook analysis play, and what other sources should be considered? – Can there be a cumulative progression in religious education knowledge production? The final reflection on “transfer” included sharing and international partnerships: – The focus of the Manifesto is “to share knowledge rather than just trying to transfer it in the sense of handing on packages of fixed knowledge” (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, p. 263). – This understanding of sharing must include the joint production of knowledge in research projects that embrace researchers from several countries. There are several good examples from which one can learn (e. g. REDCo, READY, cf. Jozsa et al. 2009; Schreiner 2019 or the international confirmation studies cf; and Simojoki et al. 2018). Improved international religious education research partnerships have also been mentioned. “Such partnerships make sense concerning knowledge gained in academic research as well as concerning the experiential knowledge to be found with practitioners in the field.” (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, p. 263) The perspectives that need further clarification and research are: – Mapping the research scene to provide international research partnership opportunities; – Methodological clarification initiatives that encourage the transfer and sharing of knowledge; – Knowledge sharing Initiatives have already been initiated for RE teacher education in the third consultation and this publication (cf. Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, p. 264).

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The articles in this book focus on teacher education and offer various perspectives on bringing these two fields closer together. Obviously, there are challenges because teacher education is mainly a national concern and there have only been a few international initiatives; therefore, this contribution could be seen as building a bridge between these two perspectives.

2.

Contexts

The final part of the concluding chapter of the book on international knowledge transfer in religious education identified several contexts that needed to be considered for further initiatives and developments. The first context is related to the many observations that religious education is in crisis and is being marginalized (see Schweitzer in this volume and Schreiner 2020), as well as the purpose of RE in schools and the school curriculum, its contribution to general school education and teacher education quality, which has been recognized as one reason for the marginalization (cf. for England: Commission 2018) The second perspective is related to developments that question international cooperation and long-established political cooperation. Some international relationships and institutions are under pressure because of increasing “national,” European and international tensions. A side effect of this perspective is also related to the dynamics associated with the global COVID-19 pandemic during which international face-to-face meetings did not take place for a long time and, while conferences and exchanges via video were helpful, social and personal encounters were missed. The third perspective is focused on RE’s content and aims. What are the common RE challenges irrespective of its context-shaped approach? How can the intrinsic significance of RE and its contribution to extrinsic education be confirmed? There is no doubt that education for peace and democracy and democratic citizenship have been the aims of RE for a long time; however, the tasks and problems need to be internationally broadened. Climate change (cf. LegangerKrogstad 2021; Schluß 2021) and digitalization require greater attention in both education and RE, and the developing transnational nature of the world and the impacts on education and schooling must also be considered (cf. Heidrich, Karakas¸oğ lu, Mecheril & Shure 2021) when considering RE’s future development. The final perspective is related to the increasing role of global governance in education and the lack of RE recognition by international organizations. International religious education networks and associations need to develop common initiatives based on mutual transfer and the sharing of valid knowledge to

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strengthen RE as an academic discipline (cf. Miedema 2021a) and re-confirm it as an important school subject that substantially contributes to general education (cf. Böhme, Kappelhoff & Ta Van 2021; Francis, Lankshear & Parker 2021).

3.

Resonances

This section gives a few examples of follow-up initiatives from the ongoing project. Other examples are also presented as counterexamples that have limited interpretations for “international” but demonstrate the vital need for further developments.

3.1

Journals

Julian Stern wrote an extensive comment on the Manifesto in an editorial in the British Journal of Religious Education (BJRE) (Stern 2019). Despite the “nationally” oriented title, BJRE is one of the leading international research journals that accept contributions from many other regions and continents. Stern identified the intentions of the international knowledge transfer in religious education project as follows: “to improve the mapping of the research scene, to develop better comparative methods by which diverse national RE systems can best be studied and to develop knowledge sharing strategies so that research processes can be even more collaborative” (Stern 2019, p. 244). Stern also saw RE as both “personal” (being personally, individually, affecting) and “national” (it is distinctive in each country, and varies more than most subjects) and recognized that “there is no global agreement on RE, and where international agreements have been achieved, such as for the Toledo Guiding Principles (OSCE/ODIHR 2007), these are hotly contested even within the jurisdictions initially covered by the document” (Stern 2019, p. 243). While it was not possible to reprint the Manifesto text due to publication rights, Schweitzer and Schreiner (2019) outlined and further developed the main arguments regarding international RE knowledge transfers. The editors of the leading German journal “Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie” (ZPT) gave a more in-depth reaction to the Manifesto and its publication when they called for papers, from which there was a significant response. Consequently, seven refereed articles were included in a special journal issue on international knowledge transfers in religious education (cf. ZPT 2021). The invitation included some key questions: – Which networks enable international/transnational knowledge transfer and interdisciplinary exchange?

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– What types of knowledge are internationally exchanged and what knowledge domains are involved; for example, developmental psychology or didactics? – Which RE discourses are internationally organized? (cf. Käbisch & Schweitzer 2021). The subsequent contributions dealt with knowledge transfers in Catholic RE (Herbst 2021), the possible role of international organizations (Ahme 2021) and the cross-border transfer of knowledge from a practical teaching perspective (Deschner, Francis & ap Sîon 2021). The collection of articles clearly demonstrated that further clarification was needed and that knowledge that supported teachers should be included.

3.2

On relevant knowledge and valorization

In this part, selected examples on the potential for international knowledge transfer projects are discussed. Based on research, the internationally oriented academic and researcher, Siebren Miedema, critically reflected on his own experience of the relationships between theory and practice, Benjamin Ahme focused on the role of international organizations as knowledge transfer trailblazers, and Annette Deschner and colleagues from England and Wales examined the possibilities of curriculum resource transfers. The Dutch academic, Siebren Miedema, discussed the roles of relevant knowledge and valorization in religious and worldview education (Miedema 2021b). His article underlined the importance of both knowledge quality and relevancy and the need to properly interpret research outcomes. This view was based on an observation that research results have not been mirrored “as true statements of an objective outside reality” (Miedema 2021b, p. 14) and John Dewey’s “warranted assertibility,” who also claimed that “The use of the term that designates a potentiality rather than an actuality involves a recognition that all special conclusions of special inquiries are parts of an enterprise that is continually being renewed or is a going concern.” (cited in Miedema 2021b, p. 14) In his 2018 presentation at the Berlin Consultation on international knowledge transfer in religious education, Miedema reflected on relevant knowledge and fruitful valorization saying “that it is knowledge and insights that really matter for pedagogical practices and politics, while at the same time improving theoretical and empirical insights.” (Miedema 2021a, p. 229) As preconditions for international knowledge transfer, he claimed that the status of RE as a normative and intervention practice required: (a) an action-oriented theoretical and practical relationship of theory and practice; (b) an open science approach to academic RE research; (c) and in a later article, focused on three main goals: “1) a

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legitimate place for religions and worldviews in the public sphere; 2) clarity on the aims of religious and worldview education in terms of personhood formation, with a focus on teaching and learning and what this implies for fostering literacy; and 3) a necessity that religious educators act as public intellectuals and go beyond academic national provincialism.” (Miedema 2021c, p. 167) Although Miedema argued against “academic national provincialism,” he mentioned the dangers of exclusively focusing on internationalization and international forums “to the detriment of the national contexts and debates” (Miedema 2020, p. 273). It should be clear at this point that an exclusive RE internationalization focus was not the intention of the IKT project; rather, the focus has been on the interplay and sharing of sensitive knowledge at local, national and international levels. When Miedema’s concerns are viewed in the context of RE’s marginalization, they become highly relevant to the debate, that is, if RE does not have a legitimate, relevant place in schools and the public sphere, it will be difficult to sustain it as an ordinary subject. Miedema also claimed the need for “strengthening the links between academia, lifeworld and politics” and questioned the relevance and benefits of “cross-national theoretical, historical and quantitative as well as qualitative empirical findings” and asked if this “is enough for practice and politics” (Miedema 2020, p. 273). Miedema’s position is focused more on “an interrelated view on the relationship of the lifeworld, academia and politics” that does not relativize knowledge transfer but focuses on the contextual and the particular, that is, how valorized knowledge matters in different contexts and how the particular and the universal are intertwined. It may be helpful at this point to mention that a global view exists within the local view. Robertson (1992) claimed that globalization was realized in concrete local forms and did not exist ‘out there’ as the global interpenetrates the local (glocalization). Therefore, the debate on glocalization (overview cf. Roudemetof 2016) could be better elaborated on and linked to the international RE knowledge transfer debate.

3.3

On the role and value of international organizations

Benjamin Ahme examined international knowledge transfers and the role of (international) organizations (Ahme 2021) and confirmed that international knowledge transfer, which were defined as the cross-border diffusion and context-specific reception of valorized religious education knowledge, could significantly benefit from the establishment of international organizations. Ahme then reviewed the role of the Office for Education of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the global diffusion of Paulo Freire’s pedagogy and highlighted the increasing relevance of international organizations and networks in both education and religious education, which is also confirmed by many

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contributions in this volume. These international organizations and networks also include political organizations, such as the Council of Europe or the OSCE (cf. Schreiner 2012) and also academic networks, such as ISREV and the World Council of Churches (WCC). Paulo Freire, the famous Brazilian educator and a central contributor to the critical pedagogy discourse, was exiled for many years from his homeland and served as a special consultant from 1970 to 1980 at the newly established Office for Education of the WCC in Geneva, which assisted in diffusing his pedagogy in three main ways. – His colleagues (Werner Simpfendörfer) translated one of his first popular books “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” into German, which was then promoted by another colleague, Ernst Lange, who also wrote the introduction. Ernst Lange was head of the unit for ecumenical activities at the WCC at that time (Lange 1973), promoted the relevance of Freire’s approach to the global North and emphasized its importance in building relationships between the church and education. – Freire’s position at the WCC enabled him to participate in a worldwide network and international events all over the world. Freire felt this was a significant opportunity to disseminate his ideas to Europe, Africa, Latin America and the United States of America (cf. Freire & Faundez 1989). – Freire’s pedagogical approach also influenced the WCC’s work in education. Documentation from an international conference in Bergen in 1970 included a contribution by Freire, the” Testimony of Liberation,” which discussed the connections between the church and education (Freire 1970). Paulo Freire’s work demonstrated that knowledge transfer can occur when experts and academics work together in international organizations that develop knowledge dissemination strategies and invest their resources in international activities, translation and publications.

3.4

Exploring curriculum material from a bi-national perspective

European colloquies can also assist in knowledge development. For example, every second year from 2004 and 2018, the Klingenthal colloquy of the ICCS and CoGREE brought together experts to discuss European developments in education and religion and strengthen networks and bilateral partnerships. The project discussed in this section, which was based on a relationship between Germany, England and Wales, had its roots in Klingenthal and grew out of these encounters over many years, is an example of how practical material based on academic research can be used in different contexts (Deschner, Francis & ap Siôn 2021). The pedagogical principles in Exploring Religions Today, which is a col-

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lection of curriculum resources, were developed to support the statutory requirements for RE in Welsh primary schools. The testing of the relevance of the contact hypothesis lay the groundwork for the construction of the material (cf. Deschner, Francis & ap Siôn 2021, p. 54). The purpose of this project was to evaluate the possibilities of applying the material to the Baden-Württemberg Protestant RE curriculum in primary schools, which had four main foci: the aims, the overall guiding perspectives, the process and content-related competencies. A central document related to the German RE debate was also included (EKD 2014) that developed “a theological rationale for equipping students to live with religious diversity as a major aim for Protestant religious education.” (ibid., p. 57) It was found that most of the aims were compatible with the Exploring Religions Today resources, and to make up for some shortfalls, additional material for the teacher’s handbooks was proposed that focused on biblical texts and the contributions to the school community by organized religious services. A high level of commonality was found with the overall guiding perspectives and the process-oriented competencies. However, there were several obvious differences found in the content-oriented competencies; for example, while the themes of the Bible, God and Jesus Christ were present, they were generally less strongly emphasized within the curriculum. However, overall, it was concluded that after careful modifications to the teacher’s handbooks, “there is good potential for the transferability of the Exploring Religions Today collection of curriculum resources from Wales into Protestant religious education within Baden-Württemberg.” (ibid., p. 60)

4.

International and national handbooks on teacher education research

This section examines some handbooks to determine whether they provide a suitable basis for knowledge transfer, examine the knowledge being promoted and assess the inclusion of an international perspective. The SAGE Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (2017) offers an ambitious and international overview of the current landscape of teacher education research, as well as imagined futures. The two volumes have 67 articles divided into 12 sub-sections, such as “Mapping the Landscape of Teacher Education,” teacher identity and moral and ethical responsibilities of teaching in teacher education. Section 7 examines teaching in teacher education and includes a chapter on “Teacher education in religious education” written by Elina and Andrew Wright, both of whom work in RE in England (Wright & Wright 2017), which has the promising sub-title “RE in the global context.” It was ex-

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pected that this article would discuss RE worldwide, but this expectation was not completely fulfilled. While the general statement “Scholars in the field ‘agree to disagree’ on the content, knowledge and aims of a curricular area that is subject to continuous debate and approached from different religions and philosophical frameworks.” (ibid., pp. 713–714) is a statement that has not been contested in the academic community, the other focus of the article is misleading. Readers are introduced to the leading concept in Andrew Wright’s RE approach, which is a specific Critical Religious Education model grounded in the philosophy of Critical Realism that has the Variation Theory of Learning as its pedagogical framework. However, the international context is barely mentioned as the assumed tension between the ‘two extremes’ of traditional confessional RE and no RE (France, USA) is discussed based on the situation in England and Wales, that is, the many existing approaches between the ‘two extremes’ are not even mentioned. General statements such as “approaches to teacher education in RE within state-sponsored education systems will be shaped by national, regional and local contexts” (Wright & Wright 2017, p. 715) are not sufficient without further differentiation as to what this means in concrete terms. The authors mention three key areas of teacher education research: 1) issues surrounding initial and in-service teacher education; 2) professionalism and professional development (with European references); and 3) pedagogies for teaching and learning (with the main reference being a BJRE special issue editorial on RE pedagogical research (cf. Baumfield 2010)). This list could be used to elaborate on teacher education knowledge exchange to provide a differentiated view of the contextual conditions and perspectives in different regions and motivate more exchanges and more knowledge sharing to promote a more international understanding of RE teacher education. A second example is the German Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung (Cramer, König, Rothland & Blömeke 2020), which includes a comprehensive research-based presentation of knowledge on the (institutionalized) professionalization of teachers and the different teacher education actors, which includes an examination of the history, the demanding conditions and the various approaches, components, concepts, methods and information. The handbook has eleven parts and 107 chapters and is also available as an open-access document (www.handbuch-lehrerbildung.net). Part VI – Components of Teacher Education includes a chapter on religion in teacher education that presents aspects of the RE subject and subject didactics (Boschki, Schweitzer & Ulfat,2020). It was designed and written by interdisciplinary Catholic, Protestant and Islamic RE experts and was based on research. The sections focused on current trends, developments, challenges and

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perspectives include issues that could be included in the RE knowledge transfer debate. Current trends such as digitalization, inclusion, heterogeneity and the societal developments from migration that increased multicultural and multireligious life worlds are all mentioned. The challenges related to RE marginalization and the increasing secularization and the number of “nones” that do not belong to any religion are all mentioned. These arguments are also be found in reports in other contexts (cf. Ofsted 2021; Commission 2018) and could be the focus of joint research projects. The final example is the Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (Cochran-Smith, Feiman-Nemser, McIntyre & Demers 2008) published in the US. The third edition has 1353 pages, contributions from 84 authors and is structured around nine sections, two of which are of special interest; What should teachers know? (Part 2, pp. 123–257) and How do we know what we know? (Part 8, pp. 1005–1193); in which, similar to the IKT project, knowledge and knowing are the key foci. The following reviews a few of the book’s contributions that provide supporting arguments for international knowledge transfer in education and religious education.1 In the introduction to section 2, it is stated that the knowledge teachers need has become deeper and more flexible, and teacher’s capacities are defined as knowledge, skills and dispositions (cf. Grant 2008, p. 127), which includes an understanding of the relationships between content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and an awareness of how to use a wide range of grouping strategies and assessment techniques. It also claims that teachers must have dispositions that foster positive attitudes toward change and a commitment to student learning. The overriding belief is that all students can learn. Because a comprehensive concept of knowledge is needed, this section also addresses teacher discourse diversity. Because culture shapes student thinking, learning and social cognition, the handbook stresses the need for multicultural education and presents a concept of culture that recognizes and respects the different cultural intricacies that could also be used in religion. Based on the belief that teaching is always a political endeavor, Howard and Aleman’s (2008) contribution, “Teacher capacity for diverse learners,” focuses on the critical social and political consciousness in education.

1 Concerning religious education international networks such as ISREV benefit from the sharing and exchange between scholars from the US and from Europe. Not least the Religious Education Association (REA) includes a number of European members and some of them had served in leading positions (e. g., Bert Roebben, Siebren Miedema, Jos de Kock). This should be mentioned although the focus of the handbook is on teacher education and not specifically on RE.

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“From a critical pedagogy approach, teachers play the role of facilitators of discussion and critical dialogue. They do not seek to provide students with ‘right’ answers, but push them to collect information to support their beliefs.” (Howard & Aleman 2008, pp. 166f.) They also claim that Paulo Freire’s writing had major implications for teacher capacity. A part of Freire’s book Teachers as Cultural Workers: Letters to Those Who Dare Teaching is also reprinted in the handbook (Freire 2008), which is focused on the attitude/disposition dimension of teacher capacity. Freire identified eight indispensable qualities or virtues for progressive teachers; humility, lovingness, courage to fight and to love, tolerance, decisiveness, security, the tension between patience and impatience, competence and the joy of living as a fundamental virtue for democratic educational practice; each of which reflects how teachers exercise their knowledge and skills. The strong references to Freire’s dialogue-oriented “humanizing pedagogy” in different chapters of the handbook are good examples of knowledge transfer in education science. The contribution about what teachers need to know also has an international perspective: “Today’s teachers should have the capacity to challenge students to question the world around them, including issues in their communities, topics in the nation, problems in the world, and problematizing ways to identify interventions for these occurrences.” (Howard & Aleman 2008, pp. 166f.) Part 8 explores the role of teacher education research and major developments in the last fifty years. Research has underpinned disputes “about which disciplines are appropriate to the study of education, what counts as educational scholarship and how evidence should be used to make the case for or against particular approaches to the professional preparation of teachers” (CochranSmith & Demers 2008, p. 1009). Three main changes have generally influenced the nature and development of education policy, practice and research and had strong impacts on teacher education research: – Shifts in educational research paradigms. A major paradigm shift happened in education research from positivism to postmodernism, from a linear to a systemic view on the influence of policy research on classroom ecologies, such as social classroom life organization, the construction of local meaning by teachers and students and the embedding of context and culture in teaching and learning. “Research on teacher education shifted from teacher behaviors to the teacher’s knowledge, learning, thinking and ideas.” (Cochran-Smith & Demers 2008, p. 1010) – Changes in understanding teacher learning, teacher development and the roles teachers can and do play in educational reform. Rather than teacher training being a “one-time process,” over time a more constructivist than transmission-oriented approach has become prominent.

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– Shifts in Notions of Educational Accountability. Standards and accountability movements from the late 1990s to the present day have influenced the shift in teacher education policy and research from inputs to outcomes. Borko et al. (Borko, Whitcomb & Byrnes 2008) summarized teacher education research handbooks from the 1990s and emphasized that teacher education research must be complex and varied in its methodological approaches and should have a genuinely constructive impact on teacher education practice and policy. They then outlined and discussed the purposes, intellectual roots and central features of the four most common research genres; teacher education effects; teacher education interpretations; teacher education practitioners; and teacher education designs; the first two of which are established genres while the latter two have been more recent additions. “‘Effects of teacher education’ research is a body of scholarship concerned with understanding the relationships between teacher education experiences and student learning.” (Borko, Whitcomb & Byrnes 2008, p. 1020) Pedagogical skills and knowledge are centered, with experimental microteaching being an early example of this genre. Interpretive Research, which has its intellectual roots in nineteenth-century European thought, is the most expansive category covering ethnography, symbolic interactionism, narrative, educational connoisseurship, phenomenology, discourse analysis and a search for local meanings to perceive, describe, analyze and interpret the features of a specific situation. A central limitation, however, is “the lack of shared conceptual frameworks and designs, which makes it a challenging task to aggregate findings and to draw comparisons across studies, even when those studies are of similar phenomena” (Borko, Whitcomb & Byrnes 2008, p. 1029). Practitioner Research includes action research, participatory research, self-study and teacher research, with the main reference being John Dewey’s concept of the teacher as “a reflective practitioner” and the teacher educator’s dual practitioner and researcher roles. Design research was initially a reaction to traditional psychological experimentation and is committed to addressing questions about what works in practice. Informed by engineering and “design sciences” models, design researchers operate within real-life settings to explore learning in context and the intimate relationship between improvements in practice and the development of theory.

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The authors claim that research methods must be multidisciplinary and pluralistic and should harness new data collection and analysis tools as no single methodological or theoretical approach can provide all that is needed to understand the influences teacher education has on educational outcomes (ibid., p. 1038). A central focus of the debate in the US has been the appropriateness of research that employs a combination of methods. Although the handbook does not include a chapter on international perspectives, some articles provide guidance on possible European knowledge transfer in religious education.

5.

Conclusion

This paper first summarized the conclusions and perspectives from the first volume and the contexts for future international knowledge transfer tasks in religious education documented in Schweitzer and Schreiner (2021). Central terms and the three key terms associated with these complex contexts were discussed and further elaborated. Even though the clarification of the possible and mutual oscillating local, national and international dynamics and their relationships is ongoing, it is apparent that RE research is becoming more international and the benefits of worldwide cooperation more obvious, which has begun to smooth knowledge transfers. The “knowledge” discourses have revealed the underlying wider education concepts and the RE purposes and normative aims. As Gert Biesta and others have recently demonstrated, scholarly religious education debates can be linked to general education debates. The examples of ongoing activities highlight the many knowledge transfer areas being scrutinized. Nationally grounded journals are becoming more international and as the reception and inclusion of the Manifesto have proven, there has been greater mutual recognition and cooperation, which has encouraged greater international knowledge transfer. The BJRE and ZPT are excellent examples of these developments. There have also been significant scientific theory and practice contributions as exemplified by Siebren Miedema. The knowledge transfer role of international organizations has also been emphasized as shown by the acceptance of Paulo Freire’s pedagogy and the activities of the WCC, which indicate that innovative pedagogical approaches and international networks can increase the potential for international knowledge transfer. This example shows that greater research is needed to encourage other international organizations. The investigations into classroom teaching materials have shown how the sharing aspect of the IKT project can be organized. The knowledge transfer possibilities accepted and learned from national contexts have created avenues for mutual recognition and contextual exchanges by experts with common and different views about curricula.

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The review of the teacher education research handbooks revealed that as there have been few studies on international and transnational knowledge transfer, future initiatives need to be developed. The beat goes on ….

References Ahme, B. (2021). Internationaler Wissenstransfer durch Organisationen: Theoretische Anknüpfungspunkte und ein Fallbeispiel zu Paulo Freire am Ökumenischen Rat der Kirchen. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie 73(1), 28–38. Baumfield, V. (2010). Towards a pedagogy for religious education: Professional development through engagement in and with research into the pedagogy of RE. British Journal of Religious Education 32(2), 89–91. Böhme, T., Kappelhoff, B., Ta Van J. (Hrsg) (2021). Zur Zukunft religiöser Bildung in Europa. Festschrift für Dr. Peter Schreiner, Münster: Waxmann. Boschki, R., Schweitzer, F., & Ulfat, F. (2020). Religion in der Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung. Fachwissenschaft und Fachdidaktik in evangelischer, katholischer und islamischer Perspektive. In C. Cramer, J. Ko¨ nig, M. Rothland & S. Blo¨ meke (Hrsg.), Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung (S. 524–533). Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. https://doi.org/10.35468/hblb2020-063 [Beitrag mit CC–Lizenz BY-NC-SA], 524–533. Borko, H., Whitcomb, J.AS. & Byrnes, K. (2008). Genres of research in teacher education. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre & K.E. Demers, Handbook of Research On Teacher Education. Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. Third Edition. New York: Routledge. 1017–1059. Commission on Religious Education (CoRE) (2018). Final Report. Religion and Worldviews: The Way Forward. A national plan for RE. https://www.commissiononre.org.uk /wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Final-Report-of-the-Commission-on-RE.pdf (accessed February 01, 2023). Cramer, C., Ko¨ nig, J., Rothland, M., & Blo¨ meke, S. (2020). Einfu¨ hrung in das Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung. In C. Cramer, J. Ko¨ nig, M. Rothland & S. Blo¨ meke (Hrsg.), Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung (S. 11–17). Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. https://doi.org/10.35468/hblb2020-vorwort [Beitrag mit CC-Lizenz BY-NC-SA]. Cramer, C., Ko¨ nig, J., Rothland, M., & Blo¨ meke, S. (2020). (Hrsg.), Handbuch Lehrerinnenund Lehrerbildung (S. 11–17). Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. Deschner, A.; Francis, Leslie J.; ap Siôn, T. (2021) Exploring religions today: A quest for international knowledge transfer within the field of education for religious diversity. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie, Band 73(1), 51–60. Freire, Paulo (1970). Zeugnis der Befreiung. In Büro für Bildungsfragen beim Ökumenischen Rat der Kirchen. Bildung – Ganz! Übersetzt von Werner Simpfendörfer. Stuttgart: Kreuz Verlag, S. 78, 80, 82, 84. Freire, P. (2008). Teachers as Cultural Workers: Letter to Those Who Dare Teach (1998) In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre & K.E. Demers, Handbook of Research On Teacher Education. Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. Third Edition. New York: Routledge.

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Freire, P. & Faundez, A. (1989). Learning to Question: A Pedagogy of Liberation. Geneva: WCC 1989, 10–23. Grant, C.A. (2008). Teacher capacity: introduction to the section. In M. Chochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre & K.E. Demers, Handbook of Research On Teacher Education. Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. Third Edition. New York: Routledge, 127–133. Heidrich, L., Karakas¸oğ lu, Y., Mecheril, P., & Shure, S. (Eds.). (2021, March). Regimes of Belonging – Schools – Migrations. Teaching in (Trans)National Constellations. Preprint. Universita¨ t Bremen. http://dx.doi.org/10.26092/elib/486. Herbst, J.-H. (2021). Politische Religionspädagogik in transnationaler Perspektive. Rekonstruktion von Grundlinien des Wissenstransfers in der katholischen Religionspädagogik der langen 1960er Jahre. Zeitschrift für Theologie und Pädagogik, Band 73(1), 16–27. Howard, T.C. & Aleman, G.R. (2008). Teacher capacity for diverse learners: what do teachers need to know? In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre & K.E. Demers, Handbook of Research On Teacher Education. Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. Third Edition. New York: Routledge, 157–174. Jozsa, D.-P.; Knauth, T.; Weiße, W. (Hrsg.) (2009). Religionsunterricht, Dialog und Konflikt. Analysen im Kontext Europas, [Religious Education. Dialogue and Conflict. Analyses in the context of Europe] Religious Diversity and Education in Europe, Vol. 15, Münster: Waxmann. Käbisch, D.; Schweitzer, F. (2021). Editorial. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie 2021, Band 73, Heft 1, S. 1–4. Lange, E. (1973). Einleitung. In P. Freire. Pädagogik der Unterdrückten. Bildung als Praxis der Freiheit, Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1973, 9–17. Leganger-Krogstad, H. (2021). Sustainability in Religious Education. Linear or circular understandings of time in an interreligious perspective. In T. Böhme; B. Kappelhoff; J. Ta Van (Hrsg.) Zur Zukunft religiöser Bildung in Europa. Festschrift für Dr. Peter Schreiner. Münster: Waxmann, 85–99. Manifesto (2019). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education: A Manifesto for Discussion, https://comenius.de/themen/Evangelische-Bildungsverantwortung-inEuropa/international-knowledge-transfer-in-religious-education.php. (accessed February 01, 2023). Miedema, S. (2020). On Time. Continuity and Necessary Changes in Religious Education. An Epilogue. In I. ter Avest; C. Bakker; J. Ipgrave; S. Leonhard; P. Schreiner (Eds.). Facing the Unkown Future. Religion and Education on the Move. Münster: Waxmann, 265–276. Miedema, Siebren (2021a). Strengthening the links between academia, lifeworld and politics in religious and worldview education. In F. Schweitzer and P. Schreiner (eds.) International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster, New York: Waxmann, 229–242. Miedema, S. (2021b). On Relevant Knowledge and Valorization in Religious and Worldview Education. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie 2021; 73(1), 5–15. Miedema, S. (2021c). An international perspective on religious and worldview education in different societies. In T. Böhme; B. Kappelhoff; J. Ta Van (Hrsg.) Zur Zukunft religiöser Bildung in Europa. Festschrift für Dr. Peter Schreiner. Münster: Waxmann, 165–176.

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Ofsted (2021). Research review series: Religious Education – https://www.gov.uk/gove rnment/publications/research-review-series-religious-education report, published 12 May 2021 (accessed February 01, 2023). OSCE/ODIHR (2007). The Toledo Guiding Principles on teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools – www.osce.org/item/28314.html (accessed February 01, 2023). Robertson, R. (1992). Globalization. Social Theory and Global Culture, Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: SAGE Publications. Roudemetof, V. (2016). Theorizing glocalization: Three interpretations. European journal of Social Theory 2016. Vol. 19(3), 391–408, DOI: 10.1177/1368431015605443. Schluß, H. (2021) Pädagogik zwischen Erderwärmung und Hoffnung. In T. Böhme; B. Kappelhoff; J. Ta Van (Hrsg.) Zur Zukunft religiöser Bildung in Europa. Festschrift für Dr. Peter Schreiner. Münster: Waxmann, 69–84. Schreiner, P. (2012) Religion im Kontext einer Europäisierung von Bildung. Eine Rekonstruktion europäischer Diskurse und Entwicklungen aus protestantischer Perspektive. Münster: Waxmann. Schreiner, P., Schweitzer, F. (2021). Conclusions and perspectives on future tasks concerning international knowledge transfer in religious education In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner (eds.) International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education, Münster: Waxmann, 259–266. Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner P. (2019) International Knowledge transfer in religious education: universal validity or regional practices? Backgrounds, considerations and open questions concerning a new debate. British Journal of Religious Education 42 (2019), 381–390. Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner, P. (eds.) (2021) International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education, Münster: Waxmann. Simojoki, H., Ilg, W., Schlag. T., Schweitzer, F. (Hrsg.) (2018). Zukunftsfähige Konfirmandenarbeit. Empirische Erträge – theologische Orientierungen – Perspektiven für die Praxis. [Sustainable Confirmation Work. Empirical outcomes – theological orientations – perspectives for practice]. Konfirmandenarbeit erforschen und gestalten – Band 12. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. Stern, J., Matemba, Y. & Lundie, D. (2019) An island, entire of itself, British Journal of Religious Education, 41:3, 243–246, DOI: 10.1080/01416200.2019.1599208 Wright, E., Wright, A. (2017) Teacher Education in Religious Education. In D.J. Clandinin and J. Husu (eds.) The SAGE Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. Volume 2, Los Angeles: SAGE, 713–727. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie (ZPT) (2021) International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education Band 73 Heft 1.

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Bert Roebben / Maike Maria Domsel / Barbara Niedermann / Sander Vloebergs

Colliding worlds in the religious education classroom. Performative teacher education in times of transition

Abstract The religious education classroom cannot isolate itself from the outside world. Global challenges affect both teaching in general and the religious education classroom in particular, primarily because the students, both young and older, bring their sensitivity to social issues with strong existential overtones into the classroom. This paper examines these themes and the conflicts with traditional religious education content through an interpretive “activity system” lens to describe the hermeneutic clashes and the dismantling of didactic learning processes. In the midst of the “hermeneutic storm”, raging between the systems of the lifeworld and the world of religious education, stands the teacher as interpreter, mediator and knowledge provider. He or she acts as “wounded healer”, who not only perceives this friction in the “change lab” of the classroom, but can also embody it, so that knowledge provocatively can be expanded from both sides. Three models of teacher education that performatively enable and intensify this embodiment are proposed: through music, body work/dance and pilgrimage. International knowledge transfer takes place through the didactic development of the concept of activity systems and through performative teacher education models presented here for further discussion. Keywords: Global transitions, performative religious education, activity systems, teacher as wounded healer, music, dance, body work, pilgrimage

Introduction This paper could not have been written without taking into account the current situation of transition. Two years of corona crisis had and have a deep impact on the life of young people and their education. This cannot be measured yet, but we know with a high degree of certainty that their mental well-being was and still is under pressure. Also the implications for schools and their curricula are opaque. A simple return to business as usual though is not an option. There is a need to rediscover and reconquer with young people schools as “learning spaces that offer context, and that recontextualize (…) experiences in ways that support a shared standpoint” (Hess 2020, p. 221). During the crisis, which could be considered as “a time of context collapse” (Hess 2020, p. 218), many daily efforts were

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made by teachers in order to “leave no child behind” and to give children the chance to continue to come together, at least virtually, and in doing so to “create context”. After three years however the question arises: what collateral damage was caused during the crisis, regardless of the good intentions and actions of teachers, and how schools can become new safe havens for our children, with their backpacks full of existential questions and issues, in the worst case with traumata? The reflections in this paper were collected as part of a collegial writing process. The current situation has given rise to a need in academia (cf. Roebben 2021a) to reframe shared contexts and redefine religious teacher education (RE), that is, there is a need to refresh the “wells of wisdom” and exchange thoughts and information on the quality and the sustainability of these wells, which was one of the main intentions of the “international knowledge transfer” project (cf. Schreiner & Schweitzer 2020). New forms of collaboration and participation with teacher students are therefore needed. This paper presents an intensified “performative teacher education” approach, in which the teacher students recontextualize and co-construct their learning processes in a post-corona era. This model is a follow-up to the “performative religious education” approach published in the previous international knowledge transfer volume (cf. Roebben & Welling 2021). The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. First, by building on the insights from international comparative RE research, RE’s aims amid postpandemic transnational and global complexities are reformulated. Second, the RE teacher’s role is redefined through an examination of three professional roles: giving expression to the voice of young people; mediating/negotiating between the life worlds of young people and the world of religious literacy and religious experience in RE; and expanding knowledge in the encounters between these both worlds. Third, three performative teacher education models are investigated as resources to empower teachers to become more grounded in their “between world” negotiations.

1.

RE in times of transition: a global challenge

In the German educational system, future RE teachers are mainly prepared for their job within theological faculties and institutes. The research field of RE, which is religious pedagogy and didactics, is situated in the larger constellation of academic theology. According to Friedrich Schweitzer, the constitutive relation with the issue of intergenerationality (“Generationenverhältnis”) and of educationality (“Bildungsverständnis”) is what makes religious pedagogy particular and what constitutes its specific contribution to theology as a whole (Schweitzer

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2005, p. 78–79). In this perspective, RE and religious pedagogy challenge the theology to be open minded, “because always new people or generations enter life” (Schweitzer 2005, p. 79, our translation) and because always tradition needs “to be made accessible for the younger generation through education” (Schweitzer 2005, ibid., our translation). Religious pedagogy is therefore the “advocate” of the subject, of the person(s) involved in theology. It defends the position of young people in religious and theological discourse. It gives them a voice and makes sure they are noticed and acknowledged in their subjective search for meaning, when dealing with objective elements of religious literacy and religious experience. The two above mentioned dimensions of religious educational praxis and research – namely intergenerationality and educationality – seem to be accelerated in times of transition. The questions are imminent. On a practical level: what do we learn from young people for the future and what do we have to offer them from the past? On a research level: what are the generative themes from the past that can be sustainably reinvigorated in our lively conversation with future generations (cf. Roebben 2021b)? The signs of the times make us sensible for the intergenerational and educational quality of our practices and conceptions in RE. But what about the harsh experience of radical crisis or “context collapse” these days? Are we still able to understand what is going on and what needs to be done appropriately – both intergenerationally and educationally? Our plea in this chapter focuses on more interaction with young people, more empathic listening to their stories and struggles, more acknowledgment of our mutual vulnerability, in order to face future tasks “on equal terrain” (Roebben 2021a, p. 70) – wíth young people and “under the same cloud of unknowing” with them (Roebben 2021a, p. 66). In research reports on international knowledge transfer in religious education we find good grounds for this position. Even “in tempore non suspecto” (before the corona-crisis) the seismographic function of youth was in full employment and registered deep changes underneath the surface of everyday life. Transnational and global transitions are affecting our common habitat. They have an impact on the kind of existential questions we raise and therefore on religious educational praxis and theory. And in doing so they affect the very core of an intergenerationally and educationally lived and living theology. We refer to three different “knowledge transfer zones” of religious education, where the above mentioned acceleration of change is taking place in the mindset of young people and their adult “advocates”, namely the European, the transcontinental and global level. On a European scale Oddrun Bråten refers in her comparative analysis of the REL-EDU project in Vienna (which ran from 2012 until 2020) to changing “shared supranational imaginaries among young people” (Bråten 2014, p. 39–40),

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that were established in the last decade. In his concluding reflections on European comparative research and on the REDCo project (which ran from 2006 until 2009) Siebren Miedema refers to “new societal patterns”, which arise in the life world of young people, “e. g. patterns of plurality, globalization, the mediacentered reality of young people, a growing number of people who claim not have any religious affiliation, people connected to other religions or worldviews than the historical established, major denominations”. The challenges that these patterns raise are “not sufficiently met in the educational systems, which rather reflect the traditional landscapes” (Miedema 2021, p. 482 passim). The amazing thing about this awareness of youth is that it emerges bottom-up and gains momentum as a common imaginary in an open public space. Secondly, from a transcontinental viewpoint, North-American and Canadian studies with a highly cultural-critical outline, rooted in the civil rights movement and anchored in feminist and post-colonial conceptions of RE, challenge European practices and theories of RE. They reinforce the awareness and accompanying imaginaries, which also can be found on the European continent, by giving them a more outspoken and radical voice (e. g. Le Tran 2017). The third level of commitment of young voices and their advocates is on a global scale. The climate crisis on the one hand and the pandemic crisis on the other have melted our worldwide concerns “to make this world a better place” paradoxically together. They have challenged the intergenerational and educational dimension of this “one world” more than ever before! To mention only one voice, namely #fridaysforfuture: “The real growth that we need, is the growth of love, of doing things together, of commitment and especially of imagination, of hope, of passion for life, of respect for nature and the growth of awareness. And above all: the growth of courage. Does it sound naive? Join the movement!” (De Wever & Gantois 2019, p. 66–67, our translation). Young people claim the streets, fire the imagination and challenge the public opinion in society, church and academia to become more accountable (cf. Gärtner 2020). Two conclusions can be drawn from these observations. First, these European, transcontinental and global transitions touch the very heart of humanity and remind people of their vulnerability and the need to rely on each other, that is, they are about fate, future, fragility and faith, about basic trust in human genius and our ultimate place in the world and beyond. The second conclusion is academic; if this is the state of affairs in the world as shouted out by young people and their advocates, then, more than ever before, there is a need for international knowledge transfer and cooperation to promote intergenerationality and educationality. This was the basic inspiration underlying the Manifesto of international knowledge transfer: “Can religious education be viewed, at least in part, as a research discipline producing results which are of international importance for

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both, theoretical and empirical insights and also in terms of their applicability in practices of religious education?” (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2020, p. 14).

2.

RE teachers between worlds: from collision to collaboration

It goes without saying that RE teachers are the ones who are caught up in the middle. As “advocates” of the human being (the subjective dimension) and as experts in existential questions (the objective dimension) they are navigating between the colliding worlds of young people and their hopes and fears on the one hand and the RE curriculum (religious literacy and religious experience) on the other hand (the intersubjective dimension). There is no way to escape the situation in these days of transition. Teachers find themselves “on equal terrain” wíth young people, living “under the same cloud of unknowing”. The major challenge for the teacher is to turn the friction caused by the collision of worlds into a collaborative learning process, in which all are involved equally. The clash in the classroom should not always be a negative experience, but can also instigate a new commitment of all the learners, including the teacher! (cf. Nazar 2020) Based on insights of international knowledge transfer, there is a “travelling concept” (Bal 2002), which helped us tremendously to understand the educational challenge above, namely the concept of “activity systems”. Its line of thought is rooted in a social science background and has travelled from the Russian Federation (Lev Vygotsky) over Finland (cf. Engeström 2001 and 2005) to Norway (cf. Afdal 2010) and the Netherlands (cf. de Roest 2020). A parallel concept, directly based on the same insights of Vygotsky can be found in the Netherlands, namely in the concept of “participatory learning” (cf. Hermans 2003). Moreover, the work of the Belgian educationalist Herman Lombaerts (cf. 1997 and 2000) offers a toolbox to make these approaches more concrete – although Lombaerts was not depending on the work of Engeström or Hermans. “Activity systems”, according to Engeström, are flexible working contexts in which (1) people act, think and design practices, (2) related to a specific topic, (3) based on community rules and reasons, (4) using all sorts of tools, mediating artefacts or instruments, in order to constantly create (5) new meaning or new objects. The RE classroom is such an activity system, a working space with its own participants, topics, rules and reasons, tools and objects. The objects are “runaway objects, never fixed and open to change. In a setting of RE this means that the object, what we perhaps could call students’ religious understanding is never fixed. It changes as a result of the processes in the activity system” (Afdal 2010, p. 55). In the “zone of proximate development” (the term is by Vygotsky) the activity system can shift in order to be able to face new chal-

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Figure 1: Two interacting activity systems with a potentially shared object (image by Y. Engeström 2001, slightly modified by Bodrozˇic´ & Stepanovic´ 2012, p. 74).

lenges from outside. It becomes really interesting if one considers with Engeström (quoted in Afdal 2010, p. 56) that this challenge from outside can be inflicted by another activity system that is merely practical. Applied to the social practice of RE, the activity system of the RE classroom is then confronted with the activity system of the daily life world of young people. In the clash between the two systems, or to put it positively, in the encounter between the two, there is an overlap between the shifting objects from both sides. The object of learning (e. g. theodicy in times of pandemic) from the RE class side will meet the object of learning from the lifeworld side and both will be negotiated and redefined by the learners (both students and teacher) in the classroom. Knowledge will be activated and expanded in the clash between the two activity systems. This will happen spontaneously. This can also be done in a (more or less) controlled scientific setting, in which a so called “change lab” (de Roest 2020, p. 221–223) forms the overlap between a theoretical activity system and a practical one. It really becomes interesting when the RE classroom is considered to be such a change lab – in one way or another. People belong to more than one activity system. Pupils in the classroom for instance are influenced both by the RE classroom system, by their daily peer system and many other “influencers” (social media, leisure time, sports, music, etc.). They do not take off their adolescent hats when they enter the school gate. Taking young people seriously, as was mentioned above, by listening carefully to their “new societal patterns” (Siebren Miedema) and to the “shared supranational imaginaries” (Oddrun Bråten) they transport with them into the school system, implies that teachers are ready to face the interpretation differences and to reframe them into a creative learning process. Herman Lombaerts calls these chaotic moments in the classroom (cf. Lombaerts 2000, p. 88–91) “hermeneutical knots” (Roebben 2016, p. 82–83), emerging out of a collision of worlds, often leading to “an irresistible perplexity” of all the participants in the room (Lom-

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baerts 1997, p. 322). Important is a basic awareness of the situation. He argues: “Misunderstanding the hermeneutical link [or hermeneutical knot] between objective, scientific, academic, ascetic information and an emotionally based curiosity (…) can actually lead to a regrettable break, a radical ‘indifference’, in those whose questions are not met by official discourse” (Lombaerts 1997, ibid.). For Lombaerts this is an ethical issue. Young people have the right to dissent in their quest for truth and “the school can play an important role in establishing the space where the quest for truth can be lived in total honesty. It can help dismantle the misunderstanding between the demand of fidelity toward a traditional profession that does not recognize the subject in her or his originality and crucial experience, on the one hand, and the search for truth that leads subjects toward a different way of being, on the other hand. The school (…) can allow things to be named for the first time and make way for a new understanding to replace fearful ignorance” (Lombaerts 1997, p. 324). In this respect the teacher is the one who is dwelling creatively in the space between colliding worlds (or “activity systems” according to Engeström, causing “hermeneutical knots”, according to Lombaerts). He or she is giving expression to both worlds in the classroom, he or she is mediating and building bridges between them and he or she is expanding knowledge from both sides, by offering activating learning processes in the overlap between the two. It all boils down to language: offering young people a voice to understand their own perplexity, translating the language of conflicting activity systems together with them, and expanding knowledge in the overlapping zone of next development. Good teachers will need to be the ones who can navigate between both worlds, be good moderators-in-between and “linguistically hospitable” (Paul Ricœur) to all sides of the conversation.

3.

RE teacher education: preparing for collision and collaboration

The teacher creatively navigating these conflicting systems could be seen as offering a solution to the so-called “correlation rupture” in religious didactics, the gap between religious tradition and human experience that emerged in the 1980s and was documented in 1993 by Rudolf Englert in his epochal paper on the end of correlation didactics (“Die Korrelationsdidaktik am Ausgang ihrer Epoche”, reprinted in Englert 2007). Englert commented that churches and religious communities no longer had models for rethinking and implementing RE correlations and further argued that theological education seemed unable to provide an alternative framework for this correlation rupture. Meanwhile, in 2023, we are one step further. It is not only religious socialization in the family and in the church community that is missing as a correlative

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starting point for learning processes in school. For many, there is no longer a spiritual shelter in society to cope with the global challenges described above. The certainty of a secure correlative frame of reference has disappeared. Uncertainty reigns at both ends of the spectrum. Both activity systems collide in their lack of clarity of purpose. The teacher finds himself or herself in the center of the storm, where it is obviously calm, but can suddenly become really frenetic. Escaping from this complex setting is not an option for the teacher (cf. Ayres 2021, p. 331–333). Students expect authentic teachers who are (ethically and theologically) well-informed and (morally and spiritually) resilient. They do not only want to learn content amid this hermeneutical storm but want this content to be “elementarized” and personalized so they can understand how religious literacy and religious experience fruitfully function in the curriculum (objective dimension), the life world of the classroom (subjective dimension) and in the life of the teacher (intersubjective dimension). In this respect, his or her role is of public significance. He or she counters the reciprocal “im-munisation” of both worlds and breaks them mutually open as learning space. He or she creates community by enabling the mutual exposure of activity systems. In so doing the teacher creates “com-munisation”, according to the Belgian educationalists Maarten Simons and Jan Masschelein, instead of immunisation (quoted in Roebben 2016, p. 69). We believe that good teachers act as “wounded healers” (Carl Gustav Jung), who not only perceive this friction but can also embody it through expressive and embodied mediation so that the knowledge can provocatively be expanded from both sides. We share the contention that by organizing learning processes that can make a real difference, teacher education can deal with the hermeneutical knots and contribute to the development of this public professional role that is caught between activity systems. An example can clarify our position. For instance, how does the concept of theodicy “work” in the personal (moral and spiritual) reflections of the teacher, dealing with global crises of health, climate and war? What kind of language does he or she create facing these crises, in front of the classroom? How authentic is his or her language, how sincerely is it lived by, how permeable is it for the lives of young people? How can the teacher elementarize his/her personal convictions as an “elementarizing” teacher? How to find ways to creatively express one’s own suffering as a teacher – between the world of the Hebrew Bible (e. g. Hiob) and the suffering of young people, dealing with images of war and crisis on their smart phones – without losing track of the integrity of the learning process? How to show “primary vulnerability” (Judith Butler, quoted by Ayres 2021, p. 328) as a teacher, without giving up the educational reference point of learning to deal with human vulnerability in a general way?

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In the three following research projects from the University of Bonn, the explorative elements of perceiving and embodying friction between colliding worlds and the accompanying vulnerabilities are discussed. The hermeneutical concept of Engeström (combined with the educational insights of Lombaerts) is a solid framework for the exploration of forms of intensified performative teacher education in times of transition. The benefit of this approach is the development of “groundedness” in teachers, that is, their ability to stand tall as wounded healers in transition processes. The dynamization of the friction through singing and poetry (cf. Domsel 2021), the authentification of the friction through body work and dance (cf. Vloebergs 2021) and the slowification of the friction through pilgrimage (cf. Niedermann 2021) are three performative teacher education models that can be explored in future teacher education settings. However, as these models are exploratory and require further research, they are not just a solution to the complexities in which RE and its teachers find themselves today. Rather, because these models involve a reconsideration of the role of the teacher as a vulnerable mediator between these equally vulnerable living worlds, they deserve attention. The international knowledge transfer dimension of these models is their possible applicability to other contexts in Europe and beyond. Therefore, RE research scholars are invited to consider these reflective elements when developing future teacher education programs and determine whether they could be appropriate directions in other contexts.

a.

Dynamization of the friction through singing and poetry

Singing is much more than a medium of communication. One’s own personality is reflected in the voice, is virtually embodied by it. Singing is an activity: it enables the sensitive perception of self-generated sound vibrations, which allows a focus on a strong personal expression and one’s own style. On the other hand, this same instrument is exposed to a particular vulnerability, because it is a part of the human body. In order to shine, it must be cared for carefully. Singing requires concentration on the matter at hand, it is emphatically present-oriented. With regard to RE and teacher education, the positive potentials of singing are currently used far too little or seem to have been forgotten. In earlier times, singing in the classroom was part of everyday life. The establishment of singing skills also played a not insignificant role in teacher education. It denoted and still denotes a special space for resilience and being-grounded. First of all, it helps the individual to concentrate and pay attention to himself/herself, to his/her own body and mind. Accordingly, singing represents a spiritual exercise that wants to be practiced, repeated and cultivated again and again. At the same time, singing implies a certain permeability, a special (acoustic) contact with the vastness of the

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space and with the people who are in it. Hearing another person sing creates attention and captivates. It is precisely this ability to fascinate that should be used much more in RE contexts, because it speaks to people, it lets messages arrive. These are heard, even and especially when they are irritating, just as religious experience and literacy can be irritating. It is precisely this irritation that is not to be wiped out or smoothed over or adapted. It is rather a matter of cultivating this irritation and using it as a strategy, because it makes the audience think and feel. The audience becomes a witness to a spiritual process. Through its subjective dimension and the collage-like tension between the momentary and the permanent, there is also a special proximity between the spiritual or religious and poetry (cf. Conrad 2014). Like the spiritual-religious, poetry also contains a beyond: it plays with linguistic rules, opens up new perspectives on life and being. It wants to articulate the unspoken in order to be able to approach the mysterious. In principle, poetry eludes “the smoothing time flow of narration and its order” (Luther 2014, p. 236, our translation) and holds on to “constellations of the moment [and to that] which appears irritatingly in it” (Luther 2014, p. 236, our translation). A particularly aesthetic component always resonates in the poetic, for after all, the “sonorous sensuality of words” (Reich 2009, our translation) is attributed essential significance. More than narration, poems are of a distinctly fragmentary and collage-like nature, which makes it possible to establish a special connection with the attitude to life of many postmodern people. Sometimes, there can even be a kind of “beatific disturbance in the encounter with something that expands the mind, opens it up and makes possible experiences that lie beyond concepts. As it happens in music, in poetry and many forms of art” (Sternberg 2021, p. 207, our translation). In them the divine flashes, making it less fixed. In this context, other authors raise the question whether or not poems could be there precisely to endure the emptiness associated with the diminishing certainty of faith (cf. Hummelt & Siblewski 2018). Especially in the setting of a RE class, which is determined by spiritual diversity and plurality, but at the same time also by nonreligious tendencies, poetry is a suitable means of communication, because it can reach as well spiritual, religious and non-religious pupils in a particularly moving and thought-provoking way.

b.

Authentification of the friction through body work and dance

In our search for wells of wisdom and our expedition of the “equal terrain” between teachers and students, we touch upon the role of embodied learning and performativity. It is the responsibility of RE teachers to give expression to and mediate between the world of young people, contemporary society and the world

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of religious experience and literacy. The role as mediator however puts teachers in a vulnerable position. Due to a permanent threat of irruptions and frictions within the current religious and societal climate, they risk losing common ground. Moreover, they risk fragmenting themselves, splitting their identity and performing multiple roles. Is this what we mean when we talk about performativity in RE? How do we combine performance and authenticity using embodied knowledge as a mediator between colliding worlds? The art of performing and the craft of doing theology have one curious thing in common, they are both intrinsically intertwined with the body. After all, Christian theology should be concerned with the body as it relates to the dogma of incarnation and bodily resurrection. Theology can learn a great deal from embodied performers such as dancers, despite its long-lasting negative associations with the body (cf. Goto 2016; Hilpert 2020). Two seemingly opposing interpretations of performativity need to be considered: first the theatricalization of the friction of colliding worlds and second the intensification of bodily authenticity. Both interpretations innovatively introduce embodied knowledge in theology and RE and renegotiate the positions of both teachers and students in the classroom and the public sphere. The role of narrative theologians and RE teachers as “linguistically hospitable” (Paul Ricœur) moderators has been highlighted before. In the same vein, theatrically performing Christian stories and interpreting the Catholic imagination (cf. Greeley 2000) could be an innovative way to dramatize the existing narrative theologies in classrooms. Drama has been an important concept for performative theology. It highlights the importance of embodiment, community, time and interpretation which stays more implicit in narrative theologies (cf. Craigo-Snell 2016). This author emphasizes the importance of performance regarding theology and Church, focusing on the public and liturgical life of Christian communities. However, she doesn’t pay attention to the possibilities of applying this performativity in RE. We consider the theatrical performance of an “irritating character” by the teacher as a meaningful way to address the existing collision present in the classroom. We advise future RE teachers to not hide behind an overly simplified correlation model or a watered-down confrontation between the colliding worlds, minimalizing the unique authenticity of the Christian tradition. On the contrary, we propose to exaggerate the often theatrical and dramatic elements of religious imagination. RE teachers and theologians can play an important role: they create tensions and conflict. Like weavers they tighten hermeneutical knots that facilitate an authentic search for religious and spiritual growth on “equal terrain”. Playing and witnessing this performance allows for identification or/ and resistance, it does not leave anyone unmoved.

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The performance of this “irritating character” does not compromise the authenticity of the RE teacher. Craigo-Snell argues that this doubleness (the differentiation between the performers and the roles they are playing) is an intrinsic part of every performance. Performers (also the ones in church and possibly in RE) are conscious about the way people behave and how actions in the world constitute who we are on a deeper level. Being conscious about these “restored behaviors” (such as repetitions of culturally normative gestures and rituals) and utilizing them, creates an awareness of the fact that we are not the sole inventors of our actions and that authentic identities are not simplistically constructed on our own terms. Theatrically repeating (religious) behaviors can assist performers in bringing a more genuine and authentic performance, guiding the audience towards deeper levels of embodied knowing that transcend culturally defined patterns. It displays what is central for a (religious) culture by repeating its embodied actions and affections. Craigo-Snell argues that “bodily manipulation is a pedagogical tool in the service of knowing that includes emotion, intellect and will” (Craigo-Snell 2016, p. 60). These techniques could be applied by RE teachers to study the religious imagination in class. They support the pursuit of embodied knowledge and spiritual growth without risking authenticity. Another approach to reconcile performance and authenticity in RE is the approach of dance and authentic movement. The emerging field of dance studies shows a particular interest in spirituality and analyses choreographic and dance therapeutic methodologies to accomplish wellbeing. Authors such as Zoë Avstreih (2017) go as far as to claim that there is a mutual relation between the embodied knowledge of dance and the inner knowledge of spirituality. We believe this search for embodied knowledge and spiritual growth can be applied to the field of theology and RE. This pioneering study provides a concrete opportunity for teachers to meet students on “equal terrain”, both groups are novices of the often neglected knowledge of the body. The practice and method of Authentic Movement (AM), in particular, is interesting for our study because it creates an environment where embodied knowledge can be explored. AM is not a codified form of dance but it relies on the person’s openness to develop authentic movements which are not culturally defined. Originally AM was built upon a one-on-one relationship between the mover and the witness who is offering reflections. This dynamic can be enacted in the classroom in search for authentic movements and distinguish culturally coded behaviors from authentic movements that reveal inner growth. The founder, Mary Starks Whitehouse, writes about AM: “It is a movement when the ego gives up control, stops choosing, stops exerting demands, allowing the Self to take over moving the physical body as it will” (1999, p. 82). During the performance of authentic movements, teachers and students work towards personal growth and connect to the unknown (cf. Bacon, 2017). AM can trigger previously

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unconscious sensations and hidden imagination through embodied experiences. These experiences can lead to a shared discovery of the religious imagination and lost affective images. It exemplifies and authentic and intergenerational search for meaning and spirituality based on embodied modes of knowing. Both ways, the performance of the “irritating character” and the shared search of embodied knowledge via AM are innovative ways of applying the concept of performativity to the RE context. This performativity transforms the teacher’s vulnerable role “between worlds” into a unique opportunity to showcase an authentic moment towards personal growth. Both students and teachers are challenged to learn from authentic movements and theatrical performances of religious behaviors. Teachers might learn from young people and their authentic embodied experiences and students might learn from teachers’ embodied knowledge of the past. Mutually grounded in their vulnerable “body work”, teachers and students create an in-between where colliding worlds can meet.

c.

Slowification of the friction through pilgrimage

RE and, by extension, RE teacher education face the challenges of worlds in transition. The requirements for prospective teachers of religion are demanding. They find themselves in professional practice walking a kind of tightrope act: they have to authentically reconcile the role of a teacher who is expected to be a person of information about religion, faith and spirituality (the objective dimension), and the role of a private person which may collide with the concerns and perceptions of the church (the subjective dimension) in addressing the life world of young people (the intersubjective dimension). The essential thing is not to get lost in this tension but to make the role one’s own through storytelling and authentic embodiment. The basic prerequisite for this demanding task of “groundedness” distills itself in the development of one’s own religious-spiritual identity as a teacher. However, many students, having decided to become RE teachers, increasingly rarely already bring this identity along with them. On the contrary: religious-spiritual education, for example in the form of an anchored Christian socialization, has long since ceased to be a certainty among prospective teachers. It can no longer be assumed that prospective teachers of religion can fall back on a classical religious socialization (cf. Rymarz 2012). A central role in the context of the study program must therefore be the accompanied reflection of the RE students in the awareness, development and also in the transformation of their own religious identity. We consider pilgrimage as an appropriate performative concept that can support and accompany prospective teachers of religion in the unfolding of their personal spiritual competence in light of their professional challenge in RE. How

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and by what means can the category of pilgrimage be made fruitful for teacher education? In order to clarify this, two differently designed research projects in the European context will be briefly presented. Firstly, we mention a study that was conducted at the University of Glasgow, that “aimed to gauge the value of pilgrimage as an element of faith formation of Catholic teacher education students” (Reilly et al. 2019, p. 212), by surveying undergraduate RE students who have participated in pilgrimages. As a result, the researchers postulated six dimensions of pilgrimage in the context of RE teacher students: (1) the participants’ affirmation or reaffirmation of their faith, (2) the positive experience of the social environment, the aspect of pilgrimage community, belonging, and shared drive, (3) the strong role of peer group learning, (4) a broad and diverse facet of triggers for a specifically personal religious experience, (5) the application, implementation, or change after returning, and (6) experiencing and living faith in public and central sites of the Christian tradition (cf. Reilly et al. 2019, p. 207–212). Secondly, pilgrimage is also a core element of the international SpiRiTex project (cf. Roebben 2018; Roebben & Welling 2021; Niedermann 2021) of which the empirical analysis is still work in progress. The project couples pilgrimage and RE teacher education by connecting the performative process of pilgrimage with substantial and elementary sources of faith – sacred spaces, rituals and texts. The starting point and subject of the study are RE teacher students with their different or even absent forms of religious knowledge and socialization. Although no final results can be presented yet, promising tendencies are already emerging. With regard to the means of pilgrimage, the following observations can be elaborated. Pilgrimage functions as a process of slowification. Through this slowing down, the pilgrims’ gaze and attention is sharpened which simultaneously widens the participants’ focus both on their surroundings and on their innermost being. This means, a successive opening of the mind occurs in the walking which then allows a special form of open encounter at eye level and exchange within the group. As in the Scottish study, it has been observed in the Bonn implementations to date that pilgrimage is able to bridge the gap between the space for both personal existential introspection and the communal aspect such as the connection to the group or the deep exchange with fellow pilgrims (cf. Reilly et al. 2019, p. 212; Niedermann 2021, p. 230–231). Moreover, in both studies the consistently positive effect of the abolition of hierarchical structures of accompaniment in pilgrimage is marked as a key to success (Reilly et al. 2019, p. 208). We closely link performativity with embodiment. Pilgrimage is a process that comprises the inside and the outside of the individual, in other words, mental exploration goes hand in hand with a certain physical challenge. Grabe looks at the phenomenon of pilgrimage in particular connection with sporting and

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physical activity and uses the image of “praying with one’s feet” (Grabe 2006, our translation). She emphasizes the interaction between the physical feeling and the spiritual experience and underlines that the mind drives the body on the one hand and is in turn stimulated by physical movement on the other (cf. Grabe 2006, p. 170). “Walking makes the fixed fluid” (Lienau 2009, p. 72; our translation). He describes an observation that is also evident in the German study. For the participants, walking the pilgrimage path means that they have to (re)locate themselves detached from the familiar paths of everyday life. He confirms that this experience is unsettling and irritating but it has great leverage: it is precisely this friction that favors learning-by-doing which makes entrenched patterns visible or burning questions attainable. At the same time, this irritation is made expressible and commonly carried through the closeness of the pilgrims in the shared experience (cf. Lienau 2009, p. 79). Participants of SpiRiTex outlined an inner movement in the concrete and visible outer movement of the pilgrimage path: a certain consciousness-raising as an encounter with oneself, which encourages questioning and reflecting on prevailing paradigms of action and thought. A new space (in some cases even a first space) opens up for prospective RE teachers where existential questions can be asked “on equal terrain”. This space for reflection and discussion is an impulse to (re)consider one’s own place in the system of the church institution (“resilience”) and to (re)discover one’s own authentic practice and religious-spiritual way of life in a constantly changing world (“authenticity”).

d.

Common features and future research

The three performative teacher education models described in this paper assumed that there was friction between the worlds of meaning the teachers find themselves in and having to stand morally and spiritually firm in such situations. As there are many other ways to deal with “groundedness” as a RE teacher, each person must make their own life-quality choices. However, these choices need to be made in a teacher education context so they can be referred to as part of their later professional life. This paper aimed to explore the art and culture border areas and identify the performative learning strategies that could contribute to making well-founded, personally embodied and didactically reflected choices during RE teacher education. The vulnerable position of teachers as bridge builders between colliding worlds and their roles as steadfast knowledge referents amid this tension requires further research, especially in times of social and cultural transition. Performative models need to be further examined and reflected on. RE teachers must be able to creatively embed their professional role as bridge builders and knowledge

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referents into their personalities and must also be able to socially justify these roles and self-critically reflect them. An important practical-theological line of inquiry that can support this practice is autoethnography, in which strategies are developed that can provide precise descriptions of the teacher role that account for the participants’ inner views, their subjective world constructions, their moral and spiritual convictions and their personal identities. Autoethnographic research tools (e. g. Barleet & Ellis 2009) were mainly developed in arts education. Parallel tools, such as the “dialogical self-theory” of Hubert Hermans (cf. Bakker & ter Avest 2019), the biographic approach of Fred Korthagen (cf. Roebben 2016, p. 119), the “autographic” method of Harry Kunneman (cf. Roebben 2016, p. 102–103) or the “life writing” approach of Heather Walton (cf. Walton 2014), can be considered as valuable contributions to teacher education. However, that work still needs to be done. Once again, here lies the invitation to cooperate internationally and to learn from each other.

Conclusion The need for a more solid inclusion of strategies of “intergenerationality” and “educationality” (see the train of thought of Friedrich Schweitzer above) in theological education in general and in RE teacher education more specifically is evident. Especially in times of transition this becomes clear, when worlds of difference collide in the RE classroom. The voice of young people should be heard intergenerationally, but their situation should also be educationally improved with an eye on the future. Colliding worlds should not only be reconciled, but should be allowed to exist, to be articulated and even to be activated. Learning to deal with such tensions in times of transition and still to find inner groundedness in one’s own “presence” and in the presence of others as a teacher seems to be a complex but promising task for future teacher education.

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Roebben, B. (2021). Religious Educational Leadership in Times of Upheaval. How to Build Sustainably on Insights From the Past? ET-Studies. Journal of the European Society for Catholic Theology, 12 (2), 357–367 [2021b]. Roebben, B. & Welling, K. (2021). Performative Religious Education. Chances and Challenges of a Concept in European Teacher Education. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner (eds.), International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster/New York: Waxmann, 91–105. Rymarz, R. (2012) “Isn’t There a Town Named After Him?” Content Knowledge and Teacher Training in Religious Education. Journal of Religious Education, 60 (2), 37–46. Schweitzer, F. (2005). Wider die Suche nach der theologischen Leitdisziplin. Theologie als Prozess interdisziplinärer Kooperation. In M. Rothgangel & E. Thaidigsmann (eds.), Religionspädagogik als Mitte der Theologie. Theologische Disziplinen im Diskurs. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 68–82. Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner, P. (2020). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education – A Manifesto for Discussion. Religious Education, 115 (1), 10–14. Vloebergs, S. (2021). Dancing between heaven and earth : understanding sacred dance from a mystical-theological perspective. Louvain studies, 43 (4), 352–371. Walton, H. (2014). Writing Methods in Theological Reflection. London: SCM-Press. Whitehouse, M.S. (1999). Authentic Movement. Essays by Mary Stark Whitehouse, Janet Adler and Joan Chodorow. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley.

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Friedrich Schweitzer

The need for an international voice: The meaning of international knowledge transfer and agreed international standards for the future of religious education1

Abstract The marginalization of RE is the starting point of this article. This marginalization has been observed both during the pandemic when schools – at least in Germany – tended to limit their teaching to so-called core subjects (which, needless to say, most often did not include RE) as well as in terms of long-term tendencies in a number of countries. Moreover, the article describes how academic religious education has not been able to become a public international voice concerning such tendencies which have negative effects on its field of study and expertise as well as on the practice of RE, most of all, in school. The author identifies one important reason for this lack of influence in the failure of the discipline of religious education to focus more intentionally on what could be called agreed international standards for RE. Instead, the debates about preferable models of RE have often prevailed in the international religious education discussion, although, given the historically, religiously, legally and politically different presuppositions of RE in different countries, it is rather unlikely that there could ever be international agreement concerning the preferable model for the school subject of RE. In response to this situation, the author suggests a number of different possibilities which could be more promising in terms of international cooperation and agreement. These possibilities refer to a core curriculum for RE, methods for the evaluation of RE based on empirical data, and the education of teachers of RE. Against this background, international knowledge transfer in religious education is understood as a possible way for academic religious education to develop a more respected international voice. It is suggested that this presupposes a discipline which can claim to produce knowledge and insights which are valid beyond individual countries – a demand which follows the idea of international knowledge transfer. In conclusion, a number of concrete projects are suggested which could be pursued in the future in order to strengthen international cooperation and international knowledge transfer in religious education. Keywords: religious education, international knowledge transfer, standards for RE, standards for teacher education for RE

1 This chapter is an expanded and revised version of a German article (Schweitzer, 2021).

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Introduction

In many countries, RE has come under pressure.2 The crisis of the COVID19 pandemic especially experienced in the years 2020 and 2021, highlighted some of the marginalizing tendencies even more. When schools closed down in Germany where I live and work, or where schools were reduced to a few hours per day or had to work with alternating groups of students, typically RE was among the first school subjects to be cancelled. The question of what children and adolescents need even in times of crisis was answered by emphasis on so-called core subjects like math, first language, foreign languages and the sciences. This understanding is in line with longstanding educational policies, among others, of the European Commission (2002) as well as with the emphasis on the subjects just mentioned in international studies like PISA. The problems associated with such tendencies in European politics have been analyzed in detail, as well as the marginalization faced by RE (Schreiner 2020). These analyses do not need to be repeated here. Instead, the focus will be on the role of academic religious education and its potential role in the context of such marginalizing tendencies. Obviously, this discipline has so far not (or at least, not yet) been successful in claiming an international public voice in order to speak up for RE. Since the tendencies described above have developed on an international or at least a European level, it makes sense to also consider the academic discipline of religious education in an international perspective. For this purpose, the lens of international knowledge transfer is chosen, in line with the thematic interest of the present volume. In order to make this perspective more understandable, a brief explanation of the understanding of international knowledge transfer presupposed in this chapter, is needed (also cf. Schreiner in this volume). A few years ago, a joint initiative of the Comenius-Institute in Münster/Germany and the chair of Protestant religious education at the University of Tübingen/Germany initiated a new discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education. The starting point was two international consultations in Berlin which served the further clarification of international knowledge transfer in religious education and which led to the publication of a first volume dedicated to this topic (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021a). This volume was preceded by a manifesto introducing the idea of international knowledge transfer in religious education which was published in leading religious education journals in different countries (Manifesto 2019). In addition to this, a number of articles were published in different countries (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2020; Schweitzer 2019). 2 In this chapter, religious education in the lower case refers to the academic discipline while RE refers to the school subject of Religious Education.

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The next step was the (digital) conference at the University of Bonn in 2021 which was the first step towards the present volume. According to the Manifesto, international knowledge transfer in religious education does not mean a one-way-process. Instead, the idea of sharing knowledge is emphasized: Since some concepts of ‘transfer’ seem to imply uni-lateral relationships or even hierarchies between those who are in possession of a certain knowledge und those who should receive it, concepts like ‘sharing’ or ‘exchanging’ knowledge appear to be more applicable to the cooperative spirit characteristic of the field of religious education. What is decisive, however, is that initiatives are needed which follow the format of truly sharing knowledge, i. e. of investigating how different insights concerning a certain task or problem, for example, of successful teaching fit together.

The Manifesto has received very positive responses, as a constructive and timely endeavor which definitely should be pursued in the field. Yet how and in what respect can this initiative and the different discussions related to it, be considered a contribution against the marginalization of RE? Moreover, what does this imply for the understanding of international knowledge transfer in religious education? These two questions will be pursued in this article. As mentioned above, the starting point will be the position of RE in statesponsored schools which has come under pressure. The reference to such a political and practical issue is in line with the demand formulated by Schweitzer and Schreiner that the question of international knowledge transfer in religious education should not be confined to an ivory tower of epistemology, of the theory of science and of empirical research on scientific work, but it should also be related to the practical processes in which the transfer of knowledge is actually taking place (cf. Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021a; Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021b, p. 264). This is not meant to deny the value of questions of the theory of science. Yet in religious education the aim must always be to make constructive use of the knowledge transfer in respect to practice and politics. So far, the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education was not focused on political aspects, although the Manifesto included the intention to reach broader audiences beyond the academic world (cf. Miedema 2021). Moreover, it makes reference to programs of the European Union which support international exchange like Erasmus+ as well as to programmatic aims like a “European knowledge space” or a “European research area” intended by the European Commission (see for example, European Commission 2002). At the same time, it must be critically stated from the perspective of religious education that the discussions on knowledge transfer in European politics tend to have a narrow focus which is often limited to the areas of technology and economics.

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Neither the need nor the possibility of international knowledge transfer in religious education has been in view in this political context. In the following, the focus will be on Europe and on European discussions. This does not mean, however, that the developments described in this article would necessarily be limited to Europe. It may also be possible to understand the European experiences as an example which resonates with experiences in other countries or other parts of the world.

2.

No international voice of religious education?

On first sight, the claim that religious education does not have an international voice at least in Europe, may sound overdone or may even appear mistaken. It is indeed quite impressive how successfully academic religious education in Europe has been committed to internationalizing its work during the last 40 or 50 years. Many will probably think of ISREV (International Seminar on Religious Education and Values) which has played an increasingly important role for the international or even worldwide discussion in this discipline (cf. Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021a, p. 34). Moreover, the increasing number of international academic associations and cooperative initiatives have to be mentioned in this context as well. In this sense, the internationalization of religious education was indeed a success story, even if the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education has identified a certain lacuna concerning international cooperation in research (cf. Manifesto 2019). In addition to this, one might also think – in the field of religious studies – of the EASR working group on religion in public school or of a number of religious education associations with a more practical focus (for example, ICCS/Intereuropean Commission on Church and School, EFTRE/European Forum for Teachers of Religious Education, CoGREE/ Coordinating Group for Religion in Education in Europe), even if the emphasis in the present article is on academic religious education. In spite of all its efforts towards internationalizing its work, however, academic religious education in Europe has not succeeded to claim a position in the field of educational politics in Europe that could be called authoritative or at least publicly respected. There have been first attempts to formulate criteria or standards for RE at an international level but academic religious education was not the basis of these initiatives (OSCE/ODIHR 2007; Jackson 2014). Individual representatives and experts of religious education were involved with such initiatives but the initiatives themselves were not launched, for example, by respective religious education associations or on behalf of academic religious education. In the absence of internationally accepted research results (which was one of the critical starting points of the project on international knowledge

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transfer, cf. Schreiner in this volume) these initiatives could only base their work on open-ended religious education discussions but not on a broadly accepted consensus or framework. At the same time, probably because they were not rooted in the international academic religious education community, the statements resulting from such initiatives often tended to be too close to one of the competing models of RE and could therefore hardly find general acceptance. In the case of the statements mentioned above, for example, it seems that it was most of all British multi-faith RE from which the terminology was borrowed and which through this, served as an ideal model or even as a presupposition for the terminology and for the categories used. Just like all models of RE, however, the UK model is closely related to the history of this particular country. Its development can hardly be understood without the influence of the immigration after the end of the Commonwealth, i. e. post-colonial UK history and of the role of Protestant liberal theology in the 1960s and 1970s. In this sense, this model is strongly connected to a certain context and can obviously not just be transferred to other places with their different histories and presuppositions. Such observations could also be a motive for raising objections against the views presented in this article. Is it even possible to establish something like an international voice for religious education or is this field of study bound to national groups of researchers in such a way that the findings of this discipline cannot play an international role because they are limited to national contexts? This question makes obvious how closely the possibilities of acquiring political influence are related to the themes and problems which have been discussed in the debate on international knowledge transfer in religious education. In both cases the most challenging task arises from the need to become clear about what valid research results religious education is able to achieve beyond regional and national contexts and how it can represent them and make them known to an international public.

3.

Religious education and international knowledge transfer

In a second step it must now be considered in more detail in what respects international knowledge transfer in religious education can strengthen the status of religious education as an academic discipline and through that, also the practice of RE.

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Agreement in academic religious education on the basis of scientific results? If there really is to be something like an international authoritative voice of academic religious education, this would presuppose at least a certain amount of agreement between researchers in different countries. Since religious education is being referred to as an academic discipline, this agreement cannot simply consist of certain shared political, ethical or religious convictions. Instead, the agreement must be about standards and demands based on research results which are accepted internationally. Moreover, these insights must be clearly related to religious education in general and, in the present context most of all, to RE. Following the self-understanding of scientific knowledge, this knowledge must have an international character and applicability which is not limited to a certain region (even if there can always be exceptions to this claim due to regional presuppositions). In this sense, such knowledge must also be the core of a possible international knowledge transfer in religious education. However, this view is no proof for the actual possibility for such knowledge to really exist. Since the practice of religious education always takes shape in a certain concrete location, this cannot be taken for granted. Yet if there would just be no internationally valid knowledge in religious education, there could be no international voice of religious education, for example, in Europe, at least not on the basis of scientifically established knowledge and insights but only as an expression of shared religious and ethical or political convictions. An international voice of religious education presupposes some degree of agreement on a scientific basis. Such considerations show that the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education has important political implications for RE. What on first glance might appear to be an abstract academic discourse on the ability to generalize research results, may have major practical consequences. If research results can also be applied independently of their origin in one particular country, such consequences could affect the teaching of RE even in individual schools. Yet to underscore the need for continuing the academic discourse because of its practical importance is only the one side. On the other side, the relationship between theory and practice aspired to in this case also implies the demand on this discourse to include possible applications in the practice of RE. The strongest disagreement in the international religious education discussion during the last decades has been about the different models of RE – from confessional to neutral or even no special subject for religious topics. As mentioned above, since these models are closely related to respective legal and institutional presuppositions in different countries, it seems difficult to imagine that consensus will be reached in this respect. At the same time, however, there has been the repeated observation that in reality, in spite of different legal and

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administrative regulations, religious education is taught in similar ways across national borderlines so that the actual similarities are much stronger than the differences (cf. Schreiner 2019; Kliemann 2019; concerning the teachers own views see already Ziebertz & Riegel 2009). Perhaps the agreements required as a basis for an international voice of religious education could be found more at the level of the actual teaching than concerning the different models of RE. This is why the question was raised above if more application-oriented topics should be given stronger emphasis in the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education in the future.

4.

Application-oriented topics in the discussion of international knowledge transfer in religious education

There are many possibilities for application-oriented questions and projects which could play a role in the discussion of international knowledge transfer in religious education. Only three topics will be discussed as examples in the following.

Development of syllabi for RE in international cooperation Similarly to RE with its different models, the syllabi for RE often seem to follow national traditions. In other words, they vary from country to country or even from one region to another. This observation may be explained, to a high degree, by the fact that the syllabi for RE most often are part of more comprehensive and pre-defined curriculum frameworks used for all subjects in the respective country or jurisdiction and consequently must fit with often national regulations concerning such frameworks. Such regulations obviously tend to be based on political decisions which, as a rule, are not or at best indirectly related to scientific research results (for the German syllabus tradition see the comprehensive analysis carried out by Dieterich 2007). Nevertheless, at least as a possible starting point,, there could be scientific criteria and demands from academic religious education concerning the selection of contents or the aims of the subject which, at least ideally speaking, could be based on an international consensus. In any case one could consider the more cautious claim that an international debate about the contents of RE would be quite worthwhile. At least in part, there may be commonalities across national borders. For example, there seems to be almost general agreement in religious education now that several religions or religious traditions and worldviews must

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be treated, instead of the traditional focus on only one religion (one’s own). What is in need of further discussion, however, is the question if the religions, traditions and worldviews should be treated in ways which do justice to both their selfunderstanding as well as the aims of scientifically-distanced interpretations. Some representatives of religious studies for example, intentionally limit themselves to the perspective of the outsider (one of the clearest statements in this respect is Körber 1988) while certain views of RE related to churches or theology wish to emphasize a Christian insider’s perspective in the first palace or, sometimes, even exclusively. Most likely, there will be more consensus concerning other criteria, although there are many open questions in academic religious education concerning the construction of syllabi as well. Examples for possible agreements could be the selection of contents in correspondence to the age of the pupils, the sequence of learning processes in RE (among others, increasing complexity), the avoidance of inert knowledge by cognitive activation, etc. Other principles for teaching RE like the focus on students’ subjective perspectives which are widely cherished in the German-speaking discussion could cause more disagreement because they might appear closely related to personal theologies and convictions and may therefore be judged as not fitting with the more distanced (“objective”) approach of religious studies prevailing in some European countries. Consensus is again likely concerning aims like making some basic knowledge about religions and worldviews available to the students as well as teaching for tolerance, respect and mutual recognition, even if strictly neutral approaches like the one mentioned above may not find any aims related to attitudes acceptable. In other words, working towards a consensus concerning certain criteria does not appear completely hopeless, in spite of the different syllabus traditions in different countries. The result of this cooperative effort could be an international framework for syllabus construction originating from academic religious education. The intention would not be to prescribe all contents in the national or regional syllabi but only to identify core contents which syllabi should include independently of their otherwise regional or national character. If this framework would not be too comprehensive and too complex there might be a chance that it could actually be used in different countries, at least as a point of reference in syllabus construction.

Possibilities of evaluating RE based on empirical data In many countries, the international studies comparing schools and the students’ competencies carried out on a regular basis since the 1990s as well as the international debates on religious literacy (cf. Hannam et al. 2020, Schweitzer et al.

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2022, also see Jahnke in this volume) and other developments have led to attempts of evaluating the actual learning results in RE as well (cf. Schweitzer & Boschki 2018). In Sweden (cf. Osbeck et al. 2018) and in Australia (cf. Poncini 2021), to only mention the two countries where this is most clearly the case, tests are carried out in RE every year based on instruments used on a nationwide scale. In the United Kingdom, evaluations are carried out by OFSTED, but without scientifically validated instruments. In Germany, a study carried out by group of researchers led by the philosopher of education Dietrich Benner in Berlin, is the most well-known example of assessment of competences acquired in RE (cf. Benner et al. 2011). Moreover, currently the project QUIRU (Quality and Quality Development in RE) based at the University of Tübingen is working on developing and validating an instrument for RE (cf. Schweitzer 2020, pp. 204–208). The instruments developed in the different countries mentioned here show clear parallels, although there also are differences in correspondence to the respective models of RE in these countries. The instrument used in Australia, for example, is based on denominational RE taught in Roman Catholic schools and mirrors a curriculum focused on contents related to the Roman Catholic Church. Given the parallels which can be observed concerning the instruments used in different countries, developing a shared international instrument for measuring competencies and the acquisition of competencies may be considered a real possibility, especially if this development would be carried out in international cooperation. If competency acquisition which can be demonstrated by such an instrument, could actually be shown for RE, this could certainly contribute to strengthening the status of this subject. This can be seen again from the example of Australia where competency acquisition was captured in different forms of RE and where the RE taught in Roman Catholic schools turned out to be especially successful (Halafoff et al. 2020). However, there also are risks connected to such an idea which must be mentioned here as well. Such risks can indeed be identified, but from my point of view, they do not speak against the idea of an international instrument for evaluating RE as such. Instead, they indicate that critical attention to certain issues is needed in designing and using such an instrument. The biggest risk probably consists in a one-sided technological understanding of RE (RE being reduced to measurable outcomes) on the one hand and in an impoverishment of the contents through standardization on the other (exclusive focus on international expectations, neglecting regional and national specialties and needs, like particular traditions and potentials). This is why respective attempts must be constantly aware of the limitations of international evaluations in RE, i. e. that they cannot capture RE exhaustively but only concerning certain aspects, while other aspects must remain free from evaluation and protected from stand-

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ardization. The decisive task will then be to nevertheless identify a common core of competences as a reference point for international evaluations.

Perspectives for teacher education for RE There is broad agreement in religious education today that the education of teachers of RE is of decisive importance for the quality of RE as well as for the subject in general. Internationally, however, the actual shape of this education varies enormously (cf. Jäggle et al. 2013 as well as the later volumes in this series; also see Junker & Rothgangel in this volume). In addition to this, RE is often taught by non-specialist teachers, for example in the UK (cf. Conroy et al. 2013). In other countries like Germany, the education of teachers of RE is well-established concerning secondary schools and there are legal regulations which guarantee a high-level education of the teachers, yet teacher education for primary schools has not reached the same level. Even within the European Union, there is no agreement concerning the kind or level of the diploma required for teachers. Sometimes a bachelor degree is considered sufficient while in other countries a master degree is the minimum. Concerning the contents and qualifications which the education of teachers of RE should comprise, major differences are to be expected as well, although no research results concerning this field of teacher education have become available so far. Moreover, there is no focused discussion concerning this question in academic religious education. Given this situation it is not surprising that international discussions and scientific expectations from religious education do not seem to play a role for the decisions made in the different countries. There also is no international framework which could serve as a reference point in such processes, and there are no research results on which such a framework could draw. Representatives of academic religious education may be called upon to participate in the syllabus committees set up by state or church, depending on the country, but so far, these representatives will find it hard to exert an influence based on research results. Without respective empirically-based results on questions of teacher education, no scientific evaluations are possible.

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International knowledge transfer as a way towards an international voice for religious education?

The examples of possible international cooperation in religious education described above – development of syllabi, evaluation of RE, education of teachers of RE – indicate that in all of these cases there is a need for international knowledge transfer in religious education in order to achieve meaningful results. Moreover, it must be made clear what the role of religious education as an academic discipline should be within this cooperation. Although research in religious education should not be reduced to empirical research because historical and analytical studies are needed as well, it is nevertheless obvious that empirically-based research results will be indispensable in the context described. This need should therefore be taken up in the future development of the academic discipline of religious education. Religious education will only be able to claim an international voice if this discipline is able to present itself as a discipline which can offer insights and research results which are of importance not only in one country. The expectation, however, that this would presuppose international applicability of insights produced by the discipline of religious education and that, for example, there is no need for modifications based on different situations, appears too narrow. It will not be possible to judge the meaning of research results for the practice in this field without carefully considering local and regional or national presuppositions which may differ considerably from one place to another. Yet this does not mean that judging their meaning would be possible without making use of scientific insights for which international validity can be claimed. At this point, once more the weight of the validity and scope of knowledge in religious education becomes visible which has been discussed extensively in the context of the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education (cf. Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021a). There is a close connection between questions of the theory of science and practical questions in this respect. It is an urgent desideratum to find some kind of balance between the opposite poles of universal validity claims on the one hand and the practical exigencies of local or regional practices on the other, especially concerning developments in the politics of education. A discipline which is to produce research results with only national or regional validity, can hardly claim an international voice.

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A view to the future: Theoretical clarifications, shared standards, international textbooks

In a field of discussion like the one on international knowledge transfer in religious education which has received more focused attention only in the last five years, most naturally many possibilities for future work can be identified. At the end of this chapter, three tasks appear to be of special importance. At least the first two refer to the presuppositions of the application-oriented cooperation describe above. – If internationalization should be advanced without falling prey to the threat of standardized RE, a clear identification is needed of the areas which should remain different on a national and an international level, as opposed to such areas in which shared expectations and standards make sense and are possible. This identification is a task for theoretical clarification which has not really been undertaken so far. Instead, the religious education discussion seems to be vacillating between the opposite poles of adopting models from other countries (for example the multi-faith model from England and Wales which is then considered the ideal model) or the complete rejection of international commensurability (everything is then supposed to be dependent on the presuppositions in one’s own country). The authors of the Manifesto (2019) on international knowledge transfer in religious education critically state the need for attempts of solving certain problems in religious education in an international-cooperative manner. Against this background it would again make sense to have an international project group with the task of identifying what could be international standards for RE as well as the areas and aspects which cannot be internationalized. – The question if it would really be feasible to set down shared international standards for RE has been addressed several times in this article. It refers to the ways in which syllabi are constructed, for which standards have come to play an increasingly important role; it is also of basic importance for evaluations of RE, especially concerning the competencies acquired by the students, and last but not least, it is related to teacher education for RE. Shared standards of this kind are not easy to reach and even the idea itself can raise many questions and even apprehensions. My earlier impulse in this direction has, from time to time, been taken up and quoted (cf. Schweitzer 2002), yet as to my knowledge, no initiatives for developing such standards have been undertaken so far. Again an international working group could be helpful in addressing this task. – Another long-term possibility for supporting international knowledge transfer at least in Europe where there might be enough common ground for this in teacher education, could be the attempt to make international academic

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textbooks available. Of course, such textbooks would have to be developed in international cooperative authorship which would presuppose extended processes of consultation. These books could have their focus on those areas for which there is international agreement. An analysis of existing religious education textbooks in different countries could be a suitable starting point for a respective project. First beginnings in this direction were a made at the University of Vienna on the occasion of the publication of the English translation of a well-known German textbook (Rothgangel et al. 2014). To continue this approach would still be a worthwhile endeavor. Throughout this article it has become obvious that international knowledge transfer in religious education is not only important for the advancement of academic work and research but is of political importance as well. The transfer must be based on academic work but always with an eye on practical and political implications, especially concerning the status of RE and possible tendencies of its marginalization. Establishing an international public voice for religious education could be major achievement in this context.

References Benner, D., Schieder, R., Schluß, & Wille, J. (Eds.) (2011). Religiöse Kompetenz als Teil öffentlicher Bildung. Versuch einer empirisch, bildungstheoretisch und religionspädagogisch ausgewiesenen Konstruktion religiöser Dimensionen und Anspruchsniveaus. Paderborn at al.: Schöningh. Conroy, J.C., Lundie, D., Davis, R.A., Baumfield, Barnes, L.P, Gallagher, T., Lowden, K., Bourque, N. & Wenell, K. (2013). Does Religious Education Work? A Multi-dimensional Investigation. London & New York: Bloomsbury. Dieterich, V.-J. (2007). Religionslehrplanentwicklung in Deutschland (1870–2000). Gegenstand und Konstruktion des evangelischen Religionsunterrichts im religionspädagogischen Diskurs und in den amtlichen Vorgaben. Göttingen: V&R. European Commission (2002). Information Society Technologies: thematic priority under the specific programme “Integrating and strengthening the European research area” (2002–2006). https://cordis.europa.eu/programme/id/FP6-IST (viewed: 14. 04. 2021). Halafoff, A., Singleton, A., Bouma, G. & Rasmussen, M. L. (2020). Religious literacy of Australia’s Gen Z teens: diversity and social inclusion. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 41, 195–213. Hannam, Patricia, Biesta, Gert, Whittle, Sean & Aldridge, David (2020). Religious literacy: a way forward for religious education? Journal of Beliefs & Values, 41, https://www.tan dfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13617672.2020.1736969. Jackson, R. (2014). Signposts – Policy and practice for teaching about religions and nonreligious world views in intercultural education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.

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Jäggle, M., Rothgangel. M. & Schlag, T. (Eds.) (2013). Religiöse Bildung an Schulen in Europa. Teil 1: Mitteleuropa. Vienna: V&R. Kliemann, P. (2019). Tübingen, Europa und zurück. Religionsunterricht im internationalen Kontext. Stuttgart: Calwer. Körber, S. (1988). Didaktik der Religionswissenschaft. In H. Cancik, B. Gladigow & M. Laubacher (Hrsg.). Handbuch religionswissenschaftlicher Grundbegriffe. Bd. 1. Stuttgart et al.: Kohlhammer, 195–215. Manifesto (2019), International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education: A Manifesto for Discussion, https://comenius.de/themen/Evangelische-Bildungsverantwortung-inEuropa/international-knowledge-transfer-in-religious-education.php. Miedema, S. (2021). Strengthening the links between academia, lifeworld and politics in religious and worldview education. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner, P. (Eds.). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster & New York: Waxmann, 229–242. Osbeck, C., Franck, O., Lilja, A., Sporre, K. & Tykesson, J. (2018). Abilities, knowledge requirements and national tests in RE – The Swedish case as an example in the outcomefocused school and society of today. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie, 70, 397– 408. OSCE/ODIHR (2007). Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools. Warsaw, OSCE/ODIHR. Poncini, A. (2021). Research insights: perceived differences about teaching and assessment practices in religious education. Journal of Religious Education, 69, 37–56. Rothgangel, M., Schlag, T. & Schweitzer, F. (Eds.) (2014). Basics of Religious Education. Göttingen: V&R. Schreiner, P. (ed.) (2019). Are you READY? Diversity and Religious Education Across Europe – the Story of the READY Project. Münster & New York: Waxmann. Schreiner, P. (2020). Religious Education in Transition. In I. ter Avest, C. Bakker, J. Ipgrave, S. Leonhard & P. Schreiner (Eds.). Facing the Unknown Future. Religion and Education on the Move. Münster & New York: Waxmann, 29–46. Schreiner, P. & Schweitzer, F. (2021a). International knowledge transfer in religious education. Interpretations and further perspectives. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner, P. (Eds.). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster & New York: Waxmann, 11–43. Schreiner, P. & Schweitzer, F. (2021b). Conclusions and further perspectives on future tasks concerning international knowledge transfer in religious education. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner, P. (Eds.). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster & New York: Waxmann, 267–271. Schweitzer, F. (2002). International Standards for Religious Education – In Conversation with John M. Hull. Panorama, 14, 49–56. Schweitzer, F. (2019). International knowledge transfer in religious education? The example of Germany and South Africa as test case. HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies, 75 (4), 2–7. Schweitzer, F. (2020). Religion noch besser unterrichten. Qualität und Qualitätsentwicklung im RU. Göttingen: V&R. Schweitzer, F. (2021). Gegen die Marginalisierung religiöser Bildung. Internationaler Wissenstransfer in der Religionspädagogik und seine Bedeutung für die Zukunft reli-

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giöser Bildung in Europa. In T. Böhme, B. Kappelhoff & J. Ta Van (Eds.). Zur Zukunft religiöser Bildung in Europa. Festschrift für Dr. Peter Schreiner. Münster: Waxmann, 151–164. Schweitzer, F. & Boschki, R. (Eds.) (2018). Researching Religious Education. Classroom Processes and Outcomes. Münster & New York: Waxmann. Schweitzer, F., Osbeck, C., Räsänen, A., Rutkowski, M., & Schnaufer, E. (2022). Current debates about (inter-)religious literacy and assessments of the outcomes of religious education: two approaches to religion-related knowledge in critical review. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2099684. Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner, P. (2020). International knowledge transfer in religious education: universal validity or regional practices? Backgrounds, considerations and open questions concerning a new debate. British Journal of Religious Education, 42, 4, 381– 390. Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner, P. (Eds.) (2021a). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster & New York: Waxmann. Ziebertz, H.-G. & Riegel, U. (Eds.) (2009). How Teachers in Europe Teach Religion. Berlin: LIT.

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Part II – Processes of knowledge transfer in RE teacher education

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Jenny Berglund

Moving between different types of RE. Knowledge to be transferred or not?

Abstract In Sweden, the school subject, religion education (RE), is supposed to be integrative, compulsory and non-denominational, which means that all students are taught together in the same classroom about religion and religions from grade one until secondary school. Today, similar to the Swedish population, many RE teacher students have immigrant backgrounds. Some of these teacher students have therefore experienced RE as part of their Swedish school education and also in their country of origin where RE is divided based on denomination. This paper analyzes the experiences of the teacher students who have experienced these two RE types and explored the connections with international knowledge transfer. Keywords: religious education, religious education, RE, teacher students, immigration, “other knowledge”

In 2019, I was part of the international group that published a Manifesto (Manifesto 2019) that drew attention to the need for further discussions on international religious education knowledge transfers, which was consequently distributed and published in several leading journals in different countries (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2021, 267–271). I also contributed to a book on international knowledge transfer that was published in 2021 where I discussed the challenges associated with comparing the religious education programs in diverse European countries. I became particularly interested in understanding what we, as scholars, could learn from the side-by-side comparisons of RE curricula, textbooks, educational policy, etc. as part of cross-border religious education knowledge transfers and transformation. In this chapter, I continue to discuss cross-border transfer and transformation, but in a different manner. I am interested in the experience of students who have not only travelled across borders but also experienced RE in school, in at least two different countries, one of them being Sweden. These students are thus not any Swedish students, they are teacher students who are studying to become religion education teachers in the Swedish school system.

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As the observant reader will already have noted, I sometimes use the term religion education when focusing the Swedish school subject. The reason is that I find it necessary to distinguish between the different ways that religion is taught in Europe. In other words, the term religion education is a choice made to illustrate the Swedish school subject’s officially non-denominational character that is based on a Religious Studies approach (Jensen 2008).1 The aim of the chapter is to better comprehend how teacher students connect the experience of RE in two national contexts and to explore it in terms of international knowledge transfer with a specific focus on how they engage with “the other knowledge”, here meaning the RE that they experienced outside Sweden. By doing this I want to further understand the relationship between contextually bound knowledge production and potential knowledge transfer.

1.

Different ways of engaging with “other knowledge”

In the introductory chapter to International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education (2021), Schreiner and Schweitzer present a model that includes four different ways to engage with “other knowledge” (p. 36–37). The model is based on Ortfried Schäffter’s different ways of engaging with “the other,” but was further developed to fit the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education: 1. The “other knowledge” as resonance for one’s own knowledge. 2. The “other knowledge” as a counter concept. 3. The “other knowledge” as an additional supplement. 4. The “other knowledge” as a complementary mode. These four different ways of engaging with “other knowledge” will thus be used to analyse how the teacher students of this study talk about the different types of knowledge gained from the RE that they experienced in other countries. What should be further noticed is that the type of knowledge discussed by students is not primarily academic knowledge but rather personal and experiential knowledge related to their different biographies. At the end of this chapter, the teacher education implications for engagement with this “other knowledge” are discussed.

1 A direct translation of the Swedish word Religionskunskap is ‘knowledge about religion’. Since religion education keeps the abbreviation RE and is already established (Jensen 2008) I prefer not using the direct translation of the Swedish word. In this chapter I thus use RE for school subjects that concern religion.

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A Compulsory school subject

RE in Sweden has no special status. It is a school subject like all other school subjects. It is mandatory for all (since 1996), like maths, history, physical education, home economics, etc. From a European perspective, however, integrative, compulsory RE is a fairly unique phenomenon.2 In most other European countries, it is possible to be exempted from the school subject that concerns religion, if the parents so wish. The compulsory nature of Swedish RE, according to the National Agency for Education, is intended to be in line with the European Convention on Human Rights as long as Sweden can guarantee that ‘information be conveyed in an objective and pluralistic manner’ (Berglund 2023; Kilkelly 1999, 71). This character of RE in Sweden has not been uncontroversial. It has been questioned from denominational points of view: members of various religious denominations of different strands have argued that non-denominational RE is not education about religion and religions from a neutral point of view, but rather an education into atheism or secularism. This is an argument that has been used to justify the right for parents to establish schools based on their own religious convictions by reference to the European Convention on Human Rights (Berglund 2010).

2.1

From religious instruction to religion education

The Swedish school system has a long history of Christian religious instruction linked to the former Lutheran State Church. Although schooling was made compulsory for all children in 1842, Sven Hartman notes that ‘Swedes [had been] a reading people’ long before that – a result of the Ecclesiastical Act of 1686, which charged parents and masters with the domestic responsibility of teaching their children and servants to read (Hartman 2007, 260). At that time, religious instruction was the most important school subject, and this remained the case until a major curriculum revision in 1919, the starting point of what may be called the secularization of Swedish schools. The transformations in 1919 were, as Mette Buchardt has shown, to a large extent driven by representatives of liberal theology and cultural Protestantism (‘neo-Protestantism’) (Buchardt et al. 2013, 81; see also Skogar 2005). The idea was that liberal theology could offer a liberal science-based alternative to both Pentecostalism, which had in the preceding decades become well-established in Sweden, and the conservative layers in the state church. In addition, neo-Protestantism was presented as an alternative to Social Democracy, which at that time was often viewed as leading to atheism. 2 Norway has an RE school subject that is similar, as well as some cantons in Switzerland.

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Later, however, when the Swedish Social Democrats came into office, they instead became partners in the process of transforming education (Buchardt 2013, 87). Liberal theologians, such as Archbishop Nathan Söderblom, aimed at ‘humanising, socialising and culturalising Christianity by employing it in different social fields, e. g. the educational field. Their involvement contributed to secularisation in the meaning of a growing division between the state and church matters, e. g. the question of schooling’ (Buchardt et al. 2013, 83). As a result, religious instruction was reduced by fifty percent (1919), other subjects were introduced to balance the difference, and ‘[f]ostering for national citizenship instead of the Lutheran faith became the task of the school system’ (Hartman 2007, 260). During the 20th century, ongoing social changes led to further demands to reduce the Christian emphasis in schools, and after many parliamentary debates, education in Swedish schools was made ‘non-denominational’ in the 1962 syllabus (Löfstedt 2011, 211), which was also when the selective dual school system was abandoned and school for all introduced [allmän grundskola]. The school subject Christianity [Kristendom] was renamed Knowledge about Christianity [Kristendomskunskap], and it was stipulated that the teaching of religion needed to be neutral and objective, which meant that teachers had to teach about other religions and were not allowed to influence pupils’ beliefs (Skogar 2005, 41). In 1969, the subject name was again changed, to Religionskunskap (‘Knowledge about religions’), which confirmed its transition from a denominational to a non-denominational school subject that prioritizes teaching about religion and different religions. In this period, RE also shifted from being a primarily factsoriented subject to a student-oriented one (Hartman 2011, 30). During the late eighties and early nineties, Swedish society became increasingly multicultural. The increased diversity and pluralism was reflected in both the syllabus for RE and the national curriculum from the period. In the syllabus teaching about non-Christian religions was given more emphasis. In order to weld together all pupils and teachers, despite their different cultural backgrounds, the curriculum of 1994 introduced values education in a new way (Skolverket 1994). Values such as freedom, equality and solidarity were (and still are) presented as the foundation that school should rest on. Everyone in school, both adults and children, should work to ensure that these ‘fundamental values’ are ‘imparted and instilled’ in all subjects. The present national curriculum contains the following statement, which was also part of the 1994 curriculum: The inviolability of human life, individual freedom and integrity, the equal value of all people, equality between women and men and solidarity with the weak and vulnerable are all values that the school should represent and impart. In accordance with the ethics borne by Christian tradition and Western humanism, this is achieved by fostering in the

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individual a sense of justice, generosity of spirit, tolerance and responsibility. Teaching in the school should be non-denominational. (Skolverket 2011, 9.)3

In accordance with Sweden’s Education Act (2010), the values outlined in this statement are meant to be achieved in all schools, both public and free schools. The ‘objectivity’ and ‘neutrality’ of education is not to be intruded upon by indoctrinating or tendentious modes of discourse, regardless of a school’s profile – confessional or any other (Berglund 2013). On top of these fundamental values, all schools have to reach the goals of the national syllabi in all school subjects, including religion education. The reference to ‘ethics borne by Christian tradition and Western humanism’ in the national curriculum (see above) has provoked significant debate, especially as the curriculum also states that education should be ‘non-denominational’. The use of the term non-denominational (icke-konfessionell) in the above quotation is meant to imply that in the Swedish school system education is to be implemented in such a way that no particular worldview is prioritized, and pupils from all cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds would feel comfortable to attend. This however, does not extend to the realm of the fundamental values, the mediation of which the national curriculum considers a primary task of Sweden’s educational system (Kittelmann-Flensner 2016).

2.2

RE teacher education

So how are the RE teachers of this somewhat ambiguous school subject educated? The academic requirements for becoming an RE teacher includes courses in the study of religions as well as didactics of the study of religion (Alberts 2008) [religionsdidaktik] and educational sciences. Courses in theology can be included, but it depends on the university in charge.4 Students seeking to teach RE at primary, secondary or upper secondary school need to take courses that total between 7,5–90 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) points. Secondary and upper secondary RE teacher students also often combine RE with a second school subject, such as history, geography or a language. Teachers of RE in Sweden can belong to any, or no religious tradition, and they can, as all other teachers in Sweden, wear religious garments or not. This is also

3 This is the official English translation, the word used in Swedish for non-denominational is icke-konfessionell, which could also be translated to non-confessional. 4 At for example Stockholm university, where there is no faculty of theology the students study history of religions and didactics of the study of religions within the faculty of humanities.

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obvious when meeting RE teacher’s student groups at the university since they represent the Swedish multi-religious diversity.

3.

The teacher students in this study

The study’s empirical material consists of 12 semi-structured interviews with Swedish teacher students who participated in RE in another country, prior or parallel to experiencing RE in Sweden, most of them in their country of origin. The interviews were conducted through Zoom – the majority of the students were contacted through university platforms. Regarding the participants, they had received varying degrees of RE in other countries. Some had attended their whole primary RE in another country and upper secondary in Sweden while others had experienced RE (or the lack of it) as exchange pupils for a year. In terms of the exchange pupils, the interviews turned out to rather focus on the differences in how religion was experienced in society, than the specific school subject. It was interesting that many of the participants mentioned that the interview was the “very first time” that anyone had asked them to reflect on the relationships between the different RE types they had experienced in light of their future teaching careers. While all participants were eventually able to identify the impacts of these educational forms, many took time to fully consider their answers. Apart from the project’s contribution to the ongoing discussions on international RE knowledge transfer, it was obvious that the interview process enabled many participants to view with fresh eyes the dynamics between these educational settings and the knowledge they had gained, which allowed them to reevaluate their experiences and gain insight into the potentially positive effects on their future teaching. Of the 12 teacher students interviewed for this study, five had confessional Islamic RE experience (Iran, Turkey, Kurdistan), two had Catholic RE experience (Spain, Poland), one had British RE experience, one had Finnish Lutheran RE experience, and three had no RE experience (France, US). Their foreign RE experiences varied from one year as an exchange student to seven years of primary-secondary compulsory schooling.

4.

Interview analyses

The interviews were transcribed and analyzed with a focus on how the students: 1) referred to “other knowledge” and 2) related this knowledge to their future teaching based on the previously mentioned four modes.

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The empirical material from this study is, of course, too small to make any general statements about how a dual experience of RE might affect ideas for future teaching. As we will see, the interviewed teacher students also had varied experiences and thoughts about this. What thus emerged when analysing the interviews is, as already mentioned, that the interview as such seemed to put light on the knowledge that they, at the end of the interview, said would add value to their future teaching. Although the findings cannot be generalized, it was clear that it was easier for the students who had experienced another type of RE in their primary and/or secondary education to relate this knowledge to their future teaching than for those who had been exchange students (two from the US). This was perhaps not surprising because exchange students are only guests in another school system for a short time. On an overarching level, all students referred to the non-Swedish RE and contrasted it with their experience of Swedish RE. On closer analysis, it was thus possible to distinguish between different ways of engaging with the “the other” type of knowledge but also understanding ways of possibly wanting to use this knowledge in future teaching. In the following table, I show how students with experiences from different countries talked about the other RE (or religion in society). Modes The “other knowledge” as resonance for one’s own knowledge.

Students – Country US+Turkey+France

The “other knowledge” as a counter concept. The “other knowledge” as an additional supplement.

US+Iran

The “other knowledge” as a complement.

UK+Iran+Poland+Turkey

Spain+Finland+Kurdistan

In the following Karl, Advi, Emma and Sanaa5 will be brought forward to exemplify different ways of experiencing another type of RE or religion in society. The choice of these four are made to exemplify the different modes.

4.1

Karl’s resonating exchange experience

In this mode of engaging in “other knowledge”, the knowledge is perceived as having a “common ground” while being distinctively different (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, 36). Karl, who went to high school in the US for a year stands as 5 All names are pseudonyms, but reflect gender and country of birth.

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an example. He says that many aspects of the school had commonalities with his school in Sweden, but that there was no RE. At that time, he did not reflect on this, but later at university, he learned about the American distinction between state and church that explains the situation (see for example Berglund 2015). Instead, it is rather the experience of church outside school that he finds interesting to reflect on: “it was a normal thing to do on Sundays, they all did” and in contrast to Sweden: “I don’t know anyone in Sweden who goes to church in Sweden, except for weddings”.

4.2

No Religious education in Iran as a counter concept

In the second mode, “other knowledge” is seen as a counter concept, even as a threat to one’s own knowledge. Advi’s experience stands as an example of this. He belongs to the Zoroastrian minority group in Iran and did therefore not take part in Islamic RE while attending primary school. He received some religious education at home, but at school, he remembers that teaching material denounced religions other than Islam, something he found deeply problematic since it led to bullying of him and also other minority students. He argues firmly for religion as a private matter and that all teaching about religion in school needs to be secular. He sees the French model, with no RE school subject, but teaching about religion in for example history and geography as exemplary. He sees a potential threat in all types of confessional teaching: “I now know there are confessional religious education systems that accept and even embrace different religions, but things can change quickly, as they did in Iran.” When I ask him why he wants to teach RE if he prefers the French system, he says that “No one knows about Zoroastrism, our curriculum actually leaves room for this”. One could argue that it is rather Advi’s experience as belonging to a minority than his knowledge produced in a different context that brings about his argument against any type of confessional religious education. This experience does, as in the other examples incorporate “other knowledge” that can be understood as a counter concept.

4.3

Evangelical Lutheran religious education as an additional supplement

Emma’s experience of Lutheran RE in a Finnish primary school exemplifies the third mode of engaging in other knowledge, that is, the supplementing of one’s own knowledge and the incorporation of other knowledge to support a personal position (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, 37).

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Emma says that Lutheran RE in Finland was very much like RE in Sweden. Although she had friends in primary school who took part in other types of RE (probably Orthodox Christian RE, she is not sure about this) she did not reflect on the difference until she started her university studies. Emma has Swedish as her mother tongue and went to Swedish speaking schools in Finland. She comes from a family of teachers and is well aware of the high status that teachers have in Finnish society compared to their Swedish colleagues. This has thus not put her down, rather the opposite since: “Everyone needs good teachers, and I can with my Swedish teacher education also teach in Finland”. Her experience of the high status of teachers can be understood as being integrated and supporting her position in line with the third mode of engaging with “the other knowledge”. When asked what she would bring from her primary Evangelical Lutheran RE to the Swedish RE she laughs and says: “Well as YOU have told us, also the Swedish neutral subject is already very Lutheran… I rather bring the acknowledgement of minorities; I mean both linguistic and religious. You showed us books in Swedish for Islamic RE, I feel proud of this. I might actually use these books in my future teaching if I work in Sweden”.6 Although RE in Finland is separative according to religious belonging Emma does not find it very different from RE in Sweden. This highlights the fact that differences on curricular level might not actually spell out in the classroom. The knowledge that she finds valuable to bring to the Swedish setting is rather related to her own minority situation although she transfers this to the Swedish speaking Muslim minority in the quote. Her experience of the Finnish school system for RE can thus be understood as an additional supplement that will enrich her future teaching.

4.4

Complementary experience of Islamic RE in Iran

Sanaa’s experiences with Islamic RE in primary school in Iran is representative of the fourth mode, that is, where “both perspectives influence each other” (Schreiner & Schweitzer 2021, 37). Early in the interview, Sanaa notes that her career choice to become an RE teacher in Sweden is connected to her experiences of being a Muslim in Sweden. She says that there are so many misconceptions about Islam in Swedish society that she wants to contradict them in her future teaching. At first, she does not relate her Islamic RE experiences in Iran to her choice to become a teacher but later acknowledges that it has given her knowledge that would be beneficial for her future career. She says that a year studying the history of religions at Stockholm university has given her perspectives on her background: “until I started university in Sweden, I did not really know that there 6 As is obvious from this quote, “Emma” is one of my former students.

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were so many different types of Islam. I only knew there was Islam and that some people did not follow it. Of course, I knew that Christians and Jews were people of the book, but not that there were different types of Christianities and Judaisms as well.” As the Swedish curriculum for RE states that students should learn about the variations within religion, I ask whether she has learned this at school in Sweden, to which she responds; “Yes, Shiah and Sunni of course, but not more than that.” She continues: “When I teach children, I will start by showing that you can live in different ways as a Muslim. This is easy information; kids know, they practice differently. We also did in Iran of course.” Later in the interview, Sanaa also acknowledges that learning about the different global RE types has helped her understand her own Islamic RE childhood experiences in Iran. She says that her university studies have given her the language to understand the differences between her childhood experiences of confessional Islamic RE and non-confessional Swedish RE. Although acknowledging that these concepts helped her understand RE on a global level, she is critical of the divisions she thinks they have created; “There is of course a difference, but it is not so big as some of my fellow students think, we also learned about different religions, of course. They seem to think that Iranian education is ancient.” When asked what aspects of Iranian RE she would bring to her future teaching she, after some thinking, says “the stories, my teacher in primary school was such a storyteller”. She says that she now, when reflecting on it, has never come across this type of storytelling during her in-service training in Sweden. She asks me if this has to do with the secular nature of RE.

5.

Concluding discussion

To further understand the relationships between contextually bound knowledge production and potential international knowledge transfer, this article sought to discern the experiences of Swedish RE teacher students who had been exposed to mainstream Swedish RE and RE in another country. All the interviewed students have great trust in Swedish RE but sometimes contrast aspects of it with the RE they experienced in another country. Although it was, at first, difficult for the students to relate their experience of another type of RE to their future careers as RE teachers, it spurred discussion that eventually showed different levels of engagement in the types of knowledge that had been gained through their experience. Although there are clear signs of academic knowledge in the stories of the students, much knowledge is rather experiential. In terms of international knowledge transfer, it was the students that had experienced another type of RE through their primary education or longer that most obviously could engage with other types of RE knowledge either as an

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additional knowledge component or as a complement. What is thus obvious, and perhaps the prime result of this study is that this was not something that the students had considered prior to the interview. These students will, as teachers, meet pupils who also experienced different types of RE in a variety of contexts. To have reflected on one’s own experience of the knowledge one has gained from this can hopefully be seen as an asset. For this reason, I hope that this study can encourage RE teachers and teacher educators to reflect on the types of knowledge they have experienced and discuss what can be transferred between the different types of religious education. I, therefore, suggest that we, in our teacher educations arrange seminars and discussions where teacher students not only share experiences of the types of RE they have taken part in in other countries but also discuss the different types of knowledge gained there.

References Alberts, W. (2008). Didactics of the Study of Religions, Numen, (55), 300–334. Berglund, J. (2010). Teaching Islam, Islamic Religious Education in Sweden. Münster: Waxmann. Berglund, J. (2013). Swedish religion education: Objective but Marinated in Lutheran Protestantism? Temenos – Nordic Journal of Comparative Religion, 49(2), 165–184. Berglund, J. (2021). The contribution of comparative studies to the international transfer and transformation in religious education. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner (eds.), International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education, Münster: Waxmann, 106–121. Berglund, J. (2023). Swedish Religion Education in Public Schools – Objective and Neutral or a Marination into Lutheran Protestantism? Oxford Journal of Law and Religion. Buchardt, M. & Pirjo M. & Heli V. (eds). (2013). Education, State and Citizenship: NordWel Studies in Historical Welfare State. Research 4. Helsinki: NordWel. Hartman, S. (2007). The Development of the Swedish Educational System. In M. Carlsson & A. Rabo & F. Gök (eds.), Education in ‘Multicultural’ Societies: Turkish and Swedish Perspectives. London: I. B. Tauris, 257–265. Jensen, T. (2008). RS based RE in Public Schools: A Must for a Secular State. Numen 55, 123– 50. Kilkelly, U. (1999). The Child and the European Convention on Human Rights. Dartmouth: Ashgate. Löfstedt, M. (2011). Mångfald, berättande och livsfrågor. In J. Berglund & G. Gunner (eds.), Barn i religionernas värld. Stockholm: Liber, 210–225. Kittelmann-Flensner, K. (2016). Religious Education in Contemporary Pluralistic Sweden. Gothenburg university. Schreiner, P. & Schweitzer F. (2021). International knowledge transfer in religious education, Interpretations and further perspectives. In F. Schweitzer & P. Schreiner (eds.).

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International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education, eds. Münster: Waxmann. 11– 43. Schweitzer, F. & P. Schreiner (2021). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education. Münster: Waxmann. Skogar, B. (2005). Bildning och religion – en lärarutbildares perspektiv. Stockholm: Högskoleverket. The Education Act (2010). Swedish Statute Book 2010:800.

Skolverket 1994 Curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and the leisure-time centre LPO 94. Stockholm: Skolverket. 2011 Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the recreation centre. Stockholm: Skolverket.

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Athanasios Stogiannidis

Interdisciplinary knowledge transfer in RE teacher training curricula: contributions from Dietrich Benner’s “Allgemeine Pädagogik”

Abstract This study interprets some of the basic positions in the educational theory developed by German educator Dietrich Benner, to identify those aspects most relevant to international RE teacher training and to explore the knowledge transfer potentialities between the two scientific disciplines of educational theory and religious education. This paper has five sections. The first section analyses the concept of “praxis” (action) that underpins much of Benner’s pedagogical thought, the second section focuses on the process by which “praxis” becomes “tangible” and “visible” within everyday life, the third section explores why “praxis” is seen as an indispensable dimension within the pedagogical process, the fourth section examines the missions of schools in contemporary democratic societies based on the relationships emerging between “praxis” and school education and the final section examines the implications for the teaching of RE in public schools. This close examination of Benner’s General Theory of Education reveals the importance of integrating it into RE teacher training curricula and provides a new approach to confirming RE’s place as an essential part of public education. Keywords: Democracy and school preparatory function, Allgemeine Pädagogik / General Theory of Education, Bildsamkeit / Receptiveness to formation, Religious Education and the public sphere, Political dimension of Religious Education, Religious Education teacher training curriculum

1.

Introduction

Dietrich Benner’s Allgemeine Pädagogik, the General Theory of Education,1 provides a constructive context for discussions on school knowledge, that is, the essence of knowledge acquired in the school teaching and learning environment. Gaining insights into what comprises school knowledge could redefine RE as an integral part of the school curriculum. As the applicability of all school education theories should be separately verified for each school subject, this study applied 1 About the English translation of the German terminus “Allgemeine Pädagogik” as “General Theory of Education” s. Michael Uljens / Rose M. Ylimak 2017, p. 74.

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the concepts from Dietrich Benner’s General Theory of Education (“Allgemeine Pädagogik”) to determine whether and to what extent they could represent a framework for RE teacher professionalization. The key concept prevailing in this examination was based on current concerns in contemporary theology and religious studies and is also a call to civil society that schools now need to facilitate more deliberative models of democracy, specifically; shaping the learning content and basic aims of the Religious Education subject is a matter that should take into account, first and foremost, the basic aims and mission that schools are called upon to play today in the democratic societies of the modern world. The profile of RE and the corresponding influences on RE teacher professionalization should be primarily approached from a school pedagogical perspective. When the pedagogical dimensions are understood, these can then be applied to the academic development and teaching and learning of theology and religious studies. This positioning is important for the theory and practice of religious education and RE in Greek academic and school contexts. In the past decade, there has been an intense and controversial debate on the aims, learning content and role in public schools of RE in Greece (cf. Stogiannidis et al. 2019, p. 295–298; cf. Stogiannidis 2021, p. xxxii–xxxiii). To action international knowledge transfer in religious education, Benner’s General Theory of Education could illuminate and highlight the fundamental reasons (school mission in the modern democratic world) that this issue should be explored, which, presumably, has not been discussed as much as it should have been.

2.

The concept of “praxis”

The core of Benner’s pedagogical thinking is the concept “praxis” (cf. Stogiannidis 2021, p. 2). This term does not imply anything contrary to the concept of “theory” as the “praxis” in Benner’s work does not only have the meaning of something that is applied, that is, it is not located in the platonic world of ideas outside reality. Benner’s pedagogical thought was influenced somewhat by Aristotle. In ancient Greek thought, “praxis” was not the opposite of “theory” but was an antonym for “poiesis” (cf. Bohl, Garant and Wacker 2015, p. 80); an action that serves a secondary purpose or purposes. On the contrary, “praxis” is an action that constitutes an end in itself (cf. Bohl, Garant and Wacker 2015, p. 80; cf. Makris 2017, p. 425). For Benner, praxis is the action that takes place when two basic conditions are fulfilled (Benner 1980, p. 486): The first premise states that praxis takes place when there are needs that must be faced and covered. Practically, this means that praxis is only realized when people do things to develop and improve their lives in addition to what nature

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provides. Therefore, praxis is an action that does not characterize God’s life because God is Absolute, that is, an existence that neither has needs nor needs to do something to improve life. At the same time, praxis is an action that does not characterize flora or fauna because these do not have the potential to develop beyond what is naturally provided. Praxis is a feature possessed only by humanity because we have the potential to change and improve and to do things beyond the tools and abilities nature gave us. When we speak of the relationship between human nature and human beings, we do not mean that human beings have two existential “reference centers”; nature and themselves; as this simply could not happen. Rather, the relationship is a schematic illustration that makes clear that human nature provides humanity with the ability to develop and generate new possibilities beyond its birth nature (cf. Benner 2014a, p. 19). For example, people learn to walk, speak many different languages and so forth. More generally, human beings create culture by doing things and developing skills they did not have when they were born. The second premise states that praxis is an action through which people can discover their needs, and it is through this energy that people can discover their purpose and meaning in life; therefore, praxis is an existential act. Through praxis, a person can discover their self, that is, the destination and meaning in their life. We should not, of course, approach the concept of “destination” as something which, once acquired, will enable perfection. A “destination,” in this respect, is not something static but something dynamic, something that is constantly changing and something that has the potential to be constantly improved. Benner borrows two terms to make this clear: from Eugen Fink (Benner 2004, p. 16; s. a. Fink 1979), he uses the term “Imperfektheit” to emphasize that people are non-perfect, that is, they come to life undeveloped with the potential to improve their lives; and borrows the term “perfectibilité” from Rousseau (Benner 2015a, p. 33; cf. Rousseau 2019, p. 13f; cf. a. Giesinger 2011, p. 896), to suggest that people are born with the possibility of envisioning and pursuing perfection, which suggests that the path to perfection is a constant journey and a constant struggle people need to deal with without ever negating the ontology of their nature. Therefore, while we are capable of continually creating new possibilities for ourselves, we always remain non-perfect. Based on these statements, praxis could be seen to be a continuous movement of creation in the actions of a person that lasts their lifetime. Through this creative movement, people have the power to continually discover new things and, in this way, locate meaning and “destination” in their life. At this point, the following question arises: how does praxis manifest itself ? Is it a personal individual matter? Benner stresses that praxis is an action that manifests itself in society, while, at the same time, he argues that the manifestation of praxis in society “shape(s) […] the foundation, on the basis of which

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humanity preserves and fosters its own existence” (Benner 2015a, p. 25). Human beings emerge as unique only when they act in society, that is, when they encounter their fellow men in the social whole. In this respect, if praxis is an action through which human beings shape their own existence, and if this act manifests itself within society and not outside it, then, understandably, the praxis of human beings is, eventually, a σύμπραξις (sympraxis) i. e., a co-action (cf. Stogiannidis 2021, p. 19ff); a movement of creation that arises only when people meet other people in the context of social life. However, what is this context of social life within which human action manifests itself ? This is precisely the focus of the following section.

3.

Public space: where human action takes place

Human action, or more correctly, human co-action is, therefore, something concrete that manifests itself in society. The context in which human praxis “reveals” itself is defined by Benner as “Gesamtpraxis”; the totality of human action (Benner 2015a, p. 30). It is the sum of all dimensions that govern social life. In particular, Benner states that Gesamtpraxis is made up of six different action domains (Praxisbereiche); Labor (Arbeit), Politics (Politik), Ethics (Ethik), Religion, Art (Kunst) and Education (Pädagogik) (Benner 2014a, p. 17; s. a. Benner 2004, p. 16); each of which meets a very specific need. As such, each domain possesses a particular characteristic (Proprium), which none of the others possess (cf. Benner 2014b, p. 37). Also, because each of these domains has unique tasks, each follows its own rationale (Eigenlogik) with its own perceptions and interpretations of reality (cf. Benner 2015a, p. 119f). However, it should be kept in mind that in Benner’s philosophical thought, each societal action domain represents a distinct part of human nature and can be used at any given time to fulfill a specific need (Schluss and Sattler 2001, p. 177). Therefore, each differentiated action domain is essential and indispensable. People need to work, participate in political life, reflect on moral issues, contemplate the relationship between themselves and God, approach the meaning of life through art and contribute to the task of educating young people (cf. Benner 2015a, p. 25). If one of these dimensions is absent, then life is lacking and deficient. All domains together comprise human nature and human existence (cf. Stogiannidis 2021, p. 298). Therefore, to find their “destination” within this social life framework, all domains must be activated. This observation illuminates the importance of individual domain cooperation and by extension, societal cooperation. Benner speaks of the “non-hierarchical order of the totality of human action” (“Nicht-hierarchische Ordnung der menschlichen Gesamtpraxis”) (Benner 2015a, p. 118ff), which he incorporates

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as a principle in his pedagogical theory, which states that two conditions must hold for the totality of social life to function effectively and for the sake of humanity and its spiritual rising (cf. Benner 2014a, p. 17). The first condition is that no domain can seek and claim a hegemonic position, that is, none of the domains can be the sole and absolute criterion for the interpretation of social reality. The second premise underlines that each domain is irreplaceable in the harmonious functioning of human society and the fostering of development in each person and society as a whole. This also implies that while each domain develops society from its own jurisdiction, its own “Eigenlogik” (rationale), it must also account for the other domains’ rationales. A problem with the functioning of this harmonious “Gesamtpraxis” arises when one action domain seeks to dominate all others. When this happens, then, according to Benner, fundamentalism emerges (cf. Benner 2014a, p. 17). Within our social life, fundamentalism can originate from economics, politics, ethics, religion, aesthetics or pedagogy (cf. Benner 2014a, p. 17). Benner uses another term, which he borrowed from Schleiermacher’s work, to express the totality of human action. This term, “Mitgesamttätigkeit” (Benner 2014c, p. 71; cf. Schleiermacher 1826, p. 15; cf. Benner et al. 2015, p. 99) in German, could be explained in English periphrastically as “human co-action within life universality.” At this point, it is worth noting that Benner connects “Mitgesamttätigkeit” with what is called “Öffentlichkeit” (cf. Benner 2015a, p. 312) in German, another term which could be translated into English as “public space.” In other words, the totality of human action is the space and time where public discourse between citizens takes place. All the above points are interesting for the following reason: It is clear that human beings find the way toward discovering the life “destination” only through praxis, i. e., only through participation in the whole of social life. Therefore, human beings are only able to discover life destination and meaning when co-acting and interacting with fellow human beings in the public space. This could be further analyzed as follows; the only possibility for man to be truly fulfilled as a human being is to exist within the “Polis” and not outside of it, that is, to live as a political entity that discovers itself through its encounters with the otherness of the other within the context of the public space (cf. Makris 2019).

4.

Education as a human action

These extensive references to the concept of “praxis” and “public space” were not made by chance. These concepts are the theoretical background to understanding the basic tenets of Benner’s General Theory of Education. What is most important, however, is that Benner characterizes the pedagogical process as

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“praxis,” that is, an action through which people have the ability to discover their meaning and life “destination.” At the same time, the German educator speaks of a “praxeological understanding of pedagogical action and Education Science” (“ein praxeologisches Verständnis von pädagogischer Praxis und Erziehungswissenschaft”) (Benner 2015a, p. 23). Therefore, the pedagogical process in Benner’s philosophical-educational thought constitutes an issue that has a profoundly existential significance to humanity as is evident from the first fundamental constitutive pedagogical process principle, which, according to Benner, is located in the term “Bildsamkeit” (Benner 2004, p. 489–490), or “receptiveness to formation” (cf. Stogiannidis 2021, p. 42). “Bildsamkeit” expresses a beginning assumption for any pedagogical endeavor, based on which all people are open and able to further develop, that is, by their very existence people can create innumerable new possibilities and skills for themselves (cf. Benner 2014a, p. 19). What exactly does the above concept mean? This can be answered by examining the four basic positions that underlie Benner’s pedagogical thinking. First, people come into life as non-integrated beings. As there is no predetermined program or plan people must follow to discover their true meaning and destination in life (cf. Benner 1980, p. 490), everybody comes into life as an “open” book of blank pages, an “open” case. Third, life-meaning concepts are embedded in society; however, this does not imply that they ontologically provide direction for everyone. The question is, therefore, who is responsible for discovering the true meaning and destination for each person? Benner claims “Bestimmtsein der Menschen zur Selbstbestimmung” (Benner 1980, p. 490); “people’s destiny is selfdetermined”; that is, all people must find their own destination and meaning in life. Fourth, there is no specified program or plan within human nature’s ontology to guide people toward these discoveries. Therefore, how do people discover this meaning? Benner answers this question in his second constitutive educational process principle using the German term “Erziehung,” which is translated into English as “pedagogical interaction” (Benner 2017, p. 266). As also interpreted by German philosopher Fichte, Benner sees “Erziehung” as a “summons to self-action”2 (“Aufforderung zur Selbsttätigkeit”) (Benner 1980, p. 490), claiming that to become autonomous free subjects, each person must discover the true meaning of life by themselves; however, the path to autonomy can only be revealed through an impetus such as “Erziehung”; the formation and improvement that comes from education (Erziehbarkeit) (cf. Giesinger 2011, p. 901) through the assistance provided within society. Therefore, without otherness, people are unable to discover their authentic selves. 2 About the English translation of the German terminus “Aufforderung zur Selbsttätigkeit” as “summons to self-action” s. Gert Biesta 2020, p. 94.

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For all the above reasons, Benner argues that “Bildsamkeit” is a “Relationskategorie,” which is a conceptual category that implies the need for relationships (Benner 2012, p. 24). By extension, it could be argued that “Bildsamkeit” is a potentiality that is not ontologically “fixed” within human nature (cf. Benner 2014b, p. 27f.) but constitutes a reality that comes into being when a person tries to discover their purpose in life and encounters otherness within the society. Therefore, Benner’s basic theses are that the pedagogical process is an act of creation through which people can discover the meaning of life and their life destination. This concept has direct implications for the way Benner approaches the basic aims of school education in the modern world.

5.

School education as preparation for co-acting in the public sphere

Benner claims that the key school education concept is associated with “Erziehender Unterricht” (“educative instruction”) (cf. Benner 2015b, p. 485; for the English translation of this term cf. a. Biesta and Miedema 2002, p. 173), which is the instructional education people receive to expand on and broaden their experiences (Erfahrung) and recontextualize everyday social interactions (Umgang) (Benner 2015b, p. 486). Educative instruction has three main goals (Benner 2018, p. 110): to acquire basic knowledge (Grundkenntnisse); to develop critical thinking (Urteilskompetenz) based on previous knowledge; and to cultivate the competencies to participate universally in life and design future actions (Partizipations- oder Handlungsentwurfskompetenz). Of these competencies, the third is related to the educational mission of the school in modern society. Benner explains that the school must offer young people the “basic education” (Grundbildung) needed to ensure the peaceful and creative coexistence of society; “basic education includes everything that cannot be learned and passed on directly through human coexistence, but which is necessary for living in a society and therefore needs to be taught in schools. […] basic education (Grundbildung) can be defined as public education (öffentliche Bildung) that is oriented toward ideas of the common life of the members of society” (Benner 2020, p. 3). Therefore, Benner feels that the educational mission of a school is to prepare young people to co-act with others in the public space, which is why the “basic education” offered by schools is seen to be “public education.” This co-acting perspective within the public space is also of existential importance because people can only discover their authentic self and their true meaning in life when emerging and experiencing themselves as political entities, that is, only when the

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otherness is encountered and dealt with within the contemporary “polis,” which in English translates as a “public space” and in German is known as “Öffentlichkeit.” Consequently, the school has a “preparatory function” (“propädeutische Funktion”) (Benner 2005, p. 571) that provides students with the necessary “equipment” to develop as mature political entities. Here, however, a very important question arises concerning the public space in modern democratic societies, that is, what are or should be the public space characteristic schools prepare students for in modern democratic societies? Benner refers to John Dewey’s view (Benner 2005, p. 273–275; Benner 2001, p. 54) claiming that democracy is not merely a people-powered constitution but is first and foremost, “a mode of associated living” (Dewey 2008, p. 93), the way of life that shapes the res publica (Benner 2001, 54). This line of reasoning understands democracy as a way of life in which heterogeneous citizens share their experiences with the entire “polis” on issues of general concern (cf. Benner 2001, p. 54). Democracy, then, is seen as the non-hierarchical encountering of heterogeneous but equal interlocutors, with the public space being where the totality of human action develops non-hierarchical relationships within the different action domains. These views clearly state that the educative mission of schools in modern democratic societies is to pedagogically prepare young people for a democratic way of life and non-hierarchical encounters, discourses and cooperation with the heterogeneous entities in the same society. Hence, school is a very important stage in life where everyone has the possibility of encountering democracy and being involved in diverse exchanges of experience, the participation and coaction in which provides each person with existential significance. Nevertheless, these educational visions are only feasible if there is a functioning public space where a non-hierarchical order of human action prevails. Therefore, Benner’s pedagogical theory assumes an interdependence between the “public space,” “school education” and “democracy” concepts: “The formative process and democracy need both the presence of a public space which is shaped by discourse and reflection and a public education system which prepares for active participation in the public space” (Benner 2001, p. 62).

6.

School education missions and RE teacher training

Benner’s General Theory of Education is a significant contribution to views on educational systems, the concepts within which could also be applied to each subject in the school curricula, such as Religious Education and RE teacher education. However, the development of empirical or theoretical models or concepts for RE teacher education must ensure that the “essence” of RE is

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defined because when a professional seeks to improve their occupational skills, it stands to reason that these skills be precisely defined. In other words, the improvement of skills presupposes that the “substance” of these “skills” allows for this improvement by enhancing quality. For instance, as the pedagogical confessional approach differs from the multi-religious approach, this has implications for RE teacher training designs. Therefore, any research into RE teacher training must be closely connected with the “essence” of RE as it is practiced in the school reality, which can only emerge when the basic RE aims are analyzed. Consequently, RE teacher training improvements cannot be achieved without a precise definition of the basic educational aims of RE within the school reality, which has been previously characterized as “orientative knowledge” (Freathy, Parker, Schweitzer & Simojoki 2016, p. 123–124; s. a. Simojoki, Schweitzer, Henningsen & Mautz, 2021, p. XXXIff). In this respect, Benner’s General Theory of Education opens new horizons for the “orientative knowledge” dimension of RE teacher education as it provides the impetus to approach the “essence” of Religious Education from a different political perspective. Because religion is one of the structural components of Benner’s pedagogical approach, Benner’s pedagogical and philosophical reflections, are, however, both a challenge and an invitation to theologians and religious educators to relate the significance of “religion” to the functioning of the public sphere, and as school is the preparatory stage for entry into this public sphere, to identify how RE is embedded in the school “political” agenda. Educators Gert Biesta and Patricia Hannam claimed that “the religious life is the public life” (Biesta and Hannam 2019, p. 182). Of course, many more steps are needed to highlight the new potentialities for the relationship between Religion and the Political. However, through interdisciplinary knowledge transfer between educational theory and religious education, new approaches can be identified to enhance the understanding of RE’s political dimension at public schools, which could lead to the development of relevant RE teacher education. This perspective could also be exploited in the Greek Educational System to firmly establish RE as a distinct subject in the school curriculum. International knowledge transfer based on Benner’s General Theory of Education could illuminate the fundamental aspects of RE in public schools, such as learning content and educational aims, not whether RE should be embedded in the theological orientations of a particular religious tradition or whether it should have a more “open” character toward religious diversity. Undoubtedly, the various approaches developing within the field of religious education provide some parameters. However, in my view, what should be initially considered is whether and to what extent RE, as a distinct subject, can be functionally integrated into the basic educational aims and political missions

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that public schools fulfill in modern democratic societies because RE as a distinct school curriculum subject should follow the same pedagogical standards that apply to all other subjects.

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Benner, D. (2014a). Thesen zur Bedeutung der Religion fu¨ r die Bildung. Hinweise auf Propria des Pädagogischen und des Religiösen Denken und Handelns. In D. Benner, Bildung und Religion. Nur einem bildsamen Wesen kann ein Gott sich offenbaren. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2014, 15–24. Benner, D. (2012). Warum öffentliche Erziehung in Demokratien nicht politisch fundiert werden kann. In D. Benner (Hg.), Bildung und Kompetenz. Studien zur Bildungstheorie, systematischen Didaktik und Bildungsforschung. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2012, 13–29. Benner, D., Von Oettingen, A., Peng, Z. & Ste˛pkowski, D. (2015). Bildung – Moral – Demokratie. Theorien und Konzepte moralischer Erziehung und Bildung und ihre Beziehungen zu Ethik und Politik. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2015. Biesta, G. (2020). Risking Ourselves in Education: Qualification, Socialization, and Subjectification Revisited. Educational Theory, 70 (1), 89–104, https://doi.org/10.1111/ed th.12411 (accessed February 01, 2023). Biesta, G. and Hannam, P. (2019). The uninterrupted life is not worth living: On religious education and the public sphere. Zeitschrift fu¨r Pädagogik und Theologie 71 (2), 173– 185, https://doi.org/10.1515/zpt-2019-0021 (accessed February 01, 2023). Biesta, G. J. J. and Miedema, S. (2002). Instruction or pedagogy? The need for a transformative conception of education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 173–181. Bohl, T., Garant, M. & Wacker, A. (2015). Schulpädagogik und Schultheorie. Bad Heilbrunn: Julius Klinkhardt. Dewey, J. (2008), Democracy and Education. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.), John Dewey. The Middle Works. Volume 9:1916. Democracy and Education. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Fink, E. (1979). Grundphänomene des menschlichen Daseins. Freiburg im Breisgau: Alber. Freathy, R., Parker, S. G., Schweitzer, F. & Simojoki, H. (2016). Conceptualising and researching the professionalization of Religious Education teachers: Historical and international perspectives. British Journal of Religious Education, 38 (2), 114–129, https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1139887. Giesinger, J. (2011). Bildsamkeit und Bestimmung. Kritische Anmerkungen zur Allgemeinen Pädagogik Dietrich Benners. Zeitschrift fu¨r Pädagogik, 57 (6), 894–910. Makris, S. (22017). Πολιτική Επιστήμη. Κοινωνικός Μετασχηματισμός & Θεωρίες της Δημοκρατίας. Κλασικές, Νεοτερικές και Σύγχρονες Αφηγήσεις. Εισαγωγικές Προσεγγίσεις [engl: Political Science. Social Transformation & Democracy Theories. Classical, Modernityrelated and Contemporary Narratives. Introductory Approaches]. Athens: Sideris Publications. Makris, S. (2019). “Άνθρωπος ένας μικρός κόσμος” ή “Άνθρωπος-μέσα-στον-κόσμο;”. Γεννησιμότητα, εγκοσμιότητα και δημόσια σφαίρα στη Hannah Arendt [engl. “Man as a microcosmos” or “Man-in-the-World”? Natality, worldliness and public sphere by Hannah Arendt]. Φιλοσοφεῖν: ἐπιστήμη, εὔνοια, παρρησία, 20, 127–156. Rousseau, J-J. (2019). Emil oder u¨ber die Erziehung. Aus dem Französischen u¨ bersetzt von E. Sckommodau und M. Rang. Herausgegeben und kommentiert von T. Zumhof. Stuttgart: Reclam. Schluss, H. & Sattler, E. (2001). Transformation – einige Gedanken zur Adaption eines nicht einheimischen Begriffs. Dietrich Benner zum 60. Geburtstag. Vierteljahrsschrift fu¨r wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, 2, 173–188.

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Simojoki, H., Schweitzer, F, Henningsen, J. & Mautz, J-R., mit einem Beitrag von Freathy, R. und Parker, S. G. (2021). Professionalisierung des Religionslehrerberufs. Analysen im Schnittfeld von Lehrerbildung, Professionswissen und Professionspolitik. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. Schleiermacher, F (1983). Vorlesungen aus dem Jahre 1826. In E. Weniger (Hg.), Friedrich Schleiermacher. Pädagogische Schriften Band 1. Du¨ sseldorf / Mu¨ nchen; Stuttgart: KlettCotta. Stogiannidis, Athanasios V. (2021). Σχολική Παιδεία, Μάθημα των Θρησκευτικών και Δημόσιος Χώρος. Αναστοχαστική ιχνηλασία στην παιδαγωγική θεωρία του Dietrich Benner [engl.: School Educative Formation, Religious Education and Public Sphere. Reflections on Dietrich Benner’s Educational Theory]. Thessaloniki: Ostracon Publishing, 2021. Stogiannidis, Α., Georgiadis, Κ., Gkoutziomitrou, D., Grigoraki, I. & Mpoitsis, I. (2019). School of Theology Students’ Views on New Curriculum for Religious Education (2017– 2019) at State Schools in Greece: An Empirical Study. SYNTHESIS. E-Journal of the Faculty of Theology A.U.TH. 8, (1), 294–327, https://doi.org/10.26262/syn.v8i1.7734 (accessed February 01, 2023). Uljens, M. & Ylimaki, R. M. (2017). Non-affirmative Theory of Education as a Foundation for Curriculum Studies, Didaktik and Educational Leadership. In M. Uljens & R. M. Ylimaki (Eds.), Bridging Educational Leadership, Curriculum Theory and Didaktik. Non-affirmative Theory of Education. Cham: Springer Open, https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978–3–319–58650–2 (accessed February 01, 2023).

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Mapping as a task for international knowledge transfer in religious education (research). An approach from a Swiss perspective

Abstract This article first describes the diverse stakeholders in religion-related subjects in Switzerland. The diversity-related challenges and tasks described in the Swiss context are then correlated with the corresponding local and international (international) knowledge transfer challenges. International knowledge transfer require a meaningful classification of the associated questions, teaching models and research projects. The Swiss research project discussed in this paper proposes such an approach. The project developed a theoretical, practical grid that could be a valuable starting point for mapping an (inter-)religious education model, and provides some insights into current religious education research. The article concludes with a plea for increased religion-related and theological interdisciplinarity in theory and practice. Keywords: international knowledge transfer; classification, mapping, (inter-)religious education; diverse stakeholders; Switzerland

Introduction This paper first discusses two different perspectives on diversity. The first perspective is related to the diverse, complex, socio-political challenges the world has been facing at the beginning of the third millennium, such as geopolitical conflicts and economic and environmental crises, all of which have been inescapably manifested at individual, societal and global levels. Globalization and digitalization have led to a plurality of values and social frictions that political efforts toward stronger integration and inclusion measures have been unable to fully counteract. Therefore, what is needed are personal, mindful, socially and globally conscious values. One example of an education-related supranational project is the OECD Learning Framework 2030, the central learning goals of which focus on the knowledge, social and emotional skills and reflective attitudes and values needed to enable young people to be global change agents (OECD 2018, p. 4). In line with these social and value-related dynamics and the corresponding skills, there have also been associated demands for the development of (inter)-

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religious, culturally sensitive and worldview education both reactively, such as the inclusion of multi-religious, pastoral or political thinking), and proactively by exploring how religion-related and worldview education could respond to and act on social crises.1 When people live according to religious and worldview convictions, be they religious, trans-religious or areligious, these convictions can either positively or negatively shape social standards and public spaces. However, we are convinced that meaningful, multi-perspective, theologically mindful, religious worldview education can promote knowledge, reflection, development and a common good-oriented approach to religion, religiosity and spirituality. Therefore, there is significant potential for religious-related education to be a force for societal transformation. The second perspective is related to the diversity in the different religionrelated and (inter-) religious education models. Recent decades have seen wide theological, religious and pedagogical debates on the appropriate didactic approaches to religion-related education by people involved in education policy, intercultural or human rights education and other disciplines.2 However, the question remains; what relevant, constructive contributions can religion-related education make to deal with the crises confronting the world? Specifically, which didactic approaches, what orientations, with whom and for how long should religious education research projects or religion-related subjects be implemented, and what effects, challenges and insights can be gained from them? To ensure valuable insights, empirical research into the different respective educational contexts and exchanges of knowledge and experience between the numerous actors, disciplines, contexts and levels are needed. First, the stakeholder diversity associated with religion-related subjects in Switzerland is discussed. Then, the diversity-related challenges and tasks in the Swiss context are correlated with the corresponding (international) knowledge transfer challenges and tasks in local and supranational spheres and an approach discussed on how international knowledge research and practice transfer can 1 Subsequently, we shall use the term “religious education” to make the link to related denominational and interdenominational debates on religious education. We also use the term “religion-related education/subject” as an umbrella category for all subjects and subject groups that explicitly address religious issues one way or the other. 2 At the level of politics and education policy, numerous official documents do refer to the religious education contribution to HRE. The OSCE, for instance, has been leading fundamental discussions on the relevance of public religious education from the 1970s onwards. The ‘Toledo Guiding Principles’ explicitly call for the integration of religious education in democracy education and HRE (OSCE & ODIHR 2007; Richardson 2015). Comparable recommendations also exist on the part of the Council of Europe, among them: ‘Recommendation on religious tolerance’ (1993), or ‘State, religion, secularity and human rights’ (2007) (Schreiner 2016).

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result in a meaningful classification of questions, teaching models and research projects. A Swiss research project that exemplifies such an approach is then discussed. The project developed a theoretical, practical grid that could be a good starting point for mapping an (inter-)religious education model. Exemplary insights and reflections on current religious education research are then proposed. The article concludes with a plea for increased religion-related, theological theory and in-practice interdisciplinarity and continued dialogue between political, educational and scientific stakeholders (4).

1.

Stakeholder diversity in religion-related education: a Swiss perspective

In Switzerland, the national public education content, subjects and basic orientation have been recently reconceptualized, the largely secular education policy framework for which in German-speaking Switzerland is the “Lehrplan 21” (Curriculum 21). Curriculum 21 is skills-oriented and standardizes the compulsory schooling curricula in all German-speaking and bilingual Swiss cantons. The Curriculum 21 framework places religion in a subject group called “Ethics, Religions, Community” (Ethik, Religionen, Gemeinschaft, ERG for short), which is a separate subject within the subject group “Nature-HumanSociety” (Natur, Mensch, Gesellschaft, NMG for short), which is an overall term for the natural sciences, humanities and social sciences (Helbling 2015). Therefore, religion in this context is publicly relevant educational content that is explored in conjunction with “ethics” and “community.” “Unlike other religious competence models, it [the ERG model] does not intend to foster personal religiosity” (Helbling & Kilchsperger 2013, p. 58). The ERG orientation reflects the increasing worldview heterogeneity in teachers and learners and a strong alignment with the negative religious freedom principle. Public religious education in Switzerland must comply with this principle, which means that personal religious convictions cannot be the starting point nor the goal for any concrete teaching. Therefore, how can the heterogeneity in religion-related teaching, learning and questioning be activated in ERG lessons to raise awareness of religious differences and the associated exclusion and marginalization dynamics that occur because of religious attitudes? (Suhner & Schlag 2021, p.185). The inclusion of ERG means that for the first time, the study of religion has become a regular part of Swiss public education, indicating that there is acceptance of the public significance of religion, open reflections on public religious didactics and basic and further education available for RE teachers.

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However, it remains unclear as to who is responsible for the specific shaping of the didactic possibilities and the development and publication of the ERG teaching materials, teacher training and reference sciences. Parallel to ERG and depending on the canton or municipality, Christian religious education is also being provided in many places as an optional subject in schools or on church premises. In some places, Jewish and/or Islamic religious education is also provided. Given these recent (educational) policy developments, it is clear that there is increasing diversity in religious education stakeholders and by extension, religious education research. The many religious education stakeholders, discussions and questions in Switzerland have led to a complexity that is truly challenging for religious educators and interested outsiders.

2.

Mapping as a challenge and the international religious education knowledge transfer task

The complex religious education dynamism has meant that the Religious Education content and associated guiding paradigms need to adapt to this new religious sociology. However, the people responsible for developing the curricula today may not necessarily be there tomorrow (in Switzerland, the new curriculum from 2023 onwards for ERG teachers in Zurich has recently been designed almost exclusively by religious studies)3. In short, what is considered state-of-theart today may no longer apply tomorrow. Of course, such dynamism is not new; however, the speed at which it is manifesting is unprecedented, which means that an efficient, flexible exchange of knowledge between religious education stakeholders is vital to dealing with this complex situation, as commented on by Friedrich Schweitzer and Peter Schreiner: “While accounts of the practice of religious education in different countries have become available (mostly concerning religious education as a school subject but, in some instances, also concerning non-formal religious education), the same is not true for religious education as a field of research in different countries. Mapping the religious education research scene in Europe (and beyond) could therefore be a first important task in advancing international knowledge transfer in this field.” (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2020, p. 13). In the Swiss context specifically, this signifies that even in a comparatively manageable landscape, the mapping challenge must embrace the “diverse relationships and transfer processes” within the country, which in turn are closely

3 The new curriculum is currently in a pilot phase, its publication is forthcoming.

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related to the “production, exchange, dissemination and reception of knowledge (…) as historical processes” (Schweitzer & Schreiner 2020, p. 13). For example, influenced by France, there is no religious education in schools in the Swiss cantons of Geneva and Neuchâtel because of the specific orientation in this French-speaking part of Switzerland toward a strongly secular understanding of the relationship between church and state (Lorenzen & Schmid 2019). In comparison, until a few decades ago, the German-speaking part of Switzerland had strong cooperation between the state and the church, which was also applied to public religious education (Büttgen, Roggenkamp & Schlag 2017; Schlag, Roggenkamp & Büttgen 2020). Sensible and useful knowledge transfer mapping requires that each stakeholder, each project and each educational module be suitably differentiated, which requires a commonly agreement on multidimensional categorization that applies to the diverse didactics. There are four aspects to which knowledge transfer must pay particular attention (based on the following fourfold differentiation, cf. Suhner 2022): a) The mapping of the diverse but (all too often) individually designed religious education processes and projects, be they implicit or explicit, would counteract the major problem in religion-related education, that is, the loss of specialist knowledge and the randomness of contact between active professionals. This would be possible through the option of a mapping based on clearer (self-)reflection and (self-)positioning and a purposeful linking with the same or opposed projects. We refer to this aspect as a conscious “professional knowledge transfer” for the following reason. Due to the very different (professional biographical, educational, denominational, etc.) backgrounds of the academic actors in the religious education field, cross-border knowledge transfers have often implicitly occurred, which has also made them difficult to identify and describe (Schlag 2020). Our first aspect therefore focuses on “conscious and explicit knowledge transfer.” b) At present, specific knowledge transfer from the experience gained from transferring educational offers from the analog to the digital realm have become increasingly relevant. This also applies to offers and projects that from the outset were conceived as purely digital/hybrid–be they proposed by institutions or by private individuals. We call this aspect “knowledge transfer between analog-hybrid/digital actors.” c) Further, we see an advantage in mapping to gain better potential insights into formal, non-formal and informal learning settings and the respective forms of knowledge exchange in these settings (Schlag 2019). Such corresponding knowledge complementarity is explicitly demanded, not least by the OECD, in the context of “lifelong learning”: “The recognition of non-formal and informal learning is an important means for making the ‘lifelong learning for

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all’ agenda a reality for all and, subsequently, for reshaping learning to better match the needs of the 21st-century knowledge economies and open societies.” (OECD 2010) We refer to this aspect as “knowledge transfer between formal/non-formal/learning settings.” d) Finally, we see that “knowledge transfer at different levels,” namely at personal, local, societal and global levels as a challenge. While an awareness of the interplay between these different action levels is a given, it has recently acquired greater visibility in recent educational contexts, such as in the “OECD Learning Framework 2030” quoted above. A distinction between attitudes and values is made for “personal, local, societal and global” learning: “The use of this broader range of knowledge and skills will be mediated by attitudes and values (e. g., motivation, trust, respect for diversity and virtue). The attitudes and values can be observed at personal, local, societal and global levels” (OECD 2018, p. 5). This knowledge transfer between the different levels takes on an even greater significance when the following is considered: – when private individuals provide educational offers, either digitally or in hybrid forms, which professional educational actors must be considered; – in times of increasing citizen science research, such as the journal “Citizen Science in Theory and Practice”); – finally, in times when the classic dividing lines between “non-professional” and “professional” tend to be increasingly fluid in all domains (cf. Cross & Swart 2020). We could, of course, further differentiate additional aspects, which here are considered to be the mapping of (international) knowledge transfer that would provide the most benefits to the relevant actors. In particular, a continuously adaptable mapping could provide an enriching scientific exchange for these four challenges. Even if the respective contextual, that is, historically grown, institutionally established and politically determined framework conditions for religious education may differ in individual countries, the above-mentioned societal challenges could still be easily compared because of global developments and evolving religious demographics. In Europe, for example, there are similar, dynamic, changing religious identity values and logic across borders (van der Noll et al 2018; Gobel et al 2018). Finally, mapping is more relevant than ever for religious education research, not only in the above-mentioned respects but also because of the transformative, societal and labor developments. The accelerating and decisive changes in the work environment (Bergmann 2019) has led to a diversification in professional biographical paths, with career changers and dropouts becoming the norm; therefore, the need for “knowledge transfer between ( job) generations” becomes even more important. Digitalization has also opened many new possibilities for

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the presenting, sharing and further development of dynamic mapping to allow for communication beyond existing national, religious and disciplinary borders.

3.

KIAL: A Swiss research project and a first mapping

If systematic international knowledge transfer is possible, it is necessary to have differentiated mapping for research and practice. Therefore, the mapping needs to be based on differentiated, abstract categories that can be applied to different theoretical and practical religious education contexts. A possible point of departure for this type of mapping was developed as part of a Swiss research project4 focused on interreligious learning, which, depending on the angle chosen, entails either a broadening or a narrowing of the general religion-based education perspective. The interreligious perspective developed in a predominantly Christian environment could inspire the following remarks. However, first, the research project is briefly discussed, after which the heuristicanalytical grid for mapping religious education efforts, offers and projects is discussed.

3.1

Background: the foundation of the Competence Center for Interreligious Learning in Initial and Continuing Teacher Education (KIAL)

In 2017, the Competence Center for Interreligious Learning in Teacher Education (KIAL) was founded at the University of Teacher Education, St. Gallen (Switzerland) (PHSG) in cooperation with the Faculty of Theology at the University of Zurich. The KIAL aims to close the gap between practice (“experts by experience”) and the theoretical research conducted in various interreligious learning disciplines, such as pedagogy, theology, religious studies and other related disciplines. One of the main aims of KIAL is to consciously initiate, design and develop interreligious learning processes. However, to do so, it is necessary to first perceive the differentiations in the interreligious learning processes and determine the most meaningful system for such perceptions and categorizations. In the interests of international knowledge transfer, this need to develop a categorization system can be linked to the “mapping” topic.

4 The following remarks in Chapter 3 are part of Suhner’s research work and her habilitation, which is currently in progress. More detailed information can be found in the research report Suhner & Winter 2022 (open access).

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First, a summary is given of the qualitative-explorative interreligious learning study that was conducted within the KIAL framework. The following sections outline the research approach and process; subsection 3.2 elaborates on some of the findings; subsection 3.3 places these findings in the larger mapping context; and chapter 4 concludes with an outlook and a plea. Research approach and process Design-based research was chosen because it combines application, theory-based and knowledge-oriented research, which was deemed suitable for increasing the innovative performances of teaching-learning research and gaining insights into the specific practical context of teaching-learning processes. The research design involved both qualitative surveys and analytical methods. A hypothesis-testing research design with standardized impact measurements and pre-post comparisons of two mean values after the successful implementation of the respective design measure was not chosen because of a lack of resources and because the individual interreligious learning construction processes are so complex that it is difficult to prospectively represent them using suitable variable sets. Therefore, impact assumptions were made based on the qualitative data obtained in the first cycle from the learning process analysis to reveal and reconstruct the possible connections. The data were collected using semi-structured guided interviews conducted with small groups of student teachers. The group interview audio recordings were transcribed and coded using a multi-stage computer-assisted analytical process and a coding scheme was developed based on the interview transcripts. Following the pre-test result evaluation, a questionnaire was developed to supplement the guided interviews in further iterations. Two components were initially determined for the differentiated interreligious learning processes based on the learner’s self-perception of the learning processes. However, these were “sensitizing concepts” rather than static components (Kluge & Kelle 2010), that is, they were heuristic-analytical concepts5:

5 The reason that “sensitising concepts” was used was that even though the development of categories and concepts does not take place before data collection, based on collected material, the researcher has prior knowledge. Empirical generalisations and theoretical statements do not simply “emerge” from the data material. Researchers always see the reality of their empirical field through the “lenses” of pre-existing concepts and theoretical categories, in fact, they need a certain theoretical perspective to recognise thematically relevant data. Only a theory-guided qualitative approach ensures that the features and categories structuring the empirical analysis are insightful for the research question. Therefore, the used theoretical concepts must be “heuristically useful”. In this respect, sensitising concepts serve as heuristicanalytical concepts.

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1. The first interreligious skills component focuses on educational content. The sensitizing concept guiding this component followed a pragmatic decision: in the basic ERG module, the PHSG was designed to work with the “Sachbuch Religion” (fact book on religion) and the religion dimensions it mentions (Bühler et al. 2015, p. 22 and 26); intellectual-ideological, ethical-social, ritual, institutional, aesthetic and psycho-emotional-body-soul. These religious dimensions overlap with the interreligious learning dimensions, as exemplified by Stefan Leimgruber (Leimgruber 2007). (Figure 1)

Figure 1: The six dimensions for religion-related educational content (adapted from: Bühler et al. 2015, 22 and 26)

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2. The focus of the second interreligious skills component was the learners: how they perceived and assimilated, processed and potentially elaborated on the educational content. Here the systematic approach suggested by Karlo Meyer was the basis. Meyer’s differentiated meta-analysis arrived at a four-part scheme that conclusively classified a majority of the interreligious learning models commonly discussed in professional debates (Meyer 2019, p. 178). Meyer distinguished four “modes of accessing religions” (“Religionenerschließungsmodi”): exploratory, the stimulation of existential reflection, the activation that shapes encounters and the activation of local engagement. (Figure 2) question of coherence: coherence of content

In encounters with religions that are foreign to them, students learn…

question of coherence: situational appropriateness and practicability

Figure 2: The four modes for accessing religions (based on Meyer 2019, p. 178, wording translated and adapted)6

6 The four modes of accessing religions are written in the medio-passive tense in Meyer’s German-language diagram: “The students let themselves be activated to” (Meyer 2019, p. 178).

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The collected data materials were analyzed based on the two sensitizing concepts. Subsequently, the interviews were openly and inductively coded again. Therefore, three rounds took place (each of which was multi-layered, that is, the coding was discussed, checked, or compared with others who had co-coded some sections on a trial basis). These diverse compilations were in turn reflected upon based on theory to determine the appropriate religious education categories. Overall, this qualitative-explorative study allowed for an approach that took account of the voices of student teachers; their self-perception, their learning perceptions and their reception of the educational content. The study results are not detailed here. Instead, we want to focus on the category grid that emerged from the study, which could, in principle, be applied beyond the specific interreligious contexts to any religious education context (denominational, multireligious as well as other religion-related).

3.2

A sketch of the findings: mapping the interreligious learning processes

While the six dimensions of religion offered some illuminating insights for the heuristic-analytical grid, overall, they were of limited use. This was primarily because the corresponding classifications often overlapped in the learners’ statements and their practical descriptions. Overall, the sensitizing concept for the “modes of accessing religions” mentioned above provided much more nuanced insights into the character and perceptions prevailing in the interreligious learning processes, which was how clearer possibilities, differentiations and gradations emerged during the coding process, with the latter providing considerable added value, which was then fed back into the theoretical debate. The two sensitizing concepts originally had six and four categories, with the second concept being differentiated by the data collection, evaluation and interpretation conducive to further research in religion-related subject didactics. These results were even more interesting because the four modes for accessing religions emerged from a meta-analysis of theoretical approaches to interreligious learning. These modes proved to be commensurate with practical application, which means that within KIAL’s framework, these four modes could be further developed in the form of sub-codes through sub-modes.7 The resulting grid shown in Figure 3 consisted of abstract categories. The categories mentioned here are by no means exhaustive and are only a “work-in-progress” illustration of the interreligious learning process perceptions at the PHSG. The original six dimensions of religion (educational content dimensions) were categorized as “subject-based research” in five dimensions. The 7 Not all subcodes can be explained here. For this we refer to Suhner/Winter 2022.

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heuristicanalytical grid for interreligious learning processes

question of coherence: situational appropriateness and practicability

Figure 3: Simplified KIAL category grid (Suhner/Winter 2022)

subcategories were tentatively organized in relation to each other to make sense of the content. For example, indirect encounter learning was placed close to the educational content dimensions, and personal language ability was positioned opposite dialogue ability to indicate a proximity or a connection within the grid. Additional subcategories on top of those already identified here have since emerged. However, the more differentiation, the greater the need for further examination. The grid needs to be expanded in a three- or even four-dimensional direction to accommodate the different actors and levels. This explains why its presentation in an analogous publication is insufficient.

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The KIAL Grid: a way to extend and enrich communication and cooperation in religious education research

This heuristic-analytical grid provides a possible starting point for differentiated mapping approaches to (inter-)religious education and the development of concrete teaching materials. Based on four modes and subcategories that emerged during the research process a more nuanced and sophisticated spider diagram could be developed for every (inter-)religious education research project, educational process and teaching material. This theoretically founded category grid, which has since been further developed in practice, religious education projects of any kind can be meaningfully related to each other, compared and put in contact. A comprehensive “map” of interreligious education activities for different actors and areas could be developed or further selective, quantitative and comparative research conducted. Overall, as this grid provides a self-orientation to and an articulation of religious education and religious didactics, it can stimulate communication and cooperation between different models and research projects. Therefore, this framework serves a macro-level function for religious education theory and research and practical level reflection. It could also be a useful meso-level didactic visualization for religion-related discourses, such as teaching materials and content selection. Finally, the framework could serve as a guide for students at the micro-level to assist them to focus on their (learning) perspectives or goals. Overall, the framework provides for a self-orientation and articulation of public religious education and didactics, allows for related reference disciplines to be situated, which could encourage mutual communication and cooperation and comprehensively emphasize the complexity-oriented, interconnected thinking needed for lifelong learning. The KIAL category grid also provides directions for further research, especially into digitalization. Once digitalized, a corresponding application could be provided as a low-threshold tool to all relevant actors. In the digital space, it could also be interesting to use emojis or other visual or symbolic illustrations in the surveys as the data and insights gained from such an approach could, after being tested in a variety of practice contexts, assist in further refining and differentiating the category grid. It could also be used to map interreligious education providers or compare context-specific interreligious learning process insights. The medium-term goal is to further differentiate the mapping grid. A comprehensive category platform based on theory and practice could be developed that facilitates specific links and interconnections – in short: knowledge transfers – from different perspectives and professional or conflicting contexts. The research project “Interreligious Challenges and interreligious learning in Digital

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Society,” which is part of the University Research Program (URPP) “Digital Religion(s)” at the University of Zurich started in 2021, is working toward this very goal.8

4.

Plea for increased collaborative interdisciplinary knowledge management

Due to the religious education developments and challenges, such as the complexity of topics, the dynamics of the educational policy conditions, the plurality of contexts and the interconnectedness of the political, theological, social and pedagogical challenges, religious education stakeholder cooperation and collaboration is expected to play an increasingly important role. The different religious education actors, the many reference sciences and the supranational horizon all call for continued professional exchanges, communication and the development of future intra-, inter- and transdisciplinary scenarios.9 Given our specific professional, institutional and personal backgrounds as theologians dealing with the theory and practice of religious education, the following should be noted for interdisciplinary work. A theological perspective on religion-related school subjects does not seem to suggest a link to a denominational orientation. When training teachers in many European countries, theological faculties or training institutions that have clear denominational anchoring are no longer fully responsible. However, knowledge transfers related to future religion-related and interreligious educational process designs require a clear reference to theologies and other related areas, such as the philosophy and psychology of religions (Suhner 2021, 185–211). Even if the framework conditions in individual countries require a non-confessional school subject design, simply ignoring the theologies would obviate the specific historical, hermeneutical and pedagogical knowledge values. A teaching practice that primarily favors a knowledge-oriented, informative profile is expected for religious education teacher education; however, as is already evident in Switzerland, these developments could lead to the loss of the sub-field “religion” in the ERG subject personal references to respective existential (religious and further) questions and content. In contrast, we consider theological perspectives beyond the confessional and institutional research and practice aspects to be a better approach to the chal8 www.digitalreligions.uzh.ch. 9 For the concept of interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity we refer to the ongoing research project “SHAPE-ID”: an EU-funded project addressing the challenge of improving inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation, and especially to the report Baptista et al. 2020.

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lenges posed by factual religious diversity. The factual diversity of religious traditions, the historical developments, the epistemological approaches and the current ethically relevant interpretations of religious practice can be brought into concrete teaching processes in a (meta-)theologically informed and dialogueoriented way that considers both the thematization of religions and worldview content and convictions. Therefore, the knowledge transfer is a “professional knowledge transfer” that fosters increased theological exchanges between researchers in different countries. Against the backdrop of increased religious plurality, intense discussions are needed on the approaches that could be used to address the current interreligious practice challenges in schools to allow for a conscious dialogue between the different theologies. The question regarding the political, educational, scientific or practical disciplinary responsibilities could certainly gain some clarity from a mapping that illustrates which disciplines, under which conditions, with which challenges and containing which topics, etc., contribute to religion-related educational tasks. Irrespective of the disciplinary responsibilities, there remain collaborative and cooperative challenges between religious educational actors. Therefore, some mapping is necessary to generate collaboration beyond personal contacts. Of course, any mapping by researchers must constantly question the respective categories as these are contextually colored and shaped by power.10 Such religious education mapping and its limitations must also be theologically and critically questioned, which is a meaningful task for theologians.

References Bergmann, F. (2019). New Work New Culture: Work we want and a culture that strengthens us. Winchester: Zero Books. Baumann, M., & Tunger-Zanetti, A. (2018). Constructing and representing the new religious diversity with old classifications: ‘World Religions’ as an excluding category in interreligious dialogue in Switzerland. In L. Kühle, J. Borup & W. Hoverd (eds.). The critical analysis of religious diversity. Boston: Brill, 179–207. Baptista, B. V., Fletcher, I., Maryl, M., Wcis´lik, P., Buchner, A., Lyall, C., Spaapen, J., & Pohl, C. (2020). Final Report on Understandings of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Research and Factors of Success and Failure. Zenodo. (retrievable at: https://zenodo.org/record/3824839#.YtfdU-xBxQI). Bühler, W., Bühlmann, B., & Kessler, A. (eds.). (2015). Sachbuch Religionen: Hinduismus, Buddhismus, Judentum, Christentum, Islam. 4. Aufl. Horw: Db-Verlag.

10 Cf. e. g., Baumann & Tunger-Zanetti 2018.

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Büttgen, P., Roggenkamp, A. & Schlag, T. (eds.). (2017). Religion und Philosophie: Perspektivische Zugänge zur Lehrer- und Lehrerinnenausbildung in Deutschland, Frankreich und der Schweiz (Studien zur Religiösen Bildung 13). Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Citizen Science in Theory and Practice, (retrievable at: https://theoryandpractice.citizen scienceassociation.org/) (accessed February 01, 2023). Cross, D. & Swart, J. (2020). Professional Fluidity: Reconceptualising the Professional Status of Self-Employed Neo-professionals. Organization Studies, 42 (11), 1699–1720. Gobel, M. S., Benet-Martinez, V., Mesquita, B. & Uskul, A. K. (2018). Europe’s Culture(s): Negotiating Cultural Meanings, Values, and Identities in the European Context. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49 (6) 858–867. Helbling, D. & Kilchsperger, J. R. (2013). Religion im Rahmen des Lehrplans 21. In D. Helbling, U. Kropacˇ, M. Jakobs & S. Leimgruber (eds.). Konfessioneller und bekenntnisunabhängiger Religionsunterricht. Eine Verhältnisbestimmung am Beispiel Schweiz, Zürich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 51–70. Kelle, U. & Kluge, S. (2010). Vom Einzelfall zum Typus: Fallvergleich und Fallkontrastierung in der qualitativen Sozialforschung. 2. überarbeitete Auflage. Wiesbaden: Springer. Leimgruber, S. (2007). Interreligiöses Lernen. München: Kösel. Lorenzen, S. & Schmid, K. (2019), Religionsunterricht in der Schweiz. Wirelex – https:// www.bibelwissenschaft.de/wirelex/das-wissenschaftlich-religionspaedagogische-lexik on/wirelex/sachwort/anzeigen/details/religionsunterricht-in-der-schweiz/ch/9a810768 d76fc4108fd8734de6dffd55/#h5) (accessed February 01, 2023). Meyer, K. (2019). Grundlagen interreligiösen Lernens. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe & Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. (2007). Toledo Guiding Principles on teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools. Prepared by the ODIHR advisory council of experts on freedom of religion or belief – https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/c/e/29154.pdf (accessed February 01, 2023). OECD (2010). Recognising Non-Formal and Informal Learning: Outcomes, Policies and Practices – https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/recognitionofnon-fo rmalandinformallearning-home.htm) (accessed February 01, 2023). OECD (2018). The future of education and skills Education 2030 – https://www.oecd.org/ed ucation/2030/E2030%20Position%20Paper%20(05.04.2018).pdf (accessed February 01, 2023). Schlag, T. (2019). Religious education in the Swiss Reformed Churches as a promising hybrid between non-formal and formal education. In F. Schweitzer, W. Ilg & P. Schreiner (eds.). Researching Non-Formal Religious Education in Europe. Münster: Waxmann, 71–84. Schlag, T. (2020). Entwicklungslinien evangelischer Praktischer Theologie und Religionspädagogik: Die Theologischen Fakultäten der Deutschschweiz. In T. Schlag & B. Schröder (eds.). Praktische Theologie und Religionspädagogik. Systematische, empirische und thematische Verhältnisbestimmungen (Veröffentlichungen der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie, Band 60). Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 195–216.

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Schlag, T., Roggenkamp, A. & Büttgen, P. (eds.). (2020). Religion und Philosophie in schulischen Kontexten: Rahmenbedingungen, Profile und Pfadabhängigkeiten des Religions- und Philosophieunterrichts in Deutschland, Frankreich, der Schweiz und Griechenland (Studien zur Religiösen Bildung 19). Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Schreiner, P. (2016). European Institutions, Human Rights and Interreligious Education. In M. L. Pirner, J. Lähnemann, & H. Bielefeldt (Eds.), Human Rights and Religion in Educational Contexts (pp. 273–284). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31 9-39351-3_22 (accessed February 01, 2023). Schweitzer, F. & Schreiner, P. (2020). International Knowledge Transfer in Religious Education – a Manifesto for Discussion. Religious Education, 115:1, 10–14. Suhner, J. (2021). Menschenrechte – Bildung – Religion: Bezugsfelder, Potentiale, Perspektiven. Paderborn: Schöningh. Suhner, J. (2023). Mapping digital interreligious learning. Frameworks, mindsets, examples – an overview (t.b.p.). Suhner, J. & Schlag, T. (2021). Interreligiöses Lernen als heterogenitätssensible Bildungsaufgabe. Einsichten und Ausblicke einer qualitativ-explorativen Untersuchung interreligiöser Bildungsmodule. In B. Grümme, T. Schlag & N. Ricken (eds.). Heterogenität. Eine Herausforderung für Religionspädagogik und Erziehungswissenschaft (Religionspädagogik innovativ 37). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 179–199. Suhner, J. & Winter, M. (2022). KIAL. Eine qualitativ-explorative Untersuchung eines interreligiösen Bildungsmoduls für angehende Lehrpersonen: Forschungsbericht. Zürich/St. Gallen. URPP (University Research Priority Program) Digital Religion(s). Communication, Interaction and Transformation in the Digital Society – www.digitalreligions.uzh.ch (accessed February 01, 2023). Van der Noll, J., Rohmann, A. & Saroglou, V. (2018). Societal level of religiosity and religious identity expression in Europe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49, 959– 975.

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Fredrik Jahnke

Religious literacy: how do we recognize it when we see it, and then what…? Arguments for a reformed use of religious literacy in RE research, international knowledge transfer and teacher training programs

Abstract To facilitate and strengthen teacher training knowledge transfers, certain theoretical and analytical concepts must be scrutinized, one of which is religious literacy. This chapter starts with a short survey on the use of religious literacy in different international contexts, from which it was found that religious literacy is far from a coherent concept. Despite this, religious literacy is not a redundant term. Quite the opposite. This chapter argues that religious literacy could prove useful in several research areas if there were a transformed understanding and use of religious literacy as a concept. The main objective of this chapter is to initiate this endeavour and suggest a new framing that could assist in a more cohesive and practical use of religious literacy in its own right. The first step is to tie religious literacy closer to its origin in new literacy studies. One important distinction, on the other hand, is to demarcate religious literacy from other established RE research concepts, such as learning about religions. Finally, it is argued that religious literacy should be understood in relation to interpretative repertoires and used to study different linguistic and communication capacities. If we follow the trajectory set out in this chapter, we will enhance our theoretical and explanatory toolbox and our possibilities to develop children and young peoples’ sense making in relation to religion in schools. Keywords: Religious literacy, literacy, learning about religion, World religion paradigm, interpretative repertoires, sense making

1.

Religious literacy and International Knowledge Transfer – an introduction

International knowledge transfers (IKT) have often been discussed in comparative national educational system contexts (Beech 2006). However, while discussing problematizing concepts and theoretical approaches are not the same, they are interconnected. To facilitate national and international teacher education knowledge transfers, student teachers, teacher trainers and religious education scholars would benefit from distinctive, relatable concepts as wideranging, imprecise concepts can obstruct such endeavors.

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Religious literacy has been a popular religious education research focus for some time. However, religious literacy is a ubiquitous term that is generally not uniform, often incoherent and seldom well defined. While some efforts have been made to overview the field (von Brömssen 2013) and reduce the conceptual diversity (Biesta, Aldridge, Hannam & Whittle 2019), others have claimed that the multiple meanings ascribed to religious literacy is a strength (Dinham & Francis 2016) or have applied the term to specific, narrow contexts (Bowling 2021; Halafoff, Singleton, Bouma & Rasmussen 2020; Kjørven 2016; Pae 2021; Rackley 2021). There have been some commendable and fruitful efforts to systematize and categorize religious literacy (Dinham, Francis & Shaw 2017; Goldburg 2010; Shaw 2019, 2020). However, credible as these contributions have been, religious literacy definitions have tended to be too wide-ranging and inclusive. In addition, and despite its popularity, the move from literacy to religious literacy has seldom been explained or thoroughly elaborated on in religious education. In some sense, religious literacy has become an open signifier, or rather a ‘one size fits all’ term to be adjusted for almost any use or purpose, which raises the following rhetorical question: would a more precise, agreed on and demarcated understanding of religious literacy be better? This chapter seeks to prove that it would. Even though there is a lack of clarity as to the specific meaning of religious literacy, it is not redundant and could be a fruitful term in several research areas; however, to study something, it is generally necessary to know what to look for in the first place. The objective of this chapter is to elaborate on and discuss this predicament and to suggest a new framing for religious literacy so that it is more cohesive, more practical, closer to its origins in New Literacy Studies (Street 1984, 1998) and distinctively uncoupled from other established religious education concepts. Distinguishing and clarifying the meaning of religious literacy is relevant both to religious education, IKT and teacher education because it is important to know what is being transferred and under what conditions.

2.

Religious literacy in context

The starting point in this endeavor is to examine the use and adoption of religious literacy in different national and local contexts and for different research purposes, as exemplified in the following.

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Religious literacy in the USA

Diane Moore’s highly influential book Overcoming religious illiteracy (Moore 2007) was aimed at the teaching of religion in the USA. Moore is a proponent of non-confessional religion teaching in public schools, primarily because her main objective is to reduce the widespread religious illiteracy in North American society by expanding the number of people who understand the cultural, political and contextual aspects of religion and the various influences it has on people’s daily lives. For Moore, this is related to both citizenship and interpersonal understanding. However, discussing public school religious teaching in this national context is not without problems as this focus could be unconstitutional. Religious education could be seen to be congregational and confessional education, that is, learning in a specific belief or religion, which is prohibited in American state schools. However, this is not Moore’s intention; quite the contrary. Moore argues that the promotion of non-confessional religious teaching at state schools is clearly in line with the First Amendment as Moore’s approach favors religious literacy over RE because it is more feasible for the US national context. Stephen Prothero (2007) is also concerned with religious knowledge in North American society and argues that the religious literacy could be further developed by improving: “the ability to understand and use religious terms, symbols, images, beliefs, practices […] and stories that are employed in American public life.” (Prothero 2007, p. 17). Prothero and Moore share the idea that religious literacy stretches beyond mere facts about religion and that religion should be taught in public schools. They also argue that this is in accordance with American law. Viewed from a national context, religious literacy, rather than RE, becomes an important term for them. However, unlike Prothero, Moore’s citizenship focus indicates that religious literacy can also vary within national contexts.

2.2

Religious literacy in South Africa

Contexts such as South Africa have different reference points (Nthontho & Addai-Mununkum 2021; Roux 2010). Since the 1990s, there has been an ambition to bridge the differences and inequalities in South African society and strengthen social cohesion and human rights. Cornelia Roux argued that interreligious RE at school was an important part of this process and that the teachers’ religious literacy was central to its success. For Roux, religious literacy is related to selfidentification and an understanding of other people’s perspectives and worldviews, that is, improving personal religious literacy is a hermeneutical process that involves reflexivity and dialogue (Roux 2010, p. 996).

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A decade later, Nthontho and Addai-Muunkum (2021) extended this idea and drew attention to the inclusion of RE in a new non-confessional subject in the South African school curriculum called Life orientation, in which religion is represented in three ways: literacy, creativity and critical reflection. Nthontho and Addai-Muunkum (2021) explored how religious literacy could be a useful tool to fulfil the potential of this subject and drew upon the ideas of Denise Cush (2007) and Robert Jackson (2005), among others, to state that religious literacy can be used to understand the world and that a religiously literate person can argue for a religious (or non-religious) position while maintaining their own position (Nthontho & Addai-Mununkum 2021, p. 438). As religious literacy is closely connected to the school curricula content and outcomes, Nthontho & Addai-Mununkum concluded that religious literacy should be seen as the basis for critical and creative dialogues in the classroom and school forums.

2.3

Religious literacy in the UK

Compared with the United States, the UK’s relationships between the school system, the state and religion are very different, a variable that plays a part in the national understandings of religious education and the use of religious literacy. Andrew Wright (1993, 2000) was one of the first to elaborate on religious literacy in the UK. He alleged that contemporary society had become increasingly religiously illiterate and argued that school education systems needed to address this illiteracy. Taking a critical realism approach, Wright stressed that religious literacy in schools should not be seen as something that can be measured as factual knowledge about the reality ‘out there’ nor as the final learning outcome. Rather he sees religious literacy as the ability to reflect on, communicate and understand religion and posits that such knowledge and understanding is linguistic; understanding the world equates to having the language to do it. He writes: “To understand language requires a reference […] to the open and universal nature of human interaction,” and: “A socially constructed language that gains meaning from the ways in which words are used […] by constructing complex patterns of symbolism, metaphors, models, myths, narratives and stories” (Wright 1996, p. 172). Concerning religion, this means that a person’s religious literacy increases when one acquires, and in various degrees masters, different religious discourses. When students develop this linguistic competence they can discuss, understand and draw conclusions about religion and the truth claims associated with the various religious traditions. The important thing is, however, not the truth claims per se but the ability to discuss and communicate these varied ideas and beliefs. For Wright, the process of understanding the world, including reli-

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gion, is a linguistic and social endeavor that evolves throughout life from an early age.

2.4

Religious literacy in Swedish RE teacher education

In Sweden, RE (in Swedish: Religionskunskap) has been a compulsory, inclusive and non-confessional school subject since the 1960s. The current Swedish National Agency for Education regulations for curricula, syllabi and teaching guidelines, as well as schoolbooks, focus on providing knowledge about and from religions and other life views, religion in society, life questions and ethics. While the religious literacy concept is not overtly referred to, the abilities and competencies, I will argue, are associated with religious literacy inherent in this material. For example the reference in the syllabi to societal diversity, global communication, interactions with others and mutual understanding, with significant emphasis placed on understanding others. However, less focus is put on everyday conversations about religion, sense-making or other abilities, such as curiosity, that are important to increase understanding, interactions and tolerance. A basic overview of popular Swedish teacher education textbooks also indicates this approach. Learning about and learning from religions and life views, life questions and ethics are included and then elaborated on and exemplified through certain teaching strategies. However, there is also content that stresses the dangers of totally fact-based knowledge and argues that an understanding of the differences between and inside the different religions is needed to ensure a contextual understanding. The authors also highlight that discussing, listening and reflecting are important abilities (see for instance: Löfstedt 2011; Odenstad 2014; Stymne 2020). Although there is content that can be classified as the type of religious literacy advocated in this chapter the term is seldom mentioned. While religious literacy is not specifically referred to, there are some exceptions. The most notable (Löfstedt 2018) take on a wide approach that is highly influenced by an international definition of literacy which however does not address or elaborate on religious literacy (UNESCO 2005). For Löfstedt, religious literacy denotes knowledge about religions, the ability to communicate, the ability to use this knowledge in practice as well as to engage in self-reflection; the result is a definition and a scope in its very broadest sense. Religious literacy in this sense is an all-embracing concept for what some think is proper to be taught at school and incorporated into the syllabi.

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Religious literacy in other perspectives

Another slightly different religious literacy definition was given in Ole Kjørvens’ dissertation in which religious literacy was examined at a purely textual and empirical level to investigate how ‘literate’ Norwegian RE teachers were about biblical scripture (i. e., the story about the Prodigal son). Therefore, Kjørven referred to religious literacy in a relatively narrow way; however, Kjørven also discussed his results in relation to Moore, Prothero and Wright and concluded that it was difficult to compare their positions. This finding was not surprising and can partly be explained by the respective contextual-dependent approaches taken toward the use of religious literacy. Religious literacy has recently been applied in wider contexts outside RE (Crisp & Dinham 2020; Dinham 2017; Dinham & Francis 2016; Dinham, Francis & Shaw 2017), such as in studies on the relevant and required religious knowledge needed in the health care system and on the need for religious literacy to be included in UK occupational standards.

2.6

Religious literacy in context – a summary

This short survey makes it clear that there is no uniform understanding of religious literacy. However, three important conclusions can be made. First, there is use of religious literacy, on the one hand, grounded in knowledge about religions and the associated practices and, on the other, based on linguistic abilities as a way to understand and communicate different truth claims. The former is predominant, especially if knowledge about is defined in a wider sense and include contextual and societal understandings of religion. Second, religious literacy has been applied in many different areas, such as Kjørven’s empirical and textual usages in which religious literacy is seen as an analytical and theoretical tool and the normative religious literacy content in school curricula. Third, if religious literacy is to be understood from an international perspective, national contexts must be considered. Most of these religious literacy understandings share at least three common features: the authors’ concern for a waxing social religious illiteracy; a need for increased religious understanding, tolerance and dialogue that recognizes the religious diversity in society; and a preoccupation and dependence on discrete religious traditions. Despite these commonalities, the popularity of a religious literacy focus seems to increase the lack of clarity regarding its meaning, which has made it difficult and problematic to compare and transfer the concept of religious literacy to teacher education contexts as well as to other fields of research.

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There are several ways to resolve this dilemma: detach the common religious literacy understanding from national context dependencies and disentangle religious literacy from the other concepts that contribute to the lack of clarity. Suggestions are given in the following sections to address these ambitions.

3.

‘Religion’ in religious literacy – a wider understanding

‘Religion’ is inevitably a vital part of religious literacy and how we understand and define religion affects religious literacy’s applicability and scope. Marta Shaw’s (2019) dissertation focuses on the need for a wider understanding of religious and non-religious worldviews. However, the benchmark in this study was the common reductionist understanding of religion from the British REcontext, which traditionally has been a world religion approach, from which Shaw sought to frame the wider perspective as one “…that includes more informal and personal experiences and understandings” (Shaw 2019, pp. 16, 59). I agree that religion should not be limited to just the well-established religious traditions. Biesta et al. also suggested a move away from the object of religion to the subject of religion and proposed that the focus should be on what it means: “for someone to live life religiously” (Biesta et al. 2019, p. 29). However, this could be criticized as being a narrow understanding of religion because the focus is on ‘being religious’ and emphasizes belief and religious practice. A wider understanding of religion is needed, one that can be built on the views of Ingvild Saelid Gilhus and Lisbeth Mikaelsson (2003). For them religion should be understood as an engagement in and communication with or about imagined and hypothetical transcendental realms, gods or other powers. Such position also relates to social, societal and cultural perspectives and first and foremost, interpersonal communication about these imagined powers (Jahnke 2021, pp. 66–67). This wider perspective, which includes the religious elements in such areas as popular culture, sports and fantasies, situates religion here, there and everywhere (Gilhus 2013, 2017). This standpoint opens up a wider communication around religion and should be the domain from which religious literacy is to be formed. This could also apply to school environments. Studies have found that children and young people think and talk about religion in various ways (Ipgrave 2012, 2013; Jahnke 2021). Because understanding the world is a never-ending social task, when children first enter school, they bring with them a wide range of knowledge and linguistic competencies that are not exclusively related to or drawn from established religious traditions. Consequently, children’s and young people’s relationships with religion should not be limited to learning content about religion or expected learning outcomes. Much, therefore, can be gained if this wider perspective is included in teacher education and becomes part of the

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teachers’ competencies. Religious literacy as set out in this chapter is a highly adequate term for this purpose, even internationally.

4.

‘Literacy’ in religious literacy – a concept too far from home?

It is no understatement that literacy is a popular term in many different research fields. The term literacy has been used in many ways and many contexts, such as worldview literacy (Valk, Mualla & Siebren 2020), media literacy (Potter 2008; Wrammert 2021), liturgy literacy (Berglund 2019), epistemic literacy (Pearce, Stones, Reiss & Mujtaba 2019) and biological literacy (Semilarski and Laius 2021). However, there has been no uniform understanding of literacy within or across these fields; in fact, literacy seems to have traveled far from its original meaning (von Brömssen, Ivkovits and Nixon 2020) and undergone some unfortunate changes. Religious education and religious literacy are no exceptions. To mend these definitional issues, it is necessary to understand the ‘literacy’ in religious literacy in context with its original associations in New Literacy Studies (Gee 2000; Lankshear & Knobel 2013; Street 1984, 1998). Literacy studies emerged from the ideas and teaching of the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1975, 1976). One key theme in Freire’s pedagogy was that those from the less-literate working classes should learn to read and write, that is, they need to be able to acquire and access language. However, for Freire, acquiring language was not only the ability to read and write, but an endeavor for liberation, empowering the citizens and increasing societal equality. Consequently, the power relations in this process were important to uncover. In the 1980s, researchers began to focus on the social contexts and practices in which these processes took place. (Barton & Hamilton 2000; Baynham & Prinsloo 2009; Hall 2013; Street 1998). These embedded literacy practices were redefined from being mere neutral or technical to being political processes (Street 1984, 1998). As literacy became associated with individual language repertoires and sense-making processes (Martin-Jones & Jones 2000; Street & Lefstein 2007), it was argued that literacy needed to be understood as an evolving, ongoing and dynamic process in which the individual, or in this case, the student, had an active part to play in the learning situation rather than being a mere receiver (Barton & Hamilton 2000; Kleve, Penne, & Skaar 2014; Norton 2007; Street 1984). Even though social and contextual perspectives were crucial to New Literacy Studies, it is important to note that the ‘literacy’ focus was on speaking and mastering a specific language, for instance Spanish, in different social settings. Clearly, learning how to read, write and communicate in Spanish is not the same as doing so in ‘religion’. However, as this focus can be used to understand religious literacy to be the language needed for sense-making in different social

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contexts, our interest should be on the overarching ‘language’ of religion in a wider sense. To possess religious literacy is, then, like having the ability to speak and make sense in a variety of Spanish-speaking contexts. This interpretation means that different religious traditions should not be at the center of our understanding of religious literacy. Neither should religious literacy be used to study phenomena for which we already have adequate and established concepts. A starting point for this demarcation could be to set religious literacy apart from the three related perspectives that are often misleadingly connected to it.

5.

Three substantial demarcations: ‘Learning about religion’, the World Religion Paradigm and curricula

Regardless of the contextual variances, the use of religious literacy has often been informed by two common features: the interconnectedness to fact-based or social, dynamic and citizenship-based knowledge about religion (Halafoff et al. 2020; Prothero 2007; Moore 2007); and the presupposition and departure from defined, organized and known religious traditions. These features are the starting point for the discussion in this section. The first delimitation is to separate religious literacy from its integration with religious traditions. As has been pointed out, religious literacy has often been used in connection with well-known and organized religious traditions in both narrow interpretations associated with a fixed number of world religions and wider interpretations that include a large number of named religious traditions. However, the focus on specific religions still lingers in the background and have confined the scope of religious literacy, a perspective that has been problematized as the World Religion Paradigm (Anker 2017; Bleisch & Schwab 2021; Cotter & Robertson 2016; Masuzawa 2005; Owen 2011). This interlocking is problematic for several reasons. Not only does it retain the meaning of talking and making sense of religion but also runs the risk of defining religious literacy as being ‘reserved’ as a concept that is mainly about specific religious traditions that do not embrace the atheistic or agnostic viewpoints or religion at large. Enveloping the understanding of religious literacy also runs the risk of only focusing on official, simplified and perhaps even stereotypical forms of the different religions, which for instance can obviate perspectives of lived religion (Ammerman 2007, 2014; McGuire 2008) and the many variations that exist within religious traditions. Religious literacy should not be limited to knowledge about some religions or some religious phenomena but should be seen

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as a linguistic tool to make sense of religion in a variety of situations and different parts of life; thus, the earlier analogy with Spanish. To make some progress in defining religious literacy as an individual concept, it is necessary to demarcate it from learning about religion. Several decades ago, Grimmitt (1987) coined the expressions learning about religion and learning from religion, which have since become well-established within RE research. The main idea was to distinguish learning content, that is learning about, from the more developmental and critical aspect in RE focusing on the individual pupil in relation to what is being taught (Grimmitt 1987). It could be argued that Grimmitt’s use of learning about was focused on religion in a narrow sense. While this may have been the case, there are benefits in expanding his expression to include knowledge about religions in a wider contextual sense, for instance from social, societal and political perspectives. Therefore, it is suggested that learning about religion needs to be further elaborated. However, as this was not the objective of this chapter, this is a task best left for future discussions. The point is that as there is already an adequate and well-established concept that allows for a discussion on the different forms of knowledge about religions in a wider sense, it is not necessary to attach religious literacy to this. Religious literacy has also been used to explicitly discuss and study RE teaching, learning and curricula content (von Brömssen et al. 2020; Nthontho & Addai-Mununkum 2021; Roux 2010; Shaw 2019) and it is in this area that the third demarcation is to be found. Curricula, content and learning outcomes are normative and draw from various elements, such as historical events, ideological positions, pedagogical approaches and contemporary political situations. Hannam et al. (2020) argued that there were several disadvantages to relating religious literacy too closely to school curricula. This chapter also agrees that religious literacy should not be limited to being dependent on, desirable for or equal to any particular learning content or outcomes in schools. Neither should it be used as a tool to investigate and compare what constitutes different national curricula, as has been done previously (von Brömssen et al. 2020). If this were the case, religious literacy would be no more than an empty signifier and a concept that had little or no value as an overarching analytical tool for knowledge transfer or other RE fields. One further argument is that literacy and religious literacy is not related to knowledge per se but an ability and a capacity; therefore, a focus on school content could run the risk of marginalizing the former and promoting more factual knowledge, making it difficult to use religious literacy outside the school context. The demarcations presented above are the main arguments in this chapter, from which the following suggestion is given. When religious literacy is applied as a theoretical and analytical tool, that is, as a tool to recognize and study language,

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literacy practices and sense-making in relation to religion, it is necessary to ask whether it is separated from the World Religions Paradigm in the wider sense, from learning about religion, from curricula and learning content in school and from national and local understandings of the concept. If the answers are no, we need to rework the points of departure. However, as it is a bad habit to tear things down without reconstructing and establishing something new in its place, the duty here is to give some tentative forward-looking suggestions.

6.

New understanding of ‘religious literacy’: a modest proposal

It may be surprising to start this concluding section with a maritime theme. As a sailor, I know the importance of navigation; however, this is not entirely why this metaphor for religious literacy was seen to be useful. Biesta et al. (2019) claimed that this metaphor was useful because it highlights: “that being literate means that one is able find one’s way around a particular domain or terrain.” In combination with Wright’s linguistic approach, the navigation metaphor sets the scene for the following argument. However, engaged in language, Wright could be criticized for his emphasis on different religious traditions and their truth claims (see for instance: Franck 2018). This particular perspective in Wright’s argument falls outside the demarcation offered in this chapter for obvious reasons. Nevertheless, Wright’s writing on knowledge and the ability to reflect, communicate and act on knowledge about religion and different truth claims is useful here. Wright also emphasized that language and knowledge were evolving hermeneutic, social processes, both of which are relevant to the arguments presented in this chapter. This focus on language and communication becomes even more useful when combined with the perspective that people are social and sense-making beings (Gärdenfors 2009). Sense-making here refers to the dynamic and contextual processes through which people experience meaning, within which linguistic expression and mutual understanding are pivotal components because people establish, retain and modify meaning and knowledge through language. Depending on the context and situation, people use several different communication strategies in social interactions, all of which are structured by different socio-linguistic rules, or, as labeled by Potter and Wetherell, interpretative repertoires (Potter & Wetherell 1987; Wetherell & Potter 1992). Edley described these repertoires as “…a range of linguistic resources that can be drawn upon and utilized in the course of everyday social interaction.” (Edley 2001, p. 198). Edley also described interpretative repertoires as being similar to books in a library or the main steps in a dance, the basic understanding of which a person can im-

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provise and make sense of new or old situations. In line with the navigation metaphor, they could also be analogized to a sea chart. The greater the number and the broader the repertoires people have access to, the better they are at sensemaking different social situations and the greater their ability and potential to understand others. The suggestion made here is that future discussions should equate terrain or domain with interpretative repertoires and view the latter as linguistic and communication terrains. When applied to religion and RE, these repertoires should be understood as an ability to talk about and make sense of–or to dance, if we use Edleys’ metaphor–religion in different situations and contexts. One notable point, however, is that different religious traditions, or knowledge about these traditions, are not the focus here as that perspective is and should be demarcated. It is precisely here where interpretative repertoires connect to literacy practices and religious literacy, and, for that matter, speaking Spanish. One final point is that speaking about different religious traditions per se, or having knowledge about them, should not be categorized or looked at as being the same as having different repertoires or different forms of religious literacy. Therefore, to emphasize the modest proposal being given here, one final demarcation is required. As well as proposing that being literate means being able to “find one’s way around in a particular domain or terrain,” Biesta and colleagues (2019) suggested that being literate also included a critical awareness of the power relations within a terrain. While these are unquestionably important abilities, they should not be seen as axiomatic ingredients for religious literacy. Making sense in different contexts and using interpretative repertoires does not necessarily imply a critical perspective. Put differently, a critical view and an awareness of the power relations in a particular social context is not a prerequisite for religious literacy. This demarcation is, perhaps, an area that could be discussed further, not least because it addresses one of the fundamental assumptions in New Literacy Studies.

7.

Concluding remarks

It is my hope that the demarcations offered in this chapter can assist in counteracting the confusing overly narrow or too wide understandings of religious literacy and make it a less ambiguous concept. Religious literacy has a vital part to play in religious education research and teacher education as it could improve the ‘seeing’, investigating and transferring of important knowledge about how children and young people make sense of religion; an ability that is undoubtedly important in a society characterized by religious diversity.

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This chapter has merely started the national and local deconstruction needed to come to a common understanding of religious literacy. Therefore, further scrutiny is needed to raise awareness about the different contextual understandings of religious literacy to improve international knowledge transfers in teacher training.

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Rackley, E. D. (2021). ‘Blessings and Friends and Knowledge’: Environmental Motivations for Religious Literacy. Religious Education, 116(2), 101–115. Roux, C. (2010). Religious and Human Rights Literacy as Prerequisite for Interreligious Education. In K. Engebretson, M. De Souza, G. Durka & L. Gearon (eds.), International handbook of inter-religious education (vol. 1–2). Dordrecht & New York: Springer, 991– 1015. Semilarski, H. & Laius, A. (2021). Exploring Biological Literacy: A Systematic Literature Review of Biological Literacy. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(3), 1181– 1197. Shaw, M. (2019). Teaching and Learning About Religion and Worldviews in English Schools: Religion and Worldview Literacy. VID vitenskapelige høgskole. Diakonhjemmet Oslo. https://vid.brage.unit.no/vid-xmlui/handle/11250/2648273. Shaw, Martha. (2020). Towards a Religiously Literate Curriculum – Religion and Worldview Literacy as an Educational Model. Journal of Beliefs and Values 41(2):150–61. Street, B. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. Street, B. (1998). New literacies in theory and practice: What are the implications for language in education? Linguistics and Education, 10(1), 1–24. Street, B. V. & Lefstein, Adam. (2007). Literacy: An advanced resource book. London: Routledge. Stymne, Anna-Carin. (2020). Att Bli Lärare i SO. Stockholm: Liber. UNESCO. 2005. Literacy for Life: Education for All. Paris: UNESCO Publ. Valk, J., Mualla, S. & Siebren, M. (2020). Worldview Literacy in the Academy and Beyond: Advancing Mutual Understanding in Diverse Societies. Religious Education 115(3), 364–74. von Brömssen, K. (2013). Religious literacy – Är det ett användbart begrepp inom religionsdidaktisk/-pedagogisk forskning? In B. Afset, K. Hatlebrekke & H. V. Kleive (eds.), Kunnskap til hva? Om religion i skolen. Trondheim: Akademika forlag, 117–143. von Brömssen, K., Ivkovits, H. & Nixon, G. (2020). Religious literacy in the curriculum in compulsory education in Austria, Scotland and Sweden – A three-country policy comparison. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 41(2), 132–149. Wetherell, M. & Potter, J. (1992). Mapping the language of racism: Discourse and the legitimation of exploitation. New York: Columbia University Press. Wrammert, A. (2021). Med(ie)vetenhet, motstånd och engagemang: Gymnasieungdomars tal om och erfarenheter av religion. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. http:// urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-444846. Wright, Andrew. (1993). Religious Education in the Secondary School: Prospects for Religious Literacy. London: David Fulton in association with the Roehampton Institute. Wright, A. (1996). Language and Experience in the hermeneutics of Religious Understanding. British Journal of Religious Education, 18(3), 166–180. Wright, A. (2000). The Spiritual Education Project: Cultivating Spiritual and Relgious Literacy through a Critical Pedagogy of Religious Education. In M. Grimmitt (Ed.) Pedagogies of Religious Education. Case Studies in the Research and Development of Good Pedagogic Practice in RE. Great Wakering: McCrimmons, 170–187.

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Part III – International knowledge transfer and comparative perspectives. Teacher education in different countries and denominations

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Helena Junker / Martin Rothgangel

Training religion teachers in Europe: insights from the “Rel-Edu” project and challenges for future research

Abstract The education of religion teachers in Europe and the corresponding international transfer of knowledge is a complex research field. This article provides a comparative religion teacher education country analysis based on the contributions to the “Religious Education at Schools in Europe” (Rel-Edu) project. The empirical analysis was conducted using grounded theory and was focused on the international transfer of knowledge (IKT). The comparative grounded theory analysis identified eight development categories: 1. teacher education beyond RE at public schools; 2. historical background; 3. training institutions for religious education teachers; 4. religion teacher training in relation to church and state; 5. effects of the Bologna process; 6. religious teacher training content; 7. further religious education teacher training; and 8. problems and challenges. It was also concluded that regardless of its specific methodological limitations, the Rel-Edu project can make significant contributions to IKT. The analysis of impulse 10 led to an interesting conclusion regarding IKT and also revealed the further research needed in this area. Keywords: international knowledge transfer, teacher education in Europe, comparative research, grounded theory

1.

Preliminary remarks: The “Rel-Edu” project in the “IKT” context

This article linked two projects: “International Knowledge Transfer” (IKT) and “Religious Education at Schools in Europe” (Rel-Edu). The “Rel-Edu” project collected data on religious education (RE) at schools in European countries based on 13 impulses (see www.rel-edu.eu), after which six geographically ordered volumes covering the whole of Europe were published between 2014 and 2020 (Rothgangel/Jackson/Jäggle 2014; Rothgangel/Skeie/Jäggle 2014; Rothgangel/Jäggle/Schlag 2016; Rothgangel/Danilovich/Jäggle 2020; Rothgangel/ Aslan/Jäggle 2020; Rothgangel/Rechenmacher/Jäggle 2020). The project objective was: “The formulation of key issues allows specific points of comparison between different countries in Europe, thereby facilitating a comparative approach and

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further research into specific aspects of the comparison.” (Rothgangel/Jackson/ Jäggle/Skeie 2014, 9) Now that data collection has been completed (at least for the first round), the project is entering a data analysis phase. Therefore, this paper is the first attempt to compare all countries in the Rel-Edu volumes. First, the focus was placed on one of the 13 impulses called impulse 10, which is the “Training of Religious Education Teachers. Institutes, Structures, Priorities Issues.” The second focus was to identify the IKT in impulse 10 and assess the value and relevancy of the Rel-Edu project to IKT. Methodologically, the text passages from the individual impulse 10 countries were compared using grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin 1996; Hermisson and Rothgangel, 2018), one of the best-known qualitative research methods of our time. Grounded theory is generally applied “where a complex social reality cannot be grasped by numbers alone, but where language-mediated contexts of action and meaning are involved” (Strübing 2008, p. 9). The analysis described in this paper was conducted using the open and axial coding of completed texts on religious teacher training from the Rel-Edu volumes. The constant comparison of the country texts and the commensurate raising of analytical questions were the essential coding strategies for this research method, from which the categories were elaborated. Regardless of criticism (Käbisch 2021, 133f.), grounded theory is the most suitable method for assessing comparative projects in uncharted territories. First, grounded theory is based on a continuous comparison and the raising of questions. Second, the method is flexible and can be adapted to its subject through multiple data collection iterations (“theoretical sampling”), especially for the “Rel-Edu” project, in which the contributions to impulse 10 varied from a few lines to over three pages. However, a certain methodological dilemma was faced when seeking the greatest possible comparability across all six volumes to obtain comparable data from all European countries because the authors of volumes 1 to 3 (Central, Western and Northern Europe) had the opportunity to discuss the topics, but the authors of volumes 4 to 6 (Eastern, South-Eastern and Southern Europe) did not. The examination of the Eastern Europe contributions found that the items should have been modified because the RE in these countries were not in forms that the authors of this paper were familiar with. With this methodological awareness, the relevant findings for the training of religion teachers in Europe are presented below, with special attention given to IKT.

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Training religion teachers in Europe

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Results of the comparative analysis

The Grounded theory comparative analysis identified eight categories that could be developed: 1. teacher education beyond RE at public schools; 2. historical backgrounds; 3. training institutions for RE teachers; 4. RE church and state teacher training; 5. effects of the Bologna process; 6. RE teacher training content; 7. further RE teacher training; 8. problems and challenges. These categories are detailed in the following.

2.1

Teacher Education beyond RE at Public Schools

Although impulse 10 deals with the “training of teachers of religion,” a tendency to mention the underlying school subjects was observed in Eastern Europe texts, primarily because religious education is not usually a regular public school subject in these countries. For example, the Armenian text refers to the school subject “Armenian Church History” (Hovhannisyan 2020, p. 46) and the Belarussian text mentions the school subject “Fundamentals of Orthodox Culture” (Danilovich 2020, p. 86). At the beginning of the Georgian text, the training of history teachers is referred to: “As there is no separate RE as a compulsory school subject in Georgia, the training of history teachers is relevant for RE” (Gurchiani 2020, p. 117). The Belarussian and Georgian texts mention “Sunday schools” (Danilovich and Gurchiani 2020, pp. 86 and 117) and the Georgian text mentions the Muslim prayer communities and that the Muslim community “takes care of the education of students rather informally” (Gurchiani 2020, p. 117). As these types of observations were only found in the former Eastern Bloc countries, it was assumed that these were related to the problems mentioned at the beginning, that is, a prior discussion with the authors from Eastern Europe regarding the impulses could have led to changes, at least about the teacher training related to this impulse. Nevertheless, two findings from Montenegro and Georgia appeared to be related to IKT. In Montenegro, there is an international transfer of knowledge at schools that have religious sponsorship because most teachers come from abroad; however, there is a distinction between the different denominations as the Orthodox teachers come from Serbia and the Islamic teachers come from Bosnia, Turkey, Egypt or Malaysia (Saggau/Pacˇariz/Bakracˇ 2020, p. 185). In Georgia, the Muslims and Lutherans, which are two minority religions, have a similar situation. Sometimes, Islamic religious education teachers are trained in neighboring Muslim countries and religious Lutheran education teachers have mostly trained abroad (Gurchiani 2020, p. 117); therefore, because of these peculiarities, it could be said that this outside training could result in IKT.

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These examples from the former Eastern Bloc countries all came from the first “Teacher training beyond religious education in public schools” category and were accompanied by unmistakable historical backgrounds, which leads directly to the next category.

2.2

Historical background

The RE teacher education impulse does not address the historical dimension. Therefore, the historical background was not included in all country reports. The former Eastern Bloc articles often dealt with religious suppression and the developments triggered by the fall of communism (Danilovich 2020, pp. 15f.). However, even in countries beyond the former Eastern Bloc, the explanations regarding RE teacher training were enriched by historical perspectives. For example, in the Netherlands, RE in public schools was legally forbidden until 1917, after which both the public school system and RE were financed by the state (Geurts/Avest/Bakker 2014, p. 191). The RE article from Luxembourg reported that RE was regulated in 1997 by agreements between the state and the archdiocese, and in 1998 the RE teacher profession was also legally regulated (Zeien/ Weber 2014, p. 165). However, after this article was written, at the beginning of the 2016/2017 school year, RE was abolished as an ordinary subject in Luxembourg.1 The historical dimension was also very revealing in Italy, in which anti-clerical sentiment in the second half of the 19th century led to the removal of theological faculties from state universities. As a result, the study of theology is only possible at ecclesiastical colleges and universities. Italy also has Higher Institutes of Theological Education in 155 dioceses that award various education titles (Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, pp. 105–106). This may be one of the reasons why the study of theology is still not recognized by the state as a proper university degree. There was also an interesting second historical development in Italy. Until the revision of the Concordat in 1984, a mission canonica was sufficient to teach RE; however, after the revision, all RE teachers had to receive theological training (Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, p. 105). An example from Turkey also highlighted the importance of the historical perspective. In 2006, the course “Religious Culture and Ethical Knowledge Transmission” was established in faculties of education. However, this was reversed in 2012 and these departments were removed and reassigned to the theology faculties (Dog˘an 2020, p. 265). This example leads to the next point, training institutions.

1 Cf. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionsunterricht#Luxemburg (last access 12. 04. 2022).

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The present category is also interesting from a methodological point of view with regard to IKT because the main criticism of comparative analyses is that they often neglect or even omit the historical dimension (Käbisch 2021, 133f.). This point is specifically discussed in the concluding section.

2.3

Training institutions

The three sub-headings, “Institutes, Structures, Priorities,” were formulated as “stimulating” aspects for RE teacher training. It was therefore not surprising that the texts contained a great deal of information about the respective training institutions. Some country reports mentioned the number and sometimes the names of the RE teacher training institutions, and other reports mentioned the training institution sponsorship. For example, the Hungarian report gave a precise description of the exact number of sponsors at the beginning of the text: “The 67 state-recognized institutions for tertiary education in Hungary are under state (28), church (26) or private (13) patronage” (Solymár 2016, p. 175). This numerical distribution was also given in the Irish report and was arranged according to denomination; five Catholic colleges in Dublin (3), Limerick (1) and Sligo (1) and only one Protestant college in Dublin (McGrady 2014, pp. 138). The Turkish report stated that within the universities, there was a debate about whether the RE teacher training should take place in the faculty of theology or the faculty of education. This raised an interesting question as it could be argued that teacher training should be the responsibility of faculties of education; however, the theological faculty has the required subject-matter expertise. Be that as it may, in “2012, these departments were taken from the faculties of education and given back to the faculties of theology.” (Dog˘an 2020, p. 265). This category had noteworthy IKT aspects. In smaller countries, such as Liechtenstein, the training of teachers for religious minorities most often took place in other countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland for Liechtenstein (Hischlehner 2016, p. 219) and Turkey and Egypt (Skura 2020, p. 40) for the Albanian Muslim minorities. However, the out-of-country training of teachers was not uncommon. The Cypriot text mentioned that RE teacher education also took place in Greece (Fotiou 2020, p. 40), and in Kosovo, most RE teachers have trained abroad, with the training locations varying by denomination; Catholic priests are trained in Zagreb and Rome, Orthodox priests are trained in Belgrade and Greece, and in addition to their domestic training, Muslim RE teachers can train in Sarajevo, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Jordan or Turkey (Aslan and Hamiti 2020, p. 138). This observation raised an interesting question: what motivations could contribute to an exchange of students in RE teacher education? Religious minorities have

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already been mentioned, but could the pursuit of religious influence also be an important factor? It should also be emphasized that none of the European country texts mentioned the Erasmus exchange programs. However, it was interesting to see the extent to which RE teacher training was linked to other institutions, such as the church, the religious community and the state. This emerged as a separate category as detailed in the following section.

2.4

RE teacher training in church/religious communities and the state

RE teacher training in relation to church/religious communities and the state was addressed to a greater or lesser extent in all texts, from which very different facets emerged that partly overlapped with the previous section, and which are briefly outlined here in the following questions. – Does religious teacher training take place at state, church or religiously supported institutions? (e. g., Italy, Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, p. 106) – Are the requirements for the RE teacher training the same as for other teachers? (e. g., Moldova, Fus¸tei 2020, p. 148) – Is a double qualification required for RE teachers because of special ecclesiastical or religious requirements? (e. g., Czech Republic, Muchová 2016, p. 110) – Are certain special routes for the admission of RE teachers made possible by the church or religious communities? (e. g., Czech Republic, Muchová 2016, p. 109) – Is a “missio Canonica” or something comparable necessary for RE teachers? (e. g., Lithuania, Rugeviciute 2014, p. 201) – Is there ecclesiastical or religious supervision for RE teachers? (e. g., Armenia, Hovhannisyan 2020, p. 46) – Do priests, pastors, imams, etc. also teach RE, and if so, do they have to acquire additional qualifications beyond their theological studies? (e. g., Greece, Mitropoulou 2020, p. 76) – What role does the state play in financing and approving RE teacher training courses? (e. g., Austria, Jäggle and Klutz 2016, p. 58) – Who organizes and finances the in-service training of RE teachers? (e. g., Austria, Jäggle and Klutz 2016, p. 58) – Are RE teachers paid by the state or the church? (e. g., Luxembourg, Zeien and Weber 2014, p. 166) These questions on RE teacher training by the church, religious communities and the state could stimulate a more detailed second edition, which in turn could contribute to the fruitful international transfer of knowledge. It would be exciting

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to pose further questions in this area. Based on the above questions, the mid-term could investigate various aspects of RE teacher training using closed questions.

2.5

Effects of the Bologna Process

Another category that emerged was related to the Effects of the Bologna Process. This category was interesting for “IKT” because the Bologna Process is a higher education reform to ensure the Europe-wide standardization of study programs. While it is not possible to deal with the “successes and unintended side-effects” (Hericks, 2018) of this reform in this analysis, the Bologna Process effects are worth mentioning as they were observed in the “Rel-Edu” volume texts, particularly the following; – the BA and MA structuring of the teaching profession in, for example, Hungary (Solymár 2016, p. 177), Portugal (Jäggle and Jäger 2020, pp. 155–156) and Italy (Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, p. 105); – the modularization of curricula, as was observed in Germany (Rothgangel/ Ziebertz/Klutz 2016, p. 136), France (Willaime 2014, pp. 114–115), Switzerland (Schlag 2016, pp. 298–299) and Hungary (Solymár 2016, p. 178); and, – the visible accreditation of degree programs in the Netherlands (Geurts/Avest/ Bakker 2014, p. 192), Poland (Rogowski 2016, pp. 202–203) and Hungary (Solymár 2016, p. 176). Further consequences of the Bologna reform, such as the extension of the study program in Croatia by two semesters (Filipovic´ 2016, p. 80) and the abandonment of the “double specializations in the didactics of theology” in Romania (Tanˇase/ Cergan/Dasca˘lu 2020, p. 212) were mentioned, as well as the abandonment of the Bologna process in Hungary when single-phase teacher training was reintroduced (Solymár 2016, p. 177). In general, aside from the Bologna process effects, it was interesting to examine the significant variations in the teacher training course durations. For example, there are short-term courses in Russia (Metlik 2020, p. 180), a three-year training duration in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Sˇtimac 2020, p. 76) and a six-year training duration in Slovakia (Reimer 2016, p. 242). The education duration also varied depending on the grades to be taught. For instance, in Sweden, the training for grades 1–3 (7–9-year-old students) is four years and for grades 7–9 (13–15-year-old students) is four and a half years (Osbeck and Skeie 2014, pp. 255–256). It was also interesting to examine the special steps taken by students to find RE teacher employment. In the Czech Republic (Muchová 2016, p. 110), for example, some dioceses offer a one year catechetical course, and in Italy (Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, p. 106), primary school teachers with a Master’s in Education

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can participate in a two-year RE program. The examination of the training variants revealed some country-specific options. For example, in Ireland, “a number of higher education institutions provide undergraduate degrees in Theology (for instance Trinity College, Dublin and St. Patrick’s College, MayMaynooth) or Religious Studies (for instance University College Cork).” (McGrady 2014, p. 139) In Belgium, the options are based on the country’s cultural areas; three different teacher training options in Flanders and four options in the Francophone region (Derroitte/Meyer/Pollefeyt/Roebben 2014, pp. 55–56), all of which led to the next theme, RE teacher training content.

2.6

RE teacher training contents

The comparative analysis revealed that more specific questions were needed to gain comparable insights as there were varying degrees of abstraction. In some countries, only general references were made to the theology, pedagogy and practices and in other countries, there was a nuanced training content list; for example, Greece mentioned the following: “knowledge of the Orthodox Faith and Christianity,” “suitable education through theoretical and practical teaching,” “historical sources of the Orthodox faith and tradition, and the treasures of the cultural heritage of the Church of Greece and Orthodoxy in general” and “a spirit of unity, love and collaboration” (Mitropoulou 2020, p. 76; see also Romania, Tanˇase/Cergan/Dasca˘lu 2020, pp. 212–213). In Iceland, religious studies and religious education courses are a part of “Social Studies teaching,” the content for which includes “the major religions of the world and teaching about them, the Bible and the use of Bible stories in teaching, the interaction of religions and culture and different emphases and approaches to religious education.” (Gunnarsson 2014, p. 145) However, the workload for this religious education specialization is only about 30 ECTS, or “the equivalent of one academic semester.” (ibid., p. 145) Future research should, therefore, examine various RE teacher training study programs in greater detail, including religious didactics, theology, religious studies and pedagogy. Malta reported that until 2016, the RE and theology teacher training was proportional: “secondary school RE teachers followed study units in Catholic Theology (a minimum of 20% of course content) and RE pedagogy (a minimum of 8% of course content)” (Gellel 2020, p. 132). It was also striking that in Belgium the RE teacher’s task was clearly defined within the curricula. The RE teachers are supposed to be “a witness to his own tradition, a moderator in religious communication and a professional specialist in the Christian tradition, in other world religions and world views” (Derroitte/ Meyer/Pollefeyt/Roebben 2014, p. 55). Future research could conduct a com-

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prehensive international comparison of the tasks and competencies expected of religious teachers in different European countries, which could include an examination of the respective curricula and handbooks to give greater weight to the “Contents of religious teacher training” category. Such a comparison could also examine the intersections with the “Effects of the Bologna Process” category. Examinations of teacher training quality could also be conducted.

2.7

Further training of RE teachers

It was found that the church often played a key role in the further training of RE teachers. In Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, the training and further education of RE teachers are largely organized by churches (e. g., in Armenia, Hovhannisyan 2020, pp. 46–47, or in Albania, Skura 2020, pp. 40–41). In Italy, also, the responsibility for further training lies with the dioceses and the respective RE departments (Alber and Rechenmacher 2020, p. 106). The Italian Bishops’ Conference organizes an annual RE congress of several days, which has had a positive effect because of its continuity. There seems to be very different further RE teacher training in Central Europe. In Hungary, further training is the responsibility of the churches, which is also reflected in the (Catholic) further training content and the spiritual further training courses (Solymár 2016, pp. 177–178). Further teacher training in Austria is generally the task of the colleges of education, not of the universities (Jäggle and Klutz 2016, p. 58). Germany has separate institutes for the further training of RE teachers (Rothgangel/Ziebertz/Klutz 2016, p. 137). In Western Europe, at least one noteworthy aspect related to IKT was identified. In Belgium, RE teachers in the German-speaking community can access further training and/or teaching materials either in the French-speaking community or from the Catechetical Institute in Aachen, Germany because: “The shortage of religious teachers in the German-speaking community has increased steadily.” (Derroitte/Meyer/Pollefeyt/Roebben 2014, p. 56).

2.8

Problems and challenges

There are problems in the RE teacher training field that cannot be solved by IKT, such as the decreasing number of students in the Czech Republic and the resulting problematic employment situation (Muchová 2016, p. 109), as was recently raised in Croatia (Filipovic´ 2016, p. 81). A comparative study could be conducted to determine why the RE teachers in the Czech Republic have little interest in further training and professionalization, the results from which could

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lead to other solutions than those proposed by some bishops in the Czech Republic who advocate religious education be withdrawn from public schools in favor of church catechesis. Poor job prospects were also reported in Slovenia (Gerjolj and Saje 2016, p. 262) and Hungary (Solymár 2016, pp. 178–179), although in Slovenia this was generally true for the whole teaching profession and in Hungary, the situation was better if RE teachers had a minor subject. Some challenges might be because of international money transfers; for example, the monthly RE teacher salary in Bosnia and Herzegovina was reported to be 270 to 300 EUR (Sˇtimac 2020, p. 77). Another problem was highlighted in the Armenian contribution. When the subject “Armenian Church History” (Hovhannisyan 2020, p. 46) was introduced, it was initially taught by teachers who had no subject training or certification, which resulted in problems such as low standards, teaching that was hostile to religious minorities and enforces religious prayer practices in the classroom. The following problems or challenges were also reported in the various country texts: – a lack of pedagogical skills in people studying at faculties of theology as exemplified in Slovakia (Reimer 2016, pp. 242f.); – the completely different training content at the individual universities in Cyprus (Fotiou 2020, pp. 50–51); – no formal pedagogical training at all in some places, such as Montenegro (Saggau/Pacˇariz/Bakracˇ 2020, p. 185); and – “no professional ‘teacher of religious culture status’” in Russia (Metlik 2020, p. 180). Other problems were that all Greek Orthodox elementary school teachers are allowed to teach religion (Mitropoulou 2020, p. 75) and when compared to other academic subjects in England, “religious education” (Gates and Jackson 2014, p. 89) is poorly considered, which is why English students are increasingly indifferent to religious education. Poor knowledge about religious facts was also found in France, which is a special kind of challenge (Willaime 2014, p. 114); however, this type of problem is a denominational problem as was evidenced in Northern Ireland, which made cooperation more difficult (Richardson 2014, p. 227). Certain findings seemed to contribute to IKT; for example, Lithuania entry’s into the EU had consequences for its education system (Rugeviciute 2014, p. 201); however, more data is needed. An IKT impact was also evident in Norway, which indicated there was a possible shift in the RE focus from “national cultural heritage” to “international political trends” (Skeie and Braaten 2014, p. 228).

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Results and challenges for future research in Rel-Edu and IKT

This section first summarizes the results most relevant to IKT, which were divided into content and methodology. The following content-related results were seen to be of central importance to the pursuit of IKT: – The Bologna process emerged as a separate category in the analysis. While certain aspects of the Bologna Process, such as modularization, affect RE teacher training, there seemed to be wide implementation variations across the European countries. Therefore, the central goal of the Bologna Process to promote student mobility was not yet accomplished, which may have been why the Erasmus exchange program was not mentioned. – Specific to RE teacher training is another form of international exchange. In countries such as Montenegro, Georgia (see 2.1), Liechtenstein, Albania, Cyprus and Kosovo (see 2.3), RE teachers either come from abroad or are trained abroad, especially RE teachers from religious minorities. This trend was also observed in smaller European countries, such as Cyprus, and certain regions of a country, such as the German-speaking community in Belgium (see 2.7). RE teachers are often educated in different countries depending on their religious affiliation; for example, in Montenegro, the Orthodox teachers come from Serbia and the Muslim teachers come from Bosnia, Turkey, Egypt or Malaysia. – Finally, some countries mentioned that entry into the EU (Lithuania) or “international political trends” (Norway) were playing a role. The more recent 2020 Rel-Edu volumes (Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, South-Eastern Europe) also mentioned the Council of Europe publication “Signposts” (Jackson 2014). It would be interesting to see whether this is mentioned in the revised new edition for Central, Western and Northern Europe. The following results regarding methodology were seen to be of central importance for IKT: – Certain countries (especially Eastern Europe) placed importance on the historical perspective, which they mentioned without being asked (see 2.2). This indicated that such a perspective should be included in future surveys as comparative studies that include historiographical critiques would provide greater decision depth and precision. The “general critique of comparative history and how transnational histories of religious education can broaden our knowledge about European countries” (Käbisch 2021, 134) should not be methodologically absolute. There are enough aspects (such as the extent and distribution of ECTS credits for RE teacher training) that can be validly and reliably compared without a historical perspective.

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– Similar to the emergence of the historical perspective (2.2), it became particularly clear from the “RE teacher training in church/religious communities and the state” (2.4) and “contents of RE teacher training” (see 2.6) categories that follow-up surveys are needed either because the available data raised further questions (2.4) or the answers given varied in concreteness and abstraction (2.6). Grounded Theory’s “theoretical sampling” can identify relatively unexplored knowledge areas that require further investigation. However, Grounded Theory is also only one methodological approach, and each method must be considered in terms of its respective limitations. By whatever method “international” or “transnational” knowledge is generated, the conclusions are preliminary as no method can ever reach “firm ground” (Popper 1992, p. 94). When viewing the Rel-Edu and IKT connections, the following overall conclusion was that IKT was evident in the impulse 10 context, which allowed for the identification of the three content-related points discussed above. Regardless of the possible methodological limitations in the data collection (see 1) and data analysis (see 2.4 and 2.6), it was evident that projects such as RelEdu can make significant contributions to IKT. This project has shown that impulse 10 led to interesting IKT results and also revealed future research challenges, as outlined in sub-sections 2.2, 2.4 and 2.6. Future RE teacher training research should link the two Rel-Edu and IKT projects. For example, to enhance the first Rel-Edu editions, the results of this analysis could be presented to and discussed with selected authors of the six RelEdu volumes to attempt to reach a consensus on the more elaborate RE teacher education items. An additional aspect could be to ask explicit questions about the impact and importance of IKT in RE teacher training as comparative research such as the Rel-Edu project could promote IKT.

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Hovhannisyan, H. (2020). Religion and Education at Schools in Armenia. In M. Rothgangel / Y. Danilovich / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 4: Eastern Europe (pp. 46–47). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Jackson, R. (2014). ‘Signposts’: Policy and Practice for Teaching about Religions and NonReligious Worldviews in Intercultural Education. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. http://theewc.org/Content/Library/COE-Steering-documents/Recommendatio ns/Signposts-Policy-and-practice-for-teaching-about-religions-and-non-religious-wor ld-views-in-intercultural-education. Jäggle, M. and Jäger, M. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Portugal. In M. Rothgangel / D. Rechenmacher / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 6: Southern Europe (pp. 155–156). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Jäggle, M. and Klutz, P. (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Austria. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (p. 57–59). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Käbisch, D. (2021), Knowledge transfer and comparative studies in religious education research. A multifaceted interrelationship. In F. Schweitzer / P. Schreiner (eds.), International Knowledge transfer in Religious Education (pp. 125–142). Münster: Waxmann. McGrady, A. G. (2014). Teaching Religion at Schools in Ireland. In M. Rothgangel / R. Jackson / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 2: Western Europe (pp. 138–139). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Metlik, I. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Russian Federation. In M. Rothgangel / Y. Danilovich / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 4: Eastern Europe (pp. 179–182). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Mitropoulou, V. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Greece. In M. Rothgangel / D. Rechenmacher / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 6: Southern Europe (pp. 75–77). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Muchová, L. (2016). Religious Education at Schools in the Czech Republic. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 108–110). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Osbeck, C. and Skeie, G. (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Sweden. In In M. Rothgangel / G. Skeie / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe (pp. 254–256). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Popper, Karl R. (1992), The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London: Routledge. Reimer, T. (2016). Religious education at schools in Slovakia. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 242–244). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Richardson, N. (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Northern Ireland. In M. Rothgangel / R. Jackson / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 2: Western Europe (p. 227). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rogowski, C. (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Poland. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 202–203). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Aslan, E./ Jäggle, M. (eds.) (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southeastern Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

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Rothgangel, M./ Danilovich, Y./ Jäggle, M. (eds.) (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 4: Eastern Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Jackson, R./ Jäggle, M. (eds.) (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 2: Western Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Jackson, R./ Jäggle, M./ Skeie, G. (2014). Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Europe. In M. Rothgangel / G. Skeie / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe (pp. 7–14). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Jäggle, M./ Schlag, T. (eds.) (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Jäggle, M./ Schlag, T. (eds.) (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Rechenmacher, D./ Jäggle, M. (eds.) (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 6: Southern Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M./ Skeie, G./ Jäggle, M. (eds.) (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rothgangel, M. and Ziebertz, H.-G. in cooperation with Klutz, P, (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Germany. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 136–137). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Rugeviciute, R. G. (2014). Religious Educationat Schools in Lithuania. In M. Rothgangel / G. Skeie / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe (pp. 199–202). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Saggau, E. H./ Pacˇariz, S./ Bakracˇ, V. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Montenegro. In M. Rothgangel / E. Aslan / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southeastern Europe (p. 185). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Schlag, S. (2016). Religious Education at Schools in Switzerland. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 298–299). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Skeie, G. and Braaten, O. M. H. (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Norway. In M. Rothgangel / G. Skeie / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe (pp. 227–228). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Skura, G. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Albania. In M. Rothgangel / E. Aslan / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southeastern Europe (pp. 40–41). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Solymár, M. (2016). Religious Education at schools in Hungary. In M. Rothgangel / M. Jäggle / T. Schlag (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 1: Central Europe (pp. 175–179). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Sˇtimac, Z. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In M. Rothgangel / E. Aslan / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southeastern Europe (pp. 76–80). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Strauss, Anselm L./ Corbin, Juilet M. (1996). Grounded Theory. Grundlagen qualitativer Sozialforschung. Weinheim: Beltz. Strübing, J. (2008). Grounded Theory: Zur sozialtheoretischen und epistemologischen Fundierung des Verfahrens der empirisch begründeten Theoriebildung. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

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Ta˘nase, L./ Cergan, D./ Dasca˘lu, C. (2020). Religious Education at Schools in Romania. In M. Rothgangel / E. Aslan / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southeastern Europe (pp. 212–213). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Ubani, M. and Tirri, M. (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Finland. In M. Rothgangel / G. Skeie / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 3: Northern Europe (pp. 115–116). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Willaime, J.-P. (2014). Religious Education in French Schools. In M. Rothgangel / R. Jackson / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 2: Western Europe (pp. 114–115). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Zeien, J.-L. and Weber, J.-M. (2014). Religious Education at Schools in Luxembourg. In M. Rothgangel / R. Jackson / M. Jäggle (eds.), Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 2: Western Europe (pp. 165–166). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

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Yauheniya Danilovich

Ecumenism as the space for international knowledge transfer in religious education teacher education

Abstract This paper gives a perspective on ecumenism in religious education for teachers. The intersection between international knowledge transfer and ecumenism in RE teacher training is discussed in relation to Orthodoxy and Orthodox RE. A resource-oriented approach to ecumenism in RE teacher training and the need for empowerment and sustainability in international knowledge transfer are also suggested. Keywords: Teacher education, interdenominational cooperation, Religious Education, ecumenical theological education

Due to migration and a shift in the traditional confessional milieus in different European countries in the last few decades, there is a need to include a greater focus on ecumenism in RE teacher training. Discussions on RE and increasing religious plurality have accompanied this development by placing greater emphasis on Islam and the many students without any religious affiliation. Religious plurality can also be seen in many Christian students who belong neither to the Catholic nor the Protestant Church. Taking the Orthodox Church in Germany and Orthodox students as examples, this paper discusses the developments that are permanently changing RE in schools and the need for greater ecumenism in teacher training. The remainder of the article is structured as follows: First, as an important factor in the increased denominational plurality in Germany, migration is first discussed using the Orthodox Church as an example. Then, the respective RE transformations in schools and the associated demands on teacher training are described, after which Orthodox theological education and Orthodox RE teacher training in Germany are examined more closely from the perspective of international knowledge transfer. Finally, the needs and challenges associated with building ecumenism into teacher education are explored.

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Migration as a catalyst for increasing denominational diversity: Orthodoxy in Germany

Religious and denominational plurality in Germany is represented, among others, by the Orthodox Churches. The Orthodox Church in Germany, which is the third largest Christian religious community after the Catholic and Protestant Churches, is a religious community that owes its presence and growth to migration. There are approximately three million Orthodox Christians in Germany, and the Orthodox population has been growing in Austria and Switzerland as well. Because no church taxes are levied by the Orthodox Church, no precise statistical data is available. In some federal states such as North Rhine-Westphalia or Bavaria, however, school statistics also include the students’ denominations, the data from which indicate that the number of Orthodox students in North Rhine-Westphalia has more than doubled in the last ten years from 26,556 to 55,230 (Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 2021, p. 104). Orthodoxy in Germany is heterogeneous and multinational. While the common beliefs, worship traditions and canon law are shared by all Orthodox Churches, the nine Orthodox dioceses in Germany have jurisdictional affiliations to different Orthodox Churches; Russian, Greek, Serbian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian and Antiochian; depending on their languages and culture. In countries that were originally Orthodox, however, there is only one Orthodox Church, such as the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia and the Romanian Orthodox Church in Romania. In Orthodox canon law, the term diaspora is used as a terminus technicus for the (special) situation in which there are different Orthodox Churches on the same territory. In countries with an Orthodox diaspora, the founding of Orthodox Episcopal Assemblies was initiated as a temporary solution. In Germany, the structural developments started with the creation of the Commission of the Orthodox Churches in Germany (1994), which led to the eventual founding of the Orthodox Episcopal Assembly in Germany (2010). The Orthodox Episcopal Assembly in Germany, which currently comprises 17 bishops representing the nine dioceses, coordinates joint fieldwork for all Orthodox Churches in Germany, which includes the development of joint Orthodox RE in schools (Orthodoxe Bischofskonferenz in Deutschland 2022). To be allowed to teach Orthodox RE, a teacher must be a member of one of the dioceses represented in the Orthodox Episcopal Assembly in Germany. Teachers also require consent or authorization from their religious communities. Currently, both clergy and laymen teach Orthodox RE. Orthodox RE teachers must complete theological or religious education training, have German language skills and be sensitive to the inner-Orthodox plurality and cultural heterogeneity

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of the Orthodox students. There is an Orthodox RE orientation toward the common belief (Christian-Orthodox), which is then contextualized within the individual Orthodox traditions.

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RE in Germany: rising denominational diversity and changing demands on teacher education

These developments directly affect the RE at schools, which, in Germany, is mostly shaped by denominational responsibility (Art 7 (3) of the Basic Law). There is a general trend toward the pluralization of denominational RE; for example, in the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, RE is currently offered in eight denominations; Protestant, Catholic, Syrian-Orthodox, Orthodox, Jewish, Islamic, Alevi and the Mennonite Brethren. However, increasingly more students are taking part in an RE that has no correspondence with their denominational or religious affiliations. Smaller religious communities often have RE organizational difficulties, such as the formation of groups or the employment and payment of teachers. Therefore, Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox students take part in established Protestant and Catholic RE or denominational-cooperative (Catholic-Protestant) RE. In the 2020/2021 school year for example, from a total of 55. 230 Orthodox students in North Rhine-Westphalia, only 470 (less than 1%) participated in Orthodox RE (Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 2021a, p. 104; Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 2021b, p. 79; Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2021, p. 11). The North Rhine-Westphalia school statistics indicated that Catholic and Protestant RE are the main RE foci in schools that have the greatest participation (Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 2021b, p. 79).1 Empirical research also found that Orthodox students participated in the RE of other Christian denominations. A survey of teachers (N = 1093) in the Evangelical Church in Rhineland territory (parts of North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse and Saarland) was conducted in 2013. When asked about which religious communities the students at their school belonged to, almost half the RE teachers (45%) nominated the Orthodox Church. More than a quarter of the teachers (27.6%) stated that the Orthodox students took part in Protestant RE (Rothgangel, Lück & Klutz 2017, p. 65f–66), and less than half a 1 Remarkably, in Germany’s neighbouring country Austria, the situation of Orthodox RE is completely different. There, this format reaches about 80% of the Orthodox students.

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percent (0.4%) stated that their school had Orthodox RE. The most common reasons why RE was not denominationally separated were: parents’ request (34%), organizational reasons (28.5%) and too few students belonging to a certain denomination or religion (27.3%) (Rothgangel, Lück & Klutz 2017, p. 69). This special situation requires RE teachers to be more sensitive to the religious and denominational plurality in the classroom, which in turn places special demands on teacher education, such as the development of appropriate attitudes and beliefs, the acquisition of additional knowledge and the need to deal with personal self-efficacy when dealing with religious plurality while also being confessionally positioned. This last point can be particularly challenging because of the diffusion of denominational profiles in both the students and the teachers. There is also a growing consensus that the RE teacher education for the respective denominations could benefit from teaching and research cooperation with other Christian theologies (Link-Wieczorek, Richebächer & Waßmuth 2020). The last few decades have seen increased denominational cooperation between Germany’s two main Protestant and Catholic Churches because of declining memberships. Contrary to this trend, the other Christian denominations in Germany, the presence of which is due primarily to migration, have seen increasing numbers of members. Nevertheless, it is often difficult to establish a minor denominational RE as attempts at ecumenism have been unbalanced. While there has been greater ecumenical denominational cooperation (Protestant-Catholic), there is a danger that RE ecumenism may exclude the smaller religious communities from participating. In Germany, RE ecumenism has traditionally referred to Protestant-Catholic RE cooperation, even though the participants have long been denominationally and religiously heterogeneous.

3.

Increasing needs and remaining desiderata: Orthodox RE teacher education in Germany

Several migration waves have led to the rising Orthodox membership in Germany, which in turn, has highlighted the need for Orthodox theological education and teacher training; a need that has been ecumenically addressed from the beginning. The pioneers of today’s Orthodox academic theology at German universities were the chairs of the so-called Eastern Church Studies that were established in the Catholic theological faculties at the Universities of Münster and Würzburg and in the Protestant theological faculties at the Universities of Erlangen, Münster, Heidelberg and Halle, which were staffed by Protestant and Catholic theologians. Where Orthodox theology is taught on a denominational basis is

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discussed in more detail in the following; in Germany, these are currently the University of Münster and the University of Munich. In 1979, Germany’s first Orthodox Theology chair was established at the University of Münster and structurally assigned to the Department of Catholic Theology. At present, the Orthodox Theology Chair is located at the Center for Religion-Related Studies (Professur für Orthodoxe Theologie 2022). In 2009, an ‘Orthodox Religious Education’ course was established at the University of Münster to train Orthodox RE teachers for all school types and grades, the aim of which was “to give the students an academic education in Orthodox theology. The course focused on areas of particular relevance to RE practice at schools for Orthodox students where students are given religious education knowledge that emphasizes Orthodox tradition” (Fächerspezifische Vorgaben; Orthodoxe Religionslehre für das Lehramt an Gymnasien und Gesamtschulen, für das Lehramt an Grund-, Haupt- und Realschulen und den entsprechenden Jahrgangsstufen der Gesamtschulen, für das Lehramt an Berufskollegs 2009). Due to a lack of new enrollments in 2013, however, the course was classified as an expiring model. The second Orthodox Theology location in Germany is the Institute for Orthodox Theology at the Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich, at which the Orthodox Theology Chair was established on the initiative of the Catholic Theological Faculty (Nikolaou 1998, 175). Various courses focused on Orthodox theology are offered at the Institute for Orthodox Theology at the University of Munich. For example, the diploma course in Orthodox theology prepares catechists and RE teachers (Studienordnung für den Diplom-Studiengang Orthodoxe Theologie vom 26. Mai 1997). Religious education is studied in the fifth and eighth semesters and students can choose between religious education and homiletics; however, only four semester hours per week are scheduled to study ‘religious education/homiletics’ during the entire course. There is no explicit RE teacher training such as the ‘Lehramt’ (the official German term for teacher training) or second stage teacher training (Referendariat), which means that the Orthodox RE teacher training situation in Germany remains a desideratum. Despite the importance of Orthodox Theology in Munich and Münster, no Orthodox faculties have yet been established in German-speaking countries, which has restricted the ability to gain qualifications for Orthodox theologians. Because no Orthodox theology university institutions have the right to habilitation in Germany, Orthodox theologians have no opportunity to habilitate at an Orthodox theological institution, which means they must habilitate at Catholic or Protestant theological institutions, with the venia legendi being awarded by Catholic or Protestant faculty. Therefore, because of its minority situation and despite increasing numbers of believers, there have been significant difficulties in establishing Orthodox RE teacher training in German-speaking countries. Nonetheless, even though Or-

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thodox RE in Germany has neither a chair nor a structural facility (institute or similar), a scientific discipline is gradually being established. In 2020, two dissertations were completed that dealt with Orthodox RE in German-speaking countries; Orthodox RE in Germany by Marina Kiroudi (Kiroudi 2021) and on the self-image of Orthodoxy in Austria in the context of school books by Marija Jandrokovic (Jandrokovic 2020). There is also an increased interest in Orthodox contributions by Orthodox religious educators in publications, such as anthologies, magazines and encyclopedias. In December 2019, a special issue of the Journal for Education and Theology on “Religious Education and Orthodoxy” was published (Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie 71/4, 2019), and there have also been conferences held that explicitly dealt with Orthodox RE. For example, from September 20th to 22nd 2021, the international conference “Ecumenically Sensitive Religious Education in the Horizon of Orthodoxy. Specifications of an Ecumenical Didactics of Religion” took place in Würzburg (cf. Simojoki, Danilovich, Schambeck & Stogiannidis 2022). Orthodox religious education in Germany and German-speaking areas has therefore been establishing itself as an exciting field with great intra-Orthodox, ecumenical and international knowledge transfer potential.

4.

Visibility of theological multilingualism: Orthodox academic theology in Germany and Orthodox RE teacher training as a space of international knowledge transfer

The following details Orthodox academic theology and ecumenism in theological education in Germany and reflects on the international knowledge transfer potential. Orthodox theology in Germany exists in the traditionally influential Catholic and Protestant theological context even though the theological field has become more pluralistic in recent decades with Islamic theology also being more strongly represented. The voices of the secular public must also be considered. Orthodox academic theological development also deals with discourses, questions and concepts from other theologies, which is strengthened by the structural location of Orthodox academic theology in Germany and its indispensable contact and dialogue with other theologies. The diversity and polyphony of Christian theology are visible in German Orthodox academic theology. Reinhard Thöle sees Orthodox theology in Germany as an opportunity and a factor that affects all Christians: “Furthermore, the Orthodox presence in Germany has a theological impact for all Christians: next to Catholic or Protestant understandings of the meaning of ‘church’, there is now an

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Eastern ecclesiastical hermeneutic pattern, that is, a church identifying itself through the Holy Eucharist. Such views could come into a fruitful dialogue with each other. It may conceal opportunities for new ways of expanding CatholicProtestant togetherness toward the Eastern Orthodox.” (Thöle 2014, p. 96) From the start, Orthodox academic theology has been committed to making Orthodoxy visible and known in Europe and specifically in Germany, as having an intermediary role (Nikolakopoulos 2002, pp. 707, 709; Nikolaou 1998, p. 172). While it is important to Orthodox theologians that Orthodoxy be discussed, it is also important that people learn about Orthodoxy from Orthodox theologians and Catholic and Protestant theologians. Orthodoxy is making an important contribution to international knowledge transfer in Christian theologies. Because the original contexts for Orthodox academic theology are in their countries of origin, such as Russia, Romania, Greece and Serbia, most theological literature was not written in German nor for a German-speaking context. International theological knowledge transfer can occur through such activities as exchange programs, guest lectures, partnerships, joint projects, conferences and excursions. Orthodox academic theology in Germany fulfills a certain bridge-builder function between theologies, churches, cultural areas and states and sees itself as being committed to this role. Theodor Nikolaou, for example, claimed that there were broad Orthodox theological task applications, from the training of Orthodox theological young people to the care and intensification of both ecumenical–“rapprochement of the Eastern and Western Churches” (Nikolaou 1998, p. 181) ˗ and international relations, such as between Germany (Bavaria) and Greece. Orthodox academic theology in Germany is both a result of and an ongoing process toward knowledge transfer at different levels, such as the (educational) migration of Orthodox theologians to Germany, the translation of theological works from other languages and the introduction of discourses negotiated in other countries. This knowledge transfer process is reciprocal, which means that people in countries with an Orthodox majority can learn about the theology of other Christian denominations. Orthodox theology at German universities has developed in close theological cooperation with the theologies of other denominations (and later also other religions). Therefore, the formation of Orthodox academic theology is to some extent, the result of ecumenical synergy. In both Germany and Austria, Catholic and Protestant faculty initiatives have supported the structural embedding of Orthodox theology in the university landscape. This cooperation extends not only to teaching and research but also to committee work, such as participation in the appointment process (Nikolakopoulos 2002, p. 712). What is special about these developments is that they take place in an ecumenical framework that includes, for example, doctorates by Orthodox theologians at Protestant and Catholic faculties or conferences and publications focused on ecumenical

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sponsorship. The inclusion of the Orthodox voice is not only representative of concrete Christian theology but also strengthens academic theological pluralism. The structural embedding of Orthodox theology in the university landscape has strengthened its reach because expertise requires continuous resources. The establishment of academic Orthodox theology was due to the effects of ecumenical synergy, which has had its own momentum. For example, many Orthodox theologians in Germany are former scholarship holders, who already had academic degrees from a university in their country of origin before continuing their education in Germany for their master’s degree, doctorate or habilitation. The Orthodox theologians’ projects, among other things, are being supported by various Protestant and Catholic organizations. On the international level, there are scholarship programs that have explicit references to ecumenism; for example, the Protestant Church in Germany’s (EKD) ‘Brot für die Welt’ (formerly located in the Diakonisches Werk of the EKD in Stuttgart and before that, since 1953, in the ‘Hilfswerk’) scholarship programs. Statistical data revealed that since the beginning of support in the 1953/54 academic year until 2016 (Arion 2016, p. 186), at least 915 Orthodox scholarship holders have been supported by these programs. Arion described the support that has been given as a process “of getting to know each other better in an ecumenical, intercultural and interpersonal sense as well as for a considerable transfer of theological and diaconal knowledge in both directions. So, it can rightly be said that a significant part of today’s inter-church and ecumenical relationships in the Evangelical-Orthodox area lives on in networks that arose in the context of theological scholarship programs at the time.” (Arion 2016, p. 186) . Through this international cooperation with Orthodox partners abroad, however, it is expected that there will be a consolidation of Orthodox theology studies at German universities. While there is an increasing need for local German-based interlocutors at the university level who can ensure Orthodox theology is brought into the German-speaking academic discourse, Orthodox theologians in Germany, many of whom have been influenced by their immigration and multilingual backgrounds, are actively involved in promoting internationalization and the expansion of partnerships (Danilovich 2021, p. 114). Academic exchange programs have both academic and ecumenical advantages. One program that is worth mentioning is the cooperative agreement between the Protestant Theological Faculty in Tübingen and academic theological institutions in Belarus. These agreements indicate that academic pursuits are not enough for their realization; there must also be a strong ecumenical will. The political situations in the respective countries should also be considered. Ecumenical and interreligious academic cooperation in their respective denominational forms is not only fruitful for teaching and research but also creates space for open, discourse-related dialogues on current topics. Despite the many

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fundamentals Christian theologies have in common, such as the central importance of biblical writings and human creation, Christian theology as a whole is characterized by polyphony. Enabling this polyphony and dealing with it are, therefore, a must, both for academic research as a whole and specifically for theology (Danilovich 2021, p. 112).

5.

Ecumenism in teacher training and international knowledge transfer: challenges and perspectives regarding more οἰκουμένη in teacher education

The term ecumenism (οι᾿κουμένη) – “the whole inhabited earth” – already has a global perspective. Dealing with ecumenism in theological education and research can favor international knowledge transfer on various levels. Education has always been given priority within the ecumenical movement, which corresponds with the self-commitment formulated in the Charta Oecumenica signed by church leaders in Europe in 2001: “We commit ourselves to overcome the feeling of self-sufficiency within each church, and to eliminate prejudices; to seek mutual encounters and to be available to help one another; to promote ecumenical openness and cooperation in Christian education and in theological training, continuing education and research.” (ChOe, p. 3) Comparing the teacher training situations across countries can seem difficult at first because both the religious and denominational RE situations are different. The project REL-EDU, which included the category “Training of RE teachers: institutes, structures, priorities issues”, produced interesting results (cf. RELEDU). However, the Churches’ teacher training roles are also relevant. Ecumenism in theological education depends more on the ecumenical policies of the Church’s leadership than ecumenical dialogues. Vasilevich, in her presentation on theological education in Belarus, highlighted the connections between a country’s political and ecclesiastical situations and its theological education developments, which include ecumenism (Vasilevich 2023). Different countries have different reasons for including a greater focus on ecumenism in their RE teacher training. For example, in addition to gaining insights into the differences between the social church forms for the Protestant and Catholic denominations, RE student teachers in Germany must also acquire Orthodox Christian knowledge (Jäggle & Kaupp 2014, p. 138). Therefore, in Germany, ecumenism in RE training is important because of the denominational RE cooperation. A new development in this area has been the “Christian RE” project in the federal state of Lower Saxony. In Germany, the bi-denominational Protestant and Catholic habitus is still prevalent in most agreements between the

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Churches; however, schools have been multi-denominational for many years. As mentioned, despite the decreasing number of Protestant and Catholic students, most students are still participating in Protestant and Catholic RE (Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen 2021, pp. 79, 117). Another difference between countries is related to the conditions for ecumenism in RE teacher training. In Germany, for example, there are no places where Orthodox RE teachers can train specifically for a teaching post (Lehramt). Since 2007/2008 in Austria, however, the Orthodox RE training for teachers at compulsory schools has been taking place at the Ecumenical Church-Pedagogical University of Vienna/Krems, where they learn together with students of other denominations (Jäggle & Kaupp 2014, p. 138). Individual best practice reports on courses related to ecumenism and practical theology and religious education have been published (Moga 2020, pp. 9–11) and provide good teaching motivations. Nonetheless, it appears that ecumenism is often dependent on the initiative of individuals and their attitude toward ecumenism. Overall, while theological education is already ecumenical, it is not always visible, especially at the structural or institutional level, that is, theological education has yet to become “officially” ecumenical because, at the moment, there are no standard RE teacher training content criteria or minimum ecumenism requirements. Therefore, the question remains: when is education considered adequately ecumenical? Greater discussions are needed about the inclusion of a fluid ecumenism in theological academia. Ecumenism and ecumenical efforts are of little importance to young Christian people because migration experiences do not appear to play a role for them when it comes to ecumenical sensitivity: “Overall, it can be stated that the vast majority of young people describe their own experiences with the church as not reflecting their socialization. They perceive their membership in a religious community as a more or less coincidental circumstance” (Boschki & Schweitzer 2016, p. 91). Denominational differences do not seem to play a role in people’s everyday lives, with most finding it difficult to understand why the churches are separated, why there is no sharing of communion and why a common ecumenical rite is often not possible when it comes to marriage. Due to the war in Ukraine, academic cooperation at different levels and in different constellations has been indefinitely suspended. While this war will certainly have a longer-term effect on international knowledge transfer between Belarus, Russia and Ukraine and also globally, it also has immediate consequences for the academic field in Russia and Belarus, such as global and ecumenical isolation and also for theological academic work. The political stance of the Church leadership of the Moscow Patriarchate is particularly influential as exemplified by Patriarch Kirill who sometimes more subtly and sometimes more openly expresses approval of Putin’s aggression policy. However, there are also

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prominent ecumenical voices calling on the patriarch and other Church leaders to raise their voices and speak out against the war. The Russian Orthodox Church leadership in Russia and in Belarus, the latter of which has made its territory available as a staging area for Russia, remains criminally silent. Therefore, because of the statements from the Russian Orthodox Church (statements from Patriarch Kirill), the voices of condemnation from Orthodox theologians in German-speaking countries and Europe are important. The statement issued by the working group of Orthodox theologians in Germanspeaking countries (Arbeitskreis Orthodoxer Theologinnen und Theologen im deutschsprachigen Raum) condemned the war and distanced itself from the Church leadership statements that were trying to theologically justify the war (Arbeitskreis Orthodoxer Theologinnen und Theologen im deutschsprachigen Raum 2022). The need for ecumenical cooperation is also growing because of the influx of Ukrainian refugees, most of whom are Orthodox, and the majority of whom are women and children. Academic ecumenical working groups are already being established to develop support for RE teachers who are actively involved in ecumenical cooperation.

References Arbeitskreis Orthodoxer Theologinnen und Theologen im deutschsprachigen Raum. (2022). Stellungnahme zum Krieg in der Ukraine, https://akoth.de/stellungnahme-zum -krieg-in-der-ukraine/ (accessed 08. 21. 2022). Arion, D. (2016). Ökumene gestalten. Kirchen stärken. Menschen fördern. 63 Jahre evangelische Stipendienarbeit mit Orthodoxen im “Diakonischen Werk der EKD” in Stuttgart und bei “Brot für die Welt” in Berlin. In T. Bremer, A. E. Kattan, R. Thöle (eds.), Orthodoxie in Deutschland. Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 185–193. Boschki, R. & Schweitzer, F. (2016). Ökumenisches Lernen braucht eine eigene Didaktik. Schülervoraussetzungen und Prinzipien interkonfessionellen Lernens. In S. Altmeyer, R. Englert, H. Kohler-Spiegel et. al. (eds.), Ökumene im Religionsunterricht. Jahrbuch der Religionspädagogik 32, 87–97. Charta Oecumenica. Guidelines for the Growing Cooperation among the Churches in Europe, https://www.ceceurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ChartaOecumenica. pdf (accessed 08. 21. 2022). Danilovich, Y. (2021). Ein echter Bedarf – eine wichtige Stimme. Orthodoxe Theologie und Religionspädagogik an der Universität. In S. Nacke, M. Optendrenk & T. Söding (eds.), Die Gottesfrage in der Universität. Debatten über Religion und Wissenschaft, Freiburg i. B.: Herder, 109–118. Fächerspezifische Vorgaben; Orthodoxe Religionslehre für das Lehramt an Gymnasien und Gesamtschulen, für das Lehramt an Grund-, Haupt- und Realschulen und den entsprechenden Jahrgangsstufen der Gesamtschulen, für das Lehramt an Berufskollegs.

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BASS 20-04 Nr. 17 ü. RdErl. d. Ministeriums für Schule und Weiterbildung v. 25. 06. 2009 (ABI. NRW. S. 421) 2022. Jäggle M. & Kaupp, A. (2014). Go East – Konfessionelle Kooperation zwischen katholischen und orthodoxen Christen im Rahmen des EU-Erasmus Intensivprogramms. Theo-Web. Zeitschrift für Religionspädagogik, 13(2), 135–142. Jandrokovic, M. (2020). Selbstbild der Orthodoxie in Österreich. Entwicklung der Analysekategorien für die Schulbuchforschung. Wien: Universität Wien. Kiroudi, M. (2021). Orthodoxer Religionsunterricht in Deutschland. Geschichte, Rahmenbedingungen, Perspektiven. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. Link-Wieczorek, U., Richebächer, W. & Waßmuth, O. (eds.). (2020). Die Zukunft der theologischen Ausbildung ist ökumenisch. Interkulturelle und interkonfessionelle Herausforderungen in Universität und Schule, Kirche und Diakonie. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen (ed.). (2021a). Statistik-TELEGRAMM 2020/21. Schuleckdaten 2020/21. Zeitreihen 2011/12 bis 2020/21, https://www.schulministerium.nrw/system/files/media/document/file/stattelegramm2 020.pdf (accessed 08. 21. 2022). Ministerium für Schule und Bildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen (ed.). (2021b) Das Schulwesen in Nordrhein-Westfalen aus quantitativer Sicht. 2020/21. Statistische Übersicht Nr. 413, https://www.schulministerium.nrw/system/files/media/document/file/q uantita_2020.pdf (accessed 08. 19. 2022). Moga, I. (2020). Verpflichtende ökumenische Curricula an der Wiener Katholisch-Theologischen Fakultät. Una Sancta. Zeitschrift für ökumenische Begegnung 75/1, 8–14. Nikolakopoulos, K. (2002). Das Studium der Orthodoxen Theologie an der Universität München. Die Schritte eines gewichtigen Unterfangens. In K. Nikolakopoulos, A. Vletsis & V. Ivanov (eds.), Orthodoxe Theologie zwischen Ost und West. Festschrift für Prof. Theodor Nikolaou. Frankfurt am Main: Lembeck, 707–716. Nikolaou, T. (1998). Orthodoxe Theologie an der Universität München. In A. Kallis, Bischof Evmenios (Tamiolakis) von Lefka (eds.), Orthodoxie in Begegnung und Dialog. Festgabe für Metropolit Augoustinos. Münster, 171–198. Orthodoxe Bischofskonferenz in Deutschland, http://www.obkd.de/Texte/OBKD%20-%2 0Mitglieder.pdf (accessed 08. 21. 2022). Professur für Orthodoxe Theologie, https://www.uni-muenster.de/CRS/OT/index.html. REL-EDU project: https://www.rel-edu.eu/project/ (accessed 08. 19. 2022). Rothgangel, M., Lück, C. & Klutz, P. (2017). Praxis Religionsunterricht. Einstellungen, Wahrnehmungen und Präferenzen von ReligionslehrerInnen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ed.). (2021). Auswertung Religionsunterricht Schuljahr 2019/20. Teilnehmende Schülerinnen und Schüler allgemeinbildender Schulen in öffentlicher Trägerschaft nach Schularten (aufgegliedert nach Religionsunterrichten, Ethik und weiteren Ersatzunterrichten) für den Primar und Sekundarbereich, https://www.kmk.org/filead min/Dateien/pdf/Statistik/Dokumentationen/AW_Religionsunterricht_II_2019_20. pdf (accessed 08. 21. 2022). Simojoki, H., Danilovich, Y., Schambeck, M. & Stogiannidis, A. (eds.). (2022). Religionsunterricht im Horizont der Orthodoxie. Weiterführungen einer Ökumenischen Religionsdidaktik. Freiburg i. Br.: Herder.

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Studienordnung für den Diplom-Studiengang Orthodoxe Theologie vom 26. Mai 1997 (KWMBI II S. 1027), https://cms-cdn.lmu.de/media/contenthub/studiengangsfinder/d ownloads/01ot-1997-s00.pdf (accessed 08. 19. 2022). Thöle, R. (2014). Orthodox Churches in Germany: From Migrant Groups to Permanent Homeland. In M. Hämmerli & J.-F. Mayer (eds.), Orthodox Identities in Western Europe. Migration, Settlement and Innovation. Farnham/Surrey/Burlington: Ashgate, 89–97. Vasilevich, N. (2023/in Press). Theological Education in Belarus: Ecumenical, Confessional, Academic? In N. Asproulis & N. Vasilevich (eds.), The State of Theological Education in Central and East European Universities. Challenges and Prospects in view of Secularization and Globalization. Leiden: Brill. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik und Theologie (2019) 71/4.

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Part IV – Post-colonialism and discrimination – Challenges for teacher education

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Fahimah Ulfat

Decolonizing religious education – a challenge for international knowledge transfer

Abstract: This article takes an international knowledge transfer perspective to examine the contribution of postcolonial theory in critically addressing the unreflective colonial thinking and everyday racism in religious education, its curricula and the training of religious education (RE) teachers. The paper aims to raise awareness of how much the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism is still present today. The focus is on the representation of religions in schools, using Islam as an example. Because racism, ideological intolerance and cultural chauvinism are closely linked to colonial European history and its ideologies, a more in-depth examination of this subject is essential to RE teacher training as linking postcolonial theory and international knowledge transfer (IKT) could reveal the everyday continuation of colonialism and racism still present in European schools and universities and contribute to the decolonization of religious education in Europe. Keywords: postcolonial theory, international knowledge transfer, RE curricula, RE textbooks, decolonization, teacher training, representation of Islam in schools, teaching practice against discrimination, quality criteria for ‘good religious education’

1.

Introduction

This paper addresses the potential of including insights from postcolonial theory when discussing international knowledge transfer (IKT) to critically address the everyday colonialism and racism in RE, its curricula and RE teacher training. The diversity of religions, cultures and world views in pluralistic societies determine social reality. Therefore, from a scientific religious education perspective, understanding the different religious worldview ideas, attitudes and beliefs should be an essential educational goal. The need for professional RE teachers to have intercultural, interreligious and antiracist competencies has been well-established in international literature (cf. for example Jackson 2018; Johannessen & Skeie 2019; Rissanen et al. 2020). However, these competencies are differently contoured and weighted depending on the contexts. To prepare RE teachers to teach students growing up in a highly

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complex, globalized world and address the associated complex social, ethical and spiritual questions, religious pedagogical reflections on current historical and political realities are indispensable. Intolerance based on culture, religion and so-called ‘race’ does not emerge out of thin air. The “cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism is still present today […] and shapes the self-image and historical image of our culture far more than we are often aware of.” (Grewe 2016, p. 16). Precisely because racism, ideological intolerance and cultural chauvinism are so closely linked to European colonial history and its ideologies, in-depth substantive examinations of these topics in teacher training courses are essential. Religious education often neglects the interplays between education, power and social representations, even though it is evident that colonialism has influenced the connections between religion and education in Europe. The postcolonial perspective of analysis makes clear that the reflection of historically grown colonial power and domination relations in the field of religious education is often not in the focus of religious education research. On the contrary, several studies from England and Germany show that curricula and teaching materials for religious education both in England and in Germany in their current orientation may contribute to the stabilization of colonialist images of reality. Gearon stated that: “Despite this integral connection between religion and education in the history of colonialism, with some notable exceptions from nearly two decades ago […], religious education, as a school subject, has little reflected on the role of religion and education, in a way its own role, in the discussion of culture in the age of European empires.” (Gearon et al. 2021, p. 1). Gearon was one of the first to introduce postcolonial perspectives into religious education. In 2021, he followed up his pioneering work from the beginning of the millennium with the work just cited, in which he reflected on the reception of post-colonial perspectives in current discourses on RE and criticized the fact that the critical potential of post-colonial perspectives has hardly been taken up in religious education since that time. This paper extends this criticism by using concrete examples to demonstrate the contributions that critical postcolonial perspectives can make to RE sensitization and self-criticism on perceptions and representations of other cultural and religious realities. Section two of this paper discusses the significance that postcolonial perspectives can have on RE processes. First, Gearon’s discussion on how intellectual imperialism in RE is being dealt with in the United Kingdom is analyzed, after which Scholz and Winkler’s study on colonialist and racist thinking in German textbooks is examined. This leads to the question of what role content and qualification goals play in the training of RE teachers with regard to colonialism, knowledge and power and how they are prepared for this topic. Finally, this paper argues that international knowledge transfer that focuses on theory building,

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empirical findings and practical usability can contribute to a decolonization of RE in Europe by creating an integrated field of research in religious education. This contribution, like many on the same topic, critically reflects on the modern concept of religion, which is historically embedded and has core Christian-European assumptions. This concept should not be transferred without reflection to other religions, ways of life or world views because such an unreflective adoption would and does lead to other religions and ways of life appearing as a copy Christianity or being redrawn in the manner of Christianity. To discuss this central aspect in more detail would go beyond the scope of this article; however, it is important to remain aware of these fundamental tensions (cf. Nongbri 2013; Ahmed 2017).

2.

The significance of postcolonial theory for contemporary (religious) educational processes

Europe is strongly influenced by its colonial legacy: “From climate change to the alleged ‘refugee crisis,’ from social controversies about the role of religion to questions of minority rights and citizenship: everywhere, centuries of colonial rule have left traces that are perhaps more visible than ever in the current geopolitical situation.” (Castro Valera & Dhawan 2020, pp. 7–8). Castro Valera and Dhawan argue that to understand the interdependencies and entanglements between “pasts and futures”, postcolonial perspectives should not be neglected in scholarly works and the lingering impacts of Europe’s racist and colonialist past on the present must be taken seriously (p. 8). Because colonialism and imperialism were worldwide rather than European phenomena, the historical processes were not linear; rather, they were complex processes and practices that were accentuated with ruptures and contradictions (cf. p. 24). Every place on earth has been exposed to the effects of colonial rule (cf. p. 29). Spivak, Bhabha and Said have claimed that global social reality is still influenced by the ideological, political and economic perpetuations of colonialism and its social and geopolitical effects. Although Germany, for example, was not a colonial power to the same extent as France and Great Britain and some other European countries were not colonial powers at all, the hegemonic production of knowledge and epistemic violence as consequences of colonialism have also shaped the educational landscapes of these countries to this day, that is, constructions of the ‘inferior other’ can be found in all contexts and countries. Colonialism has also shaped all countries of the Muslim world, even those that were not European colonies. Colonialism was extended to Muslim-majority countries relatively late after the conquest of Egypt by Napoleon in 1798 (cf.

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Griffel 2018, p. 23) and was justified as “civilizing missions” and “rescue missions”. Domination in the various colonial spaces was legitimized through “‘racial’ and cultural discourses” (Castro Valera & Dhawan 2020, p. 35). The resulting hierarchical and fundamentally asymmetrical relationships between the European and non-European worlds still prevail today: “The legitimization strategy of colonialism as a rescue mission and the dualism between ‘civilized’ and ‘uncivilized’ is repeated in contemporary international discourse through categories such as ‘developed’ and ‘underdeveloped’ and can also be found in the distinction between ‘developed’ and ‘underdeveloped’ legal systems” (p. 44). Even today, colonialist assumptions are evident in many areas, such as economics, law, knowledge production and education. To act and reflect pedagogically, it is indispensable, especially in education, to analzse the influence knowledge production has had on the perpetuation of colonialism and which pedagogical principles were formulated on this basis that are still powerful today (cf. Castro Valera 2016, p. 152). For religious education, too, it is indispensable to deal with the European knowledge order as a hegemonic structure, European notions of difference to the ‘Other’ as well as Eurocentrism and the Western narrative of progress and their effects in the present time, because from a cultural-historical point of view, religion has always been deeply enmeshed in hegemonic narratives (cf. Meyer 2003). Postcolonial theory analyses “the hegemonic production of knowledge, epistemic violence and […] the normalized production of educational distance” (Castro Valera 2016, p. 152). The education and power interplay is essential in (religious) pedagogical reflection because knowledge has always been tied to certain power and domination structures. Social power and domination structures determine who is in the hegemonic position to classify people according to certain characteristics and to reduce them to these characteristics through stereotyping and essentialization, which were some of the customary practices of colonial administrations and colonial apologists. The images and stereotypes of the hegemonic position found and still find their way into the “socially ‘valid’ knowledge” (Foroutan & I˙kiz 2016, p. 143). Foroutan and I˙kiz suggested that these stereotypical images were social representations in which meanings were discursively produced in a social process: “The effectiveness of discourses is demonstrated by the fact that they powerfully produce and transport ‘truths’ via knowledge, and thus influence the perception and interpretation of social ‘reality’” (p. 143). Dominant social structures then result in hegemonic knowledge production and epistemic violence, which can have destructive consequences, especially in the field of education. Spivak (cf. Spivak 1993) claimed that knowledge characterized by powerful designation and demarcation practices and constructed as part of hegemonic discourses must be analyzed to reveal the underlying power mechanisms.

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Knowledge production, therefore, is not harmless and should not be unquestioningly adopted; rather, it must always be subjected to scrutiny because the inherent ‘worldviews’ are interpretations, not incontrovertible truths (cf. Castro Valera 2016, p. 161). Spivak examined the feudal characteristics of educational systems and the rigid “class boundaries” that still prevail today and are responsible for educational marginalization and discrimination (ibid., p. 162). Because of these findings, postcolonial theory representatives are calling for a decolonization of education. Despite their enlightening and critical potential, people are often polarized over postcolonial perspectives. Therefore, it is necessary to determine why this polarization exists and how it can be overcome so that the substantive impulses can be constructively processed in the respective disciplinary discourses. Closer examinations reveal that (with some exceptions) it is not the content-related impulses that cause and reinforce the polarization but more the tendency to exaggerate them morally and authoritatively, which can be seen in certain uses of tone and style. Above all, if the impression is created that only an essentialism turned 180 degrees is represented here and concrete criticism degenerates into general suspicion, this harms the substantive discussion of the concerns of postcolonial perspectives more than it helps. It is hoped that increasing differentiation and openness on all sides could over time lead to the enlightening potential of postcolonial perspectives being made fruitful without one side or the other being stigmatized.

3.

Relationship between education, religion and power in the United Kingdom’s RE curricula

Gearon (2021), who has written extensively on postcolonial theory, argues that postcolonial theory could be used to transform RE as this focus could provide insights into colonialist cultural representations and the hegemonic role of Christianity concerning the ‘other’ in the UK’s RE curricula. His reflections are outlined below. Gearon et al. stated that throughout the colonial period “religion and education were at the epicenter of all European Empires” because colonial expansion was linked to the spread of Christianity (Gearon et al. 2021, p. 1). The expansion of the British Empire had the “educational and theological logic” of combining “culture and colonialism” (p. 1). Georon has criticized local and international RE studies because they have rarely engaged in debates on the ‘decolonization of the curriculum’. The central problem in the past was that ‘classical, missionary Christianity’, as an accomplice

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and stooge of colonialism, shaped RE curricula and textbooks. Even though other religious traditions have found their way into the RE curricula over time, Christianity has always had a privileged position. Moreover, no critical references have been made to the role of Christianity in the colonial project. As early as 2001, Gearon noted that the assumptions about the nature of religions and cultures that were incorporated in the RE curricula in England and Wales were rooted in the colonial legacy of the British Empire (cf. Gearon 2001), and demonstrated that ‘otherness’ was not only defined in internal Christian terms in Britain before the 1944 Education Act but that this perspective continued to be perpetuated. The ‘other’, of course, was initially the Catholic other; however, the call for multiculturalism that emerged over time ensured that the religious ‘other’ was redefined in the Education Reform Act of 1988: The Agreed Syllabuses must “reflect the fact that the religious traditions in Great Britain are in the main Christian, while taking account of teachings and practices of the other principal religious traditions in Britain” (p. 101). At first glance, this stipulation implies inclusivity; at a second glance, it is clear that the primacy of Christianity is maintained. There was a turnaround, especially after 9/11. The “politics of religious education and wider debates around public or political theology have taken on enhanced security dimensions” (Gearon 2021, p. 17). As the preservation of “fundamental British values” has been the duty of every public institution since the “Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015”, interfaith education and cultural understanding must also be considered in this light. One positive development that is emerging is that Christianity’s function as the direct stooge of European colonialism and imperialism has become an RE topic. With the decolonization of the RE curriculum, all cultures and religions are phenomenologically treated as equals. Gearon showed that this was reflected, among other things, in the United Kingdom’s “commission on religious education” recommendations in 2018 that sought religious and secular inclusivity (CoRE 2018), and recommended that the subject be renamed “Religion and Worldview education,” which was seen as a sign that “religious education has already been decolonized here” (Gearon 2021, p. 17). However, Gearon argued that as state-funded RE “plays a critical role in establishing political and security hegemonies” (p. 18), politically motivated religion and education agendas have emerged that are expressed in “global epistemic power” (p. 18) terms. Therefore, because of the continued focus on historical colonialism, the curricula decolonization intended by CoRE has fallen short. With Gearon, it can be stated that postcolonial theory must not be limited to examinations of the past because colonialist, imperialist and sexist structures and the associated cultural representations are still locally and globally prevalent.

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The challenge that can be gleaned from Gearon’s texts is that such colonial structures and representations need to be detected, criticized and replaced with the perspectives of cultures, religions and nations that have poorer “global epistemic power” to put them on an equal footing with Western-European perspectives. In this way, values such as religious pluralism, regardless of their specific origin, can contribute in a critically reflected way to this postcolonial conversation of perspectives, regardless of their more or less strong global epistemic power, on an equal footing and in a sustainable way. The following section outlines the religious, educational and epistemic power challenges facing religious education in Germany.

4.

Relationship between education, religion and power in German RE textbooks

In contrast to England and Wales, the Basic Law (Article 7, Paragraph 3) in Germany means that religion is generally taught as a denominational subject; therefore, there are Protestant, Catholic, Islamic, Jewish and Greek Orthodox (and others) RE classes. “The reference science of teaching is not primarily religious studies, but the respective theologies, in which the internal-perspective reflections of the respective beliefs and traditions are combined with externalperspective descriptions” (Willems 2020, p. 474). Winkler and Scholz (2021) conducted a postcolonial review of the “structures and remnants of colonial thought patterns” (p. 106) in German denominational Protestant and Catholic religious education textbooks. The examination of these colonial structures was based on four key categories: “anthropological assumptions, religious classifications and interpretations, conceptions of culture and its hybridity and the relationship to creation and the environment” (p. 106). In the following, only the results from the key category of religion will be outlined. Winkler and Scholz examined elementary school, secondary school and vocational school textbooks, from which it was found that although Islam and Judaism were discussed in the elementary school textbooks, they were presented without historical context. “There is no reference to the Holocaust and the painful experiences of Jews in Germany, nor is Islam contextualised in the light of historical and current migration processes” (p. 113). Christian partnership work is described without reference to the German colonies and missionary work. In secondary school textbooks, the Christian faith is represented by white people, and Judaism is covered only in historical terms with no reference to the

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present. In the case of Islam, the reference to the present is established, but exclusively through problematic references, such as headscarves, mosque building or Islamism (cf. pp. 113–114). In vocational school textbooks, the subject of death is used to illustrate the differences between Christianity and other religions: “Judaism and Islam are here clearly reduced to judicial concepts, while this is completely ignored in Christianity. A significant devaluation of Islam is also visible in the hardly balanced recording of quotations from the Bible, Torah and Koran by presenting Surah 104,4 (‘And do not slacken in the persecution of the people of non-believers’), but not biblical passages that are just as violent. Furthermore, Islam is presented primarily as a set of rules” (p. 114). Judaism is presented exotically only in its Orthodox form and is male-dominated. Contemporary Jewish life is hardly addressed. Leadership positions in Judaism and Islam are filled only by men and there are no female rabbis or imams represented. Religious diversity in either religion is not discussed and diversity within Christianity is also absent. The authors concluded that colonial thought structures were in RE textbooks at all grade levels: “In particular the including of other religions besides Christianity often turns out to be a bold representation of the other. Other religions are being often reduced to cliché-type basic assumptions, are archaized as representations of a distant past, and in their juxtaposition are mostly decontextualised” (Winkler & Scholz 2021, p. 119). Inner-Christian diversity is hardly addressed and primarily white people are portrayed, which does not correspond to the reality in today’s German classrooms. “The historical and present interconnections into which the Western churches entered through colonisation and missions are rarely considered on the level of textbooks” (p. 120). It should be added from another study that: “in the context of Islam, the issue of racism is not addressed in current curricula and teaching materials for religious education” (Willems 2020, p. 483). In summary, postcolonial examinations have been performed on national curricula and textbooks (cf. e. g., Marmer & Sow 2015; Ziai & Marmer 2016) and international comparative analyses have also been conducted (cf. e. g., Grindel 2012). It has been found that European and white perspectives dominate the textbooks and few teaching materials present the experiences of colonized people. Research from England, Wales and Germany shows that colonial structures can be found in the authoritative texts, which means that these perspectives are more than likely incorporated into teaching practices. While the results and conclusions from one context cannot be easily transferred to other contexts that have different histories and starting situations, it can be assumed that these postcolonial readings can reveal the often subtle colonial power logic and hierarchical relations and their supposed self-evidence in the teaching materials and curricula of many European states. The curriculum re-

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quirements, textbook content and cultural context interrelationships play a role here. Countries with pronounced colonial histories, such as England and France, are dealing differently with their colonial legacies than countries such as Germany and Austria, which are facing constant struggles with anti-Semitism and racism. Nevertheless, the comparison of the two works from England and Germany makes clear that issues related to othering in religious education are being discussed and that a decolonization of RE textbooks and curricula is urgently needed. Therefore, the next focus was on the representations of the ‘other’ religions in RE teaching in Christian-majority countries, which is discussed in the following section.

5.

Representations of religions in schools using the example of Islam in Germany

How much space is given to discussions on colonial history and the associated racism and the perspective from which these topics are treated depends primarily on the teacher. Therefore, as teachers require the knowledge and skills to address the effects of colonial history and the resulting racism that are still prevalent today, teacher training is essential to promote antiracist attitudes. Therefore, the question is what competencies do teachers have in this area and what content do they deal with in their studies? In authoritative Ministry of Education publications, the subject sciences and subject didactic teacher training requirements in Germany are formulated in such an abstract way that concrete instructions for dealing with colonial history and the resulting knowledge and power structures of racism are not mentioned. The topic of colonialism certainly plays a role in the subjects of history, politics, social sciences, and geography. However, apart from the subject of history, the topic of colonialism is nowhere explicitly mentioned as a study content for the students of teacher training. In the secondary level I (5th–10th grade) history teacher training curricula, the topic “Imperialism and independence movements in the colonies” is included; however, this is studied in greater depth at secondary level II (11th–12th/13th grade) in which “continuities and discontinuities of specific problems in an international and epochal comparison” are covered (p. 33). The topics “structures of rule and political participation”, “structures of social order” and “expansion as a European-world-historical problem context” are used for the study matter across epochs.

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The examination of the Protestant and Catholic religious education teacher training curricula found that in the Protestant RE the “history, teachings, present culture of Islam” is dealt with from the point of view of “challenges for living together.” However, the topic of “history, content and forms of the Jewish faith” is considered in light of the “history of Christian anti-Judaism” (p. 53). This formulation regarding Islam suggests that living together with Muslims is a “challenge” and that this is the norm – a formulation that makes one think. These curriculum formulations raise the question as to how and under what circumstances, the ‘other’ religions are presented and represented in the classroom. This is illustrated in the following using an example from Islam in Germany. Lingen-Ali and Mecheril claimed that; ‘religion’ as a “category of difference and heterogeneity” has developed into a “medially, scientifically and politically powerful category in Europe in recent years” (Lingen-Ali & Mecheril 2016, p. 17). ‘Religion’ has become a characteristic to mark certain groups and individuals as ‘others’, that is, ‘religion’ is being presented as a mechanism to discursively, institutionally, and interactively differentiate people. Lingen-Ali and Mecheril argued that this categorization of differences was linked to dominance and power as it was being used to justify discussions on what people are entitled to, what they are allowed to do and who they are. Religion has become a “social practice of distinction,” which means that it is being used as a distinguishing factor in politics, society, educational environments, media and academia, especially with regard to Islam and Muslims, and has been made socially acceptable through the topic ‘secular West vs. Muslim world’ and its inherent binary logic (p. 18). In this othering of people through the category ‘religion’, orientalist attribution structures admittedly have an effect. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the distinguishing category ‘orient’ has increasingly been replaced by the distinguishing category ‘Islam’: “The perceptions, attributions and discursive constructions of Muslims follow binary and hegemonic structures and produce a ‘religious othering’ in this context” (p. 19). Möller claimed that this antagonism between ‘the West’ and ‘Islam’ has also been extended to Christianity, which had been identified as a characteristic of the West. Therefore, Islam and Christianity have been placed in a hierarchical, competitive and fundamentally oppositional relationship. In the process, ‘Christianity’ has been constructed as an enlightened, peace-loving, egalitarian religion and ‘Islam’ has been constructed as a backward, violent, patriarchal religion. This representation of Islam, which is also prevalent in social discourse, “now hermeneutically frames people’s social experiences and their lifeworld interactions and enters into institutional contexts and also (religious) pedagogical practices” (Möller 2017, p. 48), which also means that this religious othering is included in religion-related pedagogical interactions and discourses.

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A few examples illustrate how Muslim children and adolescents are constructed as ‘others’ in school and how the power asymmetries are expressed: At the beginning of 2017, the school management at a high school in Wuppertal informed the teaching staff in writing that it had been observed: “that Muslim students were praying in the school building in a way that was clearly visible to others, evidenced by ritual ablutions in the restrooms, rolling out prayer rugs, adopting certain postures.” This was not permitted. Teachers were also expected to report the names of the students to school administrators. (Communication from the school management cited in Todeskino, 2017). The district government described this as “provocative praying” because fellow students and teachers had felt harassed by it. Therefore, the ban was justified because “[t]he prohibition of praying in a provocative manner in the school public sphere is intended to promote peaceful coexistence and secure school peace” (Bezirksregierung cited in Todeskino, 2017). The question is, however, why the teachers and fellow students felt harassed by the praying of the Muslim students, what provocation took place and how was school peace disturbed by it? Joachim Willems pointed out that “dealing with the praying students is constructed on the basis of certain images of Islam. […]. In other contexts, there is evidence that Islamic prayer is perceived primarily as a threat by some members of the nonMuslim public” (Willems 2020, p. 481). Besides such actions, which are based on a more or less open hostility toward religion, it is particularly problematic that these bans are accompanied by stigmatization and stereotyping (cf. p. 482). Willems analyzed interview excerpts as part of a research project “with the focus on the social and discursive position of Muslim students in German schools” (Willems 2017, p. 194). In one interview, Willems asked a seventeenyear-old Muslim student when “was the last time that he had had to deal with religion”. The teenager replied: “Today in the Theater Class, acting class, theater performance, [name of the play], because, we prepared for it. And there is one role in it, the terrorist. And a friend of mine is now playing this part. Actually, he is not religious and he doesn’t think much of religion as such. Now, he is also playing the Muslim. Of course, the teacher also suggested he should best get a beard and so on. And well, I am actually, I think, just me, I am the only Muslim in there. And I think that was the last event, the last instance that I had to deal with religion. He also has to shout something like Allah oh I am [in] paradise, where are my virgins and so on. [Interviewer: Okay] A lot of, many were laughing and so on. That was the last of today, well, that has to do with religion.” (p. 200). Willems interpreted this excerpt as follows: “Initially, ‘Muslim’ is a synonym for ‘terrorist’, but shortly afterwards, Jerome calls himself a ‘Muslim’: ‘I am the only Muslim in there’. By using the same signifier, he puts himself, so to speak, on the side of the terrorist, but one cannot say that Jerome identifies or shows solidarity with terrorists. It is rather the case that external attribution and self-

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attribution collude: although his understanding of being a Muslim is very different from his teacher’s or his classmates’, both meanings overlap, because the same term, ‘Muslim’, is used to describe external attribution as well as selfattribution” (p. 201). The student repeatedly reported that others made fun of his religion. The student’s reaction was that he did not respond to discrimination “because he does not want to ‘dramatize the whole thing again,’ and he justifies his behavior for himself by excusing and trivializing the discrimination” (p. 202). Stockinger used several examples from empirical studies to outline the prevailing ideas of normality in schools and the way that any differences were marked. For example, she gave the familiar example of the only student in an elementary school class who was registered as professing Islam being asked to tell the entire class something about “the Islam”. In this example, according to Stockinger, “a difference is clearly marked – without knowing whether the person addressed wants to be visible with his or her religious affiliation. From the teacher’s point of view, the person is defined by the dimension of difference that is religion. This brings with it the danger of ascribing an otherness to people, attaching them to this and promoting processes of othering” (Stockinger 2022, p. 5). While these snapshots are not representative, they exemplify instances from several research projects (cf. Fereidooni & Simon 2022) and illustrate the presence of religious othering in the German education system. That schools are contributing to this “(re)production of social inequality” through their othering processes has been frequently demonstrated by studies on the educational disadvantage of children and adolescents from a migration background, especially those of Muslim faith (Knauer 2019, p. 201). These disadvantages, as noted earlier, are closely related to the societal representations of Islam and Muslims in debates and images. Studies have shown that German society as a whole has a negative attitude toward Muslims; for example, the recent Leipzig Authoritarianism Study in 2020 found that just under half the people in Germany agreed with the following statement: “the many Muslims here sometimes make me feel like a stranger in my own country”: and more than a quarter of respondents believed that immigration for Muslims should be prohibited (Decker et al. 2020, p. 64). These tendencies have also been found in schools in England and Wales. Welply claimed that recent studies have shown that the race or ethnicity categories of difference have been intersecting with new categories, such as language and religion, especially for young people in the UK: “Religion, in particular Islam, has begun to emerge as central in recent research on children from minority groups in the UK […]. In many cases, this has shifted the focus from ethnic to religious identity, with the category ‘Muslim children’ slowly taking over former categories such as South Asian” (Welply 2018, p. 370).

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How can international knowledge transfer contribute to the decolonization of religious education?

In England, Wales and Germany, studies have found that there are colonial structures in pedagogical interactions, textbooks, curricula, the behavior of teachers toward students and in the school system itself, with Muslim children and adolescents, in particular, being confronted with explicit and implicit forms of othering in their daily school interactions. In light of these findings, the question arises as to how postcolonial theory can be used to create an awareness of processes of othering in teacher training and what contribution international knowledge transfer can make to the quality of RE teacher training. Because postcolonial theory focuses on knowledge and knowledge production, it is particularly relevant to international knowledge transfer. Colonialism encompassed the production and processing of knowledge, thus legitimizing colonial domination. Therefore, postcolonial theory also examines how violence is exercised through knowledge and knowledge production and examines the manifestations of colonial domination and their continued impact in literature, art, science and everyday contexts. This paper elucidated these manifestations in a postcolonial reading of RE textbooks and curricula and the presentation and representation of ‘other’ religions in school classrooms. In the colonial period, Europe had a monopoly on knowledge production, which was characterized by its inherent epistemic power. Even today, global power relations are still shaped by colonial histories; however, as we now live in a multipolar world, international knowledge transfer offers an opportunity to develop new knowledge about religion that can rise above colonial blind spots. Actioning international knowledge transfer from a postcolonial perspective could result in new curricula concepts for RE teacher training and raise awareness of how Eurocentric constructions can be deconstructed through the mirror of other perspectives. Thus, unconscious or implicit narratives and representations of, for example, cultural and religious difference can be questioned so that possibilities for change can be sought together with others. International knowledge transfer can give students the intellectual space to critically reflect on their own entanglements in their respective colonial power structures. Furthermore, this topic is well suited for the creation of an integrated field of research in religious education and for international and interreligious knowledge transfer with a view to theory building, empirical findings and practical usability. Linking postcolonial theory and international knowledge transfer could provide an integrated international knowledge and research space. Postcolonial theory in the context of international knowledge transfer can be used as

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an ideology-critical instrument that can stimulate, intensify and perpetuate knowledge transfer and cooperation in the field of religious education across the borders of countries and continents. Such an international space of knowledge can lead to making visible and eliminating the unreflective and everyday continuation of colonialism and racism in schools and universities. In summary, even though teacher training and religious education are embedded in specific national contexts, and constructions of the religiously other in religious education are context-dependent, these comparative questions and methods underscore the value of international knowledge transfer and the need for ongoing activities that provide a more nuanced view of the relativity of one’s own perspective through insights from the contexts of others. The findings in this paper make it clear that RE teachers in England and Germany need to acquire postcolonial competencies as part of their teacher training; however, this is still largely a desideratum. To optimize teacher training, develop teaching practices that are both sensitive to differences and critical of discrimination and stimulate decolonized RE practices, it is suggested that international and interreligious research projects be established to assess the prevailing understanding of the religious other in RE teachers. The project would not only contribute to the question of international quality criteria for ‘good religious education’, but also to an international dialogical perspective on colonialism and its critical treatment.

7.

Bibliography

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n.de/region/muslimische-schueler-fallen-durch-provozierendes-beten-auf-wirbel-anwuppertaler-gymnasium-id209791697.html (accessed February 01, 2023). Welply, O. (2018). ‘I’m not being offensive but…’: Intersecting discourses of discrimination towards Muslim children in school. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(3), 370–389. Willems, J. (2017). The Position of Muslim Pupils in Discourses at German Schools: Two Accounts. International Journal of Practical Theology, 21(2), 194–214. Willems, J. (2020). ‘Religionistischer’ Rassismus und Religionsunterricht. In K. Fereidooni & N. Simon (eds.), Rassismuskritische Fachdidaktiken: Theoretische Reflexionen und fachdidaktische Entwürfe rassismuskritischer Unterrichtsplanung. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 473–493. Winkler, K & Scholz, S. (2021). Subaltern Thinking in Religious Education? Postcolonial Readings of (German) Schoolbooks. British Journal of Religious Education, 43(1), 103– 122. Ziai, A. & Marmer, E. (2016). Fallstudie: “Entwicklung” in Schulbüchern. In K. Fischer, G. Hauck & M. Boatca˘ (eds.), Handbuch Entwicklungsforschung. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 315–319.

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Helena Stockinger

Discrimination as an international challenge for teacher education in religious education

Abstract Empirical studies have found that discrimination is an international issue and that many students experience discrimination at school, even if it often remains unspoken. International knowledge transfers about the prevalence and experience of discrimination highlight the importance of addressing discrimination in religious education teacher education. Teacher education must reflect critically on the extent to which religious education promotes discrimination and must develop ways in which religious education can contribute to discrimination-critical attitudes. One concept that can be applied in teacher education is the anti-bias approach, an internationally developed approach that can be adapted to different contexts. The goals of the anti-bias approach are to consciously confront individual prejudices, to raise awareness of social power relations and to actively stand against discrimination. Keywords: discrimination, anti-bias, teacher training, international issue, prejudices

Religious education is deeply embedded in its social, cultural and political contexts, from which questions and challenges are derived. One religious education concern is to closely observe and critically reflect on social trends, such as the discrimination that takes place in education settings. Peukert claimed that education could be understood as the process of developing a universal solidarity that makes life possible for all (Peukert 2015, p. 41f). As discrimination is contrary to the principles of education and humane societies, religious education (RE) needs to pay special attention to processes that deny justice and dignity to all and hinder self-development. Therefore, based on the theological basis that every human being has the right to equal dignity, one aim of theology must be to perceive and reduce discrimination and contribute to attitudes that respect all people equally in their diversity. In this context, religious education has a special role to play in addressing discrimination.

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Definition of discrimination

Social discrimination occurs when a person is deprived of certain positive things or negatively affected solely because of their membership in a particular group regardless of their individual characteristics and abilities (Petersen & Six 2020, p. 18). Discrimination has been historically and systematically related to social relations of power and inequality and has been structurally embedded in society. Different forms of discrimination are often interrelated and experienced in lifeworld, cultural, political and economic contexts. Seemingly neutral provisions can discriminate (indirect/mediated discrimination) and because discrimination can often occur without intention (subtle discrimination), discriminating individuals are often unaware of the consequences of their actions (Gomolla 2017, p. 134). Discrimination is also institutionally embedded in organizations, which is known as institutional discrimination. The subtle and indirect mechanisms that are part of the self-image of educational institutions and are rarely perceived (such as the monolingual habitus of the school) require special RE attention. Although empirical research on prejudice does not always clearly distinguish prejudice and discrimination, prejudice has been more strongly associated with attitudes and discrimination with more demonstrable disadvantages.

2.

Discrimination as an international issue

As educational discrimination crosses national borders, international knowledge could highlight the need for the fairest conditions possible. Even though discrimination experiences strongly depend on structural and societal conditions, a comparison of empirical studies indicates that similarities should be internationally considered. This is important because although the prevalence of prejudice has been widely studied (Zick, Küpper & Berghan 2019; Zick, Küpper & Hövermann 2011, Streib & Klein 2018; Decker & Brähler 2018; Pollack 2014), there have been few empirical studies on discrimination experiences and hardly any on religion-related discrimination experiences in the school context (Willems 2020, p. 164). This is partly because social science research on discrimination in Germany is a relatively new field (Scherr et al. 2017, p. 7). The discrimination that occurs in schools is subjectively experienced and differently interpreted depending on the individuals involved (Broden & Mecheril 2014; Fereidooni 2016). The following research projects provide some empirical insights into how discrimination experiences are dealt with, and, therefore, offer other insights than studies on objective discrimination. This subjective perspective assumes that the social psychology individuals experience in certain social contexts is influenced by their subjective interpretations of the

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world (Aronson et al. 2008). The following provides an analysis of empirical studies on discrimination in different countries and the consequences for RE teacher education.

3.

Frequency of discrimination experiences

In the Eurobarometer “Discrimination in the European Union,” 17% of respondents said they had personally experienced discrimination in the past 12 months. In seven countries, at least 20% said they had felt discriminated against or harassed in the past 12 months. Austria reported the most discrimination in the past year at 27%, followed by 26% in Sweden, 24% in Belgium and 16% in Germany (European Union 2019, p. 151). People who identify as belonging to a minority group were more likely to report having been discriminated against or harassed in the past. For example, “58% for who consider themselves part of a sexual minority […]; 52% for disability, 49% for Roma, 40% for ethnic minority; and 38% for who consider themselves as belonging to a religious minority, compared to 13% who do not identify as a minority” (European Union 2019, p. 153). Six percent of all respondents who had felt discriminated against in the past 12 months said that it had been “by school or university personnel,” which was most frequently reported in Ireland and Luxembourg (both 12%) and Denmark (11%); in Germany and Austria this was reported by 7% (European Union 2019, p. 157). If only people between the ages of 15 and 24 were considered, the figure increased to 18% (European Union 2019, p. 157). In another research project in Austria, 10% of the 2317 respondents aged 14 to 65 said they had experienced discrimination in an education setting in the past three years (Schönherr et al. 2019, p. 114). The people most frequently affected by discrimination in an education setting were young people up to the age of 15 (81%), people from migration backgrounds (19%), Muslims (20%) and homosexuals (22%) (Schönherr et al. 2019, p. 104). A research project in Germany found that 35.6% of respondents had experienced discrimination in the past two years, 12% of whom said that this had occurred frequently or occasionally in education settings (Beigang et al. 2017, p. 94, 121) and 8.8% of whom said it had occurred because of their religion or beliefs (Beigang et al. 2017, p. 96). In Switzerland, 32% of respondents reported having experienced at least one form of discrimination in the past five years (Bundesamt für Statistik 2020), 19% of whom had experienced it in an education setting and 18.5% of whom had experienced it because of their religion (Bundesamt für Statistik 2020). These statistics illustrate that discrimination is an international issue. A closer examination of the empirical studies on discrimination in schools based on religious or ideological attitudes provides even more detailed insights.

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Discrimination experiences of young people at school

The discrimination coping mechanisms of students has been examined in some studies. The commonalities in the research results from school studies in Estonia, Great Britain, Australia, Germany and Austria are presented here. While RE research was the main focus of this analysis, the presented results are complemented with some additional studies from other disciplines. Special attention is paid to situations in which discrimination can be easily overlooked in everyday school life.

4.1

Avoidance of religious topics that could cause discrimination

To avoid being hurt, ridiculed or discriminated against, some studies have shown a tendency to omit certain topics. For example, students claimed that they hesitated to talk about their religious beliefs so they would not be discriminated against. Ipgrave (2014, p. 13–25) also found that students in the United Kingdom tended to remain silent about their religion or religious habits. While these students were not excluded from school, their religion was a significant part of their lives; however, it did not play a role in their everyday school life (Ipgrave, 2014, p. 18). Students who professed to have a religion said that, to avoid exposing themselves to embarrassment and ridicule, they were more likely to “keep it quiet” and “not shout it out” (Ipgrave & McKenna 2008, p. 135). Moulin’s study also found that students kept their religious identities secret because of a fear of victimization (Moulin 2011, p. 324). Engebretson’s research project in Australia found that in a classroom in which a majority of the students were Christians, students from other religious communities tended to stay quiet (Engebretson 2009, p.166). Some studies found that there was an evident majority-minority relationship influence. For example, the normalized classroom structure was found to make it difficult for minority youth to talk about their experiences (Scharathow 2016). Schihalejev’s Estonian research project found that students with no religious affiliations did not see it as problematic to show their faith, but students with religious affiliations did see it as a concern (Schihalejev 2010, p. 150): “Being religious in a largely secular society may draw attention to some young people as being different from the majority and may render them more vulnerable to teasing, to intimidation, to bullying, and to victimization” (Franics & McKenna 2019, p. 57).

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Experiences of discrimination as a taboo issue

Sometimes discrimination is trivialized to avoid further experiences. In a climate in which discrimination is de-thematized and therefore hardly noticed, students tend to say very little about their discrimination experiences. Discrimination is, as one student in Georg and Dürr’s research said: “such a taboo subject, people don’t like to talk about it, well, or rather the students who are affected by it… Because I think they are ashamed of it… They are also intimidated” (Georg & Dürr 2017, p. 28). When students speak up about statements they perceive as offensive or hurtful, it is often seen as a sign of weakness (Artamonova 2016, p. 147), which also applies to topics that may seem humorous to the majority. Therefore, a wittily intended saying can hurt students to whom the saying is directed; however, it is usually not an option for young people to openly address being hurt because it carries too many potential risks (Foitzik & Henzel, 2019, p. 87, Artamonova 2016, p. 147). Because discrimination is often ignored, relativized and tolerated by young people, it can become a normal part of life (Artamonova 2016, p. 147). This was also found in a research project in Austria, in which 58% of the people who had experienced discrimination in an education setting stated that it bothered them, but they tried to ignore it, with 51% admitting that they did not know what to do (Schönherr et al. 2018, p. 111). When asked why people did not seek help, slightly more than half agreed that it would not help (54%), others cited a fear of intimidation or negative consequences (both 21%), others did not want others to know/talk about it or felt shamed (15%), and others downplayed their experiences (12%) or said that it happened all the time (11%) (Schönherr et al. 2018, p. 112). The normalized classroom structure made it difficult for young minorities to talk about their experiences; however, inequities at school can be revealed even when things are not talked about (Zick 2017, p. 73). Scharathow (2016) found that when young people were asked directly about their discrimination experiences, they found it difficult to say what had happened or to find appropriate terms for their feelings, that is, they did not always have the knowledge to explain these experiences and their personal feelings (Foizik & Hezel 2019, p. 84).

4.3

Consequences of discrimination

Even when students do not talk about their discrimination experiences or try to ignore them, these can have consequences and create ongoing self-image and worldview challenges (Foitzik, Holland-Cunz & Rieke 2019, p. 22) because perceived discrimination generally can result in negative subjective well-being, life dissatisfaction or school adaptation consequences for those affected, which can

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consequently affect their school inclusion and educational success (Foitzik, Holland-Cunz & Rieke 2019, p. 22).

4.4

Discrimination at school – a research summary

The studies discussed in this paper revealed that students who are discriminated against rarely discuss their experiences. If these experiences remain unspoken and unnoticed by others at school, this does not mean that discrimination is not present and does not pose any problems for the concerned individuals. Therefore, pedagogical awareness is needed, especially for the structural anchors of subtle discrimination. Educational programs must be offered that enable all students to participate and develop their personalities as fairly as possible.

5.

Teacher training aims

The research projects revealed that there was discrimination in all countries mentioned. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the specific insights that can be drawn to inform RE teacher training, raise awareness and stimulate teacher training discussions on the critical approaches that could be taken to reduce discrimination in schools. To only ask how religious education processes could contribute to reducing discrimination would be insufficient as RE can also perpetuate discriminatory practices. However, discussing discrimination in the early teacher education stages could enhance teachers’ professional competencies (Willems 2020, p. 115), ensure teaching remains critical of discrimination and provide opportunities for students to become sensitized to the effects of discrimination. Therefore, RE teaching training has two main responsibilities. First, it must encourage reflection on RE processes that may encompass or perpetuate discrimination and identify the structural anchors of discrimination in religious educational processes. Second, teachers need to contribute to developing difference-sensitive and discrimination-critical religious education and guide students in perceiving discrimination to reduce the incidence. Although these are two different perspectives, they are significantly intertwined because the development of a discrimination-critical attitude is fundamental. How can religious education teachers be supported in developing discrimination-critical attitudes as part of their RE teacher training? Such an approach requires that RE teachers develop the awareness to recognize discrimination in the religious education context and work with students to reduce discrimination.

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One concept that could be included in RE teacher training courses is the antibias approach, which has pathways that can develop difference-sensitive and discrimination-critical attitudes. As international knowledge transfers are included in this approach, it could also exemplify the value of international knowledge transfers to recognize and reduce discrimination. Further, because the anti-bias approach has a transnational history, it can be adapted to different contexts.

6.

Anti-bias approach

In the mid-1980s, the anti-bias-approach was developed by a group of early childhood educators led by Derman-Sparks in California. An anti-bias curriculum was developed to serve as a conceptual framework for action in educational settings. The term “anti-bias” was defined as an “active/activist approach to challenge prejudice, stereotyping, bias and the ‘isms’. In a society in which institutional structures create and maintain sexism, racism and handicappism, it is not sufficient to be non-biased (and also highly unlikely), nor is it to be an observer. It is necessary for each individual to actively intervene, to challenge and counter the personal and institutional behaviors that perpetuate oppression.” (Derman-Sparks 1989, p. 3) The anti-bias approach was further developed by South African educators and has also been adopted in different countries with different emphases, including Germany since the 1990s (Gramelt 2010, Wagner 2010, Anti-Bias-Werkstatt, Anti-Bias Netz 2021, Fachstelle Kinderwelten). Both institutionalized groups and individuals have adopted the attitudes and methodology into their work, and it has also been applied to adult education, university teaching, youth work, development work, daycare centers, schools and social work (Fleischer 2016, p. 3). As a political adult education method, it takes individual conceptualizations of power relations and the associated discrimination experiences as the learning starting point (Fleischer 2016). Therefore, given these past experiences, the anti-bias approach would be suitable for RE teacher education. The anti-bias approach aims to consciously deal with personal prejudices, raise awareness of social power relations and provide people with the tools to recognize and stand up against discrimination, that is, it is an active approach that opposes discrimination on all levels and provides the skills to describe and identify discriminatory images, statements and actions and to actively stand up for oneself and others against discrimination. Professional anti-bias action means conscious action above all, which means not avoiding situations, not ignoring exclusionary behaviors and developing a personal awareness (Gramelt 2010, p. 211). As all forms of discrimination are included in the anti-bias ap-

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proach, it can be anchored in the intersectionality paradigm (Crenshaw 2010, Walgenbach 2017). The main aim is to learn behaviors based on equality (Derman-Sparks & Brunson Philips 2002, p. 61f), identity and diversity and construct educational environments free from bias and one-sided representations of reality, all of which can place significant demands on pedagogical skills (Gramelt 2010, p. 173). As part of their training, teachers need to be supported in recognizing bias and discrimination, in understanding how these occur and the role they play in this process (Gramelt 2010, p. 173).

6.1.

Reflections on RE teacher training

Anti-bias work can only succeed if people continuously reflect on their prejudices and social power relation positionings. Therefore, as discrimination is based on individual, interpersonal, structural/institutional and ideological/discursive differentiation (Schmidt 2009, p. 104), people must raise their awareness in all situations. Besides the challenges associated with questioning and reevaluating lifetime stereotypical perceptions, it is also important that teachers are aware of the subtleties of institutional discrimination within their school structures. Through evaluations and team and personal reflections, these structures can be questioned and further developed. Teachers need to reflect as individuals who have cultural imprints that influence their value orientations and norms (Wagner, Hahn, Enßlin 2006, p. 17). Teachers must then relate their personal biographies to their professional practice to recognize how these imprints influence their professional action (Gramelt 2010, p. 173) and their professional self-image, which includes their professional routines, mechanisms, action concepts and communication behaviors (Gramelt 2010, p. 175). It is also important to reflect on the structural factors. In contrast to homogenization, which is a school organizing principle (Wagner 2010, p. 11), an awareness of diversity is needed. Discrimination refers to the non-equal treatment of diversity and inscribed relationships of power and powerlessness. Research projects indicate that individuals do not want to be different from others as they do not want to stand out. An essential aspect is, therefore, discussion about the normalities in everyday school life (Artamonova 2016, p. 126). Many things appear so normal that those involved do not perceive them as discrimination (Foitzik, Holland-Cunz & Rieke 2019, p. 26). In every interaction between people, power asymmetries, dominance relations, hierarchies, status, privileges and exclusions play a role. Out of fear of discrimination and being hurt, people keep quiet about certain topics. Power relations are not obvious from a dominant perspective, nor can they often be established by simply asking (Wagner 2010,

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p. 215). Therefore, reflections on the social power relations manifested in the relationships between people are necessary. It is important to face the complexities of social power relations and act on them. Discrimination experiences at school make it clear to young people that they or a part of them are not recognized, which threatens their feelings of belonging, which can vary depending on their social and biographical positioning. It is particularly relevant for those whose affiliation is disputed or even rejected (Geisen & Riegel 2009, p. 8). Belonging must always be renegotiated as the characteristics of belonging are closely related to perceptions of social differences. Depending on whether people feel they belong raises different possibilities for action (Riegel & Geisen 2007, p. 7). The extent to which belonging plays a role depends on whether a person believes they belong (Stockinger 2018, p. 157–161). For those for whom belonging is taken for granted, belonging plays a different role than for those whose belonging is disputed or even rejected. This issue, therefore, is particularly relevant for those categorized as “others” (Riegel & Geisen 2007, p. 8).

6.2

Implementation in teacher training

Reflections on heterogeneity, power and dominance and the possibilities of belonging in teacher training courses could better sensitize teachers to discrimination. Religious education teachers should learn to reflect on exclusion mechanisms, power asymmetries and dominance relations and learn to act on discriminative practices by asking themselves: What influences my behavior, how do I contribute to discrimination as a teacher and how can I change this?; What is considered normal within the school and the class in relation to religion?; Where does exclusion take place in religious education?; For whom are religious education processes organized, who is not considered and who is overlooked?; How can experiences of discrimination be taken into account in religious education?; To what extent does religious education cater for the discriminated, for those who are overlooked? Self-critically questioning the processes associated with the students’ and their own experiences of discrimination within the teaching training framework is part of the anti-bias approach that can lay the foundation for the development of an anti-biased school and dealing with these topics in religious education. For this purpose, teacher education spaces could be opened to discuss discrimination without fear of embarrassment and develop methods to reduce discrimination. Analyzing different contexts and relating them to each other could also assist in recognizing and dissolving discriminatory structures, as could the promotion of theoretical discussions and personal reflection (Fleischer & Lorenz 2012, p. 10).

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Associated with the anti-bias approach is the development and promotion of discrimination-sensitive language that avoids the stereotypical representations and discriminatory terms that are inscribed in language. However, it is important to be able to openly speak about discrimination; therefore, self-evaluation tools are needed that allow teachers to critically examine their actions and language and the actions of their institutions. Because people from different contexts have different perspectives on discrimination, such reflections can be particularly productive. Analyses of textbooks or learning materials can also reveal the extent to which discrimination is being perpetuated. The comparison of books from diverse contexts could assist in identifying the discriminatory aspects and highlight positive examples. In this way, discrimination risks can be identified and the material adapted or the teaching content changed. Concrete applications of the anti-bias approach in teacher training courses and creating school platforms on which people can talk to each other about discrimination experiences could be important contributions to decreasing and eliminating bias and discrimination at schools. Specific examples of the anti-bias approach are designing spaces, structuring communication, conversations about diversity using Persona Dolls, working with parents and dealing frankly with conflicts (Gramelt 2010, p. 211). These methods and an empathic approach to diversity could give children positive responses about their self-worth, their reference groups and their “uniqueness” and help build a positive self-image. Implementing an anti-bias approach is a long process that can be divided into different phases. Although the contexts in the USA, South Africa and Germany cannot be directly compared, because dealing with heterogeneity is not selfevident (Gramelt 2010, p. 213), the anti-bias approach provides methods to accept heterogeneity. Implementing the anti-bias approach in diverse pedagogical contexts, such as kindergartens, schools, youth work and adult education, includes positively emphasizing heterogeneity and eliminating exclusion and discrimination (Gramelt 2010, p. 219). The Kinderwelten project in Germany, for example, divided the implementation into different phases based on the situational approaches: aim clarification, design and evaluation. Because six months was allocated for each implementation phase, this gave the teachers time to understand the complexities of the innovations, which was also found in the South African teachers’ comments. What should be emphasized is the importance of establishing democratic pedagogy (Gramelt 2010, p. 219f). The anti-bias approach is not just a set of activities, however, but should permeate everything within the teacher training and teaching contexts (DermanSparks & Edwards 2010, p. 8). Through teacher education, teachers can become sensitized to biases, find ways to reduce them and learn and put into practice methods that deal with bias to develop schools that apply the anti-bias approach.

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The importance of international knowledge transfer

International knowledge transfers are scientifically self-evident in many cases. Discussion about discrimination means that international knowledge transfers could be useful for the development of concrete ways of dealing with discrimination in practice, of which the transnationally developed anti-bias approach is a good example. Knowledge transfers based on the anti-bias concept could motivate transfers of other concepts in different contexts that could be theoretically and contextually adapted to provide practical applications. International exchanges of teacher training experiences could test the effectiveness of certain approaches and lead to further developments, which could contribute to stronger and more conscious approaches to dealing with discrimination and promoting greater educational equality.

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List of contributors

Jenny Berglund is Professor of Religious Education at the Department of Teaching and Learning of Stockholm University. Yauheniya Danilovich is researcher at the Faculty of Protestant Theology of the University of Münster. Maike Maria Domsel teaches Catholic religion and French at a secondary school in Bonn and is private lecturer at the Faculty of Catholic Theology of the University of Bonn. Fredrik Jahnke is lecturer in Religious Education at Dalarna University and Stockholm University. Helena Junker is university assistant at the Institute for Religious Education at the Faculty of Protestant Theology of the University of Wien. Barbara Niedermann is researcher at the Faculty of Catholic Theology of the University of Bonn. Bert Roebben is Professor of Religious Education at the Faculty of Catholic Theology of the University of Bonn. Martin Rothgangel is Professor of Religious Education at the Faculty of Protestant Theology at the University of Wien. Thomas Schlag is Professor of Practical Theology (Religious Education, Church Theory and Pastoral Theology) at the Faculty of Theology of Zurich University.

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Jasmine Suhner is co-leader of the interdisciplinary research project “Interreligious Challenges and Interreligious Learning in Digital Society” at the University of Zürich and lecturer at the Institute for Religious Education of the University of Luzern. Peter Schreiner is former director of the Comenius Institute in Münster, Protestant Center for Research and Development of Education. Friedrich Schweitzer is Senior Professor of Religious Education at the Faculty of Protestant Theology of Tübingen University. Helena Stockinger is Professor of Catechetics and Religious Education at the Catholic University of Linz. Athanasios Stogiannidis is Associate Professor of School Pedagogy and Didactics of Religious Education at the School of Theology / Faculty of Theology of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Fahimah Ulfat is Professor of Islamic Religious Education at the Center for Islamic Theology of Tübingen University. Sander Vloebergs is researcher at the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies of the KU Leuven.

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