EdPsych: Modules 007337850X, 9780073378503

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EDPSYCH MO DULES

EDPSYCH MO DULES

Lisa Bohlin Purdue University

Cheryl Cisero Durwin Southern Connecticut State University

Marla Reese-Weber Illinois State University

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2009. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 0 9 8 ISBN: 978-0-07-337850-3 MHID: 0-07-337850-X Editor in Chief: Michael Ryan Publisher: David Patterson Senior Sponsoring Editor: Allison McNamara Executive Marketing Manager: James R. Headley Executive Market Development Manager: Sheryl Adams Director of Development: Dawn Groundwater Developmental Editor: John C. Sisson Editorial Coordinator: Sarah Kiefer Senior Production Editor: Karol Jurado Manuscript Editor: Mary Roybal Design Manager: Preston Thomas Text and Cover Designer: Amanda Kavanaugh Cover Image: © Steven Puetzer/Photonica/Getty Images Art Director: Robin Mouat Art Editor: Anne R. Evans Illustrator: Dartmouth Publishing, Inc. Lead Photo Editor: Alexandra Ambrose Photo Researcher: Emily Tietz Permissions Editor: Marty Moga Lead Media Project Manager: Ron Nelms, Jr. Lead Production Supervisor: Randy Hurst Composition: 10/12 Minion by Thompson Type Printing: 45# Pub Matte, RR Donnelley & Sons Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page 637 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bohlin, Lisa. EdPsych : modules / Lisa Bohlin, Cheryl Cisero Durwin, Marla Reese-Weber. -- 1st ed. p. m. c Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-337850-3 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-337850-X (alk. paper) 1. Educational psychology. 2. Child development. 3. Learning. 4. Classroom management. 6. Education--Evaluation. I. Durwin, Cheryl Cisero. II. Reese-Weber, Marla. III. Title. LB1051.B46395 2010 370.15--dc22

5. Teaching.

2008010710 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com

Dedication To our husbands, Mike, Mike, and John, whose love and support made this textbook project possible. And, to our children, Ben, Holly, Sammy-Kate, Mark, Andrea, Payton and Reese, who inspire us everyday to become the best mothers and educators that we can be.

Authors’ Acknowledgments We would like to thank Sheryl Adams, Dawn Groundwater, James Headley, Allison McNamara, Beth Mejia, Emily Pecora, Karol Jurado, and Preston Thomas for their individual and collective talents that have made our vision and passion a reality. We are also deeply grateful for the wisdom, guidance, and patience of John Sisson who has helped us find our voice as authors. Most of all, we are forever indebted to David Patterson for bringing us together as authors and seeing in us something we did not see in ourselves. It has been an amazing journey! Lisa Bohlin also would like to extend her appreciation to Professor Emeritus William Asher for his advice and encouragement throughout the development of this book.

BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Case Study 4 Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

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Cluster 1: Personal Development Cluster 1 Case Studies 22 Module 2: Contexts of Development 30 Module 3: Social Development 45 Module 4: Emotional Development 61 Module 5: Moral Development 76

Cluster 2: The Developing Learner Cluster 2 Case Studies 94 Module 6: The Brain and Development 102 Module 7: Cognitive Development 118 Module 8: Language Development 133

Cluster 3: Learning Theories Cluster 3 Case Studies 152 Module 9: Behavioral Learning Theories 160 Module 10: Social Cognitive Theory 175 Module 11: Information Processing 186

Cluster 4: Cognitive Processes Cluster 4 Case Studies 206 Module 12: Metacognition 214 Module 13: Transfer of Skills and Knowledge 229 Module 14: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving 242

Cluster 5: Motivation Cluster 5 Case Studies 258 Module 15: Behavioral Theory 266 Module 16: Cognitive Theories 278 Module 17: Self Theories 296

Cluster 6: Classroom Management and Instruction Cluster 6 Case Studies 316 Module 18: Creating a Productive Learning Environment 324

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Module 19: Understanding and Managing Student Behavior 340 Module 20: Planning for Instruction 357 Module 21: Grouping Practices 372

Cluster 7: Learner Differences Cluster 7 Case Studies 388 Module 22: Intelligence 396 Module 23: Giftedness and Creativity 411 Module 24: Cognitive Disabilities 424 Module 25: Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disabilities 440

Cluster 8: Classroom Assessment Cluster 8 Case Studies 458 Module 26: Assessing Student Learning 466 Module 27: Test Construction and Use 481 Module 28: Performance Assessment 498

Cluster 9: Standardized Testing Cluster 9 Case Studies 516 Module 29: Standardized Tests and Scores 524 Module 30: Issues in Standardized Testing 540

How Does EdPsych Help You Prepare for the Praxis Exam? 555 Glossary 563 References 601 Credits 637 Subject-Name Index 643

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Case Study 4 Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms Outline and Learning Goals 6 Teaching and Educational Psychology 7 Opportunities and Challenges of Teaching 7 Addressing Assumptions about Diversity 7 Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers 9 Educational Psychology: The Science 10 Samples 11 Measures 11 Designs 11 Educational Psychology: The Application 15 Developing Your Philosophy of Teaching 15 A Case Study Approach 16 Summary 19 Key Concepts 19 Case Study: Reflect and Evaluate (annotated)

Cluster 1: Personal Development Cluster 1 Case Studies 22 Module 2: Contexts of Development Outline and Learning Goals 30 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory 31 Family Context 31 Parenting Practices 32 Divorce and Remarriage 33 Peer Context 36 Friendships and Peer Groups 36 Peer Statuses 38 Broader Contexts 40 Parental Employment 40 Cultural Factors 41 Summary 43 Key Concepts 43 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 43

Module 3: Social Development Outline and Learning Goals 45 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 46 Development of Social Competence 49 Understanding the Self 52

Self-Concept 53 Self-Esteem 54 Aspects of Identity 54 Identity Statuses 54 Ethnicity 56 Gender 56 Summary 59 Key Concepts 59 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

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Module 4: Emotional Development Outline and Learning Goals 61 What is Emotion? 62 Emotions, Feelings, and Temperament 62 How Parents, Gender and Culture Influence Emotion 62 Emotions and Individual Performance 63 Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence 63 Emotions in the Classroom 68 Applications: Emotionally Intelligent Teaching 70 What is Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)? 70 Effectiveness of SEL Programs 71 Summary 73 Key Concepts 73 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 74

Module 5: Moral Development Outline and Learning Goals 76 Cognitive-Developmental Moral Reasoning 77 Piaget’s Theory 77 Kohlberg’s Theory 77 Gilligan’s Criticism 79 Prosocial Behavior 80 Eisenberg’s Theory 80 Perspective Taking 81 Empathy 82 Aggressive Behavior 82 Social-Cognitive Domains 83 Social-Information Processing 84 Applications: Advancing Moral Development 85 Family Context 85 Peer Context 86 School Context 86 Summary 89 Key Concepts 89 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 90 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Cluster 2: The Developing Learner Cluster 2 Case Studies 94 Module 6: The Brain and Development Outline and Learning Goals 102 The Relevance of Brain Research 103 Physiology of the Brain 105 Brain Structure and Function 105 Factors Affecting Brain Development 107 Brain Activity During Learning 110 Applications for the Classroom 111 Current State of Research in Memory, Reading, Math, and Emotions 111 Evaluating Claims about Brain-Based Learning 114 Summary 115 Key Concepts 115 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 116

Module 7: Cognitive Development Outline and Learning Goals 118 Constructivist Theories of Cognitive Development 119 Individual and Social Constructivism 119 Piaget’s Theory 119 Vygotsky’s Theory 124 Evaluating Constructivist Theories of Development 125 Issues in Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky 125 What Comes First: Development or Learning? 127 Role of Language in Cognitive Development 127 Role of Play in Cognitive Development 128 Applications: Principles for Effective Teaching 128 Summary 130 Key Concepts 130 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 131

Module 8: Language Development Outline and Learning Goals 133 Understanding Language Acquisition 134 Biological Basis of Language 134 Imitation and Reinforcement 134 Social Interactions 135 Development of Language Skills 136 Language Acquisition Through Early Childhood 136 viii

Language Acquisition Through Adolescence 138 Bilingual Language Acquisition 140 Individual Differences in Language Acquisition 142 Applications: Encouraging Language Development in the Classroom 144 Summary 147 Key Concepts 147 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 148

Cluster 3: Learning Theories Cluster 3 Case Studies 152 Module 9: Behavioral Learning Theories Outline and Learning Goals 160 Assumptions of Behavioral Learning Theories 161 Classical Conditioning 161 Operant Conditioning 163 Basic Tenets of the Theory 164 Using Consequences Effectively 166 Applications: Applied Behavior Analysis 169 Strategies for Increasing Appropriate Behavior 169 Strategies for Decreasing Inappropriate Behavior 170 Summary 172 Key Concepts 172 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 173

Module 10: Social Cognitive Theory Outline and Learning Goals 175 Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory 176 Observational Learning 176 Model Characteristics 176 Imitators Characteristics 178 Environmental Characteristics 179 Personal Factors in Learning 179 Self-Efficacy 180 Self-Regulation 181 Application: Improving Students’ Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulation 182 Summary 184 Key Concepts 184 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 184

TABLE OF CONTENTS Module 11: Information Processing Outline and Learning Goals 186 Assumptions of the Information Processing Approach 187 The Three-Stage Model of Information Processing 187 Sensory Memory 188 Working Memory 189 Long-Term Memory 193 Individual Differences in Information Processing 196 Applications to Teaching 197 Helping Students Pay Attention 197 Helping Students Store and Retrieve Information Effectively 198 Summary 201 Key Concepts 202 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 202

Cluster 4: Cognitive Processes Cluster 4 Case Studies 206 Module 12: Metacognition Outline and Learning Goals 214 What Is Metacognition and Why Is It Important? Special Cases of Metacognition 216 Theory of Mind in Childhood 216 Egocentrism in Adolescence 217 Factors Affecting the Development and Use of Metacognition 218 Applications: Learning Strategies 219 Reading Comprehension 219 Writing Skills 222 Note Taking 222 Study Time 224 Summary 226 Key Concepts 227 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 227

Module 13: Transfer of Skills and Knowledge Outline and Learning Goals 229 What Is Transfer and Why Is It Important? 230 Specific Versus General Transfer 230 Low-Road Versus High-Road Transfer 230 Do We Readily Transfer What We Learn? 231 The Success of Low-Road Transfer 231

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The Problem of High-Road Transfer 232 Teaching Principles that Facilitate Transfer 235 Develop Automaticity of Skills 235 Promote Meaningful Learning 237 Teach Metacognitive Strategies 238 Motivate Students to Value Learning 238 Summary 240 Key Concepts 240 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 240

Module 14: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Outline and Learning Goals 242 Thinking Skills and Dispositions 243 What Are Higher-Order Thinking Skills? 243 What Are Thinking Dispositions? 244 Critical Thinking 244 What Is Critical Thinking? 245 Applications: Fostering Critical Thinking 245 Problem Solving 248 What Is Problem Solving? 248 Obstacles to Successful Problem Solving 249 Applications: Teaching Problem Solving Strategies 250 Summary 254 Key Concepts 254 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 255

Cluster 5: Motivation Cluster 5 Case Studies 258 Module 15: Behavioral Theory Outline and Learning Goals 266 A Behavioral Definition of Motivation 267 Defining Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 267 Factors Influencing Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 267 Rewarding Students for Learning 268 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rewards 269 Applications: Using Rewards Effectively 270 Praising Students for Learning 271 Advantages and Disadvantages of Praise 271 Applications: Using Praise Effectively 272 When the Reward Is the Activity Itself 273 Flow Theory 273

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Applications: Creating an Intrinsically Motivating Learning Environment 274 Summary 276 Key Concepts 276 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 276

Module 16: Cognitive Theories Outline and Learning Goals 278 Cognitive Theories of Motivation 279 Expectancy-Value Theory 279 Goal Theory 280 Attribution Theory 281 Developmental and Cultural Differences in Motivation 283 Developmental Changes in Motivation 284 Cultural Differences in Motivation 287 Applications: Enhancing Students’ Motivation 288 Student-Level Techniques 288 Classroom-Level Techniques 289 Serious Motivational Problems 290 Learned Helplessness 290 Anxiety 291 Summary 293 Key Concepts 293 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 294

Module 17: Self Theories Outline and Learning Goals 296 Self-Efficacy Theory 297 Self-Efficacy and Motivation 297 Teacher Efficacy 300 Self-Worth Theory 300 Self-Worth and Motivation 301 Types of Students 301 Self-Determination Theory 303 Self-Determination and Motivation 304 Becoming Self-Determined 305 Integrating the Self Theories 307 Self-Theories Compared 307 Applications: Enhancing Intrinsic Motivation 307 Summary 310 Key Concepts 310 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 311

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Cluster 6: Classroom Management And Instruction Cluster 6 Case Studies 316 Module 18: Creating a Productive Learning Environment Outline and Learning Goals 324 Physical Environment 325 Room Arrangement 325 Seating Patterns 325 Environmental Cues 326 Establishing Norms and Expectations for Behavior 328 The First Days of School 328 Classroom Rules and Consequences 329 Procedures and Routines 332 Establishing a Climate for Positive Relationships 334 Caring, Productive Student-Teacher Relationships 334 Positive Student-Student Relationships 335 Building Strong Home-School Connections 336 Building a Sense of Community within the School 337 Summary 338 Key Concepts 338 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 339

Module 19: Understanding and Managing Student Behavior Outline and Learning Goals 340 Defining Student Misbehavior 341 Degrees and Types of Misbehavior 341 Common Causes of Misbehavior 342 Applications: General Ways to Address Behavior Management 344 Establish Clear, Positive Expectations for Behavior 346 Model and Reinforce Desired Behaviors 346 Anticipate and Prevent Potential Behavior Problems 347 Teach Self-Regulation Skills 347 Respond Effectively to Behavior Problems as They Occur 348 Applications: How to Handle Specific Misbehaviors 349 Routine Disruptions 349 Intermediate Concerns 350

TABLE OF CONTENTS Immoral Behaviors 352 Dangerous Behaviors 352 Summary 355 Key Concepts 355 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

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Module 20: Planning for Instruction Outline and Learning Goals 357 Designing Effective Instruction 358 The Planning Process 358 Choosing Learning Objectives 360 Choosing Teaching Methods 361 Teaching Methods Based on Behaviorism 361 Teaching Methods Based on Cognitive Learning Theory 363 Teaching Methods Based on Constructivism 364 Summary 370 Key Concepts 370 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 371

Module 21: Grouping Practices Outline and Learning Goals 372 Grouping by Ability 373 Within-Class Ability Grouping 373 Between-Class Ability Grouping 374 Flexible Grouping Methods 376 Cooperative Learning 377 Characteristics of Cooperative Learning 377 Is Cooperative Learning Effective? 378 Applications: Best Practices 380 Elementary School: Using Within-Class Ability Grouping Effectively 380 Middle School and High School: To Track or Not to Track 380 Using Cooperative Learning Effectively 381 Summary 384 Key Concepts 384 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 384

Cluster 7: Learner Differences Cluster 7 Case Studies 388 Module 22: Intelligence Outline and Learning Goals What Is Intelligence? 397

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Classic Views 397 Contemporary Views 397 Intelligence Measured as IQ 400 Individually-Administered and Group-Administered Tests 400 Interpreting IQ Scores 401 Caveats for Interpreting IQ 402 Biological, Social, and Cultural Issues 402 Intelligence: Heredity or Environment? 402 Socioeconomic and Cultural Factors 403 Applications: Intelligence Theories in the Classroom 405 Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 405 Teaching for Successful Intelligence 407 Summary 409 Key Concepts 409 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 409

Module 23: Giftedness and Creativity Outline and Learning Goals 411 Giftedness and Creativity: Are They More Than Just Intelligence? 412 Giftedness 413 Characteristics 413 Identifying Giftedness 414 Applications: Teaching Gifted Students 415 Creativity 417 Characteristics 417 Identifying Creativity 418 Applications: Promoting Creativity in the Classroom 419 Summary 421 Key Concepts 421 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 422

Module 24: Cognitive Disabilities Outline and Learning Goals 424 Cognitive Disabilities in Today’s Classrooms 425 Intellectual Disabilities 427 Identification of Intellectual Disabilities 427 Applications: Guidelines for Teachers in the General Education Classroom 429 Specific Learning Disabilities 430 Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities 430 Reading Disability 431 Mathematics Disability 434

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary 437 Key Concepts 437 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Validity 482 Reliability 483 Fairness and Equivalence 484 Practicality 485 Application: Developing a Test Blueprint 485 Application: Developing Test Items 487 Alternate Choice (True/False Items) 487 Matching Exercises 488 Multiple Choice Items 489 Short-Answer Items/Completion 491 Essay Tasks 492 Application: Test Analysis and Revision 493 Summary 495 Key Concepts 495 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 496

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Module 25: Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disabilities Outline and Learning Goals 440 Emotional, Social, and Behavioral Disabilities in Today’s Classrooms 441 Special Education Eligibility 441 Planning and Placement 443 Characteristics of Disabilities 444 Anxiety and Depression 444 Autism 446 ADHD and Conduct Disorder 447 Applications: Interventions 450 Types of Interventions 451 Effectiveness of Interventions 451 Summary 453 Key Concepts 453 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 454

Module 28: Performance Assessment

Cluster 8: Classroom Assessment Cluster 8 Case Studies 458 Module 26: Assessing Student Learning Outline and Learning Goals 466 What is Assessment? 467 The Purposes of Assessment in Education 467 Standards for Teacher Competence 468 Application: Assessment Planning 469 Choosing Assessment Methods 469 Using Assessment Data 473 Application: Communication of Classroom Assessment Information 473 Grading Procedures 473 Report Cards and Narrative Reports 475 Parent-Teacher Conferences 476 Summary 479 Key Concepts 479 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 479

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Cluster 9: Standardized Testing Cluster 9 Case Studies 516 Module 29: Standardized Tests and Scores Outline and Learning Goals 524 Types of Standardized Tests 525 Categories of Standardized Tests

Module 27: Test Construction and Use Outline and Learning Goals 481 Characteristics of High Quality Classroom Tests

Outline and Learning Goals 498 A Broader View of Assessment 499 Performance Assessment 499 Authentic Assessment 500 Application: Developing Performance Assessments 501 Presentations 501 Projects 502 Portfolios 503 Application: Evaluating Performance Assessments 504 Checklists 505 Rating Scales 505 Rubrics 506 Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Assessments 509 Summary 511 Key Concepts 511 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 512

482

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Tests 527 Basic Concepts of Measurement 528 Central Tendency and Variability 528 Normal Distribution 530 Types of Test Scores 531 Raw Scores 531 Percentile Rank 532 Grade-Equivalent Scores 532 Standard Scores 533 Characteristics of “Good:” Tests 534 Validity 534 Reliability 535 Summary 537 Key Concepts 538 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 538

Module 30: Issues in Standardized Testing Outline and Learning Goals

High-Stakes Testing and Accountability 541 What is High-Stakes Testing? 541 No Child Left Behind 542 Negative Outcomes and Test Score Pollution 543 Applications: Accommodating Students at Risk 545 Test Fairness and Test Bias 547 Teacher Certification and Licensure 549 Summary 552 Key Concepts 552 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 553

How Does EdPsych Help You Prepare for the Praxis Exam? 555 Glossary 563 References 601 Credits 637 Subject-Name Index 643

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PREFACE

Our Philosophy As instructors of educational psychology, we strive to show our students that the concepts, principles, theories, and research we cover are not discrete bits of information they need to memorize to get a passing grade in a course or to pass a teaching licensure exam. Instead, we try to bring the information to life—to make it real and relevant to them—by presenting essential knowledge and skills that will enhance their professional development as effective teachers. We came together to write this book because, as instructors, we struggled against the survey approach, the wide breadth of presentation in most educational psychology texts that leads students to develop a superficial understanding of numerous topics rather than deep, meaningful learning. We wanted a direct, more straightforward approach that links science to practice, encourages active learning with case studies, and enables prospective teachers to master critical areas. In short, we wanted a book that better promotes the development of teacher expertise. In a sense, we’ve written not a textbook but a handbook for students (and beginning teachers). Our goal is to present the most recent perspectives and interpretations of the research literature on critical topics affecting teachers in today’s classrooms so that our readers can learn to make informed decisions as teachers.

Our Textbook’s Approach We have created stand-alone modules that are organized into clusters. Each module is about half the length of a typical chapter, but provides more in-depth treatment of its topic than you would expect to find in a traditional chapter. Our modular format also makes judicious use of text boxes, figures, and tables. We include features only if they support students’ learning and understanding. As you will see from examining the table of contents, our textbook includes all the major content areas traditionally covered in educational psychology courses. The modular approach allows us to: ■

include important and contemporary topics—such as emotional development, contexts of development, and the brain and development—that are often neglected in current texts; and

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provide more focused and detailed discussions of topics found in many educational psychology texts. Topics such as intelligence, metacognition, and grouping practices, often presented as brief sections of chapters, are given full treatment as entire modules in our text. We also provide extensive coverage of classroom management and disabilities, topics to which traditional textbooks dedicate only a single chapter.

We hope that our clear, direct writing style and greater depth of coverage not only will provide students with a firmer grasp of the course content, but also will allow instructors to spend more time leading students in discussions, debates, and applications of content and less time lecturing to supplement information in the text. But the modular approach is only part of our story. Three additional elements distinguish our textbook from the others: 1. Case studies for four developmental levels, 2. A developmental approach to presenting content for learning, 3. Integration of diversity issues within the text whenever they are relevant.

PREFACE

Case Studies

TARY SC HOOL MIDDLE SCHOO L H IGH SC HOOL

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k ool, Jac dle Sch on Mid review Washingt doing a math iod at hs. Jack ’ll be third per and sig day we t start of class, “To lls with groans test. Las for the of this mfi hth-grade l rings The roo 27% of ortance ” y to his eig s the bel imp ek. onl ces h we the announ t nex t realizes math, wit Pantera stery tes he also goals for state ma reaction, but annual el. ed all of for the meet its proficiency lev e assign dents’ not stu rk “I’v s. did lain l first wo g at the School tands the he exp and wil Middle unders anper formin ke this fun,” problems will compare shington distric t . ng to ma given a set of year Wa graders in the done, you problems we’re goi hth will be team is ryone, the eig solve the h of you on, eve ne on the tands how to ms. Eac ryo “Come tea eve ers en . .” ember lves. Wh ryone und a prize, and . four-m you to by yourse make sure eve tly gets problems ether to ms correc on the tog ble rk pro wo the s. swers and m to finish all tea interrupt Jeremy The first is it?! ” “What

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ke case, ma read the As you notes: central the are case? 1. WHO rs in the characte them. Describe ing place? tak is ing 2. WHAT case tak nt E is the me 3. WHER Is the environ place? ? a factor e taking cas the is 4. WHEN Is the timing a place? factor?

C H IL D

262

cerec t pro the cor probused all ee of the y, you ors on thr er. “Jerem ation err should g comput Jeremy’s ne workin g over de simple everyo k, lookin work. You ma nt to see r says Jac wa ” “I t,” you ng. tone. l’s righ ble-check what you’re doi check the serious “Rache uld dou on s over to sters a you sho Jack goe centrate dents and mu dures. But down and con d raised. e stu han hav the w h her at all g. We lems. Slo Four, wit p workin ks around m Team uld kee Jack loo Renee fro ms sho ounces ing tea er.” e,” ann togeth e remain all don ces. “Th “We’re oun ann k e.” answers. winner!” Jac class priz team’s e a l get the making “We hav and we can stil blems by s lef t, math pro 15 minute ts to do studen age his ferently? encour Jack to done dif e for a hav s you d ide y not? erience it a goo at would y or wh n, was these exp Sam? Wh ition? Wh r opinio How did tivating 1. In you friendly compet testing? k in mo t-wide was Jac it into a or distric effective te-wide n, how r opinio with sta 2. In you e you had hav s nce tion? experie 3. What your own motiva affect

EA R LY

In each of our classes, students spend time working and personal beliefs and to reevaluate their knowlthrough case studies that present real-world con- edge and assumptions after reading the research in texts, allowing students to apply the concepts they are the module and interpreting the cases. learning. Case studies can be a very effective tool to Offering case studies that represent all educational give preservice teachers experience with structured levels from pre-K through grade 12 allows for great flexproblem solving and reflection on best practices. Ex- ibility in instruction. In educational psychology courses perience in an actual classroom is one of the best ways comprised of students from a variety of certification to practice and demonstrate teaching skills. In some areas, instructors might choose to assign only those teacher education programs that do not provide access case studies corresponding to students’ chosen certo field experience or that offer a very limited amount tification area. This approach enables students to of time in K–12 classrooms, case studies make it possi- meaningfully apply the concepts they are learning to ble to apply research and theory to specific classroom the grade levels they intend to teach. Alternatively, insituations in a focused, systematic way. structors may wish to assign all case studies in order In this book, we have developed detailed case stud- to emphasize developmental differences that affect ies based on real classroom situations. Each cluster of teacher-student interactions, instructional approaches, modules begins with four case studies: early childhood, behavioral and motivational techniques, and assesselementary school, middle school, and high school. ment. In educational psychology courses at universiThe case studies at the beginning of a cluster are rel- ties that offer separate sections for different types evant to all the modules within that cluster. The end of certification, all students in a course section might of each case study contains ASSESS questions, which read only the cases that pertain to their certification prompt students to assess their existing knowledge level. By reading the modules and interacting with the about the upcoming topics in the modules. Students cases, students will see the importance of using scienapply their prior knowledge to make initial interpreta- tific information to inform their instructional decision tions about or reactions to the case study. At the end making. of each module, REFLECT AND EVALUATE questions for each case study encourage students to check their comprehension of important concepts, apply what they learned to the case study, and think critically about the research presented in the modules. We also use REFLECT AND EVALUATE questions to challenge stu: dents to think beyond the case and Prepare A analyze potential problems or soluAssess: tions if the characters or situations were to change. This helps students see that there is not always a single SchThoeoMlath Review Middle correct answer and that theories and research are to be used as tools for making decisions rather than recipes to be followed. Together, the ASSESS and REFLECT AND EVALUATE questions provide students with an opportunity to identify assumptions, preconceptions,

PREFACE Developmental Approach Our case studies (discussed earlier) show early childhood, elementary school, middle school, and high school classrooms in order to provide a relevant learning context for teacher education students at all certification levels. We also provide examples within the modules from various developmental levels, where space permits, as opposed to the typical focus on elementary school students found in other textbooks. We highlight developmental differences within modules and cases where appropriate and where backed by research. r on 50 cluste

al developm e person

ent

petence. Social Com ilmpetent ch co ly al ci So olescents ad d an en dr interperhave good that lead s ill sk l sona ndships ie fr y to man ty among ri la pu and po peers.

Integrated Issues of Diversity Module 1, Today’s Diverse Classrooms, introduces the reader to what we mean by diversity—characteristics such as ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, gender, and disabilities. Rather than treating diversity as a separate module or as boxed features within modules, we integrate diversity throughout the modules and the cases whenever appropriate. A marginal icon (at left) indicates where this coverage appears. In the cases, you will find students and teachers of diverse backgrounds and questions that probe students to evaluate their personal beliefs or assumptions about diversity. In the modules, we have chosen to emphasize information as a diversity issue only if it is supported by sufficient research or theoretically relevant. We integrate diversity within the modules by including coverage of research findings that:

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indicate important differences among individuals of various diversity groups on psychological constructs such as intelligence, motivation, or language; reveal differences among individuals of various groups in values, practices, or social interactions; suggest differential responses to treatments, interventions, or teaching methods for individuals of varying diversity groups; and highlight differential treatment of individuals from various diversity groups within the classroom.

These findings are relevant because they provide essential information to help teachers make informed decisions that affect the success and well-being of their students.

PREFACE

Organization of the Modules A modular approach offers greater flexibility in teaching educational psychology. The organization of modules in our table of contents is secondary to your syllabus. We would not expect any two instructors to teach a selection of modules in the same order, nor would we expect an instructor to teach all the modules in a single course! Stand-alone modules allow you to tailor content to your particular course and student audience. In standard chapter textbooks, content and concepts in later chapters often build on and make reference to content from earlier chapters. As a result, assigning portions of chapters (deleting content that is less important) or arranging syllabi in a different order than that in the textbook’s table of contents often leads to gaps in students’ understanding. With our modular textbook, instructors can easily select only those modules relevant to their courses and can arrange the topics in any order they choose. We have created 30 modules, including Module 1, “Today’s Diverse Classrooms.” This opening module introduces students to educational psychology. Similar to the first chapter of many educational psychology textbooks, Module 1 defines educational psychology and addresses the importance of research. We discuss the opportunities and challenges of teaching in today’s diverse classrooms and highlight the importance of theories and research in educational psychology for helping teachers make decisions about evidence-based practices. Because we chose not to treat diversity as a separate module the way chapter textbooks do, we also use Module 1 to provide a general overview of diversity so that students know what we mean by diversity as they read the modules. Module 1 also does much more. We provide a case study developed around the content of Module 1 as a way to introduce students to using cases. We walk students through an annotated version of the case study in order to provide them with strategies for reading and working with cases and to model these strategies for them. We’ve organized the remaining 29 modules into nine clusters that generally follow the sequence of chapters in most current texts. Development and learning theories are covered earlier, while clusters on classroom management and assessment appear toward the end. The organization of our text is different from typical chapter textbooks in two minor ways:

1. Motivation appears earlier. The motivation cluster, comprised of three modules, appears earlier than in most chapter textbooks. Because motivation involves many theoretical perspectives, we have chosen to present motivation after clusters on development and learning theories in order to keep together modules that rely heavily on theories. We feel it is important to cover the major theories related to teaching—development, learning, cognition, and motivation—before progressing to a discussion of individual differences among students. 2. Individual differences appear later. Cluster 7, “Learner Differences,” includes modules on intelligence, giftedness and creativity, cognitive disabilities, and emotional, social, and behavioral disabilities. Presenting modules that address individual differences after clusters dealing with theoretical perspectives allows students to learn about general principles and theories applicable to most children before they encounter “exceptions to the rule.” Again, because of our modular organization, instructors are able to arrange these topics in any order or to choose only those topics relevant to their particular courses.

UL MOD

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16

s heorie Self T g Goals Learnin

ctacy expe d ef fica . ions an ef ficacy pectat acher and te ome ex e outc udent st rib to sc t 1. De respec ith w tions Theory ficacy and de ion Self-Ef otivat ivation ts, and M cts mot studen Ef ficacy th af fe iented ■ Selflf-wor ess-or cy se cc re ca w fi su ilu ho of d fa ain her Ef ivation ing an 2. Expl ■ Teac the mot failure-avoid scribe eory and or th Th rivers, Self-W overst ation ents. Motiv g stud d in an pt acce ess Wor th latedn ■ Selfudents and re s of St tence, ■ Type compe nomy, l ivation. ationa w auto ot uc ho m n ed ai w ors. intrinsic ain ho 3. Expl eory behavi d expl cilitate ion of ion an can fa ation Th at at in iz iz n al al io rm rn rn te otivat te inte ne inte Self-De and M 4. Defi ts can facilita ination ined Determ contex e ■ SelfDeterm enhanc g Selfself use to comin which ■ Be rs can entif y teache and id niques e tech ivation, ot rib m sc 5. De trinsic nique. ries in ’ ch eo ts te Th studen e Self ts each suppor ating th Integr theory ivation pared sic Mot s Com g Intrin Theorie hancin ■ Self En : ns plicatio ■ Ap

e Outlin

ar y Summ aluate ncepts t and Ev Key Co Reflec udies: Case St 6/3/08

11:23:28

A

PREFACE

About Us The three of us have had varied experiences in teaching educational psychology. Our class sizes vary in size from 20 to 120 students. Students begin our courses with different levels of prior knowledge and experience. Some students do fieldwork prior to or concurrent with the course; others do not. We even teach the course in different departments— education and psychology. Nonetheless, we have come together as authors because we share a single philosophy about teaching educational psychology. We believe in meaningful learning that allows students to better comprehend material and apply it to their lives. We feel that meaningful learning occurs within a context that is rich and relevant for students. We have written this book to give students a meaningful context in which to learn and apply knowledge and skills, with the hope that they will be more likely to utilize this information when they become teachers.

Lisa Bohlin Purdue University

Cheryl Cisero Durwin Southern Connecticut State University

Marla Reese-Weber Illinois State University

To see a preview of EdPsych Modules, please go to www.mhhe.com/bohlinpreview.

SUPPLEMENTS All student and instructor supplements are available through the text’s online learning center at www .mhhe.com/bohlin1e.

EdPsych Modules is supported by a highly collaborative program of supplements for instructors teaching and students studying Educational Psychology. As a first step of the supplements authoring Front row (left to right): Lisa Bohlin, Marla Reese-Weber, Cheryl Durwin; Back row: Jim Persinger, Steve Frye, Rachel Green, Bob Hoffman process, the supplements team met in New York for an all-day workshop/launch meeting. Working with the textbook authors, the team created a supplements strategy, situating each resource in relation to the text’s practice-based and case-study-focused approach. Continuing this collaboration, the text authors closely supported each of the supplements authors’ work, providing guidance on direction and strategy, and ensuring that every item is of the highest quality.

For Instructors ■

Filmed specifically to support this text, Video Observations of classroom situations and teachers provide real-life, visual representation of key content. Under the direction of Lisa Bohlin and Kristy Barnes, footage was captured from classrooms representing the full range of ages covered by the text case studies: early childhood, elementary school, middle school, and high school. Most videos are 2-5 minutes in length; all are supported by pedagogical material authored by Lisa Bohlin, Cheryl Durwin, Marla Reese-Weber, and Kristy Barnes, including introductory material to cue viewers to key content and follow-up questions to assess understanding and prompt reflection.

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PrepCenter for Educational Psychology is a comprehensive online media library that lets you search for individual media assets the way you want to search—by chapter, concept, or media type. This site features instructor materials, videos, and images to enhance your lectures and ultimately your students’ learning experiences. To access PrepCenter, please go to http://prepcenter.mhhe.com/prepcenter/. Instructor’s Manual by Lisa Bohlin, Cheryl Durwin, and Marla Reese-Weber: Written by the textbook authors themselves, this instructor’s manual makes their collective insight and time-tested classroom activities available to both new and experienced instructors. The manual contains an innovative set of suggestions for classroom interactions and discussion, including synopses of the videos, topic starters, group

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SUPPLEMENTS

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activities, discussions, additional case study questions, and case study next-day analyses for problem solving and critical thinking. Test Bank by Jim Persinger, Emporia State University: This test bank of over 1,000 questions is organized by module and designed to test factual, conceptual, and practice-based understanding. The test bank will be compatible with EZTest, McGrawHill’s Computerized Test Bank program. PowerPoint Presentations by Steven Frye, Tennessee Tech: These slides (approximately 1,000 in all) cover the key points of each module and include charts and graphs from the text. The PowerPoint presentations serve as an organizational and navigational tool integrated with examples and activities from an expert instructor. The slides can be used as is or modified to meet your needs. Classroom Performance System by Rachel Green, Northeastern State University: These questions, prepared specifically for this text, include a mix of factual and opinion items. Factual questions will let you know what concepts your students are mastering and those with which they are having difficulty; opinion questions present possibilities for class participation and discussion. The system can be put into the anonymous mode to poll opinions and experiences around particularly sensitive content.

For Students ■

xx

Student Online Learning Center by Bob Hoffman, University of Central Florida: This set of student assessment and enrichment activities includes module-by-module Multiple Choice, True/False, and Practice-for-Praxis quizzes, in which students gain practice on applied knowledge assessment like those on the Praxis II exam.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The quality of this book is a testament to the skills and abilities of so many people. We are tremendously grateful to the following individuals whose insightful comments and contributions during the book’s development and production have improved it immeasurably.

Manuscript Reviewers Frank Adams, Wayne State College J’Anne Affeld, Northern Arizona University Kathryn Aldrich, University of North Carolina, Wilmington James Allen, The College of Saint Rose Steven R. Banks, Marshall University Amy Bender, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Carime Bersh, Keene State College Lyanne Black, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Timothy Borick, Keystone College Nina Buchanan, University of Hawaii–Hilo DeAnna M. Burney, Florida A&M University Renee Cambiano, Northeastern State University Li Cao, University of West Georgia Jerrell C. Cassady, Ball State University Tracy Thorndike Christ, Western Washington University Allen Colebank, Fairmont State University John V. Connor, Daytona Beach Community College Sharon Cordell, Roane State Community College Katherine S. Cushing, California State University, Chico Gregory Cutler, Bay de Noc Community College Carol Davis, Spoon River College Prem S. Dean, National University Tracy DeMars, Western Michigan University Gypsy Denzine, Northern Arizona University Carol Ditkoff, California University of Pennsylvania Jayne Downey, Montana State University–Bozeman Shelley Dubkin-Lee, Oregon State University Ronald F. Dugan, The College of Saint Rose Jane Dwyer, Rivier College Kellah M. Edens, University of South Carolina Terri Edwards, Northeastern State University Karen E. Eifler, University of Portland Kenneth R. Emo, South Dakota State University Neil Faulk, McNeese State University Dan Fasko, Bowling Green State University Jaclyn Finkel, Anne Arundel Community College Jim Flaitz, University of Louisiana at Lafayette Terri Flowerday, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque William Geary, Community College of Rhode Island–Knight Campus (Warwick) Tammy Gebara, Capital University Susan Gilmartin Foltz, Shippensburg University xxi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Steven Frye, Tennessee Tech University Richard A. Giaquinto, St. Francis College Karen Giorgetti, Youngstown State University Mark Grabe, University of North Dakota Donna Graham, Grand Canyon University Rachel Green, Northeastern State University Cheryl Greenberg, University of North Carolina–Greensboro Carol Greene, East Carolina University Connie Greiner, Walden University Marlynn M. Griffen, Georgia Southern University John Gutowski, Middlesex County College Michelle Hanson, University of Sioux Falls Stephanie Lewis Hinson, West Chester University Emily Hixon, Purdue University–Calumet Bob Hoffman, University of Central Florida Steven M. Hoover, St. Cloud State University Sachi Horback, Bucks County Community College Christy A. Horn, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Peggy Hsieh, University of Texas at San Antonio Judy Hughey, Kansas State University Richard E. Hult, University of South Carolina John H. Hummel, Valdosta State University Mona Ibrahim, Concordia College Miranda E. Jennings, University of Massachusetts, Amherst Emilie Johnson, Lindenwood University Nancy Johnson, Geneva College Martin H. Jones, University of Memphis Pamela Kidder-Ashley, Appalachian State University David A. Kilpatrick, SUNY Cortland Kristopher J. Kimbler, Troy University Kimberly Kinsler, Hunter College Kathleen Kleissler, Kutztown University Catharine C. Knight, University of Akron Elaine C. Koffman, Northeastern Illinois University Tina Kruse, Macalester College William Lan, Texas Tech University Jennifer Lara, Anne Arundel Community College Susan Leckart, Middlesex County College Mary Beth Leibham, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire Judith R. Levine, Farmingdale State University of New York Dennis A. Lichty, Wayne State College Jeffrey Liew, Texas A&M University Frank R. Lilly, California State University, Sacramento Reinhard W. Lindner, Western Illinois University Kimberly S. Loomis, Kennesaw State University Alfred P. Longo, Ocean County College Edward Lonky, SUNY Oswego Cheryl Lovett, University of Central Oklahoma

case studies and attention to “ The developmental progression are

xxii

fabulous. The content is ordered well and the inclusion of a section on today’s ‘diverse’ classrooms is particularly appealing. This opens the door to a continued discussion of diversity issues.

”

[ Sarah Anne Polasky, Arizona State University ]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada, Reno Pamela Manners, Troy University Smita Mathur, University of South Florida, Lakeland James Mbuva, National University Catherine McCartney, Bemidji State University Michael Meloth, East Carolina University Lakeisha D. Meyer, Western Kentucky University Elisa Michals, Sacramento State University Ted Miller, University of Tennessee–Chattanooga Michelle Montgomery, Central Washington University Renee Mudrey-Camino, University of Akron Ron Mulson, Hudson Valley Community College Bob Nelson, University of Texas at Dallas Sharon L. Nichols, University of Texas at San Antonio Nicole Nickens, University of Central Missouri Roseann O’Connor, Luzerne County Community College Sansanee Ohlson, Bowling Green State University Comfort O. Okpala, Fayetteville State University Scott Paris, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Leonard W. Parker, Liberty University Kathryn Penrod, South Dakota State University Jim Persinger, Emporia State University Sarah Anne Polasky, Arizona State University Carrie Pritchard, Western Kentucky University Steven Pulos, University of Northern Colorado Mary Ann Rafoth, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Israel Ramos, The College of Saint Rose The treatment of diversity Shelley C. Randall, Bloomsburg University of PA throughout as opposed to Guynel Reid, Minnesota State University–Mankato Peter Rich, Brigham Young University its inclusion in one chapter Aaron S. Richmond, Metropolitan State College of Denver mirrors the educational Anne N. Rinn, University of Houston, Downtown practice of including students Kelly A. Rodgers, University of Texas at San Antonio of diverse backgrounds in the Susan Rogers, Columbus State Community College mainstream. Lawrence Rogien, Boise State University [ Al Longo, Ocean County College ] Paul Rooney, University of California–Davis Cary Roseth, Michigan State University Terri Rothman, Monmouth University Darrell Rudmann, Shawnee State University Ruth Sandlin, California State University–San Bernardino Jeff Sandoz, University of Louisiana of Lafayette Tom Scheft, North Carolina Central University Thomas R. Scheira, Buffalo State College Roberta Scholes, University of Missouri Dorothy Scotten, Lesley University Donna Seagle, Chattanooga State Technical Community College Thomas D. Sepe, Community College of Rhode Island–Knight Campus (Warwick) Linda Sidoti, The College of Saint Rose

“

”

xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Joy Springer, Pepperdine University Penee Stewart, Weber State University Jeremy Sullivan, University of Texas at San Antonio Sapna V. Taggar, University of Michigan, Flint Carol Thompson, Rowan University Jennifer Titus, Tarleton State University Patti Tolar, University of Houston Ellen Usher, University of Kentucky, Lexington Rick Van Sant, Ferris State University Manuel Vargas, Winston-Salem State University Craig Vivian, Monmouth College Paul Wagner, University of Houston–Clear Lake Rhea Walker, Winona State University Faith Wallace, Kennesaw State University Christopher Was, Kent State University Deborah L. Watkins, York College of Pennsylvania Carol L. Webb, Bridgewater College Nicole Webb, Grand Canyon University Marie C. White, Nyack College–Manhattan Campus Keith Williams, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey Barbara Wilson, Towson University Steven Wininger, Western Kentucky University Barbara N. Young, Middle Tennessee State University

Supplements Reviewers Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College Shane Cavanaugh, Central Michigan University C. Allen Colebank, Fairmont State University John V. Connor, Daytona Beach Community College Jaclyn Finkel, Anne Arundel Community College Richard A. Giaquinto, St. Francis College Judith R. Levine, Farmingdale State College Alfred P. Longo, Ocean County College Renee Mudrey-Camino, University of Akron Comfort O. Okpala, Fayetteville State University Thomas R. Scheira, Buffalo State College

Teleconference Focus Group Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College Jerrell C. Cassady, Ball State University Gregory Cutler, Bay de Noc Community College Shelley Dubkin-Lee, Oregon State University Richard A. Giaquinto, St. Francis College Michelle Hanson, University of Sioux Falls Karen Huxtable-Jester, University of Texas at Dallas Nancy Knapp, University of Georgia Catharine C. Knight, University of Akron xxiv

am very impressed with the “ Iapproach described by the author team. I have to say that this is something I have been waiting years for.

”

[ Renee Mudrey-Camino, University of Akron ]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tina Kruse, Macalester College Renee Mudrey-Camino, University of Akron Jim Persinger, Emporia State University Jeff Sandoz, University of Louisiana at Lafayette Dorothy Scotten, Lesley University Craig Vivian, Monmouth College Sapna Vyas, University of Michigan, Flint

Supplements Teleconference Focus Groups Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College C. Allen Colebank, Fairmont State University John V. Connor, Daytona Beach Community College Shane Cavanaugh, Central Michigan University Jaclyn Finkel, Anne Arundel Community College Richard A. Giaquinto, St. Francis College Kimberly Kinsler, Hunter College Judith R. Levine, Farmingdale State University of New York Alfred P. Longo, Ocean County College Smita Mathur, University of South Florida, Lakeland Renee Mudrey-Camino, University of Akron Comfort O. Okpala, Fayetteville State University Thomas R. Scheira, Buffalo State College Rayne A. Sperling, The Pennsylvania State University Jason Stephens, University of Connecticut

material: This is a real “ Case strength. These make sense, they are well written, and they address crucial questions of pedagogy that are happening in schools consistently. They are compelling and ethically charged situations.

”

[ J’Anne Affeld, Northern Arizona University ]

Case Studies Workshop Participants Li Cao, University of West Georgia Gypsy Denzine, Northern Arizona University Kellah M. Edens, University of South Carolina Bernie Frank, Suffolk County Community College Marina Gair, Pace University Richard E. Hult, University of South Carolina Ruth Sandlin, California State University, San Bernardino Marie White, Nyack College, Manhattan Campus

Design Reviewers Kathleen Beauvais, Eastern Michigan University Dorothy Espelage, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Alfred P. Longo, Ocean County College Sarah Anne Polasky, Arizona State University Dorothy Scotten, Lesley University Jay Thomas, Aurora University

Educational Psychology Symposium Participants Every year McGraw-Hill conducts symposia, which are attended by instructors from across the country. These events are an opportunity for editors from McGraw-Hill to gather information about xxv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS the needs and challenges of instructors teaching the educational psychology course. They also offer a forum for the attendees to exchange ideas and experiences with colleagues they might not have other wise met. The feedback we received at our educational psychology symposium has been invaluable and has contributed to the development of EdPsych Modules. Lisa Bohlin, Purdue University Carol Crumbaugh, Western Michigan University Cheryl Cisero Durwin, Southern Connecticut State University Fernando A. Hernandez, California State University at Los Angeles Brent Igo, Clemson University Jack Judkin, Bemidji State University This is the best writing of an ed Nancy Knapp, University of Georgia psych text that I’ve seen in years. In Patricia Lanzon, Henry Ford Community College Bryan Moseley, Florida International University addition to the writing style, I like the Marla Reese-Weber, Illinois State University philosophy that aims at promoting James L. Rodriguez, California State Universityknowledge and skills for professional Fullerton development of the prospective Jill Stamm, Arizona State University teachers. The closing statement strikes Jason M. Stephens, University of Connecticut a major point by emphasizing learning David J. Tarver, Angelo State University

“

Class Test Participants John V. Connor, Daytona Beach Community College Carol Davis, Spoon River College Kellah M. Edens, University of South Carolina Lynne Ekdale, Illinois State University Emilie Johnson, Lindenwood University Nancy Johnson, Geneva College Tina Kruse, Macalester College Jennifer Lara, Anne Arundel Community College Sansanee Ohlson, Bowling Green State University David Sears, Purdue University Rhea R. Walker, Winona State University Deborah L. Watkins, York College of Pennsylvania Marie White, Nyack College–Manhattan Campus Corinne Zimmerman, Illinois State University

Video Participants Boswell Elementary School Pam Brooks Angie Harmon Burnett Creek Elementary School Rebecca Combs Jeanne Dano Karen Miller Mark Pearl Michelle Webb xxvi

and application of the knowledge and skills in the process of becoming a teacher. This is very important to me. The purpose of an ed psych class should not only cover theory and research, but also and more importantly, develop students’ competency to apply them in practice.

”

[ Li Cao, University of West Georgia ]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Cumberland Elementary School Kim Bowers Emily Pool

studies were realistic, “ Case especially the So Yoon. This

Harrison High School Tanya Van Hyfte Hershey Elementary School/East Tipp Middle School Dr. Melanie Davis, school psychologist

is a good example to discuss diversity and the implications, if any, to students’ success and challenges.

”

[ DeAnna M. Burney, Florida A&M University ]

Key Learning Community (K–12) Beverly Hoeltke Dr. Christine Kunkle Renee Motz Klondike Elementary School Rich Brown Elizabeth Dunlap Carol Goodrich Jessica Harris April Lyons Scott Peters Mary Raub Mary Ruley Joyce Sheets Angie Shondell Kim Steiner Marie Wellman Tammy Younts Klondike Middle School Shelly Buck Beth Buss Christine Cannon Amy Craig Karen Hail Sue Nail Neil Radtke

especially appreciate the authors for putting all these “ Iterms and theories into practice. Textbooks often neglect to help students make the connection between what they read/learn and how they should perform in classrooms. I must commend the authors’ efforts in preparing the highlevel thinking questions at the end of each case study. Most case studies I have seen ask low-level thinking questions where answers are most obvious, which makes the activity somewhat futile. These questions that the authors prepared are very meaningful and appropriate.

”

[ Peggy Hsieh, University of Texas at San Antonio ]

West Lafayette Junior/Senior High School Larry Allen Dave Collins Steve Florence John Levy Joel Munoz Jane Schott Gracie Shukle

1

introduction

Case Study

Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms Teaching and Educational Psychology 7

“Achievement Gap”

Educational Psychology: The Science 10 Educational Psychology: The Application 15 Summary 19 Key Concepts 19

EARLY CHILDHOOD

today’s diverse classrooms

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

MIDDLE SCHOOL

HIGH SCHOOL

4

Prepare: As you read the case, make notes: 1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

J

1

arrod and Tamara Patterson met during college and are both teachers in the Chicago area. They live in the suburbs, where Jarrod teaches third grade. Tamara completed her student teaching at an inner-city school. She wanted to continue in a similar school district, so she takes the train into the city each day to teach history in a public middle school. Over the years, Jarrod and Tamara have had a number of arguments about education. Some of their disagreements stem from the developmental differences in their students—as Jarrod works with younger students—but their liveliest disagreements involve

Today’s Diverse Classrooms

Achievement Gap

2

the differences between suburban and urban classrooms. Ninety percent of Tamara’s students are African American and live in households where the median annual income is around $33,000. In contrast, 79% of Jarrod’s students are White, 9% are Latino, 8% are Hispanic, and only 3% are African American. The median annual income for households in Jarrod’s school district is $83,000. As they begin their drive into the city to run errands on Saturday morning, Tamara reminds Jarrod that she needs to stop by her classroom to pick up some papers. She forgot them yesterday and needs to finish grading them before Monday morning. Jarrod doesn’t respond—he has taken the opportunity on the drive to read the newspaper. “Listen to this,” he begins. “A new study examined the ‘achievement gap’—you know, the idea that African Americans perform more poorly compared to Whites. Says here that some researchers found that the differences in achievement levels between African Americans and Caucasians no longer exist.” Tamara responds skeptically, “How did they determine that?” “Well, it says that the researchers found no differences in the GPAs of students from several ethnic backgrounds, including African-American and Caucasian students,” replies Jarrod. Tamara pushes the issue. “Who were January 2009 the students? How did they get informaAchievement Gap Vanishes tion about GPA? Did they use the official records?” Jarrod replies, “It doesn’t give that many details.” As they pull into the school parking lot, Tamara announces, “The newspaper shouldn’t print those statements without supplying more details.” She grabs the newspaper out of Jarrod’s hands and says, “Come on, while we are inside getting my papers, we can probably find more information about the study on the Web.” “Do we have to do this today?” moans Jarrod, wishing he had kept his mouth shut. “Yes,” replies Tamara.

Daily News

places on understanding achievement differences?

2. Should teachers be concerned with what type of students participate in research studies like the one 3. How would you respond to a parent whose child is not achieving as well as others but who believes that all students should perform equally well?

HIGH SCHOOL

3

reported in the newspaper article? Why or why not?

MIDDLE SCHOOL

1. How might the different schools in which Tamara and Jarrod work influence the importance each

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

EARLY CHILDHOOD

2

As they enter Tamara’s classroom, Jarrod says, “I still can’t get over how old everything seems in the building. When are they going to update the decor, not to mention your textbooks?” Tamara ignores his comment. She turns on the only computer in the room and retrieves her papers while she waits for the computer to get up and running. Then she launches her Internet browser and begins to alphabetize her papers, because she knows it will take several minutes before the computer is ready. Jarrod waits impatiently. “How long is this going to take?” “Well, if we had new computers with wireless Internet connections like at your school, we’d be out of here by now. But I don’t have those perks, so just give me a couple of minutes.” Tamara uses the researchers’ names from the newspaper article to find the original study online. “Good, it was published early this year,” she says, and sends the print job to the printer in the main offi ce. “Come on. I’ll grab the printout. I can read while you drive us.” As they walk to the office, Tamara can’t help herself. “I suppose you have your own printer in your classroom and don’t have to walk to the main office all the time.” “As a matter of fact, I do,” replies Jarrod. “You know you could get a job in my school district anytime. Remember, you chose to work here. Don’t give me a hard time because I chose not to.” As they drive to their next stop, Tamara begins to read and launches into a tirade, “Well, they used college students, not K–12 students. Oh, can you believe this? They didn’t even use official records to find GPA. They simply asked students to provide their GPA on a survey.” “Why do you care so much? It’s just one newspaper article in the back of the paper,” replies Jarrod. Tamara continues her tirade. “Because parents and most other teachers won’t take the time to read the actual study and see that the newspaper article is misleading. People won’t realize that the achievement gap is still present in K–12 classrooms and will expect all teachers to have students with similar achievement levels. That’s unrealistic. If journalists were actually trying to inform the public—instead of spewing out stories on movie stars in rehab—they would explain why the achievement gap exists. It’s not even about ethnicity, it’s about socioeconomic status.” “Maybe you should write a letter to the editor,” suggests Jarrod. “Maybe I will,” Tamara says.

MODULE

1

Today’s Diverse Classrooms Outline

Learning Goals

Teaching and Educational Psychology ■

Opportunities and Challenges of Teaching

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Addressing Assumptions About Diversity

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Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers

1. Describe four diversity characteristics that can define an individual’s group membership, and explain why teachers need to understand differences between groups. 2. Explain how educational psychology is an important resource for teachers.

Educational Psychology: The Science ■

Samples

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Measures

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Designs

3. Describe three elements of research studies that help determine which studies are worthy of consideration.

Educational Psychology: The Application ■

Developing Your Philosophy of Teaching

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A Case Study Approach

Summary Key Concepts Revisiting the Case Study (Annotated)

4. Define philosophy of teaching and explain why it is important for teachers to base their philosophy on scientific evidence.

module one

today’s diverse classrooms

7

TEACHING AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Opportunities and Challenges of Teaching As a teacher, you have an opportunity to make a positive difference in the lives of your students because you have them as a captive audience day in and day out. The typical elementary teacher receives a new group of students each fall and spends an average of seven hours per day with them—over 1,400 hours over the course of the school year. At the secondary level, teachers have less time with individual students, yet they may touch the lives of as many as 150 students each day. These students will come to your class with diverse life experiences and a range of ethnic, socioeconomic, and language backgrounds. Your students will have differing levels of ability, prior achievement, and motivation. Some also may have physical disabilities that may or may not affect learning, and others may have intellectual, learning, emotional, social or behavioral disabilities that affect their achievement. Students who are intellectually gifted or have creative talents also may need special consideration. Today’s diverse classroom presents many unique opportunities for learning and personal growth. You will have the opportunity to help students negotiate the challenges they face as they experience physical, social, emotional and cognitive changes. You can help them learn a tremendous amount about themselves by teaching them to evaluate their own thinking processes, identify their strengths and weaknesses, and pay attention to the way they interact and collaborate with peers. You will help students discover new interests, build on their prior knowledge, and even challenge their preconceptions by exposing them to different ideas and perspectives—those in the curriculum as well as those of their peers. You can help students learn to be sensitive to the perspectives of peers with disabilities as well as those with academic and cultural backgrounds different from their own. Teaching can be a very rewarding profession, but it requires a high degree of commitment. In today’s educational climate, teachers are held accountable for the academic success of each student. That can create a lot of pressure. Making wise choices about how to teach effectively is made more complex by the diverse nature of today’s classrooms. What types of instructional approaches will you use to meet the individual needs of your students? How will you deal with differing levels of ability and achievement? How will you adapt your teaching for students from different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds? Moreover, how will you confront your own preconceptions and identify biases you might not even be aware of?

Addressing Assumptions About Diversity Effective teachers are aware of the diversity they are likely to encounter in the classroom. Individuals and environments can exhibit a wealth of diverse characteristics. To begin to understand individual and group differences, researchers often ask participants of studies to report their ethnicity or race, sex or gender, socioeconomic status, and disabilities. By grouping people based on these characteristics, researchers can divide any population into subsets for analysis. For example, in the 2000 U.S. Census, respondents were asked to report their race as American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian (including Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent), Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, or White, or a combination of two or more races. Some groups may be considered a minority group, a group that has less power than the majority group but is not necessarily smaller in number. For example, more women than men live in the United States, but women are considered a minority group due to their relative lack of power in business (lower-paying jobs), politics (fewer political positions), and religion (in some religions, women still are not allowed to hold leadership positions). Let’s examine group membership further. ■

The terms ethnicity and race are often used interchangeably to express cultural differences, but they actually have different meanings (Betancourt & López, 1993). Although each term has a complex definition, such that entire courses are taught to differentiate the two, our purpose here is to provide a basic distinction. Ethnic group includes people who share a similar culture—an environment with a unique history, traditions, rules, and attitudes and perhaps a specific language. In contrast, racial group categorizes people who share common biological traits (e.g., hair and skin

Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

Some of you who have opened this book may have known you wanted to teach ever since you can remember. Some of you may not yet be sure that teaching is the profession for you but are curious and want to find out more about it. Others of you may be drawn to teaching mainly because you see it as a job that requires no evenings and no weekends and has the lure of summers off—think again.

8

introduction

today’s diverse classrooms

color). Most often, a person’s ethnicity and racial group overlap, but because ethnicity is based on environment and race is based on biology, they can be different. For example, an Asian-born child who is adopted and raised by a middle-class, White family living in the rural midwestern United States would be considered Asian in race but Caucasian in ethnicity. ■

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,

Like ethnicity and race, the terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably but technically are different. Sex refers to the biological status of male (penis) or female (vagina), whereas gender is the social definition including behaviors learned in the environment about being either male (masculine) or female (feminine). Sexual orientation is another concept related to sex and gender that has been used to denote diversity. The term sexual orientation denotes homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality. Many people believe that socioeconomic status (SES) is based solely on income, with families with higher incomes considered high SES and families with low income considered low SES. A more accurate definition of socioeconomic status relies on the education level and occupation of family members rather than on their level of income. Although in most circumstances education and occupation are highly related to income (more education and/or more prestigious occupations lead to higher incomes), in many circumstances less-educated individuals have higher incomes than those who are highly educated. The typical example is the college professor who holds a doctoral degree but whose income is modest. Disability refers to being unable to perform some behavior, task, or skill. The term can refer to physical disabilities (hearing impairment, cerebral palsy), cognitive disabilities (intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, language delays), or behavioral or emotional disabilities (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety). We consider disability to be a diversity characteristic because a student’s disability will result in different learning needs and perhaps different levels of achievement than those of students without disabilities.

Effective teachers attempt to understand the possible causes of differences among groups. Teachers who understand why differences exist can learn to be sensitive to the individual needs of students from various backgrounds. Typically, environmental differences, not biological or genetic differences, are the root of group differences. Consider SES as an example. Students from high SES homes tend to score higher on achievement tests, receive higher grades, and stay in school longer compared to students in lower SES homes (Gutman, Sameroff, & Cole, 2003; McLoyd, 1998). This difference is due to several environmental differences (Evans, 2004; National Center for Education Statistics, 2000): Achievement and SES. Achievement differences stemming from socioeconomic status may be due to differences in access to resources such as books and computers.

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poorer nutrition and more exposure to pollution in lower-SES homes;

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less exposure to school readiness materials such as books and computers in lower-SES homes due to lack of fi nancial resources or lack of knowledge about the importance of reading to children at a young age; less parental involvement in lower-SES homes, which may be due to work schedules or to less education; and less well qualified teachers and higher turnover rates among teachers in lower SES schools and preschools.

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9

Knowledge of the research data on SES differences among students can help inform teachers’ practices. For example, teachers may take extra time with students who lack readiness skills, allow students to borrow books from the classroom for use at home, or find creative ways to involve parents in their children’s education. Effective teachers address and embrace diversity. Their teaching is not guided by assumptions about individuals from diverse groups. Prejudice feelings are rigid and irrational generalizations about a group or category of people. Prejudice feelings appear to emerge very early, with over half of sixyear-olds and 85% of five-year-old White children showing signs of pro-White, anti-Black biases (Doyle & Aboud, 1995; Katz, 2003). Almost every individual has some prejudice feelings toward one or more groups but may or may not be aware of those feelings. Teachers themselves may believe that lower-achieving students need to focus on basic skills. They may assume that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are lower achievers, that girls are not as capable in math as boys, that Asian-American students are naturally smarter than other ethnic groups, and that gifted students are socially immature. Prejudice feelings tend to become more intense over time due to confi rmation bias and belief perseverance. Confirmation bias is the tendency for people to seek evidence that confirms what they already believe to be true, rather than searching for facts that might refute their beliefs (Myers, 2005). Belief perseverance is the tendency to hold onto our beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence (Andersen, Klatzky, & Murray, 1990). Prejudice feelings can affect the way a teacher makes decisions about instruction, grouping, motivation, and assessment. Treating students differently based on prejudice feelings or biased beliefs about a particular group is discrimination. Teachers and educators must identify their own feelings of prejudice and educate themselves on the scientific evidence regarding diversity issues. However, even scientific evidence that points to group differences should be interpreted with caution due to individual differences within each group. For example, Figure 1.1 shows that average math scores are higher for boys than girls, but the amount of overlap in scores is great. Consider your own experiences and group membership. Have you ever treated someone differently because of the person’s race, socioeconomic status, gender, or disability? If you have experienced prejudice feelings—or been on the receiving end of prejudice feelings—how and why have those beliefs persevered?

Educational Psychology: A Resource for Teachers When teachers need help dealing with issues of diversity, motivation, achievement differences, behavioral problems, and other concerns, they turn to the field of educational psychology. Educational psychology links the science of psychology to educational practice and provides teachers with evidence-based knowledge to support their day-to-day decision making in the classroom. Teachers who use research and theory to guide their practices are more deliberate and more thoughtful classroom problem solvers (Bigge & Shermis, 1999; Eisner, 1985; Leu & Kinzer, 1995). Educational research and theory can deepen our understanding of many important aspects of teaching and learning. People who work outside educational settings may assume that good teaching practices are simply common sense. Yet commonsense approaches to classroom management and instruction often are

Girls

0

200

Boys

400

600

800

Figure 1.1: Similarities > Differences. Comparing boys’ and girls’ math performance historically has found mean differences, but the overlap of scores between these two groups is great, emphasizing the enormous variability within groups.

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Scientific Approaches vs. Common Sense. Research informs teachers about how best to approach situations in the classroom, such as children playing with one another rather than completing their work, as shown here. The common sense approach does not always lead to best practices.

ineffective, or even counterproductive. Assume, for example, that an elementary student continues to get out of his seat during a lesson. A commonsense approach would be to politely ask the student to sit down. However, in certain situations this approach might encourage the student’s misbehavior as a way to attract attention from the teacher. Research suggests that a more effective approach would be to ignore the unwanted behavior, depending on the individual characteristics of the student. Hence, scientific evidence helps determine the best practices for effective teaching. As a teacher, you will encounter situations that, despite all your training, you are not prepared for. When that happens, research can help you formulate an informed response. Although the field of educational psychology has always relied on science, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 has lifted the importance of science to a new level. NCLB states that schools and educational programs must use “scientifically based research” in order to receive federal funding. For example, the Reading First program makes federal funds available to help certain reading teachers strengthen existing skills and foster new ones, using instructional techniques shown to be effective by scientifically based research. Following the recommendations of NCLB, we are writing this text to provide theories and empirical evidence you can use to develop a repertoire of skills and knowledge on your path to becoming an effective teacher. To get the most out of this text, you first need a basic understanding of scientific principles (the science) and of how we intend to assist you in applying these principles to real classroom situations (the application). In a sense, you will be considering the same major challenges faced by scholars in the field of educational psychology: ■ ■

The science: formulating theories and conducting research studies. The application: developing applications of current theories and research to enhance teaching and learning.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE The science of educational psychology involves formulating theories—sets of ideas used to explain a phenomenon and make predictions about behavior—and then conducting research on those theories. The relationship between theory and research is reciprocal. Research fi ndings may support a theory, but researchers also may alter theories or develop new ones based on accumulated evidence. This process is ongoing—scientists today are building on (or tearing down) the work of twentiethcentury scientists. For today’s teachers, the amount and variety of research material available can be intimidating. The first step in evaluating research is to fi nd appropriate resources. Following are some basic guidelines for obtaining reputable research: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Don’t use newspaper and magazine articles, because they are not research articles. Don’t do Internet searches using search engines, because they may not yield credible sources. Do find peer-reviewed articles in scholarly journals at a local university library. Do find peer-reviewed articles in databases such as ERIC and PSYINFO. Do visit Web sites of professional associations to see if they have links to education research groups such as the American Educational Research Association (AERA) and the American Psychological Association (APA).

After you have found reputable research articles, how can you determine which research studies are applicable to your classroom? Also, how can you evaluate research fi ndings to decide whether they will benefit your teaching? To determine which studies are worthy of consideration, you need to understand three elements of every research study: (1) samples, (2) measures, and (3) designs.

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11

Samples Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

Suppose, for example, that researchers want to study how students of different ages respond to the stress of transferring to a new school. Because the researchers cannot observe or survey all transferring students, they rely on a sample, or a smaller set of individuals from the population of interest. The sample needs to be representative of the population such that the gender, ethnicity, and age characteristics of the sample are similar to the population of interest. The best method for ensuring that the sample is representative of the population is to use a random sample, which means that every person in the population of interest has an equal chance of being included. Many computer programs can take a large list of individuals (e.g., all students registered in a school district) and create a random subset of individuals to be included in a study. Even when a random sample of individuals within the population is selected, not all the people selected will agree to participate in the research study. (How many phone surveys have you declined?) Volunteer bias is the tendency for those who choose to participate in research studies to differ in some way from those who decline the invitation to participate. Typically, individuals who have strong feelings or opinions or who are invested in the outcome of a particular research study are more likely to participate than are those who do not have a vested interest. For example, a college student like yourself might be more willing to participate in surveys and interviews regarding opinions on the effectiveness of the parking services or the financial aid office at your university, and less likely to participate in research on the effectiveness of the university president or provost.

Measures Once researchers have chosen a sample to use, they must decide on a method for taking measurements, a framework for gathering information. If researchers are investigating the amount of time students spend during school hours completing assignments, for example, they must choose a measure suited to the task. Some measures commonly used in educational research are these: ■

Observations, or watching or viewing the behavior of individuals, might be used to examine how many times a teacher calls on a girl versus a boy in relation to the number of students from each gender who raise their hands.

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Interviews, or questions presented to participants, can be highly structured lists of simple questions (How many hours do you spend on homework each night?) or can include open-ended questions (How do you study for a test?). Even though open-ended questions allow more information to be gathered, they often result in less consistency across participants. Participants might talk about the number of hours spent studying, the use of a study guide, or strategies they use for reading, note taking, memorizing, and testing themselves. Tests and surveys typically are paper-and-pencil measures that include a number of questions. Testand-survey research can be done very easily with large groups of individuals in a relatively short amount of time. One requirement for participation in survey research is the ability to read and write. This might exclude younger children and individuals with language barriers.

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Designs Researchers also choose a design for their research studies, that is, a method for carrying out research and investigating hypotheses about variables of interest. Variables can be events, characteristics, or behaviors, such

Research Measures. Observations allow researchers to view the behaviors of teachers and students during instruction, such as whether boys or girls are called on more frequently by teachers.

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TA B L E 1 . 1

Summary of Research Designs

Type

Purpose

Examples

Additional considerations

Descriptive

To systematically explain a situation or area of interest factually and accurately.

What percentage of students passed a state mastery test? Does the percentage differ by grade level or socioeconomic status?

This kind of research has limited generalizability, meaning you can’t apply it to all situations.

To what extent:

Correlation does not imply causation. Just because one variable is associated with another, it does not mean one caused the other.

Correlational

To describe the extent to which changes in one variable correspond with changes in another variable (or other variables). Allows researcher to make predictions.

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are reading achievement scores correlated with socioeconomic status?

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are science project scores correlated with parents’ level of interest in science?

Teachers often do this type of “research” in school (e.g., tracking homework patterns or the behavior of children after lunch).

This type of research is limited in generalizability.

Experimental

To investigate a causeeffect relationship between variables.

Students are randomly assigned to either intensive reading training or no additional reading training. Scores on reading achievement tests are compared.

Many research studies cannot use experimental designs due to the impossibility of random assignment.

Quasi-experimental

To show a cause-effect relationship between variables where the independent variable is not manipulated but is preexisting.

Researchers can use two third-grade classrooms in the same school for the reading-training and notraining groups.

Researchers cannot be certain that the results were due solely to the independent variable.

as age, family divorce, medication, diagnosis of Attention–Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), math scores, or aggression. Let’s examine the four designs commonly used in educational research and summarized in Table 1.1. Descriptive designs provide basic information about variables in a population without making connections between behaviors, events, or conditions. For example, a descriptive research study might determine what percentage of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD. Two particular descriptive research designs can provide in-depth perspectives: case study and ethnographic study. Case study research involves an in-depth description of one individual in order to provide a rich picture of the individual’s psychological functioning. For example, researchers might observe a child diagnosed with autism both at home and at school, interview teachers and parents, and examine test scores, school records, and other sources of information. Ethnographic study research includes an indepth description of a particular group based on direct participation within the group. For example, a researcher might become a participant within a school of Latino students taking extensive field notes of observations, in order to capture the unique educational values and social challenges of this ethnic group.

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13

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The sign (positive or negative) indicates the type of relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation (+) between study time and grades means that as study time increases, grades also increase. A negative correlation (–) between school absences and grades means that as absences increase, grades decrease.

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The closer a correlation coefficient is to +1 or –1, the stronger the relationship between the two variables. For example, a correlation coefficient of –.56 indicates a stronger connection than a correlation coefficient of +.43 because the absolute number is larger.

Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

Correlational designs attempt to move beyond describing behaviors by making connections between variables with a statistical computation called a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number between –1.0 and +1.0 that indicates the type and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Although correlation studies measure the relationships between different variables, they cannot determine cause and effect. Although we may find that study time and grades are positively correlated, increased study time does not cause better grades. Instead, this positive correlation may imply several possibilities: (1) More study time causes better grades, (2) better grades cause a person to enjoy academics and therefore to study more, or (3) some other variable, such as parental involvement, accounts for the high levels of study time and grades. Perhaps children whose parents are highly involved in their education are more likely to study and also more likely to receive higher grades. When researchers want to understand the cause of a relationship, they turn to experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Researchers use experimental designs to establish a cause-effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. An independent variable (IV) is the variable of interest that is presumed to have an effect on the dependent variable (DV), the outcome of the study. Researchers conduct experimental studies in two steps: 1. Randomly assign participants to one of two groups, an experimental group and a control group. 2. Manipulate the independent variable (a treatment or intervention), with the experimental group receiving the IV but not the control group. Suppose researchers want to determine whether using computers in elementary classrooms (independent variable) affects the academic achievement of students (dependent variable). They might administer an academic achievement test to each student chosen for the sample and then randomly

Experimental Designs. Computer use can be treated as an independent variable in an experimental study examining academic achievement, the dependent variable.

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Figure 1.2. A Continuum of Research Designs. Design dictates what inferences we can make from educational research studies.

No inferences about cause and effect

Inferences about cause and effect

Descriptive

Correlational

Quasiexperimental

Experimental

Describes

Describes a relationship

Infers cause-effect relationship

Establishes cause-effect relationship

assign students to either a computer classroom (experimental group) or a no-computer classroom (control group). The experimental group would use computers in the classroom over a specified period of time, while the control group would not. At the end of the study, researchers would give the same academic achievement test to each student. If the experimental group showed greater improvement over time than the control group, this would show that the independent variable (the use of computers in the classroom) affected the dependent variable (academic achievement). In instances in which researchers cannot randomly assign individuals to groups or manipulate an independent variable, they use quasi-experimental designs to infer a cause-effect relationship. Obviously, researchers cannot randomly assign children to divorced and nondivorced families, abusive and nonabusive homes, male and female genders, or high and low socioeconomic groups. In other cases, researchers’ actions may be limited by school district rules or by time or expense, making the manipulation of experimental and control groups impossible. As a result, quasi-experimental designs cannot establish that an independent variable directly affects a dependent variable, and therefore they leave open the possibility that the outcome of the study may be due to other variables the researcher could not control. Say, for example, that researchers study an existing group of students in a computer classroom and compare their achievement to that of students enrolled in a no-computer classroom. A rise or decline in the academic achievement of students in the computer classroom may not be due solely to the presence of computers but may also be the result of the computer classroom having more high-level readers, fewer behaviorally challenging children, or a teacher with more teaching experience than the other. When random assignment cannot be used, researchers must employ safeguards to control all other possible variables that might affect the experimental and control groups. Despite certain shortcomings, quasi-experimental research does allow researchers to examine questions that involve differences between groups or differences over time. Cross-sectional studies examine samples from various groups in order to compare behaviors. For example, researchers might examine whether middle school students have more or fewer hours of homework compared to high school students. Longitudinal designs examine the same sample, or group of people, repeatedly over time in order to provide information about how behaviors change over time and/or how earlier events can be connected to later events. For instance, a study might follow children over time to determine whether family divorce in elementary school correlates to academic difficulties in adolescence. To use science effectively in decision making, teachers need to be informed consumers of research. When you encounter scientific evidence presented in the media, in journals, or at workshops, you should be aware of the various inferences that can be made with each research design, as shown in Figure 1.2. Experimental studies are the only type that can answer questions about cause-effect relationships. However, correlational and quasi-experimental designs are more common in educational research because they are more practical than experimental designs for investigating many hypotheses regarding teaching and learning. They also provide more information than descriptive designs. Nevertheless, you must be cautious when interpreting correlational and quasi-experimental designs. You cannot make cause-effect inferences in these cases, and you should always question whether other variables not identified in the studies might account for the fi ndings. Consider the research scenarios presented in Table 1.2 and see if you can classify them according to research design.

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Applications of Research to Educational Settings Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

How would you classify each of the following research designs? 1. There are two sections of a class. Both sections are taught by the same instructor, cover the same content, and have the same number of students. In one class the teacher uses a $150 textbook, and in the other class the teacher uses no textbook. The final exam scores are compared to determine which practice is a better option. 2. An educational psychologist examines how students’ levels of motivation toward studying compare to students’ IQ scores. 3. In an effort to decrease obesity and increase movement among students, a superintendent has all the gym teachers in a district record the average number of hours in a week spent doing cardio work in gym class. 4. A researcher goes to an urban school and a rural school to observe differences. After much study, the researcher writes a report comparing and contrasting the different schools.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: THE APPLICATION Effective teachers are confident in their problem-solving abilities and skilled in meeting the instructional needs of a diverse group of students (Steffy, Wolfe, Pasch, & Enz, 2000). In order to build confidence and skill, teachers need the opportunity to develop and refi ne their personal educational philosophies and need experience in problem solving when faced with complex classroom situations.

Developing Your Philosophy of Teaching Effective teachers develop philosophies of teaching—their views about how they will structure their classrooms, teach their students, and respond to problems. A philosophy of teaching provides a lens or filter through which teachers consider the merits of various teaching strategies before they select or reject them for use in the classroom (Campoy, 2005). Philosophies of teaching should be based on sound scientific evidence and be continually reevaluated as new information becomes available. Essentially, teachers are lifelong learners. Table 1.3 shows the standards set forth by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC), used by many education programs at colleges and universities across the country to evaluate competencies of graduates of teaching programs. Notice that the criteria for effective teaching do not state what subject matter to teach or what instructional methods or motivational and management strategies to use. Rather, the criteria address whether the teacher possesses the skills necessary to make informed decisions in these areas. The skills necessary for informed decision making are just as important as the content and methods that teacher-preparation students learn in their education programs—perhaps even more so. Teachers must make decisions for themselves rather than merely adopting methods, strategies, and techniques because they fit their personal beliefs or may be in vogue at the time. They need to be knowledgeable consumers of scientific information, always ready to evaluate empirical fi ndings and to decide how they can use those fi ndings in the classroom to enhance students’ learning. If you were a physician, would you consider using the best medical practices and equipment of 50 years ago? Of course not. Teachers today cannot assume that the approaches that may have worked well many years ago are equally effective today. Our goal in this text is to provide you with the most up-to-date scientific knowledge on topics important to teachers and the opportunity to practice evaluating and applying what you learn.

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In each module, you will encounter a balanced presentation of the research literature. Often you may notice that there is no definitive answer for a particular issue. That’s okay. This ambiguity allows you to develop your own philosophy of teaching with regard to certain issues after you have considered the available evidence. As you read the modules, you will notice that issues pertaining to diversity among students are integrated into the content and highlighted by icons in the margins as indicated here. This allows you to evaluate how diversity will impact your teaching and the choices you make about teaching methods, techniques, and strategies.

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Best Practices. Teachers need to rely on current resources and up-to-date scientific evidence in making decisions about instructional methods and techniques, rather than techniques used decades ago.

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Every module also contains applications that reflect evidence-based practices. While these applications are based on research findings, they are not to be taken as the last word on a topic. The applications suggest the “what” (what methods or techniques are effective based on the most recent research available), but the theory and research evidence tell you the “why” (why they are effective). Teachers need both for informed decision making. As a teaching professional, you should be able to support the instructional and interpersonal decisions you make in the classroom with sound reasoning. Because pre-service teachers also need practice in decision making in order to develop skill, we provide four case studies at the beginning of each cluster: (1) early childhood, (2) elementary school, (3) middle school, and (4) high school. Let’s take a closer look at how you can use the case study approach to practice decision-making skills.

A Case Study Approach When you encountered the opening case study at the beginning of this module, you might have been wondering, Why do I need to read this? How does reading this before I read the content help me? How does this case apply to the students and situations I will encounter in my career? Case studies allow us to apply research and theory to specific classroom situations, giving pre-service teachers a chance to solve problems and reflect on best practices. The opening case study provides an example of how the cases will be used throughout this text. Your instructor may ask you to read one or more of the case studies in each cluster, depending on which cases are most relevant to the certification level you are pursuing. Regardless of how many or which case studies you read, we believe that reading a case study prior to reading a module will provide you with a realistic situation to consider as you learn about the theories, research, and application of topics in the module. In order to assist you in the case study approach, we have provided questions in several places to help you become active readers and begin to apply what you have learned in a realistic context. PREPARE Prior to reading any case study, you should prepare yourself to identify the relevant pieces of information within the case study. Here you will be looking for the who, what, where, and when described in each case. ■

Who? Pay attention and look for relevant characteristics of teachers, students, and parents and the relationships among them. Some relevant characteristics may be the experience level of teachers or diversity characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, disabilities, or the SES of the school district or parents.

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INTASC Standards Description

1. Knowledge of subject matter

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structure of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.

2. Knowledge of human development and learning

The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development.

3. Adapting instruction for individual needs

The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.

4. Multiple instructional strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.

5. Classroom motivation and management skills

The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

6. Communication skills

The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.

7. Instructional planning skills

The teacher plans instruction based on knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.

8. Assessment of student learning

The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the learner.

9. Professional commitment and responsibility

The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his or her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally. The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being.

Source: http://www.ccsso.org/projects/Interstate_New_Teacher_Assessment_and_Support_Consortium/#resource.

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What? Attempt to identify the main problem being described in the case study, such as a behavioral problem, a learning problem, an instructional problem, or a classroom management problem. Be aware that more than one problem may be addressed. Where? Consider the context of where the events described in the case study take place, such as a traditional classroom, a chemistry lab, an art room, the gym, the hallway, or the principal’s offi ce. Begin to envision the context and identify any characteristics that might contribute to the problem or to the solution. When? Identify time-relevant information in the case study, such as whether the story unfolds in the morning or the late afternoon; at the beginning, middle, or end of the school year, or before or after a holiday. Begin to consider how these time issues might be related to the main problem.

ASSESS When you have fi nished reading each case study, you will fi nd three or four questions to assess your initial understanding and interpretation of the case. Because you will not yet have read the modules in the cluster and hence will not have the science and application to aid your thinking, we will be

Module 1: Today’s Diverse Classrooms

Standard

10. Partnerships

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asking you to use prior knowledge to make predictions or draw preliminary conclusions. Here the questions focus on the how and what presented in the case study. ■

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How? Attempt to use your prior knowledge to determine how likely the behaviors described in the case study are to occur in a classroom or school setting or how you might respond to the situation. What? Begin to think about what might be important characteristics in the case study, such as what characteristics of the individuals involved contributed to the situation or what behaviors or solutions were described.

After you have considered the how and what of each case study, you will read the modules within the cluster and gain new insights into the case study situation based on theory, research, and suggestions for best practices. REFLECT AND EVALUATE At the end of each module, you will find four to seven questions that ask you to use the information presented in the module to formulate a more educated, scientific-based response to each case study. Here we again ask about the how and the what, but we also include why and what if questions. ■

How? Use the science and application discussed in the module, rather than your personal opinions and experiences, to determine how likely the behaviors described in the case study are to occur in a classroom or school setting or how you might respond to the situation.

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What? Identify examples of key concepts in the modules. Why? Move beyond thinking about the what and focus on the why, such as why certain characteristics of individuals or aspects of the case study were important or why an approach to the problem did or did not work well. What if . . . ? Consider new aspects of the case study not initially presented. The question may suggest a change in some aspect of the case and ask how that change would result in different problems or solutions.

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The questions at the end of each module will help you gauge your level of comprehension of important concepts within that module. In addition, they will encourage you to apply what you have learned to a realistic context and provide you with practice in evaluating how you could effectively apply the concepts, theories, and principles learned in the module to your teaching. The enclosed foldout shows the case study from the beginning of the module, annotated with explanations about the case study approach.

Case Study Approach. Visualizing the context, such as this chemistry lab, while reading the case studies will provide essential information for understanding the problem and the solution.

summary 19

Summary Describe four diversity characteristics that can define an individual’s group membership, and explain why teachers need to understand differences between groups. (1) Ethnic groups share a common culture or environment, while race denotes a group of people who share common biological traits. (2) An individual’s sex refers to his or her biology, whereas gender refers to the social definitions of masculine and feminine. (3) Socioeconomic status (SES) is defined by the educational level and occupational status of family members. (4) Disabilities also can be used as a characteristic of diversity, because individuals differ in physical, cognitive, and emotional capabilities. Teachers need to understand that group differences typically result from environmental differences and to be aware of their own prejudice feelings, which may easily be validated by attending to information that confirms their beliefs and by ignoring information that contradicts their beliefs or prejudice feelings. Explain how educational psychology is an important resource for teachers. Educational psychology links the science of psychology to educational practice and provides teachers with evidence-based knowledge to support their day-to-day decision making in the classroom. Teachers’ choices of techniques and strategies should rely not on common sense approaches but on

scientific research. The importance of using evidencebased knowledge is apparent in the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, which mandates that school systems use scientific-based practices in order to receive federal funding. Describe three elements of research studies that help determine which studies are worthy of consideration. First, the sample selection process for conducting research studies should attempt to use randomized samples and minimize volunteer bias. Second, measures should be selected based on how well the measure answers the research question. Third, the findings of research studies should be interpreted accurately given the research design used, such as whether cause and effect can be established. Define philosophy of teaching and explain why it is important for teachers to base their philosophy on scientific evidence. Philosophy of teaching is a broad view about how to structure a classroom, teach students, and respond to problems. Because popular views of appropriate teaching methods have changed throughout history and will continue to change in the future, teachers should base their philosophy on current scientific information by acquiring the skills needed to evaluate research and become lifelong learners.

Key Concepts belief perseverance

gender

sample

confirmation bias

interviews

sex

correlational designs

minority group

sexual orientation

descriptive designs

observations

socioeconomic status (SES)

disability

philosophies of teaching

tests and surveys

discrimination

prejudice feelings

theories

educational psychology

quasi-experimental designs

variables

ethnic group

racial group

volunteer bias

experimental designs

random sample

cluster one

Case Studies Early Childhood: “Cry Baby” Elementary School: “Team”

Summary

43

Key Concepts

43

Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

Middle School: “Basketball Star”

Module 3: Social Development

High School: “Steal, Cheat, and Fight”

Outline and Learning Goals

Module 2: Contexts of Development Outline and Learning Goals 30 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory 31 Family Context 31 Peer Context

36

Broader Contexts 40

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

45 46

Development of Social Competence Understanding the Self

43

49

52

Aspects of Identity 54 Summary

59

Key Concepts 59 Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 60

EARLY CHILDHOOD

personal development

Outline and Learning Goals 61

Outline and Learning Goals

What Is Emotion?

Cognitive-Developmental Moral Reasoning 77

62

Emotions and Individual Performance 63

Summary

73

Key Concepts

73

Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 74

80

Aggressive Behavior 82 Applications: Advancing Moral Development 85 Summary

89

Key Concepts

89

Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate 90

1 HIGH SCHOOL

Applications: Emotionally Intelligent Teaching 70

Prosocial Behavior

76

MIDDLE SCHOOL

Module 5: Moral Development

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

CLUSTER

Module 4: Emotional Development

22

Prepare: As you read the case, make notes: 1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

E

1

dward Abbott and Linda Harsted are teachers at a local child care facility in the 4-year-old preschool room. The 20 students are from diverse backgrounds with a range of socioeconomic status. At this preschool, the children are taught letter recognition, colors, fine and large motor skills, and many other readiness skills. The teachers also spend a large portion of the day encouraging social behaviors such as sharing, helping, expressing assertiveness without aggression, and behaving respectfully toward others. Each year the teachers prepare kindergarten readiness reports to share with parents during a brief individual conference. To prepare for parent-teacher conferences, Linda spent last week observing the children during centers to assess their educational skills while Eddy supervised the children. This week, Eddy will observe the children to assess their social behaviors while Linda supervises. Centers include a number of activities, including playing house, snack,

Early Childhood

Cry Baby

2

coloring, blocks, and puzzles. Children in groups of four spend 15 minutes on each activity. Eddy begins during snack, when the children are having cheese crackers and juice. He quickly notices that Joe is helping Allison clean up her spilled juice that has soaked her crackers. Joe offers to share his crackers with Allison. Eddy thinks about how typical this behavior is of Joe. He is a very considerate child, always willing to help others. Eddy then turns his attention to Annie and Zada, who are beginning to argue. Annie says, “Zada, you aren’t my best friend anymore!” Zada replies, “Well, you didn’t share your crayons with me before, so I don’t have to share my crackers with you. You got your crackers! I don’t have to give you some of mine.” Eddy has already commented in his notes for Annie and Zada that both girls tend to be natural leaders, which can result in problems from time to time as both want to be “boss.” Linda intervenes and asks Zada, “How did you feel earlier when Annie wouldn’t share her crayons?” Zada replies, “She wasn’t being very nice, so that made me sad.” “Well, I bet that Annie is sad now because you won’t share with her,” states Linda. “Okay, she can have this one cracker, but only if I get to be the mommy when we play house,” replies Zada. Annie quickly responds, “Okay.” Eddy and Linda exchange looks, because both know that Annie’s home life is much different than Zada’s. Zada’s parents are married and middle-class. Her parents spend much of their extra time with Zada and her brother. Both children were adopted when their parents were in their 40s. Yesterday, Zada told everyone about a recent family trip to a museum. Annie’s parents are divorced. Her father lives halfway across the country with his new wife and Annie’s new baby sister. Annie’s mother works first shift at the local hospital as a nurse’s aid and spends several evenings a week socializing with friends. Eddy moves over to the block area. He notices that Tyler and Tanner are building a tall tower. Erica begins to place more blocks on the tower, but Tyler shouts, “That one doesn’t go there!” The loud shout startles Erica, who bumps the tower, and all the blocks come tumbling down.

1. How typical are the behaviors in this classroom? 2. Why do you think some children are so eager to be helpful and to share while other children are so quick to assign blame and respond in a negative manner?

3. How do you think the gender of each child plays a role in his or her behaviors?

MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL

3

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

EARLY CHILDHOOD

2

Tanner yells, “You did that on purpose. We told you that girls aren’t supposed to play with blocks.” “Yeah,” adds Tyler, “You ruined everything!” Erica begins to cry. Tyler adds, “See, you are just a little cry baby. Cry baby. Cry baby. . . .” “Boys, I want you to stop talking to Erica that way,” interjects Eddy. “I saw the whole thing, and Erica didn’t mean to knock down the tower. How do you think she feels when you make fun of her like that?” Tyler jumps in, “Well, she’s probably sad, but that isn’t our fault. We aren’t the ones that knocked down the tower.” “Maybe she’s sad because you were blaming her for an accident and then calling her a cry baby,” says Eddy. “Wouldn’t you be sad too if someone blamed you and called you a cry baby?” he asks. “I wouldn’t care,” answers Tanner. Eddy comments in his observation notes that Tyler is always quick to blame others yet rarely takes responsibility for his own actions. Eddy thinks about how all the children have difficulty understanding how another child might feel, but some have more trouble than others.

24

Prepare: As you read the case, make notes: 1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

R

A

ocío Barone is one of two first-grade teachers at a small rural elementary school. She was raised in a large metropolitan area and is continually amazed at the connections her students share. For example, three students in the first grade this year—Patricia, Kelly, and Samantha—are all cousins. In addition to familial connections, many of the parents attended high school together and have been friends for years, with their children growing up highly connected to one another outside school. Rocío has always had a soft spot for the children who lack those connections within the community. Kashi is a good example. She moved to the small rural community last year. Kashi is the only student in first grade who is African-American. All the other students and almost everyone in the community are Caucasian. She had a rough transition to the school, because her parents were getting a divorce that led to the move. Kashi seemed to have made friends and to have adjusted to the new curriculum last year. But this year she is

Elementary School Team

struggling academically, and the children appear uninterested in playing with her on the playground or being her partner during classroom activities. As Kashi enters the classroom, she squabbles with Patricia, one of the oldest but smallest children in the class, who also has experienced challenges adjusting to first grade. After kindergarten, Patricia was placed in a special pre–first grade program for children who need extra time to develop academically or socially. Having her cousins in the same class has helped with the transition, but she continues to struggle with reading and math. “Well, if you don’t want to sit with me at lunch,” says Kashi. “Then you can’t be on my team.” “I don’t want to be on your team,” Patricia replies. “My mom says I can do whatever I want on the playground. You know, Kashi, you aren’t the boss!” Rocío intervenes and attempts to calm the situation. “Girls, please try to get along and speak nicely to each other. Now, take your seats so we can start our day.” As the day continues, Rocío notes that Patricia and Kashi appear to have resolved their differences for the moment and are working on their science project together without bickering. This is typical for these two girls. One minute they are playing or working nicely together, referring to each other as “best friends,” and the next minute one is telling on the other for saying or doing something “mean.” Rocío has always had trouble getting either of them to give specifics of the mean behavior. As Rocío asks the children to form their line and leave for lunch, two boys—Bill and Zach—begin pushing and shoving each other in the back of the line. Bill shouts, “I am tired of you always bumping into me!” Rocío moves quickly to the back of the line and begins to say, “Boys, please keep your hands to . . .” Zach interrupts, “Well, I didn’t mean to bump you, and besides I am tired of you always cutting in line at lunch. You are such a bully to everyone—my dad says you are just like your dad was in school!” “At least my dad isn’t a sissy,” says Bill, who is very tall and athletic. “I didn’t hurt you or anyone else. You’re just like a little girl.”

We have been having several conversations in the evening about Patricia and Kashi. Patricia tells me that Kashi has a “team” of girls and if Patricia doesn’t do what Kashi asked then she cannot be on the “team.” Her dad and I have tried to explain that Patricia should not allow others to boss her around and talk her into doing things she doesn’t want to do. I am already somewhat concerned about Patricia’s self-esteem and want her to have enough self-confidence to stand up for herself. I typically would have continued to try and work with Patricia at home on this issue, but now something else has happened and I thought you should be aware. Last week I was told by my friend who works in the cafeteria that Patricia doesn’t always take all the food options because Kashi is whispering to her to only take the food that Kashi likes. I understand that a teacher cannot know everything that happens during the day, especially on the playground or at lunch, but I wanted you to know about this issue. Any advice you can give us to help Patricia deal with these issues would be helpful. Mary

Assess

handled the boys during lunch line? Do you think gender played a role in her treatment of the incidents?

2. What examples of aggression did you notice?

3. What factors in the children’s lives might have contributed to their behavior? 4. How would you respond to Mary’s e-mail?

MIDDLE SCHOOL

C

1. How well do you think Rocío handled the girls entering the classroom? How well do you think she

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Ms. Barone,

EARLY CHILDHOOD

AB

Rocío states firmly, “Both of you stop right now. You should be ashamed of yourselves for talking to each other that way.” Both boys keep looking at each other with angry faces, but they discontinue their verbal and physical assaults. Rocío sends the other children to lunch and has a short talk with the boys. “Now, Bill, accidents do happen, and Zach may not have meant to bump into you. And Zach, it is not nice to call others names. You both need to keep your hands to yourself.” The boys give a quick “okay” and walk to lunch. During the lunch break, Rocío checks her e-mail. Patricia’s mom, Mary, has sent an e-mail to tell Rocío that Patricia has been very upset about how Kashi treats her at school. The e-mail reads:

HIGH SCHOOL

26

Prepare: As you read the case, make notes: 1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

T

yrone Martin is the middle school girl’s basketball coach. The middle school is located in a suburb of a large metropolitan city with students from mostly middleto upper-middle-class homes. Tyrone has been teaching English at the school for three years. He was the coach for boy’s basketball at his last job and enjoyed the out-of-class experience with his students. When he was asked by the principal to coach girl’s basketball this year while the usual coach takes a leave of absence, he was excited about the opportunity. However, he has experienced some difficulties getting the girls to work as a team. As Jill, Cindy, and Sierra enter the gym for practice, he overhears them whispering about Darla. Darla is very athletic but doesn’t seem to fit in with the “popular” group of girls. Darla is already practicing and too far away to hear their conversation. Tyrone overhears Jill saying, “If she thinks we are going to let her steal the show on the basketball court, she can forget it.”

Middle School

Basketball Star

“The only reason she is any good is because her dad makes her play basketball every night for like three hours!” adds Sierra. “He thinks Darla is going to be some big star! Too bad she doesn’t have a mother around to show her how to act.” Sara, who appears to socialize with Darla, walks up behind the girls and overhears their conversation. She states loudly, “Well, Sierra, you have had three mothers now with all your dad’s divorces and remarriages, and you’re still not a lady. Maybe you should spend a little more time with your father. Oh, that’s right, he’s too busy to pay attention to anything you’re doing.” Tyrone defuses the situation by announcing that the girls need to take their positions for a scrimmage. He begins to think about Darla. Tyrone has noticed in the past that Darla does not seem to have many friends. Sara has repeatedly attempted to include Darla in social events, but Darla doesn’t seem to respond with excitement, appreciation, or even a simple “Thanks, but no thanks.” Rather, she seems to be uninterested in having friends or a social life. Tyrone decides to have a talk with Darla after practice to see if he can help determine what might be the problem. He begins by asking Darla, “How do you like basketball this year?” Darla replies, “I like it. I just wish the other girls were more dedicated to the game. They seem to think they are going to be movie stars or models.” “Well, what would you like to be when you grow up?” asks Tyrone. “My dad says I should be a basketball player because I have a lot of natural talent. That’s why I don’t worry too much about those other girls and what they say about me. I know I am a good athlete. And I am going to take business classes in high school so that I can manage my own career and money when I make it big,” says Darla with a slight smile. Tyrone pushes her on the issue a bit. “Have you ever considered doing anything else?” Darla replies quickly, “Goodness no, my dad really wants me to be a basketball player. It is who I am. It’s in my blood. Basketball is what makes me Darla. I am not good at many other things, especially school and making friends off the basketball court. So I’m sure I’ll be a basketball player.” Tyrone ends the conversation, saying, “Well, Darla, I am glad you have such a clear vision of your future, but don’t be afraid to change that vision. As people make their way

1. Darla seems to be a loner. Is this a bad thing? Why or why not?

2. What are some examples of appropriate social behavior? What are some examples of aggressive behavior?

3. How likely do you think it is that Darla will become a basketball player? Give the reasons for your answer.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

EARLY CHILDHOOD MIDDLE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL

+ B %

through high school and college, most change their minds about what and who they want to be in the future. Just keep your options open, okay?” “Okay, but I already know who I am and where I’m going,” says Darla. As Tyrone begins to put away the equipment, he thinks about a boy at his last school, Mark. Mark was very similar to Darla in a number of ways. He didn’t have many friends or the skills to make friends. Rather, Mark had a short temper and typically was in other students’ faces about something they had done to him or, at least, what Mark thought they had done to him. He never thought his remarks or retaliatory behaviors were as bad as those of the other kids. Mark and Darla were also alike in their family backgrounds. Their parents had divorced, and they each had ended up living with their father instead of with their mother. Tyrone wonders how two children from such similar yet unusual backgrounds could both end up very different yet both have few friends.

28

Prepare: As you read the case, make notes: 1. WHO are the central characters in the case? Describe them. 2. WHAT is taking place? 3. WHERE is the case taking place? Is the environment a factor? 4. WHEN is the case taking place? Is the timing a factor?

R

␭ ⵱

ebecca Durbin is the principal at one of the three high schools located in a small city with a population of approximately 100,000. The school enrollment is approximately 2,500 students. Recently, there have been a number of incidents related to cheating, stealing, and drinking, as well as a number of verbal and physical fights. Rebecca decides to use next Friday’s school improvement day to address these behavioral issues. To prepare for the workshop, Rebecca sends an e-mail to all the teachers and staff asking for examples of these behaviors and suggestions for how the school system should handle these issues and situations. She receives a number of responses, including the following: Mr. Smith ( freshman English) wrote: Last week I wasted five minutes of class time breaking up an exchange between Lisa and Rebecca. Basically, the girls were engaged in a verbal assault on each other, saying things such as “You’re fat and ugly” and “Your mom

High School

Steal, Cheat, and Fight

is a slut.” I was very disturbed by their comments, but don’t have many suggestions. I am just thankful they didn’t start a cat fight during my lecture! Ms. Baxter (advanced mathematics) wrote: I know we have several groups of students who don’t apply themselves. For instance, there is that whole group of kids who stand across the street after school smoking (one of whom spent the night in jail last weekend for driving under the influence) and the group of girls who walk around the school like they are dressed for a night out on the town. However, I don’t think it is the school’s place to dictate how they dress or to meddle in their behavior outside the school. I am much more concerned about the students who are here to learn and their inability to determine their career paths. Many of them are very academically talented yet have no direction or ideas about where to go to college or what their major will be in college. I think our time is better spent guiding them into good colleges and career paths. Ms. Presley (office staff manager) wrote: I have been working in high schools for over 20 years now and honestly believe that the school has little control over these teenagers. The problem is the breakdown of the family. So many of our students come from broken homes without a mother or a father, or they have the opposite problem—too many parents and stepparents. Plus, almost all of our mothers are out working full-time jobs, leaving no one at home to take care of these children when they leave school in the afternoon. I suggest we offer parenting classes and family counseling to keep families together. Mr. Ruestman (biology) wrote: The problem is that we simply don’t have the time to deal with all these issues. I have too much course content to cover to continually be dealing with the problems students have with their friends. Very few seem to know how to control their anger or how to think about how others might be feeling, or understand that the world does not revolve around them. They all seem to be overly concerned about their friendships, who is friends with whom, who was and wasn’t invited to the party, yet they lack the skills to make and keep friends. Maybe some form of social skills training would help, but not during my class time. Mr. Cargill (physical education) wrote: Just yesterday, Jimmy was sent to the office for hitting Bob. Apparently, Bob was talking about another Jim, commenting on his sister. The whole thing was taken out of context, and Jimmy hauled off and hit him. If Jimmy would have taken two seconds to look at Bob and pay attention to his tone of voice and nonverbal

1. What are some of the recurring themes within these responses from the teachers and staff?

2. For each person’s e-mail, give a score based

3. Do you think gender might be important in handling these issues? Why or why not?

4. Do you think it is appropriate for the principal and teachers to use school time to address issues related to students’ social and emotional behaviors?

MIDDLE SCHOOL

on how much you agree with the view (1 = completely disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, 3 = somewhat agree, 4 = completely agree). Is your rating based on experience, observation, or opinion?

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Assess

EARLY CHILDHOOD HIGH SCHOOL

␭ ⵱

behaviors, Jimmy would have realized that the comments were not inappropriate or derogatory, and were not even about his sister but another Jim’s sister. Bob was actually commenting on how nice this young lady had been helping him with his math homework during study hall. These kids need a lesson in how to read others’ intentions and behaviors as well as how to handle their own emotions. Ms. Kennel (chemistry) wrote: I am mostly concerned about the girls and minority students in our school. The girls seem to be lacking in confidence, particularly in academics and even more so in math and science. I think we need to find a way to boost their egos and give them the confidence they will need out there in the real world. Maybe with a little more confidence they would stop worrying so much about their friends, boyfriends, and other relationships. The minority students may also need a boost, but even more they need to stop grouping together according to their ethnicity. Do you know we now have a whole group of students who are referred to as the “Spans” because they all speak Spanish? We need to incorporate all ethnic groups into our school and educate every student on the issues of diversity in our country. Ms. May (special education) wrote: The behaviors of stealing, cheating, and aggression in this school are due to a basic lack of respect for authority. We need to have firm policies on these issues and stick to them. Most students simply don’t think it is a big deal to cheat, lie, or steal, and in many classes it is because teachers let them get away with these behaviors. We need every teacher on board to enforce the rules of the school.

MODULE

2

Contexts of Development Outline

Learning Goals

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory 1. Describe Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory. Family Context ■

Parenting Practices

■

Divorce and Remarriage

2. Describe how parenting practices and family transitions interact with the school system.

Peer Context ■

Friendships and Peer Groups

■

Peer Statuses

3. Describe how aspects of the peer context interact with the school system.

Broader Contexts ■

Parental Employment

■

Cultural Factors

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Reflect and Evaluate

4. Explain how broader contexts of development influence microsystems and individual outcomes.

contexts of development 31

module two

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY Module 2: Contexts of Development

Who is the most influential person in your life now? Who was the most influential person during your childhood and adolescence? You can probably think of several people who have made a difference in your life. Children and adolescents grow and develop with the support and influence of several people—such as family members, friends, and teachers—and places—such as neighborhoods and schools. The people and places that influence development are considered contexts of development. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of human development (1994, 2005), the best known theory on the contexts of development, emphasizes the combined function of person (or genetics) and the many systems that exist in the environment and interact to influence development, as shown in Figure 2.1. Let’s examine this model more closely. It will be the framework for our discussion on the contexts of development throughout this module. ■

The microsystem, the immediate environment surrounding an individual, includes the people, relationships, and systems that directly interact with the developing individual, such as family, peers, and school.

■

The mesosystem links two or more microsystems. For example, the communication between parents and teachers links home and school environments or home and child care settings.

■

The exosystem is the interaction among two or more environments, one of which does not directly include the individual. For developing children and adolescents, the exosystem includes links between home and their parents’ places of work. The developing child typically has no direct interaction with a parent’s workplace but is influenced by that environment indirectly. For example, parental work stress influences children’s adjustment.

■

The macrosystem includes many of the broader cultural patterns, such as beliefs, customs, knowledge, and morals. Bronfenbrenner suggests that this is not simply the ethnicity or social class of individuals but rather the social features that affect individuals. For example, low-income children may experience more stressors in their macrosystem—substandard housing, crowding, or community violence, for example—than do middle-class children (Evans & English, 2002).

■

The chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of development within the individual as well as the history of the surrounding environment. The social environment changes over time and impacts developing individuals differently at various points in history. For example, the impact of divorce on child development in the 1950s was viewed more negatively than it is today.

Much of the research on development in the last 30 years has included a bioecological perspective. In this module, we will examine:

Pa

r tte

Co mm un ity

ns

School

SY MESO STEM

Family

Child Care Facility

Peer Group

itio nd Co al

al lV

MESOSYSTEM

ue

ci

ra

s

MICR

OSYSTEMS

EXOSYSTEM

MACROSYSTEM

So

ltu

M

Cu

Arguably, the most influential microsystem in the lives of individuals is the family. Let’s explore the basic aspects of families that directly influence the child—parenting practices, divorce and remarriage—and how the family interacts with the school system as a component of the mesosystem.

sM as

ia ed

ns

FAMILY CONTEXT

Time

connections to ethnicity and socioeconomic status (macrosystem) as they relate to the microsystems.

Chronosystem (Changes in persons or environments over time)

MESOSYSTEM

■

t en

how parental employment contributes to development (exosystem); and

Ec on o

m

■

SY MESO STEM

Em pl oy

ic

the microsystems of families and peers, with special emphasis on the interaction of these within the educational system (e.g., mesosystems);

m

■

Par ent al

Figure 2.1: Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.

32 cluster one personal development

TA B L E 2 . 1

Baumrind’s Parenting Practices Responsiveness

High

←

High

Control

↑

→ Authoritative

Limits are set and rules are enforced, but parents are flexible when necessary. Parents and children exhibit a high level of emotional connectedness.

Permissive Parents either do not set rules for behavior or do not enforce established rules. However, parents do have a close connection to their children.

Low

Authoritarian Limits are set and rules are enforced, yet emotional connectedness is lacking. Parents are inflexible—unable to bend the rules in special or unusual circumstances.

Uninvolved Parenting lacks both control and responsiveness. Parents typically are unaware of their child’s behavior, friends, difficulties, or achievements.

↓ Low

Parenting Practices Parenting practices, also called parenting styles, have an important influence on child and adolescent development. These are the patterns of discipline and affection parents display with their children. Diana Baumrind (1966) discusses parenting practices as typically including two broad dimensions: control and responsiveness. Control is the manner and strictness with which parents provide their children with limits and discipline. Responsiveness includes the affection, acceptance, and caring involved in parenting. In short, control describes the behavioral aspects of parenting, while responsiveness describes the emotional aspects. Based on the levels of these two dimensions, Baumrind describes four parenting styles, as shown in Table 2.1. ■

■

■

■

Authoritative parenting includes setting limits or having rules for children and adolescents, and enforcing those rules. Parents and children also exhibit a high level of emotional connectedness such that parents are flexible when necessary. For example, parents may be less strict than they would be typically because they understand that their child is having difficulty with peers at school or is upset about not making the cheerleading squad. Authoritarian parenting includes a high level of control in which limits are set and rules are enforced yet emotional connectedness is lacking. Parents may be viewed as “dictators” who are inflexible, unable to bend the rules in light of special or unusual circumstances. For example, a parent might make a negative comment regarding the B on the child’s report card when all the other grades are As. Permissive parenting involves less control, with parents either not having set rules for behavior or not enforcing rules. However, parents do have a close connection to their children such that observers might refer to them as “friends” rather than parents. For example, parents may show their affection by giving in to their child’s tantrums in the grocery line and buying candy, or they may ground their adolescent but not monitor whether the teenager is home. Uninvolved parenting lacks both control and responsiveness. Parents typically are unaware of their child’s behavior, friends, difficulties, or achievements. For example, a parent may not know when reports come home from school or may be unable to name his child’s friends. These parents are at risk of being neglectful or abusive. You can read more about child abuse and neglect in Box 2.1.

module two

BOX 2 .1

contexts of development 33

The Special Case of Child Abuse and Neglect

(continued on next page)

Research studies consistently link authoritative parenting with positive outcomes. Both school-age children and adolescents with authoritative parents tend to have higher levels of healthy adjustment and fewer mental health issues or problem behaviors (Kaufmann et al., 2000; Shek, 2005). How do parenting practices interact with the school system? Remember that an interaction between two microsystems—in this case family and school—is called the mesosystem. The interaction between the family and school microsystems is evident because authoritative parenting is related to academic benefits among a variety of ethnic groups for both school-age students (Mandara, 2006; Tam & Lam, 2003) and high school students (Gonzalez, Holbein, & Quilter, 2002; Pong, Hao, & Gardner, 2005). For example, students with authoritative parents tend to have higher achievement and better attitudes toward school, spend more time on homework, are more engaged with teachers and learning, and have lower levels of maladaptive behavior in the classroom (Kaufmann et al., 2000; Walker & Hoover-Dempsey, 2006). Teachers are unlikely to change the parenting practices experienced at home, but they can gain much insight into the reasons for children’s and adolescents’ behaviors in the classroom given knowledge about those parenting practices. Can you determine which parenting practice was used in your home? If you had two parents, were their parenting practices the same or different? How do you think parenting practices influenced your education or academic achievement?

Divorce and Remarriage Today, approximately 50% of all first marriages and 60% or more of second marriages end in divorce (Fine & Harvey, 2006). As a result, nearly half of all children in the United States will live in a singleparent family for some length of time (Hetherington, Henderson, & Reiss, 1999). Although not all children and adolescents experience difficulties following divorce, some do. Children and adolescents may also experience difficulties prior to the divorce. In fact, they tend to have the greatest difficulties a

Module 2: Contexts of Development

Child abuse and/or neglect can have a very serious impact on a child’s behavior and general well-being, and its consequences reach across physical, psychosocial, and environmental domains. A classroom teacher is one of the people in a child’s life with the greatest opportunity to detect signs of abuse or neglect and to intervene in the child’s behalf to help stop the cycle of abuse. Approximately 872,000 children were determined to have been victims of child maltreatment in 2004 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006). Unfortunately, only 10% of abuse and neglect reports originate in schools, even though over half the nation’s abused and neglected children are in school on any given day (McIntyre, 1990). One reason for this low rate of reporting from teachers may be that teachers do not recognize the signs of abuse. In a recent survey, only 4% of the teachers were “very aware” of the signs of sexual abuse, 17% could recognize obvious signs, and 75% were completely unable to recognize the signs of abuse (McIntyre, 1990). Every teacher should know how abuse is defined and be able to recognize potential indicators of abuse. Table 2.2 lists the types of child abuse and neglect. Reporting suspected child abuse or neglect is not only a moral obligation, it is the law. The key federal legislation addressing child abuse and neglect is the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), originally enacted in 1974 (P.L. 93-247). This act has been amended several times and was most recently amended and reauthorized by the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-36). Reporting requirements vary by state, but most states require any person who has reasonable cause to suspect that abuse has occurred to make a report to their community’s local Child Protection Services or law enforcement agency (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2005). Teachers may be reluctant to make a report without absolute proof; however, reporting in good faith protects the person making the report from any liability if the report is found to be unsubstantiated (Fischer, Schimmel, & Kelly, 1999). Failure to report suspected abuse or neglect can lead to criminal and/or civil liability. Most states have a hotline for reporting abuse and neglect (open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week). Additional information about how to file a report can be obtained by calling the Child Help National Child Abuse Hotline at 1-800-4-A-CHILD.

34

cluster one personal development

BOX 2 .1

The Special Case of Child Abuse and Neglect (continued)

TA B L E 2 . 2

Types of Child Abuse and Neglect

Type

Definition

Physical indicators

Behavioral indicators

Physical abuse

Any nonaccidental injury to a child or allowing nonaccidental injury to occur. This includes hitting, burning, shaking, and whipping.

Physical signs of this type of abuse may include bruises, lacerations, welts, lumps, unexplained fractures, burns by cigarettes, burns by immersion. Suspicious examples include handprints on skin; repeated injuries in various stages of healing; bath scalding pattern; injuries in fleshy, noncontact areas.

Behavioral indicators of possible abuse may include verbal reports of abuse, depression, behavioral extremes, role reversal, appearing frightened of caretaker, exaggerated startle response, school absenteeism, low self-esteem.

Sexual abuse

Any sexual act between an adult (or child with power) and a child, or permitting another to use a child. This includes fondling, penetration, intercourse, pornography, exhibitionism, child prostitution, oral sex, and forced observation of sexual acts.

Physical signs of sexual abuse may include any venereal disease; bruised or dilated genitals or rectum; difficulty or pain in walking or sitting; foreign matter in bladder, urethra, or rectum; pelvic inflammatory disease; torn, recurrent urinary tract infections; stained or bloody underclothing; pregnancy under 16 years of age.

Behavioral indicators of possible sexual abuse may include premature knowledge of explicit sexual acts; aggressive, overt sexual behavior; sleep disorders; taking frequent baths; starting fires; self-inflicted injuries; cruelty to animals; drawing pictures of people with genitals or vagina; expressing fear of particular person or place; reports of sexual abuse.

Emotional abuse

Any attitude or behavior that interferes with a child’s mental health or social development. This includes yelling, shaming, put-downs, failure to provide affection and support, withdrawal of attention, threats, lack of praise, and systematic destruction of child’s self-esteem.

N/A

Behavioral indicators of possible emotional abuse may include low self-esteem, difficulty in forming positive relationships, inability to trust, poorly developed ability to empathize with others, defiant behavior, elimination disorders, speech disorders, eating disorders, deriving pleasure from hurting others, suicide attempts, reports of maltreatment.

Neglect

Deprivation of conditions necessary for normal development (i.e., food, shelter, supervision, education, medical care).

Physical indicators of possible neglect may include poor hygiene; torn, dirty, or inappropriate clothing for the weather; developmental lags; underweight; sickly appearance.

Behavioral indicators of possible neglect may include dull or listless behavior, begging/stealing food, constant fatigue, alcohol or drug use, reports of being left alone or abandoned.

few years before and after the divorce, as indicated by poorer academic performance (Sun & Li, 2002). The difficulties surrounding divorce are thought to be the result of changes in the functioning of the family rather than structural changes (Demo & Acock, 1996). Changes in the functioning of families include a number of possible issues: 1. Family conflict surrounding divorce is an important aspect of family functioning related to children’s and adolescents’ adjustment (Amato & Keith, 1991). Although marital conflict occurs prior to the divorce, the level of confl ict often increases around the time of divorce—leading to higher levels of behavioral and emotional disturbances among children and adolescents. Children living

contexts of development 35

Some children—because of their developmental level, gender, personality, or relationships—may have a tougher time dealing with divorce (Davies & Windle, 2001; Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998), especially:

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younger children, boys more than girls, children placed in custody with the opposite-sex parent (typically boys), children who have a difficult temperament or who have always been less able to adjust to change within their environment, and children who do not have a supportive relationship with an adult outside the immediate family (e.g., teacher, aunt, uncle, coach).

Although most difficulties occur around the time of divorce, children whose parents have been divorced for years may encounter difficulties again during adolescence; this is called the sleeper effect (Hetherington, 1993). Adolescents experiencing the sleeper effect exhibit difficulties such as drug and alcohol use, behavioral problems, poor school performance, and poor interpersonal relationships—including higher rates of divorce themselves later in life. The awakening of these difficulties is thought to occur because the period of adolescence introduces more opportunity to engage in drugs and alcohol use and to develop intimate relationships with peers and romantic partners, typically not a factor during childhood. Some of the same family functioning issues surrounding divorce, such as family conflict and disruptions in parenting styles, continue to exist in remarried homes (Hetherington et al., 1998). Children’s and adolescents’ well-being suffers each time a transition or change occurs

Family Transitions. Children and adolescents experience fewer difficulties during family transitions when they have a supportive relationship with an adult outside the family, such as a teacher or coach.

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Module 2: Contexts of Development

in high-confl ict, intact families experience difficulties similar to those experienced by children in divorced families (Vandewater & Lansford, 1998). 2. Disorganized parenting practices, which may occur during divorce as parents are coping with their own distress, play a role in children’s social and cognitive functioning as rated by their teachers (Forehand, Thomas, Wierson, Brody, & Fauber, 1990). Parents who once were authoritative may become overwhelmed by their own problems, have few cognitive resources available for their children, and become lax in their monitoring and supervision of children (Hetherington, 1991; Nair & Murray, 2005). Children tend to have fewer difficulties following divorce when parental discipline is consistent across homes. 3. Decreases in family economics also can have a negative impact on the functioning of families (Amato & Keith, 1991; Pong, 1997, 1998). Parents who were not employed outside the home may need to obtain employment, or parents who were employed may need to work longer hours or earn a second income in order to sustain the level of economics within the home (exosystem). Postdivorce economics may lead to the family’s moving to a smaller home or a lower socioeconomic status neighborhood (macrosystem), which may lead to poorer school achievement.

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module two

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cluster one personal development

within the family. Remarriage adds a second transition to the family dynamics. As a result, adolescents from stepfamilies may have lower academic achievement and more involvement in delinquent acts than adolescents from single-parent homes (Amato & Keith, 1991; Hetherington, 1993; Jeynes, 2000). Some children are particularly at risk for experiencing difficulties following remarriage, including (Hetherington et al., 1998):

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older children, girls more than boys, and

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children with more difficult temperaments.

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How do divorce and remarriage within the family interact with the school in the mesosystem? Children from both divorced and remarried families are more likely to have lower academic achievement and more problematic school behavior than children from intact families (Jeynes, 1999; Kurdek & Sinclair, 1988). Understanding that family functioning may be the reason for such difficulties and that particular children may be more likely to experience these difficulties allows educators to provide the support necessary to assist these children during family transitions. Children and adolescents who have a supportive adult relationship outside the family—such as a strong relationship with a particular teacher—are less likely to experience difficulties (Dornbusch et al., 1985; Hetherington, 1993). On the other hand, teachers also may unwittingly form negative expectations about students based on their individual characteristics and family circumstances. This could lead to a self-fulfi lling prophecy, an unfounded expectation that becomes true simply because it was expected. For example, a teacher who is aware of the relationship between divorce and achievement may have lower expectations for children of divorce, which can lead to behaviors that cause the student to achieve less in school. Teachers in today’s classrooms encounter children from various family structures. Knowledge about family functioning and structure provides teachers with a context for understanding why some children may experience difficulties in the school setting. However, family background should not be used as a rationale to lower expectations for some students. Instead, it can provide information about who is most likely to need additional support and assistance within the microsystem of the school.

PEER CONTEXT After families, peers are considered the second most important microsystem influencing development. Let’s examine the development of friendships and peer groups among children and adolescents, as well as how peer status can interact with the educational experience (mesosystem).

Friendships and Peer Groups >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>