Ecological genetics: monograph 9786010433083

Table of contents :
What is Ecological Genetics?
History. Although work on natural populations had been done previously, it is acknowledged that the field was founded by the English biologist E.B. Ford (1901–1988) in the early 20th century. Ford was taught genetics at Oxford University by Julian Hux...
Transgenic approaches. Transgenic experiments are an important tool for targeted manipulation of traits and gene expression in ecological genomics. These approaches may involve insertion of a gene into another species for functional analysis, overexpr...
Gene silencing and over expression studies.
Post-transcriptional gene silencing.
Ccontents of Environmental Diseases: Pollution-Related Diseases; Chemicals; Metals; Halogens; Organic compounds; Noxious gases; Categorization and surveillance
Environmental Diseases vs. Pollution-Related Disease. Environmental diseases are a direct result from the environment. This includes diseases caused by substance abuse, exposure to toxic chemicals, and physical factors in the environment, like UV radi...
Chemicals
Metals
Organic compounds
Noxious gases
A systematic study of the environment and health. Since the 1990s, the World Health Organization (WHO) has been investigating how harmful environmental influences affect public health in different countries. In co-operation with other institutions WHO...
Current research and results
Environmental burden of disease: a method with potential
4.2. Environmental determinants of disease
Introduction:
Effects of Particulate Radiation:
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations:

Citation preview

Introduction AL-FARABI KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

A. B. Bigaliyev ECOLOGICAL GENETICS ● Environmental mutagens and its heredity ● Genome of plants, animals and human ● Radiation and health ● Ecogenetical monitoring

Monograph

Almaty «Kazakh University» 2018 1

UDC 574.24 (035.3) LBK 28.04 B 56 Recommended for publication by the Academic Council (Protocol №4 dated by 27.11.2017) and the decision of the Editorial-Publishing Council of the al-Faraby Kazakh National University (Protocol №3 dated by 07.12.2017) Reviewer: doctor of biological Sciences, Professor B.K. Zayadan docent of biological Sciences Z.A. Inelova

Bigaliyev A.B. Ecological genetics: monograph / A.B. Bigaliyev. – Almaty: Kazakh University, 2018. – 244 p. ISBN 978-601-04-3308-3

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The monograph discussed the bases of general and private genetics as fundamental biological science. Outlines the mechanisms of mutation mutagenic environmental factors and basic mechanisms and regularities of the sustainable existence of biological systems at different levels, in a environment change. All the concepts of ecological genetics and the most common genetic patterns linked to the problems of modern anthropogenic impact on the biosphere, as a whole and for its components, allowing to understand the scientific basis of environmental management and environmental protection. This monograph is intended for University students of the specialties "Biology" and "Ecology", graduate students, professors and researchers.

UDC 574.24 (035.3) LBK 28.04 © Bigaliyev A.B., 2018 ISBN 978-601-04-3308-3

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© Al-Farabi KazNU, 2018

INTRODUCTION

I

n the last decade public attention to attract one global problem – environmental protection, as the state of the environment and the utilization of natural resources potential direct impact on the pace and scope of economic and social development. With the increasing anthropogenic pressure on nature there are significant changes in qualitative and quantitative composition of atmospheric precipitation, surface water and groundwater, soil, vegetation and other environmental objects. Currently, one of the leading places in environment contamination risk take heavy metals (HM). Comes to the soil, they accumulate and are involved in the biological cycle, through the vegetation enter the body and are part of the biologically active substances, thus causing severe disease. In an age of scientific and technological progress the problem of environment protection has become one of the most acute and urgent problem of modern time. At the present time, almost universally observed the rapid rise rates, scope and extent of anthropogenic degradation of natural ecosystems. Under the anthropogenic pressure nature increasingly losing the ground. The vast majority of ecosystems appeared derived from the state of dynamical equilibrium. There was a real threat to the existence of mankind itself. And today we must do everything to stoop the environmental disaster. In this regard, before mankind with particular acuteness arises a problem of optimization and harmonization of relations in the system "society – nature". To solve this environmental problem is impossible without the creation of a general theory of nature protection and a wide network of relevant services and in the first place biological monitoring. Organization of special observations of changes in the state of ecosystems and biosphere as a whole is needed to calculate the change 3

in human nature in the background of natural changes. The main objectives of the environment state monitoring are: 1. Observation of the environment impact factors, of the environmental state; 2. Assessment of the actual of the environmental state; 3. The forecast of the natural environment and the evaluation of the state. Without no monitoring system, monitoring and control of the environment is not possible to develop and implement effective measures aimed at the preservation of the environment. There are three stages of monitoring /4/; bio-ecological, geoecological and biospheric. The first two are carried out on the scale of individual regions, and the last – in the framework of the entire biosphere. Experts in the field of environmental protection /1, 2/ believe that among the monitoring system the biological monitoring should be one of the major subsystems of anthropogenic changes in the environment and its components. The functional basis of biological monitoring is the monitoring, evaluation and prediction of the biotic component affected and unaffected human activity and structural base of subprogram, the content of which is determined by the level of organization of biological systems /4/. In this case subcellular organization levels corresponds to the genetic monitoring; cell – biochemistry; tissue, organs and organisms – physiological; populations and biocenologically – environmental made monitoring. The biomonitoring special place is given to the methods of bioindication /20/. Bioindication of terrestrial and aquatic systems using microbs, plants and animals that are sensitive to changes of environmental factors determining terms of their existence. In accordance with these organisms or their communities, where vital functions are closely correlated with determined factors may be used as bioindicators or test objects of the environment. The most valuable and accurate in its resolution environment indicators should include cytogenetical, morphological and phenogenetically particular organisms first of all, in animal /3, 10, 15, 16, 22-26/. As changes in these indicators can be judged not only on the physiological-state-being of individuals and the "vitality" of the population, but their habitat quality also . Hereditary unit is manifested 4

as form of various violations genetically information of cells. Contaminants tend to have a pronounced mutagenic activity and therefore, their treatment results in the various types of chromosomal abnormalities which are easily trapped by cytogenetic analysis. The sensitivity of organisms to the effects of mutagens used in genetic testing for monitoring the degree of contamination of the environment. In the presence of chromosomal aberrations in cells can be judged on the presence of contaminants in the environment, their concentration and belonging to a particular class of pollutants. The main objective pursued by the analysis of mutagenicity of certain substances is to detect chromosomal and gene mutations in test systems in their sensitivity close to human. There are a number of sensitive methods for detecting changes in chromosome structure. Cytogenetic techniques have two important advantages: in first, results are easily extrapolated to humans; second-the study of chromosomal mutations allows indirectly assess the likelihood of induction of gene mutations. To determine the degree of mutagenicity pollutants Bridzhersom was proposed the principle of a discrete scale include 3 stage (citatedby Flamm, 1977): 1) pre-screening, in which the researcher can detect any and all potential mutagens; 2)proof that the substance has mutagenic activity towards higher animals; 3)conduct accurate genetic tests on mammals for risk assessment of a mutagen. Currently developed cytogenetic analysis techniques, and bioindication [2] to consider four main reguest: 1) relative speed of execution; 2) getting enough accurate and reproducible results; 3) the presence of the objects used for the purpose of bio-indication, possibly in large numbers and with similar properties; 4) he range of error in comparison with other testing methods. From animal organisms all these requirements are met naseko¬mye, fish, amphibians and small mammals, particularly rodents and insectivores. Because of their ecological and morphological and physiological characteristics of small rodents and insectivores are very convenient-governmental entities to test the state of the natural environment and its components. They are characterized by small size, wide dis-lence, a short life cycle, frequent changes pokole¬ny, challenging the age structure of populations, environmental-specificity of the SPE in relation to environmental factors, high strength, and the fact that it is easy dobyvaemy etc. 5

Biological variables characterizing the state of individuals, populations and ecosystems, according to KR (1985) may be an infinite number. But among them there are not so many parameters are closely related to the most important indicators of the state of individual species and groups of organisms. These indicators can be classified many population characteristics: morfologiches¬kie, morpho-physiological, biochemical and cytogenetic pe¬remennye. Of all the forms of human impacts on the biosphere of the most extensive and significant is the pollution. Exposure to pollutants (pollutants) on the biotic and abiotic component can fundamentally change the substance and energy indicators of energy and matter cycle in nature /9/. Many pollutants have mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic and embryotoxic activity. They therefore represent a great danger to human health and livelihood of the various elements of the biota ecosystem exposed to contamination. The response to anthropogenic biocenoses impact, including pollution has two stages: 1. Quantitative accumulation; 2. Quantitative jump. Successional changes in ecosystems caused by exposure antropogen¬nym should be recorded in the first stage, you can still take kog¬da lriventivnye for their conservation. In the second stage, all rehabilitation measures are unsuccessful, as has already broken all the structures and functions of the natural ecosystem. Such degraded ecosystems and razbayaansirovannye be reg-ressirovat continue. In this regard, there is an urgent need for an early diagnos¬tiki state of natural populations of organisms and ecosystems in general, subject to anthropogenic pressure for further prediction of current and long-term effects of anthropogenic succession Slekenie and monitoring of the environment is carried out with the use of highly modern methods of diagnosing – physical is the chemical, biochemical, pathogenetic Qi, physiological; morphological and population-phenogenetically; ecological and population, etc. II Genetic monitoring of natural populations of any stressful influence of environmental factors, including the body “pollutants"act primarily in their hereditary venous device and is manifested in the form of various violations of genetically information of cells. Contaminants tend to have a pronounced mutagenic activity and therefore, their treatment results in the various types of chromosomal abnormalities which are easily trapped by cytogenetic analysis. Organisms 6

chuvst¬vitelnye to the effects of mutagens used in genetic testing for monitoring the degree of contamination of the environment. In the presence of chromosomal aberrations in cells can be judged on the presence of contaminants in the environment, their concentration and belonging to a particular class of pollutants. The main objective pursued by the analysis of mutagenicity of certain substances is to detect chromosomal and gene mutations in test systems in their sensitivity close to chelo¬veku. There are a number of sensitive methods for detecting changes in chromosome structure. Cytogenetic techniques have sudgest two advantages:1)the results are easily extrapolated to humans; 2) the study of chromosomal mutations allows indirectly tsenivat probability of induction of gene mutations. To determine the degree of mutagenicity pollutants Bridges was proposed the principle of a discrete scale is include3 stage (op. At Fyaamm, 1977): Currently we developed cytogenetic analysis methods that are widely used in the study of chromosome sets and morphology of chromosomes in organisms belonging to different taxa. Preparations chromosomes can be prepared from any "willow tissues, cells coTorah actively dividing or division can be stimulated. In most cases, for these purposes, plant and animal cells are combined in vivo »and cultured in vitro Differences between" direct "and cultural methods relate only to the first stage of work, namely, a process for producing the material of which will be cooked preparations of chromosomes. Since receipt of a suspension of cells in a hypotonic solution treatment and before the actual preparation of chromosomal preparations -ostaetsya essentially unchanged. Usually the plants to produce drugs of mitotic chromosomes come from the meristem cells and meiotic – pollen. In animal organisms in order to obtain mitotic chromosomes pre¬paratov used spleen cells pe¬cheni, gonad, bone marrow, epithelial tissue, peripheral blood, embryonic tissue, and meiotic – testes ovaries. The main methods of preparation of chromosomal preparations in their various modifications are for plant facilities -Method pressure drugs for animals – method of dried pre¬paratov. Sometimes these purposes ultrathin tissue sections. Currently, in order to genetic monitoring of natural populations in our laboratory using the following test-system and methods of their cytogenetic analysis. For 7

the purpose of biological testing environment, we used the following vi¬dy organisms: the number of plants – "comb wheatgrass, wheatgrass pol¬zuchy bow drooping – fescue; animal – earthworms, grasshoppers, amphibians (lake and moor frogs, green frog), reptiles (sand lizard and snake patterned), mammals ( two speciesof wild mouse) .Chromosomale drugs are analyzed by conventional methods, which described in numerous manuals and cytogenetics [6,28,13,14,15,19]. Establishment of laws of the state and migration, the gradual accumulation of heavy metals in soils, plants and living organisms is an important task and of great importance to create a system for forecasting changes in the environment, and controlling the composition of the amounts for its development activities, reducing their revenues in plant products for human consumption. This is especially true for the north-western part of the South Kazakhstan region, part of the second group of regions of Kazakhstan on environmental risk as in the near future is expected to further expand areas of salinization and soil pollution, waterlogging, desertification, degradation of flora and fauna due to increased negative impact of the Aral Sea and the impact of other local anthropogenic factors. In this context, hazard assessment, communication between the actual environmental pollution and the health of the population is of particular importance. Among the many factors that impact on the environment and human body, occupies a special place radiation. First of all we are talking about artificially produced ionizing radiation resulting from the use of its sources in the nuclear industry, a number of processes and testing of nuclear weapons. Pollution by chemicals and other sources of ionizing radiation alters the environment in Earth's biosphere. Many factors, polluting environment and inherent genetic consequences. It is found that in the biosphere administered agents that are capable of penetrating into the germinal and somatic cells and hit therein the DNA molecule. Influence of mutagens in the genetic apparatus of humans and other organisms has a complex mechanism to understand the nature and extent of these influences, disturbing the vital activity of living organisms and evolution. To the knowledge of the genetic consequences must be a comprehensive assessment of the role of 8

hereditary disorders apparatus organisms under the influence of environmental mutagens and value ways to protect against DNA damage, which recorded genetic programs organisms. It is evident that at the heart of the problem is people. You need to know the extent to which irregularities in the human environment affect the health of people living on the genetic information for future generations. [90] Among the problems related to the environment in terms of science and technology, issues of particular importance assessment, forecasting and prevention of genetic consequences of pollution and other changes in the human environment. We are one of the most important environmental mutagens and their effects on human heredity. In Central Kazakhstan region changing environmental conditions has become one of the most acute problems. The region is ecologically unfavorable. So, in this area, along with the intensive development of coal, chemical, iron and steel industry are also Baikonur and nuclear test site, which had a negative impact on people and flora and fauna. For an in-depth study of living conditions of people living in areas adjacent to the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site showed significant changes in environmental conditions and health. Epidemiological analysis of morbidity and mortality of the population living in the region of Central Kazakhstan, near the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site has not only theoretical interest, but also important for practical health care, since it allows to plan the amount of health and social care patients and their families, including preventive measures. Of particular interest is the evaluation of longterm effects of chronic exposure of the public areas adjacent to the nuclear test site. The results of biomonitoring of environmental areas adjacent to the nuclear test site, conducted by a team of researchers led by Professor AB Bigalieva [30, 31] revealed significant differences between urban and rural populations for major demographic and genetic criteria. Among the most rural areas of environmental stress have been recognized and Egindybulaksky Karkaraly areas, due, apparently, the proximity of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, as well as with a significant distance from the regional center, low socioeconomic level of development. Epidemiological analysis of morbidity and mortality in the region carried out by employees of the Department of Nervous Diseases of the Karaganda State Medical Academy (KSMA) led by Professor CG Nadirova [80, 81, 161, 162, 9

163]. It has been 20 years since the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan to close the Semipalatinsk test site. Polygon is inactive, but they were generated by problems – the struggle with the consequences of nuclear testing, medical rehabilitation population. There is still a deal before the end of what health and environmental impacts of the landfill has left a legacy. In their reports, K. Boztaev and director of the Kazakh Institute of Radiation Medicine B.Gusev stress [35], that today 70-80% of the population around the landfill violated the immunity in 60% of infringements of the genetic code, the main value of any nation. Today, 62% of people in the region are born to exposed parents. Characteristically, the first and second generation, born from irradiated, less likely to suffer malformations than the third. It turned out to be the most vulnerable. In the region the next 10 years should be expected increase in the incidence of leukemia, and over the next 40 years – in other cancers. On the pages of the press T. Izmuhambetov [109] cites data from the official reference of the Commission on Semipalatinsk test site, where it is noted that in the Semipalatinsk region in the period from 1959 to 1987, death rates from leukemia has tripled. Congenital malformations resulted in a significant increase in child mortality. The frequency of children born with mental retardation followed in 1.5 times, and in some of its regions – 2.5-3 times and in areas adjacent to the landfill – in 3-5 times more than in the whole country. When a sample survey of the population in 1989, almost half of the decline in contingent revealed immunological status. The defeat of the somatic cell genetic structures may affect human health, and it is not only the degeneration of the body's cells from normal to cancer, but also due to the occurrence of the mutation changes the dysfunctional cells and tissues [117]. Due to changes in the human environment, environmental degradation, the expansion of the boundaries of marriage, increasing the number of human populations can vary the frequency of hereditary diseases due to changes in the intensity of the mutation process, segregation and selection events [43]. Therefore, among the problems related to environmental protection in modern conditions, issues of particular importance assessment, forecasting and prevention of genetic consequences of pollution and other changes in the human environment. In particular, one of the most important are 10

environmental mutagens and their effects on human heredity. According to AB Bigalieva [29] there is an urgent need to organize services of genetic monitoring, which should really determine the amount and growth of genetic effects in accordance with the degree of environmental violations and make recommendations to prevent the influence of the factors leading to an increase in the genetic load in human populations.

11

Chapter

1

1.1. Basics of general genetics Among complex of distinctive traits characterizing the living being, the properties of heredity and variation play an important role. Laws of heredity and variation and is studying science and genetics. Heredity – a property of living things pass on their characteristics and peculiarities of development of the offspring. Thanks to this conservative property from one generation to the similarity provided parents and offspring, as well as preserved species and breed characteristics. The process of transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring (ie. E. The phenomenon of inheritance) happens in bisexual organisms as a result of the merger of male and female sex cells (gametes) and the formation of a fertilized egg (zygote) to further its development. Volatility – this property is opposite of heredity, which is reflected in the differences on the basis of their combined and between individuals of different generations as well as between related organisms of one generation. Variability is divided into two types – hereditary and nonhereditary. Genetic variation occurs when under the influence of various external or internal factors hereditary material changes in the nuclei of sex cells (a mutation). Subsequently, these sex cells involved in fertilization, thereby transmitting the changed signs of descendants. This type of genetic variation is called a mutation variability. There is another type of genetic variation – combinative, which is formed by the combination of chromosomes (and genes) in the zygote at the confluence of the gametes, as well as in the fission process in the formation of sex cells. Non-hereditary variability is caused by 12

exposure to environmental factors that do not affect the germ cells, and change only the hereditary apparatus of somatic cells, ie. E. Cells of the body. Thus, these changes apply only to this organism and its limited ontogeny without transferring these changes (or modification) descendants. This non-hereditary variability is called the modification. Regarding the material basis of heredity and variation, it should be noted that the carriers of hereditary information are special selfreplicating cell structures – chromosomes, which are concentrated in the cell nucleus. Chromosomes are composed of a double helically twisted strands of DNA (dezok-siribonukleinovoy acid) and specific proteins. DNA strand in turn is composed of a large number of sequentially alternating nucleotides. The basic unit of heredity is the gene – the section of the DNA molecule, which contains information about the primary structure of the protein. By controlling the formation of the polypeptide chain of any protein, the gene thus controls the biochemical reactions of the body and together define its characteristics. All genes are located in chromosomes and successively at a certain distance from each other. The location of the gene on the chromosome is called locus. The number of chromosomes, their shape and size in the rate constant for each species. In normal cells of the body (somatic) chromosomes always exist in a state of doubles. These are identical in shape and size paired chromosomes are called homologous. Doubles or diploid set of chromosomes in somatic cells is called a karyotype and symbolically represents – 2n. For example, the dog karyotype of 78 chromosomes (2n = 78); human karyotype – 46 chromosomes (2n = 46); domestic horse – 64 (2n = 64). Gametes, unlike somatic comprise single (haploid) set of chromosomes -. For example, in the dog genome or haploid set of chromosomes, sperm and egg contains n – 39 chromosomes. This number of chromosomes in the germ cells (gametes) is crucial, consists in the fact that at fertilization haploid sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote, which develops from the embryo, and then a puppy having in each cell of the body a normal karyotype of 78 chromosomes, or 39 pair of homologous chromosomes. At each homologous pair of one chromosome comes from the father, and the other – from the mother. The karyotype in bisexual organisms pairs of homologous chromosomes are divided into autosomes (i.e.,asexual 13

chromosomes) and the sex chromosomes. By sex chromosomes include only one pair, which determines gender differences individual. Sex chromosomes, as opposed to autosomal, in size and shape differ from each other. One of them is larger and is denoted by «X», and the other, much smaller, – the symbol "Y". Females in mammals, in dogs also, karyotypes have a pair of identical sex chromosomes X. Female sex, so called homogametic andto the forms gametes of one type of sex chromosomes. Males in their karyotype has one X-chromosome,and the second – Y chromosome called heterogametic and to the sperm forms two different varieties of sex chromosomes. At the confluence of the two gametes zygote will have a couple of karyotype XX-chromosomes are formed and a female, as part of zygotes with a pair of XY chromosomes in the karyotype formed males. As already mentioned, the genes located on chromosome linearly in certain loci. Located in one chromosome genes are inherited together or feature is linked. Signs of genes which are in sex chromosomes are called sex-linked. In dogs, for example, on the X chromosome gene is hemophilia (h). Among other genetic terms and concepts there is a property of a gene as allelic. Allele – is a form of existence of the same gene present in a single locus homologous chromosome pair. In its form of existence or action, the genes are dominant and recessive. Dominant genes (they are usually denoted by capital Latin letters, such as A, B, C) inhibit the action of recessive (to refer to them using the same letter, but lowercase – a, b, c). Thus, a black coat color gene (B) is dominant over the browning gene (s). There are allelic and non-allelic genes. Nonallelic – are genes, located in different loci of the same chromosome, or in different chromosomes. Non-allelic genes come together in different forms of interaction, including such as epistasis, polymers pleiotropy modifying effects and other genes. Epistasis – this type of interaction between genes, one gene at which inhibits the action of another it nonallelic gene. It can be seen in succession in horses suit when a dominant gene gray color (C) inhibits the action of another dominant nonallelic gene sheep suit (B). Polymers or polymer interaction of genes characteristic in cases where the expression of one sign to have many pairs of action nonallelic genes. In this type of interaction between inherited all the complex quantitative polygenic 14

traits (running speed, weight, fertility, body measurements, and so on.). Pleiotropy observed when a single gene affects the formation of several features. In dogs, for example, discloses a gene that causes both hairless and hypoplasia of the dentition; albinism gene negatively affects vision, overall health, its susceptibility to different diseases; mottle gene defect causes the iris and glaucoma. Modifying effect of the gene is a gene modifier attenuates or amplifies the action of other major genes that control the development of certain features. For example, there is a modifier gene that affects the expression of the degree of patchiness in fox terriers, collies, dogs, sheep dogs. The designation of the two alleles of a locus of somatic chromosome pairs corresponds to the genotype of the locus. In general, the concept of genotype – a collection of all the genes of an organism. Depending on the combination of gene locus is homozygous genotype (AA, Aa), or heterozygous (Aa). With genotype phenotype closely related concept – a combination of external signs and internal characteristics of the organism. Phenotype is formed as a result of close cooperation between genotype and environmental conditions. Under the influence of different kinds of mutagens (chemicals, and so on). There are mutations – changes in genetic material of cells. Depending on the degree of mutagenic effects are divided into gene mutation, chromosomal and genomic. Gene mutations cause loss or replacement of individual sections of the gene nucleotide or any nitrogen base, i.e.part of nucleotide. For example, following repeated starting dominant gene mutation can be formed in a population or group of animals, a series of multiple alleles which increases genetic variability of a trait. In dogs, it is, for example, a series of multiple alleles for coat color. The effects of mutagenic factors can cause various chromosomal mutation as intrachromosomal interchromosomal and structural rearrangements, as well as an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes that often leads to serious negative consequences for the animal organism. Genomic mutations lead to the formation of abnormal cells with a change in the number of whole genome sets of chromosomes (the phenomenon of polyploidy). If the mutation occurs in somatic cells, the changes will be specific to these cells or tissues and organs derived from them. If mutational changes undergo sex cells 15

(gametes), these changes in the characteristics and properties will be transmitted to offspring, which often leads to the appearance in the phenotype of descendants of various types of abnormalities and deformities. However, the mutation may cause the appearance of such new features and properties that enhance the adaptive abilities of animals and fixed in generations by natural selection or through breeding dog breeders pursued. Subsequently, these altered signs have given rise to new breeds of dogs (eg, short-legged, hairless etc.). Thus, mutational variability is one of the most important factors and sources in the process of rock formation, and in evolutionary terms, and in the process of speciation. The whole range of complex changes taking place in the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring, subject to its laws and regulations. The discoverer of the basic laws of inheritance of traits in sexual reproduction is Gregor Mendel (1865). Let us consider briefly the basic laws of Mendel (in the case of total domination). The law of uniformity of hybrids of the first generation (F1) by crossing the homozygous parents. For example: from the crossing of the black coat color male homozygous genotype (BB), with brown bitch also a homozygous (BB), all pups (F1) in the litter will be uniform – black phenotype, genotype but they will be heterozygous (Aa ). Thus, in the first generation is shown only. These are identical in shape and size paired chromosomes are called homologous. Doubles or diploid set of chromosomes in somatic cells is called a karyotype and symbolically represents – 2n. For example, the dog karyotype of 78 chromosomes (2n = 78); human karyotype – 46 chromosomes (2n = 46); domestic horse – 64 (2n = 64). Gametes, unlike somatic comprise single (haploid) set of chromosomes -. For example, in the dog genome or haploid set of chromosomes, sperm and egg contains n – 39 chromosomes. This number of chromosomes in the germ cells (gametes) is crucial, consists in the fact that at fertilization haploid sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote, which develops from the embryo, and then a puppy having in each cell of the body a normal karyotype of 78 chromosomes, or 39 pair of homologous chromosomes. At each homologous pair of one chromosome comes from the father, and the other – from the mother. 16

The karyotype in bisexual organisms pairs of homologous chromosomes are divided into autosomes (i. e. Asexual chromosomes) and the sex chromosomes. By sex chromosomes include only one pair, which determines gender differences individual. Sex chromosomes, as opposed to autosomal, in size and shape differ from each other. One of them is larger and is denoted by «X», and the other, much smaller, – the symbol "Y". Females in mammals, r. H. In dogs, karyotypes have a pair of identical sex chromosomes X. Female sex, so called homogametic, t. To. The forms gametes of one type of sex chromosomes. Males in their karyotype has one X-chromosome, and the second – Y chromosome called heterogametic, t. To. The sperm forms two different varieties of sex chromosomes. At the confluence of the two gametes zygote will have a couple of karyotype XX-chromosomes are formed and a female, as part of zygotes with a pair of XY chromosomes in the karyotype formed males. As already mentioned, the genes located on chromosome linearly in certain loci. Located in one chromosome genes are inherited together or feature is linked. Signs of genes which are in sex chromosomes are called sex-linked. In dogs, for example, on the X chromosome gene is hemophilia (h). Among other genetic terms and concepts there is a property of a gene as allelic. Allele – is a form of existence of the same gene present in a single locus homologous chromosome pair. In its form of existence or action, the genes are dominant and recessive. Dominant genes (they are usually denoted by capital Latin letters, such as A, B, C) inhibit the action of recessive (to refer to them using the same letter, but lowercase – a, b, c). Thus, a black coat color gene (B) is dominant over the browning gene (s). There are allelic and non-allelic genes. Nonallelic – are genes, located in different loci of the same chromosome, or in different chromosomes. Non-allelic genes come together in different forms of interaction, including such as epistasis, polymers pleiotropy modifying effects and other genes. Epistasis – this type of interaction between genes, one gene at which inhibits the action of another it nonallelic gene. It can be seen in succession in horses suit when a dominant gene gray color (C) inhibits the action of another dominant nonallelic gene sheep suit (B). Polymers or polymer interaction of genes characteristic in cases where the expression of one sign to have many pairs of action 17

nonallelic genes. In this type of interaction between inherited all the complex quantitative polygenic traits (running speed, weight, fertility, body measurements, and so on. D.). Pleiotropy observed when a single gene affects the formation of several features. In dogs, for example, discloses a gene that causes both hairless and hypoplasia of the dentition; albinism gene negatively affects vision, overall health, its susceptibility to different diseases; mottle gene defect causes the iris and glaucoma. Modifying effect of the gene is a gene modifier attenuates or amplifies the action of other major genes that control the development of certain features. For example, there is a modifier gene that affects the expression of the degree of patchiness in fox terriers, collies, dogs, sheep dogs. The designation of the two alleles of a locus of somatic chromosome pairs corresponds to the genotype of the locus. In general, the concept of genotype – a collection of all the genes of an organism. Depending on the combination of gene locus is homozygous genotype (AA, Aa), or heterozygous (Aa). With genotype phenotype closely related concept – a combination of external signs and internal characteristics of the organism. Phenotype is formed as a result of close cooperation between genotype and environmental conditions. Under the influence of different kinds of mutagens (chemicals, and so on. D.) There are mutations – changes in genetic material of cells. Depending on the degree of mutagenic effects are divided into gene mutation, chromosomal and genomic. Gene mutations cause loss or replacement of individual sections of the gene nucleotide or any nitrogen base, M. E. Part of nucleotide. For example, following repeated starting dominant gene mutation can be formed in a population or group of animals, a series of multiple alleles which increases genetic variability of a trait. In dogs, it is, for example, a series of multiple alleles for coat color. The effects of mutagenic factors can cause various chromosomal mutation as intrachromosomal interchromosomal and structural rearrangements, as well as an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes that often leads to serious negative consequences for the animal organism. Genomic mutations lead to the formation of abnormal cells with a change in the number of whole genome sets of chromosomes (the phenomenon of polyploidy). 18

If the mutation occurs in somatic cells, the changes will be specific to these cells or tissues and organs derived from them. If mutational changes undergo sex cells (gametes), these changes in the characteristics and properties will be transmitted to offspring, which often leads to the appearance in the phenotype of descendants of various types of abnormalities and deformities. However, the mutation may cause the appearance of such new features and properties that enhance the adaptive abilities of animals and fixed in generations by natural selection or through breeding dog breeders pursued. Subsequently, these altered signs have given rise to new breeds of dogs (eg, short-legged, hairless etc.). Thus, mutational variability is one of the most important factors and sources in the process of rock formation, and in evolutionary terms, and in the process of speciation. The whole range of complex changes taking place in the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring, subject to its laws and regulations. The discoverer of the basic laws of inheritance of traits in sexual reproduction is Gregor Mendel (1865). Let us consider briefly the basic laws of Mendel (in the case of total domination). The law of uniformity of hybrids of the first generation (F1) by crossing the homozygous parents. For example: from the crossing of the black coat color male homozygous genotype (BB), with brown bitch also a homozygous (BB), all pups (F1) in the litter will be uniform – black phenotype, genotype but they will be heterozygous (Aa ). Thus, in the first generation is shown only. one of the two alternative characters (called dominant), and the second sign is not shown, it is depressed, a latent state (called recessive). This first law of uniformity Mendel called the rule of dominance. It should be noted that the interaction of the genes of the same locus, there are several types of dominance, namely complete, incomplete, and superdominance kodominirovanie. Briefly explain these concepts. Complete dominance occurs most often when a dominant gene suppresses the effect of the same recessive gene locus. Incomplete dominance speaks for itself. For example, the solid color is incomplete dominant over pinto. Superdominance – this type of dominance in which the offspring there is a strong sign of development than parents. Moreover, according to scientists at Superdominance dominant gene in one dose 19

(Aa) has a greater influence on the development of characteristic than in the double (AA). When kodominirovanii in the phenotype of descendants occur simultaneously, both alleles of the gene locus, t. E., Both parents sign (inheritance types of hemoglobin, blood group, etc..). Law gybridization second generation (F2) in the crossing heterozygous parents. Continuing the example of the coat color. When crossing black males and females – the first generation hybrids, the heterozygous genotype, the second generation pups born among the animals will be observed two types of coat color: 75% of the litter with a dominant feature of black color and 25% of the pups from the recessive brown color coat, t. e. there was splitting at a ratio of phenotypically 3: 1 into two phenotypic classes. By splitting in the same genotype F2 is a 25% of puppies with a dominant homozygous genotype (BB), 50% of the heterozygous genotype (BB) and 25% of the animals with a homozygous recessive genotype (BB). Thus, cleavage by genotype observed in the ratio 1: 2: 1 or BB BB BB. 3. The law of independent inheritance is expressed in the fact that each pair of alleles inherited independently of each other. This law can be observed in dihybrid cross, t. E. Keep records of when the inheritance of two pairs of genes (or on two different grounds, such as coat color and character of the coat). In the case of two-hybrid mating splitting phenotype, e.g., be in the ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1. I must say that this law is valid only for unlinked genes t. E. For those who are in different chromosomes. It should be emphasized that Mendel's laws appear statistically confirmed only in a large number of individuals. These laws can not be found in the crossing, say, one or two or three pairs of parents, especially when it comes to the law of splitting attributes in the offspring. Laws of inheritance formulated by Gregor Mendel, characteristic of the so-called monogenic traits, t. E. Those characteristics, the possibility of which is related to the action of one major gene. Such signs are also called Mendelian accepted. Phenotypic expression of monogenic traits is less dependent on the environment and make the most due to heredity. Such signs are called more qualitative alternative, intermittent variability (eg symptoms already mentioned coat color, character crimp coat, and smoothhaired, spotted, color of eyes and nose, and so on. D.). Along with monogenic (quality) and there are signs that are caused by the action of many genes (polymers or polygenic). This quantitative (nondiscrete) signs which form a continuous series of volatility, since their 20

expression depends on environmental conditions. Among polygenic traits, except such as body weight, exterior measurements et al., Are behavioral signs of dogs and other animals. Those who wish to learn the basics of general genetics in a simplified form, can be recommended to apply to the relevant articles in national magazines canine or translated books by authors such as, for example, X. Harmar and others. For a more in-depth study of the foundations of genetics it is advisable to refer to the authors of such fundamental editions Genetics as M.E. Lobashev, F. Ayala, J. Kayger and others. At present, we can say that such quality monogenic as painting and the structural features of coat dogs are relatively well studied genetically. However, still remain topical issues of studying the nature of inheritance of many morphological and physiological traits, among which an important place occupied by behavioral. That achieved and what problems still remain in this area of genetic research, and will be discussed in this sequel. Genetics – the section of general biology, which studies fundamental properties of living: heredity and variation. These are identical in shape and size paired chromosomes are called homologous. Doubles or diploid set of chromosomes in somatic cells is called a karyotype and symbolically represents – 2n. For example, the dog karyotype of 78 chromosomes (2n = 78); human karyotype – 46 chromosomes (2n = 46); domestic horse – 64 (2n = 64). Gametes, unlike somatic comprise single (haploid) set of chromosomes -. For example, in the dog genome or haploid set of chromosomes, sperm and egg contains n – 39 chromosomes. This number of chromosomes in the germ cells (gametes) is crucial, consists in the fact that at fertilization haploid sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote, which develops from the embryo, and then a puppy having in each cell of the body a normal karyotype of 78 chromosomes, or 39 pair of homologous chromosomes. At each homologous pair of one chromosome comes from the father, and the other – from the mother. The karyotype in bisexual organisms pairs of homologous chromosomes are divided into autosomes (t. E. Asexual chromosomes) and the sex chromosomes. By sex chromosomes include only one pair, which determines gender differences individual. Sex chromosomes, as opposed to autosomal, in size and shape differ from each other. One of them is larger and is denoted by «X», and the other, much smaller, 21

– the symbol "Y". Females in mammals, r. H. In dogs, karyotypes have a pair of identical sex chromosomes X. Female sex, so called homogametic, t. To. The forms gametes of one type of sex chromosomes. Males in their karyotype has one X-chromosome, and the second – Y chromosome called heterogametic, t. To. The sperm forms two different varieties of sex chromosomes. At the confluence of the two gametes zygote will have a couple of karyotype XXchromosomes are formed and a female, as part of zygotes with a pair of XY chromosomes in the karyotype formed males. As already mentioned, the genes located on chromosome linearly in certain loci. Located in one chromosome genes are inherited together or feature is linked. Signs of genes which are in sex chromosomes are called sexlinked. In dogs, for example, on the X chromosome gene is hemophilia (h). Among other genetic terms and concepts there is a property of a gene as allelic. Allele – is a form of existence of the same gene present in a single locus homologous chromosome pair. In its form of existence or action, the genes are dominant and recessive. Dominant genes (they are usually denoted by capital Latin letters, such as A, B, C) inhibit the action of recessive (to refer to them using the same letter, but lowercase – a, b, c). The designation of the two alleles of a locus of somatic chromosome pairs corresponds to the genotype of the locus. In general, the concept of genotype – a collection of all the genes of an organism. Depending on the combination of gene locus is homozygous genotype (AA, Aa), or heterozygous (Aa). With genotype phenotype closely related concept – a combination of external signs and internal characteristics of the organism. Phenotype is formed as a result of close cooperation between genotype and environmental conditions. Under the influence of different kinds of mutagens (chemicals, and so on. D.) There are mutations – changes in genetic material of cells. Depending on the degree of mutagenic effects are divided into gene mutation, chromosomal and genomic. Gene mutations cause loss or replacement of individual sections of the gene nucleotide or any nitrogen base, m. E. Part of nucleotide. For example, following repeated starting dominant gene mutation can be formed in a population or group of animals, a series of multiple alleles which increases genetic variability of a trait. In dogs, it is, for example, a series of multiple alleles for coat color. The effects of mutagenic factors can cause various chromosomal 22

mutation as intrachromosomal interchromosomal and structural rearrangements, as well as an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes that often leads to serious negative consequences for the animal organism. Genomic mutations lead to the formation of abnormal cells with a change in the number of whole genome sets of chromosomes (the phenomenon of polyploidy). If the mutation occurs in somatic cells, the changes will be specific to these cells or tissues and organs derived from them. If mutational changes undergo sex cells (gametes), these changes in the characteristics and properties will be transmitted to offspring, which often leads to the appearance in the phenotype of descendants of various types of abnormalities and deformities. However, the mutation may cause the appearance of such new features and properties that enhance the adaptive abilities of animals and fixed in generations by natural selection or through breeding dog breeders pursued. Subsequently, these altered signs have given rise to new breeds of dogs (eg, shortlegged, hairless, mopsovidnost etc.). Thus, mutational variability is one of the most important factors and sources in the process of rock formation, and in evolutionary terms, and in the process of speciation. The whole range of complex changes taking place in the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to offspring, subject to its laws and regulations. The discoverer of the basic laws of inheritance of traits in sexual reproduction is Gregor Mendel (1865). Let us consider briefly the basic laws of Mendel (in the case of total domination). The law of uniformity of hybrids of the first generation (F1) by crossing the homozygous parents. For example: from the crossing of the black coat color male homozygous genotype (BB), with brown bitch also a homozygous (BB), all pups (F1) in the litter will be uniform – black phenotype, genotype but they will be heterozygous (Aa ). Thus, in the first generation is shown only. one of the two alternative characters (called dominant), and the second sign is not shown, it is depressed, a latent state (called recessive). This first law of uniformity Mendel called the rule of dominance. It should be noted that the interaction of the genes of the same locus, there are several types of dominance, namely complete, incomplete, and superdominance kodominirovanie. Briefly explain these concepts. 23

Complete dominance occurs most often when a dominant gene suppresses the effect of the same recessive gene locus. Incomplete dominance speaks for itself. For example, the solid color is incomplete dominant over pinto. Superdominance – this type of dominance in which the offspring there is a strong sign of development than parents. Moreover, according to scientists at Superdominance dominant gene in one dose (Aa) has a greater influence on the development of characteristic than in the double (AA). When kodominirovanii in the phenotype of descendants occur simultaneously, both alleles of the gene locus, t. E., Both parents sign (inheritance types of hemoglobin, blood group, etc..). Law gybridization second generation (F2) in the crossing heterozygous parents. Continuing the example of the coat color. When crossing black males and females – the first generation hybrids, the heterozygous genotype, the second generation pups born among the animals will be observed two types of coat color: 75% of the litter with a dominant feature of black color and 25% of the pups from the recessive brown color coat, t. e. there was splitting at a ratio of phenotypically 3: 1 into two phenotypic classes. By splitting in the same genotype F2 is a 25% of puppies with a dominant homozygous genotype (BB), 50% of the heterozygous genotype (BB) and 25% of the animals with a homozygous recessive genotype (BB). Thus, cleavage by genotype observed in the ratio 1: 2: 1 or BB BB BB. 3. The law of independent inheritance is expressed in the fact that each pair of alleles inherited independently of each other. This law can be observed in dihybrid cross, t. E. Keep records of when the inheritance of two pairs of genes (or on two different grounds, such as coat color and character of the coat). In the case of two-hybrid mating splitting phenotype, e.g., be in the ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1. I must say that this law is valid only for unlinked genes t. E. For those who are in different chromosomes. It should be emphasized that Mendel's laws appear statistically confirmed only in a large number of individuals. These laws can not be found in the crossing, say, one or two or three pairs of parents, especially when it comes to the law of splitting attributes in the offspring. Laws of inheritance formulated by Gregor Mendel, characteristic of the socalled monogenic traits, t. E. Those characteristics, the possibility of which is related to the action of one major gene. Such signs are also called Mendelian 24

accepted. Phenotypic expression of monogenic traits is less dependent on the environment and make the most due to heredity. Such signs are called more qualitative alternative, intermittent variability (eg symptoms already mentioned coat color, character crimp coat, and smooth-haired, spotted, color of eyes and nose, and so on. D.). Along with monogenic (quality) and there are signs that are caused by the action of many genes (polymers or polygenic). This quantitative (nondiscrete) signs which form a continuous series of volatility, since their expression depends on environmental conditions. Among polygenic traits, except such as body weight, exterior measurements et al., Are behavioral signs of dogs and other animals. Those who wish to learn the basics of general genetics in a simplified form, can be recommended to apply to the relevant articles in national magazines canine or translated books by authors such as, for example, X. Harmar and others. For a more in-depth study of the foundations of genetics it is advisable to refer to the authors of such fundamental editions Genetics as M.E. Lobashev, F. Ayala, J. Kayger and others. At present, we can say that such quality monogenic as painting and the structural features of coat dogs are relatively well studied genetically. However, still remain topical issues of studying the nature of inheritance of many morphological and physiological traits, among which an important place occupied by behavioral. That achieved and what problems still remain in this area of genetic research, and will be discussed in this sequel. Genetics – the section of general biology, which studies fundamental properties of living: heredity and variation. Heredity – characteristics of an organism to provide the material and functional continuity between generations, as well as the specific scheme of individual development (ontogeny) in specific environmental conditions. The functional unit of genetic material is a gene – a fragment of DNA containing information on the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide. Information contained in the gene is realized through protein biosynthesis involving cytoplasmic gene which is in constant interaction. Symptom becomes a reality when in the cytoplasm appears activity of the gene product. Simple symptoms develop as a result of a specific type of interaction between the relevant alleles (monogenic inheritance). Most of the signs is controlled by the combined action of 25

many genes (-to ligennoe inheritance). The set of genes of an organism forms the genotype. Genotype is a historically established a balanced system of genes affect the function and expression of each gene. Genotype is implemented under specific environmental conditions, which largely determines the final result of manifestation of genes by changing their penetrance (the frequency of gene expression in a sign) and expression (the degree of phenotypic expression of the gene). The interaction between genotype and environmental factors are formed species and the individual properties of the individual – phenotype. Variability – organisms to acquire property in the process of individual development of new morphological and functional features that distinguish them from their parents. Phenotypic (non-hereditary) variability characterized by the formation of different options feature in response to external factors. Its basic shape – modification variability, is adaptive in nature and aimed at the survival of the organism in these conditions. It is limited by the norm of reaction. Changes in the phenotype beyond the norm of reaction – Morphosis, usually accompanied by pathological manifestations. Genotypic variability associated with changes in the genotype at the gene, chromosome and genome level of the organization of hereditary material. It occurs under the influence of different factors can be inherited, creates countless diversity of phenotypic manifestations underlies evolutionary transformations of organisms. Human Genetics – Section of General Genetics, is of greatest interest to the physician. With the features of a person as an object of genetic research related to the use of special techniques, such as genealogy, twin, cultivation and hybridization of somatic cells, biological and mathematical modeling, by which sets the type and nature of the inheritance of a person, their mono- or polygenic, penetrance and expressivity, the impact environmental factors on their expression. Medical Genetics examines the causes and mechanisms of hereditary diseases and genetic predisposition to the disease, such as coronary artery, hypertension and peptic ulcer disease, neurodermatitis, etc. The objective of Medical Genetics – early recognition, diagnosis of hereditary diseases, identification of precipitating factors of the environment, appropriate treatment. Especially important is the organization of genetic counseling for the prediction, prevention and prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases. Population genetics studies human patterns of distribution of certain 26

genes in the human population, population genetic structure and its changes under the influence of elementary evolutionary factors. She finds out the reasons for the prevalence of hereditary diseases on the planet, as well as individual people's reactions to the action of pathogens, drugs and therapeutic interventions. In our view, it would be wrong to call ecological genetics (ecogenetics) of the industry. Ecogenetics analysis of genes impact that are used by different ways: a) seeds tissue of one cell kernel have place the transplantation process into the second cell, b) methods of embryology tissue growth analysis, development of immunological reaction. However, genetics and genetic variability studied in three main areas: reproduction of the organisms in the gender condition, material and structure of gene, the gene variation in ontogeny and functions. The problem of genetic officials with 1900 years did not include one of the three countries in three different sites hereditary scientist generation, Mr.Hugo de Freeze (Netherlands) discovered the fundamental laws by using poppy and other plants “as result of the hybrids, Division of legitimacy”, wrote K. Korrens (Germany), corn and pepper e. Čermák (Austria) opened the bombing legality. DiscoveryScienceisalmostrandom. Was’nt correct of our mean, if use termine industrial ontogenetics. For ontogenetical analysis of gene effects used available methods: а) nuclear from one cell of plant seeds or tissue transmitted to another cell, б) methods of analysis of tissue growing on embryonic development stage and immunological reactions. But genetics and heredity variability is study at three basic directions: the organisms reproduction of sexual stability, gene material and structure, the changing of gene of ontogenesis and his functions. Because science development is associated with team work and has resulted in opening the inheritance laws. In Brno, these three laws opened the scientist Gregor Mendel in 1865, and the researchers of “the Scriptures Society", published the article "experiments with plants " in open form. There is no need to tell you that in the history of genetics, because of the content of the monograph devoted to the genetic problems, it is necessary to discuss its development problems and prospects. It is necessary to know the modern genetic problems of heredity and variation in the overall structure. A study of mechanism of changes in genes and chromosomes in the cells of its own 27

production, and the most common reactions and the effect of genes in an organism as a whole is difficult to control the appearance of the characters and qualities. At the same time, recognizing the evolution of the organic nature of heredity, variation and selection, is the need to study the relationship. Present and future genetic problems are to identify the most important phenomena of nature and the potential of not only the above-mentioned problems in theoretical study, but also to address many of the practical problems of genetics, these are some of the most important tasks. There are peasant production tool where explains how to grow the seeds of plants or animals varieties in rural areas. What is Ecological Genetics? Ecological genetics is at the interface of ecology, evolution, and genetics, and thus includes important elements from each of these fields. We can use two closely related definitions to help describe the scope of ecological genetics: 1. Ecological genetics is concerned with the genetics of ecologically important traits, that is, those traits related to fitness such as survival and reproduction. Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organismsin other words, how many individuals there are, where they live, and why. Distribution and abundance are determined by birth rates and death rates, which in turn are determined by interactions with theorganism’s biotic and abiotic environment. These interactions include predation, competition, and the ability to find mates, food, and shelter. Consider traits that would help an organism deal with each of these interactions. Cryptic coloration could help a beetle avoid being eaten, growing tall could help a plant compete with other plants for light, and a thick coat of fur might help a mouse survive winter cold. These are examples of ecologically important traits: those traits that are closely tied to fitness or, in other words, are important in determining anorganism’s adaptation to its natural environment, both biotic andabiotic. Ecological genetics can also be defined as the study of the process of phe- notypic evolution occurring in present-day natural populations . Phenotypic evolution can be defined as a change in the mean or variance of atrait:those traits that are closely tied to fitness or, in other words, are important in determining 28

anorganism’s adaptation to its natural environment, both biotic andabiotic. Ecological genetics can also be defined as the study of the process of phe- notypic evolution occurring in present-day natural populations . Phenotypic evolution can be defined as a change in the mean or variance of atraitacross generations due to changes in allele frequencies. The fourprocesses that can cause evolution are mutation, genetic drift, migration, and natural selection. All of these processes are described and the last three inparticular are closely related to ecology and therefore appear throughout the book. Ecological factors can cause population size to decline, and the resulting small population size causes geneticdrift.Migration is clearly ecological, but how is natural selection related to ecology? Selection is caused by differences in fitness among organisms in a population, and these fitness differences are caused in part by interactions with the environment as previouslymentioned. Our two definitions are tied together by the concept of adaptation, which is the central theme of ecological genetics. An adaptationis a phenotypic trait that has evolved to help an organism deal with something in its envi- ronment. Like most ecologically important traits, the examples given above are adaptations. Natural selection is special among the four evolutionary processes because it is the only one that leads to adaptation. Mutation, genetic drift, and migration can either speed up or constrain the develop- ment of adaptations, but they cannot causeadaptation.An overview of these ideas is shown in Figure 1. which summarizes much of what will be covered in this book. Beginning at the top, ecological factors, both biotic and abiotic, can cause fitness differences among organisms with different phenotypes within the population; this is natural selection. If mutation and recombination create genetic variation for these phe- notypic traits, then the selection can act on this variation to change the genetic composition of the population. The genetics of the population can also be affected by gene flow from other populations with different genetic composition, or by genetic drift if the population size is small. All these changes in genetic composition are likely to feed back and affect the genetic variation for the phenotypic traits, as well as change the average phenotype in the population across 29

generations. These phenotypic changes can lead to an improvement in the ability of the population to survive and reproduce in its biotic and abiotic environment; that is, it can leadto adaptation.

Figure 1. A schematic overview of key concepts in ecological genetics.

As an example, a deer mouse is part of a beetle’s biotic environment, and may cause beetles with increased defensive secretions to have higher fitness than those with less secretions, if the secretions deter deer mouse predation. If this phenotypic variation is caused at least in part by underlying genetic variation, then this will cause an increase in the frequency of alleles that increase defensive secretions. (An alleleis a particular type of a given gene.) This increase in allele frequency across generations may be slowed by ran- dom genetic drift, or by gene flow from other beetle populations with low frequencies of the highsecretion alleles (perhaps because there are fewer mice coexisting with those other populations). Selection and drift may decrease genetic variation for secretion quantity, also slowing future evolution of secretions. If the average secretion quantity in the population increases in spite of these constraints, then this may 30

reduce the impact of mouse predation in subsequent generations, increasing adaptation of the beetles to this environmentalfactor. Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within and among populations, focusing on the processes that affect genotypic and allele frequencies at one or a few gene loci. These processes include inbreeding, mutation, migration, drift, and selection; the genotypic and allele frequencies are revealed mainly through molecular markers. Population genetics for the most part does not focus on phenotypes, since the genes and alleles underlying most phenotypic traits are unknown, especially in natural populations. This is because most phe- notypic traits are complex, being affected by several to many gene loci and by theenvironment. At the chapter cover the field of quantitative genetics,which does focus on the phenotype, usually without knowing the genotypes underlying the traits. In theplace of genotypic information, statistical abstractions such as variance, correlation, and heritability are used in quantitative genetics to help understand the genetics of complex phenotypes. QTL mapping (cov- ered at the end of Chapter 5) is a marriage of molecular and statistical tech- niques for studying the genetics of complex phenotypic traits. QTLmappingis a first step in discovering the genes underlying phenotypic traits in nat- ural populations, bringing together the fields of population and quantitative genetics. This convergence is very likely to lead to fundamental new insights in ecologicalgenetics. The chapter is on techniques developed from quantitative genetics for studying natural selection on phenotypic traits (rather than on genotypes as in population genetics). These techniques have allowed biologists to mea- sure the strength and direction of selection in natural populations, as well as help determine the ecological causes of the selection. At the chapteralso synthesizes the quantitative genetic materialand shows how short-term evolution can be predicted in natural populations using knowledge of genetic variance and the strengthof selection. Since ecological genetics is at the interface between ecology, evolution and genetics, it is a critical component of all three fields, as well as essential for the study of some of society’s problems. Late we will discuss the importance of ecological genetic principles in conservation, the spread of invasive species, the evolution of pesticide, 31

herbicide, and antibiotic resistance, and the environmental effects of genetically modified organisms used in agriculture. The focus of the book will be on diploid sexual organisms. Most of the concepts covered also apply to asexual and haploid organisms, but there are important differences. Most of our examples will come from studies of plants and animals, because the ecological genetics of most microorganisms and fungi are not as wellknown. Basic Genetic Terms A gene is a stretch of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) coding for a polypeptide chain; one or more polypeptides make up a protein. The genetic information in DNA is coded in the sequence of four nucleotides, abbreviated according to the identity of the nitrogenous basethat each contains: A (adenine), G (guanine), T (thymine), or C (cytosine). DNA molecules normally consist of two complementary helical strands held together by pairing between the bases: A in one strand is paired with T in the other strand, and G in one strand is paired with C in theother. The process of creating proteins from the genetic code in DNA is called gene expression.The essentials of gene expression in the cells of eukaryotes are outlined in Figure 1. The first step is transcription, in which the sequence of nucleotides present in one DNA strand of a gene is faithfully copied into the nucleotides of an RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule. As the RNA transcript is synthesized, each base in the DNA undergoes pairing with a base in an RNA nucleotide, which is then added to the growing RNA strand. The base-pairing rules are the same as those in DNA, except that in RNA nucleotides the base U (uracil) is found instead of T (thymine). The second step of gene expression is RNA processing, in which intervening sequences or intronsareremovedof pesticide, herbicide, and antibiotic resistance, and the environmental effects of genetically modified organisms used in agriculture. The focus of the book will be on diploid sexual organisms. Most of the concepts covered also apply to asexual and haploid organisms, but there are important differences. Most of our examples will come from studies of plants and animals, because the ecological genetics of most microorganisms and fungi are not as wellknown. 32

The base-pairing rules are the same as those in DNA, except that in RNA nucleotides the base U (uracil) is found instead of T (thymine). The second step of gene expression is RNA processing, in which intervening sequences or intronsareremoved from the RNA transcript by splicing and the ends of the transcript are modi- fied. The regions between the introns that remain in the fully processed RNA are known as exons; these are the sequences that actually code for proteins. The fully processed RNA constitutes the messenger RNA(mRNA).

Figure 2. Principal processes in gene expression in eukaryotes

33

The messenger RNA undergoes translationon ribosomes in the cyto- plasm to produce the polypeptide that is encoded in the sequence of nucleotides. In the translated part of the messenger RNA, each adjacent group of three nucleotides constitutes a coding group or codon, which spec- ifies a corresponding amino acid subunit in the polypeptide chain. Thestandard genetic code showing which codons specify which amino acids is given in Table 1. After each three-letter codon are the three- and one-letter designations for the 20 amino acids. The three-letter and one-letter abbrevi- ations are both established conventions. Note that in many cases changes in the third base in the codon do not change the amino acid that is specified; therefore, much variation at this position is not expressed (sometimes called the “silent” position). The codon AUG specifies methionine and also serves as the start codon for polypeptide synthesis. Any of three codons—UAA, UAG, or UGA—specify the end, or termination, of polypeptide synthesis, upon which the completed polypeptide chain is released from the ribosome. The start andstop codons are shaded in Table 1. All the DNA in a cell is collectively called the genome. Genome size is typically expressed as the amount of DNA in a reproductive cell (sperm or egg), and it differs greatly among species. For example, the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant for genetic studies, consists of about 120 million base pairs, whereas the genome of the lily Fritillaria is 1000 times as large, about 120 billion base pairs. The human genome is about 3 billion base pairs. Genes are arranged in linear order along microscopic threadlike bod- ies called chromosomes. Each human gamete (sperm or egg) contains one complete set of 23 chromosomes; this is the haploid chromosome number, designated as n. Chromosome number can vary greatly: n = 2 in some scor- pions and 127 in a species of hermit crab! A typical chromosome contains several thousand genes, in humans averaging approximately 1500 genes per chromosome. The position of a gene along a chromosome is called the locus of the gene. Sometimes the words gene and locus are used interchangeably, which can lead to confusion. Recombination between loci can occur during meiosis, which creates new combinations of alleles at these different loci. Recombination is 34

rarer between loci that are close together on the chromo- some; these loci are said to be geneticallylinked. Table 1 Thestandard geneticcode First nucleotide in codon (5’ end)

U

C

A

G

Second nucleotide in codon U

C

A

G

Third nucleotide in codon (3’ end)

UUU Phe / F UCU Ser / S UAU Tyr / Y UUC Phe / F UCC Ser / S UAC Tyr / Y UUA Leu / L UCA Ser / S UUG Leu / L UCG Ser / S UAAStop UAGStop

UGU Cys / C U C A G UGC Cys / C UGAStop

CUU Leu / L CUC Leu / L CUA Leu / L CUG Leu / L

CGU Arg / R U C A G CGC Arg / R CGA Arg / R CGG Arg / R

CCU Pro / P CAU His / H CCC Pro / P CAC His / H CCA Pro / P CAA Gln / Q CCG Pro / P CAG Gln / Q

UGG Trp /W

AUU Ile / I ACU Thr / T AAU Asn / N AUC Ile / I ACC Thr / T AAC Asn / N AUA Ile / I ACA Thr / T AAA Lys / K AUG Met / ACG Thr / T AAG Lys / K M

AGU Ser / S U C A G AGC Ser / S AGA Arg / R AGG Arg / R

GUU Val / V GUC Val / V GUA Val / V GUG Val / V

GGU Gly / G U C A G GGC Gly / G GGA Gly / G GGG Gly / G

GCU Ala /A GAU Asp / D GCC Ala / A GAC Asp / D GCA Ala /A GAA Glu / E GCG Ala /A GAG Glu / E

In most multicellularorganisms, each individual cell contains two copies of each type of chromosome, one inherited from its mother through the egg and one inherited from its father through the sperm (so the diploid chromosome number, 2 n, is 46 in humans and 254 in hermit crabs). Note that these two copies of the chromosome are not the two complementary strands of DNA; each chromosome consists of a double-stranded DNA mol- ecule. At any locus, therefore, every diploid individual contains two copies of the gene—one at each corresponding (homologous) 35

position in the maternal and paternal chromosome. These two copies are the alleles of the gene in that individual. If the two alleles at a locus are indistinguishable according to any particular experimental criterion, then the individual is homozygous at the locus under consideration. If the two alleles at a locus are distinguishable by means of this criterion, then the individual is het- erozygous at thelocus.The genotype of an individual is the diploid pair of alleles present at a given locus. Therefore, homozygous and heterozygous are the two major categories of genotypes. Typographically, genes are indicated in italics, and alleles are typically distinguished by uppercase or lowercase letters (A ver- susa), subscripts (A1 versusA2), superscripts (a+versusa–), orsometimesjust+ and –. Using these symbols, the genotype of homozygous individualswould be portrayed by any of these formulas: AA, aa, A 1A1, A2A2, a+a+, a–a–,+ / +, or – / –. As in the last two examples, the slash is sometimes used toseparate alleles present in homologous chromosomes to avoid ambiguity. The genotype of heterozygous individuals would be portrayed by any of the for- mulas Aa, A1A2, a+ a–, or + / –.The outward appearance of an organism for a given characteristic isits phenotype. Phenotypic traits can be defined at a number of hierarchical lev- els, each one dependent on a number of traits at lower levels. For example, the form of an enzyme encoded by a gene is a phenotype, as is a physiologi- cal function like metabolic rate that depends on a number of enzymes. A number of different physiological functions affect morphological traitslikeheight, and physiology and morphology together can affect behavioral phenotypes such as courtship. Finally, all these lower level traits can affect life history traits like survival and reproduction, which determine the ultimatetrait of individual fitness. The traits that are higher in this hierarchy are more complex and affected by more gene loci. The expression of most phenotypic traits, and especially the higher level ones, are also affected to varying degrees by the environment. This complexity means that the same genotype can produce different phenotypes, through the action of the environment. Conversely, the different genotypes can produce the 36

same phenotypes, again due to the environment and also due to gene interactions. Ecological genetics is the study of genetics of natural populations. This contrasts with classical genetics, which works mostly on crosses between laboratory strains, and DNA sequence analysis, which studies genes at the molecular level. Research in this field is on traits of ecological significance—that is, traits related to fitness, which affect an organism's survival and reproduction. Examples might be: flowering time, drought tolerance, polymorphism, mimicry, avoidance of attacks by predators. Research usually involves a mixture of field and laboratory studies.[1] Samples of natural populations may be taken back to the laboratory for their genetic variation to be analysed. Changes in the populations at different times and places will be noted, and the pattern of mortality in these populations will be studied. Research is often done on insects and other organisms that have short generation times. Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environments, whereas ecological genetics focuses more specifically on the genetics of ecologically important traits, i.e., traits that influence ecological relationships. At its inception, ecological genetics focused particularly on traits that influence fitness, such as those that affect survival and reproduction. This focus is maintained in its current form, although ecological genetics now also investigates the ecological and evolutionary processes that influence patterns of genetic variation in natural populations. Therefore, it can also be considered a study of genetic processes associated with microevolutionary change. Although both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace brought together ecological and genetic concepts in the 19th century, the term “ecological genetics” was first used by E. B. Ford in his groundbreaking book Ecological Genetics. The field has evolved considerably since that time and now overlaps substantially with molecular ecology, a closely related field that uses molecular genetic tools to study questions in ecology. The only real difference between molecular ecology and ecological genetics is that the latter is not limited to studies based on molecular genetics. Instead, the term “ecological genetics” can refer to any study of the genetics of natural populations, whether they are based on molecular genetics, population genetics, or quantitative genetics. However, molecular genetic 37

techniques are increasingly accessible and increasingly informative, and they often provide a relatively fast and cost-effective way to get data. As a result, the majority of ecological genetic studies now incorporate a combination of field and molecular genetic data, and the functional line between ecological genetics and molecular ecology is increasingly blurred. History. Although work on natural populations had been done previously, it is acknowledged that the field was founded by the English biologist E.B. Ford (1901–1988) in the early 20th century. Ford was taught genetics at Oxford University by Julian Huxley, and started research on the genetics of natural populations in 1924. Ford also had a long working relationship with R.A. Fisher. By the time Ford had developed his formal definition of genetic polymorphism. Fisher had got accustomed to high natural selection values in nature. This was one of the main outcomes of research on natural populations. Ford's magnum opus was Ecological genetics, which ran to four editions and was widely influential. Other notable ecological geneticists would include Theodosius Dobzhansky who worked on chromosome polymorphism in fruit flies. As a young researcher in Russia, Dobzhansky had been influenced by Sergei Chetverikov, who also deserves to be remembered as a founder of genetics in the field, though his significance was not appreciated until much later. Dobzhansky and colleagues carried out studies on natural populations of Drosophila species in western USA and Mexico over many years. Philip Sheppard, Cyril Clarke, Bernard Kettlewell and A.J. Cain were all strongly influenced by Ford; their careers date from the post World War II era. Collectively, their work on lepidoptera, and on human blood groups, established the field, and threw light on selection in natural populations where its role had been once doubted.Work of this kind needs long-term funding, as well as grounding in both ecology and genetics. These are both difficult requirements. Research projects can last longer than a researcher's career; for instance, research into mimicry started 150 years ago, and is still going strongly. Funding of this type of research is still rather erratic, but at least the value of working with natural populations in the field cannot now be doubted. The field of ecological genetics was formally developed by E. B. Ford, whose book Ecological Genetics was first published in 1964 (Ford 1964). In a review of this 38

book, the eminent evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky identified it as a very important contribution to the biological theory of evolution (also known as the synthetic theory of evolution, or the evolutionary synthesis), based largely on the work of a group of researchers at Oxford sometimes referred to as the “Oxford School” (Dobzhansky, 1964). Ford describes the fruits of “a method which has in fact proved effective: one which combines field-work and laboratory genetics” (Ford, 1964). This was an extremely important book at the time, with Ford’s novel identification of ecological genetics as the field of study that “deals with the adjustments and adaptations of wild populations to their environments” (Ford 1964). Ford further claimed “it supplies the means, and the only direct means, of investigating the actual process of evolution taking place at the present time” (Ford, 1964). In 1994, several renowned biologists contributed to Ecological Genetics (Real, 1994), although records of this book are now relatively scarce. Ecological Genetics: Design, Analysis, and Application (Lowe, et al. 2004) provided what was at the time an extensive and extremely useful overview of ecological genetics with particular emphasis on analytical methods. In the same year, A Primer of Ecological Genetics(Conner and Hartl 2004) described basic concepts in population and quantitative genetics, including mathematics and statistics at a less advanced level with the aim of making subjects more accessible. Several additional books on related topics originally published by Beebee and Rowe in 2004 and Freeland, et al. I 2005, later updated in 2008 and 2011, respectively (see Rowe, et al. 2017; Freeland, et al. 2011). Since that time, there have been numerous methodological developments in the field, many of which are reflected. It is necessary to increase the varieties of plants and breeds of animals of high productivity. Varieties and seeds in addition to personal science is a task of choice, the choice will not be able to develop the volatility of laws of heredity. Selection will open new paths to genetics. Genetics can solve many health problems. For example, it was estimated by genetics that there are 7 100 000 000 people on the earth, their descendants are 10 000 000 subject to develop the hereditary diseases, such as nervous system (epilepsy, schizophrenia), endocrine system (cretinism), blood disorders (haemophilia, certain types of anemia), and other number of diseases. Preliminary diagnosis of hereditary diseases allows us to know how to 39

prevent the disease complications. Cytological knowledge of genetic causes of various diseases by using new methods for early detection and diagnosis of the broad range of studies are conducted at the present time, as a result of the opening of a new branch of medicine, medical cytogenetics. Cytogenetics in the early 20th century, after the discovery of Mendel's laws, there was a need to prove its existence with cytological point of view. At this stage of chromosomes morphology and meiosis, many researchers have shown the role of the mitosis process (Russian scientists I D Chistyakov, 1872; P.I. Peremeshko, 1878; German scientists E. Strasburger, 1875; V. Flemming, 1882; t. Boveri, o. Gertvig, 1884). As well as achieving physical cytogenetic science G.A. Levitsky "material basis of heredity" (1924) and the German scientist K. Belar "genetics, cytology" (1934 g.) contributed to the development of new research papers. The cytogenetics and independent laws of inheritance were identified, as well as cytological processes krossingovers in proving of genes combination. Cytogenetics methods of plant, animal and human chromosome structures, meiosis and mitosis processes, depending on their number. In addition, cytogenetics has number of ways to identify and characterize the nature of chromosomal diseases in humans. Cytogenetics and electron microscopy, using methods of radioactive isotopes of microphotoizomers, allowed to explore the structure and replication of chromosomes, their transcription and translation. Some cytogenetic questions of the twentieth century began their studies in 30 years. Several varieties of spring wheat were monosomnoj line; identified specific animal cells chromosomes, as well as seeds; fluctuations in the number of chromosomes in the study of hereditary diseases on a regular basis; radiosensitivity, cancer risk that leads to risk identifying the chromosomes of cancer cells. The modern common cytogenetic issues a number of research institutions, such as the Scientific Research Institute of genetics and cytology, plant physiology, Institute of genetics and bioengineering, biologicallyfaculty of the Al Faraby Kazakh National University and others. Heredity of children's psychology and intellectual ability, are genetic determinations. And any other signs of psychological peculiarities, such as the ability of the children, parents can transfer by inheritance. Ability, memory and Association on the basis of a reliable 40

mechanism of higher nervous activity, who described I.P. Pavlov the only hereditary social environment, education and training where he worked. A variety of children's abilities in the classroom, where children met for the first time with the teacher. Of course, the role of hereditary properties are manifested in children's education, the formation of morphological features, which will influence the external environment. Education of children is inherently genetic in nature, various skills depending on the age of the correlation, the role of hereditary information, etc., you need to explore and develop the pedagogical recommendations. Sometimes, all the children will be able to show the average capacity of the teacher training process is one of the activities that will be noticed by the talent, the ability of a child, all in a timely manner help uncover potential for development. Selection of graduate schools in the future, this is a profession that is directly related to its purpose. You must provide a common understanding of science teacher education. Nuclear explosion, ionized radiation bilateral hazardous substances. Radiation occurs not only in body cells when exposed to radiation damage of germ cells, but also every organism is exposed to physical changes not only in the cells of the lungs, eventually has the disease of radiation sickness, but in germ cells are changing, causing generations of hereditary defects. Space exploration is needed in the development of radiation genetics. During space flight a person is exposed to cosmic rays. In addition, the risk of cosmic rays now belongs to the tasks of genetics. Genetics plays an important role in the pharmaceutical industry in conjunction with the opening of the antibiotics. To save the millions of lives antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, biomicin) has only been possible thanks to advances in genetics. This is from the antibiotics produced manually modified seeds and forms used in their natural forms proved to be more than a hundred times. Genetics is important in environmental issues, as used in industry and in agriculture, pesticides and herbicides have mutagenic effects that have shown and proven genetics. The production of amino acids, food for human genetics in a special issue called a problem. The problem in the production of amino acids from higher organisms can be resolved and have already achieved some results in this area. Some amino acids (e.g., glutamic acid) is formed of hundreds of tons a year. Modern science has defined an open construction of atomic nucleus 41

and is a perfect complement to the tasks: protein molecules for the detection, monitoring and studying the energy of synthesis, the dead matter, to create a model of a living cell requires continuous self-study processes. Then the solution of the problems of humankind in nature will not be limited to develop organic farms, and there will be new opportunities to create new forms. Human life on Earth will depend on the actual Designer. Significant progress has been made in this direction: the genes were synthesized and genetic engineering are clearly goes beyond the problem of programming. Despite this, has narrowed the time to study the evolution of animals, plants and microorganisms for studying things. In particular, the problem of biological disciplines in one system and combines biology. Studying heredity and the ... Studying heredity and variability, as well as the evolution of the main factors is the role of genetics. Nature lasted for hundreds of years and after the classification of individual items and cannibalized by a very narrow range of specialties. You must examine the nature of legitimacy, showing the ratio. World of science has made a significant contribution to the development of our own genetics. The first concepts of heredity were given back in the ancient days of Democritus, Hippocrates, in the works of Platon and Aristotle. Hippocrates identified the eggs and sperm are formed with the participation of all parts of the body, and the parents believe that will be the signal directly from the properties of the grain. And Aristotle's view was that there were no signs of hereditary qualities. It's not hereditary material from all parts of the body, on the contrary, it is the Assembly of different parts of nutrients. Then Darwin's theory about pangenezise plays a vital role. According to this theory, all the cells of plants and animals produce minor particles. They will take place in the reproductive organs and be transmitted through the same characteristics and properties. A depressing case, may be a manifestation of multiple generations. Therefore, check out the parents ' names from generation to generation and calculation of properties that can be repeated. 80-s ' years of the nineteenth century "pangenesis" A.Vejsman received harsh criticism. The second half of the nineteenth century led to major scientific discoveries. In 1965, the Czech scientist G. Mendel produced the "plants of medical practice". This forms the basic laws of heredity through experience, that this is the genetic basis of Mendel. But his work for 35 years, starting in 42

1865, was unknown, as well as other work of the majority of biologists, including Darwin. G.Mendel only in 1900 opened hereditary structure and its corresponding price. Because scientists from three countries: Dutch G. Freeze from German scientist and an Austrian Korens geneticist Z. Čermák at various sites have proven justice experiments Mendel. It was soon discovered and defined the laws of animals. In 1909, English biologist w. Bétson about 100 labels of each of the plants and animals were held in accordance with the laws of heredity Mendel published scientific data to prove it. Thus, Mendel has a strong position of science. Genetics of microorganisms in the history of this period is responsible for certain characteristics that must be passed from generation to generation units are built on the concept that the material of heredity, Mendel to further the development of the theory. At the same time (1901) changing the hereditary qualities of the body and Dutch botanist scientist Hugo. A Frieze presented mutations theory can be impotant place in the development of the science of genetics. Genetics is a key period in the history of American geneticist and embryologist T. Morgan and his scientific school is closely linked to the chromosome theory of heredity for the opening. T. Morgan and his fruit bars-Dr. melanogaster discovered the laws of inheritance as a result of extensive experience. Genetic variability in the development of teaching of Russian scientists N. I. Vavïlov have made a major contribution is to. In 1920, he inherited a volatility similar (homologous) to set the number of the law. This law is one other close relatives, and the types of evidence that are similar to the changes that can be hereditary. One of the innovations in science in 1927, Russian scientists G.A. Nadson and G.S. Filippov radioactive rays will lower fungi can cause mutations. Russian biologists to develop the theory of the gene of pride of place,similarly, as author of population genetics and evolutionary genetics Russian genetists S.S. Chetverikov. Genetic history is divided into three phases of development. During the first two years, 1865-1953, which includes the classic era of genetics. Genetics of the beginning of the third period in the history of the 1953 years. It's chemistry, physics, mathematics, natural science, such as cybernetics research methods and analytical electron microscopy, xray, etc. the Fund as a result of the application of molecular genetics studies. In 1944 the microbiologist and geneticist O. Evrishowed basic 43

of DNA material of heredity. In 1953 american biochemists and geneticist James Watson and British biophysicist F. Creak model of the molecular structure of the DNA molecule cfrry out. In present on the development of the hereditary and genetic variability in all areas of scientific research at the molecular level is provided. For example, the synthesis of the gene the body from the outside, the body cells of hybridization, the exchange of genetic material (recombination), restoration (recovery), gene synthesis of biopolymers, covers a wide range of issues, such as genetic engineering research. Special contribution to the development of genetics and breeding scientists. Away from the cross-breeding, mutagenesis, polyploidy, Heterosis, etc issues, including genetic research. Cereals and industrial crops, and as a result of the interconnected breeding species of wheat, barley, corn, rubber and sugar beet in high-yielding hybrids and varieties of k. a. mynbayev, thisday Today, f. Biyashev, NL Wdolskaya etc works great. MH Šigaevu and NB Axmatwllïna made a significant contribution to the development of genetics of micro-organisms. N.S. Butarin, A.E. Esenzholov, A.I. Janderkin away from the hybridization of argali-merino breeds. M.A. Yermekov, A.E. Elamanov, V.A. Balmont, etc. of karakul sheep; breeding ofkazakh alatau cow and Rome horses. M.A. Aitkhozhin was very well-known scientist, leadership in the field of molecular biology and genetic engineering research hasLenin premium science news added. In recent years the most important Genetics: molecular genetics, ecological genetics and genetics research. Genetic information about the properties of the organisms that breed. Genetic information as a sequence of nucleic acid bases. This type of protein molecules are infinitely many ways you can write code. Genetic information from one generation to the second generation of the transcription of viral nucleic acid. Changes or changes in genetic information can be saved. This repair, recombination, restriction, etc. relations. In 1944 the microbiologist and americangeneticistO. Every showed DNA material of heredity. In 1953 biochemist and geneticist James Watson and British biophysicist F. Crickis presented model of the molecular structure of the DNA molecule. Now on the development of the hereditary and genetic variability in all areas of scientific research at the molecular level carry out. For example, the synthesis of the gene the body from the outside, the body cells of 44

hybridization, the exchange of genetic material (recombination), restoration (recovery), gene synthesis of biopolymers, covers a wide range of issues, such as genetic engineering research. Special contribution to the development of genetics and breeding scientists. Away from the cross-breeding, mutagenesis, polyploidy, Heterosis, etc issues, including genetic research. Cereals and industrial crops, and as a result of the interconnected breeding species of wheat, barley, corn, rubber and sugar beet in high-yielding hybrids and varieties of K.A. Mynbayev. Today, G.Z.. Biyashev, N.L.Udolskaya etc works great. M.H. Shigaevau and N.B. Axmatulina made a significant contribution to the development of genetics of micro-organisms. N.S. Butarin, A.E. Esenzholov, A.I. Janderkin away from the hybridization of argali-merino breeds. M.A. Yermekov, A.E. Elamanov, V. A. Balmont, etc. of karakul sheep breeding, cow Kazakh, Ala tow and Rome, horses and so precious seeds. M. Aitkhozhin for leadership in the field of molecular biology and genetic engineering research, science news added. In recent years the most important Genetics: molecular genetics, ecological genetics and genetics research. Genetic information-information about the properties of the organisms that breed. Genetic information as a sequence of nucleic acid bases. This type of protein molecules are infinitely many ways you can write code. Genetic information from one generation to the second generation of the transcription of viral nucleic acid. Changes or changes in genetic information can be saved. This repair, recombination, restriction etc. relations only sexually increased own sex. Sexual differences in animals, plants and micro-organisms in the flesh, they would not have been obvious and apparent. The main difference between a male and female sex darabastarı male and female germ cell-gametes of different tüzetindiginde (in addition to sexual reproduction sexual reproduction.). Human and animal gametes of sexual organs and sexual glands (gonadalarda) is formed. Gonadalarda-sex cells gametes mature. Double chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism-sex chromosomes. Organisms in the form of two x chromosomes pair-gomogametally, and the X and Y chromosomes of organisms is called geterogametally. Ifgeneration to be sex chromosomes with X-shaped male sex chromosomes spermatozoid conceived, he appears as a zygote with two X chromosomes it’s the girl and he mother cell of Y chromosomes 45

spermatozoid conceived, bears a male child. Plant genetics is the science of heredity violationof plant seeds above; in the field of genetics. Plant genetics. There are several methods of research: monosomıc analysis of the role of each chromosome progeny hereditary in the development of different plants and marks; mutagenesis experiment is an effective and valuable mutant forms of plants; pairing, chromosome hybridization and analysis of meyotically hybrids-the study of the evolution of plants; the use of hybridization and cytogenetic laboratory methods, due to the change in the number of chromosomes and the construction of various hereditary diseases; apomicses-not “himself fertizilation” processing of plants. Plant genetics molecular biology techniques (DNA, DNA-RNA hybridization, etc) use gender identification, selection, and then clone their job easier. Population genetics and biometrics methods common phenotypic variability, based on their genetic properties (genotyping), as well as signs of environmental influence (paratïptik) when you use. This improves the efficiency of selection. Began plant genetics research posts in the University Genetics (1939), based on Darwinism and after the opening of the Department of Genetics (1948). Kazakh scientists of hybridization, experimental mutagenesis, polyploidy. Heterosis, cytogenetics investigation (T.O.Mynbaev, F. Mukhamedgaliyev, G.Z. Biyashev, N.L. Udolskaya, R.A. Orazaliev, etc.) carried out. And the type of hybridization, was sorting through of cereal crops and industrial crops of sorts. Academician M.A. Aitkhozhin performed fundamental research in the field of molecular biology of plants. Corn, pea, barley and Arabidopsis THALIANA (the family plant cabbage, "drozophïla"as model object in genetic research) by hybridization of the stability of their genes have been identified, bringing the chromosomes genetic map. Corn and wheat were mutant varieties and hybrids species. The legitimacy of the changes in the functions of plant genome under investigationscytogenetics research of soft wheat (K.K. Shulembayeva). In recent years especially in the environmental and genetic radiation effects (A.B. Bigaliev) got a lot of attention. Study of the genetics of all living organisms, hereditary and inherent volatility in the biological sciences. Hereditary and variability of organisms is named nowthe Genetics (in Greek, "genetikos" originspecific). 46

In 1906 the title was rewcomended of english biologist W. Bétson. Afre opening laws of heredity and variability the decision on how to use on the development of society has made a significant contribution to the science of genetics. Thus among other branches of science. Living matter on Earth accompanied by the development of the continuous generation of change. Directly linked to the increase in the number of living organisms. Thus, a specific type of biological characteristics and traits are passed from generation to generation. In other words, to a certain extent, generations will look like their parents. This hereditary said. In many cases, characteristics and properties of the organism is carried out on a regular basis has not changed significantly, and is similar to their parents ' generation. But they may not be completely identical. Distributed generation parents differ from each other in terms of any signs of boladı. Organïzmniñ estate is constantly changing under the influence of environmental factors. Volatility, he said. In addition to maintaining a constant increase in the specific properties of the organism, and the second will be changed. Therefore, they are refreshed and updated. Heredity and variability-accompany each other, on the one hand, the opposite of each other, closely-related processes. Factor-beyorganïktik and environmental factors that affect living organisms; the human factor-the environment human environment, which contribute to the effectiveness of action in limiting or anthropological morphological, physiological and psychological characteristics of the set. Mutagenic factor-factor that directly or indirectly caused by genetic mutations. For example, a high level of radiation, chemical contamination of the environment; natural factors beyond the presence of a human (anthropogenic) or because of its biological value (this is the impact of technogenic) operating factor; changes in the activities of the subjects of natural and anthropogenic factors, environmental factors, since in its original version number is different in terms of quality; species factor within species, factor. In General, species, populations, group and individual factors; Effect of physiological factors on the human body of the private, for example, stress, chemical factor-the chemical composition of the environment (including chemical pollution). To determine the genetic construction of total genome maps. Genomics (genome, English Greek Genos-only exit)-gaploïdtı 47

chromosomes (one), the concentration of the gene association. Genomics in 1920 year, German biologist term g. Winkler added. Total Gaploïdtı often characteristic of germ cells, and (body) cells diploid chromosomes (two times) can be installed. Sometimes does not exceed normal diploid chromosome number situation. If gaploïdtı the genomes of more than three or four times, and trïploïdtı tetraploïdtı and the genomes of an organism repeats several times, avtopolïploïdtı and various joint body called allopolïploïdtı. Set of chromosomes x increase in the number of genomes. Diploid cells are usually pairs of chromosomes. In the end, one of his twin brother, female gametes during fertilization, is the second male gametes, and that, in accordance with the genomes (are homologous). Thus, one of the two diploid cells gaploïdtı cell form a new organism is formed. Each of the genes located on chromosome called for compliance with the arrival of the two genome. The brotherhood of the joints of some or all of the genome does not match. This stability is distorted, change the number of chromosomes under the influence of some factors (for example, if you increased or decreased) called genomic mutations. The number of chromosomes of living organisms. For example, monkeys 46-48, cucumbers, corn, 14-20, 28 durum wheat, soft wheat-42, Drosophila şıbındarında-8, etc. Ètoèvolûcionnyj the highest stage in the development of the organism, genome DNA will be more. Genotype (gene and typos-form, for example) in living organisms increase their mother cells for the entire set of genes. "Genotype" in 1909, Danish geneticist for the u.s. Johansen. All genomes (nuclear genes) and plazmogender (cytoplasmic genes). The genotype of an inherited property is calculated based on the body. The genotype of the future development of the body, and life, that is, all the signs, the property is fenotïpinde. Is hereditary or properties of the organism, its development depends on the genotype of a specific gene in the formation, so that one gene is genetically related to the environment around it. For example, the green leaves of plants of the pigment chlorophyll, which determines the formation of a specific gene. And favourable conditions for the operation of the gene, that is, light. And then the leaves green. If plants are grown in a dark place, it took losing, did not play because of the activity of the gene. Genotype-phenotype of the specific gene or genes that affect the appearance of signs of 48

genetic basis, that is, a set of genes. Genetics (gene and a set of French love) is one of the populations of the same species or different genderdiñsanı and body composition. In 1928 godusrok gene pool. Russian scientist a. s. Serebrovskiy. In addition, the term gene pool of all populations of the same species or organisms allele (in accordance with). Genofound access is the freguency ofthe phenotype the genotype for future generations and gender, genetic balance. For example, one of the gibridizaciidve features genofondtarınıñ the height of the stem plants alley, the second is that, čtoalasalıq alley, however, parents of the first generation of allele frequencies remain. The growth rate, sort, etc. Genetic conditions. the balance is tipped. And new balance because of the influence of changes in the frequency of the new factor, which is stored. Species of trees in the wild of organisms in various habitats of situations, depending on the reproduction of their genofondtarı has changed, as a result of natural selection and other forms of Genofondtarı with other species. Constant sexually reproducing populations are found in the gene pool. The basis of formation of species and races of the gene pool. Protection of the natural and artificial genes in populations of plants and animalsètovažnyj to protect the wildlife. Savings of Biosfera genetic, particularly in the context of the practical importance of protection of the natural and artificial genes in populations of plants and animalsimpotant to protect the wildlife. Savings particularly in the context of Biosfera geneticpractical value or endangered species of plants and genetic conservation of animals evolved. Genetic engineering (gene), a branch of genetics. His methods of genetic material not only for the special case of a new artificial increase her alien cells, and in order to ensure the success of the work must be adapted. The main purpose of genetic engineering to create the appropriate genes in recombinant DNA. Thus, the most necessary things-special DNA fragments of DNAcutting enzymes-restrïktazalar "stitching" ligase activity of the enzyme. Suŝestvuetnovoe post on the basis of the genetic engineering biotechnology. These enzymes, hormones, and the Antigen. laid the groundwork for the production. Used genetic techniques to new virus technique. Recombination and constraint analysis techniques used for this purpose. Recombination analysis of many mutant Kit bwdandastırıladı with each other. The genetic map is determined by 49

their place in mwtacïyalarınıñ. However, this card will not be in a position to provide information on the gene. Thus, it is the physical and biochemical gene catalog. To do this, DNA (DNA viruses) éndonwkleazalarmen field will be truncated. Expansion of the area is considered a measure of the size of the gene kesindeleriniñ points. DNA and molecular criteria in their view replïkacïyasıbastalatın point. 1.2. Mutagenic factors of environment Mutagenic factors of the environment as a result of intensive development of the chemical industry to the environment comes a huge number of chemical compounds [20; 21]. The analysis on the various genetic test systems has shown that many of these compounds are able to induce mutation. It was established experimentally mutagenic, and Gonadotoxic embryotropic action common pollutants: fluorine compounds, heavy metals and other [22 – 26]. Selected for long-term monitoring of plant and animal populations (indicator species) will inevitably change and evolve. Therefore, during the genetic monitoring is necessary to use a combination of natural objects with standard laboratory test systems, which will provide adequate conclusions about the genetic changes in natural populations [27 – 30]. The problem is much more complicated chemical mutagenesis radiation, due to the fact that chemical mutagens affect chromosome not directly, but through the chain of biochemical reactions mediated by blocking, for example, the synthesis of a specific enzyme. The effect is usually due to the mutagen action of not one but a number of substances, sometimes forming the active compound after contact with a living organism. Chemical mutagens tested through the metabolic system of the body and the most unpredictable ways converted into other compounds. However, they may lose their mutagenic activity, but may acquire such mutagenic properties which were absent in the parent compound. Especially dangerous is not mutagenic chemical substances, which joined in metabolism, turning into mutagens. This is due to the fact that they can not be detected by modern screening methods. Chemicals induce mutations of all three types: gene, chromosome, genome. A universal method for detecting all types of mutations exist. Therefore, the study used a battery of mutagenicity tests to detect the induction of mutations in different 50

categories. However, testing of hundreds or even thousands of chemical compounds into the environment, it is impossible to carry out simultaneously by several methods [31 – 38]. Mutagens called any agent that can cause violations of the genetic material of cells. There are three groups of factors that could cause mutational changes in different organisms: 1) Chemical factors. 2) Physical factors. 3) Biological factors. Chemical mutagenesis – biological process caused by the action of chemical compounds on the genetic material (DNA, chromosomes) of a living cell, which may lead to very rapid quantitative inherited mutation changes the genotype and phenotype [35. 223]. Chemical mutagens environment can be divided into three groups: natural compounds (flavonoids and alkaloids); pyrolysis products which enter the environment; chemical compounds formed as a result of modern industry. In the proposed system after Dubinin NP (1978) [31, p. 75] main categories of chemical mutagens, only three: 1) Natural inorganic substances – nitrogen oxides, nitrates, nitrites, lead, and other radioactive materials; natural substances of organic origin. 2) Processed natural compounds – products of oil, wood and coal combustion; heavy metals; food wastes and others. 3) Chemical products that are not found in nature. The physical factors include the different types of ionizing radiation (X-rays, α, β, γ – radiation, neutrons, mesons), as well as ultraviolet and microwave radiation and others. One of the major problems in studies of physical mutagenesis due to the pollution of the biosphere is to analyze the components of the radiation characteristics of the processes of mutation induced by exposure to low doses. In recent years, much evidence showing that exposure to physical and chemical agents at very low concentrations causes a marked mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Significant impact on living organisms and have biological factors that pose a risk both in terms of tumor transformation, and hereditary diseases. It was found that the non-cellular parasitic life forms and prokaryotes can cause cytogenetic changes in the genetic apparatus of somatic and generative cells of the host. It is shown that helminths and their metabolites are biological factors that can have a pronounced effect on the host genome as a whole and its chromosomal structure separately. Mechanisms of action of mutations in various biological factors is not quite clear, but agents comprising nucleic acids, may 51

cause disturbance of recombination, giving rise to mutations. Spontaneous mutation process at constant mutagenic environmental factors is determined mainly by endogenous factors: DNA replication errors that are copied and accumulated in a number of cell generations; properties genes; dysfunction of the reparative systems, the effects of endogenous metabolites; physiological condition and age of the body, and possibly associated with mobile genetic elements – transposons. Action restriction enzyme is reduced to "cutting" the DNA strands in place (locus) defined sequence of nucleotides specific to each restriction enzyme [23, p. 212]. One of the factors considered to be mutagenic oil and petroleum products. In assessing and controlling environmental pollution, a group of petroleum products, are distinguished: a) the degree of toxicity to living organisms; b) the speed of decomposition in the environment; c) The nature of the changes in the atmosphere, soils, soil, water and biological communities. For the purposes of determining membership of a particular group are usually considered in the content of its own oil or petroleum light gasoline and naphtha heavy residue insoluble in hexane, aromatic hydrocarbons (including polycyclic), solid paraffin and sulfur. Sufficient data on the toxicity of the organic resins and asphaltenes, as well as some of the oil is not available. Perhaps there is a connection between the degree of aromaticity and condensation of polycyclic hydrocarbon resins and asphaltenes of oil and oil products of its processing with carcinogens. Oil pollution leads to disruption of the functioning of not only the abiotic components of the soil ecosystem and soil biota, vegetation. A significant decrease in the amount of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying microorganisms, reducing the number of aerobic ammonifying. This leads to a significant deterioration of soils moving nitrogen [4, p. 51; 19, p. 51; 24, p. 140]. 1.2.1. The type of mutations induced by environmental mutagens In cytogenetic testing analyzed entire chromosome set directly under a microscope, which is of great importance in the case of compounds that act on specific chromosomal regions (hot spots). Another advantage is that these methods are carried out relatively quickly and at relatively modest cost [39 – 42]. One of the main methods of detection of chromosome aberrations in somatic cells of plants and animals is Metaphase analysis. With this method, you can 52

not just count the total number of rearrangements, but with the utmost precision to take into account all types of chromatid and chromosome disorders and to determine all the options in all types of reconstructions. It allows identification of chromosome karyotyping and set in what areas they are damaged. A complete and detailed analysis of chromosome abnormalities that achieved metaphase method, this method does valuable research on radiation, chemical and medical genetics, oncology, space biology and other areas [43 – 45]. Metaphase method was first used by Sachs in 1938 – 1941 years. The studies Sachs has created the classical theory of the formation of structural chromosome aberrations. Since the metaphase method of accounting of chromosome aberrations is a universal method of evaluating the mutagenicity of various environmental factors [46 – 48]. Chromosome aberrations and their types. Structural rearrangements of chromosomes also called chromosomal aberrations. There are two main hypotheses about the mechanism of formation of structural chromosome mutations: the hypothesis of "connectivity gap" and "contact (exchange)" hypothesis. According to the hypothesis of "connectivity gap", the primary is the gap chromosome at the site of injury, resulting in the formation of fragments. All types of metabolic transformations are explained as the result of random recombination of fragments of chromosomes and chromatids. Terminal deletions are stored moiety which forms a portion of the telomeric. According to the "exchange" hypothesis, chromosome rearrangements occur through exchanges portions of chromosomes in their places of contacts. The exchange is regarded as a process similar to crossing-over occurring in mitosis [49; 50]. One of the central points of the study of the nature of the action of various mutagens that cause chromosome rearrangements is to determine the nature of the interaction of mutagens and substances chromosomes in different phases of the cell cycle. Of the four phases of the mitotic cycle – G1 (predsinteticheskaya phase chromosome is represented by one effective thread), S (DNA synthesis phase, the chromosome had split into two strands), G2 (postsynthetic phase chromosome represented by two chromatids), M (mitosis, chromatid already As chromosomes are ready to disperse to different poles in daughter cells), – one of them, namely the phase of S, is qualitatively different from the others. The S phase is carried out construction of new chromosomes by flow 53

entering the core of nucleotides – DNA precursors [51]. Cytogenetic analysis of the types of chromosome aberrations allows you to give a comparative description of the effectiveness of different mutagens in certain phases of the cycle and show at what point in the cycle is carried out the conversion of potential changes in the final mutation. Thus, all the chromosome aberrations occurring in somatic cells of humans and animals, recorded on the metaphase stage is divided into two main groups: chromosome and chromatid. The assignment of a particular chromosome aberrations or a chromatid type depends on what level (chromosomes or chromatids) damaged chromosome included in the restructuring. When exposed to mutagens in the cells replication of chromosomes (phase G1) having adjustment chromosome type; during replication and reduplicated chromatids (phase S and G2) having adjustment chromatid type. The change induced chromosomal aberrations in the chromatid type aberrations occur in the transition of cells from the G1 phase to the S phase until replication of chromosomes (chromosomal aberrations) or after the replication of chromosomes (chromatid adjustment) [52; 53]. All types of chromosomal aberrations in their morphology can be divided into 2 groups – fragments (deletion) and exchanges (exchange) adjustment. Fragments – separated regions of chromosomes and chromatids. In each case, there are 2 types of fragments: centric (portions of the chromosome with the centromere) and acentric (part of the chromosome without a centromere). Acentric fragments are divided into terminal (terminal) and interstitial (intercalary). Centric fragments are essentially the deleted chromosome (or chromatid) and therefore taking into account chromosomal aberrations take into account only acentric fragments. Exchange adjustment – it is the aberration resulting from the exchange of material between different chromosomes or redistribution of the material within the same chromosome. In this regard, the exchange adjustment divided into interchromosomal intrachromosomal exchanges and exchanges. Interchromosomal exchange adjustment are of two types: symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetrical adjustment – it exchanges, after which chromosomes (or chromatids) are monocentric. Asymmetric adjustment – it exchanges that accompanied the formation of di, tri or more chromosomes centric. Any communication can be full (reciprocal) or incomplete (not reciprocal), in the first case, all the 54

damaged areas are connected, the second is not [54 – 56]. Depending on the stage of the cell cycle appear either chromosomal (G1), chromatid or (S, G2) ruptures. Most of them then again reunited with the restoration of the original structure. However, if the discontinuities in different places of a single chromosome (or chromatids) or in different chromosomes (chromatids) in one and the same moment are localized close to each other, they may be joined such that there are chromosomal deletions or chromatid (deficiency), translocation inversions, insertions, or formed centromere bestsentromernye ring chromosome fragments bestsentromernye. Some fragments appear immediately as a result of a gap can be preserved as such, and without reunion with any other. For a long time was a controversial account of the gaps (holes) as aberrations. Currently accepted gaps registered separately, not including them in the numbers accounted aberrations. The frequency gap largely depends on the quality and degree of staining chromosomes helix. Accounting aberrations should always be carried out in the first cell division, as a significant part of aberrations and aberrant cells is eliminated after the first cell division or acquires another kind [57]. Protected effect of low doses of chemical mutagens. Most chemical mutagens – is alien to the body substances – xenobiotics. Mutagen activity depends not only on the concentration in its site of action, but also on the length of stay there, which is largely determined by the interaction of the mutagen with proteins and nucleic acids of this tissue. With the accumulation of recessive mutations in the population probability of meeting two of its carriers increases, a factor that increases the possibility of increasing the genetic load. Mutagens change precursors nitrogenous bases or nucleotides, and may cause mutations in the S – phase of the cell cycle. Chemical mutagens can be divided into two classes – the detainee or detainees action. Class mutagens with a delayed action is characterized by the fact that these mutagens do not affect on the chromosome in phase G1. Here are all the restructuring chromatid, ie the appearance of the mutations occur in the S-phase of the cell cycle. Class mutagens with no action is delayed restructuring of chromosomes during all phases of the cycle and fixation of mutations are within the same phase. Chemical mutagens can cause disturbances of mitosis, leading to nondisjunction, chromosomal breaks, and point mutations. Exact 55

mechanisms of nondisjunction little is known, as the events occur at the chromosomal level. The most informative are the actions of chemicals in the DNA molecule. Some point mutations can explain at the molecular mechanisms of these same mechanisms are likely to play an important role in the induction of chromosomal breaks. There are 2 types of chemically induced changes violate the function of DNA as the genetic material: a) inactivating damage, often leading to cell death; b) mutagenic damage. However, cells can survive if, for example, thymine dimers removed or damaged base repair mechanisms, if chromosome breaks and restored if the product does not hinder the recovery process. The repair system of the cell have a limited capacity, so that at low loads mutagenic repair occurs efficiently enough with increasing doses of the mutagenic effects, this system does not have time to recover and result in cell death occurs, or induction of gene and chromosomal mutations [58 – 61]. Increasing the dose of mutagenic, usually leads to an increase in the observed cytogenetic effect. At high doses mutagenic in some instances be observed maximum frequency of mutations in a dose dependent manner. However, the least explored region are low in magnitude the dose, the frequency of mutational changes is negligible, and it complicates the quantitative assessment of the observed effects [62 – 65]. The maximum permissible concentration (MPC) – is a maximal concentration of the substance in air, water, food and the like, which in the daily exposure for an unlimited time does not cause any abnormalities and adverse genetic changes in the offspring. Influence of doses of chemicals that are even close to the limit values, the objects of wildlife, has undesirable. When combined with a low concentration of long duration of effects frequently observed increase in the number of mutations when compared with the combination of the high concentration and short exposure. It should also be borne in mind that in the biosphere all chemicals – from the most simple to the most complex – can not exist for a long time alone, but interact and mutually penetrate each other. This leads to the formation of structures that toxicity can be higher than the source [31]. The biotransformation of environmental mutagens enzyme systems of the body. Method dominant lethals and accounting frequency of chromosomal aberrations in bone marrow cells of rodents reveals mutagenic effects Substances which have undergone 56

metabolic changes in the body. They allow to simulate various ways falling test substances into the body from the environment. Most often environmental contaminants to enter the body of mammals and man through the mouth with food and water, as well as respiration. Some substances into the skin. In the first case against foreign agents per os they are soaked in blood, immediately get into the liver, where the main metabolic changes of these compounds (activation, deactivation) and only then they get into the bloodstream and spread it to all organs and tissues of the body. In the case when the studied substance does not exhibit mutagenic activity, but metabolic activation in the liver is converted to mutagenic agents, it is, and then spreads through the body with blood, can cause a corresponding mutagenic effect. If the substance that has penetrated into the body per os, mutagenic factor that may be deactivated in the liver, its mutagenic effect limited somatic cells of the gastrointestinal tract, primarily the stomach [66 – 68]. After contact with environmental pollutants into the body by inhalation or gaseous substances easily vaporizing the liquid penetrates very quickly into the blood stream directly. Aerosols having a particle large and medium-sized, do not reach the alveoli, settling on the mucous membranes of the bronchi, and there absorbed into the bloodstream. Directly into the blood penetrate pollutants trapped in the skin. In all these cases, the substance is spread through the bloodstream throughout the body and then to the liver. These pathways of environmental contaminants into the body can be mimicked experimentally by intravenous, intramuscular and rectal administration. All of the above tests complement each other, so the combined application of these methods makes it possible to fully explore the mutagenic potential environmental pollutants and facilitates the extrapolation of data on the person [69]. Most primary changes in DNA induced by mutagens in themselves do not mutations, i.e. are not changes in the nucleotide sequence. This sequence can be changed only after the damaged molecules through a stage of replication. Concrete repair mechanisms have been clarified first of all against thymine dimers, which appear in the DNA after irradiation with ultraviolet light. It turned out that one of the mechanisms that repair damage – photoreactivation. Under the influence of visible light by enzymes cleave photoreactivation thymine dimers, thus eliminating, damage DNA. The same damage can be eliminated by the 57

cell and in the dark (dark repair). Thus in an environment where there are pre-irradiated with ultraviolet light cells can be detected thymine dimers they are cut from a strand of DNA repair enzymes dark. Therefore, this type of repair is called excision. In the implementation of excision repair enzymes involved a number of cells: endonucleases produce a cut (incision) about thymine dimers and cutting (excision), cut it by the other side; exonuclease usually extend to both sides of the breach, removing 500 nucleotides; DNA polymerase carries out repair synthesis of the remaining single-stranded template, filling a gap has arisen; DNA ligase stitches sugar-phosphate backbone of the newly synthesized strand fragments from the ends of the thread on the border breach. The reality of the existence of such a mechanism raparatsii confirmed the release of numerous genes, mutations that block some of the steps and make the cells hypersensitive to the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation [70; 71]. To eliminate the primary damage genetic structures, caused by mutagens in the cell there are a number of systems recovery and repair genetic damage. However, during the repair part can remain primary lesions and cause mutations. Thus, under the influence of the exchange adjustment variety of mutagens occur, apparently due to the same mechanism characterized reunion ends emerging discontinuities. Naturally, the condition of such a reunion – a close spatial association between portions of chromatids of a single chromosome or in different chromosomes. If there is such an association arising chromatid breaks reunited just as it does when crossing over. It turns out that not all reunited does not happen [72]. It is known that the oil composition contains various hydrocarbons, phenols associated heavy metals that penetration into the body of plants and animals exposed to all sorts of biochemical metabolic processes. As a result of metabolic processes in living organisms, many of the components of oil can be transformed into different compounds that may have toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. And many carcinogens can exert mutagenic effects. But in evolutionary terms in living organisms have developed the so-called adaptive mechanism that can withstand the effects of various negative factors of the environment, but to a certain threshold level. At various environmental factors in the body as the plants and animals always reactivation repair system of the body. In this respect, a great role played enzyme systems of living organisms. 58

The test-system of evaluation of mutagenicity of chemical environmental factors.Increasing anthropogenic pollution calls for in-depth study general biological response of organisms to different classes of pollutants. To study and evaluate the genetic activity of anthropogenic pollutants, various test systems for prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, which allows you to record different types of genetic damage, to determine the degree of genetic hazard to organisms and to identify the specificity of action of pollutants. Chemical mutagenesis, as an independent branch of mutation genetics, was born in the 30-ies., And the problem itself assess the mutagenic potential hazards of chemical pollutants to humans is not resolved and now. This is due to the impossibility of direct experimental evaluation of the mutagenic activity of chemical compounds directly in humans. As a result, information about the presence of mutagenic properties against mammals and man obtained during biological testing, during which use various test systems. Assessment of mutagenicity of various environmental factors should be carried out through a set of test systems. Despite many studies, none of the existing test systems is not 100% effective in the evaluation of the presence or absence of mutagenic properties of the test compounds in humans. Despite the fact that at present there are several hundred test systems, usually during biological testing using a limited set of well-characterized test. Each test site is generally used one of the criteria for possible use in the method of environmental monitoring. It is basically a chromosome aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges, evaluation frequency of aneuploid cells and micronucleus test [38, p. 409; 39, p. 129; 40, p. 115]. Since no single test system can identify and characterize all mutagenic, WHO experts agreed that it is desirable to use several tests and they should be carried out mainly on mammals. Furthermore, a number of test systems in vitro and in mammals can be used to address specific issues. Currently, there is a wide range of biological tests to determine the mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of various chemical compounds. Carrying out a full risk assessment of quality for mutagen rights requires the use of multiple parallel test systems [73]. Test systems must meet the following requirements: – high sensitivity to the effects of even low doses of mutagen; – Not only the sensitivity to mutagens, and their metabolites; – Speed and efficiency of testing methods; – The reproducibility of (the possibility of obtaining the 59

same results on the same test system); – The reaction of test systems should reflect the main mutational spectrum and objectively record the types of DNA changes and chromosomal (by point, chromosome and genome mutations); – The possibility of extrapolating the data obtained in in vitro studies on the conditions in vivo. Recommended in this respect four test systems: 1) The culture of microorganisms using mammalian metabolic environment (for activation of some mutagens) – to study the gene (of point) mutations. 2) Laboratory animals, particularly the mouse – to study genetic and chromosomal dominant lethal mutations. 3) Culture of human blood leukocytes – to study structural chromosome mutations induced by both in vivo, and in vitro. 4) The chromosomal changes in the bone marrow of mammals [74 – 76]. There are a number of cytogenetic methods to assess the changes in the chromosome set of the body. Analysis of somatic cell chromosome complexes allows the fastest evaluate changes in the genetic apparatus of cells in response to various factors. Experiments on genetic effect of chemicals using laboratory mammals can be divided into two main groups: 1) Experiments with "acute" exposure, with a single application of a sublethal dose. The purpose of these tests is to obtain an answer to the question whether a test compound to cause mutations in mammals (genetic screening). 2) Chronic experiments with prolonged exposure to the substance being studied in small doses, with the aim to assess the genetic risk to the population from exposure to concentrations of mutagen actually occurring. When using cytogenetic methods for identifying mutagenic activity of chemicals pollutants most valuable results can be obtained by a comparative study of the complex, both in experiments in vitro, and in vivo [77; 78]. Mammalian bone marrow is the most widely used model for the investigation of the mutagenic activity of chemical compounds in vivo. This is due, firstly, to the fact that bone marrow cells have a high proliferative activity and, secondly, the ease of preparation of drugs. Studies of bone marrow cell chromosomal possible using direct methods (the cells may be used without pre-culture). Bone marrow cells are asynchronous, and to establish the most sensitive stage of the cell cycle was analyzed various times after exposure to the agent. Recommend fixed cells after 6, 12, 24 or 48 hours after administration to an animal test agent [79 – 81]. The use of small mammals as a model for ecological and genetic monitoring is justified because due to the 60

high metabolic rate equilibrium concentrations of pollutants in their tissues and organs installed much faster than larger animals. It must only be borne in mind that wild mammals exposed to greater pressure of ecological and genetic factors than human, as all coming into their body substances contain pollutants. Therefore, the level of genetic damage wildlife (after appropriate extrapolation) can be regarded as an estimate of the maximum possible mutagenic effect of the environment in relation to people living in the same area [82 – 84]. The method of accounting chromosomal aberration in bone marrow cells of mammals is an integral part of almost all complex estimation methods mutagenic properties of a variety of chemical compounds. Hence the need to select objects, which is easy to carry out cytogenetic studies and the results extrapolated to other facilities. The morphology of the chromosomes of most species of laboratory animals is well understood. Testing is typically conducted in mice or rats were analyzed as the number of aberrant metaphases and the total number of structural abnormalities of chromosomes, chromosome ploidy changes. Quantitative accounting of these disorders is the basis for determining the nature and extent of the action of the mutagen [85 – 88].

61

Chapter

2

2.1. Ecological and genetic monitoring of the environment Global level of monitoring. During the last twenty years panEuropean region, comprising 53 countries, including Kazakhztan belongs to the group of EECCA (Eastern EUROPE, CAUKASUS and Central Asia) is characterized by a rich diversityof bthe envieonment. It co-exist many natural and semi-natural habitats and ecosystems. Varirty adds theand dynamic, so it is nowonder that the redion is changing. Such environmtntal problrms such as climate chang, loss of biodiversity and degradation of environment (OS) occur globally. The load of the resources ofthe planet increases as result of human activity, including of the impactthat economic grouth industrial development and modern consumption patterns. Concern about the state of the operating systemis associated with problems of air pollution, soil, and water(protection operated in EUROPE- FOURTH Assessment,2007). The main topical issues of our time. The nature of production and consumption due to the desireto improve the welfare of society, along with the increasing demand for resources leads to depletionand pollution of natural resources.Everywhere there is a rapid change in the structure of consumption – increase the share of transport communications, housing, recreation and health. The total volume of waste is increasing. While many have developedwaste management strategy and legislation for specific waste streams, action plansand effective legislation is implemented onlyin a vew countries. Concerns about the state of healthdue to environmentalconditions resultfrom continued pollution of water and soil. Despite a significant decrease in emissions of air pollutants in most countries existing air pollution consentration levels of fine soliden part(PM) and ozonecontinue to pose a significant threat to the health of people and the environment. In EECCA countries as result of economic recoverythe grouth of the 62

veicle fleet and persisting poreffectivness of strategies to combat air pollution, emissions of most pollutants increased far more than 10% compared with 2000. It’s the same with water, same largerivers and smaller water courses remain severaly polluted/ More than 100 million peoplein the pan EUROPEAN region do not have exessto save drinking water. In the EECCAand South Estern Europe(SEE) the quality of waterand sanitation steadily deteriorated over the lfst 15 years. Climate change caused mainly energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission that contry bute to extreme weather events (floods, droughts). To achive the proposals of the EU (European Union) to limite temperature increases to 2 o C Limit increase above pre-industrial levels is nesessery to a global reduction in evission of 50 % by 2050. Loss of biodiversity (a specially in rural areas mountainous regions, forests and coastal areas) is due to changes in land use, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, acidification, desertification, over –useand climate change. Illegal logingand manmade forest fiares are a growingproblem. The pan European regionunder threat of extriction -700 species. Global objective to stop the lossof biodiversity by 2010 is not achievable without significant additional measures. In responseto thease and other problems of the environmental, the consept of sustainabledevelopment (SD) is amed and understanding the complexity of the relationship the socioeconomic and ecological systems. To do thisfundamentally change society attitude towards it’seconomic, socialand environmental future. Many countries are increasingly turning to the concept of SD in addressing the OS, reguering in integrated approach, linking the policy for environmental protection with transport, energy and agricultural policy. Move to SD will reguer attention and action at all levelslocal,regional, international and global.As well as the invol vement of all partis- goverments, busness and civil society organizations and to individuals (protection, operating in Euorope- Fourth Assessment, 2007). The strategy and policy regarding the operating system and environmental health condition and its impact on human health is a priority sixth action program in the field of operating systems (6th EAP), approved by the international community. It is aimed at achieving "a quality operating system, in which the level of pollution caused by human activities, including radioactive contamination, no 63

adverse effects on human health and is not a danger to him." Much attention is paid to the program to air pollution, water quality, water supply and sanitation, as well as hazardous chemicals. One of the key objectives and scope of the Environmental Strategy of the EECCA countries (including Kazakhstan) – "reducing the risk of health through the prevention and control of pollution" – includes issues reduce air pollution in cities. Recently, the policy environment and health has been specially introduced the issue of children's health as a risk. Identified 4 types of diseases requiring urgent action: childhood cancer, asthma and allergies, endocrine disorders and central nervous system. In EECCA still high level of environmentally caused diseases – because of crumbling and too expensive water systems, increasing air pollution due to the rapid increase in the number of vehicles and inefficient handling waste and chemicals (OESD, 2007). Under environmental monitoring (EM) understand a variety of observations of environmental changes (OS) in space and time caused by anthropogenic causes, and allows to evaluate and predict the development of these changes (Trifonov et al., 2005). The monitoring objects can be natural, anthropogenic or natural-anthropogenic ecosystems. The objectives of EM are: • Monitoring of changes in the OS under the influence of human activities; • Observations of the state of health of the population living in areas of influence of anthropogenic factors; • Data analysis, estimation and forecast changes in the state of the environment as a whole and its individual components under the influence of factors; • Development of management and optimization of human impact on the environment. By the scale of observation and generalization of the nature of information are distinguished as: • Global (Biosphere) monitoring carried out through international cooperation; • National monitoring carried out within the State specially created agencies; • Regional monitoring carried out within the intensively reclaimed large areas, for example within clusters; • Local (Bioecological) monitoring, including the monitoring of the change in the quality of the environment in settlements, industrial centers directly to enterprises; • impact monitoring, carried out in high-risk zones and locations. Within the framework of a unified Global Environmental Monitoring System – GEMS in territories around the world organized by a single network of observation posts, allowing to trace levels of a number of 64

extremely dangerous pollutants and toxins in the atmosphere, water bodies, as well as to gather information on the state of natural resources, soil and forestry resources etc. Ecological and analytical monitoring (Trifonov et al., 2005) carried out within the three main levels: • The areas of significant anthropogenic impacts; • at the regional level; • background level. The first level involves a control in industrial areas at the mouths of rivers and some areas, local wastewater discharge, etc. At the regional level control of water pollution, air and soil is carried out in areas adjacent to industrial zones. The background level involves monitoring in areas remote from local sources. In Kazakhstan, the monitoring of air quality are conducted from fixed positions. Surface water is controlled by the respective observation points; Chemical soil pollution is controlled to create a regular network of testing on typical key areas. In addition to state monitoring, isolated industrial and public monitoring. Production Monitoring (environmental audit) evaluates the activity of the enterprise in terms of safety for the operating system. Public environmental monitoring can perform the following functions: • the creation of an alternative information channel; enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of environmental control public notification of incidents and emergencies; • observation of objects that are either not included in the monitoring program of public environmental services, or not adequately described; • draw attention to issues that have not previously been identified; • The development of environmental education and awareness. Ecological risk of anthropogenic disturbances in ecosystems evaluated on the basis of the analysis of the block. There are the following levels of disturbances in ecosystems: 1. on the individual and population level – the body's response to the impact of anthropogenic factors; 2. the aggregated responses of organisms – changes in primary productivity; change of aggregate biomass etc; 3. the level of sustainability and ecosystem integrity (for example, weakening of the link between trophic levels, decrease the ability of ecosystems to cleanse itself, weakening the regulatory impacts of one organism to another);

65

4. the contribution of ecosystem biospheric processes (eg, reduction of biogeochemical fluxes of elements through the ecosystem). All these components of the ecological and resource subsystem has two aspects: on the one hand, they make up the environment, and on the other – are the natural resources. From the standpoint of the strategy of sustainable development (SD) natural resources involve renewable resource use and regeneration of resources. The modern city has natural components of the medium, providing the vital needs of the population, the conditions of industrial activity, complete rest, etc. Natural resources of the city are its land, surface and underground water, air, climate, flora and fauna, various natural objects, thus environmental quality is a major natural resource of the city. Quality is determined by the natural characteristics of the original culture and their anthropogenic transformation or, conversely, anti-culture, which implies environmental pollution and resource depletion. Thus, indicators of environmental subsystems can be simultaneously viewed as indicators of socio-cultural development of the city. The main criterion for the quality of the environment is a human health. To determine the relationship between environmental quality and public health must take into account several important factors such as the prevalence of specific diseases, etiology related to polluted urban environment, the overall incidence of the population, the level of mental and physical health, and others. There is a list of indicators of the city, developed by the United Nations Centre on Human Settlements (Habitat) and including 23 key indicators and 9 the quality of life, including: access to water, household connection to basic communications, child mortality under the age of five years, the growth of urban population, water consumption, air pollution, wastewater treatment, solid waste management, transport means (Methodology ..., 2002). Infant mortality rate – a key indicator of the quality of life in cities. The high mortality rate is directly related to low levels of the environment: the level of treatment of industrial and domestic waste water, as well as the quality of sanitation facilities. This indicator reflects the percentage of children, male and female, who died before the age of five years and is expressed through the formula: Infant 66

mortality rate = Number of deaths in children under five in the past year / Average number of live births in the last five years. 2.2. Type and level of ecologically monitoring of the environment Air pollution is directly related to energy consumption, environmental policies, urban density, number of fleet concentration of industrial zones, etc. The most common types of pollutants in the atmosphere of cities and causing the most harm are SO2, NO2, CO, O3, Pb. This indicator reflects the number of days in the year, accompanied by excess of WHO standards and the average measured concentrations for the following types of pollutants: SO2, O3, CO, NO2, Pb. National level monitoring. Kazakhstan, one of the ten largest countries in the world on the occupied territory, is now in all respects is ecologically especially vulnerable. Historically, the process of urbanization in Kazakhstan is associated with the development of industrial complexes and infrastructure. Core enterprises provide the population with employment, housing, support utilities. However, the growth of urban environmental conditions in them to deteriorate rapidly. Industrial production is accompanied by pollution of air, soil, water resources and drinking water sources, violation of landscape diversity, accumulation of large amounts of waste production and life. In the course of expanding the boundaries of cities, industrial enterprises were within the boundaries of the cities themselves. As a consequence, it became the center of the destructive impact on natural systems and surrounding suburban areas. As a result of the permanent plant emissions and transport worsened the health of inhabitants of the cities that has the potential multiplier effect for the future generations. The system of active control of operating system based on fines and lawsuits, did not assume effective measures to eliminate the negative impact of polluters on the living environment of the urban population. In addition, the cities themselves become a source of regional environmental pollution. As a result of rapid population growth and high concentration of industry in the cities of adverse changes in climate occur. Recently there has been a boom in engine vehicles, increasing the production of industrial and domestic waste, increased 67

noise and vibration. I’ll-conceived development plans of cities and private building blocks spontaneous removal of gaseous pollutants out of the city, reduces the effect of dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere. Dust and gas content leads to the formation of fog and smog. For modern cities remain relevant problem removal and disposal of industrial and domestic waste, providing clean drinking water, reclamation and purification of soil, surface and ground water (UNDP Report, 2004). The main share of the waste falls on the Karaganda, Pavlodar and East Kazakhstan region (Ministry of Environmental Protection website, 2008). Administratively the country is divided into 14 regions and 168 districts, 2490 township and rural districts. Capital – Astana (1997.). The urban population is 8358.3 thousand people of Kazakhstan. The total number of cities in Kazakhstan – 86, including the republican and regional subordination – 41 largest cities of Kazakhstan: Almaty – 1150 thousand., Karaganda – 450 thousand., Astana – 700 thousand., Pavlodar – 340 thousand .chel (Agency on Statistics, 2007). Air pollution. Observations of air pollution are carried out in 20 major cities and industrial centers of the Republic of Kazakhstan by the specialized department of the National Hydrometeorological Service. The list of controlled pollutants (pollutants) is set taking into account the amount and composition of emissions and the results of a preliminary survey of air pollution in a particular locality. State air pollution is estimated based on the results of analysis and processing of air samples taken at fixed monitoring stations. The main criteria are the quality values of maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of pollutants in the air of populated areas. The level of air pollution is measured at the largest integrated air pollution index (API5), which is calculated on the five substances with the highest standardized MPC values based on their hazard class. In Pavlodar API ranged from 1.3 to 2.7 in 2006-07. Thus in 2007, the maximum performance of the one-time fixed concentrations of the following pollutants: carbon oxide – 4.8 MAC (January), suspended solids – 4.8 (May 6-fold repeatability), nitrogen dioxide – 3.4 MAC (March 11-fold repeatability), hydrogen chloride – 2.3 (Feb. 7 times the repeatability), hydrogen sulfide – 1,1 LimC [2007]. The structure of GDP production industry occupies the major share. In 2004, it increased to 31.1%. The development of industry in 68

Kazakhstan over the past decade was characterized by stable positive dynamics. If in 1995-2004. the annual increase in production was 5%, over the past 5 years – 11.8%. During 1995-2004,. in natural gas production growth it achieved 4.2 times, crude oil and associated gas – by 2.8 times, in engineering – by 2.1 times, in the steel industry – 1.8 times (National Profile on chemicals management). Due to the current predominantly resource-based industry and monoculture of natural resources in the country per capital produces about 50 tonnes of materials (in Europe is much less). Of this amount, up to 93-95% released to the atmosphere as waste production and consumption, posing a threat to public health and biodiversity in the region (Panin, 2000). The tailings of the republic has already accumulated more than 20 billion tons of industrial waste, every tenth of a ton is toxic. In more than half of Kazakhstan dangerous anthropogenic lead the provinces of the former USSR (Vasilenko, 1996). In Kazakhstan in 2007 adopted and implemented by the Government Action Plan to implement the Concept of Transition of Kazakhstan to Sustainable Development for 2007-2024. So, in many regions of the Republic managed to achieve a situation where production is growing and emissions, discharges, waste reduced. In the past decade, along with economic growth increased emissions. In 2007 the total volume of emissions into the environment in Kazakhstan fell by more than 3%, while the gross domestic product in the country increased by 7%. In Pavlodar region in the last five years of emissions per unit of output, fell twice (Iskakov, 2008). In 2007 it was developed and approved by the Government of Kazakhstan's strategy of efficient use of renewable resources and energy for sustainable development, according to which the government intends to actively promote clean energy. For example, in the past decade in numerous small rivers of the country's hydroelectric power stations were built, which successfully provides energy in rural areas. Over time, the resistance was broken – joined the country's energy system into a giant single network, small power plant mothballed. The result – the country is literally choking on the tonnage of emissions of thermal power stations. At the same time there is an acute shortage of energy in the south of Kazakhstan, all the serious social problems caused by the tariff policy. Again pressing question 69

of the creation of an entire network, a huge block of small hydroelectric power plants, which will lead our country to energy principles of balanced development. In 2008, Kazakhstan, on the proposal of Finland, was elected to the position of Chairman of the Economic and Environmental Committee of the OSCE. Kazakhstan offers a unique agenda – addressing transboundary environmental issues, based on the principles of sustainable development. So, we are actively working to build the Balkhash-Alakol area where the supposed solution of economic, social and environmental problems in their entirety, in cooperation with concerned neighbors Kazakhstan – China and Kyrgyzstan. Built "roadmap" to strengthen the position of Kazakhstan on issues of stability that will serve as a platform for the presidency in 2010, Kazakhstan in the OSCE, and in 2012 – the order of the III Summit of the Earth, which is scheduled in Kazakhstan inviting the heads of more than 190 countries – members of the United Nations(Iskakov,2008). Administratively Kazakhstan is divided into 14 regions and 168 districts, 2490 township and rural districts (Table 2). National Profile on Chemicals Management (http:www.nature.kz/ ekolog/ naz_prof., 2008). Arable agricultural land in Kazakhstan is 24.8 million hectares (on 1.01.2005). The area of agricultural crops in 2004 amounted to 18 million hectares Woodland area – 20.1 million hectares The forests are located on the area of 6.3 million hectares of forests, forests amounted to 2.3%. In the structure of GDP in Kazakhstan holds the major share of industrial and manufacturing sector. In 2004 it amounted to 40.4%. The development of industry in Kazakhstan over the past decade was characterized by stable positive dynamics. If in 1995-2004. the annual increase in production was 5%, over the past 4 years – 11.8%. During 1995-2004,. in natural gas production growth achieved 4.2 times, crude oil and associated gas – by 2.8 times, in engineering – by 2.1 times, in the steel industry – 1.8 times. In the American and Western Europe for a long time and successfully operate the system assessments of environmental aspects of the business. In recent years, more and more serious driving force such comparisons become growing number of investors who invest their money primarily in companies that behave in a socially and environmentally responsible. To assess the environmental efficiency of the enterprises of Kazakhstan selected six indicators: use of water, discharge of 70

contaminated water, emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from stationary sources and vehicles, waste generation and land use. To objectively compare large and small enterprises from various industries in Kazakhstan, the valuation procedure used the absolute values of the impacts on the environment. Used two options for comparison, in the first – of the environmental impacts attributed to the number of employees in the second – assessment carried out by the criterion of effects on the environment. Also on the basis of the data of enterprises and the structure of Kazakhstan's GDP averages identified environmental impacts of 1 man and 1 mln. Tenge for the economy of Kazakhstan. It allows us to express the impact of each company as a percentage of the average level for the country. In future the annual ratings with the presentation of certificates to the best environmental point of view of domestic enterprises. The rankings will enable enterprises to improve their environmental performance, to implement international standards in the field of environmental protection and environmental management best practices (collection of environmental ratings of the enterprises of Kazakhstan, 2008). In Kazakhstan, the main industries operating companies which produce or use different chemicals, including toxic. The spectrum produced in agricultural crop production, the presence of more than 5.5 million hectares of sown areas involves widespread use of protective equipment, plant growth stimulators, mineral fertilizers. Improvement of the system of rational chemicals management in industrial and agricultural production in the country is the imperative of ensuring the safety of production and use of chemicals to human health and the environment. In Kazakhstan, the chemicals produced at oil refineries, mining, chemical, construction and pharmaceutical industries. The source of their production is largely the mineral raw materials. 2.3. Assessment of impact pollution effects on genom of plants, animals and human Evolutionary and ecological functional genomics integrates across disciplines including evolutionary biology, ecology, genetics, and physiology to investigate adaptive evolution and patterns of genetic and phenotypic variation within and among species This field seeks to 71

identify gene regions associated with ecologically-important traits, assess the fitness consequences of alleles at key quantitative trait loci (QTLs) under natural conditions, and test how the abiotic and biotic environment influences gene expression. Ecogenomics techniques can be used to investigate questions that have long interested biologists, including: What is the relative importance of genetic drift and selection in population differentiation and ultimately speciation? What is the genetic architecture of adaptation (e.g., few genes with large effects, or many genes with small effects)? Do different taxa use similar genetic pathways to achieve convergent phenotypes? Ecogenomic studies can either focus on the evolution of a polymorphic trait or can use a transgenic approach to investigate gene function and ecological consequences These methods allow researchers to address a number of key questions about plant defenses, including issues pertaining to tolerance (maintenance of fitness after herbivory) of and resistance (deterrence of herbivory), such as: Do QTLs for tolerance and resistance co-localize? Are there molecular signatures of selection acting on alleles at these QTLs. Are tradeoffs between resistance and tolerance evident at the molecular level? In heterogeneous landscapes, are alleles for herbivore resistance and/or tolerance more prevalent in sites with higher herbivory pressure? Do similar pathways influence defense against herbivores and pathogens?An ecogenomics approach can also investigate constitutive and inducible defenses, thereby contributing to our general understanding of the functional basis of complex traits and addressing fundamental questions about the evolution of phenotypic plasticity Theory predicts that consistently high herbivore pressure favors constitutive defenses, whereas low or variable herbivore pressure could favor inducible defenses, if the costs of defense are high. Ecogenomics tools can be used to assess whether temporal and spatial variability in herbivory influences the type of defense that evolves, and can detect similarities and differences in the genetic architecture of inducible and constitutive defenses. An ecogenomic approach can identify whether: similar genome regions influence both constitutive and inducible defenses, genes associated with constitutive and inducible defenses interact epistatically, and there is evidence for selection on these genes under natural conditions.An ecogenomics framework can address a number of other issues, including: whether 72

gene expression patterns differ as a function of the type of herbivore (e.g., specialist vs. generalist, chewer vs. phloem feeder, what cues plants use to detect herbivory (saliva, leaf removal, and whether plants are capable of “eavesdropping” on damaged neighbors via volatile organic compounds produced in response to herbivory. Forward genetic techniques, such as QTL mapping, investigate the genetic basis of phenotypic variation, whereas reverse genetic techniques, such as gene silencing and other molecular approaches, attempt to identify the phenotypic effects of known genes. Both forward and reverse genetic techniques can be brought to bear on these ecological questions and elucidate the molecular underpinnings of plant defensive traits.In model organisms and crop species, great strides have been made in understanding the evolution of plant defense, as well as gene expression changes in response to herbivory. Molecular tools developed for model organisms can be applied in ecogenomics studies of closely-related non-model species; in this way, ecogenomic tools have illuminated the genetic basis of plant defensive traits in Boechera, Brassica and other members of the Brassicaceae, relatives of Arabidopsis Furthermore, due to recent technological advances, ecogenomic tools are becoming cost effective and feasible for ecological studies of non-model systems that are only distantly related to model organisms. Many questions in the ecology and evolution of plant defense test historical hypotheses, such as how particular patterns evolved or why they exist. Such questions are best addressed in native species in relatively undisturbed environments, where ecological and genetic factors may be near equilibrium. In contrast, studies of introduced and weedy species elucidate “realtime” ecological interactions, but may reflect transient population dynamics rather than long-term evolutionary processes. In this chapter, we discuss established and emerging methodologies for exploring plant defense from an ecogenomics perspective and we highlight approaches that are suitable for different types of study species. Specifically, we focus on QTL mapping with pedigreed and natural populations, transcription profiling, population genomics and transgenic approaches. A population genomics approach can be taken to discover genome regions that might be evolving under the influence of natural selection. Evolutionary forces like genetic drift and gene flow influence all regions of the genome in a similar fashion; natural 73

selection, in contrast, does not act uniformly across the genome. Rather, selection may reduce genetic variation within a population, but increase it among populations occupying distinct habitats subject to different local selection pressures. Population genomics identifies loci that differ from typical genome-wide demographic patterns in population divergence (e.g., FST values), nucleotide diversity, or other parameters Presumably such outliers could be linked to loci under selection. Population genomic studies require large numbers of loci to be genotyped or sequenced, which will shortly become feasible even in non-model systems due to increasing availability of sequence data. The population genomics approach, however, does not directly inform studies of phenotypic evolution because it screens the genome in the absence of trait data. Nevertheless, this approach could be used in conjunction with QTL mapping, candidate genes and other quantitative genetic approaches For example, in a study of plantpathogen interactions, tested for non-neutral evolution in candidate defense genes of two species of Zeaby comparing genetic diversity and evolutionary history of these candidate genes with genes not implicated in defense. Likewise found different evolutionary patterns in the genes encoding defense signaling vs. pathogen recognition proteins in Arabidopsis. Both studies detected evidence for selection at some of the candidate defense loci studied. Similar studies in plantherbivore systems could elucidate whether plant defensive QTLs or candidate genes show molecular signatures of selection, and distinguish between coevolutionary arms races versus selective maintenance of functional polymorphisms. Candidate gene approaches. Large numbers of candidate genes for ecologically relevant traits have been identified through extensive research with model organisms, such as Arabidopsis genes influencing trichome development, production of volatile organic compounds, glucosinolates and phytoalexins. Synteny (i.e., gene co-localization on homologous chromosomes in related species) can facilitate investigations of the genetic basis of phenotypic traits in non-model species and allow researchers to analyze the association between phenotypic variation and allelic variation at a candidate gene, when species-specific versions of a gene can be detected using degenerate PCR primers. For example, in a study of Arabidopsis lyrata, found that leaf trichomes reduced herbivory in natural populations; they then 74

assessed the association between trichome production and sequence variation at a gene homologous to the GLABROUS1 (GL1) gene, which influences trichome formation in A. thaliana. In an analysis controlling for population structure discovered that mutations in the regulatory region of GL1 influenced the production of glabrous (hairless) leaves. The candidate gene approach is especially illuminating when combined with other methods, including QTL mapping, population genomics, and transcription profiling. Candidate genes can be identified within the confidence intervals of significant QTLs, and can assist in the eventual determination of the genes underlying traits. Population genomic studies can reveal whether candidate genes exhibit different evolutionary histories than putatively neutral loci and can assess the relationship between allelic variation at a candidate gene and latitudinal or other environmental variation). Similarly, plant defense studies could determine whether allelic variation at candidate defense genes is associated with local herbivore abundance and/or species composition (e.g., different genes or patterns of gene expression might be activated by specialist vs. generalist herbivores). The candidate gene approach may be less informative for non-model organisms that are only distantly related to model species. Transgenic approaches. Transgenic experiments are an important tool for targeted manipulation of traits and gene expression in ecological genomics. These approaches may involve insertion of a gene into another species for functional analysis, overexpressing or silencing endogenous genes, or complementation of a mutant allele by transformation. Most of these techniques are only available for model organisms, but they could possibly be applied to non-model species if the sequence of candidate genes is known. These experiments are influenced by several sources of variation which must be controlled by experimental design, replication, and statistical analysis. In most plant systems, transgene expression is influenced by chromosomal insertion site (“position effects”) and by “somaclonal variation,” i.e., the epigenetic changes in gene expression due to tissue culture. Such variation among transgenic lines is reportedly absent in Nicotiana attenuata, although position effects and somaclonal variants are well known from other studies in tobacco. Appropriate controls, biological replication, and clear description of statistical analyses remain 75

essential. Transgenic approaches will be difficult for quantitative traits that are controlled by numerous genes that interact epistatically. Finally, because of the risk that foreign genes could escape into natural populations, experiments are usually terminated before reproduction, thus complicating estimates of plant fitness. The potential for this approach is illustrated by a landmark study where a large, replicated transgenic field experiment showed a significant fitness cost of plant resistance, despite the existence of substantial position effects. Heterologous expression involves experimentally transferring cDNA into a species that does not normally express a given gene, via cloning into a vector, transforming into a novel system, and finally phenotyping to verify gene function. This approach is a powerful way to test the phenotypic effects of a candidate gene, and has been used to study defensive traits in the Brassicaceae and Solanaceae. For example, heterologously expressed a maize gene in E. coli to characterize its function in the production of volatile organic compounds, and then transformed it into Arabidopsis thaliana for bioassays with the parasitoid of maize herbivores. Female parasitoids (Cotesia marginiventris) were attracted to the maize volatiles produced by transgenic Arabidopsis, thereby revealing the key role of a single gene in the indirect defense of maize against its natural enemies. Gene silencing and over expression studies. Candidate genes can also be silenced or overexpressed via stable transformation to investigate their effects on plant defense. For example, gene silencing studies have shown reduced resistance to a specialist caterpillar due to decreased production of nicotine and trypsin protease inhibitors and diminished jasmonic acid signaling in Nicotiana attenuata; gene silencing has also uncovered previously unknown interactions between trypsin proteinase inhibitors and nicotine in N. attenuata defense against a generalist herbivore. Similarly, an overexpression study demonstrated the importance of the jasmonic acid signaling pathway in defense against herbivores for Solanum lycopersicum . Microarray studies can be conducted in concert with transgenic experiments to detect other genes that differ in expression in between wild type and transgenic plants.

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Post-transcriptional gene silencing. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) transiently suppresses gene function by exploiting the antiviral defenses of plants In this approach, a candidate gene is cloned into a virus, and seedlings are subsequently infected with that virus. Antiviral defenses attack not only the virus, but also degrade the mRNA produced by the candidate gene, which results in ephemeral gene silencing. Post-transcriptional gene silencing through VIGS is an efficient method of manipulating phenotypes for genomic studies, especially if stable transformation is unfeasible, but it has several disadvantages, including: gene silencing is transient, the plant species must be susceptible to the virus, and it may not be suitable for field studies. VIGS studies of plant defense would need to be timed perfectly so that a candidate defense gene is silenced when treatments are imposed and for the duration of the experiment. This emerging technique was used in a recent study of oviposition behavior of the herbivore Pieris rapaeon three species of plants (A. thaliana, Brassica nigra and Nicotiana benthamiana) and to silence genes encoding anti-herbivore defenses in N. attenuata . VIGS has also been used to characterize gene function in numerous other ecologically-relevant situations, including under water stress and in disease resistance. To reveal the evolutionary significance of genes, transgenic approaches need to either: (1) manipulate existing alleles at polymorphic loci, or (2) recreate both ancestral and derived genotypes. The silencing or overexpression of only one gene in a complex biosynthetic pathway is unlikely to duplicate the ancestor, or reflect the evolutionary history of a lineage. Furthermore, reverse genetic studies could inadvertently silence paralogous genes whose functions have diverged from the gene of interest. This problem must be tested explicitly. The approaches we have discussed are complementary. For example, QTL studies can suggest which genes to analyze on a microarray. In conjunction with these approaches, researchers can capitalize on the existence of naturally-occurring mutants to investigate the genetic architecture of plant defenses. When embarking upon a new ecogenomics study, it may be useful to select a focal species that is closely-related to a model organism, so that 77

sequence data and genomic resources are readily available. Nevertheless, next generation sequencing platforms will vastly improve our ability to collect sequence data from non-model organisms, which, in turn, will enable more thorough investigations of evolution in natural populations. Next generation sequencing will also facilitate comparative genomic studies. For example, phylogenetic studies and expression profiling can reveal the evolutionary history of genes encoding secondary metabolites, quantify duplication events, and address changes in function of duplicates. Furthermore, for species whose genomes have been fully sequenced, whole genome resequencing (sequencing multiple individuals from a population) and resequencing at specific loci can advance our understanding of population structure, genetic variation and selection, and can facilitate fine mapping in QTL studies.Rapid technological advances in genomics methods and bioinformatic tools make interdisciplinary collaborations crucial for successful implementation of ecogenomics studies. Additionally, ecologists and evolutionary biologists should be mindful of genomic approaches that are used in human populations, because humans share several characteristics with non-model species in ecological studies, including long generation times, complex demographic history and population structure, and inability to produce experimental inbred populations. In this review, we have focused on plant anti-herbivore defensive traits. Clearly, ecogenomics studies focusing on herbivores will enhance our understanding of coevolution of plants and their natural enemies. Furthermore, research on plant-pathogen interactions should inform ecogenomic studies of plant defenses. An ecogenomics approach is essential to resolving long-standing questions in evolutionary biology. Ecogenomic tools can illuminate the evolutionary processes and genetic mechanisms that influence phenotypic variation, elucidate the molecular basis of phenotypic plasticity (genotype-by-environment interactions), and reveal the genomic signature of selection and the genetic architecture of adaptation in temporally and spatially heterogeneous landscapes.

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Chapter

3

3.1. Environment contamination of the heavy metals, nitrates, pesticides, radionuclides Heavy metals in the soil. One of the main components of a thin shell of the Earth, which is enclosed, and sustains life, that is, the biosphere is a natural resource – the soil. Natural soil is a clean environment, it is absolutely safe to dwell in her and her organisms, including humans. It fully meets the needs of all living organisms. Receipt and accumulation in it of certain chemical compounds, breaking the vital activity of plants and other organisms, altering the normal soil-forming processes indicate contamination pochv.Glavnoy cause contamination of soil resources is the rapid development of industry, transport, public utilities, unrestrained use of chemicals in agriculture /13/. The main sources of harmful emissions into the environment, namely the soil, and the most common group of chemical compounds are shown in Table 1. These highly toxic compounds not only pollute the environment, but also to accumulate in living organisms and plants. A special role in cleansing the soil of contaminants, especially organic, is given the inhabitants of the microorganisms. They are using their livelihoods toxic organic compounds decompose and translate them into a harmless form, so the sanitary function of the soil in the biosphere is enormous. The activities of microorganisms on the scale is equal to the photosynthetic activity of plants on the planet. Due to the antiseptic activity of the soil slows down or completely stops the development of micro-organisms and carriers of infectious diseases. The soil itself can not always cope with pollutants. Thus, at high concentration abruptly lost productivity or soil, it becomes a source of harmful substances entering the food products. 79

Currently, it can be noted that the TM occupy a leading position in the relative risk of pollution, second only to pesticides and significantly ahead of such well-known pollutants, such as CO2, SO2, nitrogen compounds, petroleum /4/. By TM includes over 40 chemical elements in the periodic system DI Mendeleyev, the mass of the atoms of which is more than 50 atomic units. The group members actively involved in the biological processes that are part of many enzymes. In recent years, the term "heavy metals" combined elements: lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, tin, cobalt, titanium, copper, vanadium, that is, only those at high concentrations are toxic to organisms . Table 1 The sources and pollutants in the soil Substances industry

Soil contaminated sources transport WEP, Agriculcher AEP

Gazes (СО2, СО, SO2, NO2, H2S) Heavy metals and their compounds

+

+

+

+

Benz (a) pyrene, aldehydes, hydrocarbons

+

+

Municipalhousehold

+

-

+

+

+

+

-

+

+

+

-

+

-

-

Radioactive substances

+

-

-

+

+

Nitrates, nitrites, phosphates and other salts

+

+

-

+ +

+

Pesticides Petroleum products

In contrast to pollution by toxic organic compounds, which sooner or later can completely decompose and disappear altogether as 80

contaminants, in the case of heavy metal pollution self-cleaning ecosystem is practically impossible. Proceeding into the soil, they accumulate and are involved in the biological cycle of vegetation. Heavy metals are removed very slowly by leaching, the consumption of plants, erosion and deflation. Period of halfdelating for Pb from 740 to 5900 years, Cd – from 13 to 110 years, Zn – by 70do 510 years, Cu – from 310 to 1500 years. At high concentrations of heavy metals inhibited the growth of plants, and sometimes death is observed. On the quantitative content and the mobility of heavy metals in the soil, their accumulation or loss, and availability to plants affects a large number of different factors: soil type, its chemical, morphological composition, various microbiocenosis reaction (pH), redox conditions, the concentration of CO2, soil organic matter, temperature, humidity and so on. Getting in the human body for biological circuits: soil – plant – man, soil – plant – animal – man, soil – water – the man and the soil – air – people, they cause serious illness /5-7/. That is why, in all the countries to take the most urgent and active measures for the protection of the biosphere, in particular soil contamination TM, both at the regional, national, and global levels, ending with the conclusion of international conventions. The results of research by many authors /7-10/, devoted to the study of environmental pollution, show increasing concentrations of heavy metals in soils, due to global and regional transport pollution. In many cases, as a result of sorption HM clay minerals, humic substances are formed solid phase, poorly soluble stable compounds, practically lead to a stable contamination topsoil. This leads to the loss of soil its main regulatory functions in the biosphere and a change in a number of important properties, in particular a production. In connection with this problem becomes particularly relevant for identifying species and degree of contamination, assessment of soil and protect it from degradation. As is known from the literature /11-12/, the background levels of heavy metals in soils subject to the normal distribution, and the level of their content in the soil depends on many natural factors: the type of crystalline basement rocks, mechanical, mineral composition and power of strata of loose deposits of soil-forming rocks. The content of heavy metals in soils and is strongly influenced by biological factors: the absorption of heavy metals in vegetation, contents of soil humic 81

acid (HA), fulvic acids (FA), and other substances, as well as the factor of technogenic/13-15/. Thus, the heavy metals in the soil may include: 1) in the crystal lattice of the primary and secondary minerals in the form of an isomorphous impurity; 2) in the form of ions in the soil solution; 3) as a mechanical component in the form of insoluble oxides and salts; 4) ion exchange state; 5) in the organic substance. The character of the distribution and differentiation of heavy metals in the soil profile determined by the type, duration, intensity of human impact on the soil-forming process. The soils found three types of distribution of TM: 1) the humus-accumulative; 2) ellyuvialnoilluvial; 3) Gradientless monotone /12/. In the first case there is a linear relationship between the content of heavy metals and humus. In the second case – the content of heavy metals increases in the middle part of the profile, that is, in the illuvial horizon, sometimes reaching the humus horizon. In some cases, the presence of geochemical barriers (eg, carbonate horizons of chernozem) there is increased accumulation of TM on them. Cultivation does not distort the picture of the distribution. It was found that the distribution of copper, zinc, nickel and other elements in modern soils is virtually identical to their distribution in uncultivated soils /16/. The paper B.N.Zolotarevoy /16/ shows that in the soils of different origin at different levels of their organization, concentration is Cd.> Cu > Pb > Ni > Zn >carried out according to the number of TM: Mn Moreover, the distribution of metals between the phases in the soilsolution depends on their natural and man-made forms.The migration ability of metal profile and the landscape, the ability to transform and thus toxicity usually associated with active forms of the elements. To include active forms of a water-soluble, and acid atsetatorastvorimuyu form. All of these forms in soil science called "mobile" forms of elements, and they affect the shape of dirt /17-19/. Many papers /20/ shows that the profile distribution of the content of mobile forms of HM in all types of soils subject to soil-genetic laws. Correlation and regression relationship between the content of the various mobile forms of HM and humus content, moisture content, pH soil layers 0-10; 10-50; 50-100; 100-200 cm. Showed a decrease in the 82

content of acid-soluble forms of the compounds of Zn, Pb and Cd in the black earth with increasing alkalinity and weighting size distribution. And in the gray forest soils of this dependence is set only for Cd, and Zn and Pb to reduce the amount of acid-soluble form is observed only when weighting size distribution. Migration ability of heavy metals, as evidenced by data from the literature /21-23/ depends on the content and composition of soil organic matter, because soil system they interact with GC and FC to form complexes. And it found that the formation of soluble complexes occurs by reacting humic acids. Thus, in the first case it is increased migratory ability of HM, but in the second case occurs immobilization elements. Therefore, the heavy metals in the soil cause the transformation of FC and reduced mobility of the Civil Code. The mobility of heavy metals in soils affects not only humic acids, but also low molecular weight organic acids (formic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, and others). Some of these acids to form soluble compounds, other (Cu, Zn) are fixed on the surface of the particles of clay minerals to form organo-mineral complexes and become unavailable to plants. The concentration and form finding HM depends on the ratio of complex formation, adsorption, coagulation, sedimentation, and their behavior is determined by a combination of physical and chemical processes. Studies by several authors /22-28/ shown to reduce the mobility of organic and mineral compounds, increase the proportion of polymeric compounds in soils with increasing concentrations of heavy metals. On the basis of the model and field experiments established the destruction of soil minerals in the presence of heavy metals. Furthermore, the presence of ions of elements such as Pb2 + and Cd2 +, causes a change in the polydispersity organomineral compounds. P.V.Elpatevsky, L.M.Tolstova /29/ based on experimental studies of the behavior and transformation of heavy metals in soils of technogenic anomalies found that manganese oxides contribute to a more lasting consolidation of lead, cadmium, zinc than iron oxide compounds. Analysis of the literature suggests that forms a relatively heavy metal compounds in soils, there are several viewpoints. Some authors believe that the heavy metals getting into the soil system, form a solid 83

phase, sparingly soluble compounds, and that the level of concentration in the soil solution is regulated and predicted solubility product resulting compounds. According to another point of view, HM absorbed by soil organic matter, as well as oxides and hydroxides of iron, aluminum, clay minerals. In this case, the main factor determining the migratory capacity of metals are ion exchange processes. The most important factors that increase resistance to soil contamination HM are increasing their absorption capacity and pH by making ameliorants such as lime, manure, peat, zeolites. Heavy metals adsorbed layer of arable soil, especially when their high humus content and heavy granulometric composition, form a fairly stable and long retains the toxic properties of these metal compounds. In this connection special importance requiring specific solutions are the problem of accumulation of heavy metals in soil and uptake by vegetation. 3.2. Ecogenetical assessment of pollution impact on the environment, biota and human Influence of technogenic soil pollution on the biotalife. Soil organisms inhabiting the soil, associated with energy metabolism, and not only among themselves, but also other components of the soil. The founder of the doctrine of microorganisms I.V.Vernadsky considered a very important task to solve the conservation of soil useful in the presence of the gene pool of all kinds of pollution /30/. He established the relationship like between the chemical composition of living organisms, and the activity of soil biota. All the soil biota is divided into the following groups: 1. microflora – bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae; 2. microfauna (0,002-0,2 mm) – flagellates, rhizopod, ciliates; 3. mesofauna (0.2-2.0 mm) – rotifers, nematodes, mites, nogohvostiki; 4. macrofauna (2-20 mm) – enchytraeids, mollusks, spiders, woodlice, centipedes, beetles and their larvae, Diptera; 5. megafauna (20-200 mm) – earthworms, vertebrates; 6. The temporary inhabitants of the soil – the mole, mouse-like mammals and others. 84

Regarding the mechanism of the effect of HM on living organisms of the soil is still no established single point. Although the current literature on the question of their impact on the species composition, abundance and biomass of microorganisms in the biochemical processes – nitrification, ammonification, mineralization and enzymatic activity of soil is extensive. Despite the divergent data obtained by different investigators they all show a decrease in the intensity of biochemical processes in any man-caused pollution of soil /31-39/. Of interest are works devoted to assessing the toxicity of heavy metals in different soil types for their effects on nitrogen fixation, nitrification and mineralization of cellulose /31/. The inventors have found the most severe toxic effects of Cd on the nitrogen-fixing activity as humus and serozem compared with other TM (Pb, Zn, Cu). The maximum inhibitory effect was observed when the cadmium content in the soil of 1 mg /kg. Further increase in concentration did not cause any increase in its inhibitory action on the nitrogen-fixing activity of the soil. A marked inhibitory effect of copper found in the concentration range from 1 mg /kg to 10 mg /kg. In the case of lead inhibition of nitrogen fixation is not established, on the contrary, at low concentrations, it was a weak stimulation. Accelerating the process of nitrification, ammonification lead in the presence of low concentrations in the soil were observed by other researchers /32-34/. Toxicity of heavy metals, as was shown by researchers /40-43/ largely dependent on the chemical composition of soils, i.e. by its physical and chemical properties. For example, the influence of Pb on the nitrogen-fixing activity is stronger in serozem, and chernozem it practically does not inhibit the process, even at high concentrations (10 mg /kg) /40/. The strongest decrease in nitrogen-fixing activity sierozems found also in the presence of other TM (Zn, Cu). Reduction of heavy metal toxicity in blacksoil, mainly due to their accession to the soil organic matter in the complexation reaction, the product of which are low-toxic or non-toxic chelators. Due to the fact that is not rich in humus serozem HM preferably stored in a toxic form, which inhibits biochemical processes. The sharp reduction in the toxicity of metals in the black earth, on the other hand, is also due to the adsorption of the particles of the clay fraction. As you know, in sandy 85

soils than soils of heavy mechanical composition content of the clay fraction is negligible. Numerous studies /44-48/ indicate that the same total content of metals in the soils of different types of toxicity with respect to microorganisms carrying out a particular process is different. Interesting data were obtained M.M.Umarovym, E.E.Azieva /40/ I.P.Babeva et al. /49/ in the study of changes in the number of microorganisms, depending on the degree of contamination of the soil. Based on the analysis of soils sampled in the territories of North Ossetia and South Kazakhstan region are at different distances from the source of contamination revealed a sharp decrease in the number of almost all groups of organisms. Table 2 Biochemical parameters of black earth at different distances from the source of pollution with heavy metals /40/ distance, м

N2-fixation, мкг/кг/h

nitrification, мг NO3 /г/day

50 500 1000 2500 5000 9000 13000 15000

nx. 1,60 5,25 22,53 7,86 14,66 11,50

0,14 0,16 -

Cellulose degradation, % from started aerobic unaerobic 50 90 25 50 75 75 90 90

25 25 5 10 5 5 10 5

Comparison of the results of microbiological analysis of two different natural soil areas enabled the selection of certain microorganisms as indicators of contamination. For example, chernozems sensitive indicators of pollution are actinomycetes, and yeasts of the genus Azotobacter Lipomyces, whose numbers are dramatically decreases with increasing degree of contamination. But, however, these microorganisms can not serve as an indicator to determine the degree of contamination of gray soils, due to their lack of even unpolluted, "background" soils of this type. I.P.Babeva, S.V.Levin, I.S.Reshetov /49/ also conducted counts of microorganisms in soils polluted with heavy metals at different 86

distances from the source using conventional methods in the media: the IPA (plain agar), SAA (of starch ammonia agar), Ashby and wort agar (Table 3). Table 3 The number of microorganisms in the soil samples Distance from contamination place, кm 0,5 2,5 9 13 15 Controlled area

МPA

КАА

microbs, mln/g

microbs mln/g

1,1 5,3 1,6 4,6 6,4 6,3

4,2 11,0 7,7 13,8 16,3 14,9

ESHBY

Agar suslo

Actino- nitrobak- lipomy- Sacharo- mushrum mycets, terium cets, % myces, thousend thousend /g mes, mln/g /g 0 0,8 1,0 1,6 0,7 1,8

0 0 0 0 100 67,4

7 3 16 0 0 22,1

1,5 0,6 0,3 1,6 1,7 0,5

3,7 4,8 17,0 43,3 64,2 7,9

It identified the smallest number of tropical groups of bacteria and fungi at a distance of 0.5 m from the source of contamination. As the distance from the pollution source strength of all investigated groups of microorganisms increases. Many authors /42-43, 50-51/ note promising use of microbiological indicators for assessing the toxic effect of heavy metals in the soil. However, different authors received contradictory information. A number of studies indicated a sharp decline in the number of sporeforming bacteria and mycobacteria /43/ actinomycetes /50-52/ mushrooms /52/ in the soil pollution with heavy metals and even the complete disappearance of certain types of fungi, and in some other papers said about maintaining the number and species the composition of certain groups of microorganisms /53/. Scientists from M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University.(MSU) /54/ studied the effect of HM on certain biological indicators of soil, as well as a comparison of the reaction of higher plants and microorganisms in the soil contamination TM at their different content in the soil. They have a close correlation between a high content of heavy metals in soil and decrease its biological activity. On the basis 87

of experimental data, the authors /54/ concluded that those doses of HM, which starts to be shown at a negative effect on some parameters of soil growth plants, also have an inhibitory effect on the microbiological processes. As shown above, the heavy metals included in the exhaust gases of vehicles, in the form of large particles of 1 to several microns are deposited in the vicinity of roads, and the smaller particles HM transferred into aerosol composition airflows at even greater distance form the area contamination up to 100 or more meters /55-56/. Accumulating in soil HM have a material adverse effect not only on flora and micro-organisms, but also on the life of a large animal population living in the soil environment and is highly sensitive to any kind of pollution. A number of studies /56-58/ marked cumulative capacity with respect to lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury and other heavy metals from the beetles, ground beetles, earthworms, larvae, beetles, ants. For example, in the processing of the experimental plot cadmium-containing waste water is set earthworms accumulate cadmium in 2 hours 10 times more than in the control /59/. Earthworms and some others have the ability to regulate the levels of heavy metals in their tissues. Earthworms are well removed from the organism of its lead, zinc and cadmium poorly. Concentration of metal in different species varies. Table 4 shows the data obtained in the /60/ indicating significant immediate HM in animal organisms and different degrees of accumulation in the soil invertebrate tissues (samples taken at a distance of 7-15 m from the edge of the carriageway with a depth of 020 cm of soil). Accumulation in soil environment HM and other pollutants as the cause morphological changes in animals as well as a sharp decline in their numbers. The observed decrease in the size of the length of the body, the front backrest, length and width of elytra, hind tibia and overall size reduction of many groups of insects and a sharp decrease in their activity in the roadside near roads with heavy traffic. For example, as shown in /60/, the number of roads near the earthworms decreases on average 8.5 times, arachnids – 10 times, millipedes – in 4-4,7 times, and ground beetles rove – in 2,3-2.5. Conversely, near the highways increases the number of phytophagous insects, which is associated with the creation of favorable conditions 88

for their reproduction as a result of destruction of vegetation at higher air concentrations of toxic substances. Table The content of heavy metals in the tissues of soil invertebrates, mg/kg dry weight metalls

Cu autobann phone Zn autobann phone Pb autobann phone Cd autobann phone

HM conc. of soils 020 sm

Elateridae worm

L.rubellus of essenia worm

N.caliginosus of essenia worm

25,0 ± 0,75 27,5 ± 0,82

30,0 ± 0,9 30,0 ± 0,9

30,0 ± 0,9 25,0 ± 0,75

45,0 ± 1,35 30,0 ± 0,9

65,0 ± 1,95 50,0 ± 1,5

33,0 ± 0,99 30,0 ± 0,9

40,0 ± 4,2 50,0 ± 1,5

32,5 ± 0,97 24,0 ± 0,72

27,1 ± 0,81 20,0 ± 0,6

57,5 ± 1,72 24,0 ± 0,72

0,7 ± 0,0 0,6 ± 0,0

0,7 ± 0,0 0,6 ± 0,0

6,0 ± 0,3 0,6 ± 0,0

40,0 ± 1,2 37,5 ± 0,82 17,0 ± 0,51 16,0 ± 0,48 0,6 0,0 0,5 0,0

± ±

The action of heavy metals (HM) on the development of wild plants and agricultural plants. Heavy metals entering the plants, are involved in many biological processes. The content of heavy metals in plants is closely related to their concentration in the soil with their forms compounds with phenological phases of plant development. In addition to lead, all heavy metals in small quantities are essential micronutrients for the development of individual plants, and the whole plant communities. The level of their savings in a variety of different plants. According to other N.G.Zyrina /4/ more accessible to plants of 89

heavy metals are those that enter the soil from the atmosphere, as they are more soluble than compounds in soils HM landscape. Under the influence of man-made pollution of heavy metals significantly reduced life spans of wild and valuable varieties of agricultural plants, the length of conservation varieties with economicuseful signs of sharply falling productivity and quality, broken system Immunoactive barriers resulting in frequent their affection by different diseases and pests /19, 61-65/. According to scientists, the earth's surface each year, on average, comes as a result of the metallurgical enterprises of about 154,650 tonnes of copper, 121,500 tons of zinc, 89,000 tonnes of lead, 12,000 tons of nickel, 765 tons of cobalt, 1,500 tonnes of molybdenum, 31 tons of mercury from the combustion of coal 1600 t of oil and mercury, lead 3600 m, 2100 m of copper, 7,000 tons of zinc, 3,700 tons of nickel, with the exhaust gases of vehicles the order of 260,000 tons of lead /12, 20, 62/. As shown in V.A.Kovda /66-67/, because of acid rain and salt toxic effect of many elements (Hg, Pb, Cu) drastically increases with the acidity of the soil. At the high acidity of the chemical elements go into the ionic form is highly toxic to many plants and soil biota. M.A.Toykka, L.N.Potehina /68/, studying the content of heavy metals in soils and plants in the area of industrial enterprises have established their unequal Accumulation different plants. They noted an increased accumulation of Cu (10,0 mg /kg) – birch, stone bramble, and lily of the valley, the minimum (3.5 mg /kg) – in cranberries, lady's mantle, wild cherry (leaves). The paper L.G.Bondareva /69/ shown to reduce crop yields: 2030% of cereals, sugar beet by 35%, pulses by 40%, potatoes 47%, grown on soils contaminated by HM. When making a potato 30 g /ha of copper, manganese and zinc tuber yield dropped to 15%, the content of these elements in the dry year, i.e. with a shortage of water in the tubers increased 4-5 times. G.A. Evdokimova, N.P.Mozgova /70/, studying migration Cu, Ni from the soil in crops noted that plants absorb HM are as free ions in the soil solution, and also in the form of exchangeable cations of the solid soil phase. Some of the results obtained by researchers are presented in Table 5. From this it can be seen that in cereals copper and nickel are distributed in >descending order of their numbers in the series: the roots of the land grain.> This is due to the presence of protective mechanisms 90

in plants on the border of the root-stem. Thanks to them, created obstacles to the admission of these elements in the reproductive organs. In perennial grasses fescue and bluegrass nickel and copper are mainly accumulated in the ground part. In the same paper /70/ shows that at low concentrations of metals plants more rapidly remove them from the soil than at high contents. The levels of accumulation HM various vegetable and green cultures also differ. The extent of absorption of HM sorrel salad green and much higher than the supply of them in the terrestrial part of the fennel, onion and cucumber fruits V.G.Mineevym /24/ by shielding certain areas of land from agricultural crops has demonstrated the possibility of entering HM not only from the soil, water and the atmosphere. In connection with the growth of man-made air pollution by the HM movement is observed in the stems of the leaves, and later in the roots. For example, when cultivating leguminosae near smelter, observing the above conditions, it was found increasing zinc content in leaves from 201 to 890 mg /g and roots from 164 to 652 mg /g dry matter. Refs /8.71/ receipt as shown Zn, Cu and Fe in the plant through the leaves. Table5 The content of copper and nickel in the grains in a laboratory experiment, mg /kg oven-dry weight /70 / Title of mix Carbon oxide nitrateoxide Nitrate dioxide Weighing substances Phenol Formaldegid Lead Ammiak Sulfur dioxide Carbonsulfur Chlorium Hydroftorium Ozone Hydrochlorium Cromium(VI)

Limited concentration мг/м3 Maximum dose Avarege/day 5,0 3 0,4 0,006 0,085 0,04 0,5 0,15 0,01 0,003 0,035 0,003 0,001 0,0003 0,2 0,004 0,5 0,05 0,008 0,1 0,03 0,02 0,005 0,16 0,03 0,2 0,1 0,0015

Danger class 4 3 2 3 2 2 1 4 3 2 2 2 1 2 1

91

US scientists /72/ and Denmark /20/ for growing plants on the experimental soils with a high content of HM installed their main accumulation in vegetative parts and a lesser degree of contamination of the generative organs. Lead enters upon plants through the roots from the soil and from the atmosphere through the leaves. V.P.Bessonovoy and I.I.Lyzhenko /73/ tested for their ability to accumulate heavy metals – Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb and Mo soil and plants. By the ability to accumulate TM types of wood and shrubs by these authors in the following order: silver maple mountain ash white poplar.>maple Norway maple Higher rates of accumulation are inherent TM leaves of apple, ash, walnut, ash, acacia. The best storage Zn are white willow, walnut, apple, home, Canadian poplar, maple, lilac; Cu – lilac, poplar, maple, mountain ash; Pb – elder, maple, lilac. The main site of accumulation of Pb are the roots of these plants. According to experimental data, the authors of /61-62/, the accumulation of atmospheric Pb2 + in radishes grown in 200 meters from the road, was 40% of the concentration of Pb in ground mass of plants. The authors of this is explained by the existence in plants protective barriers to the penetration of the toxicant in the reproductive organs. A similar distribution of Pb is set in the /24/ rice, namely, only about 4% of the amount absorbed into the grain moves Pb rice. Cd accumulation compared to the control in soybeans increased by 33%, while the total absorption Cd in soybean increased by 113%. In the case of Cr – its total absorption soybean increased by 25% compared with the control. A content in the grain Cr – in control and in the experiment did not differ. These experimental data suggest finding mostly Cd and Cr in soybean vegetative organs – in the leaves, stems, pods in the flaps. Receipt of elements in the vegetative parts of the grain and depends on the method of making (alone or in combination). Thus, while introducing Zn, Cd and Cu results of analytical determinations showed stimulation of the accumulation of Zn in the leaves of soybean in the presence of copper. Accumulation of Cd in the grain when making a play salts Zn, Cd, Cu was less than when only making Cd salts. This combination of elements does not affect the concentration of Zn in the grain. The works /74-75/ found elevated levels of lead and cadmium in fungi that grow along the road, and in some kinds of mushrooms 92

(oyster mushroom, honey agaric autumn float gray beetle inky gray) Lead accumulates to 200 mg /kg (MPC – 0.5 mg /kg). A concentration of cadmium in white pine mushroom and bell ringed exceeds the maximum permissible concentration (0.1 mg /kg) in 50 times or more /76/. On arrival HM plant is significantly affected by the application of mineral fertilizers /77-78/. For example, in making fertilizers (especially phosphorus) containing and Cd, Cd accumulation in plants always increases. This is due to the presence of the exchange reactions between soil and Cd cations fertilizers, reducing the pH, increasing the acidity of the exchange, and hence increase the solubility of Cd and transfer of significant concentrations in the soil solution. The paper /24/ shows the mutual influence of nutrients and toxic elements in the study of the absorption of phosphorus and potassium and the movement of nutrients in the plants from the soil containing heavy metals. There was a significant flow of HM in a plant with increase of their concentrations in the nutrient solution, and the inhibition of the receipt of potassium and phosphorus in the presence of HM. Movement of potassium and phosphorus in the stalks was inhibited more strongly than in the root system. Zn.> Ni > Cr > Co > Cu > Pb >The action of heavy metals on plants decreased in number: Hg Moreover, the action of mercury manifested at concentrations above 10-4 mol /l (6.5 mg /l).>107 mol /L (0.08 mg /l) and zinc – ⋅4 When making organic fertilizers (peat, manure, poultry manure, compost, flour from rice straw) supply of many heavy metals in the plant is reduced as it increases the absorption capacity of the soil. Ions Cd, Ni, and other metals are bound in a chelate type complexes which are not readily available to plants. To detoxify soil contaminated with lead, organic fertilizers is recommended, namely manure in doses equal to 25% of the volume of soil. In these circumstances, the possibility of obtaining vegetables that do not contain lead from contaminated soil. Securing mobile forms of lead (up 71.3%) is achieved with the introduction of the soil mixture of manure 20 t /ha of superphosphate and 1.5 t /ha, and copper (63%) when making 8 t /ha of manure /77/. The paper V.I.Kupchik and A.P.Lisovoy /79/ showed a decrease in soil of mobile forms of zinc by 33%, lead by 40% and 40% of cadmium in making sodium humate at 300 kg /ha. Especially high 93

detoxifying action has a mixture of superphosphate, lime and humic fertilizers. Thus, the main factors that reduce the flow of Pb and other toxic substances in plants and their accumulation in the ground part is the high content of humus in the soil, raising pH by liming, increasing absorption capacity, content of available phosphorus, etc. Plant uptake of heavy metals from soils and is interconnected with the texture of the soil. On light soils the plants absorb more zinc than in soils with heavy texture. In calcareous soils HM precipitated as carbonates, which leads to a drastic reduction in plant items arrive. In soils with predominance with a nonswellable clay mineral lattice (illite, kaolinite) content available forms of Zn and other metals is greater than on soils, preferably containing montmorillonite. There are some examples to support reducing the negative action Pb, As, Cu, Cd on the development of plantlets in making nitrogen fertilizers. V.A.Bolshakov et al. /80/ found to decrease the toxic effect on plants excess of Fe and Ni in making connections to the soil Mg. Analysis of published data indicates the absence of a strict relationship between the content of heavy metals in soil and uptake by plants, not all plants have the same ability to accumulate and absorb heavy metals. But almost all plants have physiological and biochemical defense mechanisms that prevent their entry into the intensive generative organs. Research has established an intensive growth of some species of plants in technogenic contaminated areas that can be widely used in the reclamation of waste dumps with a high content of heavy metals /81-85/. With some species of plants that have the ability to accumulate in their cells TM, that is, with the help of biological control can restore the health of the contaminated soil. So,german biologist Roland Megnet on the basis of experimental data showed that the fast-growing plants, such as Sakhalin buckwheat for the year may derive from each hectare of land 1.3 kg Cd, 2,4 kg Pb, 322 kg Zn. Known as the possibility of cleaning the soil Zn and Cd Alpine Thlaspi, Pb and Cr – Indian mustard /86/. M.A.Glazovskaya /25, 83/ and other researchers /63-64/ believe that the soil system can function normally while maintaining the efficiency of the gene pool of plants. An indication of this is the number and quality of the newly created living matter into their biomass should not accumulate toxic metal compounds in 94

quantities that violate the vital functions; biological productivity of soil biota should not go down well. Known in the literature works devoted to the study of the transformation of compounds of heavy metals in soil-plant system in roadside areas /84-88/. In conducting research on the impact of vehicle emissions on the growth and yield of crops found that the concentration of Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni and other heavy metals that do not harm plants, far above the permissible norms for human and animal /84/. In this regard, the indicator of plant contamination is considered to be their metal content, and not caused by disorders of the biomass. MPC.≥Therefore area "defeat" is the territory in which the content of heavy metals in plants As shown Samoilova T.S., Popova A.B. and other authors of /84/, and reduce the amount of deterioration in the quality of the harvest of various crops in the roadside area is associated not only with the HM, and a bunch of toxic substances emitted by road. A reduction in yield of forage grasses in the 1.2-1.7, wheat – 1.5-2.0, barley – 1.3 times, the deterioration of their quality, expressed as a reduction in the number of food units in the grass, in apples and vitamins strawberries. Action HM evident from the beginning of plant growth. The percentage of germination of barley decreased in all types of soil and independent of application rates, for example, lead to the black earth and peat-gley soils. The lowest germination rate was set at the sodpodzolic soil and quartz sand. The strongest inhibition of barley is observed according to the authors /87/ at the sod-podzolic soil at doses of 2000-3000 mg /m Pb. And on quartz sand at these doses barley seedlings die. The works /8788/ found that the degree of accumulation of heavy metals in plants depends on their distance from the highways and the availability of forest belts, growing along the road. The presence of 20 m wide forest belt dramatically reduces the amount of heavy metals in plants. For example, as shown in /87/, just behind the forest belt (20 m from the road) in barley plants Pb content and Ni 29%, Cd and Co – 25%, Zn – 20% less than the same remote areas of the road, but without the shelterbelts. Especially two-row planting, that is, the alternation of trees shrubs 1.5 m high can dramatically reduce the concentration of heavy metals in plants. For example, the lead content is reduced by 65% compared to areas without forest belts /87/. On the basis of field 95

experiments established the accumulation of heavy metals in grains, leaves, stems and roots of wheat. According to the total number of each metal in any organ of winter wheat and at different distances from the road Zn takes place first, second – Pb, third – Ni, Cd more /87/. Thus, from the analysis of published data on the effect of heavy metals on plant stems, the first sign of that happening in cultivated and wild plants, is a breach of changes in the activity of photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration. The end result is a reduction in the growth rate of development, the formation of biomass and the reproductive organs. And there is no direct relationship between the degree of contamination of TM and the intensity of their receipt in the plant, not all have the same ability to absorb and accumulate them. Soil formation. Soil-forming processes in the study area develops in the special conditions of hydrothermal regime. Thermal conditions differ brief freezing of the soil, favorable temperature during the wet spring. S.°In the top 30 – cm layer in summer the temperature is around 30 ° C, and in the lower layers of not less than 20 With this soil to a depth of 1.5 m is moistened winter-spring precipitation. In these circumstances, from the upper horizons in the lower layers of washed salt falling from the atmosphere, as well as the most highly mobile products of weathering and soil formation. Their accumulation occurs in the lower part of the soil profile at the boundary layer maximum moisture. In the spring despite the intense evaporation of soil moisture content corresponding to field capacity, so actively develop biological processes that contribute to more rapid development of herbaceous plants. Local monitoring. Leaf asymmetry of tree (Betula pendula Roth.) as biological indicator urban pollution. Asymmetry leaf birch ( Betula pendula Roth.) in the city of Pavlodar bioindicative parameter – asymmetric leaves, studied by the example of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) in the conditions of Pavlodar on 33 points and collecting reflected in several indicators: the ratio of the asymmetry to the average for Pavlodar and the background (Fig. 4.2.8). Material investigated the nature of the severity index of asymmetry conventionally grouped into 5 groups according to the classification Zakharov VM, Krysanova EJ (1996): 1 c. up to 0.055 USD – A common rate of 2 grams. up to 0.060 USD – Slight asymmetry 3 c. up to 0.065 USD – The average asymmetry of 4 c. up to 0.070 USD – 96

Strong asymmetry 5 c. more than 0.070 USD – Display of critical asymmetry asymmetry index sheet plates on the map Pavlodar reflected in the colors (Fig. 4.2.8). The fees received by the expression of critical asymmetry (5 oz.) Has been established. The asymmetry of the weak degree (2 c.) Manifested as anomalies in the northern part of the city, northwest, west, and also observed in the southern part of the city. The average degree of asymmetry (3 c.) Stands separate areas in the northwestern, western, eastern and southern parts of the urban area. A strong degree of asymmetry (4gr.) Was found in the eastern area of the city. In order to select the background samples were taken from several areas, great distances in different directions from Pavlodar and considering the dominant wind direction. As alleged studied background leaves of B. pendula 3 sites located in areas: Aktogay (p.Aktogay) Zhelezinka (p.Zhelezinka), as well as from Bayanaul National Park (tab. 4.2.9). Selected gathering places are at a considerable distance from Pavlodar the following areas: 1. Bayanaul National Park is located 185km south-west of the city of Pavlodar; 2. Aktogay village located in the north-western part of the Pavlodar region, 105 km from Pavlodar. 3. Zhelezinka village is 180 kilometers north of the city. Table 4 The index of asymmetry leaves B.pendula № 1. 2. 3 4

Place of crop Aktogaydistrict, p.Aktogay Zhelezinka district, p.Zhelezinka Bayanaul SPE Pavlodar

Asymmetry index 0,0419 0,0450

Nominal group 1g 1g

0,0491 0,0547

1g 1-2 g

All data received from three places considered appropriate symbol rate – 1 to 0,055u.e. the school Zakharov V.M.In the future, for the conditional background we adopted and used the lowest figure of the asymmetry p. Aktogay (0.0419). To assess the degree of asymmetry in the manifestation of man-made environment in the city of Pavlodar a comparative analysis of this indicator in the city with an index of the background portion. On average, the asymmetry of Pavlodar (0.0547) 97

higher than the figure of 1.31 times the background (see Table. 4.2.9 Fig. 4.2.9). Asymmetries birch leaves B.pendula of collection points in the city is considered in comparison with background rates. The observed increase in asymmetry of birch leaves B.pendula from 1.00 to 1.59 times (tabl.4.2.10 Fig. 4.2.10). A slight excess background from 1.0 to 1.14 times observed in the central and eastern part of the city in the form of spots. In the main part of the asymmetry exceeds the background value of 1.15 – 1.29 times (the central part of the south-east and south-west). Above background from 1.3 to 1.44 times observed in the form of local spots in the northeast, north, northwestern part, in the center, east and south. The greatest manifestation of the asymmetry of leaves from 1.4 – 1.59 times against the background observed in the coastal area and in the eastern part of the city. We consider the distribution of the asymmetry of individual conditionally isolated areas of the city average value of the asymmetry in the area of 1 – 0.05795 We are study also the ecological processes in populations of plants and animals with molecular-genetic methods and supplement them with experimental approaches. We emphasize on adaptation as well as landscape genetics and conservation genetics. We mainly investigate species that are relevant for Switzerland owing to their function in ecosystems, their distributional focus or their conservation status. We apply molecular-genetic methods and complement these with experimental studies. This allows us to describe how plants of the Alpine region evolve to adapt to changing environmental conditions (adaptation), what effects the characteristics and configuration of landscape elements impose on the dispersal and the functional connectivity of organisms and their populations (landscape genetics) and how population processes affect rare species of plants and animals (conservation genetics). Our findings serve for deducing implementation strategies and formulating specific guidelines. They provide fundamentals particularly important in the planning of connectivity measures and allow for subsequent evaluations of their effectiveness. Herbivores exert significant selection on plant populations, and plants have evolved a variety of constitutive and inducible defenses to resist and tolerate herbivory. Plant populations exhibit substantial phenotypic and genetic variation in chemical and physical defenses, such as 98

secondary metabolites, trichomes, lignin and C:N ratios, spines and thorns, capacity for regrowth, and phenology Phenotypic variation can be maintained through balancing, frequency-dependent, or divergent selection; alternatively, deleterious polymorphisms can be produced via immigration of maladapted alleles, or by mutation-selection balance Distinguishing among these possibilities will illuminate the relative roles of selection and genetic drift in evolution. An ecogenomics framework is well-suited for addressing emerging issues related to plant defenses against herbivores. World 105 tons of Pb in the form of fine aerosol⋅fleet annually emits 2,5 particles with diameters from 0.5 to 2 mg, which may be in the form of aerosols up to 30 days. A significant part of Pb is deposited with dust from the atmosphere and precipitation on the surface of the earth, plants, reservoirs, near highways /116/. Today, the share of vehicles in the cities of the former Union have an average of 13% of the total damage to the national economy atmospheric pollution /117/. Unleaded can be found everywhere, wherever there are cars, trucks and buses. Even in countries that have passed to other fuels, and renounce the use of leaded gasoline, lead dust is stored in soils, and other objects, even after decades of use. Currently, the world's roads go more than 500 million. Vehicles, including about 80 million. Trucks and 1 million. City buses. It is 10 times more than in 1950. Now the world average of 1 km2 there are five cars in major cities of developed countries, the higher the density of 200-300 times. According to the latest forecasts, in forty years, the global vehicle fleet will double to a billion, and it is even more aggravate the existing problems of pollution of the biosphere cities /117-118/. Of great importance for reducing the emission of harmful substances into the air has the organization of technical monitoring of the vehicles. Malfunction of the engine, not regulated supply or ignition systems, poorly inflated tires increase resistance to movement and therefore greater consumption of fuel burned, the wrong choice of speed, sharp acceleration and braking all this leads to an increase in environmental pollution /119-120/. One of the most effective method of combating air pollution is a total ban on the addition of lead in gasoline, the introduction of alternative fuels, burning completely and with less volatility. More promising and suitable fuel, not having an oil based, such as methanol, 99

ethanol or compressed natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas, and the use of hydrogen and electric batteries, completely eliminating emissions of harmful substances from exhaust gases /121-122/. Thus, from the analysis of data in the literature it was reported that the balance of the atmosphere is maintained together the vital functions of plants and animals, each with breathing, not only absorb airborne chemicals necessary for life, but at the same time produce the elements of vital importance to both. The growth and development of plants is impossible regardless of the animal world, as well as the life of the animal world is impossible without plants. A person's life can not be like with no animals and no plants, therefore, heavy metals and other toxicants, migrate and accumulate through the food chain of the biological cycle of substances eventually fall into the human body. The research results of a number of scientists have shown an objective difficulty in producing agricultural products in the technogenic contaminated territories, the inability to determine the effect of each individual harmful substances on plants in the field or in animals, which is due, firstly, a change in their concentrations in the environment over time, secondly, with action and other factors depressing or, conversely, stimulating the growth of plants: excess or deficiency of moisture, extremely high or low temperatures, etc. In the case of wildlife toxic impurities can inhibit or stimulate the development of populations of insect pests or pathogens. For these reasons, the action of fluorine alone or in a mixture revealed only during certain special laboratory and industrial experiments with different objects of the environment, including humans on the local or regional level, taking into account the climatic and geomorphological conditions. Review of the literature also indicates the absence of the developed theory of phenomenology of destruction and disease ecosystems under the influence of anthropogenic heavy metals. In this regard, the accumulation of data to assess the state of the ecosystem and its constituent components is of particular scientific and practical interest for the systematization and classification of test performance. Comparative evaluation of the influence of climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, precipitation, evaporation, surface waters and soils, wind) on the state of the environment. 100

Natural and climatic conditions are important environmental factors affecting the shape and location of HM on their transformation. For example, the soil moisture content depends on the mineralization of organic substances, i.e. HM complexation with humic acid. In addition, only in a humid environment, the conditions for microbial growth. A micro-organisms have high potential fracture into the soil toxic compounds. The rate of destruction depends on the sorption properties of the soil and the speed of movement of toxicants in the soil profile due to soil moisture. It needs to increase the amount of moisture needed to create a unit of dry matter in the plant /126/. With a shortage of moisture plants are not fully provided the batteries, respectively, with a deficiency of any of the elements of power disrupted the normal metabolism slows down growth, reduced yield, and sometimes death of plants occurs. In such a depressed plant toxic effects of heavy metals can occur even when a minor migration of soil environment in the body of plants /127/. In this regard, the study of the cumulative effects of various factors on life processes of plants, as well as the selection of all factors of life in an optimum ratio can reduce the toxins move into the plant of interest from the environmental point of view. 3.2.1. Study migration patterns, accumulation and transformation of heavy metals in the ecosystem The dynamics of the quantitative content of heavy metals in the soil cover. In recent years, due to the suspension of many industrial enterprises environment some cities of Kazakhstan polluting transport means, housing and communal services, uncontrolled use of pesticides and wrong, fertilizers, irrational use of natural resources and uncontrolled discharge of various wastes /125, 127/. Among the considered the main sources of pollution is motor vehicles. Of the total fuel consumed by road only about 15% is spent on the movement of the remaining 85% are released into the environment in the form of gaseous and solid wastes. Large fractions of particulate matter (diameter greater than 1 mm) are deposited directly on the soil cover, and smaller particles forming aerosols, depending on climatic conditions with air masses are transported over long distances and accumulate in a few days. 101

One particularly harmful components of exhaust gases, except carcinogenic hydrocarbons are heavy metals, which, unlike the organic nature of contaminants when released into the biosphere objects are not subject to degradation processes, but only redistributed between the natural environment. For an objective assessment of the ecological state of a particular locality urgent task in the general system of protection of the environment is an analytical control of the redistribution and accumulation of contaminants in soil, plants, water. Of all the components of the biosphere ground is the most dangerous element at highest human impact, and serving as the storage of chemical elements due to the low rate of self-purification of pollutants. The soil being at the intersection of transportation routes of migration of toxicants, emerges as the most sensitive indicator characterizing the ecological situation in the landscape. The distribution of heavy metals in the soil profile to a depth of 50 cm is relatively uniform, there is some enrichment of heavy metals in soil at a depth of 10-30 cm. The undeniable fact is an integral function of the soil functions vegetation. As stated above, the soil is a converter and drive the HM regulates the conditions of transport of substances in the plant. In this regard, particular interest is the behavior of heavy metals in the soil not only the environment but also in the soil-plant system. To establish and characteristics of migration of heavy metals from soil to plants and identifying crops, some of which are eaten by weakly contaminated with heavy metals, as well as the selection of plants, on the contrary, concentrate them, a series of experiments. The experiments were conducted on agricultural land along the highways and occupied by different cultures, as well as in the city, where the object used wild grasses For example, the most common in the Turkestan region, camel thorn determined the degree of accumulation of lead in its ground part depending on the distance of the road. In some parts of the lead content in the grass growing on the side of the road, came to 27 mg /kg of dry matter, which is almost 54 times higher than the permitted limit for forage plants. Contamination of plants lead was observed up to 100 m from the road. Clearly observed a decrease in the lead content in soils and plants with distance from the roadway. And in plants Highways with protective forest plantations, after 50 m 102

lead concentration does not exceed the MLC. Close to gas stations, organized in recent years in the upper layers of the soil (0-20 cm) the lead content of less than 150 mg /kg, and the old 260-300≈gas station near the concentration of lead in soil samples was mg /kg or more. And wild herbs, accordingly, there was a difference in the accumulation of lead, depending on where they grow. In areas with high pollution was a higher accumulation of heavy metals by plants. The accumulation of metals plant is defined as the level of their content in the soil, and biological characteristics of the species. The most intense takeaway TM observed valuable fodder crops , respectively, transformation ratio equal to Pb – 0,42 and 0,68 for the Cd – 0,67 and 1,0. The concentration of Pb – in tomatoes, radishes; Cu – onions, tomatoes, beets, radishes, cabbage, carrots; Zn – carrots, cabbage, tomatoes, radishes; Ni – in the cabbage and tomatoes; Cd – beets, do not exceed their maximum permissible concentration in foods /133/. The remaining plants, the concentration of heavy metals in several times higher than the MPC. This increased migration of heavy metals in plants is associated with low humus content in the soils studied. Contamination of roadside vegetation heavy metals occurs as a result of direct spray settling of dust and soot on the surface of plants. These data point to the dynamic nature of the relationship between plants and soil. The data presented that with increased levels of lead and cadmium in soil their transformation into plants increases, but not in proportional amounts. Interestingly removal of other elements of copper, nickel, and zinc from soils containing minimal amount is more intense than that of the soil containing the higher concentration of these metals. Apparently, plants use them as trace elements in the necessary quantities for its development. Interesting results were obtained in the study of crops grown on agricultural fields near highways. Determination results of the total content of heavy metals found in cereal grains (corn, wheat) lead content in average 5 times, cadmium and nickel to 3 times, copper and zinc 2-fold lower than in the stalks and straw. The transformation ratios, characterizing the transition from HM in the grain of the soil is: Corn Pb – 0,04; Cd – 0,19; Ni – 0,19; Cu – 0,55; Zn – 0,71 and wheat Pb – 0,09; Cd – 0,24; Ni – 0,18; Cu – 0,35; Zn – 1,98. The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Ni in the grain often exceeds limit 103

values and the concentrations of Cu and Zn are below the exposure limits. When than the lead content in the grain is less dependent on the level of contamination of soil them, while in the vegetative mass of lead content is closely related to its content in the soil, as evidenced by the positive correlation dependent (r = p = +0.6 0.95). From the experimental data (Table 24) to calculate an index of danger of soil contamination based on the amount of lead, which passed in the fruit and vegetable crops. The obtained values of the index indicate the danger of the danger of growing road near the bow (6.4) and parsley (8.4), is a non-hazardous cultivation of grapes (0.2), tomatoes (0.2), potatoes (0.4), low-hazard – apples (1,7), radish (1,0), cabbage (1.2) 1.6 carrots. Classes danger of soil contamination with lead determined using tabular data /14/. As is evident from the literature metal uptake is largely dependent on the acidity of soils /136/. Of the more acidic solutions metal ions enter the plants in large numbers, which is explained by the increase in migration ability of cells. In this regard, to study the mechanism of accumulation of TM on natural complexing sorbents – humic acids we studied their sorption at pH = 5.0 and pH = 7.0. The experimentally obtained data indicate an increase in the sorption capacity of the Civil Code with a decrease in acidity. Therefore, at pH = 7.0 TM soils are retained more strongly and their transformation into plants weakened, i.e. reaction medium promotes strong fixation of heavy metals in the soil mass. Thus, one of the main forms of accumulation of heavy metals in the gray soils are organometallic complexes in which the role of ligands belong to the humic acids. A crucial role in the migration of heavy metals in the soil and their transformation from soil to plants owned by the complex compounds formed with the participation of FC. As can be seen from the above data, due to the increasing intensity of vehicular traffic and the destruction of plantations for use as fuel a dangerous level of pollution in many parts of the study area. Reduction of pollutants in agricultural products the possibility of organizing activities for the protection of soil and crops. Protection of agricultural fields and increase the ability to use them effectively can be achieved by localization of space, where the dispersion of polluting heavy metals and other harmful substances, 104

their migration, accumulation and transformation. To this end, along the road need to organize forest protection plantations without the device corridors airing in the direction of the prevailing winds on both sides of the road with a minimum width of 30 m. The first series produced by the protective strip from the two rows of trees (between rows l = 4 m between trees 6 meters) must be placed apart 1m) from the bush at a×from the roadway at least 15 m, the fence (1 m distance of about 20-25 m. As the trees can recommend poplar, elm and shrubs – tamarisk, willow, Loh et al. Bushy band Unlike trees is a very effective barrier against the migration of heavy metals and dust /127, 137/. Well-formed protective plantations will prevent the accumulation of toxic substances emission vehicles in waysides and maintain the quality of agricultural land. Humic substances play an important ecological role, participating in the stabilization of disturbed equilibrium factors in the man-made ecosystems. All parts of soil-forming process, the basic properties and soil fertility is mainly determined by the high molecular weight of the multifunctional organic part. With humus substances related accumulation of nutrients in the form of organic and organocompounds bearing energy reserves necessary for plants and microorganisms, as not only the source elements, and regulate their migration in the soil profile and the adjacent medium (air and water) /138-139/. Humic substances (HS) belongs physiologically active substances that act on living organisms by activating nucleic acid and protein metabolism by enhancing cell energy metabolism, affect protein synthesis system due to depression corresponding regions of the genome. They also have an impact on the transport of electrons in the electron transport chains of mitochondria and chloroplasts, activate the photosynthetic processes, increase the energy potential of the cells /140-141/. In ≥the form of GW in soils accumulated to 90-99% nitrogen, 50% phosphorus, sulfur and virtually all microorganisms required micronutrients: potassium, calcium, iron and others. Some of these compounds are insoluble and some soluble and capable of geochemical migration. The dominant form of migration is represented by the complexes formed between fulvic acids and metals. 105

The content and the nature of the humic substances are dependent cation exchange capacity, ion-salt and acid-base buffer capacity of soils, and redox processes in the soil system. Toxic effects of many pollutants, including TM, plants, biota decreases soil enrichment GW(0,001 mm).The accumulation of humic substances (humic and fulvic acids) usually occurs mainly in the clay fraction of soils. Furthermore, as the data known from the literature /142-143/ the fine part of the soil is specific and not a function of the climate. And the gross content of humic substances in the soil caused by leaking them biochemical processes of synthesis and transformation of organic matter, which in turn depends mainly on the climatic conditions in which the soil develops. Humus clay fraction compared with humus, contained in other parts of the soil, it is more mobile and active. Regardless of the type of soil in the clay fraction of the soil, in contrast to the overall contain more humates magnesium than calcium humates. As a scientific and practical point of view to solve some of the environmental problems associated with the pollution of the soil of heavy metals and other toxicants is of particular interest to study not only the physical-mechanical, mineralogical composition of the soil, but also versatile study the structure and composition of humic substances generally in the soil and active clay fraction, ascertaining the relationship between the nature of the organic phase and form of occurrence of contaminants. To this end, we conducted experimental studies on the nature and composition of the humus as well as their interaction with components not only the main mineral of the gray soils, but also coming from outside toxicants such as heavy metals. In the clay fraction of soil humus content is much higher than in the soil. It was also found a decrease in the number of nonhydrolyzable residue and reduction of silicic acid. 1).